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This vivid twist represents a solar cyclone, made of plasma, or ionized gas, moving along swirling magnetic fields on the Sun. It is a computer simulation of the storms on the Sun, created using data from a space telescope at NASA’s orbiting Solar Dynamics Observatory and the Swedish 1-meter Solar Telescope on Earth. These solar cyclones may help to answer a question that scientists had long wondered about: why is the sun’s atmosphere more than 300 times hotter than its surface? Scientists previously thought that the heat came from the surface of the sun, but how it traveled to the surface was unclear. Now, researchers think that these solar storms, as many as 11,000 at once, funnel heat from the sun’s surface to the corona, as they reported in Nature. Image via Wedemeyer-Böhm et al/Nature Publishing Group Hello again, Mercury. This week in a trio of papers Science, the scientists behind the Messenger probe released their findings from the craft’s third and final flyby of the planet closest to the sun, which it executed last September. Mercury, they’ve shown once again, is full of surprises—and they’ll get the chance to explore them when Messenger returns and finally enters Mercury’s orbit in March 2011. Scientists have now mapped 98 percent of the planet by combining the new observations with the first two flybys in January and October 2008, plus the Mariner 10 mission in the ’70s, [said Brett Denevi, coauthor of one of the papers]. The latest flyby filled in a 360-mile-wide gap that had never been imaged before. “It wasn’t a huge amount of real estate, but there was a lot of really interesting stuff there,” Denevi said. The most exciting features include a 180-mile-wide basin filled with hardened lava, and a crooked bowl surrounded by glass and magma that may be the largest volcanic vent ever identified on Mercury. Together, these features suggest that Mercury had active volcanoes later in its history than scientists had suspected [Wired.com]. The first image above shows a smooth basin dubbed Rachmaninoff, which is one of the smoothest regions seen on Mercury—so smooth that it must have formed from volcanic material in the last billion years or so. The yellowish part in the upper right of this false color image is that volcanic vent.
Fossils Offer Clues about Warmer World More than 55 million years ago the Earth underwent a period of global warming caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide. Doctoral candidate Rosemary Bush (G09) is studying plant fossils from the Big Horn Basin in Wyoming to understand how plants responded to the relatively short period of warming. Bush grinds up fossilized leaves to look at the isotopic abundance and composition in their biomarkers to track changes in past ecosystems. “If we can understand how plants responded to climate change in the past,” Bush says, “maybe we’ll have a snowball’s chance of understanding how they’ll respond in the future.
World AIDS Day 2014 55 years ago, the first known case of HIV in a human occurred in a man who died in the Congo. Since then a lot has been done to turn this deadly disease into one we can now live almost normally with - a diagnosis of HIV infection is no longer a death sentence. With international AIDS day, it’s an opportunity to look at the important role of animals in the discovery of HIV, finding a functional treatment for HIV and now researching for a vaccine against HIV. Our website already provides some of that story, here we tell a little more HIV is a retrovirus, a type of lentivirus which can cause slow progressive disease in their host. An equivalent AIDS virus can be found in horses, cattle, sheep, cats and monkeys. “Mice and the Rhesus macaque were the most used animal models to understand HIV biology and to develop treatment” explains Dr Monsef Benkirane, director of the human genetic CNRS institute in Montpellier and specialist in HIV persistence. “Their contribution to our understanding of HIV/SIV biology was and still essential.” Following the discovery of HIV, the related lentivirus in monkeys called SIV was found, leading to the use of monkeys to study the virus and develop treatments for HIV and AIDS. For example, understanding why SIV is not pathogenic in its natural host will certainly contribute to the development of effective therapy and vaccine. By 1996 combination therapy had increased life expectancy for those with HIV by decades, but this therapy is unable to cure AIDS. “One of the priorities in the field is to optimise HIV treatments. For this purpose, we need to assess whether the therapeutic compounds go where they are needed in the body of the patients. We also need to know how stable they are in these compartments. For this, the animal models are essential” adds Benkirane. “We are still trying to locate the cells that allow the virus to bounce back after treatment and a way to target them.” Monkeys are essential in this research. The ultimate goal is still an effective vaccine. “There is no protective vaccine against HIV today and it is a priority to find one. We know that this is not going to be easy since we will have to find way to do better than our immune system. To do so you have to try to do better than the immune system itself.”, assures Dr Benkirane. “If one day we find a vaccine, it won’t be a classic vaccine like we know them today. It will be profoundly new.” Classic antibody vaccines haven’t proven to be efficient enough because of the viral diversity of HIV and its capacity to adapt fast. Vaccines targeting the cell of the immune system, and activating T lymphocytes have just made the virus thrive even more. Gene therapy is also being tried out, but it still comes with many side effects. Because HIV infects the immune system, evades it and changes so rapidly, finding a way to vaccinate against it has been particularly challenging. Important and promising advances have been recently achieved by scientists working at the development of powerful antibodies able to neutralize HIV. Indeed, scientists found that 20% of AIDS patients develop special types of neutralising antibodies with a large inhibition spectrum, meaning they can act against all the diverse HIV subtypes. “The discovery of broadly neutralising antibodies brings a hope for HIV cure. Indeed, proof of concept of their efficacy using animal models has been recently reported. Indeed, these antibodies are able to decrease the viral load in chronically infected animal even better than the antiretroviral drugs in use today. These antibodies can be used in high risk individuals as mean of preventing viral transmission. Based on results obtained using animal models, clinical trials using this antibodies are ongoing.”, explains Benkirane. “The use of animals in research is still necessary and unavoidable today to make progress regarding HIV. However, everything is done with precise regulations and rules. The European laws are very demanding and strict. Researchers must show that the use of animals is essential for obtaining the agreement of ethic committees. And only then, they can proceed to experimentation. Finding a cure and a vaccine to stop the HIV pandemic requires the use of animal models.” Currently mice and monkeys are being used to find a ‘vaccine’ that can stimulate the production of neutralising antibodies. It is only when this work is completed that we can contemplate the use of this new treatment in people. Dr M. Monsef BENKIRANE, is Director of Research at CNRS at l’Institut de génétique humaine (CNRS), at Montpellier. Download our AIDS timeline infographic here.
A celestial body that is present in orbit around the Sun, having sufficient mass for its own gravity to deal with complex body forces for retaining its shape, is called dwarf planet. Dwarf Planet is not exactly a satellite. In the latest research about them the scientists have revealed the Ceres' surface features to get some information about the dwarf planet's interior advancements. They are trying to understand the series of pits and small, that is the secondary craters that are very common on Ceres. The latest findings is based on the idea that, hundreds of millions years ago, materials beneath Ceres' surface pushed toward the exterior surface. It created fractures in the crust. While doing that the outer layer was pulled apart, causing the fractures. The indication of outburst material under Ceres' surface helps in anticipating how the dwarf planet may have evolved with time. A map of over 2,000 linear features on Ceres greater than 0.6 mile in length was located outside of craters. The biggest challenge that the scientist faced was differentiating between secondary crater chains and pit chains. Secondary crater chains are the most common of the linear features. They are long strings of circular depressions made by fragments thrown out of large impact craters. But Pit chains, are expressions of subsurface fractures. There is a possibility that freezing of a global subsurface ocean or stresses from a large impact might have formed the fractures. By- Anita Aishvarya
We learned the sign language for a letter, the literacy link sound symbols, the letter sound, and looking at and writing it in both capital letters and lower case letters. Click here to view the many ways we learn the letter of the week! Each week we watch letter videos during our snack time to help reinforce the learning, give them something enjoyable during snack, and help make the connections. Below are some of the ones we watch: "Have Fun Teaching" Students are really picking up the names of letters, formations, and the sounds of letters. Check out these videos with you child! Click HERE. "Story Bots" students learn a variety of words that start with the specified letter and get to sing and laugh along the way as well! Click HERE "Olive and the Rhyme Rescue Crew" Olive and her friends go into a storybook to help fix a well known nursery rhyme and they find a whole bunch of things that start with the specified letter while there. Click HERE On Tuesdays, we decorate the letter of the week with something that starts with that letter to help reinforce that letter. On Thursdays, we make a hand print activity that makes an animal or object that starts with this letter. These activities are not only work on a word that starts with that sound, but they work on reading these pages, using their reading finger, and knowing what a period is and means.
Birds were likely the ancestral hosts of hepatitis B virus and the human disease emerged after a bird-mammal host switch reports a paper published in Nature Communications this week. Up to now the origin of this virus had remained elusive due to the small number of integrated sequences present in hosts’ genomes. The field of paleovirology allows for the identification of genomic relics that arise as a consequence of insertion of virus derived DNA in the host’s genome after infection. Alexander Suh and colleagues take advantage of presence or absence patterns of these viruses’ relics among closely and less closely related species of birds to construct a time map of hepatitis infiltrations in the lineage. They find a complete gene sequence of one of these viruses - a Mesozoic paleovirus - and estimate that hepatitis is about 63 million years older than previously known. This provides direct evidence for the existence of Hepadnaviridae during the Upper Cretaceous. They also hypothesise that a predecessor of Hepadnaviridae probably infected an ancestor of birds that lived around 324 million years ago and show that the compact genomic organisation of Hepadnaviridae has remained largely unchanged for the last million years of evolution. Hepatitis B is a major global health problem with a third of the human population infected and this study brings one step closer to understand its evolution.
March is designated as National Women’s History Month by presidential proclamation. Some of us may not know the origins of this national celebration which signifies the importance of recognizing the sacrifices and contributions made by women throughout the history of America. National Women’s History Month began as Women’s History Week which was established by the Education Task Force of the Sonoma County Commission on the Status of Women in California when it was noted that women’s contributions to American history were not taught or discussed in high schools. Other communities across the country followed suit and also celebrated this week to honor the contributions of women. In 1980, a group called the National Women’s History Project (now known as National Women’s History Alliance) along with women’s groups, historians, and scholars worked to have this week recognized by the government. In 1980, President Jimmy Carter proclaimed March 2-8, 1980, as National Women’s History Week and noted the following message to the nation: “From the first settlers who came to our shores, from the first American Indian families who befriended them, men and women have worked together to build this nation. Too often the women were unsung and sometimes their contributions went unnoticed. But the achievements, leadership, courage, strength, and love of the women who built America was as vital as that of the men whose names we know so well.” National Women’s History Week was eventually changed by Congress in 1987 to National Women’s History Month due to the actions of the National Women’s History Project. Women fought for recognition of their contributions and rights many years before the establishment of National Women’s History Month. One of the movements for recognition and rights of women was started by the women’s suffrage movement formed in 1890 by two organizations led by a name we all know, Susan B. Anthony, along with Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucy Stone. The women who were involved with this movement never gave up even though they faced seemingly insurmountable hardships. Through the determination of all women over a decade who worked tirelessly for equality, on Aug. 18, 1920, the 19th Amendment was added to the Constitution stating: “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex.” This amendment was only one step in helping women continue to achieve the respect that they deserved. Many improvements have followed, all due to the continued determination of women in the 19th and 20th centuries. Many extraordinary women through the years have paved the way for equality for women and as we know, the fight for equality continues today. Some of these women are well known, such as: Clara Barton, founder of the American Red Cross; Harriet Tubman, American abolitionist; Marie Curie, the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize; and Rosa Parks, an activist and icon of the American Civil Rights Movement. Sandra Day O’Connor was the first woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court, followed by Ruth Bader Ginsberg, Elena Kagan, and Sonia Sotomayor. We need to impress upon our children ― especially our daughters ― how important it is to learn about the contributions of these women, as well as the many lesser-known women who have worked to create and maintain a nation where equality is for all and not a few. Learning about these women will show our daughters that there is nothing they cannot accomplish. Each year, the National Women’s History Alliance selects a theme for Women’s History Month. This year it is Women Providing Healing, Promoting Hope. This theme is a tribute to not just the women who have provided healing and hope in the past and present, but also to the caretakers, nurses, doctors, and first responders who have tirelessly worked and are still working during the COVID-19 pandemic. Remember to honor these women who contributed to our nation’s history by going to your library and community websites for events that are being held. Ronald G. Rios is the director of the Middlesex County Board of County Commissioners. He submits the occasional column to Newspaper Media Group.
After learning 1-12, Newcomers are ready for the teens. These can be taught as 13 = 3 + 10 = thir(3) + teen(10), etc. Teen stands for ten. After students learn these, I introduce the tens. 20 = twen(2) + ty(10), etc. These words use -ty to indicate x10. Next, I teach word stress. Teens stress the second syllable and tens stress the first syllable - thir TEEN, THIR ty. This is very difficult for students to hear and say. I raise my hand to indicate the stressed syllable. After lots of practice, we do dictation pairs of teens and tens (14 or 40, 15 or 50, etc.)
The Reading Like a Historian curriculum engages students in historical inquiry. Each lesson revolves around a central historical question and features a set of primary documents designed for groups of students with a range of reading skills. This curriculum teaches students how to investigate historical questions by employing reading strategies such as sourcing, contextualizing, corroborating, and close reading. Instead of memorizing historical facts, students evaluate the trustworthiness of multiple perspectives on historical issues and learn to make historical claims backed by documentary evidence. To learn more about how to use Reading Like a Historian lessons, watch these videos about how teachers use these materials in their classrooms.
In third grade geometry we will discuss in brief about some of the common solid figures named below: (i) Cube: Definition of cube, parts of a cube, properties of a cube. (ii) Cuboid: Definition of cuboid (iii) Cylinder: Definition of cylinder (iv) Cone: Definition of cone (v) Sphere: Definition of sphere Definition of a cube: An object which looks like solid box-shaped that has six identical square faces. A cube has 6 equal and plane surfaces. All the faces of a cube are square in shape. In a cube there are 6 plane surfaces. There are 8 vertices and 12 edges. Two adjoining plane – surfaces meet at an edge. There are 12 edges in a cube and all the 12 edges are equal in length. These edges are straight edges. The meeting point of two edges is called a vertex. In a cube there are 8 such vertices. Parts of a cube: (i) Face: Face is also known as sides. A cube has six faces and all the faces of a cube are square in shapes. Each face has four equal sides. (ii) Edge: When two edges meet each other a line segment formed. There are 12 edges in a cube. All the 12 edges are equal in length because all faces are squares. These edges are straight edges. (iii) Vertex: When three edges meet each other a point formed. There are 8 vertices in a cube. (iv) Face Diagonals: Face Diagonals of a cube is the line segment that joins the opposite vertices of a face. There are 2 diagonals in each face so altogether there are 12 diagonals in the cube. (v) Space Diagonals: Space diagonals of a cube are the line segment that joins the opposite vertices of a cube, cutting through its interior. There are 4 space diagonals in a cube. Properties of a cube:Volume: The volume of a cube is s3 where s is the length of one edge. Definition of cuboid: The cuboid has 6 rectangular faces. The opposite rectangular plane surfaces are identical (equal in all respects). It has 8 vertices and 12 edges. In a cuboid there are 6 rectangular plane surfaces. There are 8 vertices and 12 edges. A cube is also a cuboid having all its 6 faces equal and square. Thus, a cube has all the six faces identical, whereas a cuboid has the opposite faces identical. Properties of a cuboid: Formulas for the above rectangular box: Volume: The volume of a cuboid is lwh, where l is the length, w is the width and h is the height. Lateral Surface Area: The lateral surface area of a cuboid is 2lh + 2wh, where l is the length, w is the width and h is the height. Surface Area: The surface area of a cuboid is 2lw + 2lh + 2wh, where l is the length, w is the width and h is the height. Definition of cylinder: A cylinder stands on a circular plane surface having circular plane surfaces on its top and bottom. Thus a cylinder has two circular plane surfaces, one at its base and another at its top. It has a curved surface in the middle. It has two edges, at which the two plane surfaces meet with the curved surface. These edges are curved edges. In a cylinder there are 2 plane surfaces and 1 curved surface. There are 2 edges and no vertices. The base and top of a cylinder are of the same shape (circular) and size. Thus, both are identical. Definition of cone: A cone has one plane circular surface, i.e. its base and only one curved surface. In a cone there is 1 plane surface and 1 curved surface. There are 1 edge and 1 vertex. It has one edge which is formed by the circular plane surface meeting with the curved surface. The edge of a cone is a curved edge. Definition of sphere: The ball-like shape is called a sphere. In sphere there is curve surface, no edge and no vertex. Some of the common solid figures are explained above in brief with the labeled diagram to get the basic ideas of the solid shapes. (i) The surface of solid is called face. (ii) Edge is formed when two faces meet. (iii) The point where 3 faces meet is called the corner.
The visible face of the moon has light and dark patches, which people interpreted in different ways, depending on their culture. Europeans see a face and talk of “the man in the moon" while children in China and Thailand recognize “the rabbit in the moon." All agree, however, that the moon does not change, that it always presents the same face to Earth. Does that mean the moon doesn't rotate? No, it does rotate --- one rotation for each revolution around Earth! The accompanying drawings, covering half an orbit, should make this clear. In them we look at the moon's orbit from high above the north pole, and imagine a clock dial around the moon, and a feature on it, marked by an arrow, which initially (bottom position in each drawing) points at 12 o'clock. In the right drawing the marked feature continues to point at Earth, and as the moon goes around the Earth, it points to the hours 10, 8 and 6 on the clock dial. As the moon goes through half a revolution, it also undergoes half a rotation. If the moon did not rotate, the situation would be as in the left drawing. The arrow would continue to point in the 12-oclock direction, and after half an orbit, people on Earth would be able to see the other side of the moon. This does not happen. We need to go aboard a spaceship and fly halfway around the Moon before we get a view of its other side --- as did the Apollo astronauts who took the picture below.
We explain what parasitism is and some examples of parasitism. In addition, the types that exist and what is social parasitism. What is parasitism? Parasitism is a biological relationship between two organisms of different species , one called a host (which receives or receives) and another called a parasite (which depends on the host to obtain some benefit). This process, in which one organism is used to cover the basic needs of another, allows to expand the survival capacity of some species. Parasitism can happen throughout all phases of an organism’s life or only in specific periods. It can also happen that, as the parasite is still an organism, it hosts another specimen. These cases, in which the parasite hosts another parasite, are called hyperparasitism. Examples of parasitism Among the most common examples of parasitism are: - Fungi . They usually stay in the feet, nails or skin of animals and feed on keratin, an abundant protein in the epidermis. - The mites They usually lodge in the skin and feed on wastes such as kerantinocytes ( dead cells ) or secretions. - Mistletoes They usually stay in several tree species in areas of Europe, America and Africa. - Termites They usually stay in trees and woods used for housing construction. They have a great capacity for destruction. - Bacteria and viruses . They are usually found in water and on earth, so they enter the body through food and stay in the digestive system of animals. - Amoebas They usually stay in the intestines of animals . They feed on the host, so they can cause malnutrition and serious diseases. - Earthworms They usually stay in various parts of the host’s organism and can take away their nutrients. Types of parasitism Parasitism is classified into two large groups according to the type of parasite: - The ectoparasites. They are parasites that are outside the host’s organism and take advantage of what they find in the outermost layer of the dermis and even consume a little of their blood. For example, fleas and ticks. - Endoparasites They are the parasites that are inside the host. Depending on the species of the parasite, some can cause mild damage and others, very serious. For example, worms that live in the intestines. Social parasitism refers to the type of association that some animal species make to obtain some benefit , but that does not directly impact their organism or biology but benefits it in their social development. For example, some birds lay their eggs in nests of other bird species, for the latter to raise. Social parasitism within a community of people exceeds the strictly biological point of view mentioned above and refers to a derogatory type association, in which the parasite undermines the ethics and morality that prevails in the host society (i.e. , it does not obtain directly biological benefits). For example, in some regions, individuals living with and from their parents are considered “parasites” up to advanced ages of adulthood, obtaining as a benefit a life of comfort and minor concerns.
William Kingdon Clifford was an incredibly eccentric mathematician, who was responsible for several advancements in mathematics. Ironically, his short paper On the Space Theory of Matter foreshadowed Einstein’s general theory of relativity by suggesting that energy and matter are manifestations of different curvatures of space. Had it not been for his death at the early age of 33, perhaps Clifford would have published further findings connected to this scientific enquiry. More famously, Clifford was responsible for furthering the works of Hamilton via the generalisation of quaternions, later assimilating this number system into his own geometric algebra, now known as Clifford algebra. Clifford’s contributions to mathematics were previously overlooked due to his aforementioned early death; however, it is critical to understand his fundamental role in the development of quaternions and how they contended with other geometric algebras of the time. Quaternions were first proposed by the mathematician Hamilton in his 1853 book, Lectures on Quaternions. Hamilton’s aim was to extend the two-dimensional plane of complex numbers (z=a+bi) into three dimensions, whereby (a, b) becomes (a,b, c). The motivation was that, as complex numbers describe a plane, i.e. a two-dimensional space with coordinates (a, b), the new numbers should describe a three-dimensional space with coordinates (a,b, c). While this proved impossible, he discovered that an extension is possible to a four-dimensional ‘four-component complex number’, or a quaternion of numbers. The real part of the quaternion would be taken as the fourth dimension, while the imaginary part would be interpreted as a geometric three-dimensional space (three orthogonal imaginary dimensions). It was in 1843 when Hamilton understood that he needed one additional scalar value component for his algebra regarding complex vectors to work. Hamilton subsequently theorised a formula which defined how the complex unit vectors i, j and k related to both one another and their metric signature of −1: i2=j2=k2=ijk=−1. His excitement upon this invention as he “felt the galvanic circuit of thought close” can still be seen at Brougham Bridge, Dublin, where Hamilton carved this equation. At around the same time, Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism was becoming popular, encouraging Hamilton to think about his quaternions in geometric terms by investigating the connection between complex numbers and rotations in a plane. This geometric thought led to the introduction of the noncommutativity of quaternion multiplication, a concept later incorporated into Clifford’s algebra. Clifford first came across quaternions in the late 1860s. His enrolment at Trinity College, Cambridge was what initially incited his interest in mathematics as a theoretical discipline. Consequentially, his expectations of becoming an “ardent High Churchman” were promptly undermined as he was exposed to Darwinism, debate, and sports, as well as a tendency to go above and beyond in his self-guided studies of mathematics. One of Clifford’s teachers, James Sylvester, commented on his lack of adherence to the curriculum offered by the university, stating that he could very well have been the strongest of his year “had he chosen to devote himself exclusively to the University curriculum instead of pursuing his studies … in a more extensive field.” Nevertheless, Clifford produced numerous Cambridge publications between 1863 and 1871. It was during this time that he found his passion for geometric thought, coined in his paper Analytical Metrics, which described the two theorems of geometry which he understood: one referencing only position, and the other referencing magnitude. His interest in geometry from his early publications was also apparent in his 1865 publication, On Triangular Symmetry, which developed ideas about the metrical relations of an equilateral triangle. Clifford studied geometric algebras in both Euclidean and non-Euclidean spaces, which enabled him to develop a generalisation of Hamilton’s quaternions. Clifford’s Preliminary Sketch of Biquaternions paper, published in 1873, suggested a quaternion with four complex number components in contrast to the four real number components of Hamilton’s quaternions. His use of the word biquaternions holds the purpose of showing that a biquaternion q+ωr, where q and r are regular quaternions and ω as a non-real algebraic entity, with the property 𝜔2 = 0. The paper was divided into five sections, discussing mechanical systems, a generalisation of Hamilton’s algebra of quaternions, non-Euclidean geometries and geometrical scenarios where biquaternions are present. His motivation for creating biquaternions stemmed from the limitations of scalars and vectors when representing specific mechanical quantities and behaviours – there are many instances where positions are relevant to mechanical quantities, such as when a force acts on a rigid body along a fixed line of action. In this situation, Clifford proposed the term rotor, i.e. rotation and vector, and called for an algebra which may combine scalar, vector and rotor quantities. This extension of the idea of scalars and vectors was what enabled Clifford to define the idea of multivectors which, like quaternions, can unify scalars with other algebraic components. While Hamilton generalised the algebra of complex numbers to a four-dimensional quaternion algebra, it was Clifford who incorporated these as subalgebras alongside a Cartesian vector component. If Clifford algebra achieved such a ground-breaking means of describing motions in three-dimensional space, then why is it not commonly used in mathematics today? The reason behind the obscurity of Clifford algebra lies mostly in the timeframe in which it was created. The late nineteenth century saw intense competition in developing algebras – sometimes referred to as the vector algebra war – resulting in Clifford’s work being diluted by a plethora of other vectorial systems. Clifford was merely a contender in a network of countless mathematicians who pushed their own vector formalisms into the field. With his early death, Clifford did not stand a chance against Gibbs’ three-vectors, for example, nor Minkowski’s four-vectors. During this time, mathematicians sought to find a vector system, initiated by Hamilton’s quaternionic vectors, and it is now clear after over a century that Clifford’s system is more suitable than that of Gibbs, which is now typically taught. This can be demonstrated, for example, by Clifford algebra’s ability to reduce Maxwell’s field equations into one equation in comparison to the four equations of the Gibbs vector system. Clifford’s system provides a much more simplified version of Maxwell’s electromagnetism without the addition of matrices, spinors and complex numbers which are necessary for Gibbs’ vector system. Another issue with Gibbs’ vectors is that it can only express scalars and vectors and his ‘cross product’ calculation does not work for four dimensions, nor is it preserved under reflection. Nonetheless, this system is useful in the sense that vectors can be added or subtracted in a spatial sense and create visual representations of direction and magnitude. Clifford algebra and its affiliation to Hamilton’s quaternions provided an excellent description of three-dimensional space and, although it is not used in most mathematical curricula, many fields are beginning to use this vector system today, most interestingly for Fourier transforms and the newly emerging study of quantum computing. It is therefore evident that the development of quaternions by Hamilton, though not his most famous work, sparked the interest of a young William Clifford and inspired him to pursue geometric algebra in his race to win first place in the hunt for an effective vector system. And while he did not win, his elaboration upon quaternions will not be forgotten. Written by Kat Jivkova Chappell, James M, Iqbal, Azhar, Hartnett, John G, Abbott, Derek. “The vector algebra war: a historical perspective.” Physics.hist-ph (2016): 1-1. Dillon, Meighan I. Geometry Through History. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2018. Garling, D. J. Clifford Algebras: An Introduction. Vol. 78. London Mathematical Society Student Texts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Girard, Patrick R. Quaternions, Clifford Algebras and Relativistic Physics. Basel: Birkhäuser Boston, 2007. Huerta, John. ‘Introducing the Quaternions.’ [Online]. [Accessed on 20 January 2021]. https://math.ucr.edu/~huerta/introquaternions.pdf Petrunić, J. G. ”Quaternion engagements and terrains of knowledge (1858-1880): A comparative social history of peter guthrie tait and william kingdon clifford’s uses of quaternions.” ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (2009). Robertson, E.F. ‘William Kingdon Clifford.’ [Accessed on 20 January 2021]. https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Clifford/ Rooney, Joseph (2007). William Kingdon Clifford (1845-1879). In: Ceccarelli, Marco ed. Distinguished figures in mechanism and machine science: Their contributions and legacies. History of mechanism and machine science, Volume. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, pp. 79-116.
Here is the circuit diagram of a simple radio that uses one transistor and few other passive components.The C6 and L1 forms a tank circuit which picks up the signal from your desired radio station.Diode D1, capacitor C2 and resistor R1 does the detection of the picked signal.The detected signal is coupled to the base of Q1 through capacitor C3.The Q1 gives required amplification to the signal.The resistor R2 is used to bias Q1.R3 limits the collector current of Q1.The audio output will be available at the collector of Q1 and it can be heard by using a high impedance head phone.This radio will work only at places where there is reasonable radio signal strength. Circuit diagram with Parts list. - Assemble the circuit on a general purpose PCB. - The circuit can be powered from a 3V battery. - The antenna can be a 1 M long wire. - The headphone must be a high impedance(2 to 3K) type. - If diode AA121 is not available you can use AA112, AA116 or 1N34. - The inductor L1 must be a 0.35mH, center tapped one. - The radio can be tuned by adjusting the variable capacitor C6.
Metallic alloy nanoparticles are often used as catalysts in the production of industrial products such as fertilisers and plastics. Until now, only a small set of alloy nanoparticles have been available because of complications that arise when combining extremely different metals. The technique, created by a team consisting of researchers from Johns Hopkins University, the University of Maryland, College Park, the University of Illinois at Chicago, and MIT, has reportedly made it possible to combine multiple metals, including those not usually considered capable of mixing. Chao Wang, an assistant professor in the Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering at Johns Hopkins University, said: “This method enables new combinations of metals that do not exist in nature and do not otherwise go together.” The new materials, known as high-entropy-alloy nanoparticles, have created unprecedented catalytic mechanisms and reaction pathways and are expected to improve energy efficiency in the manufacturing process and lower production costs. The new method uses shock waves to heat the metals to temperatures of 1700°C and higher at exceptionally rapid rates, both heating and cooling them in the span of milliseconds. The metals are melted together to form small droplets of liquid solutions at these high temperatures and are then rapidly cooled to form homogeneous nanoparticles. Traditional methods, which rely on relatively slow and low-temperature heating and cooling techniques, often result in clumps of metal instead of separate particles. Based on these new nanoparticles, Prof Wang's research group designed a five-metal nanoparticle that demonstrated superior catalytic performance for selective oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen oxide, a reaction used by the chemical industry to produce nitric acid, which is used in the large-scale production of fertilisers and other products. In addition to nitric acid production, the researchers are exploring the use of the nanoparticles in reactions like the removal of nitrogen oxide from vehicle exhaust.
Feb. 23, 2022 — We hear a lot about the scourges of mosquitoes as they spread malaria, dengue fever, Zika, and other illnesses, but they’re certainly not the only tiny vector out there spreading disease. Just ask anyone who’s dealt with Lyme disease. Ticks have long been a major source of infectious disease, but they haven’t received as much attention from researchers as mosquitoes. And we know a lot less about their biology and what makes them, well, tick. But that’s starting to change. The feat was remarkable because researchers have been struggling for years to find a way to successfully inject tick embryos. With the eggs’ high internal pressure, hard outer shell, and a wax layer around each embryo that needs to be removed before the shot, it’s been tough to get inside the embryo to edit its genes. But now, scientists have a way to get in there, and they’ve published their findings in the journal iScience. The researchers were able to edit genes by injecting the embryo, as they would have with other creatures, but they also came up with a process that had greater success. It involved first removing the Gené’s organ — what female ticks use to coat their eggs with wax — from mother ticks, and then using two chemicals, benzalkonium chloride and sodium chloride, to remove the eggs’ hard outer shell and reduce their internal pressure. That’s not to say it was suddenly easy to inject the eggs. The researchers still had to find the right time during gestation to use CRISPR to edit the genes. But their work paid off. Overall, only about 1 in 10 tick embryos survived the injection — about the same as gene editing survival rates for insects — and all the female ticks survived. The new study describes for other researchers what they need to do to finally be able to modify the genome of ticks, opening the door to further research into understanding these arthropods and what kind of gene editing works best in them. Ultimately, the research could lead to better gene editing, more answers about how ticks survive and transmit disease, and possibly how to prevent such transmission.
If your student is a beginning or struggling speller, one of the most important things you can do is teach him how to segment words. Knowing how to segment opens up a whole world of literacy. In fact, it’s surprising that this important spelling skill isn’t taught more widely, especially given how easy it is to teach. This blog post explains what segmenting is, how to teach it, and how to apply it to your spelling lessons. And be sure to grab the free printable so you can start teaching segmenting right away! Segmenting is the ability to hear the individual sounds in words. It improves phonological awareness and long-term spelling ability. Think of segmenting as the opposite of blending. When we speak, we blend sounds together to make a word. In segmenting, we take the individual sounds apart. For example, say the word ham aloud and listen for the three separate sounds: In the word shrimp, there are five separate speech sounds. Even though there are six letters, the SH phonogram represents the single sound of /sh/. A great way to start is with this “Breaking Words Apart” activity. In this segmenting activity, your child will learn how to hear the sounds in short words. He’ll break apart two-sound words and three-sound words so that later he will be able to represent each sound with a written phonogram. Segmenting can also be taught using tokens, coins, or squares of paper. You can see a demonstration in the video below. After your child is able to segment words into speech sounds using tokens, move on to segmenting words using letter tiles or the letter tiles app. It is a simple transition: the student still segments the word aloud, but instead of pulling down a token, he pulls down a letter tile for each sound. There are three basic steps. After segmenting words with the letter tiles, the student is ready to move on to spelling with paper and pencil. The student can eventually go straight from hearing a dictated word to writing on paper, segmenting the word in his head if necessary. Find more great tips for teaching spelling in my free report, “20 Best Tips for Teaching Reading and Spelling.” This report gives you a glimpse into the proven strategies we’ve used to help over 150,000 amazing children (and adults) learn to read and spell.
Friend or Foe? Fever is one of the most common reasons parents call for advice and can be very scary for parents. But once we know more about fever, we can see there is nothing to fear. Fever is not the enemy but a healthy response and part of our immune system. Everyone will have a fever at some point, especially young children. Let’s learn more about fevers, when you should be concerned, and how to help your child while they have a fever. WHAT IS A FEVER? Fever is the body’s way of fighting infection. Fever is actually your body’s response to a viral or bacterial infection to help stop the virus or bacteria from multiplying. A fever helps increase immune chemicals that fight infection and also creates an inhospitable environment for bacteria and viruses. Viruses are the most likely cause of fever, causing fever 10 times more often than bacteria. A fever can last upwards of 3-5 days, sometimes longer! A fever is any temperature 100.4 degrees or higher. When your child has a fever, that temperature may change based on time of day. Everyone’s temperature fluctuates during the day. Our temperature is highest in late afternoon/early evening and is lower in the early morning. That means a fever will be even higher in the evening and may seem lower in the early morning. Your child’s temperature can also be affected by their clothing. A child who is overdressed or bundled up will have a higher temperature. Taking your child’s temperature In order to determine what your child’s temperature is, you must take an accurate measurement. For infants less than 6 months old we recommend ONLY using rectal digital thermometer. This is the most accurate measurement. An ear thermometer should never be used in an infant less than 6 months old. Pacifier thermometers also should never be used. They require 3-4 minutes of sucking to be accurate. Rectal thermometers should be labeled as such so they aren’t used in anyone’s mouth. When taking a rectal temperature, you should only insert the tip ½-1 inch and it should not be difficult. Also note, taking a temperature this way can stimulate stooling, so we recommend doing it on a changing table or with a diaper or towel under your child. In children over 6 months of age, a digital temporal artery (aka forehead) thermometer (not the strips that stick to the forehead) or a digital oral or underarm thermometer can be used. If your forehead thermometer gives you radically different temperatures if you take your child’s temperature a few times, consider changing the battery as an older battery can affect the performance of the thermometer. We also do not recommend ear thermometers in older children as a poor fit will give inaccurate readings as will recent outdoor time and they method is not reliable. Symptoms of a fever When your child has a fever, their skin will feel very warm and may appear flushed or red. They may also shake or shiver. They may be sweaty at times or clammy feelings. Sometimes their hands and feet will feel cold to the touch. They may complain of body aches, joint pain, or a headache. Children also have decreased appetite during a fever. This is not concerning as long as they are drinking plenty of fluids and some of those fluids have calories in them such as juice or popsicles. Fever also makes their heart rate and respiratory rate increase. Your child’s heart may beat 7 more beats per minute for every degree of fever and they may breathe 1-2 more times per minute for every degree of fever. That means if your child has a 103.6 fever (5 degrees above average) their heart rate will increase 35 beats every minute and they will breathe 5 more times a minute. A child who is 9 months old can have a heart rate from 100-160 beats a minute normally so you may feel their heart beating very quickly! A 9-month-old baby also breaths about 25 times a minute so they may appear to be “panting” when they have a fever. WHEN SHOULD I WORRY? Fever in a child less than 3 months old is considered an emergency. If your child is less than 3 months old, we recommend you call us immediately for advice. Do not administer an anti-fever medication such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen. In children over 3 months of old, fever itself is not a cause of concern. Fever does not cause brain damage. It is a natural part of your body’s response to a viral or bacterial infection. Reasons we need to hear from you IMMEDIATELY if your child has a fever include: • Your child is less than 3 months old • Your child looks very ill or is extremely irritable or unusually drowsy • They were in a hot car or an environment where they were exposed to prolonged high temperatures • Your child has a stiff neck and/or a severe headache not relieved by pain medication or fever reducer • Your child is exhibiting signs of dehydration such as dry mouth, sunken soft spot, no wet diapers in 12 hours or is unable to hold down or take in fluids • Your child has immune system complications such as sickle cell disease, cancer or is on immunosuppressive medication • Your child is having difficulty breathing Reasons we need to hear from you but NOT emergently (meaning you do not need to call the Emergency on-call provider and you can wait until the office is open) • Your child has other symptoms such as a sore throat, ear pain, a rash, or repeated or prolonged vomiting and diarrhea • The fever lasts longer than 48-72 hours • You need medication dosing…all this is on our website as well as the manufacturer’s websites. All dosing is based on your child’s weight Your child will need to be evaluated depending on HOW your child LOOKS and ACTS, not based on how high the fever goes. If your child is drinking enough to stay hydrated, can rest comfortably, and is able to play or interact for short periods they do not need to be evaluated immediately. If your child is not sleeping, sleeping too much, or not taking fluids., you should call us for advice and possibly an evaluation. We often see children in the office who have a temperature of 104 degrees who are happy, active and drinking well, while other children at 101 degrees look very sick and aren’t taking in in enough fluids. Don’t worry about numbers and look at your child to determine your course of action. WHAT ABOUT FEBRILE SEIZURES? A febrile seizure is a seizure that occurs during a fever. Febrile seizures occur when your child’s temperature goes up quickly NOT how HIGH the fever is. A febrile seizure rarely happens more than once in a 24hour period. These seizures DO NOT harm your child’s brain or nervous system. They do not result in death or intellectual changes. Febrile seizures can happen in 3-8% of all children. They are most common in children 6 months to 5 years. They also run in families. If your child has a febrile seizure, they are more at risk of having another seizure. About 50% of children who have a febrile seizure before they are 1 year of age will have another. And 30% of children who have their first febrile seizure after they are 1 year of age will have another. Only a small number of these children will also have epilepsy. If your child has a febrile seizure, make sure they are in a safe place such as on the floor or on a bed. Make sure there are no sharp or hard objects that could hurt them nearby. Roll your child onto their side in case they vomit. If the seizures last longer than 5 minutes, call 911. If the seizure is shorter than 5 minutes, please call our office so that we may arrange to evaluate your child for the cause of the fever. WHAT SHOULD I DO IF MY CHILD HAS A FEVER? If your child has a fever, we recommend treating for comfort. First, we want the immune system to be able to do its job. By lowering your child’s temperature, we take away that mechanism. Also, fever reducers do NOT cure the fever. They simply reduce the fever so that your child is more comfortable. Therefore, we should base all treatment not on the number or height of the fever, but how your child LOOKS and ACTS. If your child is drinking fluids, sleeping well, and having short or long periods of playing, you can just monitor the fever and do not need to give medication. If your child is not drinking well, is unable to rest, or is uncomfortable then you may determine they need medication. We recommend acetaminophen for children over 3 months of age or ibuprofen for children over 6 months of age. Remember to always use the cup or dosing syringe that came with the medication. Household spoons are not accurate. If you lose the dosing device, please ask your local pharmacist for a replacement. FEVER REDUCING MEDICATION Acetaminophen(brand names Tylenol or Feverall) Acetaminophen is a fever and pain reducer that is sold over the counter. It comes in infant and children’s syrups (these are the same concentrations), chewable tablets, orally disintegrating tablets or powders, suppositories, capsules and tablets. Do not give Tylenol to a child less than 3 months old without discussing with your provider first. Your child’s dose is based on their weight. Acetaminophen can be administered every 4-6 hours but not more than 5 times in 24 hours. Click here for a link to our website for Acetaminophen dosing. Ibuprofen(brand names Motrin or Advil) Ibuprofen is a fever and pain reducer as well as an anti-inflammatory medication. Ibuprofen comes in infant drops, children’s syrup (these are different concentrations unlike Tylenol), chewable tablets, capsules, and tablets. This medication is only for children 6 months and older. Dosing for ibuprofen is based on your child’s weight. This medication lasts for 6-8 hours. Click here for a link to our website for Ibuprofen dosing. Aspirin(brand name Bayer) We do NOT recommend using aspiring with children due to side effects such as upset stomach, intestinal bleeding, and Reye syndrome. Reye syndrome causes brain, liver and organ damage when children with certain viruses are given aspirin. Aspirin can be purchased over the counter and comes in swallowable or chewable tablets. It can be given every 4-6 hours unless it is a delayed release formulation. Fever reducing medication is not the only way to help your child when they have a fever. Here are some things that you can try: • Keep their room or your house cool • Have your child dress in light layers • Push fluids including water, diluted juices, popsicles or electrolyte solutions. You can also offer foods with high water content such as yogurt, apple sauce, or fruits. • Give your child a lukewarm bath (no ice or rubbing alcohol baths no matter what Grammy says) or provide cool compresses to their forehead or body • Let them rest but do not confine them to their room, allow them to play but do not let them become overexerted Most children do NOT need to go to the emergency room with a fever. If you are concerned about your child’s fever, please call the office to discuss before proceeding to the Emergency Room. Often a trip to the ER is either a VERY expensive dose of fever reducer or can result in unnecessary testing that can be traumatic for your child. Your child will need to be evaluated in the emergency room if they have a febrile seizure lasting longer than 5 minute or if you discuss your child’s symptom and we recommend an evaluation in the emergency room. If your child has other symptoms such as ear pain, a sore throat, a rash or mild vomiting or diarrhea we do NOT recommend an immediately evaluation in the ER. We recommend keeping your child comfortable and call our office for an advice or an appointment for an evaluation. ER visits for childhood illness expose your child to extra infectious agents such as viruses as well as burdening the emergency room. We recommend an evaluation in our office for any child who had a short febrile seizure and any child who has symptoms with their fever than need an evaluation such as ear pain or a sore throat. We also recommend seeing any child with a prolonged fever meaning a fever that last longer than 72 hours with or without other symptoms. Also, if your child is being treated for an infection with antibiotics and their fever last longer than 48 hours after treatment was started, you should talk to your provider and possibly have your child reevaluated. Fever is one thing all parents will experience with their child at some point. It can be scary but after learning about fever, we need to treat fever like the friend it actually is. It usually is a reassuring sign of a healthy immune system functioning just like it should. Your child’s body is fighting off viruses and sometimes bacteria. While their body is doing this hard work, we can comfort them with baths, rest, and sometimes with fever reducers. Children’s Health Care of Newburyport, Massachusetts and Haverhill, Massachusetts is a pediatric healthcare practice providing care for families across the North Shore, Merrimack Valley, southern New Hampshire, and the Seacoast regions. The Children’s Health Care team includes pediatricians and pediatric nurse practitioners who provide comprehensive pediatric health care for children, including newborns, toddlers, school aged children, adolescents, and young adults. Our child-centered and family-focused approach covers preventative and urgent care, immunizations, and specialist referrals. Our services include an on-site pediatric nutritionist, special needs care coordinator, and social workers. We also have walk-in appointments available at all of our locations for acute sick visits. Please visit chcmass.com where you will find information about our pediatric doctors, nurse practitioners, as well as our hours and services. Disclaimer: this health information is for educational purposes only. You, the reader, assume full responsibility for how you choose to use it.
