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Marc Chagall: Elementary/Middle - Marc Chagall LESSON PLAN: MARC CHAGALL Overview: By studying the art and style of Marc Chagall, students will create a fanciful piece of art representing themselves and their surroundings and illustrating Chagall’s quote “Great art picks up where nature ends.” Age Group: Grades 3 – 8 Standard 1: Students perceive and respond to works of art, objects in nature, events, and the environment. They also use the vocabulary of the visual arts to express their observations. Standard 2: Students apply artistic processes and skills, using a variety of media to communicate meaning and intent in original works of art. Standard 3: Students analyze the role and development of the visual arts in past and present cultures throughout the world, noting human diversity as it relates to the visual arts and artists. Length of Lesson: One 90 minute lesson Students will be able to: - Define the following terms: color, line, shape - Analyze a work of art in terms of the artist’s use of these elements - Relate cultural influences and historical elements to the artwork that they view - Create fanciful, colorful drawings in the style of Marc Chagall - Examples of artwork by Marc Chagall - Black pencil/marker/pastel - Colored pencils/markers/pastels - Introduce students to the art and style of Chagall, engaging them in discussion about his work and use of intense color to create a dreamlike effect. - Born in Liozna near Vitebsk (then a part of the Russian Empire) to a family of Hasidic Jews. In 1906, he moved to St. Petersburg to study art. By 1910, Chagall had set his sights on Paris and moved to the cultural hub to pursue a career as a professional artist. - Through the development of his whimsical, romantic style, Chagall achieved greatness. The public became enchanted with Chagall’s fairy-tale touches, fanciful motifs, and colorful, ethereal imagery. - During World War II when the Nazi party took power, Chagall sought refuge in America, accepting the invitation of the Museum of Modern Art to live in New York’s lower East Side. Adjusting to life in America was not easy, as Chagall had difficulty communicating in English. - In 1948, Chagall had settled permanently in France and continued to create beautiful and inspired works. He lived a prosperous and full life, ultimately passing away at the age of 98 from a heart attack. - Hasidism – founded by Baal Schem Tov, played a big part in his artwork. Hasidism won over a large segment of the Jewish population of Eastern Europe in late 1800s, and Chagall was raised in the Hasidic tradition. This spirit of Jewish mysticism is apparent in Chagall’s work throughout his lifetime. - Paul Gauguin - Chagall never forgot his home village of Vitebsk, incorporating Russian folklore and childhood memories into his artwork. However, he also embraced the culturally rich worlds of St. Petersburg and, more importantly, of Paris, consistently incorporating elements from these cities into his work. - Chagall’s first wife, Bella Rosenfeld compositions, a striking beauty with a large white collar framing her lovely face. - ARTISTIC STYLE - Chagall was both a brilliant colorist and a gifted storyteller, as romantic narratives come to life before one’s eyes. His poetic depictions and childlike imagery allow the viewer to escape the realm of the real and enter the world of the imagined. - The Eiffel Tower - Flowers (bouquets) - Scenes of the Circus - Show the following works: - The Clock - Song of Songs - Plate 6 from Arabian Nights - The Magic Flute - Instruct students to write “Great art picks up where nature ends” around the perimeter of the papers, or just write it on the board for them to see. - Using a black pencil, marker, or pastel (pastels work best), have students draw a house, then turn their papers and draw themselves holding something they like; turn the papers again and draw trees/flowers; have them include a sun or moon with a face. - Once their paper is filled, they may render their illustrations with oil pastels, taking care to use lots of intense colors like Chagall. \|Marc Chagall\|\|The Clock\| \|Marc Chagall\|\|Song of Songs\| \|Marc Chagall\|\|Arabian Nights\| \|Marc Chagall\|\|The Magic Flute\|
Examine The Extent To Which Practical Issues Are The Most Important Influence When Selecting Research Method And A Research Type If a sociologist wants to carry out an experiment there are many things they must consider like practical issues. These are things that may get in the way of an experiment. The experiment may have to change and develop to suit these practical issues, this can have a drastic effect on the experiment and may even stop it from been carried out. For example; ethics. If you research on a person/group it can have a powerfuleffect on their lives, therefore a researcher must consider the impact of the experiment on their lives. The six ethics are: Consent, Deception, Privacy, Confidentiality, Protection and Legality. If these are not followed, the experiment could have serious effects on the person’s/group’s life. One example where these ethics were not carried out was the “Pygmalia In The Classroom” by Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968). In this experiment, Rosenthal predicted that, when given the information that certain students are brighter than others, elementary school teachers may unconsciously behave in ways that facilitate and encourage the students’ success. This is called a self-fulfilling prophecy. All of the ethics were broken; Consent, as the class did not know they were been observed. Deception, as the class were lied to. Privacy, as they kept the results. Confidentiality, as the results were released. Protection, as the students that were told they would do well had an unfair advantage over the other students. And legality, as now-a-days due to charities such as Barnardo’s you must have legal rights to observe children. Another problem is bias. If TESCO were to ask the public what their favourite supermarket is a biased experiment would be to ask the customers of TESCO instead of people on the street. The customers are a lot more likely to answer TESCO than any other supermarket if they are asked in the store whereas if people on the street were asked it would be much more fair. This can be used in many examples like official statistics where they may attempt to portray the government in a good light eg. Winning the war on crime. In conclusion, practical issues are a major problem when deciding to carry out an experiment and all the ethic’s should be taken into consideration, and cleared. Only after doing so, can you begin to think about selecting a research method and a research type.
Structuring student-centered inquiry across disciplines A proven approach to the problem-solving process Based on cognitive research, the Project Pals methodology focuses on the three most powerful contributors to improved student understanding: external problem representation, computational thinking, and design thinking. Our methodology helps structure students' approach to problem solving across subjects and provides an effective framework guide for project-based learning. Driving questions focus student inquiries, and question maps allow students to refine questions into an organized, visual representation. Upload documents, import Google docs, and attach online articles to a project or assignment for student reference. Easy-to-use content tools empower students to create project assets in the interactive workspace, thus demonstrating their knowledge and thought process. Components & Events Students learn to break problems down into component parts and document processes and timelines of events—an integral part of computational thinking. Building a mind map enables students to identify patterns and relationships between project assets. Analyze & Conclude Students drag-and-drop project assets to compare and contrast information, create a structured analysis, and reach reasoned conclusions. Students design digital posters or slide decks, choosing relevant information for their audience, and by presenting it, hone essential communication skills.
In Stuff and Money in the Time of the French Revolution, Rebecca Spang turns to one of modern history’s most infamous examples of monetary innovation to demonstrate that money is as much a social and political mediator as it is an economic instrument. In her tracing of the creation and abandonment of the assignats—a currency initially defined by French revolutionaries as “circulating land”—we gain not just a new understanding of the Revolution but also greater insight into larger truths about the chasms that can arise between intentions and outcomes, political ideals and practical realities. With those lessons in mind, we asked Spang how the French Revolution’s failed monetary experiment may help us understand the present eurozone impasse. In the eighteenth century, fiscal-monetary crises provoked two major revolutions. “No taxation without representation” was an early rallying cry of the American Revolution and something similar is true for France, as well. Throughout the eighteenth century, the French monarchy repeatedly tried to tap the vast wealth of the nobility and the Catholic Church. The rich and the super-rich stymied these attempts at more equitable taxation by charging the monarchy with “despotism” and positioning themselves as defenders of the public good. Noblemen and magistrates thereby successfully protected their own privileges—including their largely tax-exempt status—by claiming to be at the vanguard of resisting oppression. Some would say this is what anti-EU Conservatives in Great Britain are doing today; you could also think of the Koch Brothers and other wealthy Tea-Party supporters in the US. In the short term, it was an effective strategy. But it had its limits. After several years of stalemate and near government shutdown, the King agreed that the Estates-General (the French parliamentary body) would be allowed to vote on any new taxes. It was men elected to that body who rejected centuries-old procedure and instead—speaking, as the elites had done, in the name of “the public”—took the revolutionary step of proclaiming a National Assembly. The French Revolution was a case where no one was trying to start a revolution: the King and his ministers wanted to increase tax revenues, while the political elite wanted to protect their wealth. Similarly, when European officials say that Greece needs to honor its debt, they are taking a conservative position. But it’s one that is having radical effects. Looking at the case of the French Revolution, we see that trying to hold onto power and privilege by claiming to have the public good at heart can easily backfire. It empowers others to make the same claim. In this sense, calling a referendum was a stroke of genius on Alexis Tsipras’s part. It lets Syriza take the political-moral high ground, and rightly so. At the same time, the Revolution’s history is the story of one unintended consequence after another. So I find it hard to join those who are cheering the current situation as a victory for “democracy” and the beginning of the end of neoliberal austerity. Because I know we don’t know what comes next.