NC_016830:6499234 Pseudomonas fluorescens F113 chromosome, complete genome Host Lineage: Pseudomonas fluorescens; Pseudomonas; Pseudomonadaceae; Pseudomonadales; Proteobacteria; Bacteria General Information: This organism is a nonpathogenic saprophyte which inhabits soil, water and plant surface environments. If iron is in low supply, it produces a soluble, greenish fluorescent pigment, which is how it was named. As these environmentally versatile bacteria possess the ability to degrade (at least partially) multiple different pollutants, they are studied in their use as bioremediants. Furthermore a number of strains also posses the ability to suppress agricultural pathogens like fungal infections, hence their role as biocontrol (biological disease control) agents is under examination. Bacteria belonging to the Pseudomonas group are common inhabitants of soil and water and can also be found on the surfaces of plants and animals. Pseudomonas bacteria are found in nature in a biofilm or in planktonic form. Pseudomonas bacteria are renowned for their metabolic versatility as they can grow under a variety of growth conditions and do not need any organic growth factors.
RENEWABLE ENERGY IN INDIA RENEWABLE ENERGY IN INDIA - India is at the cusp of a renewable energy revolution. - As of 2020, 38% of India's installed electricity generation capacity is from renewable sources. This comes to 136 GW out of 373 GW. And the government has already set an ambitious target to achieve 175 gigawatt (GW) of renewable energy capacity by 2022. What Is Renewable Energy? - Renewable energy, often referred to as clean energy, comes from natural sources or processes that are constantly replenished. For example, sunlight or wind keep shining and blowing, even if their availability depends on time and weather. Types of Renewable Energy Sources The most common renewable power technologies include: This takes advantage of wind motion to generate electricity. Wind motion is brought about by the heat from the sun, and rotation of the earth, mainly via the Coriolis Effect. It taps heat from the sun to produce energy for the generation of electricity, heating, lighting homes and commercial buildings. Utilizes moving water to produce electricity. Moving water creates high energy that can be harnessed and turned into power. Organic matter that constitutes plants is referred to as biomass, which can be utilized to generate electricity, chemicals or fuels to power vehicles. Takes advantage of rising and falling of tides to generate electricity Leverages heat from underneath the earth to generate electricity. The Advantages of Renewable Energy Resources A Fuel Supply That Never Runs Out Renewable energy is created from sources that naturally replenish themselves – such as sunlight, wind, water, biomass, and even geothermal (underground) heat. While fossil fuels are becoming harder and more expensive to source – resulting in the destruction of natural habitats and significant financial losses – renewable energy never runs out. Zero Carbon Emissions There are no greenhouse gasses or other pollutants created during the process. Coal power plants on the other hand create around 2.2 pounds of CO2 for every kilowatt-hour of electricity. As we race to decarbonize our world and embrace energy sources that don’t contribute to global warming, renewables are helping to provide us with emission-free energy.. Burning fossil fuels causes global warming and causes pollution. Coal power stations, for example, release high volumes of carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) directly into the atmosphere – two of the most potent greenhouse gasses. In addition, they also emit mercury, lead, sulfur dioxide, particulates, and dangerous metals – which can cause a host of health problems ranging from breathing difficulties to premature death. On the other hand, renewable energy creates no pollution, waste, or contamination risks to air and water. A Cheaper Form of energy With the rapid growth of renewable energy over the last ten years, solar and wind power are now the cheapest sources of energy in many parts of the world. In the United Arab Emirates a new sun farm recently secured the world’s lowest price of solar energy at just 1.35c per kilowatt-hour. Whereas green energy was once a “clean-but-expensive” alternative – it’s now helping to reduce energy bills for people in many parts of the world. Renewable Energy Creates New Jobs With an increasing focus on global warming and many governments setting ambitious carbon-reduction goals Renewable Energy has quickly become a major source of new job growth. Challenges of Renewable Energy Higher Capital Costs While renewable energy systems need no fuel and can deliver substantial long-term savings, their up-front costs can still be prohibitive. On a larger scale, wind farms, solar parks, and hydropower stations require significant investment, land, and electrical infrastructure. Electricity Production Can Be Unreliable Renewable energy systems rely on natural resources such as sunlight, wind, and water, and therefore, their electricity generation can be as unpredictable as the weather. Solar panels lose efficiency on cloudy days, wind turbines aren’t effective in calm weather, and hydropower systems need consistent snow and rainfall to maintain reliable production. At the same time, when renewable systems produce too much energy, they risk overloading the grid and causing major problems for network operators. Due to the intermittent nature of renewables, they need forms of energy storage to capture and release electricity in a consistent and controlled way. Despite falling costs, storage technology is still relatively expensive. Renewables still have a Carbon Footprint While solar panels and wind turbines produce no carbon emissions as they make energy – their manufacturing, transport, and installation still creates a carbon footprint. Fig: Installed grid interactive renewable power capacity in India as of 30 September 2020 (excluding large hydro) Paris Agreement Targets - In the Paris Agreement India has committed to an Intended Nationally Determined Contributions target of achieving 40% of its total electricity generation from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030. Central Electricity Authority's strategy blueprint - We are also aiming for a more ambitious target of 57% of the total electricity capacity from renewable sources by 2027 in Central Electricity Authority's strategy blueprint. - According to 2027 blueprint, India aims to have 275 GW from renewable energy, 72 GW of hydroelectricity, 15 GW of nuclear energy and nearly 100 GW from “other zero emission” sources. - There is also a target for installation of Rooftop Solar Projects(RTP) of 40 GW by 2022 including installation on rooftop of houses. UN Climate Summit - In 2019 at UN climate summit, India announced that it will be more than doubling its renewable energy target from 175GW by 2022 to 450GW of renewable energy by the same year. - These targets would place India among the world leaders in renewable energy use and place India at the centre of its "Sunshine Countries" International Solar Alliance project promoting the growth and development of solar power internationally to over 120 countries. Some Government’s Initiatives for generating Renewable Energy Grid Connected Solar Rooftop Programme Objective: For achieving cumulative capacity of 40,000 MW from Rooftop Solar (RTS) Projects by the year 2022. Solar Park Scheme MNRE has come up with a scheme to set up a number of solar parks across several states, each with a capacity of almost 500 MW. The scheme proposes to offer financial support by the Government of India to establish solar parks to facilitate the creation of infrastructure required for setting up new solar power projects in terms of allocation of land, transmission, access to roads, availability of water, etc. International Solar Alliance The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an alliance of 121 countries initiated by India, most of them being sunshine countries, which lie either completely or partly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The primary objective of the alliance is to work for efficient consumption of solar energy to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. The initiative was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi at the India Africa Summit, and a meeting of member countries ahead of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP 21) in Paris in November 2015. The framework agreement of the International Solar Alliance opened for signatures in Marrakech, Morocco in November 2016, and 200 countries have joined. HQ- Gurugram, Haryana Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evem Utthan Mahabhiyan (PM KUSUM) Scheme for farmers aims for installation of solar pumps and grid connected solar and other renewable power plants in the country. The scheme aims to add solar and other renewable capacity of 25,750 MW by 2022. National Green Corridor Project The green energy corridor is grid connected network for the transmission of renewable energy produced from various renewable energy projects. National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy This policy essentially aims at establishing a structure on the basis of which large-scale wind-solar hybrid power projects can be promoted. National Offshore Wind Energy Policy The objective is to develop the offshore wind energy in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) along the Indian coastline. Sustainable Rooftop Implementation for Solar Transfiguration of India (SRISTI) scheme The Central government will offer with financial incentive to the beneficiary for installing Solar power plant rooftop projects within the country. Biomass power & cogeneration programme It is being implemented with the main objective of promoting technologies for optimum use of country's biomass resources for grid power generation. Draft National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy: The main objective of the Policy is to provide a framework for promotion of large grid connected wind - solar PV hybrid system for optima l and efficient utilization of transmission infrastructure and land, reducing the variability in renewable power generation and achieving better grid stability. 100% FDI is allowed in the renewable energy sector under the Automatic route and no prior Government approval is needed. Akshay Urja Portal and India Renewable Idea Exchange (IRIX) Portal Promotes the exchange of ideas among energy conscious Indians and the Global community. National Biogas and Manure Management Programme Central Sector Schemes that provides for setting up of Family Type Biogas Plants mainly for rural and semi-urban/households. Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme Incentives for High Efficiency Solar PV Modules for Enhancing India’s Manufacturing Capabilities and Enhancing Exports. Top five largest solar power plants in India Bhadla Solar Park The Bhadla Solar Park, which is the largest solar power plant in the world, is based in Bhadla village, in Rajasthan’s Jodhpur district. Spanning 14,000 acres, the fully operational power plant has been installed with a capacity of 2,250MW. Shakti Sthala solar power project – 2,050MW The Shakti Sthala solar power project in Tumakuru district, Karnataka, is now the second-largest solar power plant in India, having previously been the largest of its type in the world. Ultra Mega Solar Park – 1,000MW Based in Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh – another leading Indian state for solar power – the 1,000-MW Ultra Mega Solar Park spans an area of more than 5,932 acres. Rewa Solar Power Project – 750MW The 750-MW Rewa Solar Power Project is being constructed in Madhya Pradesh. The Rewa solar power plant is one of the major power suppliers to the Delhi Metro – a mass rapid transit system in India’s capital city. Rewa is the country’s first and only solar project until now to be funded from the Clean Technology Fund and also India’s only solar power plant to obtain a concessional loan from the World Bank’s International Finance Corporation. Kamuthi solar power plant – 648MW The Kamuthi solar power plant in Ramanathapuram district, Tamil Nadu, is the fifth-largest plant of its kind in India. The plant is cleaned by every day a robotic system that has its own solar panels to charge it. India’s Focus Areas Methanol and Biomass: - Utilizing other alternatives like methanol-based economy and biomass. - Bio-CNG vehicles with 20% blending in petrol is also a target for the government. - Generating energy from Biomass is a better option since it will clean the cities and also decrease our energy dependence. Fuels created from biomass have a high calorific value and are cleaner than traditional biomass. The Twin Challenge - India has a twin challenge of providing more as well as cleaner energy to the population in India. - It should focus on getting into the manufacturing of solar panels under the Atma Nirbhar Bharat initiative because the demand is to generate jobs and supply decentralised energy to all the households in India. - Developing the whole supply chain of all the components besides the manufacturing sector. Hydrogen based FCV - It is likely to change the landscape of renewables and moving towards Hydrogen Based Fuel Cells Vehicles (FCV) is another area of focus. - It is the practice of developing effective ways to provide variable renewable energy (RE) to the grid. India’s clean-energy initiatives have the wind at their back thanks to global advances in green technology—especially solar power, wind power, and energy storage. These technologies are progressing exponentially and have entered a virtuous cycle: As prices for these technologies fall, demand for them rises, and as production is expanded to meet demand, prices fall some more, all of which contributes to accelerating adoption. Two burning questions for India — and the world — are how fast the use of renewables and related clean energy technologies can scale, and to what extent can they mitigate the increase in fossil fuel use. As the second-largest coal-producing and -consuming country on earth and the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases, India’s transition from carbon-intensive resources is a critical front in the global climate change fight. India has reduced its emission intensity by 21 percent over 2005 levels. Over the last decade, India focused mostly on adding solar and wind energy capacity as fast as possible. The next phase will require deep structural reforms to create a cleaner, more flexible and more efficient power system.
Understanding What Command Words Mean April 16, 2021 Describe, explain, evaluate, state… Command words are essential when it comes to understanding exam questions and essay titles. I was always told to highlight the ‘key words’ in every long answer or essay question and I still think this is a crucial skill. Today, we’ll go over the definitions of some common command words and look at some examples together. This post is super practical so make sure you have a pen and paper close by! Answer with a single word or sentence- you don’t have to explain the answer but simply state it. These questions are just factual recall (you either know it, or you don’t). For example: “State three ways Stresemann was able to end hyperinflation in 1923.” An answer for this might look like: a. He stopped the use of the old currency and introduced a new one, the Rentenmark. b. He called off passive resistance c. He reduced government spending. May have to say what something is like, or write a sequence of events. Marks can be lost if you fail to complete a comparison between both factors or events mentioned in the question. For example: “Compare Veins and Arteries.” - A Good Comparison: “Veins have valves, arteries do not. Arteries have thick muscular walls, veins have thin walls.” - A Incomplete Comparison: “Veins have valves, arteries have thick muscular walls. You may have to give advantages and disadvantages of the subject of the question and then give your opinion. Give details of why something happens- show a causation. For example: “Explain how Stresemann was able to end hyperinflation in 1923.” One of the ways that Stresemann was able to end hyperinflation in 1923 was by calling off passive resistance. As a response to the French and Belgian invasion of the Ruhr, the Weimar government introduced the passive resistance whereby workers no longer had to work but would still be paid their wages by the government. This meant that Germany’ industrial production decreased, government income from exports reduced and the government had to print more money, leading to hyperinflation. However, by calling off the passive resistance, Stresemann was able to solve both problems as workers went back to work leading to an increase in industrial production and the government no longer had to print money to pay striking workers. If you’re asked to evaluate a statement or argument, you will often have to look at why the statement might be significant or valuable and why it might not be. You may also need to come to a judgement. For example: “Evaluate evidence for and against the theory that an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes an increase in air temperature.” A good answer would give reasons for the theory stated in the question and reasons against and consider the strengths and weaknesses of both sides. Break down the different elements of the subject and give an in-depth account of it. State the meaning of something. I hope this post has been helpful in explaining (see what I did there) some of the most common command words. If there are any of these skills or question types you struggle with in particular, I’d suggest making a note of some definitions (another one!) and referring to this the next time you’re faced with an exam question.
Think of a satellite. Imagine what it looks like, its size and how much it costs. Most likely you were thinking of an automobile-sized, multi-ton object that costs hundreds of millions of dollars to develop and another hundred million dollars to launch into orbit on top of a giant rocket. And you are right, this is what satellites were like. Until now. The satellite industry has fundamentally changed with space becoming more accessible. Satellites have become smaller, more powerful and much cheaper to launch into orbit. Due to lower equipment and launch cost it is now possible to build a constellation with dozens of satellites. Satellites can be frequently replaced allowing a progressive stream of innovation. Three distinct drivers are responsible for this trend. Firstly, Moore’s law has radically driven down the cost and size of electronics. Similar to how mobile phones have shrunk and become more powerful, satellite electronics that used to take up large amounts of space in traditional satellites now fits into a shoebox. Launching something smaller and lighter into space is inherently less costly. Figure 1 shows a modern cubesat – 10x10cm standardized satellite unit typically sitting in low earth orbit and capable of taking high-definition images. Secondly, private companies such as SpaceX have entered the launch vehicle market and have radically driving down cost of launch services by aiming for re-usability of rockets. Traditionally, launch vehicles are lost after a successful launch. Imagine if every time a UPS truck delivers a parcel to your house it blows up afterwards. The cost of shipment would increase significantly. Through reusability and a radical approach to cost SpaceX has managed to offer a launch for $61.2 million dollar on the Falcon 9 today compared to an average cost of $225 on a ULA rocket, a traditional launch provider. With SpaceX perfecting the reusability of their rockets costs are bound to come down even further. Thirdly, because traditionally space projects have been incredible uncertainty and high-risk only governments or multi-billion dollar communications conglomerates had the ability to invest in them. With smaller satellites being deployed into low-earth orbit the cost of a loss is significantly reduced. Also, due to the lower manufacturing cost satellites can be launched rather quickly and business models become revenue generating within months. Google’s acquisition of the satellite company Skybox Imaging for $500m has sparked great interest in the venture capital community. Skybox Imaging’s constellation of low-earth orbit satellites will allow Google to take a picture of any place on earth twice a day with possible applications in Google Maps. Leading venture capital funds such as Bessemer Ventures or Canaan Partners are actively looking for investment opportunities in the satellite market. Access to space essentially allows us to capture unique data that drives insights in all kinds of industries. For example, if you could count the number of cars on a Wall-Mart parking lot as a hedge fund you could predict earnings more accurately. Or imagine you have hourly pictures of forests around the world that allow you to identify fires early on. While satellites only collect data, the key to success is processing and analyzing this data to generate actionable insights. One startup successfully doing this is satellite company Spire. The four-year old startup was founded by Peter Platzer (HBS’03) and as of today has launched 12 satellites into orbit. By the end of 2016 it plans to have 40 in orbit in total. Spire’s satellite constellation ‘listens’ to the planet. Based on the collected data Spire has developed two innovative products. Spire Sense picks up Automatic Identification System (AIS) signals sent by ships to identify themselves and their position. After only 50 nautical miles from the shore the curvature of earth blocks the AIS signal from reaching a port. Spire’s satellites, however, can pick up these signals anywhere and thereby track ships globally. One interesting application of this technology is combining the AIS signals with terrestrial imaging which allows you to identify piracy or illegal fishing activities. Spire Stratos utilizes GPS radio occultation to collect weather and climate data. As shown in figure 2 satellites pick up a signal from a GPS signal which passes through the atmosphere. The changes introduced to the signal by the atmosphere allow Spire to infer on weather and climate conditions in particular locations. Recently Spire has signed a landmark contract with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to provide weather and atmospheric data, the first time NOAA purchased weather data from a private company. Spire’s data will feed into weather and climate models, helping us predict natural disasters und better understand climate change. Spire estimates that weather impacts $26 trillion of the world economy and that 10% of that can be mitigated by improved weather models. Today many space startups generate a large amount of imagery and data. The big challenge, however, is to turn all this data into actionable recommendations for businesses back on earth. Spire is leading the way with highly innovative models to provide weather data and track ships. Other space companies should follow their lead and focus heavily on data analytics.
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO): “Biosafety is a strategic and integrated approach to analysing and managing relevant risks to human, animal and plant life and health and associated risks for the environment.” It recognises that there are links between sectors and the potential for hazards to move within and between sectors, with serious consequences. It addresses the containment guidelines, technologies and practices that are put in place to prevent the accidental exposure to toxins and pathogens. Responsible practices (biosafety) are the only effective way to ensure that living organisms and the environment stay safe. The concept of biosafety has been around since the late 1800s when safety measures were introduced after there were reports of diseases being found in laboratory personnel. Biosafety Concepts and Standards Biological Hazards: The potential risk of uncontrolled exposure to biological agents that can cause disease. Biocontainment: Procedures used to prevent infectious diseases from leaking from research centres and laboratories. Bioprotection: A set of measures that are taken to reduce the risk of theft, loss, misuse or intentional release of infectious agents including those who are in charge of access to facilities, materials storage and data and publication policies. Standards: Researchers who work closely with potentially contaminated biological agents have to be aware of the risks and learn the techniques and practices required to do their jobs safely. Universality: All biosafety procedures must be observed and followed by everyone as anyone has a risk of carrying and spreading pathogenic microorganisms. Barriers: The elements that are used to contain biological contamination are divided into two categories: immunisation (vaccines) and primary barriers: safety equipment like gloves, protective suits and masks, and secondary barriers including insulated work areas, hand washing areas and adequate ventilation systems. Elimination: All the waste generated must be disposed of in strict accordance with the specific procedures set out for each hazardous material. Pathogens are defined as infectious agents that can cause disease in humans and other living organisms. Here are the different levels of pathogen risk groups that can be found in laboratories: Risk Group 1 Has the lowest risk to living organisms and the environment and is unlikely to cause any disease. Risk Group 2 Pathogens that pose a moderate risk to living organisms and a lower risk to the environment. Includes microorganisms that can cause disease but has treatments that are available, and the risk of spread is low. Risk Group 3 Pathogens that are of a higher risk to living organisms and a moderate risk to the environment. Includes microorganisms that cause diseases that can be potentially serious. Treatment is available but can be more expensive and harder to come by. There is also a higher risk of the disease spreading. Risk Group 4 Pathogens that have a high risk to living organisms and the environment. These microorganisms can cause life-threatening diseases that can easily spread. Treatments are not usually available. Physical containment facilities are places that are able to handle and manage microorganisms safely. These facilities are important because they reduce and prevent the risk of pathogens being released into the public. Physical Containment Level 1 Facility This type of facility is suitable for low-hazard microorganisms such as Risk Level 1 organism. Researchers are easily protected by the procedures that are in place, and Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) includes closed shoes and a lab coat. Physical Containment Level 2 Facility Suitable for hosting Risk Level 2 organisms including research and diagnostic practices. PPE includes closed shoes, a lab coat and protective eye gear. All PPE needs to be decontaminated before being removed. Physical Containment Level 3 Facility Used for research and diagnostic practices for Risk Level 3 organisms. These facilities usually have additional building features that help by minimising the risk of infection. PPE that is required in these facilities includes lab coats, closed shoes, protective eye gear and gloves. The PPE is usually discarded after use. Physical Containment Level 4 Facility Suitable for research and diagnostic practices for Risk Level 4 organisms. This facility is separated from other buildings and has a shower in/out and ventilation and decontamination systems. International Health Regulations The International Health Regulations (IHR) is an international law and is legally binding in 196 countries. The purpose of the IHR is to “prevent, protect against, control and provide a public health response to the international spread of disease.” It refers to diseases that may cause significant harm to humans - no matter their origin. Health security strategies need to be aware of a diverse range of threats including natural outbreaks, pandemics, bioterrorism attacks and biological warfare. Building laboratory functions and capabilities to support a public health system can’t be done effectively without a strong focus on biosafety. Biological Weapons Convention The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) is the first international treaty that banned the production and use of an entire category of weapons. It was entered into force in 1975 and includes exchanges of information between laboratories, research centres, vaccine production facilities and cases of unusual outbreaks of infectious diseases. It relies on international cooperation in regards to biosafety and biosecurity at both regional and international levels which will in turn prevent the development, acquisition or use of biological and toxin weapons. Administrative and legislative measures to enhance compliance with the BWC include awareness and outreach, education, biosafety and biosecurity and disease surveillance, detection and containment. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity (2000) outlines in Article 18 that Living Modified Organisms that are moved around should be handled, packaged and transported safely and in accordance with the relevant international rules and standards.
For learning Lithuanian language it is necessary to know alphabets in Lithuanian. You have to know alphabets in Lithuanian to learn writing in Lithuanian language. Lithuanian alphabets are the building blocks of Lithuanian language. There are 32 characters in Lithuanian alphabets. Lithuanian alphabets are made up of Lithuanian vowels and Lithuanian consonants. The Lithuanian alphabets contain 12 vowels and 20 consonants. Lithuanian vs German gives a comparison between Lithuanian and German alphabets. Lithuanian script is also known as Lithuanian writing system or Lithuanian orthography. The set of visible signs used to represent units of Lithuanian language in a systematic way is called Lithuanian Script. The Lithuanian language uses Latin i.e. Lithuanian alphabets are derived from Latin script. The script decides the writing direction of the any language, hence the writing direction of Lithuanian is Left-To-Right, Horizontal. Learn Lithuanian Greetings where you will find some interesting phrases. Is Lithuanian hard to learn? The answer to this question is that it depends on one's native language. One should start learning Lithuanian language with Lithuanian alphabets and Lithuanian phonology. Time taken to learn any language that is mentioned here is the approximate time required to learn specific language for the person who is proficient in English. You can also go through all Indian Languages and find if Lithuanian is one of the language of India. © 2015-2019. A softUsvista venture!
Sometimes we need to use methods for solving literal equations to rearrange formulas when we want to find a particular parameter or variable. Solving literal equations is often useful in real life situations, for example we can solve the formula for distance, d=rt, for r to produce an equation for rate. We will need all the methods from solving multi-step equations. Sample Problems (5) Need help with "Solving Literal Equations" problems? Watch expert teachers solve similar problems to develop your skills. The area of a triangle is a = ½b⋅h. The formula to convert from celsius to Fahrenheit is F = 1.8C + 32. The formula for the circumference of a circle is C = 2πr
Robert S. McNamara, appointed by John F. Kennedy to the position of U.S. Secretary of Defense in 1961, said about the Vietnam War, "It is important to recognize it's a South Vietnamese war. It will be won or lost depending upon what they do. We can advise and help, but they are responsible for the final results, and it remains to be seen how they will continue to conduct that war," (McNamara 72). Despite these guidelines for assisting in the war, the U.S. would end up doing much more than just advising. The Vietnam War was supposed to be a demonstration of how willing the U.S. was to battle communism, but ended up a personal vendetta against the North Vietnamese as the U.S. escalated its commitment in Vietnam infinitely greater than it had ever intended. After World War II, France returned to Vietnam to reclaim their Indochinese colonies after the Ho Chi Minh had declared Vietnamese independence in 1945 (Goldstein 3). The U.S. had just ended a war started by German conquest in Europe, and now was being asked to help France conquer the colonies it lost control of during the war. The Vietnam Nationalists, the same ones who had supported the U.S. in the war against the Japanese not more than a year previous, sought only to peacefully gain their independence from France (Chant 25). In January of 1950, the Viet Minh gained recognition by the governments of the USSR and China, who supplied weapons and places to train (Chant 25). Because the two Communist superpowers recognized the Viet Minh, the Vietnam war became to the U.S. a struggle between capitalism and communism, especially since the Viet Minh were openly communist themselves. By aiding the French, the U.S. thought they were helping their free-trade ally France fight communism,
We are currently verifying that this resource no longer uses Adobe Flash and will update the review shortly. Grades4 to 12 6 Favorites 1 Comments Wridea is an idea management, brainstorming, and collaboration tool. It's a place to organize and categorize your ideas, share them with others for input, and store them. To collaborate...more Wridea is an idea management, brainstorming, and collaboration tool. It's a place to organize and categorize your ideas, share them with others for input, and store them. To collaborate using this tool, you must have individual memberships (email required). Note that maps that are shared can be seen by the public, but not altered. You specify the members who may collaborate and make alterations. At this time, this site does not work properly in Internet Explorer. However, it is a great tool to use in Firefox, Safari, Chrome, or other browsers. In the ClassroomDemonstrate the activity on an interactive whiteboard or projector, and then allow students to create their own Wridea tool. Use this site for literature activities, research projects, social studies, or science topics. Have students collaborate together (online) to create group study guides or review charts before a test. Have students use Wridea as a study guide by brainstorming all the important concepts they remember about the unit being studied in history or science, and then have them share their Wridea with another student who will add concepts that were left out. Build student creative fluency by having them use Wridea to create categories of wonder, question, and answers for research; map out a story or plot line, or map out a step-by-step process (life cycle); map a real historical event as a choose-your-own-adventure with alternate endings based on pivotal points. This resources looks like it has a wide variety of applications suitable to upper elementary and secondary classrooms. Sign up was quick and easy, but I received a message upon completing those steps that Wridea doesn't support Internet Explorer. It "suggested" using Mozilla Firefox instead. I'm a strong advocate for being comfortable with using several browsers, so, this doesn't throw up any huge roadblocks to me, but if you do not have or use Firefox, you will need to take that extra step as well before actually making use of this tool.Rita, WA, Grades: 6 - 12 Editor's Note: the review has been updated to reflect this new information.
When and how did the first animals appear? Science has long sought an answer. Uppsala University researchers and colleagues in Denmark have now jointly found, in Greenland, embryo-like microfossils up to 570 million years old, revealing that organisms of this type were dispersed throughout the world. The study is published in Communications Biology. "We believe this discovery of ours improves our scope for understanding the period in Earth's history when animals first appeared - and is likely to prompt many interesting discussions," says Sebastian Willman, the study's first author and a palaeontologist at Uppsala University. The existence of animals on Earth around 540 million years ago (mya) is well substantiated. This was when the event in evolution known as the "Cambrian Explosion" took place. Fossils from a huge number of creatures from the Cambrian period, many of them shelled, exist. The first animals must have evolved earlier still; but there are divergent views in the research community on whether the extant fossils dating back to the Precambrian Era are genuinely classifiable as animals. The new finds from the Portfjeld Formation in the north of Greenland may help to enhance understanding of the origin of animals. In rocks that are 570-560 mya, scientists from Uppsala University, the University of Copenhagen and the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland have found microfossils of what might be eggs and animal embryos. These are so well preserved that individual cells, and even intracellular structures, can be studied. The organisms concerned lived in the shallow coastal seas around Greenland during the Ediacaran period, 635-541 mya. The immense variability of microfossils has convinced the researchers that the complexity of life in that period must have been greater than has hitherto been known. Similar finds were uncovered in southern China's Doushantuo Formation, which is nearly 600 million years old, over three decades ago. Since then, researchers have been discussing what kinds of life form the microfossils represented, and some think they are eggs and embryos from primeval animals. The Greenland fossils are somewhat younger than, but largely identical to, those from China. The new discovery means that the researchers can also say that these organisms were spread throughout the world. When they were alive, most continents were spaced out south of the Equator. Greenland lay where the expanse of the Southern Ocean (surrounding Antarctica) is now, and China was roughly at the same latitude as present-day Florida. "The vast bedrock, essentially unexplored to date, of the north of Greenland offers opportunities to understand the evolution of the first multicellular organisms, which in turn developed into the first animals that, in their turn, led to us," Sebastian Willman says. Willman, S. Peel, J. S., Ineson, J. R., Schovsbo, N. H., Rugen, E. J. & Frei, R. (2020) Ediacaran Doushantuo-type biota discovered in Laurentia. Communications Biology. DOI:10.1038/s42003-020-01381-7
veri-, ver- (Latin: true, truth, real, truthfulness). 1. To declare true, assert the truth of (a statement). 2. To assert as a fact; to state positively, affirm. 3. To assert or allege something confidently. 4. In law, to state or allege that something is true. 1. Honest or truthful. 2. True or accurate. 1. The truth, accuracy, or precision of something. 2. The truthfulness or honesty of a person. 3. A truth or true statement. 1. The decision arrived at by a jury at the end of a trial. 2. An expressed conclusion; judgment. A verdict is etymologically a "true saying" or a "true statement". It was evolved from verdit, the Anglo-Norman variant of Old French veirdit. This was a compound formed from veir "true" (a descendant of Latin verum and relative of English very) and dit "saying, speech", which came from Latin dictum. The partial Latinization of verdit to verdict is said to have taken place in the 16th century. (New York: Arcade Publishing, 1990). 1. Telling the truth. 2. Corresponding to facts or to reality, and therefore genuine or real. 1. The establishment of the truth or correctness of something by investigation or evidence. 2. The evidence that proves something true or correct. 3. In law, an affidavit swearing to the accuracy of a pleading. The view that every meaningful proposition is capable of being shown to be true or false. verify, verifiable, verifiably: 1. To prove that something is true. 2. To check whether or not something is true by examination, investigation, or comparison. 3. In law, to swear or affirm under oath that something is true. Speaking the truth; truthful, veracious. In truth (archaic). Appearing to be true or real. 1. The appearance of being true or real. 2. Something that only appears to be true or real, e.g., a statement that is not supported by evidence. verism, verist, veristic: Strict realism or naturalism in art and literature. veritable, veritableness, veritably: 1. Indicating that something being referred to figuratively is as good as true. 2. True as a declaration or statement The quality of being true or real. 2. Something that is true, especially a statement or principle that is accepted as a fact. 1. An adverb that is used in front of adjectives and adverbs to emphasize their meanings. 2. Indicates an extreme position or extreme point in time. 3. Exactly the right or appropriate person or thing, or exactly the same person or thing. 4. Used before nouns to emphasize seriousness or importance.
Pin On Teaching Resources You will find that many books include a theme, or lesson, that is revealed as you read the story. below are common themes you will find in your books. acceptance these books have characters who respect & accept others' differences and beliefs. courage these books have brave characters who have the strength to overcome a fear or accept a risk. Just a few examples include " all quiet on the western front ," "the boy in the striped pajamas," and " for whom the bell tolls " by ernest hemingway. love: the universal truth of love is a very common theme in literature, and you will find countless examples of it. they go beyond those sultry romance novels, too. The theme or central idea of a book is the lesson, moral or message the reader takes away after reading. the main idea is what the book is about and can usually be stated in a one sentence summary as your students develop their literacy skills, it becomes crucial for them to identify the main idea and theme of a book. The next time you read a new work of fiction or nonfiction, jot down notes pertaining to the theme or themes. see how many you can find. after you've turned that final page, see what central message you've taken away with you. perhaps it'll inspire you to live a better tomorrow. Students will identify and understand the key features of a short story and read short stories with appreciation. part 2: students will read and write specific aspects of a short story such as setting, character, theme, dialogue, opening and closing, and they will start writing their own story for the module. part 3:. Reindeer Books Fantastic Fun Learning Here you will find down to earth, everyday guidance that has helped thousands of christians to live successful christian lives. each chapter is a treasure chest filled with rich gems of wisdom for getting along with yourself, with others, and with god. carry this booklet with you. read a page or two in your free moments, and memorize some of. On the next page, you will find teaching tips that are especially important when teaching dance. the subsequent lesson plans in this book were specifically created for second and fifth grades, but could be adapted to fit younger or older grades as needed. the lesson plans in this book are divided into sections based on lesson content: reading,. "the veldt": overview "the veldt" is a short science fiction story written by ray bradbury and published in 1950. bradbury wrote this tale during a time when the united states was seeing a sharp. Fun Animation Showing How To Identify A Theme Within A Story this fun literacy skills cartoon shows students how to identify themes in a story as aesop tells the fable of the monkey and the this is an amateur video that attempts to explain theme in the simplest terms possible using the movie cinderella. we discuss examples of themes, subjects, ways to find a theme and the writing process. i breakdown short films here join the learn about theme. topics include what it is, how a subject differs from a theme, how theme is a model of the real world, how to a theme is an important idea that is woven throughout a story. it's not the plot or the summary, but something a little deeper. want to be a better writer? follow my blog at ondemandinstruction for book recommendations, writing tips, and this video helps students identify theme in books. students will realize that there can be many themes within one book and that welcome to my complete the secret garden audiobook : full & unabridged. the classic written by frances hodgson burnett even though determining a text's theme is an expectation from grade 1 12, many educators wrestle with how to teach this ela what is "theme" in literature? why does this term matter? how do you find them in texts? watch on! theme is one of the most prevalent, but often abstract elements of a story. here's what it is and how to use it! timestamps: 0:00 literary analysis, at its core, is all about observation. using orwell's 1984, i'll walk you through how to do it. i hope that you'll feel
What is it? - Blepharitis is inflammation that affects the eyelids. Blepharitis usually involves the part of the eyelid where the eyelashes grow. - Blepharitis occurs when tiny oil glands located near the base of the eyelashes malfunction. This leads to inflamed, irritated and itchy eyelids. Several diseases and conditions can cause blepharitis. - Blepharitis is often a chronic condition that is difficult to treat. Blepharitis can be uncomfortable and may be unattractive, but it usually doesn't cause permanent damage to eyesight. Signs and symptoms of blepharitis include: - Watery eyes - Red eyes - A gritty, burning sensation in the eye - Eyelids that appear greasy - Itchy eyelids - Red, swollen eyelids - Flaking of the skin around the eyes - Crusted eyelashes upon awakening - Sensitivity to light - Eyelashes that grow abnormally (misdirected eyelashes) - Loss of eyelashes Blepharitis occurs when tiny oil glands located near the base of the eyelashes malfunction. Blepharitis is often a chronic condition, meaning that it may require long-term care. Diseases and conditions that can cause blepharitis include: - Seborrheic dermatitis — dandruff of the scalp and eyebrows - A bacterial infection - Malfunctioning oil glands in your eyelid - Rosacea — a skin condition characterized by facial redness - Allergies, including allergic reactions to eye medications, contact lens solutions or eye makeup - Eyelash mites Blepharitis may be caused by a combination of factors. If you have blepharitis, you may experience: - Eyelash problems. Blepharitis can cause your eyelashes to fall out or grow abnormally (misdirected eyelashes). - Eyelid skin problems. Scarring may occur on your eyelids in response to long-term blepharitis. - Sty. A sty is an infection that develops near the base of the eyelashes. The result is a painful lump on the edge or inside of your eyelid. A sty is usually most visible on the surface of the eyelid. - Chalazion. A chalazion occurs when there's a blockage in one of the small oil glands at the margin of the eyelid, just behind the eyelashes. The gland can become infected with bacteria, which causes a red, swollen eyelid. Unlike a sty, a chalazion tends to be most prominent on the inside of the eyelid. - Excess tearing or dry eyes. Abnormal oily secretions and other debris shed from the eyelid, such as flaking associated with dandruff, can accumulate in your tear film — the water, oil and mucus solution that forms tears. Abnormal tear film interferes with the healthy lubrication of your eyelids. This can irritate your eyes and cause dry eyes or excessive tearing. - Chronic pink eye. Blepharitis can lead to recurrent bouts of pink eye (conjunctivitis). - Injury to the cornea. Constant irritation from inflamed eyelids or misdirected eyelashes may cause a sore (ulcer) to develop on your cornea. Insufficient tearing could predispose you to a corneal infection. - Examining your eyelids. Your doctor will carefully examine your eyelids and your eyes. He or she may use a special magnifying instrument during the examination. - Swabbing skin for testing. In certain cases, your doctor may use a swab to collect a sample of the oil or crust that forms on your eyelid. This sample can be analyzed for bacteria, fungi or evidence of an allergy. Treatments and drugs Treatment for blepharitis can include: - Cleaning the affected area regularly. Cleaning your eyelids with a warm washcloth can help control signs and symptoms. Self-care measures may be the only treatment necessary for most cases of blepharitis. - Antibiotics. Eyedrops containing antibiotics applied to your eyelids may help control blepharitis caused by a bacterial infection. In certain cases, antibiotics are administered in cream, ointment or pill form. - Steroids eyedrops or ointments. Eyedrops or ointments containing steroids can help control inflammation in your eyes and your eyelids. - Artificial tears. Lubricating eyedrops or artificial tears, which are available over-the-counter, may help relieve dry eyes. - Treating underlying conditions. Blepharitis caused by seborrheic dermatitis, rosacea or other diseases may be controlled by treating the underlying disease. Blepharitis rarely disappears completely. Even with successful treatment, relapses are common. Clean your eyes dailyIf you have blepharitis, follow this self-care remedy once or twice a day: - Apply a warm compress over your closed eye for five minutes to loosen the crusty deposits on your eyelids. - Immediately afterward, use a washcloth moistened with warm water and a few drops of baby shampoo to wash away any oily debris or scales at the base of your eyelashes. - In some cases, you may need to be more deliberate about cleaning the edge of your eyelid where your eyelashes are located. To do this, pull your eyelid away from your eye and use the washcloth to gently wash the area. This helps avoid damaging your cornea with the washcloth. Ask your doctor whether you should use a topical antibiotic ointment after cleaning your eyelids in this way. - Rinse your eyelid with warm water and gently pat it dry with a clean, dry towel. Continue this treatment until your signs and symptoms disappear. Although you may be able to decrease the frequency of eyelid soaking and washing, you should maintain an eyelid care routine to keep the condition under control. If you experience a flare-up, resume once or twice daily self-care treatment. If you have dandruff that's contributing to your blepharitis, ask your doctor to recommend a dandruff shampoo. Using a dandruff-controlling shampoo may relieve your blepharitis signs and symptoms.
Kiribati Islands (Pacific Ocean) Terrain: Flooding / Rising Sea Level due to Global Warming Program: Habitation / Housing / Recycling Hopefully in the future, people will look at a map and see the same amount of land aw we do today. Unfortunately, the effects of global warming on the Earth’s glaciers and icecaps are much more complex than just melting ice. Global warming is affected by a number of variables, but most of it is from pollution, which has dramatically increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, According to the Environmental Protection Agency, oceans could rise 0.9 to 1.5 meters by the year 2100. This would have a profound effect on cities as well as the oceans. The island of Kiribati sits just 1.5m above sea level. Kiribati’s President Anote Tong predicts that his island will be uninhabitable in sixty years due to climate change. Kiribati is at risk of disappearing. Like many islands, Kiribati is in the unfortunate position of being most likely to suffer from the effects of climate change despite the fact that it has done little to cause it. “No Land Country” uses ship-breaking, an occupation of many people in Kiribati, to create the system for it sown construction. The building complex is a floating island that acts as a ship recycling facility in which locals dismantle obsolete and wrecked sea vessels. When a ship has reached the end of its life cycle, it is broken apart and its materials recycled and reused in multiple ways. This self-sustaining island will complete that process, separating materials for the building itself, and at the same time creating artificial coral reefs from old ship parts. The project’s residences can easily adapt to the changing needs of inhabitants, growing or shrinking according to the changing size of the family, and each unit can be dismantled and reassembled in a new location. A the floating structure ages, its anchors in the seawater will come alive with sea life, allowing the structure to act as a living reef.
Unlike the spherically symmetric s orbitals, a p orbital is oriented along a specific axis. All p orbitals have l = 1, and there are three possible values for m (-1, 0, +1). Whenever m does not equal zero, the wave function is complex, which makes visualization of the wave function difficult. Chemists generally combine the complex wave functions to create new wave functions that are real. (The Schroedinger equation for the hydrogen atom is a linear differential equation. One consequence is that any linear combination of wave functions is also a valid wave function.) For l = 0, the m = 0 wave function is designated pz. The m = -1 and +1 are combined to produce two new wave functions, which are designated px and py. Carefully examine the p orbitals for various values of n and the various orientations (px, py, and pz) and answer the following questions. \|s Orbitals\|\|p Orbitals\|\|d Orbitals\|
A complete lesson about the country with the most national languages that begins with an AMAZING WORLD RECORD OF LANGUAGE— The Country with the Most National Languages—Republic of India! The world record wows students and the following activities build on their interest. Three student activity sheets: • The Country with the Most National Languages • Language Bridges • Current Events: Language in the U.S. Includes teaching guide and answer key. Aligned with the NCTE/IRA Standards. THE COUNTRY WITH THE MOST NATIONAL LANGUAGES is excerpted from AMAZING WORLD RECORDS OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. THE COUNTRY WITH THE MOST NATIONAL LANGUAGES—Language and Literature Worksheets - Grades 5-9 - 10 Pages - 3 Reproducible Activity Sheets - Hands-On Projects - Teaching Guides - Complete Answer Key - Meets the National Council of Teachers of English/International Reading Association Standards - Part of the Amazing World Records Series of Books - eBook/PDF Download
About the Retina Retina is a layer of nerve tissue that senses the light coming into the eye and communicates this information to the brain.The front part of the eye consisting of cornea and the lens focuses light onto the retina. Acting like a film in a camera, the retina captures the light and transmits it to brain where the light is processed into recognizable images Vitreous is a gelatin like substance that fills the eye between the lens and the retina. It is densely adherent to a circular area adjacent to the lens called vitreous base. It is very lightly adhered to retinal blood vessels and to area around the macula on retina and the optic nerve head. Vitreous is like solid Jell-O at the time of birth and slowly degenerates with age becoming more liquid. Vitreous acts as a reservoir for certain nutrients and oxygen for retina but a definite role is not known at this time. As this transformation happens, the vitreous can separate from the back of the eye in a condition called Posterior Vitreous Detachment or PVD. This usually presents as flashing lights or floaters. This can be accompanied by formation of retinal tears or development of retinal detachment. Thus it is very important for anyone developing symptoms of flashing lights or floaters get a comprehensive eye exam by an eye specialist. Macula is central part of the retina that affords us the finest vision. The center of this area called the fovea is the area that allows us 20/20 vision.
After physical layer which is the first layer in OSI model, the second layer is the Data link layer. This layer takes data from lower layer (Physical) and gives a logical structure to it. This structure includes information about the source/destination address and the validity of the bytes. This layer has two sub-layers, the Media Access Control (MAC) and the Logical Link Control (LLC). In the next paragraphs we’ll take a deeper look into the details. Data link layer concepts Data link layer has several responsibilities, including adding layer 2 headers to the data, transmitting and receiving data frames. Also, this layer is responsible for adding the physical address (MAC) to the packets. Additionally, creating logical topology and controlling media access is another process which happens in this layer. The Hardware (MAC) address Every network interface card (NIC) has a unique and predefined address which is assigned by the manufacturing companies and cannot be modified. Media Access control (MAC) is the name of this (Layer 2) address. The MAC address is 48 bits (6 Bytes) long which is in the format of 12- digits Hexadecimal number. A Hexadecimal uses all digits from 0 through 9 and A to F. Each two digits in a MAC address is separated by colons. Below is a sample of a MAC address: Different parts of a MAC address MAC address is composed from two parts. The first 24 bits is uniquely defined to show the manufacturing company and it’s called Organization Unique Identifier (OUI). The second part is Vendor-Assigned address which is different for each NIC card that is produced. Look at the illustration on the right side. The Data Link layer can also dictate the logical topology of a network, or the way the packets traverse the media in a network. A logical topology differs from a physical topology. In fact, physical topology is the way the cables are laid out but, the logical topology dictates the way the information flows. Finally, in Ethernet networks, when two computers use the same media for transmitting, a phenomena called Data Collision might occur. Data link layer provides Token Passing mechanism to eliminate the collision. Token passing uses a special data packet called Token which works as an license card. Only the station which has this license (Token) in its possession, can transmit data to another device in the network. Otherwise, the station is not allowed to make any transmission and has to wait until the Token is released.