Learning how to read an electrical schematic drawing is an important skill for maintenance workers and managers even if they aren’t licensed electricians. Understanding schematic drawings helps identify faulty components, troubleshoot systems, and improve safety. One of the first steps in reading an electrical schematic is understanding the different symbols used to represent system components, or at least having access to a schematic symbol cheat sheet. Some of the common symbols you’re likely to find on your schematic include:– Resistors: usually portrayed as zigzag lines with a terminal at each end. international symbols may represent resistors as a blank rectangle. – Variable Resistors: a diagonal arrow intersecting the standard resistor zigzag symbol – Potentiometers: an arrow pointing to the zigzag resistor at a right angle stands for the potentiometer third terminal. – Non-Polarized Capacitors: two lines perpendicular to the terminal plates – Polarized Capacitors: two lines perpendicular to the plates, but one is curved to indicate the cathode – Inducers: a series of curved bumps or a looped coil. International schematics may use a filled-in rectangle. Single-pole/single throw switches appear on schematics as a half-connected line between the two terminals. Single-pole/double throw switches have two actuator lines, and single-pole/triple throw switches have three. For switches with multiple poles, a dotted line connects the switches on either side of the middle actuator. Power and Voltage Direct current, or DC, appears as a circle with a + and – symbol inside, while AC is represented as a circle containing a wavy line. For batteries, each cell is drawn as two lines perpendicular to the terminals, with a long line standing for battery’s positive terminals and the short line representing the negative. Positive voltages appear as an arrow pointing up. Ground nodes are drawn as one to three flat lines, a downward-pointing triangle, or sometimes as a triangle. Diodes, transistors, logic circuits, integrated circuits, and crystals all have their own symbols. Consult a symbol key to find their component symbols. Names and Values Symbols aren’t all you need to learn how to read an electric schematic drawing. Each symbol is assigned a name and value. The value will be the most important aspect of the part, and may be expressed in ohms, farads, oscillating frequency, henries, or simply the name of the part chip. Names are usually a combination of a letter and a number. The letter indicates the component type, while the number indicates multiple components of the same type are on the schematic. For instance, if a schematic has three capacitors, they will be labeled C1, C2, and C3. Common Component Names– C: Capacitors – D: Diodes – L: Inductors – Q: Transistors – R: Resistors – S: Switches – U: Integrated Circuits – Y: Crystals and Oscillators How to Read Electric Schematic Drawings Practice is key to learning how to read electric schematic drawings. Start with simple schematics and work up more complicated drawings. A schematic shows the order of components wired on a circuit, with wires between components represented as lines. The completed circuit is known as a net. When wires connecting a terminal split into two or more directions, a junction is formed with a junction node represented as a small dot at the intersection. Nodes indicate all wires meeting at the junction are connected. In complex schematics, entire nets may be given names and labeled as tags, rather than drawing the components within each net. This helps simplify large schematics. Large schematics may also be broken into function blocks, representing the system’s power input, regulation, connectors, or other system parts. Still confused about how to read electric schematic drawings? TPC Trainco’s two-day Basic Electricity for the Non-Electrician is an excellent starting point for staff who need a foundation in electrical knowledge.
The shoulder joint is comprised of three bones – the humerus (armbone), the scapula (shoulder blade), and the clavicle (collarbone). The ball-and-socket part of the shoulder joint is made up of the ball end of the humerus, and the socket end of the scapula (glenoid). This is technically referred to as the glenohumeral joint. This joint is the most mobile joint in the body. Rather than being like a ball in a socket, it is actually more similar to a golf ball balancing on a golf tee – pretty wobbly! To remain stable, the glenohumeral joint therefore relies on the surrounding circular cartilage rim, called the labrum, as well as the various muscles and tendons of the shoulder. These include the rotator cuff tendons and deltoid muscle. Shoulder instability refers to the ball of the humerus sliding off the edge of the glenoid rim. When it completely slides off, the shoulder is dislocated. When the shoulder has been dislocated once, it has a tendency to become unstable and can be easier to dislocate again. How is shoulder instability caused? Shoulder instability is usually caused by direct trauma to the shoulder joint, particularly when the arm is brought above and behind the head forecfully. This can occur with contact or overhead sports such as AFL, rugby and basketball. A shoulder dislocation can also occur in high energy accidents such as a fall from height or a motorvehicle accident. Commonly, patients with shoulder instability and dislocation are in their teenage or young adult years. Patients may have a tendency to be ‘double-jointed’ or have generally looser ligaments (hypermobility). Once the shoulder has dislocated, the soft tissue and bony structures that help stabilise the joint may be irreversibly damaged. This includes a tearing of the ligaments and labrum surrounding the shoulder joint, as well as the fractures of the humerus and glenoid rim. What are the symptoms of shoulder instability? An unstable shoulder can cause the following problems: - Tendency for the shoulder to dislocate - Pain in certain arm positions – usually when the arm is above and behind the head - Lack of confidence in the shoulder when performing certain activities - Loss of ability to work or play sport How is shoulder instability diagnosed? A detailed history and clinical examination is required to assess the degree of shoulder instability and risk of repeat dislocations. Dr Yu will assess the overall looseness of ligaments in the shoulder and the range of motion of the arm. Additional tests include: - X-ray of the shoulder – although the ligaments and labrum are not shown, an x-ray is useful to assess damage to the bone of the humerus and glenoid rim. - MRI – the gold standard in imaging to show in detail the degree of damage to the shoulder labrum and ligaments, as well as to assess the rotator cuff tendons. How is shoulder instability treated? After an acute dislocation, the affected arm should be rested in a sling for 2-3 weeks. This allows the pain to settle and for inflammation in the shoulder to subside. Gentle mobilisation and exercises can be commenced after this, and appropriate tests and investigations can be arranged. Physiotherapy may be helpful to stregthen the muscles around the shoulder and shoulder blade to help stabilise the joint. If there are ongoing instability symptoms, or the risk of repeat dislocations is high, then surgery may be necessary to stabilise the shoulder joint. Read more about arthroscopic shoulder stabilisations and the Latarjet stabilisation procedure. Do you have a shoulder problem? Contact our team to find out more.