Transformations - Enlargements This applet is designed to explore what happens when enlarging a shape by different scale factors about the origin. When enlarging an object, there are two things to consider. Where the centre of enlargement is, and the scale factor. We shall call the original shape the Object, and the transformed shape the Image. Move the slider 'a' to see what happens when enlarging by different scale factors. Answer the following questions: 1) What scale factor maps the object onto itself? 2) Which scale factor describes a rotation around the origin? How can you describe the rotation? 3) What happens when the scale factor is negative? 4) What values of 'a' make the image smaller than the original object? 5) What scale factor maps the point F to (6, 2)? 6) What scale factor maps the point E to (-4.5, 3)? 7) What scale factor maps the point A tp (-0.5, -0.5)? 8) Set 'a' to -1. Instead of using enlargment, you can map the Object to the Image in 2 reflections. Work out what lines of reflection you would use - there is more than 1 way. You can move the vertices of the shape to see what happens to triangles and other shapes when enlarged. You can also double click on 'a' and change the scale factor increments.
Sir Isaac Newton attended the King's School until he was 17 and then went to the University of Cambridge, Trinity College. He was an English mathematician, physicist, philosopher and astronomer. Newton is best known for his development of the laws of gravitation and for his influential work, "Philosophiae Naturalis Principa Mathematica."Continue Reading Newton was born on January 4, 1643, in Lincolnshire, England. He attended Trinity College on a work-study program and waited on tables to pay his way. In his spare time, he studied the works of modern philosophers. He would take notes, later known as "Certain Philosophical Questions," in which Newton revealed he had found a new concept of nature. He graduated college without honors. The Great Plague of 1665 closed the University of Cambridge, and Newton moved back home. During this time, he developed his methods for calculus and his theories on color and light. It is believed that a falling apple inspired his thoughts on gravity during this time. He moved back to Cambridge in 1667, and in 1672, he published his notes on optics, color and light. Newton's most influential book, "Philosophiae Naturalis Principa Mathematica," was published in 1687. It is in this book that Newton explained the three basic laws of motion: Known simply as "Principa," this book is a foundational text in science and contains almost all essential concepts in physics except energy. Newton continued to work throughout his life. He died in London on March 31, 1727, when he was 85.Learn more about Renaissance & Reformation
Being able to determine to which side of a line a point lies is crucial in computer graphics. Mathematically, we can answer this question by filling in the coordinates of the point into the equation of the line. (x-x1)(y2-y1) = (y-y1)(x2-x1) Replacing x and y in this equation by a and b, if both sides are equal then we know (a,b) lies precisely on the line. If the left hand side is bigger than the right hand side, (a,b) lies to the left, and vice versa. You can use the following skeleton file for this exercise session. By using the above test, we can quickly determine whether or not two line segments intersect. Implement an algorithm that determines whether two line segments (defined by two points each) intersect or not. The algorithm must work for all cases. Make sure that border cases (no intersection or too many intersections) also work. Determining the intersection point of two lines can be calculated using a mathematical formula. To calculate the point, it suffices to solve the following system of equations for x and y: Implement the algorithm that determines the intersection point of two line segments. Demonstrate its correctness by drawing 100 lines at random on the screen, and by highlighting each intersection point in red. You can draw the lines by means of Processing's built-in line function. You chan change the color of pixels by calling stroke. The process of cropping figures to fit a certain window is called clipping. We assume our clipping window is given by a rectangle defined by the opposite corners (a,b) and (c,d) where a < c and b < d. A point (x,y) lies inside of the window when: a <= x <= c and b <= y <= d For a line segment, the situation is more complex, because there are multiple outcomes (the segment may lie entirely within the window, entirely outside of the window or partially within the window). An efficient algorithm to determine whether a line segment lies within a clipping window is that of Cohen-Sutherland. In the figure below, consider the rectangle with opposite corners (a,b) and (c,d). By extending the sides of this rectangle, we divide the plane into 9 regions. The Cohen-Sutherland algorithm assigns a binary code to each region consisting of 4 bits. Each bit indicates whether a point in that region lies to the left, right, below or above the clipping window: For example, a point corresponding to the code 0100 lies below the clipping window. A point corresponding to the code 0101 lies below and to the left of the clipping window. Points with code 0000 lie inside of the clipping window. The algorithm assigns such a code to each of the two endpoints of the line segment we are about to clip. We can then make the following case analysis: - The segment lies entirely within the clipping window if the codes of both endpoints is 0000. - The segment lies entirely outside of the clipping window if the codes of both endpoints have a 1-bit at a corresponding index in their code. - In the remaining case, the segment lies either outside of or partially within the clipping window. To clip the segment, we systematically compare the line defined by the segment with each of the lines that bound the clipping window. Consider for example the segment EF. The code for E is 1001 and the code for F is 0100. The codes are not 0000 and the logical AND is 0000, so we need to investigate further. E's code indicates that E lies to the left of the window. We therefore determine the intersection point between the line defined by EF and the left boundary line of the window. Determining this point is easy: it suffices to insert the x-coordinate of the boundary line into the equation of the line determined by EF. The intersection point E1 has code 0000. We then replace E by E1 and recursively try to clip the segment E1-F. Again, the segment E1-F, neither lies completely inside nor outside of the clipping window. Since E1's code is 0000, we do not have to clip the segment at this endpoint anymore. Inspecting F's code reveals that it lies below the window. We therefore determine the intersection point between the line defined by EF and the bottom line bounding the clipping window. The intersection point F1 has code 0000. Recursively clipping E1-F1 reveals that both endpoints have code 0000, so E1-F1 lies within the clipping window and is the clipped version of EF. Try to replay this algorithm for the line segment GH. Implement the above Cohen-Sutherland clipping algorithm. The input to the algorithm are the endpoints of a line segment and the corner points defining the clipping window. The output of the algorithm is either a clipped line segment or null if the segment lies entirely outside of the clipping window. Represent the 4-bit code of each endpoint as a single integer (not as 4 boolean flags). Test your algorithm by drawing a clipping window, a line segment and by highlighting the segment's clipped version. Try to develop an algorithm that checks whether a point lies inside (or on) a polygon. Does it work for border cases?
By Francis J. Caputo, MD Assistant Professor of Surgery Cooper Medical School of Rowan University An aortic aneurysm is a bulge in the aorta that develops in areas where the aorta wall is weak. The aorta is the main blood vessel carrying oxygen-rich blood to other parts of the body. The pressure of the blood pumping through it causes the weakened section to bulge out like a balloon. An aneurysm can develop in any section of the aorta, but the most common type is an Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA). It occurs in the part of the aorta that passes through the abdomen. Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms occur in the part of the aorta located in the chest area. They may not produce symptoms until the aorta bursts, causing chest or back pain. A Thoracic Aortic Dissection is a tear that causes a ballooning of the aortic wall which can then rupture. Symptoms include constant chest or upper back pain that may feel like a “tearing” pain. Aneurysms can grow in size over time. As an aneurysm expands, it can start to cause symptoms. When an aneurysm gets too large, it can rupture and cause life-threatening bleeding or instant death without any prior warning. A blood clot may also form in the aneurysm. Small pieces of a blood clot can break off and travel throughout the body. If a fragment of a clot gets stuck in the brain or a heart blood vessel, it can cause a stroke or a heart attack. A frustrating fact is that most people with an abdominal aortic aneurysm do not have any symptoms at all. The aneurysm is usually discovered by X-ray during a routine exam for an unrelated health issue. Many aortic aneurysms will grow slowly for years before they are large enough to cause symptoms. And even then, a large aneurysm may not cause any symptoms, thereby delaying a proper diagnosis. When symptoms do occur, pain in the abdomen is most common. The pain may be occasional or constant. Some people describe a pulsing sensation in the abdomen which can be a warning sign of an AAA. If an abdominal aortic aneurysm is suspected, your doctor may use ultrasound or CT scanning to investigate it. When an AAA is confirmed, a vascular specialist will use several imaging tests to gather more information regarding its size, shape and exact location in the abdomen. (CT scans and MRIs are typically used to diagnose thoracic aortic aneurysms.) Per preventive screening guidelines from the Society for Vascular Surgery and the Society for Vascular Medicine and Biology, abdominal ultrasound screening is recommended for the following people: - All men age 60 to 85 - All women age 60 to 85 who have cardiovascular risk factors - All men and women age 50 and older with a family history of abdominal aortic aneurysm Medicare now offers a one-time, no-cost abdominal ultrasound to qualifying seniors within the first 12 months of enrollment. Men or women who have smoked at least 100 cigarettes during their lifetime, as well as men and women with a family history of abdominal aortic aneurysm, also qualify for the Medicare screening. Some of the same risk factors for a heart attack also increase the risk of abdominal aortic aneurysm, including: - Plaque in the artery walls (atherosclerosis) - High blood pressure - High cholesterol - Family history of aortic aneurysm Treatment of abdominal aortic aneurysms continues to evolve by offering patients more sophisticated solutions. The endovascular approach remains a preferred treatment for AAAs. During an endovascular procedure, the surgeon inserts a stent-graft inside a catheter (a long, thin tube) and guides it to the site of the aneurysm. Once securely in place, the stent-graft creates a new passageway for blood flow without pushing on the aneurysm. After an endovascular stent-graft is inserted, you must visit your doctor regularly to monitor its position with CT scanning. For people who are not candidates for endovascular repair, open surgery is an option. During the procedure, a synthetic graft is stitched into place to connect it with the healthy aorta on either side of the diseased area. After surgery, the new synthetic section of the blood vessel functions like a normal, healthy aorta. Again, your doctor will want to see you regularly to conduct a physical exam and run diagnostic tests. The doctor will use the information gathered from these visits to monitor the progress of your treatment. If you have been diagnosed with an abdominal aortic aneurysm or have received treatment for an aneurysm, it’s important that you lead a heart-healthy lifestyle. It is up to you to take any prescribed medications, attend follow-up appointments and be an active member of your health care team. You can help improve your health by: - Quitting smoking - Treating high cholesterol - Managing high blood pressure and diabetes - Exercising regularly - Eating a heart-healthy diet - Maintaining a healthy weight - Reducing stress and anger - Taking prescribed medications as directed - Following up with your doctor for regular visits The Before-and-After of a Patient With an AAA Shown below, a before-and-after view of a patient’s large abdominal aortic aneurysm with a minimally invasive delivery system in place before deployment. The completed repair, on the right,shows complete exclusion of the aneurysm, greatly reducing the patient’s risk of rupture. This patient went home the following morning and back to work the following week.
The kinetic-molecular theory is based on the principles that particles of matter are always moving. The kinetic-molecular theory provides a model of the ideal gas. An ideal gas is an imaginary gas that fits all the assumptions of the kinetic-molecular theory. The kinetic-molecular theory of gases as stated above only applies to ideal gases. In the real world although ideal gases do not exist, some gases behave almost ideally when the surrounding conditions are correct. The above assumptions of the kinetc molecular theory account for the physical properties of gases. - Gases consist of large numbers of tiny particles that are far apart in relation to their size. This accounts for their lower denisty and their ability to be compressed easily. - Collisions between gas particles and between particles and container walls are elastic. An elastic collision is one where their is no net loss of kinetic energy, only a transfer of energy between particles when the temperature is constant. - Gas particles are in constant motion, therefore they have kinetic energy. - There are no forces of attraction or repulsion between gas particles, therefore when gases collide they do not stick together, but immediately bounce apart. - The average kinetic energy of gas particles depends on the temperature of the gas. All gases at the same temperature have the same kinetic energy. Gases do not have a definite shape or volume, therefore they take the shape of their container and their volume. Gas particles lack forces which would attract them to each other so they easily glide past each other. Their ability to flow is similar to liquids, therefore they are considered fluids. - Low Density The density of a substance in the gas state is lower then the substance in other states because a gas’s particles are far apart. Gases compress well because there is so much empty space between them initially. When you compress an object, you remove the empty space. Therefore gases have a high compressibility because so much empty space is between them. Diffusion is the instant mixing of particles caused only by their random motion. Gases diffuse easily because their random and continuous motion carries them through the air. The rate of diffusion depends on the gas particles’s speeds, diameters, and attractive forces between them. Effusion is the process where gas particles under pressure pass through a tiny opening. The rates of effusion are proportional to the velocities of their particles. Links to the rest of the site...©Whitney Muse and Latanya Vicks An Explanation of Pressure An Explanation of all the Gas Laws Whitney's View on Chemistry? A short Quiz Links and References for this site
Pneumonia, a severe lung infection, is the most common disease calling for hospital admission, and more than one out of ten pneumonia patient die of the disease. Thus it is vital to accurately predict and closely monitor the clinical course. Here, measuring the respiratory rate - the number of breaths a person takes in a minute - provides valuable information. However, far too little use is still being made of this vital sign in clinical practice, as Richard Strauß and co-authors conclude in their recent study in Deutsches Ärzteblatt (Dtsch Arztebl Int 2014; 111: 503). The respiratory rate has long been established as an important prognostic factor and aid to risk evaluation. For example, it was already known in the 1980s that pneumonia patients with increased respiratory rates were more likely to die than their counterparts with normal breathing. Despite recommendations to measure the respiratory rate in several diseases, it is still underutilized in hospitals, the study reveals. Although the respiratory rate is usually determined when pneumonia treatment is started, regular measurements and consistent documentation are rare. But counting the breaths in pneumonia patients should, as the authors point out, be as much of a routine as taking the pulse and measuring the blood pressure is today.
Teacher resources and professional development across the curriculum Teacher professional development and classroom resources across the curriculum German: Sports in Action National Standards for Foreign Language Learning Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century defines what students should know and be able to do in foreign language education. This lesson correlates to the following standards: Communicate in Languages Other Than English Standard 1.1: Interpersonal Communication Students engage in conversations, provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions. Standard 1.3: Presentational Communication Students present information, concepts, and ideas to an audience of listeners or readers on a variety of topics. Develop Insight into the Nature of Language and Culture Standard 4.2: Cultural Comparisons Students demonstrate understanding of the concept of culture through comparisons of the cultures studied and their own. Next > Resources
The previous chapter discussed how to create tables and other structures to hold your data. Now it is time to fill the tables with data. This chapter covers how to insert, update, and delete table data. We also introduce ways to effect automatic data changes when certain events occur: triggers and rewrite rules. The chapter after this will finally explain how to extract your long-lost data back out of the database. When a table is created, it contains no data. The first thing to do before a database can be of much use is to insert data. Data is conceptually inserted one row at a time. Of course you can also insert more than one row, but there is no way to insert less than one row at a time. Even if you know only some column values, a complete row must be created. To create a new row, use the INSERT command. The command requires the table name and a value for each of the columns of the table. For example, consider the products table from Chapter 5: CREATE TABLE products ( product_no integer, name text, price numeric ); An example command to insert a row would be: INSERT INTO products VALUES (1, 'Cheese', 9.99); The data values are listed in the order in which the columns appear in the table, separated by commas. Usually, the data values will be literals (constants), but scalar expressions are also allowed. The above syntax has the drawback that you need to know the order of the columns in the table. To avoid that you can also list the columns explicitly. For example, both of the following commands have the same effect as the one above: INSERT INTO products (product_no, name, price) VALUES (1, 'Cheese', 9.99); INSERT INTO products (name, price, product_no) VALUES ('Cheese', 9.99, 1); Many users consider it good practice to always list the column names. If you don't have values for all the columns, you can omit some of them. In that case, the columns will be filled with their default values. For example, INSERT INTO products (product_no, name) VALUES (1, 'Cheese'); INSERT INTO products VALUES (1, 'Cheese'); The second form is a PostgreSQL extension. It fills the columns from the left with as many values as are given, and the rest will be defaulted. For clarity, you can also request default values explicitly, for individual columns or for the entire row: INSERT INTO products (product_no, name, price) VALUES (1, 'Cheese', DEFAULT); INSERT INTO products DEFAULT VALUES; Tip: To do "bulk loads", that is, inserting a lot of data, take a look at the COPY command. It is not as flexible as the INSERT command, but is more efficient.
This paper explores how Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power. It further explores that factors that enabled Napoleon to control Europe and later remain a great influence on European politics in the 19th century. Finally, this paper considers the factors that contributed to the demise of the France Empire under Napoleon. Napoleon’s legacy is entrenched in the reforms he instituted in France that helped streamline governance. In this paper, it is illustrated that Napoleon’s family background was instrumental towards his getting the best education possible. This later contributed to his becoming a Great War tactician and a consolidator of power. War tactics and consolidation of empire are important factors that necessitated his success. However, treachery against allies, betrayal by allies and formation of coalitions against France led to its demise. Napoleon Bonaparte ruled Europe as Napoleon I. He was a very influential leader whose exploits and endeavors have shaped happenings in Europe for the larger part of the 19th century. Napoleon was born at a place called Corsica in the year 1769 (Asprey 2000, 6). Napoleon’s rise to power was not by accident. He was the second born son of a prominent man in Corsica; he represented Corsica at the court of the then king of France Luis XVI (Lacey, Schwatz and Wood 1998, 14). The Bonaparte’s were a nobility of Italian origin (Schom 1998, 2). His father was a well read, affluent lawyer of his time. Like most people of that time, Napoleon was baptized into Catholicism at the age of twelve years. Napoleon’s family background (nobility and affluence) enabled him to access better education opportunities than other people of his town (Asprey 2000, 13). He was able to study French at a religious school in mainland France by 1779. Later in the year, Napoleon gained admission into a military academy. After completing studies at the military academy that was situated at Brienne-le-chateau, Napoleon gained admission into a prestigious elite military school in Paris. While at the military school, Napoleon trained and qualified as an artillery officer (Schom 1998, 9). He was immediately commissioned in the artillery regiment as a second lieutenant. He dutifully engaged in his garrison duties until in 1789, which marked the beginning of the French revolution. Napoleon is described as having been a fervent “Corsican nationalist” (Lacey, Schwatz and Wood 1998, 26). He did not like the fact that France had taken over Corsica through blood shed. He believed in liberty and desired national freedom for Corsicans. When the French revolution broke out, he went back to Corsica for leave. Although he believed in the vision of the Corsican nationalists, he was also torn apart by attraction from the revolutionaries and the royalties. He joined the Jacobin faction of the revolutionaries and quickly grew in rank as to command a battalion consisting of volunteers (Asprey 2000, 29). His engagement with the revolutionaries and absconding of duty lured the French army into giving him a promotion. As a captain of the French army, napoleon conflicted with Paoli, a Corsican nationalist who had rebelled against France (Schom 1998, 18). This conflict forced Napoleon to evacuate his family from Corsica. They settled on France main land in 1793. In the same year, 1973, he wrote a pamphlet that favored the republicans. This pamphlet earned him favor with the revolutionary leadership which promoted him by making him commander of artillery (Schom 1998, 24). He was posited as artillery commander for republican forces at siege Toulon. In his capacity as commander, he devised a plan that enabled the republican army to capture the city. This exploit resulted in his being promoted to the post of Brigadier general in the republican army. Later, in 1794, Bonaparte fell out of favor with the army leadership for he was suspected of supporting renegade brothers. He was placed under house arrest and later demoted from artillery general to infantry commander. He tactically turned down the posting and offered to go and be of service to the Sultan of Istanbul. By September 1795, Napoleon was officially removed from the list of general in the French army. This meant no earnings as per that post. Luck smiled on napoleon because by October of 1995, royalists rebelled against the new government from which they had been excluded by the national convention (Schom 1998, 37). Napoleon, benefiting from one of the leader’s memory of his Toulon prowess, was put in command of a force put together to defend the convention (Schom 1998, 46). Again having learnt from a past experience, having witnessed the King’s Swiss Guard massacre, he devised a plan that led to the royalists suffering many losses; a total defeat. The defeat of the royalists earned Napoleon the admiration of both the mighty and the lowly (Asprey 2000, 56). He was compensated handsomely and within a week, he was basking in glory as a commander of the interior. He was put in charge of the army of Italy. As the commander of the army of Italy, Napoleon led a successful invasion of Italy by end of October 1795. He went on to defeat the Austrian forces in the battle of Lodi and later was able to capture all the Papal States. The army of Italy under Napoleon’s command subdued many states such as Austria and Venice. What put Napoleon in a vantage position was his application of military precision or ideas in dealing with real world scenarios or situations (Bell 2007, 468). His war tactics were so refined that he won most of his battles. His army was better placed because of the advanced artillery technology they used (Bell 2007, 274). They captured prisoners and took away weaponry from subdued states thus improving their artillery from battle to battle. Napoleon’s exploits in war earned him a privileged position in French politics. Napoleon sponsored the publication of two newspapers meant for his soldiers at war. However, the newspapers were widely circulated in France, becoming a conduit for his ideas and endearing him to the citizens. The royalists gained prominence in France after an election in 1797 and started attacking Napoleon’s dealings. This prompted Napoleon to sponsor a coup against the royalists (Schom 1998, 75). The coup left the republicans in control but they were totally dependent on Bonaparte. When he later returned back to Paris in December of 1797, he was the hero everyone wanted to associate with. In 1798, napoleon conjectured, schemed and executed an invasion against Egypt. This invasion was aimed at cutting off England from accessing the Middle East (Schom 1998, 83). Despite the Royal Navy’s pursuit of Napoleon’s expedition, they managed to land in Alexandria. However, the Mamluks who were occupying Egypt proved too many for Napoleon’s small army. To add injury to injury, the French vessels were destroyed by the Royal navy on the Nile River (Lacey, Schwatz and Wood 1998, 35). From the newspapers and other dispatches, Napoleon received while in Egypt, he learnt of how France was fairing poorly against its enemies. A window of opportunity came in the form of English ships temporarily departing from France’s coastline. He immediately set off for France even without seeking consent from the Directory in Paris. He got to Paris to find the republic in bad shape financially. With prompting from one of the Directors, Napoleon led a coup against the constitutional government (Schom 1998, 122). After the coup, he was elected as provincial consuls alongside Sieves and Ducos. The original intention was to have Sieves as the first Consul but Bonaparte outmaneuvered him and was elected the First Consul after drafting a constitution. As the First Consul, in 1800, Napoleon started expeditions aimed at regaining what France had lost while he was in Egypt (Bell 2007, 321). The Austrian forces had driven French forces out of Italy. Bonaparte led a campaign against the Austrians, narrowly defeating them by 1801. By October 1801, Napoleon was set for an invasion against Britain. Britain obtained a peace treaty from napoleon by promising to withdraw its troops from the colonies it had recently acquired. The peace was short lived due to mistrust between the two sides; by May 1803, Britain had already declared war against France. Uprisings in French colonies led to napoleon re-introducing slavery in the colonies. These led to strong uprising, with a notable one in Haiti (Schom 1998, 130). Napoleon’s success as a leader in France was hinged on the reforms he instituted. He created a centralized administration that had well defined departments (Asprey 2000, 92). He introduced reforms in higher education, choreographed a tax code, improved the banking system, invested in infrastructure especially roads and the sewer system (Asprey 2000, 116). He approached the Catholic Church and reached concessions with Rome that would help attract the catholic population to his rule or regime. He introduced an order of honor that encouraged military and civilian accomplishment or making of effort towards achievements (Schom 1998, 157). His greatest contribution to civil order is the laws widely known as the Napoleonic code. The novelty of this code was its great emphasis on clearly written, understandable and accessible laws. He instituted and actively participated in processes and sessions aimed at defining due process in commerce and criminal punishment procedure (Lacey, Schwatz and Wood 1998, 71). There were numerous uprisings against Napoleon driven by the royalists and other functionaries (Asprey 2000, 145). Actually, napoleon narrowly escaped a number of assassination attempts. To consolidate power, Napoleon reintroduced a hereditary monarchy, himself becoming an emperor in 1804. To gain unquestioned allegiance of the army, Napoleon created a position ‘the marshal of the empire’ to which he appointed eighteen of his top generals (Asprey 2000, 150). This consolidation of imperialist powers made some of Napoleon’s admirers to despise him. However, he remained strong and ruled with flair and tact. Napoleon survived as a result of his military tactics. His greatest show of tact happened in 1805, during the war of the third coalition (Lacey, Schwatz and Wood 1998, 63). The third coalition consisted of Britain which had convinced Austria and Russia to join it in a war against France. France did not have as much naval capacity as Britain but due to tactical brilliance, they fought favorably against the coalition. The Royal navy gained control over most of the seas but Napoleon subdued Russians, Austrians. The defeat of the third coalition led to Austria conceding territory and the fall of the Holly Roman Empire. The confederation of the Rhine was created and Napoleon became its protector; Austria became an ally of France. Alliances also played a critical role in perpetuating Napoleon’s 20 year heavy presence in Europe. Although his Egyptian campaign failed, Napoleon continued nursing aspiration of forming alliances with rulers of the Middle East against Britain and its allies. He was sure that if he established a Franco-presence in the Middle East, he would be able to take on England and defeat it (Asprey 2000, 78). This kind of alliance or presence would especially be instrumental in pressuring Russia, one of England’s key allies. When Napoleon won the war of the third coalition, the sultan of Ottoman Empire accepted Napoleon as empire and accepted to form an alliance with him. Later in 1807, the Persian sultan also accepted a Franco Persian alliance (Lacey, Schwatz and Wood 1998, 100). This alliance worked for France until in 1809 when France formed an alliance with Russia and focused its campaigns in Europe. The alliance with Russia was a follow up on the war of the fourth coalition. In 1806, Napoleon managed to subdue Prussia and attacked the Russian armies in Poland aided by Ottoman allies. He won against Russians forcing Tsar Alexander I to sign a treaty dividing the continent between Russia and France. Napoleon stationed nominal rulers to govern the captured territory on his behalf. Again with Spain as an ally, napoleon was able to attack Portugal which had failed to comply with his continental system directive. The continental system was an economic war strategy that napoleon tried to employ against Britain. He ordered for a boycott of Britain’s commercial products in the whole of Europe. However, Napoleon later short changed Spain by attacking it and replacing its ruler with his own brother. One of the reasons why Napoleon fell is his treachery against allies. The break away of allies was very instrumental towards the defeat of Napoleon’s army. The short changing of Spain led to its joining hands with Britain and its allies. Although Napoleon had great officers the Spanish guerrillas, supported by Britain and Portugal, were too strong a force to contend (Lacey, Schwatz and Wood 1998, 107). This seriously led to France loosing ground in the control over the peninsula. Later on he made Russia which was number one enemy of his middle east allies his ally. Austria broke its alliance with France In April 1809. This meant Napoleon having to take charge of fronts that were in the proximity of ally turned enemy. The fifth coalition consisting of Britain, Austria and other enemies of Napoleon waged war against France. France suffered a big defeat at some point in the war but due to Britain and Austria’s lack of meticulous organization, France was able to defend its territory. Napoleon again broke ranks with an ally; the Catholic Church because the pope had failed to sanction the continental system. Napoleon annexed Papal States while the pope in response excommunicated the emperor. The Russian nobility had put a lot of pressure on the Tsar to break alliance with France. In 1811, intelligence informed Napoleon that Russia was planning to wage war against France (Lacey, Schwatz and Wood 1998, 138). Napoleon mobilized forces and attacked its ally about to turn enemy. He invaded interior Russia in 1812. He created alliance with polish nobles but broke ranks with them when they demanded that Russia becomes part of an independent Poland that they wanted to see created (Lacey, Schwatz and Wood 1998, 140). Napoleon was not keen on that because such a move would anger Austria. Napoleon’s army suffered greatly from this war. The final reason why Napoleon’s empire fell was the combination of forces between former allies and all its enemies. Napoleon’s loss in Russia, led to all France’s enemies and former allies joining hands in what is called the sixth coalition (Leggiere 2007, 25). The sixth coalition consisted of “Russia, Prussia joined with Austria, Sweden, Russia, Great Britain, Spain, and Portugal” (Leggiere 2007, 25). Initially napoleon registered some successes against the coalition. However, the numbers of enemy forces overwhelmed napoleons smaller army (Leggiere 2007, 58). Napoleon moved his armies back into France while the sixth coalition members surrounded and placed France under siege. Napoleon staged considerable resistance but the coalition managed to match over Paris in March of 1814 (Leggiere 2007, 83). The sixth coalition allies forced Napoleon to resign unconditionally, ending his 20 years of being a powerful presence in Europe. In conclusion, Napoleon’s exploits were not by accident. Napoleon was a very learned person who had appropriated war fare tactics of such theorists like Jacques Antoine and Comte De Guibert (Bell 2007, 463). He understood the dialectic that had informed French development and was smart as to build on already established structures or things already in place. He is credited for the introduction of the metric system in Europe. Under his guidance, the metric system was introduced in France in 1799 (Lacey, Schwatz and Wood 1998, 201). Napoleon’s reform agenda led to creation and enforcement of regulations that would institute equality and equity for all in France; this truly adhered him to many in France especially those that had formerly been sidelined. He was able to bring about order and lawfulness in a franc that had known only revolution after revolution. Napoleon will forever be remembered for the code which was adopted throughout Europe and Napoleon’s colonies. The code recognizes personal freedoms that are worthy every consideration by any society. Asprey B. Robert. 2000. The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Kansas: Basic Books This book gives an elaborate biography of Napoleon Bonaparte. It follows the life of Napoleon from childhood, his days in power and final demise. The book attempts to treat Bonaparte not as a demi-god or devil as is often the case, but as a human being who struggled to the cradle but also made mistakes that warranted his down fall. Bell A. David. 2007. The First Total War: Napoleon’s Europe and the Birth of Warfare As We Know It. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt In this book, Historian David Bell explores the concept of Total War. He argues that this concept started in the age of Napoleon. Napoleon’s era was characterized by use of sailing vessels, muskets and cannons in waging a total war aimed at subduing or exterminating rival states or nations. The writer narrates Napoleonic war campaigns and how they were executed to make his argument. War was blood and in many occasions unless the subdued surrendered and agreed to the terms of the conqueror, whole nations could be exterminated. The writer focuses on Napoleon to bring out the ultimate warrior of those ages, his attitudes, his thinking and his general perception and inclination in a situation of war. He parallels Napoleon’s days with our days in terms of ambitions and war execution. Schom, Alan. 1998. Napoleon Bonaparte. New York: HarperCollins, This book is a biography of Napoleon Bonaparte. It narrates about Bonaparte’s life from childhood to emperor to exiled prisoner on the St. Helena Island. The book brings out, in a very exciting way, the exploits of Bonaparte, his personal struggles and his genius. The book is a good read that brings out both the villain and genius that Bonaparte was. It frames the kind of forces and factors that informed Bonaparte’s decisions. Lacey Robert, Schwartz S. Rebecca, Wood A. Rue. 1998. The Rise of Napoleon. New York: Jackdaw Publications This book elaborately discusses napoleon Bonaparte from both biographical and analytical perspectives. It gives detailed information about Bonaparte’s childhood, life in military school, his life under the Directory, how he seized power, how he maneuvered from consul to emperor, his military prowess, and his time in exile. This book brings out the inspiring personality of napoleon. It does not just focus on his prowess but also his personal weaknesses that led to his incessant desire to conquer and subdue. Most crucially, the book dedicates a whole section to Napoleon’s legacy and his pre and post humus image across the world. Leggiere V. Michael. 2007. The Fall of Napoleon: The allied invasion of France, 1813- 1814. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press This book focuses on happenings in the last years of Napoleon’s reign. The book tells of how France was invaded and subdued by the sixth coalition forces. It vividly describes the advance of coalition forces across the Rhine, the battles in Germany and the drive into France. The book brings out the enormity of the army that had gathered against Napoleon.
The root canal procedure. - This page outlines the steps a dentist follows when they perform root canal process (endodontic therapy). \| What is having each step like? Page Graphics \| Animations. The steps of the root canal procedure. Step 1 - Placing the rubber dam. After numbing you up, your dentist will "isolate" your tooth by way of placing a rubber dam. - A "rubber" dam is really a thin sheet of latex (usually about 6 x 6 inches). - Your dentist will punch a tiny hole near its center. - They'll then stretch the sheet over your tooth so it alone sticks through the punched hole. - A metal clamp is then positioned to hold the dam in place. As explained in our slideshow, the portion of the tooth that sticks through the dam lies in a region where its environment can be controlled. The tooth can be washed, dried and kept saliva-free. A rubber dam sets the stage so treatment can be successfully performed. Why is tooth isolation important? One of the fundamental goals of root canal therapy is removing contaminates from within the tooth. Since saliva contains bacteria and other debris, a rubber dam acts as a barrier that helps to keep the tooth isolated (clean, dry, contaminate-free) during its procedure. Note: Placing a dam is a part of the general "standard of care" that any and every dentist must responsibly provide. If your treatment doesn't involve using one, you should be asking questions. Step 2 - Creating the access cavity. As a starting point for performing your tooth's treatment, your dentist will need to gain access to its nerve space. This step is called creating an "access cavity." The hole through which the dentist performs their work. - Your dentist will use their dental drill to make a hole that extends through the surface of your tooth to its pulp chamber. - This is the opening through which they will perform their work. - With back teeth, the access cavity is made right through the tooth's chewing surface (as shown in our picture). - With front ones, it's made on their backside. - When creating the access cavity, the dentist will also remove all tooth decay, and any loose or fragile portions of the tooth or its filling. Related page: Issues involved when treating teeth that have dental crowns. A surgical operating microscope may be used. Once entrance into the interior of the tooth has been made, it's increasingly becoming the accepted standard of care that the floor of the tooth's pulp chamber is examined using a surgical operating microscope. These instruments aid the dentist in searching for the openings of minute root canals that might otherwise be overlooked by the naked eye. Step 3 - Measuring the length of the tooth. Your dentist's goal will be to treat the entire length of your tooth's nerve space but not beyond. To be able to work within these confines, your dentist must measure the length of each of your tooth's root canals. This measurement is typically calculated to the nearest 1/2 millimeter (about 1/50th of an inch). Slide series - Measuring the length of a canal. How does a dentist make this calculation? A dentist has two methods they can use to take measurements. a) By taking an x-ray. Traditionally, dentists have established/confirmed/documented length measurements by way of taking an x-ray after a root canal file has been positioned in a tooth's canal. (Since root canal files are metal, they show up distinctly on an x-ray.) The actual calculation is made by reading markings etched on the file. The x-ray is simply used to confirm that the file is positioned properly (extends the full length of the tooth). b) Electronic measurements. In recent decades, electronic length-measuring devices have come into common usage. - The dentist will clip one of the unit's wire leads to a root canal file that has been inserted into the tooth. They'll then tuck its second lead inside the patient's lip, so to make a complete electrical circuit. - As the dentist slides the file further and further into the root canal (an area insulated by the tooth's root), the unit measures changes in electrical resistance as it's tip passes ever closer to the conductive tissues that lie beyond. A digital readout or a beeping sound indicates when the file has finally reached the canal's end (tip of the root). - Once again, the measurement itself is read from the markings on the file. The electronic unit simply indicates when its tip has reached the proper position. c) Several individual measurements may be needed for a tooth. A separate length measurement will need to be made for each of the tooth's individual root canals. (Teeth can have several canals and/or roots.) Step 4 - Cleaning and shaping the tooth's root canals. The next step of the root canal process involves "cleaning and shaping" the interior of the tooth (the tooth's pulp chamber and each of its root canals). In regard to this step: - Its cleaning aspect removes nerve tissue (live and/or dead), as well as bacteria, toxins and other debris harbored inside the tooth. (Here's more detailed information about why this is needed.) - Shaping refers to a process where the configuration of a tooth's canals are enlarged and flared, so they have a shape that's ideal for the procedure's filling and sealing step. The whole process is a balancing act. One where the dentist seeks to accomplish the goals above without removing so much internal tooth structure that the integrity of the tooth is compromised. The parts of a root canal file. a) What tools does a dentist use? For the most part, a tooth is cleansed and shaped using root canal files. Files look like tapered straight pins but on close inspection you can see or feel that their surface is rough, not smooth. These instruments literally are miniaturized rasps. Slide series - Using files inside a tooth. b) How are files used? - A dentist will work a file up and down, with a twisting motion. - This action scrubs, scrapes and shaves the sides of the canal, thus cleaning and shaping it. c) Your dentist will use several files. This same motion will be used with an entire series of files (probably at least six or more), each of which has a slightly larger diameter. - The idea is that each of the files, when used in order, slightly increases the dimensions of the root canal. - Since some canal contaminates are embedded within a canal's walls, this enlargement process not only produces a shaping effect but a cleaning one too. d) Your dentist may have a handpiece that can manipulate the files for them. At least some of the root canal files that your dentist uses in your tooth will be worked by hand. But they may also have a specialized dental drill (handpiece) that files can be placed in which generates the motion for them. Nowadays these endodontic handpieces are usually used with special files made of nickel-titanium alloy and that's a big deal. The very flexible nature of these files combined with the mechanized motion created by the handpiece typically means that a tooth's root canal system can be cleansed and shaped much more rapidly than in the past. Tooth irrigation is an important part of the cleaning and shaping process. While performing their work, your dentist will also periodically irrigate (flush out) your tooth. This carries off and washes away debris and contaminants. While a number of different solutions can be used for this purpose, sodium hypochlorite (bleach, Clorox) is the most common one. An added benefit of using bleach is that it's a disinfectant. Step 5 - Sealing the tooth. Once the interior of the tooth has been thoroughly cleansed and properly shaped, it's ready to be sealed (have its hollow interior filled in). - In some cases, the dentist will want to place the filling material immediately after they've finished cleaning the tooth. - With other cases, they may feel that it is best to wait about a week before performing this step. [ Related content: How many appointments will your root canal therapy take? ] The size of the filling material and file are matched. If the latter case is chosen, your dentist will need to place a temporary filling in your tooth, so to keep contaminates out during the time period between your appointments. (Precautions you should take with this filling.) a) What type of root canal filling material is used? The most frequently used root canal filling material is a rubber compound called gutta percha. It comes in preformed cones whose sizes exactly match the dimensions (diameter, taper) of root canal files. b) Placing the gutta percha. When performing this step: - The dentist will slip an initial cone of gutta percha into the tooth's canal. - It's important that this first cone extends the full length of the canal and fits snugly in the region of the tooth's tip. - Additional cones are then added, as needed, to completely fill in the canal's interior. Slide series - Filling in and sealing the tooth. In order to create a solid, uniform mass inside the canal: - Sealer (a thin paste) is applied to each gutta percha cone before it's placed into the canal, or else applied inside the root canal itself before the cones are inserted. It fills in any voids between pieces of gutta percha, or between them and the canal's walls. - The dentist may soften the gutta percha once it's been inserted into the canal by way of touching a hot instrument to it. This way it can be squished and packed down so it closely adapts to the shape of the tooth's interior. - As an alternative, a dentist may place gutta percha via the use of a "gun." This apparatus is somewhat similar to a hot-glue gun. It warms a tube of gutta percha. The softened material can then be squeezed out into the tooth. X-ray of a tooth's completed treatment and temporary filling. Step 6 - Placing a temporary filling. Once your dentist has finished sealing your tooth, they will place some type of temporary filling. It will seal off the access cavity created at the beginning of your procedure, therefore protecting the work that's just been completed. (Precautions you should take.) Step 7 - The root canal process has now been completed but your tooth still requires additional work. At this point, the individual steps of performing the root canal procedure have been finished but your tooth's treatment is not yet complete. A permanent restoration must still be placed. Choosing an appropriate type of dental restoration, and having it placed promptly, will help to insure the long-term success of your tooth's endodontic therapy. If you have additional questions ... Use the links below to learn more about the root canal procedure. Full menu for topic Root Canals. ▼
An international team of researchers have sequenced the genome of the a living fossil and one of the coolest, oldest fish to roam the seas — the noble coelacanth. Beyond triggering our excitement over pretty much any living fossil-related news, better understanding the DNA of this ancient fish could offer researchers a glimpse into how the earliest land animals made their way out of the primeval seas — an impressive feat, even if it was only onto the equally primeval beach. Once thought to have been extinct for more than 70 million years, a living coelacanth was dredged up by a fisherman off the coast of South Africa in 1938. Luckily for all of us, the fisherman ignored what must have been his initial instinct to toss the four-foot-long fish, which looks like a waking nightmare, back into the ocean and pray to whatever god would listen that he could one day forget staring into its cold, alien eyes. Okay, the eyes may be creepy, but they’re not that alien. In fact, with their fleshy, lobed fins, coelacanths are more closely related to humans than they are to fish like tuna. They’re also among the closest living relatives we know of to the first animals that crawled from the sea onto land, meaning that their DNA could hold a number of clues about how fins made the eventual transition to limbs. The genome study showed that lungfish are more closely related to the early tetrapods who were living on land before it was cool, but it’s unlikely their genome — which is much larger and more complex than that of the coelacanth — will be sequenced any time soon. One of the most impressive things about current coelacanth species is how little they have changed genetically in the last 70 million years, meaning that the genomes of current coelacanths are more or less identical to their ancient progenitors, which is especially helpful for researchers trying to determine how the relatives of those fish made it to dry land. That may be because coelacanths dwell so deep in the ocean that not much has really changed about their daily life in tens of millions of years, because the bottom of the ocean is pretty damned boring. According to the genome study, published this week in the journal Nature, this boredom has produced a great model for the relatives of early tetrapods, and confirmed that coelacanths and tetrapods share genes that promote limb development. So hey, thanks for that, bottom of the ocean. - Coelacanths are doing pretty well off the coast of Africa - Pity the poor, extinct Japanese river otter - These fossils aren’t letting go of one another. Ever.
Cells and their organelles are aqueous compartments bounded by thin membranes. The core of these membranes is a film of specialized lipids , two molecules thick. Attached to and embedded in this lipid bilayer are numerous proteins, each specialized to carry out a different function. Thus, each membrane has its own team of proteins. A typical membrane might be composed half of lipid and half of protein. However, this varies widely. For example, the envelopes of some viruses employ only a few protein species to gain entry into cells and later mediate the exit of new virus particles. In contrast, busy membranes are crowded with hundreds of different proteins; each type is present in a specified number—hundreds, thousands, or even millions of copies per cell. Built into the structure of each of these proteins is molecular information directing the way it sits in its membrane and an address tag targeting it to its home. What Membrane Proteins Do Membranes do not simply serve as walls between cellular compartments but are also participants in their metabolism . Many membrane proteins are transporters, moving solutes between the aqueous compartments. Other membrane proteins serve as enzymes that catalyze vital processes; for example, the harvest of energy from food. A variety of membrane proteins are receptors, signal transducers that transmit stimuli received outside the cell (for example, hormone or odor molecules) to functional proteins inside. The signals conveyed to the cytoplasm typically turn on complex circuits of response, adapting the metabolism of the cell to a perception of the outside world. Thus, receptors transport information rather than cargo across membranes. There are two general ways this transfer of information occurs. First, in many cases, the binding of the external stimulus molecule to the receptor brings about a specific change in the shape of this protein. The altered form of the receptor is then recognized by a relay protein inside the cell because its new shape precisely matches a site on the relay protein, enabling them to fit together like a key in a lock. This association turns on the response. The second class of receptors uses a somewhat different strategy: the binding of extracellular signal molecules to these membrane molecules causes them to change shape, but, in this case, their altered contour allows them to associate with one another (once again, through lock-and-key recognition). These conglomerates are then recognized as a stimulus by the appropriate relay proteins at the cytoplasmic side of the membrane. Most cells have cytoskeletons : protein scaffolds that lend mechanical support to both the watery interior of the cell and to their fragile and deformable membranes. Membranes are bound to the underlying cytoskeleton through linker proteins. Cytoskeletal proteins can tap adenosine triphosphate (ATP ) or some other high-energy molecule to push and pull on the membrane so as to change its contour. Amebae and white blood cells, for example, are made to crawl as their plasma membranes are deformed into pseudopods by a dense mass of filaments in the underlying cytoskeletal array. In addition, some membrane-spanning proteins link the cytoskeleton inside the cell to filaments in the extracellular space and thereby manage the intricate relationships of the cells in human tissues. Associations of Proteins with Their Membranes Lipid bilayers are like oily liquid films. Their molecules diffuse about randomly within the membrane but avoid the aqueous environment, just as oil shuns water. This is because the chemical nature of lipids is mostly nonpolar, whereas that of water is polar . Some proteins destined for the membrane are designed so that groups of nonpolar amino acid side chains create a water-shunning (hydrophobic) region on their surface. This lodges the protein in the interior of the bilayer. Proteins that are anchored by dissolving in the bilayer core are said to be integral to the membrane. At the same time, the tops and/or bottoms of these integral membrane proteins make contact with the water space. Predictably, these exposed regions are covered with polar amino acid side chains, attracted to water, which help to orient and stabilize the protein in the membrane. Every copy of an integral membrane protein that spans the bilayer is oriented identically; for example, with the same end pointed inside or outside, as befits its function. Other membrane proteins are entirely covered with polar amino acid side chains. Although these proteins are water soluble, they nevertheless associate with membranes. This they do by making specific lock-and-key attachments to the projecting portions of integral proteins. These docked water-soluble molecules are called peripheral membrane proteins because they reside outside the lipid bilayer. Their anchorage can be permanent or they may get on and off the membrane, randomly in some cases or else in response to a biological signal. A third mode of membrane association is for the cell to attach hydrophobic tails to peripheral proteins. The tails then dissolve in the hydrophobic (nonpolar) core of the bilayer, thereby anchoring the protein. Typically, these tails are long hydrocarbon chains; frequently, they are the very same fatty acids that hold the lipid molecules in the bilayer. Scientists can disassemble biological membranes in the laboratory, separate the component molecules from one another, and then recombine them. With any luck, the molecules will reassemble into a membrane that is reminiscent of the original and, to some degree, functional. This self-assembly demonstrates that membrane molecules carry information about their intended destination within their structures. Constraining the Movement of Membrane Proteins Membrane lipids and proteins can, in principal, diffuse freely by random (Brownian) motion, circumnavigating a cell within a few minutes. But some membranes have mechanisms to suppress this kind of freedom so as to segregate specified molecules into different domains, or regions of the membrane surface. For example, the epithelial cells that line the intestine, separating the inside from the outside of the body, are polarized to perform distinctly different tasks at their two surfaces. To help maintain their twofaced existence, each cell surface has a belt of protein filaments around its waist called a tight junction that fences off the other membrane molecules into their proper compartments. Theodore L. Steck Alberts, Bruce, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th ed. New York: Garland Publishing, 2000. Lodish, Harvey, et al. Molecular Cell Biology, 4th ed. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 2000. "Membrane Proteins." Biology. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 22, 2019). https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/membrane-proteins "Membrane Proteins." Biology. . Retrieved January 22, 2019 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/membrane-proteins
Children are born ready, able and eager to learn. They actively reach out to interact with other people, and in the world around them. Development is not an automatic process, however. It depends on each unique child having opportunities to interact in positive relationships and enabling environments(i) The first few years of a child’s life are especially important for mathematics development. Research shows that early mathematical knowledge predicts later reading ability and general education and social progress(ii). Conversely, children who start behind in mathematics tend to stay behind throughout their whole educational journey(iii). The objective for those working in Early Years, then, is to ensure that all children develop firm mathematical foundations in a way that is engaging, and appropriate for their age. The materials in this section of the website are primarily designed to support Reception teachers (those working with 4-5 year olds), and are based on international research. The materials are organised into key concepts (not individual objectives), which underpin many early mathematics curricula. The typical progression highlights the range of experiences (some of which may be appropriate for younger children) but the activities and opportunities could be developed across the Reception provision. There are six key area of early mathematics learning, which collectively provide a platform for everything children will encounter as they progress through their maths learning at primary school, and beyond: - Cardinality and Counting - Shape and Space You can explore these areas in further detail in a special Early Years episode of our podcast with Dr Sue Gifford and Viv Lloyd. These areas form the fundamental mathematical basis of a CBeebies series of five-minute animated programmes called Numberblocks. The NCETM has provided support materials linked to the Numberblocks programmes. These are designed to help Early Years practitioners draw out and build on the maths embedded in the stories contained in each episode. (i) Development Matters, 2012 (ii) Duncan et al, 2007 (iii) Aubrey, Godfrey, Dahl, 2006
Elasticity of demand is equal to the percentage change of quantity demanded divided by percentage change in price in this video, we go over specific termino. Advertisements: the extent of responsiveness of demand with change in the price is not always the same the demand for a product can be elastic or inelastic, depending on the rate of change in the demand with respect to change in price of a product. Price elasticity of demand is a way of looking at sensitivity of price related to product demand demand elasticity is an economic concept also known as price elasticity. Price elasticity of demand and supply the price elasticity of demand is given by the formula: the price elasticity of supply is given by a similar formula:. With examples - how to calculate price elasticity of demand ped = % change in qd / % change in price (also how to calculate a percentage). Cross price elasticity (xed) measures the responsiveness of demand for good x following a change in the price of a related good y. Point elasticity is the price elasticity of demand at a specific point on the demand curve instead of over a range of it it uses the same formula as the general price elasticity of demand measure, but we can take information from the demand equation to solve for the “change in” values instead of actually calculating a change given two points. Elasticity the price elasticity of demand measures the sensitivity of the quantity demanded to changes in the price demand is inelastic if it does not respond much to price changes, and elastic if demand changes. In economics, the demand elasticity refers to how sensitive the demand for a good is to changes in other economic variables demand elasticity is important because it helps firms model the potential change in demand due to changes in price of the good, the effect of changes in prices of other goods and many other important market factors. Price elasticity of demand (ped) is the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price it is also the slope of the demand curve. Ped measures the responsiveness of demand after a change in price - inelastic or elastic an explanation of what influences elasticity, the importance of elasticity and impact of taxes. Get an answer for 'why is price elasticity of demand important to firms ' and find homework help for other business questions at enotes. Factors affecting the price elasticity of demand \| economics the following points highlight the seven main factors affecting the price elasticity of demand the factors are: 1. Get an answer for 'if price elasticity of demand is zero, what does it mean' and find homework help for other business questions at enotes. Ec202 principles of microeconomics elasticity page 3 an application of price elasticity of demand if the quantity demanded for milk were 100 units and the price elasticity of demand for milk was. Price elasticity of demand by patrick l anderson, richard d mclellan, joseph p overton, and dr gary l wolfram \| nov 13, 1997 the law of demand, namely that the higher the price of a good, the less consumers will purchase, has. Price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of demand after a change in a product's own price. Introduction the responsiveness of tobacco consumption to price and income increases is measured by the price and income elasticity of demand respectively. When trying to determine how to maximize profit, businesses use price elasticity to see how responsive quantity demanded is to a price change. The price elasticity of demand (midpoint method) calculator computes the price elasticity of demand which measures how much the quantity demanded responds to changes in the price of a good. Elasticity of demand refers to price elasticity of demand it is the degree of responsiveness of quantity demanded of a commodity due to change in price, other things remaining the same. In economics, the cross elasticity of demand or cross-price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the quantity demanded for a good to a change in the price of another good, ceteris paribus. 1 price elasticity of demand example questions review: first, a quick review of price elasticity of demand from lecture on 02/19/09 the definition, of price elasticity of demand (ped) is:. Price elasticity theory was once the haunt of classical economists today, companies such as uber are combining the theory with big data to redefine possibilities.Download
Figure 1-6.Various types of seawalls. boxes called caissons, each of which is floated over its place of location, and then sunk into position. A monolithic (single-piece) concrete cap is then cast along the tops of the caissons. Sometimes, breakwaters and jetties are built entirely of caissons, as shown in figure A groin is a structure similar to a breakwater or jetty, but it has a third purpose. A groin is used in a situation where a shoreline is subject to alongshore erosion, caused by wave or current action parallel or oblique to the shoreline. The groin is run out from the shoreline (usually there is a succession of groins at intervals) to check the alongshore wave action or deflect it away from the shore. A mole is a breakwater that is paved on the top for use as a wharfage structure. To serve this purpose, it must have a vertical face on the inner side, or harborside. A jetty may be similarly constructed and used, but it is still called a jetty. These structures are constructed parallel with the shoreline to protect it from erosion or other wave A seawall is a vertical or sloping wall that offers protection to a section of the shoreline against erosion and slippage caused by tide and wave action. A seawall is usually a self-sufficient type of structure, such as a gravity-type retaining wall. Seawalls are classified according to the types of construction. A seawall may be made of riprap or solid concrete. Several types of seawall structures are shown in figure 1-16. A bulkhead has the same general purpose as a seawall; namely, to establish and maintain a stable shoreline. However, while a seawall is self-contained, relatively thick, and is supported by its own weight, the bulkhead is a relatively thin wall. Bulkheads are classified according to types of construction, such as the
How can I teach young student's to make non-objective art? - Toothbrush (handle removed) - Battery (1.5-3v coin, AA, or AAA) - Vibration Motor - Glue Dots, Double-Sided Tape, or Adhesive Students will be expected to... - listen to and follow classroom instructions - build their own unique vibration-based robot known as a Bristlebot - use their robots to make Non-Objective or Non-Represenational images - take photos of their progress and post them to the school's website It is often difficult to teach students the difference between Objective, Abstract, and Non-Objective/Non-Representational image-making. This project allows students to experience art-making that is not based on the observed, or visual, world. - How can students keep their Bristlebot from falling over? - How does moving the motor and/or the battery effect the robot? - How does the viscosity of the paper and/or the paint influence the robot? - How do Bristlebots make marks when joined together? - Can boundaries or walls be introduced? - My NAEA Presentation Files - Material resources - Evil Mad Scientist Laboratory - MAKE Bristlebot Kit - Three Types of Visual Art - Art + Education + Technology Note: Students are encouraged to 'hack' or 'mod' their robots!
Parrot Fever—It's Not Just for the Birds Parrot fever, or psittacosis, is transmitted to humans from birds, particularly pet parrots, and can cause flu-like symptoms. According to the NASPHV, infection usually occurs when a person inhales the organism Chlamydia psittaci after it has been aerosolized from the dried feces or respiratory secretions of infected birds. Exposure can also occur from mouth-to-beak contact and the handling of infected birds' feathers or tissues. Only 813 cases of psittacosis were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention between 1988 and 1998, so there's no need to panic. But shelter employees who handle birds should be aware of the risks of parrot fever, and should be careful when handling birds who show symptoms of infection. Symptoms include lethargy, weight loss, ruffled feathers, ocular or nasal discharge, and diarrhea. Birds with confirmed or probable infection should be isolated and treated under the supervision of a veterinarian.
A state legislature in the united states is the legislative body of any of the 50 us states as a legislative branch of government, a legislature generally performs state for a state in the same way that the united states congress performs national the lawmaking process begins with the introduction of a bill in either the. Commentary and archival information about us congress from the new congress is very weak — but the “first branch” has rejuvenated itself in the past, and. The legislative branch of the federal government, composed primarily of the us congress, is responsible for making the country's laws the members of the two. Article i describes the design of the legislative branch of us government -- the congress important ideas include the separation of powers between branches of . The constitution requires the federal government to have three branches: the powers herein granted shall be vested in a congress of the united states, which . The court is the highest tribunal in the nation for all cases and controversies arising under the it is designed to provide for a national government sufficiently strong and flexible to created three independent and coequal branches of government prior to 1789, state courts had already overturned legislative acts which. Congress passes the laws that govern the united states, but below, you'll find a basic description of how laws and regulations are gpo is the sole agency authorized by the federal government to publish the usc. Branches of government--legislative executive united states, which shall consist of a senate and house and in such inferior courts as the congress may from time to the congressional review act (act), enacted in. (this video was originally published on the law library of congress' website to access a transcript. Edits to this page require review the united states constitution divides government into three separate and the congress is the legislative branch the house has the sole power to impeach federal executive and judicial officers. The federal government of the united states (us federal government) is the national government of the united states, a federal republic in north america, composed of 50 states, one district—washington, dc, and several territories the federal government is composed of three distinct branches: legislative, united states congress is the legislative branch of the federal government. To ensure a separation of powers, the us federal government is made up of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial to ensure the government is. This is not news to anyone in the halls of congress or the executive branch office of information and regulatory affairs (oira) review, one of the the total number of state and local government employees, while the size of the federal civil. United states federal government resources: legislative branch overview the united states congress, composed of two houses, the house and the senate, this resource informs users about the process of law making, with a greater. In american government, these three powers of the three branches are: of a stable federal government as assured by a system of separation of of the united states (executive branch) can veto laws passed by congress supreme court can use the power of judicial review to rule laws unconstitutional. In the lawmaking process by expressing their views foldable to help you summarize information about the national government government more powerful than any other branch in fact, congress is described in the analyzing visuals review the powers to make laws for the united states govern. Lawmaking, impeachment, and the electoral college legislative the united states congress is a bicameral legislature, meaning it consists of two among the three branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial), each the enumeration clause requires the federal government to make an “actual enu. Today, the united states has an executive branch that can do just article i of the constitution establishes the national legislature and grants all lawmaking power to it only congress, not the government generally, may “coin money” and connecticut has a legislative regulation review committee that. The issue: when do the actions of one branch of the federal government of congress thought the separation of powers principle to be implicit in the it is not obvious that the court has the power to review presidential assertions of power could congress delegate all of its law-making power to a super agency and take. Our federal government has three parts the president of the united states administers the executive branch of our government congress makes our laws. Separate but equal branches - the legislative, executive, and judicial the principal sources of law in wisconsin are the united states and wisconsin the constitution vests the us congress with primary federal lawmaking authority, subject to the veto power of the president and review for constitutional compatibility and. Those lawmaking institutions function both at the federal and state level you may also know that the us government is one of separated powers furthermore, they are open to identical congressional and judicial scrutiny first, due to its. Although congress creates, passes and stops laws, the fact that there are so many the united stated federal system of government has 3 branches that have contemporary scholars believing the power of judicial review was so obvious to.
What are liver enzymes? They’re proteins that help speed up a chemical reaction in the liver. Blood tests, called liver function tests, are used to evaluate various functions in the liver. Examples of these functions are metabolism, filtration and excretion and storage, which are often performed by liver enzymes. But not all liver function tests measure enzyme function. Liver enzymes are found in normal plasma and serum and can be divided into different groups. Cirrhosis Liver Specimen - Aspartate aminotransferase (AST or SGOT) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT or SGPT). Together these enzymes are known as transaminases. - Alkaline phosphatase (AP) and gammaglutamyl transferase (GGT) are known as cholestatic liver enzymes. If these enzymes are elevated it can indicate the presence of liver disease. - Secretory enzymes are enzymes made in the liver and allocated to the blood plasma. Their role is physiological, for example, enzymes involved in blood clotting (AC globulin) or cholinesterase, which catalyzes the hydrolysis of acetylcholine. Damage to the liver will reduce their synthesis leading to a decrease in their enzyme activity. Buy at AllPosters.com AST and ALT There are enzymes that enter into the blood from the tissues to perform intracellular functions. Some of the enzymes are in the cell cytosol, such as ALT, AST and LDH, and others are in the cell mitochondria, such as GGT and AP. Any damage to the liver will cause the enzymes from the cells to enter the blood and their activity will increase. Amounts of ALT and AST are the greatest diagnostic value. In parenchymatous hepatitis serum transaminase ALT increases, sometimes 100 times or more and AST to a lesser extent. In addition to the liver, AST enzymes can be found in the heart, muscle, brain and kidney and is released into blood serum when these tissues become damaged. For example, a heart attack or muscle disorders will increase AST serum levels. Because of this AST isn’t necessarily an indicator of liver damage.ALT is almost specifically found in the liver. After liver injury it’s released into the bloodstream and therefore can be used as a fairly specific indicator of liver function. CT Scan, Abdomen, Liver 66 Year Old Woman Buy at AllPosters.com It’s common for high levels of AST and ALT in the liver to damage numerous liver cells, called hepatic necrosis and can lead to death of the cells. The higher the ALT levels the greater the amount of cell death. Despite this ALT’s aren’t always a good indicator of how well the liver is functioning. Only a liver biopsy can reveal this. Diseases that can cause increased levels of liver enzymes AST and ALT are acute viral hepatitis A or B, as well as toxins caused by acetaminophen overdose,or a prolonged collapse of the circulatory system, which is called shock. It deprives the liver of fresh blood that brings oxygen and nutrients. Transaminase levels can be 10 times the upper limit. Buy at AllPosters.com Sometimes elevated liver enzymes can be found in otherwise healthy individuals. In such cases they’re usually found to be twice the upper limit. Fatty liver is a common problem causing elevated liver enzymes. In the United States and other countries in the world the most frequent causes of fatty liver are alcohol and drug abuse, obesity, diabetes, and sometimes chronic hepatitis C. Drugs, Skull, and a Gravestone Buy This Allposters.com Alkaline phosphatase is an enzyme that’s produced in the bile ducts, kidney, intestines, placenta and the bone. If this enzyme is high and ALT and AST levels are pretty normal there could be a problem with the bile duct such as an obstruction. Some bone disorders may also cause alkaline phosphatase levels to increase. If there is an elevation of alkaline phosphatase it could also indicate there is an injury to the biliary cells. This could be due to gallstones or certain medications. Under normal circumstances the enzyme is mainly allocated to the bile, but if pathology exists the norm is disturbed and the enzyme increases in blood plasma. GGT is another enzyme that’s produced in the bile ducts and can become elevated if there is a problem with the bile ducts. High levels of GGT and AP indicate a possible blockage of the bile ducts or a possible injury or inflammation of the bile ducts. This problem is characterized by an impairment or failure of bile flow and is known as cholestasis and the term refers to bile duct blockage or injury within the liver. As a rule, intrahepatic cholestasis will occur in individuals with primary biliary cirrhosis or liver cancer. The term extrahepatic cholestasis refers to bile duct blockage or injury outside of the liver and may occur in individuals with gallstones.GGT and AP can seep out of the liver and into the bloodstream, but only with blockage or inflammation of the bile ducts. The enzymes will be about ten times the upper normal limit.Unlike AP, GGT is found predominantly in the liver. Taking this into account, GGT is a sensitive marker of alcohol ingestion and certain hepatotoxic (liver toxic) drugs, where is can be elevated without AP elevation. It’s unclear why, but cigarette smokers have a higher GGT and AP levels than nonsmokers. When testing levels of AP and GGT the levels will be most accurate after a 12 hour fast. Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Normal levels of alkaline phosphatase range from 35 to 115 IU/Liter and the normal levels of GGT range from 3 to 60 IU/Liter. Causes of elevated AP and GGT are: - Alcoholic liver disease - Primary biliary cirrhosis - Liver tumors - Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease - Primary sclerosing cholangitis - Drugs that are used to treat liver disease One study at the Mayo Clinic was conducted over ten years and determined that an excess of enzymes in the liver is associated with the risk of death. High levels of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase in the blood not only can develop into liver disease, but can also have a fatal outcome. Stages of Liver Damage A group of enzymes, that are located in the endoplasmic reticulum, known as cytochrome P-450, is the most important family of metabolizing enzymes found in the liver. Cytochrome P-450 is the terminal oxidase component of an electron transport chain. It’s not a single enzyme, but consists of a family of closely related 50 isoforms. Six of them metabolize 90% of drugs. There is a great diversity of individual P-450 gene products and this heterogeneity allows the liver to perform oxidation on a vast array of chemicals, which includes almost all drugs. - oral contraceptives - anabolic steroids - chemotherapeutic drugs Acetaminophen overdose is the most common cause of drug induced liver disease The information on enzyme-facts.com is not offered for the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of any disease ordisorder nor have any statements hereinbeen evaluated by the Food and DrugAdministration (FDA).We strongly encourageyou to discuss topics of concern with yourhealth care provider. Return To Top
The domestic dog (Canis familiaris) diverged from the gray wolf on the canine family tree more than 15,000 years ago. Today, due to selective breeding by humans throughout history, dogs exhibit an extremely wide range of body types and canine behaviors. Moreover, because selective reproduction resulted in great variation in shape and size among all dogs, but strong similarity within breeds, researchers now study dogs to understand heredity, evolutionary principles and health conditions in these animals and, by comparison, in humans. The research has produced some surprises. A national team that includes researchers from the National Human Genome Research Institute's Cancer Genetics Branch has found that a surprisingly simple genetic architecture underlies the great variation in domestic dogs. They have plotted this architecture in a high-density map of canine genetic variation. The study appears in the August 10, 2010 issue of PLoS Biology. "We undertook a study of the largest number of domestic dogs studied at such a high level of genetic detail," said senior author and NHGRI Cancer Genetics Branch Chief Elaine A. Ostrander, Ph.D. "This data and the analysis we have applied underscores the power of the dog as a model for discovery of genes that control the body plan in mammals." The researchers developed a map of canine genetic variation by genotyping 915 dogs from 80 domestic breeds, as well as 83 wild dogs and 10 African shelter dogs. Their analysis spanned almost 70,000 points along the genome of these dogs. They also obtained physical measurements that are characteristic of particular breeds. Their map of phenotypes comprises 57 traits, including body size and dimensions, cranial and dental shape, and long bone shape. "Our breed-mapping approach allowed us to look for correlations between gene markers and traits in the breeds," Ostrander said. The study took a close look at the markers that corresponded with body size variation and ear carriage, whether floppy or erect. The researchers confirmed gene regions, or locations of particular genes, where associations with body size in dogs were previously identified and added two additional important gene regions to this trait. Wild dogs typically have erect ears, but many dog breeds have floppy ears. The researchers found a single gene region likely responsible for this trait. For the majority of additional traits measured, most of the variance across breeds could be accounted for with a small number of gene regions. The findings result from a collaboration called the CanMap project, which uses the dog as a model system to identify genomic regions responsible for many key physical characteristics. In addition to NHGRI researchers, the study co-authors are from Stanford University School of Medicine; Cornell University in Ithaca, N.Y.; the University of California, Los Angeles; Affymetrix Corporation, Santa Clara, Calif.; and the University of Missouri, Columbia. Over the past three years, researchers have identified dozens of genetic variants that influence breed-defining traits, including those for skeletal size, coat color, leg length, hairlessness, wrinkled skin, hair length, curl and texture, and the presence of a dorsal fur ridge. By mapping the common genetic variation in the domestic dog, the researchers in the present study expanded the list and made some general observations about the genomic patterns that influence many of these physical traits in dogs. The study showed that observable traits in domestic dogs are defined by a small number of genetic variants. By contrast, studies of humans and other species, including laboratory animals and domestic plants, have found that common traits, such as body size and lipid levels, are the result of many genetic variants working together. How do the researchers explain the pattern in dogs of a small number of gene variations having such large effect? One reason is that many modern breeds were created during the Victorian Era when breeders selected particular novelty traits. The researchers describe some events in the breeding of dogs as bottlenecks, where a breed is derived from a small number of founders. This simpler genetic architecture provides unique insights into the potential of evolutionary change under domestication. This latest work utilized and built upon data generated by the NHGRI-supported sequencing and analysis of the dog genome. Researchers can access the dog sequence data through the following public databases: Dog Genome Resources (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/guide/dog) at NIH's National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI); EMBL Bank (www.ebi.ac.uk/index.html) at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory's Nucleotide Sequence Database; UCSC Genome Browser (www.genome.ucsc.edu) at the University of California at Santa Cruz; and at the Broad Institute Dog Genome Sequencing Project Web site (www.broadinstitute.org/mammals/dog). The genotyping data from the current study is available by sending a request to email@example.com. The article is available online in PLoS Biology and may be accessed at A Simple Genetic Architecture Underlies Morphological Variation in Dogs [genetics.plosjournals.org]. Last Reviewed: November 15, 2012
Preventing blood clots Advice on preventing blood clots at home or in hospital. The formation of a blood clot or 'thrombus' inside a blood vessel is called thrombosis; you may have heard the term DVT or deep vein thrombosis that most commonly occurs in the leg veins. A complication of developing a clot is it can break away from where it formed and travel to another part of the body, where it may become lodged in another blood vessel and restrict the blood flow. When a clot travels it is known as an 'embolus' and when it gets stuck in another blood vessel it's called an 'embolism'; you may have heard the term PE or pulmonary embolism, which is a clot in the lungs. VTE or venous thromboembolism is a term that includes both DVT and PE. How can blood clots form? There are two reasons that a clot might form - Changes or damage to the blood vessels: If there is pressure on a vein a clot can form. Pressure on the vein might be caused by immobility, surgery or long distance travel. - Problems with the blood: Blood problems can be inherited, caused by drugs you are taking, acute illness (such as an infection, cancer, respiratory failure, heart failure), or pregnancy. If you are dehydrated, the blood can get 'sticky' which can increase the risk of blood forming a clot. There are a number of factors that can increase a person's chance of developing a blood clot. - Developing a clot in the past or having a family history of - Major surgery, particularly orthopaedic (bone) surgery - Major trauma or leg injury - Aged over 60 - Cancer or chemotherapy treatment - Acute illnesses - Being immobile - Pregnancy, some types of contraceptive pill or hormones - Faulty blood clotting e.g. thrombophilia If you have to come in to hospital When you are admitted to hospital, nurses and doctors will assess you to see if you are at risk of developing a clot and will repeat the assessment every 48 to 72 hours. You might hear this referred to as a VTE assessment (VTE stands for venous thromboembolism - a clot in a vein). If you are assessed to be at risk of developing a clot you will be offered the appropriate Prevention can include one or all of the following: - An injection of heparin called Dalteparin (Fragmin) - Anti-embolism stockings, often called 'TEDS' - Leg pumps or 'flowtrons' To help prevent clots at home or after you have been in - Walk around as much as possible or, if you are not very mobile, exercies you legs while you are in bed or sitting in a chair. - Drink plenty of fluids - If you are at risk, wear anti-embolism stockings when you are on long haul journeys There are information leaflets available on admission and discharge from hospital. Signs and symptoms of a clot Typical symptoms of a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) include swelling, pain, tenderness in the calf and sometimes heat and redness when compared to the other leg. The typical symptom of pulmonary embolism (PE) is shortness of There are other causes of painful swollen calves and difficulty in breathing. If you are concerned contact your GP, visit NHS Direct or call on 0845 45 47 or in an emergency go Accident and Emergency. For more information visit the NHS.uk page
The high reactivity of halogens has made them one of the most useful elements in the periodic table. Polyhalogen is one of the classes of compounds formed by the halogen group elements. These compounds are characterised by the presence of two or more halogen groups as the substituents in the compounds. Apart from being highly reactive, compounds of halogens are sometimes highly toxic and carcinogenic. This has led to an intensive study on these compounds and their effect on the environment. Dichloromethane, also known as methylene dichloride or methylene chloride (more commonly) is one of the many polyhalogen compounds that have found application in many industries. Chemically, formula for methylene dichloride is CH2Cl2. Dichloromethane is used as solvent in many industries. It is also finds application as a paint remover. Some of the drug manufacturing companies use methylene chloride as a process solvent. It is also used in aerosols as a propellant. Methylene chloride is also used in the processing of coffee and tea to decaffeinate them. It is also used for hop extraction and providing flavours. Owing to its high volatility, polymer industries use dichloromethane as a blowing agent especially for polyurethane products. It has also been used in adhesives industry and for sealing plastic cases. There may be an endless list of uses and application of methylene chloride, but its utility cannot cast a shadow on its toxicity. Although it is one of the least toxic poylhalogenated compounds, its harmful effect on human body is not unknown. It affects the central nervous system of the human body. Even a slight exposure to dichloromethane can cause hearing and vision impairments. In case of direct contact with human skin, it causes redness of the skin along with intense burning. Exposure to methylene chloride in high doses leads to numbness in fingers, dizziness, tingling, and nausea. Continuous exposure to methylene chloride causes irritation in respiratory tracks, difficulty in concentrating, headache and eye irritation. Studies have shown its carcinogenic properties, it causes lungs, liver and pancreatic cancer in animals. Many countries use warnings on products that have dichloromethane in them. Some countries have banned the use of methylene chloride. Indian industries continue to use methylene dichloride with certain regulations from the government. Scientists are working hard to develop the alternatives of dichloromethane. Log on to Byju’s YouTube channel to explore more about the poylhalogenated compounds.
The Thyroid Gland: Anatomy & Physiology The Thyroid Gland: Anatomy & Physiology The thyroid gland is butterfly shaped and sits on the trachea, in the anterior neck. It is comprised of two lobes connected in the middle by an isthmus. Inside, the gland is made up of many hollow follicles, whose epithelial cell walls (also known as follicle cells) surround a central cavity filled with a sticky, gelatinous material called colloid. Parafollicular cells are found in the follicle walls, protruding out into the surrounding connective tissue. The thyroid is the largest exclusively endocrine gland in the body. The endocrine system is the body’s communication hub, controlling cell, and therefore organ, function. A primary goal of the endocrine system is to maintain homeostasis within the organism, despite external fluctuations of any sort. Hormones, which act as chemical messengers, are the mechanism for this communication. The hormones secreted by the thyroid gland are essential in this process, targeting almost every cell in the body (only the adult brain, spleen, testes, and uterus are immune to their effects.) Inside cells, thyroid hormone stimulates enzymes involved with glucose oxidation, thereby controlling cellular temperature and metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. Through these actions, the thyroid regulates the body’s metabolic rate and heat production. Thyroid hormone also raises the number of adrenergic receptors in blood vessels, thus playing a major role in the regulation of blood pressure. In addition, it promotes tissue growth, and is particularly vital in skeletal, nervous system, and reproductive development. [See Handout 1 & 3, taken from Human Anatomy and Physiology; Marieb & Hoehn, 620-21, for anatomical drawings and details of thyroid’s effect on specific body systems.] The two major thyroid hormones (TH) are unique in that, unlike most hormones, they are neither protein nor cholesterol based. Instead, they incorporate iodine as an active constituent; the amount of iodine differentiates between thyroxine (also known as tetraiodothyronine or T4) with four iodine molecules and triodothyronine (T3) with, predictably, three iodine molecules. While T4 exists in greater abundance than T3 in the body- thought to be at a fifty to one ratio, T3 is considered to be ten times more active. There is much debate about the physiological difference between the two hormones. It is currently thought that T4 may act as the reserve form, having a more direct role in the hypothalamus/pituitary negative feedback loop, while T3 has a more dynamic physiological effect in the body. Others suggest that both have a critical part in physiological activity. TH (particularly T4) is synthesized in the gland’s colloid filled lumen from the combination of the glycoprotein thyroglobulin and stored iodine atoms. This process involves six interrelated steps that are initiated when thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), released by the pituitary gland, binds to follicle cell receptors. Thyroglobulin is then made in the follicle cells from tyrosine amino acid and discharged into the lumen where it becomes part of the colloid mass. Follicle cells are simultaneously trapping iodide (the element’s form most readily available in food) from the blood stream- retrieving it via active transport from the lumen. There, the iodides are converted to iodine as electrons are removed through oxidation. Within the colloid, the iodine then attaches to tyrosine amino acid on the thyroglobulin molecules. When one iodine attaches to the tyrosine, monoiodotyrosine (T1) is formed; the bonding of a second iodine creates diiodotyrosine (T2). Enzymes then link T1 and T2- two T2 makes the hormone T4, while a T1 and a T2 leads to the hormone T3. Follicle cells then recover the hormones, where they pass through an enzymatic process and are then released into the bloodstream. However, the majority of the body’s T3 is made directly on the tissue level, as target cells use enzymes to remove one iodine atom from the T4 molecules made in the thyroid, converting them to T3 before use. Most of the alteration occurs in the liver, using enzyme 5-deiodinase. (See Handout 2 for a diagram of TH production (taken from Human Anatomy and Physiology; Marieb & Hoehn, 622.)] In its behavior, TH functions somewhat similarly to steroid hormones. As it is not water soluble, it requires a protein-based molecule for transport throughout the blood stream. T3 and T4 will generally pair with thyroxine binding globulin (TBG) for this purpose, though they can also use albumin and prealbumin. At any given moment, the vast majority of TH in the body is in this bound, and essentially inactive, state, either in route or awaiting transport. The small percentage of unbound, physiologically active hormone is called “free” T3 or T4. It appears that TBG and albumin have higher affinity for T4, which could explain T4’s higher levels in blood and its slower metabolism, and perhaps account for free T3 being the more physiologically active substance. The main site of TH degradation is in the liver and its primary elimination is via kidneys (80%, the other 20% is via the colon.) (http://www.levoxyl.com/pi.asp.) When TH enters a cell, it attaches to receptor sites in various locations. Within the cytoplasm, it primarily connects to the mitochondria, where it helps control cellular metabolism through oxidative phosphorolation. During this process the mitochondria use oxygen to generate energy as ATP (Adenosine triphosphate); heat is released as a byproduct of this reaction. Thus, the thyroid (under higher regulation as we will see below) controls body temperature and food metabolism through its role in stimulating mitochondrial activity. TH also enters the cell nucleus where it binds to DNA; here it precipitates gene transcription, and the synthesis of messenger RNA and cytoplasmic proteins. Other hormones, including Growth Hormone (GH) and Prolactin, also depend on the presence of TH to exert their own effects on cells; the absence of TH inhibits their activity. (E. Kopf, “The Thyroid Gland,” p. 5-6 and http://www.levoxyl.com/pi.asp.) Messages from the anterior pituitary gland are the main stimulus for the action of the thyroid gland. The pituitary gland, in turn, is triggered from above by the hypothalamus. The three organs are connected in a negative feedback loop that involves their vigilant monitoring of and response to the levels of TH in the blood, as well as other internal and external stimuli; this relationship is sometimes referred to as the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. The hypothalamus secretes protein hormone thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which heads directly to the pituitary gland via the hypophysial portal blood system, stimulating the release of TSH. TSH then moves through the bloodstream, binding with receptors in the thyroid gland, prompting the secretion of TH into the blood. Both T4 and T3 then exert a negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus and pituitary- an increase in their blood levels lowers the amount of TRH and TSH secreted and a decrease in their levels causes a rise in the TRH and TSH. Stimuli to the higher brain including temperature and stress can also effect TRH production in the hypothalamus; for instance, cold temperatures can increase the body’s requirements for TH as more internal heat will be need to maintain homeostasis and the hypothalamus reacts accordingly. Stress affects the thyroid gland not only through the hypothalamus, but also directly via the sympathetic nervous system. There are sympathetic nerves that connect with the gland; during their stimulation in times of stress, they trigger increased TH release. In addition, it appears that epinephrine from the adrenal gland can also act directly on the thyroid. (E. Kopf, p. 3) Diet can effect thyroid function, as a high calorie/high carbohydrate diet can lead to increased conversion of T4 to T3- a mechanism that likely assists in keeping an organism’s weight stable. Meanwhile, prolonged fasting can result in a decrease in T3 production- which may be adaptive for conditions of food scarcity, slowing down the body’s metabolism and energy consumption. (E. Kopf p.6) (Marieb & Hoehn were referenced in the section above, unless otherwise cited.) Hypothyroid: Signal Lost If the thyroid gland produces too little or too much TH, a number of the body’s functions will be adversely affected. The production of excess TH is called hyperthyroid; corresponding to the hormonal overabundance, the pituitary will generally slow secretion of TSH, as the blood levels of T4/T3 signal the presence of too much of the hormones. Here, the focus is on the opposite condition, hypothyroid, when the thyroid is not releasing enough TH to satisfy the body’s needs. In this case, the pituitary increases discharge of TSH, in an attempt to stimulate the thyroid to provide more TH- a demand it is unable to fulfill. It has been estimated that 13 million people in the U.S. suffer from hypothyroidism; the condition is more prevalent in women (approx. 5-8 times more likely than men), among whom it is estimated that a minimum of 1 in 8 will develop a thyroid disorder in her lifetime. (http://utdol.com; & M. Shomon, p.1) The incidence increases with age; approximately 20% of post-menopausal women are diagnosed with hypothyroidism. Further, these statistics can be somewhat misleading, as many cases go undiagnosed and/or a person may have subclinical hypothyroidism, where one may suffer associated symptoms despite having a technically “normal” T4 level and only “mildly” elevated TSH. (http://www.womentowomen.com/hypothyroidism/) A hypothyroid pathology can be broken into three different categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary hypothyroidism (which will be the main concern of this paper) is when the root of the dysfunction lies within the thyroid gland itself. Though pituitary and hypothalamic action will certainly still impact the condition, they are not the primary cause. Secondary hypothyroidism is when the problem can be traced to the pituitary gland, and tertiary is when the hypothalamus is causing the condition. Primary hypothyroidism is significantly more common, comprising approximately 95% of cases. There are several conditions that can result in primary hypothyroidism. The main cause worldwide, though it is often considered to be of lesser concern in the U.S. (a position sometimes disputed, as discussed below) is iodine deficiency. As the thyroid depends upon ingested iodine to form TH, a shortage of iodine in the diet can result in hypothyroidism. It is estimated that over 200 million people around the world are hypothyroid for this reason. Too much iodine, on the other hand, can also be problematic, as it can be a signal to inhibit the conversion of T4 to T3- ultimately, resulting in hypothyroidism as well. Thyroiditis- of which there are several types- is another leading cause. Thyroiditis is a general term for an inflammation of the thyroid gland. The inflammation destroys thyroid cells (at a varying rate depending upon the condition), rendering the gland unable to produce the necessary amount of TH, thus leading to hypothyroidism. Thyroiditis is often caused by an autoimmune condition- by far the most common of which in the U.S. is Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis- also know as chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis. Women are fifteen to twenty times more likely than men to develop this condition. An autoimmune thyroid condition occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy thyroid cells. Cases of thyroid autoimmunity generally start with T and B white blood cells- the primary infection fighting immune cells: 1) first, T and B immune factors enter the thyroid gland; 2) T cells mistakenly identify molecules that are part of the body’s own cells as invaders; B cells then produce autoantibodies that attack these cells; 3) usually these antibodies then attack thyroid peroxidase, a thyroid protein, and this seems to result in the destruction of thyroid cells. There are many theories- but few solid conclusions- as to why this undesirable process begins. Some current ideas include: - Antibodies, used during an infection by a virus that has a protein similar to a thyroid protein, may then mistakenly target the body’s own thyroid cells that too closely resemble the invader. - A gene may interact with thyroid cells triggering a self-destructive response, inflammatory or other. - Fetal cells accumulated in a mother’s thyroid gland may precipitate an immune response, leading to autoimmune thyroiditis during or following pregnancy. - Excess iodine is sometimes thought to trigger the process leading to Hashimoto’s. Subacute thyroiditis is a temporary condition that occurs in three phases: hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, followed by a return to normal thyroid function. In such cases, a person may feel extremely sick and exhibit symptoms of both hypo and hyperthyroidism. Symptoms generally last 6-8 weeks, but in about 10% of cases chronic hypothyroidism may result. This condition occurs in up to 10% of pregnant women, manifesting around 4-12 months after pregnancy. It can also occur on occasion in men and women of all ages. A goiter may occur in hypothyroidism whether caused by iodine deficiency, an autoimmune condition, or another less common cause. Goiters are enlargements of thyroid glands that appear as cyst-like or fibrous growths on the neck; they can vary greatly in size. Treatment of the underlying condition can reduce the goiter’s size, but will not often lead to its total disappearance. If goiters pose a threat of constricting the airway, they are usually surgically removed. (www.thyroid.org) Hypothyroidism also commonly results from the treatment of hyperthyroidism or thyroid cancer. Hyperthyroid individuals often receive radioactive iodide treatments in an attempt to ablate the gland- stemming the oversecretion of TH. More than half of the patients in this category develop permanent hypothyroidism within a year of therapy, and up to 65% do after five years. These individuals require thyroid replacement therapy for the rest of their lives; it is important to note that no alternative therapies can substitute for hormone replacement in such situations. Other treatments for hyperthyroid include surgery or antithyroid drugs and can result in hypothyroidism as well. In cases of thyroid cancer that involve total removal of the gland, lifetime treatment with thyroid hormones is also necessary. When only one of the two thyroid lobes is removed, hypothyroidism is less common, as the remaining portion of the gland can sometimes compensate for the loss. Certain drugs will trigger hypothyroidism by various physiological mechanisms. Lithium, for example, affects thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion. 50% of people who take lithium may develop a goiter- 20% of those likely have symptomatic hypothyroidism, and 20-30% asymptomatic. See Handout 4 (from http://www.levoxyl.com/pi.asp) for a fairly comprehensive list of drugs that impact thyroid function. Radiation treatments (due to cancers of the head and neck) and congenital hypothyroidism in babies are two other possible causes of hypothyroidism. (Except where otherwise noted, the information on hypothyroid pathology referenced: http://www.umm.edu/patiented/articles/what_causes_hypothyroidism_000038_2.htm) A Broad Spectrum of Symptoms… When the body does not produce adequate levels of thyroid hormone to fulfill its needs, a host of major, but sometimes hard to categorize, symptoms can occur. Advanced hypothyroid syndrome leads to myxedema, which literally means “mucous swelling.” The term was coined in 1877, when a doctor in London performing an autopsy first recognized the connection between mucous logged tissue, atherosclerosis, and an enlarged, non-functioning thyroid gland. (Stephen Langer & James Scheer, The Riddle of Illness, p. 8) The other most prominent symptoms of this condition are graver versions of those found in many mildly hypothyroid individuals, including: thick, dry skin and puffy eyes, lethargy, low metabolic rate, coldness, constipation, and mental sluggishness. Handout 2 gives an overview of the physiological effects of TH secretion- the following is a more specific summary of the effects of hypothyroidism, grouped by body system: - The body’s inability to promote normal hydration and regular skin secretions leads to pale, thick, dry skin, edema- all over, but particularly in the face, and coarse, thick hair and nails. Loss of head hair and lateral eyebrows can occur. Skin is often pale or yellow toned. There is decreased sweating. - The following signs occur due to a decreased basal (resting) metabolic rate, inability to use oxygen effectively, and decreased action of the sympathetic nervous system: body temperature is low, accompanied by cold intolerance; weight gain occurs despite a decreased appetite; there is reduced sensitivity to catecholamines. Generalized lethargy and fatigue are common. - There is decreased efficiency of the heart’s pumping mechanism, leading to a lower heart rate (bradycardia) and, commonly, low blood pressure. Breathing can be labored and shallow. Heart palpitations and irregular extra beats may occur. (Note: on some occasions, mild high blood pressure can also present, due to slowed pumping combined with increased stiffness of blood vessel walls.) Poor circulation is frequent and, correspondingly, cold hands and feet. There is a common overlap between hypothyroidism and heart problems. - There is a disruption of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism; thus glucose metabolism is decreased, cholesterol and triglyceride levels may be elevated in the blood, and protein synthesis is decreased. The overall increase in cholesterol can transpire as an increase in LDL and decrease of HDL; this increase in blood cholesterol, combined with decreased efficiency of the heart/circulation, leads to an increased rate of atherosclerosis in hypothyroidism. (http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/content/full/88/6/2438) - GI motility, tone, and secretions are decreased, leading to possible constipation and malabsorption. - In a child’s nervous system, lack of TH can lead to deficient brain development; in adults, there can be a slowing of mental processes and a lack of clarity, slow speech, memory loss, nervousness, and depression. - Muscular development and function is impaired (in part due to decreased protein synthesis) leading to sluggish muscles action, cramps, and myalgia. There is increased incidence of fibromyalgia and carpal tunnel syndrome. - Skeletal growth and maturation is impaired in children; joint pain occurs in adults. - In women, ovarian function and lactation are depressed. This can lead to sterility. Menstruation may be painful and excessive. Overall reproductive function may be suppressed in men as well. Libido in both may be decreased (related to lack of energy and the involuntary prioritization of body functions in times of metabolic scarcity.) Sexual sensation may also be decreased as a result of poor circulation. - Changes in vocal cords (and overall system dryness) may lead to a characteristic hoarseness of the voice. - Headaches, possibly related to several of the above physiological changes, are also common. (Marieb & Hoehn, p.621; Eric Kopf, M.D. “The Thyroid Gland”, p. 8) Given the vast array of symptoms, it is critical to recognize that a given individual is not likely to show all of them, and certain signs may be more or less prominent in any specific case. In addition, people may manifest opposite symptoms. For example, one endocrinologist noted that at certain times, individuals of a smaller overall body type may lose, instead of gain, weight when their thyroid is underactive. Further many of the symptoms, particularly those associated with mental function, are extremely subjective in nature. That said, it is critical, as always, to treat the individual, using the above as a general guideline to body systems that may indicate thyroid dysfunction, rather than a road map to what hypothyroidism should look like. Perhaps the most important point is to notice the possible connection between so many seemingly unrelated symptoms. Hypothyroid individuals, particularly those with subclinical hypothyroid, may undergo the experience of being told that their symptoms are psychosomatic, simply part of aging, or totally unrelated, before they are officially diagnosed as being hypothyroid- and this can be very frustrating, indeed. The wisdom of a person’s own experience of her condition is often going to be the most effective guide to treatment. Screening for Thyroid Dysfunction In the late 1930’s, before the advent of assessing thyroid levels through blood testing, Broda Barnes M.D. initiated the use of the Barnes Basal Temperature test. This simple test is easily performed on oneself at home. First, shake down a standard thermometer before going to bed; immediately after waking, leave the thermometer under an armpit for ten minutes. If the temperature is between 97.8 to 98.2, thyroid function is probably normal. If the temperature is lower, retest the following day. If the temperature is again low, the thyroid gland is likely under functioning. Dr. Barnes reported tremendous success using the outcome of this test to identify hypothyroidism in individuals exhibiting common symptoms. (Langer & Scheer, p. 3) There is some controversy surrounding the accuracy of the test. One endocrinologist states that the amount of thyroid replacement hormone that would be needed to raise one’s basal temperature would far exceed an adequate replacement dose. Thus, a low basal temperature will probably persist in some individuals despite the taking of thyroid replacement. (Kopf, p. 3) Current proponents of the Barnes Basal Temperature test nonetheless see it as a useful mechanism to discern a low functioning thyroid, particularly in cases where the symptoms are present, but clinical tests may not register the dysfunction- or may label it as subclinical. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) level is the most frequently used laboratory test for gauging thyroid function. As discussed earlier, when the thyroid gland produces inadequate supplies of TH, the pituitary secretes a greater amount of TSH in an attempt to increase the TH level. Thus, in someone who is hypothyroid, the TSH value would be higher than “normal”. In adults, many western doctors rely exclusively on this test, checking other levels only when the TSH is high or low. In children, it is most likely combined with “free” T4 screening from the outset. (http://www.levoxyl.com/pi.asp) The problem with this test is primarily the range of “normal” TSH; for many years anything between .2 and 5.5 was seen as the desired level. In recent years, some endocrinologists have begun to think of 2.5 as a more accurate upper limit. It is likely that the range of the test may eventually be moved to reflect this opinion. Suddenly many people who were previously seen as euthryoid (having a “normal” functioning thyroid) will be clinically hypothyroid. In fact, many of these people may have suffered symptoms related to hypothyroidism for years and gone undiagnosed. Further, some doctors believe that 1 is actually the target level for TSH, which suggests that patients suffering from hypothyroid symptoms with TSH levels hovering around 2.5 may even be hypothyroid. Another major concern is the variability among individuals. The optimal TSH for one person may be .8, such that if it goes up to 2.0, he will experience the discomfort of hypothyroid symptoms; where as 2.0 might be standard for another person. Ideally, there would be routine screening so that a norm would exist for the individual and it would, therefore, be noticeable when deviation occurs. However, this is not likely to happen in the age of insurance companies and for profit medicine. Of further concern are natural variations in one’s TSH level, which are rarely accounted for in screening or treatment. These include fluctuations based on the season, time of day, and, for women, place in the menstrual cycle. (Shomon, p. 253) In hypothyroid individuals who are just beginning thyroid hormone replacement therapy, doctors generally test TSH (and possibly T4/T3) every six to eight weeks until the person appears to be stable at a particular dose. At that point, screening usually occurs every six to twelve months, unless there is a resurgence of symptoms. The reappearance of common hypothyroid symptoms may indicate that the medication dose is too low, while the presence of hyperthyroid symptoms suggests that the dose may be too high; the individual will then receive blood work to explore these possibilities. Free T4 and free T3 tests assess the level of unbound thyroid hormones in the body. As the majority of TH is bound, these test are assessing the smaller percentage that is more biologically active. Often doctors, after receiving high or low TSH results, will order only free T4, through which they will confirm a hypo or hyperthyroid diagnosis (though symptomatic or developing subclinical cases can exist regardless of a normal free T4 level.) (Kopf, p. 7.) In a medical environment where there is pressure from insurance providers to keep screening to a minimum, this has become the routine. However, it is probably ideal to run all three tests (TSH, free T4, and free T3), at least when initially diagnosing a condition, and then on occasion, if not every time, when monitoring someone already known to have thyroid issues. For example, some individuals may specifically have trouble converting T4 to T3, a condition that will go unnoticed without free T3 screening. The current range for free T4 is .8-1.8 and free T3 is 230-420. There are several other thyroid tests used somewhat less commonly and for more specific diagnosis. The radioactive iodine uptake scan (RAIU) uses radio labeled iodine molecules that can be followed as they mass in the thyroid gland. A normal reading will have homogenous distribution of the molecules throughout the gland. In abnormal scans, there will be either areas with increased uptake- possibly signaling cancer or a hyperfunctioning condition- or spots with decreased accumulation- which can indicate benign cysts or hypo functioning problems. Thyroid auto-antibody screening, exactly as it sounds, checks for the presence of the antibodies that would signal an auto-immune thyroid condition. The most common anti-bodies in this case are those found in either Hashimoto’s thyroiditis or Grave’s disease (an auto-immune hyperthyroid condition.) The thyroid stimulating antibodies test (TSAb) identifies the agent found in Grave’s disease that mimics TSH behavior by binding to cell receptors and stimulating excess TH production. There is also screening for antithyroglobulin antibody and antithyroid peroxidase, antibodies commonly present in Hashimoto’s and sometimes occurring in Grave’s disease. (Kopf, p. 7-8) Thyroid releasing hormone, the hypothalamic secretion that controls TSH release, can also be screened to differentiate between primary, secondary, and tertiary hypothyroidism. This test measures the response of the anterior pituitary when TRH is administered. In primary hypothyroidism, there is a two to three times increase in TSH when the TRH appears; in secondary hypothyroidism, there is no rise in TSH, and in a tertiary condition there will be a noticeable delay in the rise of TSH. The most common course of action after a diagnosis of hypothyroidism is thyroid hormone replacement therapy. There are several main categories of drugs that doctors may prescribe: - Levothyroxine is the generic of synthetic thyroxine (T4). Brands in the U.S. include Synthroid, Levothyoid, Levoxyl, Eltroxin, and PMS-Levothyroxine. (Doctors often prefer brands over the generic due to well-founded concern over the consistency of the generic. For the same reason, patients are generally counseled to stick to one brand once their dose is established.) - Liothyronine is synthetic triiodothyronine (T3). Cytomel is the brand name in the U.S. - Liotrix is a synthetic T4 and T3 combination drug. Thyrolar is the brand name in the U.S. - Natural thyroid is a non-synthetic hormone composed of desiccated pig thyroid glands. It contains T4 andT3, as well as other components found naturally in the thyroid gland. Armour Thyroid, Naturethroid, and Westhroid are the brands available in the U.S. (Shomon, p. 65.) From the beginning of Dr. Broda Barnes pioneering work on hypothyroidism in the 1930’s-40’s until the 1970’s, natural thyroid supplements were the primary treatment. In the 1970’s, synthetic T4 took over as most commonly prescribed. The main argument for this change was that the natural hormone therapies were not adequately standardized and that their T3/T4 ratio might not be optimal. (Langer & Scheer, p. 168.) Pharmaceutical companies then primarily invested in T4 replacements, throwing their tremendous force behind popularizing this treatment option. Synthroid manufacturers in particular aimed to dominate the market. They falsely claimed their product to possess an advantage over other brands, in an attempt to win over doctors/patients and justify Synthroid’s significantly higher cost. This assertion bought them a major lawsuit in 1997, which cost the company billions of dollars. (Shomon, p. 256.) In 1999, Lithuanian endocrinologists published a groundbreaking study that proved that combination T4/T3 therapies offer better results in treating hypothyroidism than T4 alone. (Langer and Scheer, p. 168) To this day, significant controversy exists around this issue. There have been subsequent studies that confirmed the importance of combination therapy. There are now several treatment options involving both hormones: natural, combined Cytomel and Levothryoxine, or Thyrolar. According to my endocrinologist’s experience, approximately one quarter of her patients feel better on joint therapies; some other doctors would argue that the percentage is higher. T3 seems to be primarily useful in alleviating symptoms related to mental function that persist when solely T4 is replaced. Since it is known that some people have problems with the T4/T3 conversion, it certainly follows that the addition of readily available T3 could have a profound effect. In cases where it is used, the T3 comprises a small percentage of the overall therapy, corresponding to the naturally occurring ratio between the two hormones in the body. It is worth noting that Cytomel and Thyrolar are considerably more expensive than all T4 brands and there is no generic for either medication. This likely makes the exploration of joint therapy difficult for many people as the out of pocket cost can be prohibitive and insurance companies may be less enthusiastic about this treatment approach. It can take anywhere from several weeks to several months for a significant change in symptoms to occur once treatment begins. As the predicable consequence of an excessive dose of TH replacement is hyperthyroidism, the beginning of treatment can be a bumpy road for many people, leading to a seesaw between hypo and hyperthyroid states until the appropriate dose is determined. It also important to note that different life phases can result in the need for more or less medication; pregnancy, for instance, usually requires women to increase their dose. Other than symptoms associated with hyperthyroidism (which can be major), possible temporary partial hair loss during adjustment is the main short term side-effect of thyroid hormone replacement. Loss of bone mineral density (which can contribute to osteoporosis) and heart complications are the two main long term effects of TH replacement (the latter of major concern in geriatric hypothyroid patients.) Further research is needed on both of these to determine the real risks involved. Patients with adrenal insufficiency should be treated for that condition before beginning thyroid replacement; individuals with diabetes, heart disease, clotting disorders, and pituitary dysfunction may require adjustments of their other medications when on T4 therapy. Doctors usually recommend that thyroid medication be consumed first thing in the morning, at least a half hour before breakfast, with a full glass of water. However, in Living Well With Hypothyroidism, Mary Shomon suggests that if one is not feeling up to par with a current regimen, perhaps splitting the dose throughout the day could help to maintain a more consistent hormone level. A high fiber diet or fiber supplements can interfere with the bioavailability of levothyroxine. An increased intake of dietary fiber can necessitate a higher dose of medication and can explain the need for greater than expected amounts of replacement hormone in some people. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8636317?dopt=Abstract) Levoxyl manufacturers offer some general information on the medication: -There is usually 40-80% absorption of the medication (increased by fasting and adequate water to accompany the dose.) - If lab tests continue to indicate hypothyroidism despite an apparently adequate and normally potent dose, malabsorption or drug interactions may be occurring. See Handout 4 for a complete list of possible drug interactions. - Iron and Calcium supplements should be taken as far apart as possible from thyroid hormone medication as they can severely interfere with absorption. (My dose dropped when I followed this advice from my doctor.) - Many of the foods listed as possible hypothyroid hazards in the nutrition section of this paper can also interfere with thyroid hormone medication. Soy poses a particular risk. The key is consistency, such that once the appropriate dose is established other factors remain the same- or at least their potential effect is recognized and leads to a reevaluation of the thyroid medication dose if symptoms reappear. Cause: A Macro View There are myriad ideas about what causes the thyroid to function at a less than optimal level. As explained above, there are a number of different physiological conditions, and each of those may be precipitated by a variety of different factors. As in any discussion of its kind, there is much speculation and disagreement. Here is a look at several theories that may offer some insight into an overall understanding of cause. First, the toxicity of our environment no doubt has a significant impact on the thyroid gland. Ryan Drum has done groundbreaking work in this area and most of the following section is drawn from several essays available on his website: “Environmental Origins of Thyroid Disease-Part 1”, “Environmental Origins of Thyroid Disease-Part 2”, and “Thyroid Function and Dysfunction.” Drum notes that there has been a significant increase in the number of reported thyroid cases in recent years (in cats and dogs, as well, the former tending more towards hyperthyroid, the latter more likely hypothyroid.) While this may be due to higher recognition of the condition lately, it also seems likely that environmental changes have had an impact on this phenomenon. Drum cites as several major areas of concern: radiation, intake of chemical iodide displacers, and consumption of thyroid suppressive or disruptive substances. His position is partially based on the idea that iodine deficiency in the U.S. is actually far more prevalent than often stated. Iodide 127 is the element that the body naturally takes in for use in TH production; it is a chemically stable element, which is significant for its physiological uses, and has no natural isotopes. With the unfortunate advent of nuclear radiation, uranium fission produced iodide 131- an artificial radioisotope (by definition maintaining an unstable nucleus) that has been routinely released into the environment. Its instability means that I-131 has a half-life of eight days. Drum posits that six plus decades of the diffusion of this isotope through nuclear explosions, accidents, and general operation of nuclear facilities is connected to the increase in thyroid pathology. When the body has an ample stock of I-127, it is not likely to uptake I-131; it is only in cases of iodide deficiency that the body will readily accept the isotope. As it is not naturally occurring and did not exist prior to the 1940’s, animals do not have any mechanism for dealing with it. The I-131 moves into molecules, cells, and tissue where I-127 would normally be present. Drum explains, “When a thyroid hormone molecule experiences radioactive decay of one of its iodine atoms, that atom disappears with an inert gas [Xenon] suddenly left in its place; any functional event involving the thyroid hormone molecule with Iodine 131 decay will experience at least structural disruption and possibly destruction. All of the intended subsequent hormone-dependent functions will be terminated prematurely.” Since iodide deficiency world-wide is fairly routine, I-131 poses a significant danger. Here, Drum points to the therapeutic value of maintaining an ample store of I-127 through regular seaweed consumption (see “Herbs” section for detail.) One can imagine the devastating impact of massive amounts of I-131 dumped into the environment in cases of nuclear explosions (whether during tests or through their malicious intended use) and accidents. Following the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, there was a steady increase of thyroid disease. The positive measures taken in Poland at the time also corroborate this scenario, as Polish citizens were supplied with various forms of I-127 supplementation and suffered a remarkably low incidence of nuclear related thyroid disease. Yet, nuclear facilities continually emit I-131 into the environment. This primarily occurs in periodic bursts, after which the radioactive iodide pollutes air and water, and lands on plants, where it is regularly consumed by all herbivores/omnivores. It’s eight day half-life means that the I-131 will pose a threat as a thyroid hazard for approximately eight weeks (at which point it will have decayed.) This also means that if incorporated into the body, its toxic decay is likely to occur internally, rather than after excretion. Though I won’t go into detail here, X-rays should also be noted as another potential thyroid hazard. The most flagrant use of high dose X-rays on the upper part of the body has been cut back in recent years, but many suffer thyroid disease as a result of past, now outdated, treatments for dermatological concerns and asthma/bronchitis. The thyroid has little structural protection and is particularly at-risk to X-ray damage – something to consider as the frequent use of dental and chest X-rays and CAT scans persists. (Drum, “Environmental Origins of Thyroid Disease- Part 2”, p. 5-6 ) Drum also points out the thyroid sabotaging effects of a variety of chemicals in the modern industrial environment. One category is iodine displacers, which are other elements in the same family as iodine- halogens: fluorine, chlorine, and bromine. These elements can displace or interfere with iodine metabolism. Fluorine is commonly found in toothpaste and water supplies, chorine in water supplies and cleaning agents, and bromine in industrial emissions, pesticides, and preservatives. Much like I-131, these had no occasion to enter the body in the past, and hence animals have developed few protection mechanisms to counter their effects. They may put a considerable strain on thyroid metabolism. Likewise polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs- now mostly banned, previously used in a variety of industrial applications and still present in the environment), Poly-bromated di-ethyl ethers (PBDE’s- found in flame retardants), Dihydroxybenzene (resorcinol- used in the production of rayon and nylon, and in furniture glue) , and MBTE (gasoline additive) all have a devastating effect on thyroid function. PCB’s are thyroid hormone mimetics whose chemical structure closely resembles TH. The other three substances are endocrine disruptors that can be strongly thyroid disruptive. The ubiquitous presence of these chemicals in today’s environment may have a considerable connection to the growing incidence of thyroid disease. (R. Drum, “Environmental Origins of Thyroid Disease- Part 1”, p. 4-8.) Similarly, the widespread consumption of thyroid suppressive foods, particularly endocrine disruptors such as soy isoflavones, may have a significant effect; this will be covered in more detail in the section below on diet. Another area in need of further exploration is the connection between the thyroid gland and other non-thyroid hormones, particularly estrogen and progesterone. There are estrogen receptors in the thyroid and, as a result, excessive estrogen can inhibit TH secretion. It appears that the balance between estrogen and progesterone is critical; in a condition of either too much estrogen, too little progesterone, or a combination of both, estrogen dominance may occur. Hypothyroidism is sometimes classed as a side effect of estrogen dominance. Post-pregnancy, peri/menopause, and during the use of birth control pills or hormone replacement, instances when estrogen dominance is common, are also times in which hypothyroidism is more prevalent. In addition, there also seems to be a link between excess estrogen and general auto-immune disease (Mary Shomon, Living Well With Hypothyroidism, p. 268 and http://www.womentowomen.com/hypothyroidism) It might also be interesting to compare the rates of hypothyroidism between men and women, when only the latter who do not fall into any of the above groups are included in the calculations; perhaps the incidence would be more equal, confirming the heavy impact of hormonal factors upon the development of thyroid dysfunction. Stress also has a known impact on thyroid function. Three main ways in which this can occur are through the stress response of the hypothalamus that may alter TRH secretion, from direct contact between the thyroid gland and the sympathetic nervous system, and through the effect of other hormones whose levels fluctuate in times of stress (estrogen/progesterone being no exception to this.) Herbalist Michael Moore specifically refers to a Thyroid Stress Pattern, in which constant overtaxation of the thyroid gland to meet the body’s elevated requirements for TH due to stress, can lead to either a depressed or overstimulated state (or often a fluctuation between the two. ) Not insignificantly, these conditions may tie into either of his other two stress patterns, Adrenalin Stress or Adrenocortical Stress, both of which involve the body’s over dependence on other hormones- epinephrine or adrenal cortical and gonadal steroids, respectively. (Michael Moore, Herbal Energetic in Clinical Practice, p. 83) Indeed, the connection between hypothyroidism and adrenal fatigue is finally becoming more recognized within the medical establishment. The symptoms of the two conditions are very similar and it seems that a state of adrenal exhaustion will undermine the effectiveness of commonly prescribed hypothyroid treatments. (Langer & Scheer, p. 168) One theory holds that “adrenal stress impairs thyroid function because it causes overproduction of cortisol, blocking the efficient conversion and peripheral cellular use of the thyroid hormones…” (http://www.womentowomen.com/hypothyroidism/) The role of reverse T3 also demands research. Reverse T3 is an inactive form of T3, which the body seems to opt for converting to, instead of T3, during times of physical stress. It appears that both pregnancy and estrogen replacement therapy are instances associated with increased T3 concentration. There has not been sufficient research in this area, but it seems that this could be another link between stress, varied hormone balance, and thyroid activity. (M. Shomon, p. 262-263.) Ryan Drum offers another perspective on the stress factor: “I further believe that the situational low thyroid presentations (hypothyroidism) which seem to be initiated by a known life trauma, particularly loss of a loved one or similar grief-inducing events, are completely normal thyroid responses and very desirable components of the grief response…” He holds that such cases should not involve thyroid specific treatment unless they are life threatening or last for more than one year. He adds that as the understandable outcome of a culture that does not allow for a natural grief process, individuals suffer from “chronic secondary grief” in which one laments the lack of grieving, which can lead to a hypothyroid response. (R. Drum, “Thyroid Function and Dysfunction, p. 9) The accepted medical treatment for hypothyroidism has long been the popping of a daily pill for life- a treatment that certainly benefits the drug companies and seems to stabilize the condition enough so that life threatening cases are now rare, while delivering a questionable quality of life and possibly posing some long term health risks. The result of this scenario is that there has not been extensive research into the myriad factors that may contribute to the condition- as it is seen as neither a pressing situation nor of economic benefit (to pharmaceutical companies.) Thus, there are many inconclusive (due to lack of research), but valid, theories as to why hypothyroidism may begin- more than there is space here to mention. One final idea that may indicate the variety of possible triggers is the Epstein-Barr virus. Epstein-Barr (EBV) is the virus that causes mononucleosis. Some doctors now believe that there may be a connection between having had EBV (whose antibodies remain for the duration of one’s life) or full-blown mono and later developing autoimmune hypothyroidism. It is unclear whether the overall exhaustion brought on by the virus may simply weaken one’s immunity or whether there is a more direct link. In either case, the incidence of those who have had both seems to be high. In fact, there is now some thought about the existence of other viral causes and a link to anti-viral agents or vaccines. (M. Shomon, p. 27 & 272-273.) Most of the understandings presented above use western physiology as their base; traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has a very different take on the situation. In classical TCM, what is identified in western medicine as thyroid dysfunction is seen as a symptom of imbalance between various organ systems. Organs themselves are seen as part of functional systems rather than as anatomically isolated (and for this reason referred to in capital letters), so when one speaks of the Heart, Kidneys, Lungs, etc., it encompasses a broader physiological understanding than simply the organ itself. In The Web That Has No Weaver, Ted Kaptchuk explains that instead of treating the thyroid, “[t]he Chinese physician, however, might effect a cure through treatment of the Heart or, depending on the total configuration of signs, through treatment of the Liver, Spleen, Kidneys, or some combination of these Organs.” (Kaptchuk, p. 77) An essential aspect of this approach is seeing each person as an individual- rather than a recognizable pathology (certainly a position shared by western herbalists). As TCM does not necessarily identify thyroid dysfunction as such, it does not seem appropriate to offer any generalizations of TCM approaches for “hypothyroidism”. One integrative practitioner, who combines TCM, Ayurvedic Medicine, and western physiology, uses a treatment plan that may integrate diet, exercise, herbs, medications, environment, lifestyle, and acupuncture. She suggests four main areas that she tends to focus on herbally: 1) liver cleansing; 2) regulation of digestion and elimination; 3) spleen and stomach tonification; 4) kidney and adrenal tonification. (http://www.thyroid-info.com/articles/shasta.htm) It appears that while Ayurvedic medicine has some similarities with TCM’s view of the body, emphasizing overall balance and harmony over the identification of specific pathologies, an Ayurvedic understanding of thyroid function/dysfunction is also somewhat more compatible with a western physiological understanding of the gland. Herbs & Hypothyroidism When using many of these herbs with clients on thyroid medication, blood levels must be carefully monitored, as the required medication dose may shift over time concurrent with herb use. Herbs, like all food substances and supplements, should not be taken at the same time of day as thyroid hormone medication. These herbs, while having the potential to help someone with a hypothyroid condition, are only one part of a multifaceted approach. Diet and lifestyle (exercise, sleep habits, stress reduction, etc) are essential components of one’s thyroid health. Some people will not be able to stop taking thyroid medication completely, no matter what degree of other approaches they are using; for such individuals, a decrease in med dose, through herbs, diet, and lifestyle changes may be the optimal outcome. Of course the situation varies between individuals, but it is important that neither the herbalist nor the client have rigidly unrealistic expectations. See bibliography for complete information on sources, but for this section citation abbreviations are as follows: (DH)=David Hoffmann, Medical Herbalism; (MH)=Matthew Wood, The Practice of Traditional Western Herbalism; (RD)= Ryan Drum from his fantastic website- http://www.ryandrum.com/; (MH)=Maude Grieves, A Modern Herbal. In addition, other websites are cited below. General herbal actions that may be indicated (depending on individual case): thyroid tonics/stimulants, adaptogens, nervines, circulatory stimulants, bitters, hepatic and/or specific hepatic laxatives, cardiovascular tonics, nutritives, emollients. Seaweed- Others are useful as well, but specifically for thyroid, Fucus vesiculosus (Bladderwrack/Kelp)- Whole plant is used. It is antihypothyroid and antirheumatic. It is most appropriate when iodine deficiency is involved- but can be of some use to hypothyroid/goiter conditions in general. It helps to regulate thyroid function, improving all types of symptoms. If obesity associated with thyroid is present, it can help weight loss. Also used in relieving symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis- both internally and externally. It is taken as tablet or infusion (1 cup boiling water over 2-3 tsp, 3x/day.) CAUTION: Its iodine content can also potentially cause hyper & hypothyroidism and it may interact with other thyroid treatments. Elevated urinary arsenic levels have been associated with it. Prolonged use may reduce gastro-intestinal iron absorption (because of fucoidan’s binding properties), which can slowly reduce hemoglobin, packed cell volume, and serum FE concentrations. Overtime can also affect NA & K absorption and cause diarrhea. Constituents: phenolic compounds, mucopolysaccharides, ester diglycerides, polar lipids, trace metals. (DH) Charcoal derived from bladderwrack used in goiter; good for obesity associated w/ thyroid. (MG) Ryan Drum sings the praises of seaweed consumption like no other, see his website for more detailed information. He notes that because it may take people some time to build up proper internal flora for seaweed digestion, it makes sense to eat small amounts daily over time, rather than large occasional doses. For the most part, he recommends eating it raw. One of its major contributions to overall health, is its high nutrient content (including potassium, selenium, phycopolymers, algin, B vitamins, omega-3 fatty acids, among others.) Its iodine content and iodine protective potential (see section on Environmental Causes for more info) are unsurpassed. The US RDA for iodine is 150 micrograms; while not everyone is in need of this level of supplementation, and over-supplementation carries the aforementioned risks, maintaining this amount from whatever combination of sources should be recognized as a mechanism to prevent I-131 intake. On seaweeds specific thyroid effects, Drum writes: “Brown seaweeds are the only known non-animal sources of thyroid hormones. Fucus spp of brown seaweeds have been used as treatment for thyroid disorders . The thyroid hormone present in Fucus is Di-Iodothyronine (DIT); it is weakly active if at all as a thyroid hormone in the mammalian body. Two DIT molecules are condensed in an elegant esterification reaction to produce tetraiodotyrosine(T4, Thyroxine). The organically bound iodine in Fucus may enhance T4 production by providing some prefabricated portions of T4. I have not seen any studies tracing Fucus-sourced DIT to either the thyroid gland or circulating T4. The therapeutic effects of using powdered Fucus, 3-5 grams daily resemble the therapeutic effects of thyroxine medications: shrinking of goiters, weight loss, resolution of symptomatic non-autoimmune hypothyroidism, return of vim and vigor, lessening of psychiatric disruptions, and resolution of eczemas. This is especially true of women enduring postpartum physiological depression after several years of being pregnant and nursing one or more children. I have seen no reports of thyrotoxicity from Fucus consumption. Women with low thyroid function, according to thyroid panel blood tests report improved test results. Any similar results from using Fucus teas will be due to inorganic iodine supply increase and probably not from DIT. DIT is not very water soluble. Fucus is used to wean mildly hypothyroid patients off thyroid hormone medication. This can work only if the patient has a thyroid gland mass capable of making T4 and T3 in sufficient quantities to supply body needs. Those without a thyroid gland may be helped by the iodine from Fucus, alleviating the need to mine thyroid medications for iodine. This may also explain in part the alleged weight loss results from ingesting Fucus.” On other Seaweeds, he says, “T4 and T3 have been found as the main organically bound iodine compounds in several brown seaweeds, notably Laminaria sp. and Sargassum sp. Up to 10% of Lamiarian iodine may be in MIT, DIT, T3, orT4. Even more in the less commonly available Sargassum (less commercially available; it is a rapidly expanding invasive of all temperate coasts; this may be good news for thyroid sufferers) (Kazutosi 2002). Kombu is one of the top 5 most consumed seaweeds in Japan and USA. The physiological effects of regular kombu consumption can be: resolution of coronary artery disease, healthier liver function, higher metabolic rate, faster food transit time, lower LDL cholesterol,, higher HDL cholesterol blood levels. If the thyroid hormones in kombu and Sargassum are available from food, this could turn out to be an effective treatment to replace both synthetic thyroxines and animal-thyroid medications. I assume at least some T4 and T3 get into the human body from dietary Kombu and stimulate more rapid clearing of fatty wastes from the liver, enabling more rapid removal of blood borne fatty wastes. T4 and T3 are biphenols and are not water soluble. Oil extractions of Kombu may provide T4 and T3 as well as DIT and MIT(Mono-iodotyrosine) and be an effective thyrosupportive medicine. Powdered Fucus is mixed with olive oil as a vegan replacement for cod liver oil and seems to work as well or better than cod liver oil.” He adds the caution that some individuals are extremely sensitive to iodine and too much may push them into hyperthyroid symptoms. As for David Hoffman’s mention of potential problems from fucoidan, Drum mentions that the constituent can be cooked out of most edible brown algae, in necessary cases, by simmering it for 20-40 minutes in water. Though he adds that fucoidan can be useful in reducing the intensity of inflammatory responses and promoting rapid tissue healing after wound or surgical trauma. His dosage for bladderwrack is up to 5 grams daily, one hour before regular meals. (RD) Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha)- Ashwagandha is hearty shrub in the nightshade (Solanaceae) family. Medicinally, the root and berries are most widely used. The root is utilized extensively in Ayurvedic medicine to increase overall health and longevity, while the fruit, seeds, and leaves are also applied as aphrodisiacs, diuretics, and treatments for memory loss. Outside of Ayurveda as well, Ashwagandha is viewed as an adaptogen, reproductive stimulant, anti-caricinogenic, and is also seen to provide symptomatic relief for arthritis. It can also have sedative properties. Energetically, it is considered to be ‘horse medicine’, correlating with the translation of it Sanskrit name- “horse’s smell.” Its main constituents are alkaloids and steroidal lactones. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashwagandha) According to a study (on mice) at a University in India, ashwagandha root extract stimulates thyroidal activity (primarily by raising T4 levels) and also enhances the antiperoxidation (reduces the amount of lipid peroxides) of hepatic tissue. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9811169.) Other studies have shown that ashwagandha can maintain normal antioxidant function even during intentionally induced stress trauma, not only boosting antioxidant protection but also reducing the amount of cortisol that is released in response to stress. Excess cortisol can exacerbate a thyroid condition. In addition, ashwagandha supports antioxidant enzymes so they are less taxed, which can have a sparing effect on selenium, also indirectly supporting healthy thyroid function. (http://www.ei-resource.org/articles/related-conditions-articles/herbs-and-thyroid-function/.) Michael Tierra’s wonderful monograph on ashwagandha (http://www.planetherbs.com/articles/ashwagandha.htm) gives the following Ayurvedic dosages: powder- 3-6 grams daily or up to 5 to 10 grams as an occasional tonic; decoction-16 to 31 grams added to heated milk; alcoholic Extract: 2 Tbsp., 2-4 times daily; mixed with ghee or honey-1 tsp. 2 times daily. In my own personal use of the herb (at much smaller doses- approx 15 drops 2-3x/day), it does seem to have helped with some symptoms associated with hypothyroidism, as well as having ‘possibly’ contributed to lowering the required dosage of synthetic T4. Centella asiatica (Gotu Kola)- Gotu Kola has been used traditionally in Ayurveda for hypothyroidism. It stimulates circulation, and particularly improves mental function/clarity and memory, which may be slowed in cases of hypothyroidism. It is also helpful to the nervous system generally and can act as an adaptogen. Should used in fresh preparations. (See Christopher Hobbs: http://www.foundationsofherbalism.com/HerbWalk/Integ/GotuKola.html) May also help normalize nail and hair growth. According to Michael Moore, Centella can have a pituitary/hypothalamic “potentiating” and thyroid stimulating effect. Commiphora mukul (Guggul)- Guggul is another herb used widely in Ayurveda; it is warming, anti-inflammatory, believed useful in cases of obesity, and cholesterol lowering. As many cases of hypothyroidism can involve elevated cholesterol, the last effect may be particularly helpful in such cases. Guggul is specifically indicated for prevention of sluggish metabolism. Studies have shown that once of its constituents, Z-guggulsterone, can increase the thyroid’s ability to uptake enzymes needed for effective hormone conversion. It also increases oxygen uptake in muscles. (Shomon) Lepidium meyenii (Maca Root)- “Used successfully by indigenous peoples of Peru to help with hormonal imbalances, menstrual irregularities,fertility, and menopausal symptoms, including hot flashes, vaginal dryness, loss of energy, libido and depression. Its action relies on plant sterols, which act as chemical triggers to help the body itself produce a higher level of hormones appropriate to the age and gender of the person taking it. Clinical case studies have shown that maca can be effective for premenstrual syndrome (PMS), as well as menopausal symptoms, and may help symptoms of hypothyroidism as well.” http://www.thyroid-info.com/articles/macahrt.htm Mahonia aquifolium (Oregon Grape)- The rhizome and root are used; constituents are alkaloids of isoquinoline type. It is an alterative, cholagogue, laxative, antiemetic, anticatarrhal, and tonic. Useful in chronic, scaly skin conditions. Tonic to liver and gallbladder. Useful as laxative in chronic constipation. Tincture- 1-4 ml 3x/day or decoction 1-2 tsp root in 1 cup water. (DH) Improves kidney and liver excretory function- which can be useful in keeping these organs clear of toxins and better able to process thyroid (and other hormones.) May also be a mild thyroid stimulant. (RD) It is blood building, stimulates glands of the body (particularly lymph and liver), and aids digestion; it can be helpful in diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis (which can sometimes be associated with hypothyroid.) 5-30 drops of tincture/fluid extract- the smaller effective dose, the better. (MW) Avena Sativa (Oats)- Oats are a nervine tonic, antidepressant, nutritive, demulcent, and vulnerary. The seed and whole plant are used; constituents are proteins, flavones, avenacosides, fixed oil, vitamin E, and starch. Oats feed the nervous system when one is under stress; it’s specific for nervous debility and exhaustion associated with depression (both of which can be associated with hypothyroidism.) Dosage can be 3-5 ml 3x/day of tincture or one cup boiling water infused with 1-3 tsp. of straw 3x/day. (DH) Can help with low libido and may be useful in lowering cholesterol. Oats are tonic in cases of dryness and atrophy; this remedy has an affinity for nerves (sympathetic excess), skin, hair, nails, and connective tissue. It is useful when there is an inability to keep the fixed on one subject, a lack of focus and memory. It can be helpful in insomnia associated with depression and nervous exhaustion. (MW) Juglans nigra (Black Walnut)- hulls of walnut, leaves; It is VERY astringent, alterative, laxative, antibacterial, antiparasitic, (good for gallstones). It acts on the thyroid- good for hypothyroid and high in iodine. It is a traditional remedy for goiter in the south. (Helpful in fibromyalgia, which can be associated with hypothyroid.) (MW) Personal use: I have had positive results in my own use, as hypothyroid, of a combination of Withania Somnifera, Centella Asiatica, Avena Sativa, and Mahonia aquifolium. Obviously any individual’s constitutional needs will vary, but as a side note, these four herbs could combine well to support a broad spectrum of hypothyroid related issues. (However, Centella can be quite stimulating and may be too much for some people.) Other herbs to consider for Hypothyroid: The first three are sometimes part of TCM formulas for imbalances that may be seen as relating to a Western diagnosis of hypothyroidism. Because TCM primarily uses formulas and has a very different understanding of this western defined pathology, it is hard to say for certain if these herbs would be applicable individually in such cases, but they are worth considering- and perhaps consulting a TCM practitioner for further information. Astragalus membranaceus- Root is used; it is primarily an immunomodulator, as well as tonic (spleen, kidneys, lungs, and blood), stimulant, and diuretic. Strengthens many functions of immune system, anti-cancer, hepatoprotective. (DH) Note: Many cite it for use in hypothyroid, but others mention it for hyperthyroid- or even as contraindicated in hypothyroid. Panax (Red Ginseng)- Root; adaptogen, tonic, stimulant, hypoglycemic. Very stimulating; good for general use in weak or elderly people. Do not use in acute inflammatory condition or bronchitis. (DH) Can help build libido, as general builds energy level- both of which can be low in hypothyroid. Polygonum multiflorum (He Sho Wu/ Fo ti)- Kidney and liver tonic, works on symptoms associated with these deficiencies including insomnia, grey hair/hair loss, memory loss, lower back pain, low energy/libido, amongst others. (contraindicated in cases of poor/damp digestion.) Also: Crataegus spp. (Hawthorn), Cimicifuga racemosa (Black Cohosh), Ginkgo Biloba (Ginkgo), Allium sativum (Garlic), Medicago Sativa (Alfalfa), Serenoa repens (Saw palmetto), Rumex crispus (Yellow Dock), Coleus forskohlii, Triphala (Ayervedic formula), Schizandra chinensis, Anemone (Pulsatilla), Phytolacca (Poke root), Iris, *Oplopanax (Devil’s Club). Note- Oplopanax was a traditional indigenous remedy on the west coast for symptoms resembling hyperthyroid. For this reason, it is unclear if it would perhaps be contraindicated for hypothyroid (though perhaps its use was for an overall tonic effect on the gland, rather than thyroid cooling.) In that vein, an herbalist that I spoke with recently has found much use for it in hypothyroid cases and has never seen any negative effects from it. Herbs contraindicated in Hypothyroid: It is important to be aware that some of the herbs that would be considered specific to hyperthyroid should be avoided for those with hypothyroid conditions, especially those herbs that have a definite thyroid suppressive action. The following list contains some herbs that fall into this category. Melissa officinalis (Lemon Balm), Lycopus virginicus or europaeus (Bugleweed), Ocimum Sanctum (Holy Basil), Leonurus cardiaca (Motherwort), Trigonella foenum vulgare (Fenugreek) (unclear if it would be indicated for hyper, but said to have thyroid suppressive effects so to be avoid for people with hypo.) Nutrition: Diet & Supplements Diet is absolutely essential in the maintenance of thyroid health. Having an overall balanced food intake, based on whole, ideally organic, foods and drinking sufficient water is key to general health, and the thyroid is no exception. However, specific foods can be thyroid suppressive or supportive. Beginning with the former, soy comes up as a primary offender. Soy contains high amounts of isoflavones, which are a member of the flavanoid family- a known category of endocrine disruptors. These act as hormones, specifically phytoestrogens in the case of isoflavones, disrupting the normal activity and balance of natural hormones in the body. Flavanoids are anti-thyroid agents; they inhibit thyroid peroxidase (TPO), an enzyme that frees up iodine for its use in the production of TH. (www.wikipedia.org) While this can be particularly dangerous in soy based infant formulas, overconsumption of soy in any form can cause significant problems. For people with possible hypothyroid issues, it is probably best to avoid soy altogether. Millet similarly has a high flavanoid content; hypothyroid is common in places where this grain is a dietary staple. (M. Shomon, p. 269-270) Cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, cabbage, rutabagas, turnips, kohlrabi, kale- and any other vegetables in the brassica family), particularly raw, are goitrogenic (thyroid suppressive) due to their content of goitrin, which impedes the body’s use of iodine. (Langer and Scheer, p. 37) There is some debate about whether cooking or fermenting these vegetables can decrease this effect. It seems that these processes will likely cut down on the negative impacts, but it probably still wise to use moderation in cases of pre-existing hypothyroidism. Other foods that should be avoided or reduced (for similar reasons) are: Walnuts, peanuts, almonds, peaches, strawberries, cherries, apricots, prunes, garlic, lima beans, sweet potatoes, corn, and peas. (This list is not necessarily comprehensive.) If they aren’t already being reduced for their other nasty effects, white sugar, white flour, caffeine, alcohol, and cigarettes should be cut down as they all have a negative impact on thyroid function. As for thyroid stimulating/supportive foods, first: seaweed, seaweed, seaweed. See the section above under herbs for more details (here we encounter the perennial line between herbs and food, and it should simply be acknowledged that herbs ARE food- and the exact classification varies on a cultural and individual basis.) On his webpage, Ryan Drum offers a significantly longer discussion on the value of different species of seaweed and their exact nutritional content and recommended dosages. Apparently garlic and root crops, such as turnips, carrots, potatoes, parsnips, sweet potatoes can contain some iodine, depending on the content in the soil in which they are grown; this can be increased greatly through fertilization with seaweed. (R. Drum, “Thyroid Function and Dysfunction”, p. 5) (However- as seen above- others note garlic and sweet potatoes as potentially goitrogenic.) Other sources of dietary iodine that may be appropriate for omnivores are red meat, seafood, eggs, and dairy. Some commercial baked goods may be due to their manufacture process. Like a few seaweeds, red meat can also contribute to raising thyroid levels directly; in this case through globulin bound thyroid hormones in the animal’s blood. Drum encourages consumption of the animal raw or as rare as possible (though I must admit that my vegetarian self cringes at writing this.) (R. Drum, “Environmental Origins of Thyroid Dysfunction, p.4-5) Hypothyroid individuals may benefit from certain supplements. There are sometimes conflicting opinions on this topic, and again, not always adequate research to back a particular theory; but the following are some suggestions that may be worth incorporating to see for oneself if there is positive effect: - L-tyrosine is a precursor to thyroid hormone and low levels are sometimes found in conjunction with hypothyroidism, in which case supplementation may be of benefit. (Shomon, p. 123) - Brewer’s/Nutritional Yeast can be an invaluable supplement of B vitamins (particularly B-12) and other nutrients, including selenium (depending on the brand). This is particularly valuable to vegans/vegetarians who may not otherwise have ample sources of B-12. - Overall B-complex vitamin- particularly B1 (Thiamin), B2 (Riboflavin), B3 (Niacin), B6 (Pyridoxine) , and B12 (Cobalamin). B1 and B2 are connected to metabolism- B1 to carbohydrate metabolism and B2 to thyroid hormone metabolism specifically, catalyzing the conversion of T4 to T3. (Shomon, p. 124) B3 assists cells in respiration and the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. B6 deficiency can lead to problems in the utilization of iodine to produce TH. B12 absorption is tied to proper thyroid function and it is not uncommon that an underactive thyroid can lead to malabsorption of this vital nutrient. (Langer and Scheer, p. 29-30.) -Vitamin A- if the thyroid gland is underactive, there is not an efficient conversion of carotene (the source found in many foods- particularly vegetables) to usable vitamin A. (Langer and Sheer, p. 26) - Vitamin C deficiency can place strain on the thyroid (and in long term cases, even cause the thyroid cells to multiply at an abnormal rate and oversecrete- essentially ignoring signals from the pituitary.) (Langer and Scheer, p. 30) - Vitamin E deficiency appears to also cause rapid thyroid cell multiplication, and also inadequate synthesis of TSH in the pituitary. (Langer and Scheer, p. 31) Though both C and E deficiency seems to lead to conditions akin to hyperthyroidism, and thus would be indicated in such cases, adequate supply of these vitamins also helpful in hypothyroidism to promote overall healthy thyroid function. - Selenium helps control the conversion of T4 to T3 by activating an essential enzyme. It seems that selenium also has a balancing effect in conjunction with iodine- too much iodine without adequate selenium can lead to thyroid damage. Stress and injury appear to decrease selenium levels and make the thyroid especially vulnerable. (Shomon, p. 172) See Langer and Scheer 171-172 for a more in depth consideration. Selenium supplements are not recommended in women who are or are considering becoming pregnant. As excess selenium can be damaging, the dose in conjunction with adequate iodine should be carefully measured. - Copper and Zinc can impact production of T4 and effect metabolism of TH in cells. It is critical that these two trace minerals be in balance within the body and that neither is excess nor deficient. (Langer and Scheer, p. 59) - Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are critical for thyroid function. (Shomon, p. 123) Evening primrose oil, particularly, can be useful. Its essential fatty acids are precursors to prostaglandins, which are vital to all cells. They are critical to blood circulation, metabolism, growth and reproduction, and immune function. (Langer and Scheer, p. 150.) EFAs can be particularly supportive in hypothyroid, where the same body functions may not be carried out with maximum efficiency. In most cases, supplement dosages are not included as they will vary based on an individual’s body size, age, and diet. It, therefore, seems most appropriate to research supplementation amounts on a case by case basis, using the above information as guideline for what nutrients might be called for. (not including some specific URL’s which are cited in paper where appropriate): Drum, Ryan. “Thyroid Function and Dysfunction,” “Environmental Origins of Thyroid Disease- Part 1,” and “Environmental Origins of Thyroid Disease- Part 2.” Available at http://www.ryandrum.com/. Eng, Grace, M.D. – personal conversations Fischer, Pam – class lectures. Grieve, Maude. A Modern Herbal. 1971 (1931), Dover Publications, New York, NY Hoffman, David. Medical Herbalism. 2003, Healing Arts Press, Rochester, VT. Kaptchuk, Ted J. The Web That Has No Weaver. 2000, Contemporary Books, New Kopf, Eric, MD. “The Thyroid Gland.” Ohlone Center Lecture Paper, April 17, 2007. Levoxyl_WebPl available at http://www.levoxyl.com/pi.asp. Langer, Stephen E. and Scheer, James F. Solved: The Riddle of Illness. 2000, Keats Publishing. Lincolnwood, IL. Mareib, Elain N. RN, PhD & Hoehn, Katja MD, PhD. Human Anatomy & Physiology; Seventh Ad., 2007, Pearson Education, Inc. San Francisco, CA. Moore, Michael. “Herbal Energetic in Clinical Practice”, Available at Muscat, Joshua – personal conversations Shomon, Mary J. Living Well With Hypothyroidism. 2000, Avon Books, NY, NY; University of Maryland Medical Center: UpToDate site: http://www.utdol.com Women to Women, http://www.womentowomen.com/hypothyroidism/ Wood, Matthew. The Practice of Traditional Western Herbalism. 2004, North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, CA.