Wow! What great things we have discovered so far. STEM activities for kids are so much fun and a great way for kids to learn! With everything from robots to bug exploration and super gross science experiments your kiddos will love some of these STEM Activities. The older bunch can really dive deeper into science, technology, math, and engineering dynamics of certain activities. Remember, these activities are perfect for boys and girls. My twins have their eye on that lemon and fork kit. They love science! Check out these 20 STEM activities your older elementary kiddo will love! 20 Amazing STEM Activities for 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Graders 1. Grow your own crystals and develop observations with this Crystal Growing Kit that explores some really cool science. 2. Build your own robot from the ground up with this amazing Modular Robotics Model Kit and pilot it via Bluetooth! 3. Get and understanding of the chemistry and science involved in glow sticks with this Glow Stick Lab. 4. Learn all the facts of multiplication with these Multiplication Flash Cards that work great for fact understanding and math memory. 5. This Butterfly Garden Set is a super cool exploration of nature and science. It also comes with 5 caterpillars! 6. Explore the energy that comes from the sun with this Physics Solar Workshop Science Kit. 7. Discover the entire body and all of its mechanics with this Melissa & Doug Human Anatomy Floor Puzzle. 8. Make your own electricity generating turbines and learn all about alternative energy with this super cool Wind Power Set. 9. This It’s Alive Slime Lab is hands on science fun and certainly a hit for kids! 10. Try this Brain Quest Smart Game for your next family game night where kids can race for their age appropriate answers. 11. Check out this Elements of Science Kit where exploring the elements of science is fun! 12. Your kids can become a forensic detective and define their own answers with this Who Dunnit Forensic Microscope Kit. 13. Recycle a soda can and create your own robot with the instructions found in this Tin Can Robot Kit. 14. This K’nex Wheels, Axles, and Inclined Planes is an awesome way of learning theses scientific dynamics. 15. Encourage creative thinking and social interaction with this Osmo Gaming System for iPad. 16. Learn all about the center of gravity with this Sick Science Slick Tricks that will have your child thinking outside the box. 17. Use those logical and spatial reasoning skills in Temple Trap that is highly challenging. 18. You can use common household ingredients for this 4M Kitchen Science Kit that is sure to draw a crowd to your house! 19. Discover all things science like inertia, acceleration, gravity, and potential and kinetic energy with this Sick Science Fast Physics Kit. 20. This Gross Science Lab is hours of fun with lots of fun and engaging experiments that are super gross! Have an outstanding STEM activity for older elementary kiddos? Share your thoughts! More STEM Activities for Kids:
Berenice Paola January 2, 2021 Worksheets 6th Grade Math Word Problems. 6th Grade Math Word Problems – Displaying top 8 worksheets found for this concept.. Some of the worksheets for this concept are Word problem practice workbook, Sample work from, Decimals practice booklet table of contents, Grade 6 math word problems with percents, Grade 3 mixed math problems and word problems work, Fractionwordproblems, Percent word problems, 501. Practice solving word problems by dividing fractions by fractions. If you’re seeing this message, it means we’re having trouble loading external resources on our website. If you’re behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains .kastatic.org and .kasandbox.org are unblocked. These percentage word problems worksheets are appropriate for 3rd Grade, 4th Grade, 5th Grade, 6th Grade, and 7th Grade. Mixed Word Problems with Key Phrases Worksheets These Word Problems Worksheets will produce addition, multiplication, subtraction and division problems using clear key phrases to give the student a clue as to which type of. 6th Grade Word Problems With Fractions And Decimal – Displaying top 8 worksheets found for this concept.. Some of the worksheets for this concept are Word problem practice workbook, Decimals work, Multiplying decimals word problems, Fraction and decimal word problems no problem, Grade 5 decimals word problems, 8 fractions, 501 math word problems, Exercise work. Free Math Worksheets for Grade 2. This is a comprehensive collection of free printable math worksheets for grade 2, organized by topics such as addition, subtraction, mental math, regrouping, place value, clock, money, geometry, and multiplication. They are randomly generated, printable from your browser, and include the answer key.. Your child will practice addition and subtraction fact families with 1-digit numbers in this math worksheet. In this math worksheet, your child will practice adding up to 3 2-digit numbers or 4 1-digits numbers. In this math worksheet, your child will practice adding a 2-digit number to a 3-digit. Grade 2 place value worksheets. In second grade, children learn about three-digit place value. They practice skip-counting by 2s and 10s, both forward and backwards, from any three-digit number. Depending on the curriculum