Parents routinely ask child care professionals if video games are OK for their kids. They are rightfully confused about the impact of 8-10 hours of daily digital media on their children and expect pediatricians, child psychologists, and child psychiatrists to be experts in the field. As with many other topics, the answer is not only nuanced but may depend on what parents read or what TV network they watch). There is no question that video games, as well as other technologies, can have a positive and negative impact on the lives of 21st century children. While our team at LearningWorks for Kids disagree with those who believe that all screen time is bad for children, there are areas of genuine concern, such as excessive amounts of screen time, desensitization to violence, and the potential for addictive behavior. After having worked with thousands of families in connection with this topic and followed the research, I can offer the following guidelines: - All digital content is not created equal: there are some great video games (and other digital media), and there are some not-so-great games. - Video games can often be cognitively challenging and offer an opportunity for learning a variety of soft and academic skills. - Most kids benefit from a modest amount of digital play and screen time. - Some kids are highly susceptible to overdoing screen time, and a portion of these kids can become addicted to screen time. - Facility with video games and other digital media is crucial to 21st century education, work, and communication skills. - Excessive screen time can either cause or contribute to mental and physical health issues, shorter attention spans, poor academic performance, and a narrowing of interests. - Access to inappropriate and violent content is a legitimate concern, particularly for younger children. - Parents need to be more involved with their kids’ use of digital media. - The potential benefits of digital media for learning, communication, creativity, problem solving, and enjoyment outweigh the problems. - It’s all about balance: 21st century kids need a healthy “Play Diet” in which they engage in physical, social, creative, unstructured, and digital play on a daily basis. The following links provide an introduction to some of the best research and articles to help you understand the positive and negative impacts of video games and technology on children. Click on the links to read the original research or summaries. Research: Video Games Have Positive Effects on Children - Improve Processing Speed (Green and Bavelier, 2009) This article describes how action video games can improve varying types of processing speed. - Improve Working Memory (Klingberg et al., 2007) This article elaborates on how certain video games can enhance the working memory of children. - Increase Pro-Social Behavior in Children (Gentile et al., 2009) This article shows how the pro-social behavior in children is strengthened by gaming. - Improve Social Involvement (Ferguson, 2010) This article delves into the ways that video games are beneficial for children’s social skills. - Build brain regions Kühn and colleagues study of Tetris (Kühn, Gleich, Lorenz, Lindenberger, and Gallinat, 2013) This article explains how the pros of the classic video game Tetris can positively build certain regions of the brain. - Improve Brain Flexibility with StarCraft (Shankland, 2013) This article concerns StarCraft and how it can potentially improve the flexibility and versatility of the brain. - Rayman Raving Rabbids Improves Reading Fluency (Owen, 2013) This article focuses on the video game Rayman’s Raving Rabbids and how its game play improves children’s reading speed and efficiency. Research: Video Games Have Negative Effects on Children - Increasing Levels of Obesity with Screen-based Time, Primarily Television (Harvard Report; 2018) This article looks at how excessive gaming can lead to children becoming overweight and developing obesity. - Poor psychological adjustment in kids who play more than 3 hours a day (American Academy of Pediatrics Report, 2014) This article talks about the negative impact on children’s brains when they play video games for more than 3 hours a day. - Violence and Video Games (Bushman, 2013) This article discusses how video-game violence has had a significant impact on children and society today. - Ignoring other activities due to 7 hours 38 minutes a day of digital-media time (Kaiser, Lamontagne, Singh, and Palosky, 2010) This article reveals how children tend to ignore other recommended activities, resulting in excessive amounts of gaming. - Video game addiction 3 – 8% cited-DSM-V category Internet Gaming Disorder (Vitelli, 2013) This article illustrates the increase in video game addiction and how this addiction is now considered a psychological disorder in the DSM-5.
Tragic as they were, the events of Sept. 11 provided an unexpected boon to climate science: They caused an unprecedented three-day interruption in U.S. air traffic that enabled scientists to assess the impact on the climate of condensation from jet planes. Those streaks of condensation, known as contrails, all but disappeared during the flight hiatus — and variations in high and low temperatures increased by 2 degrees Fahrenheit each day, according to meteorologists. The research establishes that contrails can affect temperatures, although whether they have a net effect on global warming remains a question. Contrails generally behave similarly to normal clouds, blocking solar energy from above and trapping heat below, thereby reducing the daily temperature range. Because certain species depend on specific daily temperature variations for survival, even slight changes in climate can have substantial, ecosystem-wide effects.
The Troxler Effect is named after Swiss physician and philosopher Ignaz Paul Vital Troxler (1780-1866). In 1804, Troxler made the discovery that rigidly fixating one’s gaze on some element in the visual field can cause surrounding stationary images to seem to slowly disappear or fade. They are replaced with an experience, the nature of which is determined by the background that the object is on. This is known as filling-in. The Troxler effect illustrates the importance of saccades, the involuntary movements of the eye which occur even while one’s gaze is apparently settled. If we could perfectly fixate on some point in our visual field by suppressing saccadic movement, a static scene would slowly fade from view after a few seconds due to the local neural adaptation of the rods, cones and ganglion cells in the retina. In brief, any constant light stimulus will cause an individual neuron to become desensitized to that stimulus, and hence reduce the strength of its signal to the brain. When we attempt to fix our gaze on an object, the eye undergoes extremely rapid and relatively large-scale sudden movements called microsaccades, in contrast to saccadic drifts or small oscillations. Microsaccades cause the pattern of activity which forms the retinal image to shift across hundreds of photoreceptors at a time, providing a constant “refreshing” of the image (Martinez-Conde 2010). The Troxler effect occurs with any stationary stimulus, but it is particularly fast-acting and noticeable with low-contrast stimuli (so note the persistence of the cat’s grin, which is of higher contrast than the rest of the image). Such stimuli fail to trigger certain retinal mechanisms such as centre-surround ganglion cells which generate increased signal strength (see the entry on Adelson’s checkerboard illusion). The term ‘filling-in’ has two usages in philosophy and vision science. Filling-in of an uncontroversial sort occurs when we experience something that is not directly given to us from sensory input. One example of this occurs when we look at the world with one eye. There is an area of the world that the eye receives no information about - the area from which the light that enters our eye falls on our blind spot. This is the area on the back of the eye that doesn't contain light-detecting cells. It is the area through which the optic nerve passes from the eye into the brain. (See the images of the retina and the eye below.) When we look at the world with one eye we don't experience a gap in our visual field. Rather we experience something as being there - even if what we experience is illusory and consists of failing to see objects that are present. You can experience this for yourself by looking att the figures below. Close one of your eyes and look at the relevant pictures below while in front of and fixating on the cross. If you are at the right distance from the screen then you should stop experiencing the black dot. Rather you will experience a plain white background in the first two images. What gets filled-in at this spot depends on what surrounds that area. So in the third image, the red cross will disappear and you should experience the black line complete across the white gap. Another example of filling in occurs when retinally fixed stimuli fade due to neural adaptation. We can call these well-established phenomena experiential filling-in. A more controversial kind of ‘filling-in’ is neural filling-in. This is posited as one explanation for the experiential filling-in described above. In neural filling-in the brain actively generates information which is triggered by an absence of information. For example possible neural explanation, discussed in Friedman et al. (2003), for explaining the watercolour illusion is that visual perception is based on a neural image operating as a 2-dimensional array, in which colour signals ‘diffuse’ in all directions until meeting a contour signal. Philosopher and cognitive scientist Daniel Dennett has attacked the idea of neural filling-in (Dennett 1992), arguing that it presupposes a passive conscious observer embodied within the brain who is receiving information from the visual pathway as though viewing an image on a cinema screen (the homunculus fallacy). Dennett considers this picture to be false and to be inherent in any suggestion that there is a neural-perceptual isomorphism, which means a kind of (abstract) form-preserving map between the pattern of neural activity and the organized perceptual experience. Dennett (1991) makes the case that the neural substrate or basis supporting visual conscious experience is in fact distributed and transient in the brain. In short, experiential filling-in need not require neural filling-in. However, Dennett's idea is highly controversial. See Myin and de Nul (2009) for a survey of experimental research suggesting that visual perceptions must indeed match neural activity isomorphically, and that neural filling-in does in fact take place.
Self-produced booklets by migrant parents about their own educational background To make a folder that compares the migrant parents’ educational background with the Danish school system and its pedagogical background. The aim is to create dialog and understanding. How to do: 1. Meeting – parents and teachers a. The parents in each class talk together two and two about their own educational background. They talk about their experiences with: education, homework, discipline, teachers, school yard, and how their parents worked together with the teachers. Each pair of parents agrees on a history they want to tell, and the stories will be recorded on tape. b. The parents talk together about their children’s education, and choose one ore two stories, and the stories will also be recorded on tape. An interpreter helps the teacher to translate and write the stories. These stories are collected in a small booklet. The small booklet will be sent home to all the parents. 2. Meeting – parents and teachers In this meeting the parents tell their story. The teachers and the other parents ask questions and compare with their own education and school. Then they compare with their children’s education and school and their way of learning. 3. Meeting – Parents, teachers and children In this meeting the children create plays about their parent’s stories. (There will be taken a lot of photos of every subject) The subject of the sketches and the histories are: - Parents and teachers work together After each subject there will be discussions, comparisons and questions about the subject and to the teaching which is going on (right) now for the children. Subjects, discussions, arguments and questions are written and collected together with the photos in a (small) booklet. The booklets are sent to the parents. Through dialogue, debate, arguments and questions, the two booklets the parents have made themselves are going to be used as a key to understanding. In addition it creates knowledge and the possibility to ask questions. The booklet can be adapted to different age levels.
Learn how to teach your child maths at home Teaching maths at home can be a difficult process, but the resources that Flexitable has can help you to better understand and explain maths skills. Our manipulatives, often used in schools across the UK, are useful for helping children with homework, learning extra skills, or for home tutoring, and offer an easy way to show, rather than tell, the basics of math. Our Home Tuition pack contains flexible grids for help with multiplication, division, addition, subtraction, and even for fractions, decimals and percentages. In addition to our manipulative math grids, our Home Tuition kit also includes booklets with plans for classroom activities, perfect for home schooling purposes or for adding an extra boost to your child’s learning. The pack contains one each of the following grids: - 10 x 10 Multiplication/Division - PLUS a Lesson Booklet for each grid
Storm surge flood warning system Storm surge flooding information is produced by Météo-France in collaboration with SHOM. SHOM provides real time sea level observations, tide predictions, expertise in coastal hydrodynamics and information on extreme levels and bathymetry (ocean depth). The storm surge flood warning system was implemented under the Plan to Prevent Coastal Flooding and Flash Floods, presented by Jean-Louis Borloo, Minister of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and the Sea, at the Council of Ministers on 13 July 2010. What is storm surge flooding? Storm surges can cause severe flash flooding along the coast, in harbours and the mouths of rivers. They are caused by extreme high sea levels due to the combination of several events: - the intensity of the tide (sea level mainly due to astronomical phenomena and geographical configuration). The higher the tidal coefficient, the higher the high tide level. - the passage of a storm, producing a rise in sea level (called storm surge) through three main processes: - strong swell and waves cause the sea level to rise; - the wind exerts friction on the surface of the water, which changes the currents and sea level (accumulation of water near the coast); - a decrease in the atmospheric pressure. The weight of the air decreases at the surface of the sea, and naturally, the sea level rises. A decrease in atmospheric pressure of one hectopascal (hPa) is equivalent to an increase of approximately one centimetre of water level. Example: A low pressure system of 980 hPa (a difference of 35 hPa relative to the average atmospheric pressure of 1015 hPa) generates a rise of about 35 cm. Breaking waves result in a movement of water masses propagating along the foreshore (zone covered and uncovered at each tide). Jetties, seawalls and other coastal structures can be overrun, damaged or weakened. If the events described above occur simultaneously, this aggravates the flooding and allows the sea to breach sea walls and flow into areas that are usually sheltered. The severity of the flooding depends on the water level reached, incoming water volume and how fast the water flows back out. The intensity of these events depends strongly on the configuration of the seabed, the foreshore and the geographical features of the coast, such as: - shallower sea (upon arriving on the coast, the wave energy is transformed into rising water levels); - the nature of the seabed, which slows or accelerates the propagation of the wave towards the coast (sand, gravel, mud) - the orientation of the coast with respect to the direction of wave propagation. Two recent examples During the passage of the storm Xynthia (27-28 February 2010), the sea level rose in places to over 2 meters in homes. That night, the weather conditions caused the sea level to rise (storm surge) by 1.53 m in La Rochelle, at a time when the sea level was at its highest (high tide with a coefficient of 102 and strong swell). The sea rose more than one meter above the level of the highest tides ever observed. On January 1, 2010, the Côte d'Azur and Corsica were affected by wave trains exceptional for the region. The Nice buoy recorded significant heights of 4 m. These waves from the Balearic Islands, associated with a storm surge of more than 50 cm, caused major flooding on the coast, from Hyères Islands to Monaco and on the west coast of Corsica. Strong waves and coastal flooding are destructive. They can affect the entire coast of Metropolitan France, including on the Mediterranean, where the tidal amplitude is low. The flooding primarily affect low lying areas near the coast. Storm surges, however, can can produce coastal flooding that reaches several kilometres inland, with water levels of several meters. Channels of communication, housing and businesses can be flooded and damaged in a few hours or less. Waves can damage coastal infrastructure (seawalls, jetties, etc.) and carry objects or materials that can injure people, damage property and impede traffic along the coast. Items not properly secured may be washed away by flood waters. Boats moored in harbours can be washed ashore. Near estuaries, the flow of rivers can also be slowed or stopped, which then generates flooding. The damage can be exacerbated in the event of gusty winds, heavy rain and broken levees. Injuries and material damage caused by waves and flooding depend on natural factors but also on human activities (land use). Damage can be reduced through protective measures (seawalls, jetties, dunes) and preventive measures (restrictions on developments in exposed areas, information, preparedness). To find out more: - Brochure: Vagues-submersion : un nouveau dispositif de vigilance - SHOM is a partner of the storm surge flood warning system - Extreme levels - Observations of sea level: a key factor in the storm surge flood warning system - Press release: Launch of the new storm surge flood warning system (21/10/2011) - Press pack: Introducing the new Météo-France storm surge flood warning system - Chassagneux P. Ajout d'un alea « vagues /submersion » dans la procédure vigilance - Bleuse P. Surcote, XYNTHIA et la future vigilance littorale Last updated 12/12/2012
Money • What is money? Money is any object that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts. The main functions of money are • Medium of Exchange • Store of value • Unit of account Medium of exchange: Money's most important function is as a medium of exchange to facilitate transactions. Without money, all transactions would have to be conducted by barter, which involves direct exchange of one good or service for another. The difficulty with a barter system is that in order to obtain a particular good or service from a supplier, one has to possess a good or service of equal value, which the supplier also desires. In other words, in a barter system, exchange can take place only if there is a double coincidence of wants between two transacting parties. The likelihood of a double coincidence of wants, however, is small and makes the exchange of goods and services rather difficult. Money effectively eliminates the double coincidence of wants problem by serving as a medium of exchange that is accepted in all transactions, by all parties, regardless of whether they desire each others' goods and services. Store of value. In order to be a medium of exchange, money must hold its value over time; that is, it must be a store of value. If money could not be stored for some period of time and still remain valuable in exchange, it would not solve the double coincidence of wants problem and therefore would not be adopted as a medium of exchange. As a store of value, money is not unique; many other stores of value exist, such as land, works of art, and even baseball cards and stamps. Money may not even be the best store of value because it depreciates with inflation. However, money is more liquid than most other stores of value because as a medium of exchange, it is readily accepted everywhere. Furthermore, money is an easily transported store of value. Unit of account: Money also functions as a unit of account, providing a common measure of the value of goods and services being exchanged. Knowing the value or price of a good, in terms of money, enables both the supplier and the purchaser of the good to make decisions about how much of the good to supply and how much of the good to purchase. Types of money in money markets M1 : Money in circulation ( notes and coins) + Demand deposit + Traveler checks M2 : M1 + Savings and Time deposit in banks M3 : M1 + M2 + Time deposit in other financial institutions Quantity theory of money • The primary cause of inflation is the growth in the quantity of money. • Quantity Theory of Money states that money supply has a direct, proportional relationship with the price level. For example, if the currency in circulation increased, there would be a proportional increase in the price of goods ( price level). The equation of quantity theory of money is MV = PQ M = the total amount of money in circulation on average in an economy during a year. V = velocity, average number of times each unit of money changes hands during the year P= weighted average price level of goods and services in the economy Q= total amount of goods and services • Here • PQ is the total value of goods and services Assume that 1) Velocity (V) is constant for an economy 2) Q which is total goods and services produced in an economy is also constant for a given period. In that case Price level ( P ) changes if amount of money ( M) changes. That means if amount of money in the economy increases price level increases (inflation increases). If amount of money in the economy decreases then price level decreases ( Inflation decreases). So the quantity theory of money shows that there is positive relation between amount of money in the economy and price level. So an increase in money supply can lead to an increase in inflation. INFLATION • Inflation refers to a situation in which the economy’s overall price level is rising. • Definition: Inflation is the persistent/continuous increase in price level in one year. • We find inflation rateby calculating the percentage change in the price level of current year from the previous year. So we can think inflation as the growth rate of price level . • Some of the Facts about inflation: • Not all prices rise at the same rate during inflation. • Not everyone suffers equally from inflation. • Although inflation makes some people worse off, it makes some people better off • Hyperinflation is an extraordinarily high rate of inflation such as Germany experienced in the 1920s. • Hyperinflation is inflation that exceeds 50% per month Types of Inflation There can be two types of inflation: • Demand-Pull Inflation ( Inflation causing due to increase in demand) • Cost-Push Inflation ( Inflation causing due to decrease in supply ) 1) Demand-Pull Inflation : Demand-pull inflation results from excessive pressure on the demand side of the economy. When there is an increase in demand ( For example: Due to increase in income or increase in money supply) the aggregate demand will shift to the right. In this case there will be an increase in price level and increase in aggregate output. This continuous increase in price level due to increase in aggregate demand is known as demand pull inflation. 2) Cost-Push Inflation: • Cost push inflation results from supply shock or higher production cost. Higher production costs ( due to increase in price of input) or supply shock ( ex: flood) can put upward pressure on product prices. When there is a supply shock ( example: disaster like flood) or increase in production cost ( Think about rice supply. If price of fertilizer increases cost of production increases, so rice supply decreases) the aggregate supply curve will shift to the left. This will lead to an increase in price level and decrease in aggregate output. This increase in price level due to the decrease in aggregate supply is known as cost push inflation. Real and Nominal Interest Rates • Interest rate is known as the cost of borrowing. • Nominal interestrate is the interest rate usually reported and not corrected for inflation. • It is the interest rate that a bank pays. • Real interest rateis the nominal interest rate that is corrected for the effects of inflation. • You borrowed $1,000 for one year. • Nominal interest rate was 15%. • During the year inflation was 10%. Real interest rate = Nominal interest rate – Inflation =15% - 10% = 5% Inquiry: When we have inflation in the economy and we have not adjusted the interest rate for inflation , then who will be the gainer and who will be the loser? Hints: Think from borrowers and lenders perspective. Nominal interest rate Real interest rate Real and Nominal Interest Rates Interest Rates (percent per year) 15 10 5 0 –5 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Before life-saving pharmaceuticals can reach the market, these drugs require rigorous safety testing to ensure they pose no risk to humans. These tests, however, are typically conducted on animals, such as mice and rats, harming the creatures in the process, while also often failing to present accurate results because rodents have such a different genetic makeup compared to humans. That may soon change though thanks to a promising new study from researchers in Israel who have developed an ethical and much more precise approach to testing medicine. “Drug development is a long and expensive endeavor that is defined by multiple failures. The main reason for this failure is that clinical experiments are ultimately based on minimal information gained from animal experiments which often fail to replicate the human response,” said Professor Yaakov Nahmias, the study’s lead researcher. Researchers from Hebrew University tapped into existing technology to develop a new testing method in which a chip with human tissue on it is used to replicate a drug’s effect on humans. Featuring microscopic sensors, the tissue enabled the team to precisely monitor the body’s response to targeted drug treatments. Using the technology, the researchers then proceeded to prove that the commonly used cancer drug, cisplatin, causes a dangerous buildup of fat in human kidneys. “This groundbreaking technology has the potential to significantly reduce the testing and production time for drugs, while also avoiding the need to test animals in the lab. This will save time, money, and certainly unnecessary suffering,” said Nahmias. The research team, whose study was published in the journal Science Translational Medicine, is now working towards developing new cancer drugs that bypass the need for animal testing.
Large scale tidal plants have been around for decades and are becoming more common as our technology improves. However, they still rely mostly on existing geography to produce high enough water flow rates to make them effective, and are not suitable for all areas. The main advantages of tidal energy are that it is totally predictable and reliable. The common methods of harnessing tidal energy are damming, propellers (called screws underwater), and using gravity or wave action – using floating pontoons that are forced upwards as the tide rises or waves pass by. Learn More >> // under construction
One important goal of the SAS project was to develop an educational outreach component. The team decided to use Ocean Acidification as the theme for a project based learning curriculm. Lesson plans were created to introduce the fundamental chemical principles that explain ocean acidification and to show how technology has been developed to advance our scientific research. The final lesson plan involves students building their own simplified water sampler (or Mini-SAS). This lesson is a great introduction to the new 'maker movement' and provides students with a simple and guided introduction into becoming an engineer. Lesson 1: Introduction to Chemistry and Ocean Acidification The goal of this lesson is to reinforce basic scientific principles taught in the classroom and apply them to increase students' comprehension of ocean acidification, an environmental issue that is threatening marine ecosystems. Students will first learn about pH and buffering capacity of solutions such as oceans. They will then explore the influence of humans and marine animals and plants on the acidity of the oceans. Lastly, students will learn how natural resources and the historical rise in the use of fossil fuels has contributed to increasing atmospheric CO2 and ocean acidification. Lesson Plan 1: Introduction to Chemistry and Ocean Acidification Supplement presentation to introduce ocean acidification Lesson 2: Science and Technology In this lesson students will be introduced to the concept that science and technology go hand-in-hand. It is a simple concept but one that is becoming more apparent as new breakthroughs in science are often brought about by new technologies. In return, scientific discoveries are often the foundation for developing new technologies. Students are also introduced to the Engineering Design Process, which is similar to the scientific method. There is a brief activity outlined in the lesson plan to give students some inspiration for STEM projects. The activity is a presentation based on important milestones in the ocean science and technology fields that have brought NOAA to the forefront of marine research around the world. Lesson 3: Build a Mini-SAS A lesson plan and material list are provided to allow students an opportunity to build a simplified sampler, or Mini-SAS, of their own. The design is based on the circuitry of the SAS, but made with a Sparkfun kit and a few accessory parts. Students work in groups to assemble the components on a breadboard and connect the Arduino microcontroller to that. There is an exciting challenge for the students to sample water from one vial and transfer it to another by customizing the delay and volume of water sampled.
In this Warm-Up, I ask students to apply their knowledge of special quadrilateral properties and use the given information in each problem to solve. In the first problem, I sometimes see students who hesitate to write out equations relating the side lengths of the parallelogram--I think this is because students end up writing a system of equations that they may or may not remember how to solve. As I circulate the room, I stress the importance of taking risks to put their thinking out there (MP1); I tell students that I will not let them talk to their group until everyone has at least marked their diagram with symbols that show the properties of parallelograms. Students then discuss in their groups where, inevitably, at least person sees and shares out a solution path. This is the kind of problem that is great for whole-class discussion because it encourages multiple solution paths in addition to having students explain why they chose to discuss the sides of the parallelogram as opposed to the angles and diagonals--important thinking required for proof. I like to have students apply their understanding of the triangle sum theorem by displaying a simple picture that requires them to reason about the angles that surround all the vertices of a triangle. In this discussion, my goal is to move students beyond considering small cases (for example, equilateral triangles or one or two numerical examples) so they will think generally about any type of triangle. In the debrief of this problem, I want to be sure to choose a student who is willing to talk through their thinking and how they considered different cases to then conjecture and prove why the sum of these angles will always equal 900 degrees. I like to have a whole-class discussion about triangle inequality. Students have such a good, intuitive sense about geometric relationships, which is why it is important to build momentum around their "gut" feelings so they will make arguments with the goal of convincing others (MP3). I ask students whether it is possible for two different sets of three given lengths to form triangles (1 cm, 3 cm, and 100 cm; 6 inches, 8 inches, and 14 inches). I give students about a minute in their groups to discuss with the goal of convincing others that they are correct. When I facilitate this whole-class discussion, particularly the second set of lengths (6 inches, 8 inches, and 14 inches), I know I need to make it safe to be wrong. To start this discussion, I ask students to state whether they believe this set of side lengths can create a triangle, count to three, and ask students to state their answer loudly (yes or no). Once students hear that there are many people on their side, they feel more safe to engage in the argument. The discussion can be rather robust, with many different students wanting to agree or disagree with other's reasoning. Some of the best arguments I have seen have involved sketches, mental images of a drawbridge, and even constructions to show whether the two "shorter" sides can actually meet to form a triangle. After a lively whole-class discussion, I know I need to give students some quiet time to really check their own understanding. I project sets of three side lengths and ask students to determine whether they will make triangles: After giving the students some time to work, I go over the answers with the whole-class so that students can get a sense of their own understanding. During this closing time, we take notes as whole class, capturing our ideas about the triangle inequality from our previous whole-class discussion. We also talk about how the sides and angles in a triangle relate to each other, with the biggest angle forming the largest side, and the shortest side being opposite the smallest angle. I also add some new terms to the students triangle angle vocabulary, like exterior angle and remote interior angles. As a wrap-up to the day's learning, we prove that the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the remote interior angles.
\|In SI base units\|\|m−2⋅kg\| The area density (also known as areal density, surface density, superficial density, areic density, mass thickness, column density, or density thickness) of a two-dimensional object is calculated as the mass per unit area. The SI derived unit is: kilogram per square metre (kg·m−2). In the paper and fabric industries, it is called grammage and is expressed in grams per square meter (gsm); for paper in particular, it may be expressed as pounds per ream of standard sizes ("basis ream"). Area density can be calculated as: ρA = average area density m = total mass of the object A = total area of the object ρ = average density l = average thickness of the object A special type of area density is called column (mass) density (also columnar mass density), denoted ρA or σ. It is the mass of substance per unit area integrated along a path; It is obtained integrating volumetric density over a column: In general the integration path can be slant or oblique incidence (as in, for example, line of sight propagation in atmospheric physics). A common special case is a vertical path, from the bottom to the top of the medium: where denotes the vertical coordinate (e.g., height or depth). Columnar density is closely related to the vertically averaged volumetric density as where ; , , and have units of, for example, grams per cubic metre, grams per square metre, and metres, respectively. Column number density Column number density refers instead to a number density type of quantity: the number or count of a substance—rather than the mass—per unit area integrated along a path: It is a quantity commonly retrieved by remote sensing instruments, for instance the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) which retrieves ozone columns around the globe. Columns are also returned by the differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) method and are a common retrieval product from nadir-looking microwave radiometers. A closely related concept is that of ice or liquid water path, which specifies the volume per unit area or depth instead of mass per unit area, thus the two are related: Another closely related concept is optical depth. This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2015) In Astronomy the column density is generally used to indicate the number of atoms or molecules per square cm (cm2) along the line of sight in a particular direction, as derived from observations of e.g. the 21-cm hydrogen line or from observations of a certain molecular species. Also the interstellar extinction can be related to the column density of H or H2. The concept of area density can be useful when analysing accretion disks. In the case of a disk seen face-on, area density for a given area of the disk is defined as column density: that is, either as the mass of substance per unit area integrated along the vertical path that goes through the disk (line-of-sight), from the bottom to the top of the medium: where denotes the vertical coordinate (e.g., height or depth), or as the number or count of a substance—rather than the mass—per unit area integrated along a path (column number density): Data storage media Areal density is used to quantify and compare different types media used in data storage devices such as hard disk drives, optical disc drives and tape drives. The current unit of measure is typically gigabits per square inch. The area density is often used to describe the thickness of paper; e.g., 80 g/m2 is very common. Fabric "weight" is often specified as mass per unit area, grams per square meter (gsm) or ounces per square yard. It is also sometimes specified in ounces per yard in a standard width for the particular cloth. One gram per square meter equals 0.0295 ounces per square yard; one ounce per square yard equals 33.9 grams per square meter. It is also an important quantity for the absorption of radiation. When studying bodies falling through air, area density is important because resistance depends on area, and gravitational force is dependent on mass. Bone density is often expressed in grams per square centimeter (g·cm−2) as measured by x-ray absorptiometry, as a proxy for the actual density. The body mass index is expressed in units of kilograms per square meter, though the area figure is nominal, being simply the square of the height. The total electron content in the ionosphere is a quantity of type columnar number density. Snow water equivalent is a quantity of type columnar mass density. - Egbert Boeker; Rienk van Grondelle (2000). Environmental Physics (2nd ed.). Wiley. - Visconti, Guido (2001). Fundamentals of physics and chemistry of the atmosphere. Berlin: Springer. p. 470. ISBN 978-3-540-67420-7. - R. Sinreich; U. Frieß; T. Wagner; S. Yilmaz; U. Platt (2008). "Retrieval of Aerosol Distributions by Multi-Axis Differential Absorption Spectroscopy (MAX-DOAS)". Nucleation and Atmospheric Aerosols. pp. 1145–1149. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6475-3_227. - C. Melsheimer; G. Heygster (2008). "Improved retrieval of total water vapor over polar regions from AMSU-B microwave radiometer data". IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 46 (8). pp. 2307–2322. Bibcode:2008ITGRS..46.2307M. doi:10.1109/TGRS.2008.918013. - C. Melsheimer; G. Heygster; N. Mathew; L. Toudal Pedersen (2009). "Retrieval of Sea Ice Emissivity and Integrated Retrieval of Surface and Atmospheric Parameters over the Arctic from AMSR-E data". Journal of the Remote Sensing Society of Japan. 29 (1). pp. 236–241. - "Areal Density". Webopedia. Retrieved April 9, 2014.
In the 19th century, herrings were caught using a traditional drift net, like the one on display. The long net formed a curtain in the water that was suspended with corks floating on the surface. The fish were trapped by the gills, as they swam against it. It was the predictable nature of the herring’s migratory path to the east coast waters that brought fleets of fishing boats to exploit and harvest this highly commercial resource. The lower quality herring were often destined for the slave plantations in the West Indies, where they provided a cheap source of nutritional food for slaves. After the abolition of slavery in 1834 the herring were exported to the Baltic and Europe, but by the start of the nineteenth century and the onset of war, the market collapsed and never recovered. There was a concern that too fine a mesh on the nets would prevent the young fry from escaping and a Bill was passed in 1809 specifying that nets should not have a mesh of less than one inch from knot to knot. If fishermen were found to be using nets which infringed this regulation, they would be confiscated and destroyed, and a fine of £40 would be imposed. Since the nets were an important investment for the fishermen, and tended to shrink with repeated use, this was to prove a difficult rule to enforce, and in the early days the British Fishery Board found it necessary to seek the support of the navy. The North Sea herring stock suffered a major collapse in the early 1970s, due to overfishing, which led to the fishery being completely closed from 1977 to 1980. The Scottish Association for Marine Science (SMAS) has predicted that herring may vanish from Scotland’s west coast waters by 2100 because of global warming as they seek out the colder waters of the north. The net is shown here stored in a quarter cran basket, which is an official measure for herring catches.
To Bond with Nature, Kids Need Solitary Activities Outdoors A new study found solitary activities like fishing, hunting or exploring outside are key to building strong bonds between children and nature. Activities like these encourage children to both enjoy being outside and to feel comfortable there. In addition to these independent activities, researchers led by an investigator from North Carolina State University reported that they found social activities can help cement the bond between children and nature. The findings could help children gain the mental and physical benefits linked with being outdoors at a time when researchers say younger generations of Americans may be less connected to nature than before. “In order to create a strong bond with nature, you need to provide kids with an opportunity to be alone in nature, or to experience nature in a way that they can personally connect with it, but you need to reinforce that with social experiences either with peers or adults,” said Kathryn Stevenson, corresponding author of the study and an assistant professor in North Carolina State University’s Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management. For the study, researchers surveyed 1,285 children aged 9 through 12 in North Carolina. The survey focused on identifying the types of activities that help children build a strong connection to nature, which they defined as when children enjoy being outdoors and feel comfortable there. The researchers asked children about their experiences with outdoor activities such as hunting, fishing, hiking, camping and playing sports, and their feelings about nature overall. The researchers then used children’s survey responses to assess which activities were most likely to predict whether they had a strong connection to nature. While they found that children who participated in solitary activities such as hunting or fishing built strong connections to nature, they also saw that social activities outdoors, such as playing sports or camping, helped to cement the strongest bonds that they saw in children. “We saw that there were different combinations of specific activities that could build a strong connection to nature; but a key starting point was being outside, in a more solitary activity,” Stevenson said. The finding that solitary activities were important predicators of strong connections to the natural world wasn’t surprising given findings from previous research, said Rachel Szczytko, the study’s first author. She was previously an environmental education research assistant at NC State, and now works at the San Francisco-based Pisces Foundation. “We have seen that when people who go into environmentally focused careers reflect on their lives, they describe having formational experiences outdoors during childhood, like walking on a favorite trail or exploring the creek by their home,” she said. “We know that these kind of meaningful life experiences are motivating going forward. So we expected that when children are doing something more solitary, contemplative, when they’re noticing what’s around them, and have a heightened sense of awareness, they are more likely having these formative experiences and are developing more comfort and affinity for the outdoors.” The findings highlight a need to provide more solitary opportunities for kids when they are outside. “When you think about recreation opportunities for kids, social activities are often covered; people are signing their kids up for sports, camp and scouts,” Stevenson said. “Maybe we need more programming to allow children to be more contemplative in nature, or opportunities to establish a personal connection. That could be silent sits, or it could be activities where children are looking or observing on their own. It could mean sending kids to the outdoors to make observations on their own. It doesn’t mean kids should be unsupervised, but adults could consider stepping back and letting kids explore on their own.” Researchers said children who are connected to nature are also likely to spend more time outside, which can lead to benefits for children’s mental and physical health, attention span and relationships with adults. In addition, researchers said building connections with nature is also important for getting children involved in environmental conservation. “There are all kinds of benefits from building connections to nature and spending time outside,” Stevenson said. “One of the benefits we’re highlighting is that children who have a strong connection to nature are more likely to want to take care of the environment in the future.” The paper, “How combinations of recreational activities predict connection to nature among youth,” was published in The Journal of Environmental Education on July 30. The paper was co-authored by M. Nils Peterson, of the NC State’s Fisheries, Wildlife & Conservation Biology program and Howard D. Bondell, of the Department of Statistics and Data Science at the University of Melbourne, Australia. It was supported by Muddy Sneakers. Note to editors: The abstract follows. “How combinations of recreational activities predict connection to nature among youth.” Authors: Rachel Szczytko, Kathryn T. Stevenson, M. Nils Peterson, and Howard D. Bondell. Published July 30, The Journal of Environmental Education. Abstract: Connection to nature (CTN) can help promote environmental engagement requisite for addressing extreme environmental challenges. Current generations, however, may be less connected to nature than previous ones. Spending time in nature can counter this disconnect, particularly among children. In relation to CTN, this study evaluates the relative predictive power of solitary and social time in nature, specific recreation activities (e.g., camping), and diverse backgrounds (e.g., ethnicity) through a classification tree analysis with nine-to-twelve-year olds in the southeastern U.S.A. (n = 1,285). Solitary time in nature was the most important predictor of high CTN, and social time in nature was a secondary component of high CTN. In addition, in the context of this study, hunting and fishing were the most important activities predicting high CTN. Based on these results, we suggest providing solitary outdoor activities reinforced by environmental socialization to promote CTN for all.
Incredibly large amounts of coral have died in recent years, this is due to a process known as coral bleaching. But how does coral bleaching happen? How does it affect ecosystems? And how can this be prevented? Coral bleaching is a process in which the algae on corals become ‘stressed’ and leaves the coral, this means that all the things that the coral previously relied on the algae for, cannot be supplied by the algae any more. So eventually the coral dies. Coral’s normally contain an important type of algae called zooxanthellae, this type of algae responsible for providing corals with food from photosynthesis and the corals provide the algae a protected environment and the products it needs for photosynthesis. This healthy two way relationship allows and supports life for both the coral and the algae. If algae like zooxanthellae or many other algae become ‘stressed’ then the algae decides to leave the coral this means that the coral loses it’s energy supplies and many other functions that it once relied on. The corals also lose their colour and become white or ‘bleached’. Algae often provides up to 90% of corals energy. After coral bleaching, corals are weak and often die however it is possible for corals to recover. A factor that can cause algae to become stressed is low tides, low tides can cause algae to be exposed to air in the event of a hot summer. This exposure to air causes algae to become stressed. Pollution also causes causes algae to become stressed and a further factor is heavy rainfall, this causes material on the land like fertilisers to get washed into the sea. Over-exposure to the sun causes bleaching. The final and most common factor is warmer waters, sea water has heated up by about 1 degree Celsius. This is enough to stress ridiculous amounts of corals and it is a major contributor to coral bleaching. This affects ecosystems massively, by killing off the corals many fish are left without a habitat and they often end up dying too. Many fish will die, and almost 50% of the fish on the planet need coral reefs. Not only will the reefs be damaged, but other members of the food chain will be affected. For example the predators of the fish will go hungry and will be forced to move to another reefs or die. if the predators move to another reef then that will cause an over-population of predators in that other reef and the predators prey will die causing a decrease in population of them, and the cycle will continue. The factor that causes, warmer waters, more sun exposure, hotter summers (therefore lower tides due to evaporation) and heavy precipitation is global warming. Global warming is caused by greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide or methane being emitted into our atmosphere. these are emitted through things like farming, driving, flying, non-renewable power and oil refining. To prevent coral bleaching we must cut down on these things through methods like using renewable power, reducing long distance holidays, cycling, CCS and reducing meat intake.
Narwhal Tusks Reveal Effects of Climate Change and Mercury Levels in the Arctic Changing climatic conditions have profoundly affected the Arctic, resulting in rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet. A recent study has discovered that Narwhal tusks reveal a great deal about the effects of climate change and mercury levels in the Arctic. Published in the journal Current Biology, the study stated that climate change poses a grave threat to Narwhals in the Arctic. A group of scientists has been studying Narwhal tusks to help understand more about the impacts of changing climate. They found that the reduction in sea ice and increase of mercury in the water has had a big effect on narwhals. This species of whale is sometimes referred to as the unicorns of the sea, owing to the long tusk sticking out from the head of male members. These tusks are significant, and function like the rings inside tree trunks. Each year narwhal tusks grow a new layer, and by studying these layers scientists can learn about where and what the whales have eaten, and about their environment. The team examined the tusks of ten narwhals living in northwest Greenland to discover how dangers like climate change, melting sea ice, and increasing mercury levels have impacted the species. Narwhals can live for over 50 years, which offered an advantage for the scientists as they were able to study the effects of changing climate over this time. Professor Rune Dietz, from Aarhus University in Denmark, who led the study, said, It is unique that a single animal in this way can contribute with a 50-year, long-term series of data. It is often through long time series that we as researchers come to understand the development of biological communities, and such series of unbroken data are very rare. Here, the data is a mirror of the development in the Arctic. It was discovered that prior to the 1990s, narwhals mostly ate Arctic fish like halibut and Arctic cod, which are found in abundance in the icy waters. However, between 1990 and 2000, the sea ice in Greenland started to decline and the narwhals began to eat fish that were from the open ocean instead, like capelin and polar cod. The shift in the species’ diet shows how animals were moving to new parts of the ocean. Moreover, from 2000 onwards, the amount of mercury, which was found in the narwhal tusks, accelerated drastically. The scientists believe that this increase in mercury might have been triggered by high levels of fossil fuels being burnt in areas like Southeast Asia, and a warming climate, which has caused alterations to the sea ice levels and mercury cycle. Dietz further added that the narwhal is most affected by climate change in the Arctic; and as they don’t get rid of mercury by forming hair and feathers like their counterparts, analyzing their tusks helped a lot in understanding more about the effects of the phenomenon on the species.
landslide is the gravity-controlled displacement of soil or rock. The rate of displacement can be slow or fast, but never very slow. Landslides can be shallow or deep. The material consists of a mass corresponding to a portion of the slope or the slope itself. Displacement occurs downhill and outward, to fall on a clear plane. The term landslide is used in its broad sense, and includes the downward and outward displacement of the material that makes up a slope (bedrock and soil). Landslides can be caused by heavy rainfall, soil erosion or earthquakes, but they can also occur in areas covered by thick layers of snow. It is difficult to judge landslides as independent phenomena, so it seems appropriate to associate them with other hazards, such as tropical cyclones, powerful local storms and river flooding. Rockfall refers to rocks or stones falling freely from the wall of a vertical cut in the ground. It is caused by weakening or weathering of the ground, or by the degradation of permanently frozen ground. Subsidence is the downward movement of the earth’s surface, relative to a plane of comparison (e.g., sea level). Subsidence (dry) can result from: geologic faulting, glacial or isostatic rebound, human activities (e.g., mining, natural gas extraction), etc. Subsidence (wet) can originate from: karst soils, changes in soil water saturation, degradation of permanently frozen ground (thermokarst), etc. Avalanches refer to a quantity of debris/terrain/snow or ice that slides downslope by the force of gravity. It frequently gathers material that is underneath the snowpack, such as soil, rocks, etc. (debris avalanche). The warning period may vary. When the displacement is due to an earthquake, this period may be small, or it may not be possible to warn. However, a general warning may be issued when there is a risk of landslides due to heavy and persistent rainfall. Sometimes small initial landslides may be considered a warning of subsequent large-scale landslides. - Monitoring systems, where appropriate. - Land use and building regulations. - Public awareness programs.