and the standards, they may also learn rounding to the nearest ten and hundred. These worksheets are generated. Second Grade Math Worksheets The main areas of focus in the second grade math curriculum are: understanding the base-ten system within 1,000, including place value and skip-counting in fives, tens, and hundreds; developing fluency with addition and subtraction, including solving word problems; regrouping in addition and subtraction; describing and analyzing shapes; using and understanding. Math worksheets for grade 2. Whatever the case, our second grade math worksheets are designed to teach, challenge, and boost the confidence of budding mathematicians. And thanks to second grade math worksheets that feature cute, colorful characters and eye-catching graphics, practicing this vital skill just got a lot more fun. KidZone Grade 2 Alphabet Recognition and Printing Practice: Consonant Recognition and Printing Practice; Printing Practice – Tracer Pages; Math: Dynamic grade two math worksheets – use this section to generate an unlimited supply of different addition and subtraction worksheets for your kids. Dynamic grade two word problems; Math Times Tables Free pre-made elementary math worksheets to print, complete online, and customize. Math Fact Cafe. TM. Home; Pre-Made Worksheets Kindergarten (K) First Grade (1st) Second Grade (2nd) Third Grade (3rd) Fourth Grade (4th) Fifth Grade (5th) Custom Worksheets Basic Facts Counting Money Multiplication Tables Telling Time Word Problems. Distance. Worksheets > Math > Grade 2. Free grade 2 math worksheets. Our grade 2 math worksheets emphasize numeracy as well as a conceptual understanding of math concepts.All worksheets are printable pdf documents. Choose your grade 2 topic: Maths division worksheets. Division worksheets including division facts and long division with and without remainders. Division Worksheets. Welcome to the division worksheets page at Math-Drills.com! Please give us your undivided attention while we introduce this page. Our worksheets for division help you to teach students the very important concept of division. The division worksheets motivate kids of grade 3, grade 4 and grade 5 and help them see the real-life benefits division skills can bring them and help build those skills. Included here are division times tables and charts, various division models, division facts, divisibility rules, timed division drills, worksheets with grid assistance, basic. Division Resources to Boost Maths Skills in Year 1-2 Children Improve your KS1 students’ maths knowledge with our KS1 Year 1 & Year 2 division worksheets and problems for kids. Our KS1 resources include games to make learning light-hearted and display materials to help you build attractive maths display walls. Worksheets > Math > Grade 3 > Division. Free division worksheets. Our 3rd grade division worksheets include i) simple division worksheets to help kids with their division facts and mental division skills and ii) an introduction into long division including simple division with remainder questions.Practice dividing by tens and hundreds is also emphasized. Join our newsletter to find out about new math worksheets and other information related to the website. Name Email Marketing permission: I am 16 years of age or older and I give my consent to Math-Drills to be in touch with me via email using the information I have provided in this form for the purpose of news, updates and marketing. What to expect: If you wish to withdraw your consent and. Division Worksheets. These division worksheets start with basic timed math fact drills in formats for one minute and two minute tests. There are variations that include problems with and without remainders to build the skill set needed for long division, and there is focused division practice for roots and powers of ten as well. Download free printable worksheets Mathematics pdf of CBSE and kendriya vidyalaya Schools as per latest syllabus in pdf, CBSE Class 4 Maths Revision Worksheet (11)-Division and Simplification – Practice worksheets for CBSE students. Prepared by teachers of the best CBSE schools in India. BAL BHARATI PUBLIC SCHOOL Create an unlimited supply of worksheets for long division (grades 4-6), including with 2-digit and 3-digit divisors. The worksheets can be made in html or PDF format – both are easy to print. You can also customize them using the generator. Math Worksheets according to Grades Interactive Zone Grade 2 Math Lessons Common Core Lesson Plans and Worksheets. These free interactive math worksheets are suitable for Grade2. Use them to practice and improve your mathematical skills. Writing Numbers up to 1,000, Number Words up to 1,000 Skip Counting by 2’s, 5’s, 10’s, Identify Even and Odd. Second Grade Math Worksheets. When students start 2nd grade math, they should already have good comprehension of addition and subtraction math facts. Many second graders will be ready to start working with early multiplication worksheets, perhaps with the help of a Multiplication Chart, Multiplication Table or other memory aid. This math worksheet presents an equation and asks your child to use mental math skills to fill in the missing operation, either + or -. Adding 2-digit numbers (1st grade, 2nd grade) Adding 2-digit numbers (1st grade, 2nd grade) In this math worksheet, your child can practice adding 2-digit numbers. Sep 13, 2020 – Here is a selection of our printable math worksheets, math games and math resources for 2nd grade. See more ideas about 2nd grade math worksheets, Printable math worksheets, 2nd grade math. 