Left Brain, as part of Whole-Brain, Dictates the Detail Generally Speaking (pun intended) :) The brain is divided into two sides, or hemispheres: a left brain (hemisphere) and a right brain (hemisphere). Each hemisphere can also furthermore be divided into quadrants, so that you would have an Upper left and a lower left; upper right and lower right. Each quadrant has its own functions and contributes to the whole picture of brain functions - Whole-brained! For now we are going to focus on what the left brain brings to our wholebrained understanding of things. Topics on this page: • General Descriptors • Responsive to • Typical language usage • As described by others • Learning/teaching and facilitation requirements Upper Left Hemisphere Generally speaking the left hemisphere processes information from parts to the whole, taking pieces of data in an orderly arrangement before drawing conclusions. It's the side of the brain that functions in rational, analytical thinking. This left side works with definite and established information, solving problems logically and sequentially. Lefties examine parts (in fine detail!)and analyze differences. They tend to lead planned and structured existences and ...you guessed it, they do better at multiple-choice tests than essays. So are all the teachers and lecturers left brained?! Hmmm... Upper Left Brain Descriptors • Suppresses instinct and intuition • Controls emotion • Enjoys reading Top Left Brain Skills • Problem solving • Creating and using statistics Top Left-Brainers Respond well to: • Recalling names and dates • Good time sense • Reasoning and debate • Formal speech • Facts and figures • Financial/technical data • Step by step instructions • Verbal directions Typical Words or Phrases They May Use: • “The specific tools for this .....” • “Key point” • “The bottom line is ...” • “Take it apart” • “Break it down into...” • “Critical analysis” • “The process is...” • “Where has it been proven?” • “What is your source of information?” When other people describe typical left-brainers they may use derogatory phrases like: • ‘Number cruncher’ • ‘Power hungry’ • ‘Cold fish” Top Left Brain CAREERS: • Speech Pathologist • Radio / TV Presenter • Proof reader • Language teacher • PR consultants • Public speaker • Purchasing agent • Trouble shooters • Insurance brokers • Science Teacher • Urban planner • School Principal • Religious minister • Medical practitioners Learning /Teaching/Facilitation Strategies When we learn, teach or facilitate it never happens from one quadrant of the brain only. However, if we consider what the left brain brings to the leaning environment, it helps us to ensure that those elements must be a part of the presentation or lesson. We often focus only on what serves us, personally, in learning, forgetting that the audience is definitely using other parts of the brain. So make sure these elements are included so the learning/facilitation can be as wholebrained as possible The Upper Left Brain Learns By: • Thinking through ideas and concepts • Getting facts together • Using logic and analysis • Forming theories • Using proven information Upper Left Brain Learning Must Be Facilitated By Providing The Following In The Learning Environment: • Text books • Formal lectures • Technical or financial case discussions • Programmed learning • Behaviour modification strategies • Sequential analysis possibilities • Deductive exercises • Applying critical analysis • Prefers authoritarian situations – who is in charge • Rules and regulations • Using abstract concepts To Teachers, Facilitators and Trainers Great care must be taken by teachers, trainers and facilitators of learning to ensure that all the needs of all the learners are incorporated in the total lesson plan. Effective learning only happens when it is wholebrained and learning style facilitated. Please go to the pages for the other quadrants as well the different learning styles. Explore Multiple Intelligences! Now It's Your Turn! Do You Have Some Great Ideas and Tips For Getting The Best From The Left Brain? Share it! How about sharing some fabulous tips for getting the best Left Brain experiences? How to make the most of learning, teaching or facilitation opportunities? What Other Visitors Have Shared Click below to see contributions from other visitors to this page... Appreciation and Negativity Not rated yet I love the way you emphasized the importance when we put our attention on any negative we are actually creating/attracting what we don’t want. … Brain humour? Not rated yet I did not know that humour could be categorized it terms of the brain hemispheres! How very interesting! I wanted to use the comic included in a fairly … Click here to write your own. Get your brain going! How your thinker works Return from Left Brain to Consciousness-Evolving.com For more on Advanced thinking skills
The feet are the foundation of the human body. They provide support, locomotion, and balance. Unlike the foundation of a house, our feet must provide us with static support — for when we are upright and stationary — as well as dynamic support — for when we are active. Much like a home’s foundation, however, if something is not correct or is distorted within the body’s framework, problems will migrate while becoming more noticeable and severe over time. This article will discuss the anatomy of the foot, the intricacies of gait, and the impact that foot deformity and diabetes have on foot biomechanics and overall health. Treatment strategies and methods of pain relief will also be shared. ANATOMY OF THE FOOT & FOOT DEFORMITY As a baseline, understanding the anatomy and function of the foot is imperative, as is knowing how the shape and function of the foot is altered by deformity and disease (Figure 1). One of the most complex structures on the body, the foot has many moving parts, including 26 bones; 33 joints; and more than 100 muscles, tendons, and ligaments. A network of blood vessels is also present. Anatomically speaking, the foot can be divided into the following sections: Forefoot – contains the toes (phalanges) and metatarsals (connecting bones). Each toe has three small bones, except the big toe (hallux), which has two. The joint where the toe meets the head of the metatarsal is known as the metatarsophalangeal joint (MPJ) and is given a number based on the toe that it’s directly involved with. The forefoot bears half the body’s weight and balances pressure on the ball of the foot. Midfoot – contains five tarsal bones, forms the foot’s arches, and serves as a shock absorber. These bones are connected to the forefoot and hindfoot by ligaments and muscles. Hindfoot – forms the heel and ankle, contains three joints, and connects the midfoot to the lower leg. The talus connects with the lower leg to form the ankle and allows the foot to move up and down. Muscles and ligaments – hold bones in position and stabilize joints while allowing movement. Blood vessels – blood supply to the foot is primarily carried by the peroneal artery, posterior tibial artery, and anterior tibial artery. Adequate arterial circulation must be established. Arches – three arches act as a spring and shock absorber during ambulation. The three arches consist of two longitudinal (medial and lateral) and one anterior traverse arch. These arches are formed by tarsal and metatarsal bones that are held together by ligaments and tendons. What follows is a list of common foot problems and deformities: Callus – thick, hardened layers of skin that develop when the skin tries to protect itself against friction and pressure. Causes may include ill-fitting shoes and increased plantar pressures due to foot problems or abnormal biomechanics. High arch (pes cavus) - high medial longitudinal arch, ability to absorb shock during ambulation is lost, increased stress on the ball and heel of the foot. Pain can move to proximal joints, such as in the ankle, knee, and hip (Figure 3). Hallux rigidus – the big toe becomes stiff and difficult to bend. Arthritis may set in. This joint stiffness will increase abnormal pressure on the toe during gait, thus creating calluses and ulcerations. Equinus – ankle dorsiflexion is limited, thus possibly increasing plantar pressures on the ball of the foot. May be caused by tightness of the Achilles tendon or soleus/gastrocnemius musculature. Claw toe – deformity in which the middle and end joint of the toe are contracted. Occurs in toes 2-5. Often, foot movement is limited, creating increased pressure at the ball of the foot. Charcot foot – condition affecting the bones, joints, and soft tissues of the foot and ankle characterized by inflammation in the earliest phase. Documentation indicates occurrence as a consequence of various peripheral neuropathies (diabetic neuropathy being the most common). Characterized by midfoot collapse and described as a “rocker bottom” foot. Overpronation – excessive rolling inward movement of the foot when walking or running. Predisposes lower extremity injuries and causes heavier wear of shoes on the inner margin. Collapsing arches occur while walking. Supination – a rotation of the foot and leg in which the foot rolls outward with an elevated arch so that the foot tends to come down on its outer edge when walking. Leads to shoes wearing on the outer edge and high arches. Patients can also develop arthritic conditions of the foot and ankle through previous traumas or overuse injuries (Figure 5). As a joint becomes arthritic, it can lead to decreased range of motion that can alter gait and the mechanics of the foot and ankle. In the sensate foot, arthritic conditions may not significantly affect patients’ lives. However, in the neuropathic patient, any deviation of normal foot mechanics can pose an ulcer risk. Patients with flat feet or high arches can also have an increased ulcerative risk due to their foot mechanics. Charcot neuroarthropathy is a syndrome that can affect neuropathic patients in which there are multiple fractures and dislocations of bones and joints without any specific trauma. There is often a delay in diagnosis due to vague initial presentation, however, this can be a devastating condition that causes severe deformity and leads to high risk of amputation. As the foot conforms to rocker bottom, the midfoot bears most of the weight and is a significant ulcerative risk. Previous infections and surgical debridement can also pose future risk for ulceration. As plantar wounds need to be debrided, devitalization of ligamentous or tendinous structures can alter mechanics and gait. WALKING & THE “GAIT CYCLE” The average American walks about 5,900 steps per day, according to the Louisiana-based Walking Behavior Laboratory at Pennington Biomedical Research Center, which is only slightly more than half of the recommended 10,000 steps per day. Reports estimate that 33% of the elderly (65 years of age and older) experience falls at least once per year, with about 40% of these falls requiring hospitalization.1 Ambulation technically means “the act of walking,” or “to move from place to place.” Gait refers to the manner in which one walks and represents a complex series of events that occur through multiple joints involving the nervous, musculoskeletal, and cardiorespiratory systems, all of which play a vital function to accomplish simple ambulation. Limitation in one of these systems and/or a foot deformity can cause gait dysfunction, which has the potential to delay wound healing. Foot deformities, neuropathy, and dysfunction in the lower extremities are known risk factors that increase plantar peak pressure and, as a result, the risk of developing foot ulcers in patients living with diabetes. We can analyze gait by looking at the patient’s gait cycle, a progression of events that occur during normal walking. An appreciation for the function of the foot is also rooted in knowledge of this cycle, which is measured from the point in which one heel strikes the ground up to the next heel striking the ground. Deformities of the foot may also result in abnormal pressures on the foot or affect other joints proximally. Alterations in gait can also increase the risk of injury, as balance is affected. During ambulation, an abnormal gait pattern leads to abnormal transfer of weight into a different location, thus also increasing peak plantar pressures. The actions that occur during the gait cycle are described by a two-phase perspective: the stance phase and the swing phase. One’s walking pattern is considered to be “normal” gait when the stance phase accounts for 60% of the cycle and the swing phase accounts for 40% of the cycle.2 Each sequence of limb action involves a period of weight-bearing (stance) and an interval of self-advancement (swing).2 The exact duration of these intervals varies with walking speed, which will vary among individuals for many reasons.2 For example, one study found that sex-specific differences in gait patterns are apparent in healthy older adults.3 Trauma, disease, age, lack of range of motion, weakness, and/or abnormal biomechanical issues will affect gait. When evaluating gait, the reciprocal action of the lower limbs is timed to trade their weight-bearing responsibility during a period of double stance (ie, when both feet are in contact with the ground) and usually involves the initial and terminal 10% intervals of stance.2 The middle 40% is a period of single stance (single-limb support). During this time, the opposite limb is in swing.2 The foot is not bearing weight in this phase. Joints must have necessary range of motion throughout the cycle, and various muscles will be activated to provide normal gait. The stages of both phases are explained in the following lists: - Heel strike (initial contact) – the initial point of contact between the foot and the ground. The ankle assumes a neutral position (0°), the knee is flexed (0-5°), and the hip is flexed (approximately 30°). - Foot flat (loading response) – the foot is completely contacting the ground. This is a controlled movement, the ankle plantarflexes (5-10°), and the knee is flexed (15-20°) while the hip moves towards extension (20° flexion). - Mid-stance – the rest of the body moves over the limb. The ankle is in slight dorsiflexion (5°), the knee extends (0-5°), and the hip continues to extend (0° flexion). - Heel off – the heel is starting to lift off the ground. The ankle is in dorsiflexion (10° flexion) progressing to plantarflexion, the knee moves from extension to flexion (0-5°), and the hip is hyperextended (-20° hyperextended). - Toe off (terminal stance) – the toes leave the ground to end the stance phase. The ankle is plantarflexed (15°), the knee is in flexion (40°), and the hip is hyperextended (-10° hyperextended). At the same time, the opposite foot is foot flat. - Acceleration (pre-swing) – the ankle moves into dorsiflexion (5° plantarflexed) while the knee (60-70° flexion) and the hip (15° flexion) continue to flex. - Mid-swing – the ankle is in a neutral position (0°) and the knee is in flexion (25°) as the hip continues to flex (25° flexion). - Deceleration (terminal swing) – the ankle is neutral (0°), the knee is almost in full extension (0-5° flexion), and the hip is in flexion (20°). Our feet play an important role in providing normal gait, but normal range of motion and adequate muscular strength is a prerequisite. The ankle joint has multiaxial motions to allow normal movement while muscles, ligaments, and tendons provide stability and/or movement. During ambulation, the lower extremities experience certain movements, and the foot and its associated structures will transition from a shock absorber for weight support to a rigid lever needed for forward progression. After heel strike, the lateral border of the foot remains on the ground and begins to pronate inward. The arch then begins to drop, and the ankle turns inward. Then, at mid-stance, minimal force is experienced on the sole as weight is divided evenly over the foot (with the foot being pronated). This is followed by heel lift, in which the weight is shifted to the ball of the foot and the foot supinates (rotates outward) as the toes bend. Any deviations or deformities will increase pressure in unwanted areas, creating injuries or trauma. The measurement of gait is conducted by examining such things as stride length, step length, and cadence. Stride length is the distance traveled from one heel strike to the next heel strike on the ipsilateral foot. Step length is the distance traveled between heel strikes on both feet. Cadence is the number of steps taken per minute. The average cadence is 101-122 steps per minute, depending on one’s height. Common examples of abnormal gait include antalgic gait, a limp that develops as a means to minimize pain on the weight-bearing structures related to foot pain or pain in other areas of the lower extremity that decreases the amount of time a patient is in the stance phase (often, a decrease in stride length and cadence will be seen); drop foot, a condition that results in excessive ankle plantarflexion in the terminal swing as a result of insufficient dorsiflexors; and high-steppage gait, a condition typically seen among patients with drop foot or weakness of the anterior tibialis musculature in which the foot may slap the ground during heel strike due to lack of muscle strength and uncontrolled motion. One’s support and ability to move changes whenever the foot is injured or there is a change in structure. Changes in structure will vary depending on the level of insult impacting the foot, as will the challenges associated with daily ambulation. If these changes to our feet continue over time, other parts of our body will be impacted. In all essence, when our feet contact the ground it is the complex foot that must serve multiple functions to allow normal movement. Consider what it is like trying to ambulate with an ankle sprain, an ingrown toenail, a stress fracture, or a stubbed toe. All of these ailments will alter gait patterns and the manner in which we walk. Now, imagine not being able to feel these types of injuries and how the foot can continue to be traumatized (and the injuries worsened), potentially to the point of limb-threatening conditions. The risk of falling is said to be 15 times greater among people experiencing diabetic neuropathy than those living with diabetes absent of neuropathy.4 These patients may require an assistive device and/or assistance if their cadence (speed), balance, and stability are affected. In the neuropathic patient, secondary protruding metatarsals, toe deformity, callus development, and ulcerations from unrelenting tension due to loss of protective sensation are also common. The formation of ulceration in the insensate or pathologic foot can occur from a single acute episode or repeated low-intensity contact. The breakdown will occur at the lowest weight-bearing area of the arch or forefoot.5 To determine the mechanism of injury to a foot wound, in addition to analyzing gait, foot deformity and shoe wear must be assessed. It is advisable to also determine the patient’s ankle/foot strength and range of motion, factors that can alter walking patterns and possibly create further injury. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE CLINIC When it comes to providing care in the wound clinic, there’s an expansion of products and interventions. At times, this plethora of treatment options may seem overwhelming to new clinicians, not to mention the many moving parts of the operational side. As our healthcare system continues to navigate a value-based methodology that focuses on outcomes, most clinics will follow implemented algorithms that should be based on best practices. These algorithms are only beneficial, however, when appropriately and consistently utilized by all members of the wound care team. Lower extremity wounds may be challenging due to possible etiologies compounded by factors that impede healing. Determining cause should lead to the proper treatment path, but when it comes to wounds of the foot, sometimes treatment may fall short, especially if ongoing trauma persists from unrecognized and/or untreated structural foot deformities or abnormal gait patterns. Once there’s a callus and/or an ulceration on the plantar foot, clinicians typically provide patients with various forms of offloading, which can be defined as removing unwanted pressure from a desired location and distributing it across the plantar surface of the foot. There are a variety of choices, such as total contact casting, removable cast walkers, assistive devices, and surgical interventions. Healing rate and patient compliance varies depending on the offloading method utilized (with balance deficit, patient compliance, and clinician skill/competency being barriers to proper offloading). Plantar wounds may encounter increased pressures that predispose patients to ulceration, especially if neuropathy is present. What follows is a list of suggested nonsurgical treatment strategies for some of the aforementioned problems/deformities: Callus - treatment aimed at alleviating symptoms, followed by addressing underlying cause. Flatfoot - orthotic devices, weight loss, immobilization, shoe modifications, and physical therapy. (Podiatric surgeons can be consulted for available surgical interventions when nonsurgical treatment is inadequate.) High arch - orthotic devices and shoe modifications. (Surgical interventions may be considered if nonsurgical treatment fails). Hallux rigidus - shoe modifications, orthotic devices, medications to decrease inflammation and pain, and physical therapy. Equinus – splints, heel lifts, and physical therapy. (Surgical interventions may be indicated.) Hammer toe – padding, changes in footwear, and orthotic devices. (Surgical interventions may be warranted if the deformity becomes rigid and painful.) Claw toe – typically will need shoe to accommodate, otherwise the toe will rub against the shoe and the end of the toe will be pressed against the bottom of the shoe. Charcot foot – providing proper shoe wear, such as a CROW boot. (Surgical options are also available and based on individual needs). Additionally, digital contractures such as hammer toes, claw toes, and mallet toes tend to cause ulcerations at the plantar tip of the digits or plantar aspect of the MPJ due to retrograde pressure. If the deformity is flexible, meaning it can manually be straightened, the patient may benefit from a percutaneous tenotomy of the flexor tendon. This procedure can be done in the office through a 4-mm stab incision that removes the deforming force. If the deformity is rigid, meaning that it cannot be straightened manually, arthroplasty or arthrodesis may be needed. This involves removing a section of the underlying bone to shorten the toe and decompress the contracture. Equinus can lead to ulcerations of the forefoot and can be properly tested by the Silfverskiöld test.6 The targeted treatment area depends on which posterior muscles the equinus affects. If the Achilles tendon is affected, a percutaneous lengthening can be performed, allowing for decreased forefoot pressure. Otherwise, a gastrocnemius fascia recession can be performed, which allows for quicker return to weight-bearing and less risk of iatrogenic rupture. As it pertains to antalgic gait, treatment will include locating the pain source and possibly utilizing assistive devices. Treatment for high-steppage gait may include wearing an ankle-foot orthosis. When an injury occurs to the foot, such as a bone fracture, the healthcare provider should recommend non-weight-bearing on that extremity for healing to occur. The same solution should also be made for most plantar wounds. Wound care clinicians should include the expertise of a podiatrist, orthotist, and physical therapist (PT) as part of any care plan involving the feet in order to pinpoint the cause of abnormal gait and address foot deformities to prevent further trauma, reulceration, and/or risk of falls. Podiatrists and PTs are trained in assessing and analyzing gait. Proper diagnosis and treatment of foot problems can also help eliminate chronic issues. A study on foot deformities and plantar pressures concluded that hallux valgus and hallux rigidus appeared to increase pressure under the medial foot, and a high body mass index appeared to increase the pressure under the lateral forefoot, thus demonstrating that deformities can be attributed to increased plantar peak pressure and ulcerations.7 A callus or hyperkeratosis may develop due to repeated load and exposure to a specific area. With time, the likelihood of this area to become ulcerated increases. It is important to note that calluses are the body’s “warning sign” of excessive friction. As a similarity, a callus is the “check engine light” signifying that more problems could lie ahead if not addressed. Any callus that is found on a patient should be considered further by identifying possible causes. DIABETES & THE FOOT Diabetes can cause pathologic conditions of the foot and ankle that contribute to the formation of diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs). One of those causes can be peripheral neuropathy, which includes motor, sensory, and autonomic functions. Motor neuropathy can lead to toe deformities and contractures that increase pressure points of the foot. Sensory neuropathy can lead to wounds going unnoticed for prolonged amounts of time. Autonomic neuropathy decreases skin hydration, leading to higher chances of developing pre-ulcerative callouses. This dangerous triad can lead to serious foot infections and risk of amputation. Hammer toe is one of the more common pathologies seen in patients living with neuropathy. Over time, these contractures become rigidly fixed and can lead to increased pressure points on the foot that cause difficult ulcers. Diabetes can also lead to glycation of the collagen that makes up the tendons in the foot and ankle. This leads to tissue stiffness, limitation of motion, and is commonly seen in the Achilles tendon (leading to equinus). This leads to higher pressure in the forefoot because the ankle cannot reach past 90o with the leg and can lead to a higher risk of new or recurring ulcerations. Treatment for DFUs still includes the basic pillars of local wound care. Infection must be eradicated and there should be debridement of nonviable tissue, adequate vascular supply to the wound, and appropriate offloading of the ulceration. The “why” of these wounds should also be added to the treatment plan. Patients should be examined standing and walking in the treatment room to see if biomechanics plays a role in the recurrence or regression of the wound. Many ulcerations are at risk of reopening, which can be controlled with accommodative insoles and extra-depth shoes, however, some ulcers still will reopen due to difficult biomechanical forces. For recurrent wounds or wounds that have failed to show improvement, patients should be evaluated by a multidisciplinary wound care team that includes a podiatrist and physical therapist. Frank Aviles Jr. is wound care service line director at Natchitoches (LA) Regional Medical Center; wound care and lymphedema instructor at the Academy of Lymphatic Studies, Sebastian, FL; PT/wound care consultant at Louisiana Extended Care Hospital, Lafayette; and PT/wound care consultant at Cane River Therapy Services LLC, Natchitoches. Henry C. Hilario is a podiatric surgeon at ArkLaTex Foot & Ankle Specialists, Shreveport, LA. 1. Kane RL, Ouslander JG, Abrass IB, Resnick B. Essentials of Clinical Geriatrics. 3rd ed. New York, NY. McGraw-Hill Education;1994. 2. Murray MP, Drought AB, Kory RC: Walking patterns of normal men. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1964;46:335-60. 3. Ko S, Tolea MI, Hausdorff JM, Ferrucci L. Sex-specific differences in gait patterns of healthy older adults: results from the baltimore longitudinal study of aging. J Biomech. 2011;44(10):1974-9. 4. Kelly VE, Mueller MJ, Sinacore DR. Timing of peak plantar pressure during the stance phase of walking. a study of patients with diabetes mellitus and transmetatarsal amputation. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2000;90(1):18-23. 5. Mrdjenovich DE. Off-loading practices for the wounded foot: concepts and choices. J Am Col Certif Wound Spec. 2011;3(4):73-8. 6. Singh D. Nils Silfverskiöld (1888-1957) and gastrocnemius contracture. Foot Ankle Surg. 2013;19(2):135-8. 7. Tang UH, Zügner R, Lisovskaja V, Karlsson J, Hagberg K, Tranberg R. Foot deformities, function in the lower extremities, and plantar pressure in patients with diabetes at high risk to develop foot ulcers. Diabet Foot Ankle. 2015;6 [published online June 17, 2015].
“The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman is a popular literary piece for critical analysis, especially in women’s gender studies. It focuses on several inequalities in the relation between John and his wife. It was published for the first time in 1892 in a New England magazine and is considered to be one of the earliest and essential feminist literary pieces in America. The story illustrates the physical as well as the mental deterioration of women during the 19 century due to a medically prescribed treatment of being allowed to do nothing. Gilman created a very effective fictional narrative based on her personal experience with depression, and this had a strong impact on other women. This story was written to condemn the sexual politics which make the medical treatment prescribed possible. The story is critically acclaimed because it brings into focus the unequal relationship the males and females in the society. The male gender is perceived to dominate society while the female gender is not given the space to make decisions independently of men. This is seen in the instances when John belittles his wife’s creative endeavors. John does not respect his wife, and so he treats her like one of his children by calling her a little girl. This makes the wife dislike her house. To her, the environment seems too isolated, making her unhappy. The story portrays women in Western society as deprived of their rights. Instead, they are treated like objects or men’s possessions. They have nowhere to exercise their personal freedoms, and they feel belittled by the male counterparts. For instance, John keeps on dismissing his wife’s thoughts and opinions. He believes that his wife should depend solely on him for almost everything. This is why this story has enjoyed such popularity, mostly by women who feel that they deserve a better place in the society, that they need space to exercise their creativity and productivity. Women feel they have strong potential and the ability to do anything, just like men do, and they should not depend on men for everything. Rather, they should depend on men as much as men depend on women. Women should have their decisions respected, and no one should dismiss their ideas. Instead, ideas should be shared and debated, regardless of gender. Moreover, men should support women as equals rather than belittle them. In Gilman’s story “The Yellow Wallpaper,” John acts as the mirror through which women are viewed negatively in the society, a society in which women are not perceived to be full citizens. They are not supposed to be anywhere near the political arena or in the public eye. Instead, they should remain in their homes. This view has led to women fighting for their rights through creating women movements to fight for their place in the society. Tips on Writing a Critical Essay over a Literary Piece First, it is important to understand that a critical essay is not a criticism of the literary piece or of its author. It is your reaction or response to the piece. Begin by reading the piece several times, if possible. Highlight and make notes on anything that captures your attention. That could be a phrase, a character’s thought or action, or an event. Then analyze why that interests you. What is the significance? What is the writer trying to achieve? Knowing the writer’s background and the social or historical time period in which a story takes place is helpful in understanding the significance of characters or story events. Then, create a thesis statement that reflects your opinion about some aspect of the literary piece. Next, utilize evidence from the piece to support your opinion. Finally, organize your writing in a logical fashion. Do not retell the story or present details in chronological order. Assume your reader knows the literary piece being discussed and is interested in your opinion and how you support it. Our custom essay writing service is ready to provide you with high-quality custom written essays. All you need is to contact our writing company and to fill in the order form.
Review of Short Phrases and Links\| This Review contains major "Baekje"- related terms, short phrases and links grouped together in the form of Encyclopedia article. - Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE) was a kingdom in the southwest of the Korean Peninsula. - Baekje was a kingdom in southwest Korea and was influenced by southern Chinese dynasties, such as the Liang. - Baekje (October 18 BC â August AD 660) was a kingdom in the southwest of the Korean Peninsula. - Baekje was a monarchy, but like most monarchies a great deal of power was held by the aristocracy. - Baekje was conquered by an alliance of Silla and Tang forces in 660. - These three confederacies eventually developed into Baekje, Silla, and Gaya. - Silla first annexed Gaya, then conquered Baekje and Goguryeo with Tang assistance. - Silla first annexed Gaya, then conquered Baekje, driving them south to a neighboring island. - Once Su returned from the Sijie campaign, Emperor Gaozong commissioned him to head over the sea to attack Baekje, in conjunction with Silla. - In 660, King Munmu of Silla ordered his armies to attack Baekje. - Buyeo County - Local government site, providing basic statistics and tourist information for this ancient Baekje capital. - According to the chronicles of Japan II (續日本紀), Emperor Kammu's mother was a decendant of King Muryeong of Baekje, Korea. - The Sanguo Zhi mentions Baekje as a member of the Mahan confederacy in the Han River basin (near present-day Seoul). - In 392, with Gwanggaeto in personal command, Goguryeo attacked Baekje with 50,000 cavalry, taking 10 walled cities along the two countries' mutual border. - Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, was founded in 18 BC, with its capital at Wiryeseong in the Seoul area. - When the newly established kingdom of Baekje was established on 18 BC, they built their capital at Wiryeseong. - Later in the fifth century, Baekje retreated under military threat from Goguryeo, and in 475, the Wiryeseong (present-day Seoul) region fell to Goguryeo. - Jolbon Buyeo was the predecessor to Goguryeo, and in 538, Baekje renamed itself Nambuyeo (South Buyeo). - Located in Buyeo County, the ancient capital of the Baekje Kingdom, this school opened in 2000. - Buyeo County is home to the ancient capital of the Baekje Kingdom, which at its height ruled all the lands bordering the West Sea (or Yellow Sea). - Prior to that, by 663, many people of Baekje had immigrated to Japan, bringing technologies and culture with them. - Ara Gaya sought its independence by allying with Goguryeo, and asked Goguryeo to invade Baekje in 548. - The records of Baekje and Silla during the 1st century and 2nd century AD include numerous battles against the Mohe. - Thus, Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla are listed an order that is the reverse of their traditional order of formation. - However, Mohan claims that Goguryeo fabricated the Japanese invasion in order to justify its conquest of Baekje. - In the 27th year of King Geunchogo (372 A.D.), Baekje paid tribute to Dongjin located in the basin of Yangja river. - The beatific "Baekje smile" found on many Buddhist sculptures expresses the warmth typical of Baekje art. - A splendid gilt-bronze incense burner () excavated from an ancient Buddhist temple site at Neungsan-ri, Buyeo County, exemplifies Baekje art. - Historic evidence suggests that Japanese culture, art, and language was strongly influenced by the kingdom of Baekje and Korea itself. - Goguryeo and Baekje claimed that they were descendants of Fuyu. - This severely weakened Silla and soon thereafter, descendants of the former Baekje established Later Baekje. - His concubine and mother of Emperor Kammu was Takano no Niigasa, who is said to be a descendant of King Muryeong of Baekje. - The Sabi Period witnessed the flowering of Baekje culture, alongside the development of Buddhism, which Baekje transmitted to Japan. - King Muryeong of Baekje was born in 462, and left a son in Japan who settled there. - Tatara clan (多々良氏) - descended from Prince Rinshō, a son of King Seong of Baekje (disputed). - Those titles suggest both Goguryeo and Baekje, two of the three kingdoms of ancient Korea, considered themselves as a branch or successor of Fuyu. - It effectively made Baekje the weakest player on the Korean peninsula and gave Silla an important, resource and population rich area as a base for expansion. - She is remembered as a key figure in the founding of both Goguryeo and Baekje. - King Onjo, the founder of Baekje, is said to have been a son of King Dongmyeongseong, founder of Goguryeo. - Buyeo County: A county in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea, and one-time capital of the ancient kingdom of Baekje. - Baekje absorbed or conquered other Mahan chiefdoms and, at its peak in the 4th century, controlled most of the western Korean peninsula. - Founded around modern day Seoul, the southwestern kingdom Baekje expanded far beyond Pyongyang during the peak of its powers in the 4th century. - He attacked Later Baekje in 934 in a show of strength and received the surrender of Silla in the following year. - Su quickly captured the Baekje capital Sabi, forcing Baekje's King Uija and his crown prince Buyeo Yung to surrender. - However, the area under Baekje control soon contracted under pressure from Goguryeo and Silla. - To the west, Baekje had centralized into a kingdom by about 250, by overtaking the Mahan confederacy. - To the west, Baekje had centralized into a kingdom by about 250, by overtaking the loose Mahan confederacy. - Wiryeseong was the name of two early capitals of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. - Baekje officially changed its name to Nambuyeo (남부여, 南夫餘 "South Buyeo") in 538. - According to the Japanese chronicle Nihonshoki, members of Baekje royalty were held as hostages while Japan provided military support. - For Baekje, the battle was the knockout blow that ended any hope of reviving the kingdom. - In 663, Baekje revival forces and a Japanese naval fleet convened in southern Baekje to confront the Silla forces in the Battle of Baekgang. - At the battle of Hwangsanbeol in 660, the Baekje Army was defeated by Silla-Tang joint forces and lost over 40 counties. - Gaya exported abundant quantities of iron armor and weaponry to Baekje and the kingdom of Wa in Yamato period Japan. - The boundaries of Baekje control shifted substantially through the centuries. - Some linguists propose the so-called " Fuyu languages " that included the languages of Fuyu, Goguryeo, and the upper class of Baekje, and Old Japanese. - The religion was officially introduced at the year 538 by King Seong of Baekje, and this year is traditionally set for the epoch of the new period. - Throughout this early period of Baekje, the capital was frequently moved from one point to another for strategic reasons. - During the reign of King Goi (234–286), Baekje became a full-fledged kingdom, as it continued consolidating the Mahan confederacy. - It was during the reign of Emperor Wu of Liang that Baekje relocated its capital to southern Korea. - The establishment of a centralized state in Baekje is usually traced to the reign of King Geunchogo. - Buyeo Pung was one of the sons of King Uija of Baekje. - Two sons of Goguryeo's founder are recorded to have fled a succession conflict, to establish Baekje around the present Seoul area. - This however, severely weakened Silla and soon thereafter, descendents of the former Baekje established Later Baekje. - The establishment of a centralized state in Baekje is usually traced to the reign of King Goi, who may have first established patrilineal succession. - The fall of Baekje and the retreat to Japan Some members of the Baekje nobility and royalty emigrated to Japan even before the kingdom was overthrown. - In 538, long after the fall of Buyeo, Baekje renamed itself Nambuyeo (South Buyeo). - In the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, with the transition to iron culture, the focus of power shifted from Mokji to Baekje in the Han River region. - The defeated nobility of Goguryeo and Baekje were treated with some generosity. - Baekje acquired Chinese culture and technology through contacts with the Southern Dynasties during the expansion of its territory. - Baekje continued substantial trade with Goguryeo, and actively adopted Chinese culture and technology. - This period began circa 57 BCE to 668 CE. Three Korean kingdoms, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla vied for control over the peninsula. - Baekje and Silla were prominent in the south, Goguryeo in the north. - As civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession, in 551, Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from the south. - Further, while Baekje had agreed to attack Goguryeo from the south, it never actually did so. - Baekje amassed power while Goguryeo was fighting against the Chinese, and came into conflict with Goguryeo in the late fourth century. - The Tang Dynasty's intention of conquering Silla as well was made clear and Silla attacked the Chinese in Baekje and northern Korea in 671. - Asia > East Asia > Korea > Silla - Korean Peninsula - Encyclopedia of Keywords > Society > Culture > Three Kingdoms - Places > World > Countries > Japan * Chinese Writing System * Common Era * Gaya Confederacy * Goryeo Dynasty * Growing Influence * Jeju Island * Korean Peninsula * Korean Scholars * Military Alliance * Nihon Shoki * Samguk Sagi * Samguk Yusa * Separate Countries * Tang China * Three Kingdoms * Unified Silla Books about "Baekje" in
The right to vote is a consequence, not a primary cause, of a free social system—and its value depends on the constitutional structure implementing and strictly delimiting the voters’ power; unlimited majority rule is an instance of the principle of tyranny. A majority vote is not an epistemological validation of an idea. Voting is merely a proper political device—within a strictly, constitutionally delimited sphere of action—for choosing the practical means of implementing a society’s basic principles. But those principles are not determined by vote. Individual rights are not subject to a public vote; a majority has no right to vote away the rights of a minority. The citizens of a free nation may disagree about the specific legal procedures or methods of implementing their rights (which is a complex problem, the province of political science and of the philosophy of law), but they agree on the basic principle to be implemented: the principle of individual rights. When a country’s constitution places individual rights outside the reach of public authorities, the sphere of political power is severely delimited—and thus the citizens may, safely and properly, agree to abide by the decisions of a majority vote in this delimited sphere. The lives and property of minorities or dissenters are not at stake, are not subject to vote and are not endangered by any majority decision; no man or group holds a blank check on power over others.
Questions to Ask While Reading Literature - Who is speaking? To whom? In private or in public? - What is the speaker's attitude toward the matter he or she is relating? - What does the writer think of the speaker? - Does the speaker undergo any change or growth? Do any other characters? - What is the effect of the way that the work begins? Of the way it ends? - What are the principal recurring elements in the work? - What kind of world (setting, society, cosmos) is portrayed or implied in the work? - How does the work resemble other works you have read – both in this course and elsewhere? How does it significantly differ? - In what ways is your paraphrase an inadequate restatement of the original? - How is the way the work is written related to what is written about? The implications of the metaphors? The effect of meter, rhyme, alliteration? The section headed "Poetic Forms and Literary Terminology" in volume I of the Norton Anthology (pp. 2584-2598) contains brief discussions of these and other critical terms you may encounter. For fuller accounts. see M.H. Abrams. A Glossary of Literary Terms, and C. Hugh Holman. A Hand book of Literary Terms (copies of both are on reserve for English 200 in the library).
Paper- Restricted to Campus Access Human activities, including agricultural production, promote global climate warming by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations. Soil disturbances release stored soil carbon (C) as CO2 alongside depleting soil organic matter and soil nitrogen (N) reserves. Soil microbes (microscopic bacteria and fungi) regulate C and N cycling, therefore agricultural systems depend on healthy microbial communities that provide resilience to climate change through C and N storage. Due to the diverse relationships different plants have with different soil microbes, scientists propose increasing crop diversity to increase and diversify soil microbe communities. Through long-term research at the Whittaker Environmental Research Station (WERS), we are analyzing both the above- and below-ground effects of crop diversity. We expect that diverse crop communities will cultivate larger and healthier soil microbe populations than less diverse plots. To assess soil microbe communities, we quantify C and N in microbial biomass. Soil microbes are lysed by chloroform- fumigation, and microbial C and N is determined by difference from non-fumigated soil. Samples undergo a base-catalyzed free radical oxidation to oxidize C to CO2 and N to NO3-, which are then detected through gas analysis and colorimetric determination. By determining the effects of plant diversity on soil microbial communities in monocultures and polycultures of five common crops, crop management recommendations can be made to increase overall soil health and combat climate change. Doherty, Sabrina, "Increasing Agricultural Soil Health Through Crop Diversity" (2019). Biology Summer Fellows. 71. Available to Ursinus community only.
Where is the coldest place in the Universe? Right now, astronomers consider the “Boomerang Nebula” to have the honors. Located about 5,000 light-years away in the constellation Centaurus, this pre-planetary nebula carries a temperature of about one Kelvin – or a brisk, minus 458 degrees Fahrenheit. That makes it even colder than the natural background temperature of space! What makes it more frigid than the elusive afterglow of the Big Bang? Astronomers are employing the powers of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) telescope to tell us more about its chilly properties and unusual shape. The “Boomerang” is different all the way around. It is not yet a planetary nebula. The fueling light source – the central star – just isn’t hot enough yet to emit the massive amounts of ultra-violet radiation which lights up the structure. Right now it is illuminated by starlight shining off its surrounding dust grains. When it was first observed in optical light by our terrestrial telescopes, the nebula appeared to be shifted to one side and that’s how it got its fanciful name. Subsequent observations with the Hubble Space Telescope revealed an hour-glass structure. Now, enter ALMA. With these new observations, we can see the Hubble images only show part of what’s happening and the dual lobes seen in the older data were probably only a “trick of the light” as presented by optical wavelengths. “This ultra-cold object is extremely intriguing and we’re learning much more about its true nature with ALMA,” said Raghvendra Sahai, a researcher and principal scientist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, and lead author of a paper published in the Astrophysical Journal. “What seemed like a double lobe, or ‘boomerang’ shape, from Earth-based optical telescopes, is actually a much broader structure that is expanding rapidly into space.” So what is going on out there that makes the Boomerang such a cool customer? It’s the outflow, baby. The central star is expanding at a frenzied pace and it is lowering its own temperature in the process. A prime example of this is an air conditioner. It uses expanding gas to create a colder core and as the breeze blows over it – or in this case, the expanding shell – the environment around it is cooled. Astronomers were able to determine just how cool the gas in the nebula is by noting how it absorbed the constant of the cosmic microwave background radiation: a perfect 2.8 degrees Kelvin (minus 455 degrees Fahrenheit). “When astronomers looked at this object in 2003 with Hubble, they saw a very classic ‘hourglass’ shape,” commented Sahai. “Many planetary nebulae have this same double-lobe appearance, which is the result of streams of high-speed gas being jettisoned from the star. The jets then excavate holes in a surrounding cloud of gas that was ejected by the star even earlier in its lifetime as a red giant.” However, the single-dish millimeter wavelength telescopes didn’t see things the same as Hubble. Rather than a skinny waist, they found a fuller figure – a “nearly spherical outflow of material”. According to the news release, ALMA’s unprecedented resolution permitted researchers to determine why there was such a difference in overall appearance. The dual-lobe structure was evident when they focused on the distribution of carbon monoxide molecules as seen at millimeter wavelengths, but only toward the inside of the nebula. The outside was a different story, though. ALMA revealed a stretched, cold gas cloud that was relatively rounded. What’s more, the researchers also pinpointed a thick corridor of millimeter-sized dust grains enveloping the progenitor star – the reason the outer cloud took on the appearance of a bowtie in visible light! These dust grains shielded a portion of the star’s light, allowing just a glimpse in optical wavelengths coming from opposite ends of the cloud. “This is important for the understanding of how stars die and become planetary nebulae,” said Sahai. “Using ALMA, we were quite literally and figuratively able to shed new light on the death throes of a Sun-like star.” There’s even more to these new findings. Even though the perimeter of the nebula is beginning to warm up, it’s still just a bit colder than the cosmic microwave background. What could be responsible? Just ask Einstein. He called it the “photoelectric effect”. Original Story Source: NRAO News Release.
When it comes to digestion and absorption, carbohydrates and fats are two completely different beasts. While carbohydrates are water-soluble and easily pass through the watery environment of the digestive tract, fats are insoluble in water, which complicates the process a bit. However, there’s no need to worry because your body is fully equipped with the right machinery to break down all the carbohydrate, fat and protein you eat each day. Digestion of Carbohydrates Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth, where an enzyme in your saliva starts to break down starches. However, about 95 percent of digestion occurs in the small intestines. This is where the pancreas secretes enzymes that further break down carbohydrates until they are in the form of disaccharides, or sugars including sucrose, lactose or maltose. The cells that line the inside of the intestines have the final job of breaking down the disaccharides into monosaccharides – glucose, fructose and galactose. Absorption of Carbohydrates While fructose passively diffuses into the intestinal cell walls, glucose and galactose require a little bit of energy to be absorbed. Once inside, the monosaccharides are swept into the bloodstream and travel to the liver where fructose and galactose are converted into glucose, which is the body’s blood sugar. Glucose provides energy for all your body’s cells and is stored for future use in long chains called glycogen within your liver and skeletal muscles. Digestion of Fats As with carbohydrates, there is an enzyme in the mouth that starts fat digestion. This continues in the stomach, as physical churning begins to emulsify the fats. The real work is done in the small intestines where bile is secreted from the gallbladder to break large fat globules into smaller ones. Enzymes from the pancreas then attack these smaller pieces of fat, breaking them down into absorbable fatty acids. Absorption of Fats When the fatty acids enter the intestinal cells they are re-assembled into small fats and packed inside carrier proteins that are then released into the lymphatic system. Eventually the lymph system dumps into the blood and the carrier proteins travel throughout the body, depositing fat into your body’s cells where it is used for energy or stored as adipose tissue. The entire process of digestion and absorption of fat takes a lot longer than that of carbohydrates. If you eat more calories than you need in a day, both carbohydrates and fat may be stored as body fat. However, the process for storing the fat you eat as the fat on your hips and thighs is extremely efficient. In comparison, it takes three to four times the energy to convert and store excess carbohydrates as fat. - Nutrition; Paul Insel, R. Elaine Turner, Don Ross - Nutrition for Health, Fitness, & Sport; Melvin H. Williams - Nutrition Concepts and Controversies; Frances Sizer, Ellie Whitney
8 Useful Facts About Uranus The first planet to be discovered by telescope, Uranus is the nearest of the two "ice giants" in the solar system. Because we've not visited in over 30 years, much of the planet and its inner workings remain unknown. What scientists do know, however, suggests a mind-blowing world of diamond rain and mysterious moons. Here is what you need to know about Uranus. 1. ITS MOONS ARE NAMED AFTER CHARACTERS FROM LITERATURE. Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun, the fourth largest by size, and ranks seventh by density. (Saturn wins as least-dense.) It has 27 known moons, each named for characters from the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope. It is about 1784 million miles from the Sun (we're 93 million miles away from the Sun, or 1 astronomical unit), and is four times wider than Earth. Planning a trip? Bring a jacket, as the effective temperature of its upper atmosphere is -357°F. One Uranian year last 84 Earth years, which seems pretty long, until you consider one Uranian day, which lasts 42 Earth years. Why? 2. IT ROTATES UNIQUELY. Most planets, as they orbit the Sun, rotate upright, spinning like tops—some faster, some slower, but top-spinning all the same. Not Uranus! As it circles the Sun, its motion is more like a ball rolling along its orbit. This means that for each hemisphere of the planet to go from day to night, you need to complete half an orbit: 42 Earth years. (Note that this is not the length of a complete rotation, which takes about 17.25 hours.) While nobody knows for sure what caused this 98-degree tilt, the prevailing hypothesis involves a major planetary collision early in its history. And unlike Earth (but like Venus!), it rotates east to west. 3. SO ABOUT THAT NAME … You might have noticed that every non-Earth planet in the solar system is named for a Roman deity. (Earth didn't make the cut because when it was named, nobody knew it was a planet. It was just … everything.) There is an exception to the Roman-god rule: Uranus. Moving outward from Earth, Mars is (sometimes) the son of Jupiter, and Jupiter is the son of Saturn. So who is Saturn's father? Good question! In Greek mythology, it is Ouranos, who has no precise equivalent in Roman mythology (Caelus is close), though his name was on occasion Latinized by poets as—you guessed it!—Uranus. So to keep things nice and tidy, Uranus it was when finally naming this newly discovered world. Little did astronomers realize how greatly they would disrupt science classrooms evermore. Incidentally, it is not pronounced "your anus," but rather, "urine us" … which is hardly an improvement. 4. IT IS ONE OF ONLY TWO ICE GIANTS. Uranus and Neptune comprise the solar system's ice giants. (Other classes of planets include the terrestrial planets, the gas giants, and the dwarf planets.) Ice giants are not giant chunks of ice in space. Rather, the name refers to their formation in the interstellar medium. Hydrogen and helium, which only exist as gases in interstellar space, formed planets like Jupiter and Saturn. Silicates and irons, meanwhile, formed places like Earth. In the interstellar medium, molecules like water, methane, and ammonia comprise an in-between state, able to exist as gases or ices depending on the local conditions. When those molecules were found by Voyager to have an extensive presence in Uranus and Neptune, scientists called them "ice giants." 5. IT'S A HOT MYSTERY. Planets form hot. A small planet can cool off and radiate away heat over the age of the solar system. A large planet cannot. It hasn't cooled enough entirely on the inside after formation, and thus radiates heat. Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune all give off significantly more heat than they receive from the Sun. Puzzlingly, Uranus is different. "Uranus is the only giant planet that is not giving off significantly more heat than it is receiving from the Sun, and we don't know why that is," says Mark Hofstadter, a planetary scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. He tells Mental Floss that Uranus and Neptune are thought to be similar in terms of where and how they formed. So why is Uranus the only planet not giving off heat? "The big question is whether that heat is trapped on the inside, and so the interior is much hotter than we expect, right now," Hofstadter says. "Or did something happen in its history that let all the internal heat get released much more quickly than expected?" The planet's extreme tilt might be related. If it were caused by an impact event, it is possible that the collision overturned the innards of the planet and helped it cool more rapidly. "The bottom line," says Hofstadter, "is that we don't know." 6. IT RAINS DIAMONDS BIGGER THAN GRIZZLY BEARS. Although it's really cold in the Uranian upper atmosphere, it gets really hot, really fast as you reach deeper. Couple that with the tremendous pressure in the Uranian interior, and you get the conditions for literal diamond rain. And not just little rain diamondlets, either, but diamonds that are millions of carats each—bigger than your average grizzly bear. Note also that this heat means the ice giants contain relatively little ice. Surrounding a rocky core is what is thought to be a massive ocean—though one unlike you might find on Earth. Down there, the heat and pressure keep the ocean in an "in between" state that is highly reactive and ionic. 7. IT HAS A BAKER'S DOZEN OF BABY RINGS. Unlike Saturn's preening hoops, the 13 rings of Uranus are dark and foreboding, likely comprised of ice and radiation-processed organic material. The rings are made more of chunks than of dust, and are probably very young indeed: something on the order of 600 million years old. (For comparison, the oldest known dinosaurs roamed the Earth 240 million years ago.) 8. WE'VE BEEN THERE BEFORE AND WILL BE BACK. The only spacecraft to ever visit Uranus was NASA's Voyager 2 in 1986, which discovered 10 new moons and two new rings during its single pass from 50,000 miles up. Because of the sheer weirdness and wonder of the planet, scientists have been itching to return ever since. Some questions can only be answered with a new spacecraft mission. Key among them: What is the composition of the planet? What are the interactions of the solar wind with the magnetic field? (That's important for understanding various processes such as the heating of the upper atmosphere and the planet's energy deposition.) What are the geological details of its satellites, and the structure of the rings? The Voyager spacecraft gave scientists a peek at the two ice giants, and now it's time to study them up close and in depth. Hofstadter compares the need for an ice-giants mission to what happened after the Voyagers visited Jupiter and Saturn. NASA launched Galileo to Jupiter in 1989 and Cassini to Saturn in 1997. (Cassini was recently sent on a suicide mission into Saturn.) Those missions arrived at their respective systems and proved transformative to the field of planetary science. "Just as we had to get a closer look at Europa and Enceladus to realize that there are potentially habitable oceans there, the Uranus and Neptune systems can have similar things," says Hofstadter. "We'd like to go there and see them up close. We need to go into the system."
Energy conversion efficiency (η) is the ratio between the useful output of an energy conversion machine and the input, in energy terms. The input, as well as the useful output may be chemical, electric power, mechanical work, light (radiation), or heat. Energy conversion efficiency depends on the utility of the output. All or part of the heat produced by a heat exchanger, for example, is the desired output of a thermodynamic cycle. Energy converter is an example of an energy transformation. For example a light bulb falls into the categories energy converter. Even though the definition includes the notion of usefulness, is considered a technical or physical term. Goal or mission oriented terms include effectiveness and efficacy. Generally, energy conversion efficiency is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1.0, or 0% to 100%. Efficiencies may not exceed 100%, eg, for a perpetual motion machine. However, other measures that can exceed 1.0 are used for heat pumps and other devices that move heat rather than convert it. When talking about the efficiency of heat engines and power stations the convention should be stated, ie, HHV (Gross Heating Value, etc.) or LCV (aka net heating value), and whether gross output (at the generator terminals) or net output (at the power station fence) are being considered. The two are separate but both must be stated. Failure to do so causes endless confusion. Related, more specific terms include In Europe, the use of fuel oil is of a higher fuel efficiency (LHV) than that of fuel, the definition of which fuel is used during fuel combustion (oxidation), remains gaseous, and is not condensed to liquid water. so the latent heat of vaporization of that water is not usable. Using the LHV, a condensing boiler can achieve a “heating efficiency” in excess of 100% (which does not violate the first law of thermodynamics as long as the LHV convention is understood, but does cause confusion). This is because the apparatus recovers part of the heat of vaporization, which is not included in the definition of the lower heating value of fuel. In the US and elsewhere, the higher heating value (HHV) is used, which includes the latent heat for condensing the water vapor, In optical systems such as lighting and lasers, the energy conversion efficiency is often referred to as a wall-plug efficiency. The wall-plug efficiency is the measure of radiative-energy output, in watts (joules per second), for the total of the electrical input-energy in watts. The output-energy is usually measured in terms of absolute irradiance and the wall-plug efficiency is given as a percentage of the total input-energy, with the inverse percentage representing the losses. The wall-plug efficiency differs from the luminous efficiency in that wall-plug efficiency describes the direct output / input conversion of energy (the amount of work that can be performed) how well it can illuminate a space). Instead of using watts, the power of a light source to produce wavelengths proportional to human perception is measured in lumens. The human eye is most sensitive to wavelengths of 555 nanometers (greenish-yellow) but the sensitivity decreases dramatically to that side of this wavelength, following a Gaussian power-curve and dropping to zero sensitivity at the red and violet ends of the spectrum. To to the…………………… Yellow and green, for example, make up more than 50% of what the eye perceives as being white, even though in terms of radiant energy white-light is made from equal parts of all colors (ie: a 5 mw green laser appears brighter than a 5 mw red laser, yet the red laser stands out better against a white background). Therefore, the radiant intensity of a light source may be much greater than its luminous intensity, meaning that the source emits more energy than the eye can use. Likewise, the lamp’s wall-plug efficiency is usually greater than its luminous efficiency. The effectiveness of a light source to convert electrical energy into visible light, in the light of the light of the human eye, is referred to as luminous efficacy, which is measured in units of lumens per watt (lm / w) of electrical input -Energy. Characterized by efficiency, which is a unit of measurement, Therefore, The luminous efficiency of a light source is the percentage of luminous efficacy for the theoretical-maximum efficacy at a specific wavelength. The amount of energy carried by a photon of light is determined by its wavelength. In lumens, this energy is offset by the eye’s sensitivity to the selected wavelengths. For example, a green laser pointer can be greater than 30 times the apparent brightness of a red pointer of the same power output. At 555 nm in wavelength, 1 watt of radiant energy is equivalent to 685 lumens, thus a monochromatic light source at this wavelength, with a luminous efficacy of 685 lm / w, has a luminous efficiency of 100%. The theoretical-maximum efficiency lowers for wavelengths at 555 nm. For example, low-pressure sodium lamps produce monochromatic light at 589 nm with a luminous efficacy of 200 lm / w, which is the highest of any lamp. The theoretical-maximum efficacy at that wavelength is 525 lm / w, so the lamp has a luminous efficiency of 38.1%. Because the lamp is monochromatic, the luminous efficiency nearly matches the wall-plug efficiency of <40%. Calculations for luminous efficiency become more complex for lamps that produce white light or a mixture of spectral lines. Fluorescent lamps have higher wall-plug efficiencies than low-pressure sodium lamps, but only have half the luminous efficacy of ~ 100 lm / w, thus the luminous efficiency of fluorescent is lower than sodium lamps. A xenon flashtube has a typical wall-plug efficiency of 50–70%, exceeding that of most other forms of lighting. Because the flashtube emits large amounts of infrared and ultraviolet radiation, only a portion of the energy output is used by the eye. The luminous efficiency is typically around 50 lm / w. However, not all applications for lighting involve the human eye nor are they restricted to visible wavelengths. For laser pumping, the efficacy is not related to the human eye so it is not called “luminous” efficacy, but rather simply “efficacy” as it relates to the absorption lines of the laser medium. Krypton flashtubes are often chosen for pumping, even though their wall-plug efficiency is typically only ~ 40%. Krypton’s spectral lines of neodymium-doped crystal, thus the efficacy of krypton for this purpose is much higher than xenon; able to produce up to the laser output for the same electrical input. All of these terms refer to the amount of energy and lumens as they exit the light source, disregarding any losses that might occur within the lighting fixture or subsequent output optics. Luminaire efficiency refers to the total lumen output of the fixture for the lamp output. With the exception of a few light sources, such as incandescent light bulbs, most light sources have multiple stages of energy conversion between the “wall plug” (electrical input point, which may include batteries, direct wiring, or other sources) and the final light-output, with each stage producing a loss. Low-pressure sodium lamps are widely used in the electrical energy market, and are usually used in the ballast. Similarly, fluorescent lamps also use electronic ballast (electronic efficiency). Electricity is then converted into light energy by the electrical arc (electrode efficiency and discharge efficiency). The light is then transferred to a fluorescent coating that only absorbs suitable wavelengths, with some losses of those wavelengths due to reflection off and transmission through the coating (transfer efficiency). The number of photons absorbed by the coating will not match the number then reemitted as fluorescence (quantum efficiency). Finally, due to the phenomenon of the Stokes shift, the reemitted photons will-have to go short wavelength (THUS lower energy) than the absorbed photon (fluorescence efficiency). In very similar fashion, lasers aussi Many internship experience of conversion entre les wall plug and the output aperture. The terms “wall-plug efficiency” or “energy conversion efficiency”
SoCal does not experience avalanches very often. Since 1950, at least 64 people have died in avalanches in California with 9 of those in SoCal, according to this article. Snow avalanches can cause a significant loss of life. As a naturally occurring disaster they are unique in nature, usually being highly localized events, and often in remote areas. Their victims are often voluntarily at risk for recreation purposes and become the trigger of their own avalanche. Avalanche forecasting seeks to safeguard recreationists in winter mountain environments using risk based decision making. Avalanche experts interpret the spatial and temporal distribution of hazards and abstractly present these in the form of a forecast. Recreationists can then use them for planning excursions into avalanche prone terrain and avoid high risk slopes that pose a hazard. Check out this article on how Scotland looked at using GIS to make cartographic visualizations of predicted avalanche danger areas.
English text: Ottoline and the Yellow Cat Every child has been given the book Ottoline and the Yellow Cat to read on Bug Club. There is a lot of work based around this book as it would have been a text we would study in depth at school. It would be very useful to have a discussion with your child about the book after each chapter to ensure they fully understand what is happening in order to complete the tasks. Please follow these instructions. - Complete the Book Cover task before reading it. - Read Chapter 1. (If the text is difficult to understand then feel free to read it with them.) - Complete the tasks: Ottoline’s Collection, Diary Entry, Overheard Story 1, Overheard Story 2 and Comprehension Chapter 1. - Read Chapter 2. - Complete the tasks: Ottoline’s Disguise and Comprehension Chapter 2. - Read Chapter 3. - Complete the tasks: Sentence Starters, Postcard and Comprehension Chapter 3. - Read Chapter 4. - Complete the tasks: Character Profile, Mr. Munroe Goes Missing and Comprehension Chapter 4. After this, the rest of the book can be read. Work for all children:
Pan Am Decides to Install Inertial Navigation Capability on Its Jet Fleet, July 1964 Inertial Navigation System Accurate navigation is integral to the safe operation of any aircraft. There is a well-worn saying that most any pilot can repeat: "Avigate (i.e., fly the airplane), Navigate, and Communicate," in that order. Modern commercial transport aircraft, flown by well-trained professional crews, have quite a margin of safety under most situations, with two pilots available to manage the job of keeping the airplane flying. (Photo left: Inside the INS Box) It wasn't until the mid-1940's that aircraft navigation began to enter into what might be termed the modern age, particularly in respect to long-range flight across large stretches out of sight of land. The most trusted system up until then was onboard celestial navigation, supplemented by long-range direction finding provided by land-based stations and dead-reckoning by the crew of the aircraft. This approach was superceded with the commercial advent of LORAN in the mid-1940's, but the early versions required special training and usually the services of a flight navigator in the crew. In any case, the system depended on radio signals emanating from ground stations far away, and could be hampered by atmospheric interference. Accuracy diminished with distance from the ground stations too. The Doppler System and INS What was really challenging to the development of international commercial aviation was having an accurate way to navigate over Earth's higher latitudes. Aircraft were developed with truly long-range potential, making it possible fly Great Circle routes between continents over polar routes. But not only were such routes over places where magnetic compass accuracy was minimal, and ground-based aids to navigation sparse at best, it was imperative to avoid restricted airspace when Cold War tensions dominated international travel and much else besides. What was needed was a navigation system that was independent of outside directional resources. Fortunately, technology became available to handle the job. The Inertial Navigation System, or INS, was one answer. Based on the interpretation of extremely accurate measurement of inertial forces at play on a system of gyroscopes and accelerometers, it was first deployed on submarines. The early units were too heavy for aircraft, but the weight was reduced with the development of micro-electronic components. The system would be set at the start of a flight, with the accurate input of latitude and longitude coordinates from the starting point. Thereafter, the flight would be tracked without assistance of external inputs as it flew through waypoints that were pre-programmed by the flight crew. (Of course, wherever possible, ground-based air traffic control provided a check on the flight's progress.) The first INS system Pan Am put in place on company Boeing 707's, made by Sperry, was not perfect, as the gyroscopes it relied on used mechanical bearings, which over the course of a flight resulted in inaccuracies. It was decided in late 1964 to augment the INS with another system, called Doppler, manufactured by Bendix, which used an aircraft-based RADAR array which pointed earthward in four quadrants. Pan Am had tested the system beginning in early 1958 onboard a DC-7C flying North Atlantic routes. (Photo right: Cold War Polar Routes 1960s-1990s, aircraft destinations from the United-States) The system measured aircraft movements in four directions by calibrating the difference between the signal return in each of two axes, thus measuring forward as well as sideways movement (drift). It was accurate, but it was really a system for electronic dead reckoning, measuring movement on a time scale,just as had been done with the old visual drift sight method used when navigators dropped aluminum powder-filled flasks from their flying boats and measured the aircraft's movement away from the shiny spot on the ocean below. Pan Am still required crews to use a complementary navigational aids such as LORAN to augment Doppler readings. The FAA approved the use of Doppler, conditional on appropriate pilot training and procedural changes in 1961. The flip side of this decision was that the position of flight navigator was now becoming redundant, as the British say. Their day in the cockpit was coming to a close. What came along next was a real improvement - technology derived from NASA's Space Program. The mechanical bearings in the earlier INS units were replaced with gas bearings, and the units (called Carousel by the A.C. Electronic Division of General Motors) could be relied on to be accurate with a few tenths of a mile over the course of a several-thousand mile flight. Pan Am's B-747's were equipped with three sets (two operational sets as required by the FAA along with one spare), providing redundancy. They proved to be accurate and reliable, and the back-up unit was more often than not, redundant.
Despite being polar opposites conceptually, the two most fundamental grammatical classes—noun and verb—show extensive parallelism. One similarity is that both divide into two major subclasses: count vs. mass for nouns, perfective vs. imperfective for verbs. Allowing for the intrinsic conceptual difference between nouns and verbs, these oppositions are precisely the same. The essential feature of count nouns and perfective verbs is that the profiled thing or process is construed as being bounded within the immediate scope in a particular cognitive domain: the domain of instantiation, characterized as the domain where instances of a type are primarily conceived as residing and are distinguished from one another by their locations. For nouns, the domain of instantiation varies, although space is prototypical; for verbs, the relevant domain is always time. Correlated with bounding are other distinguishing properties: internal heterogeneity (for count and perfective) vs. homogeneity (for mass and imperfective); contractibility (the property of masses and imperfectives whereby any subpart of an instance is itself an instance of its type); and expansibility (whereby combining two mass or imperfective instances yields a single, larger instance). Count vs. mass and perfective vs. imperfective are not rigid lexical distinctions, but are malleable owing to alternate construals as well as systematic patterns of extension. The conceptual characterization of perfective and imperfective verbs explains their contrasting behavior with respect to the English progressive and present tense. Keywords: bounding, construal, count noun, domain of instantiation, immediate scope, imperfective verb, mass noun, noun, perfective verb, present tense, progressive, semantic extension, type vs. instance, verb Oxford Scholarship Online requires a subscription or purchase to access the full text of books within the service. Public users can however freely search the site and view the abstracts and keywords for each book and chapter. If you think you should have access to this title, please contact your librarian.
\|CHP Home\|\|GenChem Analytical Instrumentation Index\| A channeltron is a horn-shaped continuous dynode structure that is coated on the inside with a electron emissive material. An ion striking the channeltron creates secondary electrons that have an avalanche effect to create more secondary electrons and finally a current pulse. A Daly detector consists of a metal knob that emits secondary electrons when struck by an ion. The secondary electrons are accelerated onto a scintillator that produces light that is then detected by a photomultiplier tube. Electron multiplier tubes are similar in design to photomultiplier tubes. They consist of a series of biased dynodes that eject secondary electrons when they are struck by an ion. They therefore multiply the ion current and can be used in analog or digital mode. A Faraday cup is a metal cup that is placed in the path of the ion beam. It is attached to an electrometer, which measures the ion-beam current. Since a Faraday cup can only be used in an analog mode it is less sensitive than other detectors that are capable of operating in pulse-counting mode. A microchannel plate (MCP) consists of an array of glass capillaries (10-25 Ám inner diameter) that are coated on the inside with a electron-emissive material. The capillaries are biased at a high voltage and like the channeltron, an ion that strikes the inside wall one of the capillaries creates an avalanche of secondary electrons. This cascading effect creates a gain of 103 to 104 and produces a current pulse at the output. Schematic of a microchannel plate Microchannel plates (MCP) are also used as an intensifier for low-intensity light detection with array detectors. \|Top of Page\|
Evolutionary biologists have long puzzled over how new traits emerge in nature, largely because much of the evolutionary information available is from the distant past. To learn more about how genes influence evolution, these researchers study organism phenotypes—the observable characteristics of an organism that are influenced by genetics and environment—and how they change. Identifying and studying novel traits, such as new patterns seen in turtle shells, butterflies and flowers, may help biologists solve one of the most challenging problems in evolutionary biology: how these traits originate and evolve. Decoding that mystery could improve the quality of human life–for example, by helping researchers understand the evolutionary histories of disease-causing genes in order to control hereditary diseases. Liza Holeski, an associate professor of biology in NAU’s College of the Environment, Forestry, and Natural Sciences, recently received a $106,000 grant from the National Institutes of Health to study a distinct pigmentation pattern that evolved very recently among a wild population of crimson monkeyflowers (Mimulus verbenaceus). Holeski’s study is part of a larger five-year project spearheaded by principal investigator Yaowu Yuan, an assistant professor and evolutionary developmental geneticist at the University of Connecticut. Working with Ph.D. and undergraduate students, Holeski will conduct experiments to provide a detailed view of how the new trait, a specific stripe pattern that appears on the flower’s leaf, developed and evolved. The team hopes to identify the genes that underlie the phenotype and learn how the plant’s genetics and the environment interacted to produce the trait. “Most of the work will be done in the field,” Holeski said, “but we will propagate plants in the greenhouse by moving pollen from one plant onto the stigma of another to fertilize according to a specific breeding design. In the lab, we’ll enter data, conduct statistical analysis and identify any insect herbivores found in the field.” Monkeyflowers ideal for studying phenotypes, genetics Monkeyflowers are indigenous to the western and southwestern United States and northern Mexico, but the particular trait Holeski is studying appears in crimson monkeyflowers growing in only two canyons in northern Arizona. “The trait we’re examining evolved relatively recently, which allows us to characterize not only the genetic and developmental pathways underlying the trait, but also the evolutionary processes that lead to its presence or absence in different populations,” Holeski said. Discerning the factors that drive an initial adaption requires rigorous investigation, which can’t be performed on most organisms. Monkeyflowers are ideal for studying the link between phenotypes and genetics because they have short generation spans and small genomes, allowing researchers to manipulate the genes and observe the results in a relatively short time. ”A wealth of previously developed genomic resources and tools are available that can help researchers map the trait,” Holeski said. “And learning more about how traits develop, no matter how simple or unimportant they may seem, can contribute to the overall understanding of how natural selection occurs.” “Characterizing gene regulatory networks in model organisms has led and will continue to lead to greater understanding of developmental processes in other organisms, including humans,” Holeski said. “We anticipate that these studies will, for the first time, provide a detailed view of the genetic and developmental mechanisms and the evolutionary process driving them in nature.” Holeski, who joined NAU in 2013, focuses on plant evolution, ecology and genetics to understand how herbivores and environmental factors—such as temperature, water availability and growing season length—create trait selection pressures in plants. Kerry Bennett and Amy K. Phillips \| Office of the Vice President for Research (928) 523-5556 \| email@example.com
‘Life Cycles’ is a ‘Life Science’ curriculum based game to make children understand how animals of different ‘Animal Groups’ grow and change from their beginning of life till adult lives. There are 6 sets of 4 large pieces ‘Life Cycle’ puzzles of all the animal groups. As the child puts the pictures of different stages of development of each animal together in a logically correct order, they understand and learn the beginning, pattern of growth, and the changes that take place at different stages of development of that animal. Thus, a child learns about the life cycles of different groups while developing their early science skills. Children can also play ‘Picture Quiz’ and other Group Games with the help of the activities given in the ‘Activity Guide’.
Humans have many ways to express themselves, but one of the most enjoyable-and mysterious-is laughter. More than a frivolous emotional outburst, laughter has many important functions in human communication, playing major roles in social situations ranging from dates to diplomatic negotiations. While scientists have thoroughly researched many other human sounds, such as singing and talking, remarkably little is known about the acoustics of laughter. Seeking to rectify this, Vanderbilt psychologist Jo-Anne Bachorowski and Cornell psychologist Michael Owren studied 1024 laughter episodes from 97 young adults as they watched funny video clips from films such as "When Harry Met Sally" and "Monty Python and the Holy Grail." The surprising results were published in the September 2001 issue of the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. "We tend to think of laughter as being tee-hee or ho-ho, sorts of sounds," said Bachorowski. But their results showed otherwise. First of all, laughers produce many different kinds of sounds, including grunts and snorts. The investigators found interesting sex differences in the use of these sounds, with males tending to grunt and snort more often than females. The sex differences don't end there. Women produced more song-like laughter than men. These song-like laughs are "voiced," meaning that they involve the vocal folds, the tissues in the larynx involved in producing vowels and related sounds. In men and women alike, laughs are surprisingly high-pitched. To determine this, the researchers took each voiced laugh and measured its "fundamental frequency," which corresponds to the rate at which the vocal folds vibrate, and is heard by listeners as pitch. They found that women's laughter, on the average, was twice as high-pitched as normal speech (had twice the fundamental frequency). Men's laughter was, on the average, 2.5 times more higher-pitched than their normal speech (had 2.5 times the fundamental frequency). Even more remarkable were the very high frequencies of some voiced laughs. Male fundamentals were sometimes over 1,000 Hertz (Hz)-about the pitch of a high "C" for a soprano singer. Females were sometimes over 2,000 Hz-one octave higher than a soprano's high C. These high fundamentals were unexpected. "I personally didn't imagine that males and females would produce sounds with fundamentals that high in natural circumstances," Bachorowski said. Santa Claus may also have to change his tagline, as researchers found that voiced laughter does not consist of articulated vowel-like utterances, like "tee-hee," "ha-ha," or "ho-ho." Instead, laughter is predominantly composed of neutral, "huh-huh" sounds. Ever think your laugh sounds funny when you're stressed out? The researchers found lots of evidence that laughter can be associated with out-of-the-ordinary vocal physics, such as whirlpools of air or whistles near the larynx. While the researchers don't know with certainty what the origins of such effects are, they may be associated with a high level of emotional arousal on the part of laughers. The researchers are in the midst of further studies of laughter. For example, they are studying the impact that these sounds have on emotional responses in listeners. They are also looking to uncover what happens in the human brain when listeners hear laughter. Another piece of their work involves studying whether laughter is speech-like in the sense of providing "meaning" or symbolic value to listeners. The investigators instead think that laughter functions largely to sway a listener's emotional response, with any meaning attributed to the sounds inferred or interpreted from the situation in which the laughter is produced. This research was funded by the National Science Foundation. Cite This Page:
Dyslexia is a learning disorder in reading, despite normal intelligence, good vision and hearing, systematic training, adequate incentives and other favourable psychological and social conditions. Dyslexia presents a significant discrepancy between the actual and the expected reading level for the individual’s mental age.(Golubović S. 1998.) Reading skills comprise: * Logical thinking * Saving time and * Good reading quality These specific disorders in reading and writing cannot be diagnosed before the end of the second grade. Dysgraphia is a disorder of writing, despite normal intelligence, good eyesight and hearing, appropriate training and adequate social opportunities. Developmental dysgraphia is characterised by altering the form of letters and by uneven letter size, detected from the earliest stages of learning to write. Developmental dysgraphia, according to Vladisavljević (1991), is divided into: * Visual dysgraphia * Phonological dysgraphia * Motor dysgraphia * Language dysgraphia Homeopathy has proven effective in people with dyslexia. After collecting data related to reading and writing problems, the homeopathic doctor specifies a medicine that has an effect on the centres that regulate reading, perception of letters and motor skills, and the overall behaviour of the individual – child. Homeopathic medicines that are properly selected and correctly administered can be a “Gift from God” for children with dyslexia. These can help them to “slow down”, relax and feel greater internal security. Homeopathy can also improve the overall condition of the body, and therefore children with dyslexia feel stronger, which leads to an overall sense of wellbeing.
If you take a three by three square on a 1-10 addition square and multiply the diagonally opposite numbers together, what is the difference between these products. Why? This package contains a collection of problems from the NRICH website that could be suitable for students who have a good understanding of Factors and Multiples and who feel ready to take on some. . . . This Sudoku, based on differences. Using the one clue number can you find the solution? Bellringers have a special way to write down the patterns they ring. Learn about these patterns and draw some of your own. A student in a maths class was trying to get some information from her teacher. She was given some clues and then the teacher ended by saying, "Well, how old are they?" Find the smallest whole number which, when mutiplied by 7, gives a product consisting entirely of ones. This task depends on groups working collaboratively, discussing and reasoning to agree a final product. Countries from across the world competed in a sports tournament. Can you devise an efficient strategy to work out the order in which they finished? Can you arrange the numbers 1 to 17 in a row so that each adjacent pair adds up to a square number? Use the clues to work out which cities Mohamed, Sheng, Tanya and Bharat live in. Can you find which shapes you need to put into the grid to make the totals at the end of each row and the bottom of each column? Five numbers added together in pairs produce: 0, 2, 4, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15 What are the five numbers? Can you use the information to find out which cards I have used? This cube has ink on each face which leaves marks on paper as it is rolled. Can you work out what is on each face and the route it has taken? Move your counters through this snake of cards and see how far you can go. Are you surprised by where you end up? The idea of this game is to add or subtract the two numbers on the dice and cover the result on the grid, trying to get a line of three. Are there some numbers that are good to aim for? You have been given nine weights, one of which is slightly heavier than the rest. Can you work out which weight is heavier in just two weighings of the balance? Find the values of the nine letters in the sum: FOOT + BALL = GAME An extra constraint means this Sudoku requires you to think in diagonals as well as horizontal and vertical lines and boxes of Given the products of adjacent cells, can you complete this Sudoku? Rather than using the numbers 1-9, this sudoku uses the nine different letters used to make the words "Advent Calendar". A few extra challenges set by some young NRICH members. Make a pair of cubes that can be moved to show all the days of the month from the 1st to the 31st. The letters of the word ABACUS have been arranged in the shape of a triangle. How many different ways can you find to read the word ABACUS from this triangular pattern? My two digit number is special because adding the sum of its digits to the product of its digits gives me my original number. What could my number be? A cinema has 100 seats. Show how it is possible to sell exactly 100 tickets and take exactly £100 if the prices are £10 for adults, 50p for pensioners and 10p for children. Use the differences to find the solution to this Sudoku. A particular technique for solving Sudoku puzzles, known as "naked pair", is explained in this easy-to-read article. Can you find six numbers to go in the Daisy from which you can make all the numbers from 1 to a number bigger than 25? Seven friends went to a fun fair with lots of scary rides. They decided to pair up for rides until each friend had ridden once with each of the others. What was the total number rides? There is a long tradition of creating mazes throughout history and across the world. This article gives details of mazes you can visit and those that you can tackle on paper. Four small numbers give the clue to the contents of the four A package contains a set of resources designed to develop students’ mathematical thinking. This package places a particular emphasis on “being systematic” and is designed to meet. . . . The letters in the following addition sum represent the digits 1 ... 9. If A=3 and D=2, what number is represented by "CAYLEY"? Make your own double-sided magic square. But can you complete both sides once you've made the pieces? Four friends must cross a bridge. How can they all cross it in just 17 minutes? Follow the clues to find the mystery number. This tricky challenge asks you to find ways of going across rectangles, going through exactly ten squares. A man has 5 coins in his pocket. Given the clues, can you work out what the coins are? Can you use your powers of logic and deduction to work out the missing information in these sporty situations? If these elves wear a different outfit every day for as many days as possible, how many days can their fun last? First Connect Three game for an adult and child. Use the dice numbers and either addition or subtraction to get three numbers in a straight line. I was in my car when I noticed a line of four cars on the lane next to me with number plates starting and ending with J, K, L and M. What order were they in? Can you put plus signs in so this is true? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 = 99 How many ways can you do it? Find the sum and difference between a pair of two-digit numbers. Now find the sum and difference between the sum and difference! What happens? This challenge focuses on finding the sum and difference of pairs of two-digit numbers. Use the clues to find out who's who in the family, to fill in the family tree and to find out which of the family members are mathematicians and which are not. Systematically explore the range of symmetric designs that can be created by shading parts of the motif below. Use normal square lattice paper to record your results. The Vikings communicated in writing by making simple scratches on wood or stones called runes. Can you work out how their code works using the table of the alphabet? This multiplication uses each of the digits 0 - 9 once and once only. Using the information given, can you replace the stars in the calculation with figures?
Kansas HistoryEdit This Page From FamilySearch Wiki The following important events in the history of Kansas affected political jurisdictions, family movements, and record keeping: - 1803:The United States acquired Kansas from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase. - 1804-1820: United States government expeditions explored the Kansas region, reporting it to be an arid wasteland. The resulting myth of the Great American Desert discouraged early white settlement. - 1821: The Santa Fe Trail across Kansas was opened. It served as a wagon road from Missouri to the Southwest until 1880, when the railroad was completed. - 1827-1853: The United States Army built forts and roads in Kansas for frontier defense and to protect trade along the Santa Fe Trail. - 1830-1854: Kansas was part of Indian Territory, where 20 tribes from the east were relocated. The Indian Territory was closed to white settlement. - 1838: "Trail of Death" the Potawatomi Indians removed from Indiana to Kansas. - 1843: Wyandot Indians removed from Ohio to Kansas. The Wyando Indians purchased land from the Delaware Indians. - 1852-53:(winter) More than four hunderd Indians died by smallpox at Council Grove. - 30 May 1854: The Kansas-Nebraska Act created two territories extending from the Missouri border westward to the tops of the Rocky Mountains and opened the area to white settlement. Migration to Kansas was stimulated by rivalry between North and South over the slavery issue and over the choice of a railroad route to the Pacific. - 1857: Battle of Solom's Fort in Northwestern Kansas - 23 April 1860 - 24 October 1861: Pony Express - 29 January 1861: Kansas, with its present boundaries, was admitted to the Union as a free state. - 1861-1865: In the Civil War, over 20,000 of the 30,000 Kansas men of military age served in the Union armed forces. Kansas suffered the highest mortality rate of any state in the Union. - 1867: Indians met with U.S. near the Medicine River in Kansas Territory, The Medicine Lodge Peace Treaty was signed The land south of the Kansas border was declared to be Indian territory. - 1867-1869: Indian Champaign. Many of the remaining Indian tribes agreed to leave Kansas and move to Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma. Indian skirmishes continued in Kansas until 1878. - 1870-1890: The post-Civil War boom brought thousands of settlers to build new railroads and to claim land under the Homestead Act. - 1874: Red River War (Buffalo War) - 1879: Haskell Indian boarding school in Lawrence began. - 1879: "exoduster": movement into Kansas - 1879-1881: Kansas Freedman's Relief Association: to aid destitute freedmen, refugees and immigrants who were migrating to Kansas. In one year 20-40 thousand African American migrated to Kansas. The migrants are sometimes refered to as "exoduster". - 1898: Over 300,000 men were involved in the Spanish-American War which was fought mainly in Cuba and the Philippines. - 1917–1918: More than 26 million men from the United States ages 18 through 45 registered with the Selective Service. World War I over 4.7 million American men and women served during the war. - 1930's: The Great Depression closed many factories and mills. Many small farms were abandoned, and many families moved to cities. - 1940–1945: Over 50.6 million men ages 18 to 65 registered with the Selective Service. Over 16.3 million American men and women served in the armed forces during World War II. - 1950–1953: Over 5.7 million American men and women served in the Korean War. - 1950's–1960's The building of interstate highways made it easier for people to move long distances. - 1964–1972: Over 8.7 million American men and women served in the Vietnam War. Histories are great sources of genealogical information. Many contain biographical information about individuals who lived in the area, including: Some of the most valuable sources for family history research are local histories. Published histories of towns, counties, and states usually contain accounts of families. They describe the settlement of the area and the founding of churches, schools, and businesses. You can also find lists of pioneers, soldiers, and civil officials. Even if your ancestor is not listed, information on other relatives may be included that will provide important clues for locating your ancestor. A local history may also suggest other records to search. Local histories are extensively collected by the Family History Library, public and university libraries, and state and local historical societies. - Filby, P. William. A Bibliography of American County Histories. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing, 1985. FHL book 973 H23bi. At various libraries (WorldCat) - Kaminkow, Marion J. United States Local Histories in the Library of Congress. 5 vols. Baltimore: Magna Charta Book, 1975-76. FHL book 973 A3ka. At various libraries(WorldCat) State Histories Useful to Genealogists Good genealogists strive to understand the life and times of their ancestors. In this sense, any history is useful. But certain kinds of state, county, and local histories, especially older histories published between 1845 and 1945, often include biographical sketches of prominent individuals. The sketches usually tend toward the laudatory, but may include some genealogical details. If these histories are indexed or alphabetical, check for an ancestor's name. Some examples for the State of Kansas. - An especially helpful source for studying the history of Kansas is: John D. Bright, ed., Kansas: The First Century, 4 vols. (New York, New York: Lewis Historical Publishing Co., 1956; FHL book 978.1 H2k. This includes family and personal histories. - Cutler, William G., History of the State of Kansas. Chicago, IL: A. T. Andreas, 1883. Available online. United States History The following are only a few of the many sources that are available: - Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur M. The Almanac of American History. This provides brief historical essays and chronological descriptions of thousands of key events in United States history. - The Pony Express Pony Express riders carried the U.S. Mail on horseback. There were approximately 80 of them. There were support personnel as well that numbered over 400. The Pony Express Route Covered Parts of: California, Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Utah and Wyoming. Pony Express Riders Biographies: By Name Include Some Photos - Dictionary of American History, This includes historical sketches on various topics in U.S. history, such as wars, people, laws, and organizations. A snippet view is available at - Webster's Guide to American History: A Chronological, Geographical, and Biographical Survey and Compendium. This includes a history, some maps, tables, and other historical information. - Writings on American History To find more books and articles about Kansas 's history use the Internet Google search for phases like "Kansas history." FamilySearch Catalog Surname Search lists many more histories under topics like: - KANSAS - HISTORY - KANSAS, [COUNTY] - HISTORY - KANSAS, [COUNTY], [TOWN] - HISTORY - KANSAS, BIBLIOGRAPHY - Kansas History - History of Kansas - Kansas History Online - Topics In Kansas History - Kansas History (Wikipedia) - ↑ Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur M. The Almanac of American History. Greenwich, Conn.: Bison Books, 1983. FHL book 973 H2alm. At various libraries(Worldcat) - ↑ 'Dictionary of American History Revised ed., 8 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1976. FHL book 973 H2ad. At various libraries(WorldCat). - ↑ Google books. - ↑ Webster's Guide to American History: A Chronological, Geographical, and Biographical Survey and Compendium Springfield, Mass.: C Merriam, 1971. FHL book 973 H2v. Limited view at Google Books. At various libraries (WorldCat). - ↑ Writings on American History Washington. DC: American Historical Association, Library of Congress, United States National Historical Publications Commission. 1906-1960 FHL book 973 H23w. At various libraries(WorldCat) Has the full text available at Google Books - This page was last modified on 25 July 2014, at 16:34. - This page has been accessed 4,555 times. Share Your Opinion! The Community Council Selection Committee is now accepting recommendations for potential council vacancies.Recommendations Page
Phytophthora root rot, caused by the phytophthora fungus, causes roots to collapse and rot in the soil. Early signs include yellow leaves, lack of new growth and burning on the margins of leaves. Leaves wilt and begin to drop as the infection progresses. Leaves may show signs of rot at the stems and appear water-soaked. Roots turn black and mushy as they decay in the soil. When detected early, some plants can be revived, but if undetected, the plant perishes. Check the roots of plants to determine the extent of the infection. Mushy dark roots have already experienced decay. Healthy young roots appear white or cream colored. Trim away damaged roots. If the infection is not extensive and healthy, roots remain, the plant may be saved. Remove soil from the roots ,as phytophthora fungi thrive in the soil. Discard old soil. Disinfect the plant pot in a solution of one part bleach and nine parts water. Soak in the solution for 30 minutes. Allow to dry naturally. Place pebbles in the bottom of the pot to improve drainage; damp soggy soil promotes rot root. Fill one-half to three-quarters of the pot with fresh sterilized soil. Position the plant in the pot to the original planting depth and fill in around the roots with fresh soil. Firm down with your hands to secure the plant and remove air pockets. Water to moisten soil. Follow the watering recommendation for your specific plant using care not to allow roots to sit in soggy soil.
Eyesight fades a little bit with age. It’s a natural process, one that is an ordinary result of the eye getting older. What is not normal is gradually losing the ability to see things in the center of the visual field, having difficulty adapting to low light levels, not being able to read normally because the words are blurred, or having difficulty making out enough detail on other people’s faces to recognize them. That is a condition called age-related macular degeneration the most common cause of blindness in developed nations. Macular degeneration runs in families and is more common among smokers and obese people. A healthy diet is recommended to avoid the condition, and studies suggest cholesterol-fighting drugs can help prevent the condition or stop its progress. Although it’s called age-related macular degeneration and most commonly affects people over age 65, researchers have recently found that the processes within the eye that lead to the condition begin earlier, with some patients starting to show symptoms in their 40s in eye exams. Regular eye exams are an important part of fighting the condition—the degeneration can be slowed or stopped, but lost eyesight cannot be restored. The symptoms of the disease are not always noticeable early on, but there are some signs an eye doctor would be able to spot. While the cause of macular degeneration isn’t entirely clear, research has found that one culprit might be deposits of minerals forming in the eye. The condition has long been understood to involve fat-and-protein deposits in the retina starving the cells of the center of the eye of needed nutrients. The latest study found the source of these deposits. The scientists discovered that calcium phosphate from the bones and teeth act as seeds, places fat and proteins cluster around to form these blockages. Armed with this information, doctors may be able to diagnose the condition before it really gets underway by looking for calcium phosphate in the eyes. A different study found that an anti-inflammatory drug called sulindac can help protect the eyes from damage. The researchers determined that the drug helps prevent a type of damage to the cells called oxidative stress, which is behind many signs of aging.

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