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We live in a society that idolizes super heroes. Everyone wants to be super, and teachers are no different: They can teach super. An elementary school teacher’s impact on a child surpasses almost anyone else in their life, other than parents and close relatives. Do you know how important you are to your students? By sparking curiosity and interest in a subject like science, you can build the foundation for a future career and lifelong passion. But it takes more than just an attentive teacher; it requires making STEM fun and playful. Just last December, Getting Smart magazine noted how important it is to make science a fun activity. “Implementing a STEM curriculum during the early elementary grades which combines play with direct instruction can lead to long-term interest in these subjects,” writes Tracy Derrell. Maintaining interest from elementary and through middle school requires engagement. That’s where teaching super comes into play. The Need for Super Teachers The need for super teachers is real. Only 34% of 4th grade students achieved a score of “At or Above Proficient” on the science portion of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). The United States needs its youth to take on STEM careers. The country is currently reliant on foreign workers to fulfill its STEM workforce. So how does an educator make science fun and playful? For starters, you can make a game of it. That goes well beyond Legends of Learning’s elementary suite of games. There are many ways to make content accessible to students. For example, consider these eight fun resources we found to help teachers preparing science students for tests. Or find a different way to make science more interesting and applicable to students’ real lives. There are hundreds of such activities across the Internet. When You Teach Super Experienced teachers know success often bubbles up as singular breakthrough events that occur during the long march of a school year. Teaching can become a slog, particularly in the winter months when the days are short and the work is long. But then there’s that student who suddenly comes alive. Or that class that really gets into a lesson. Maybe a former student comes back to visit or reaches out and thanks you for providing that spark. Consider how these two students fell in love with science as a result of witnessing the total solar eclipse last summer. The experience infused them with a new excitement for science. So, Legend, every day is a great day to teach super. Let us know how we can support you.
What is Faraday’s Law Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction (referred to as Faraday’s law) is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF). This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction. Faraday’s law states that a current will be induced in a conductor which is exposed to a changing magnetic field. Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the direction of this induced current will be such that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing magnetic field which produced it. The direction of this current flow can be determined using Fleming’s right-hand rule. Faraday’s law of induction explains the working principle of transformers, motors, generators, and inductors. The law is named after Michael Faraday, who performed an experiment with a magnet and a coil. During Faraday’s experiment, he discovered how EMF is induced in a coil when the flux passing through the coil changes. In this experiment, Faraday takes a magnet and a coil and connects a galvanometer across the coil. At starting, the magnet is at rest, so there is no deflection in the galvanometer i.e the needle of the galvanometer is at the center or zero position. When the magnet is moved towards the coil, the needle of the galvanometer deflects in one direction. When the magnet is held stationary at that position, the needle of galvanometer returns to zero position. Now when the magnet moves away from the coil, there is some deflection in the needle but opposite direction, and again when the magnet becomes stationary, at that point respect to the coil, the needle of the galvanometer returns to the zero position. Similarly, if the magnet is held stationary and the coil moves away, and towards the magnet, the galvanometer similarly shows deflection. It is also seen that the faster the change in the magnetic field, the greater will be the induced EMF or voltage in the coil. \|Position of magnet\|\|Deflection in galvanometer\| \|Magnet at rest\|\|No deflection in the galvanometer\| \|Magnet moves towards the coil\|\|Deflection in galvanometer in one direction\| \|Magnet is held stationary at same position (near the coil)\|\|No deflection in the galvanometer\| \|Magnet moves away from the coil\|\|Deflection in galvanometer but in the opposite direction\| \|Magnet is held stationary at the same position (away from the coil)\|\|No deflection in the galvanometer\| Conclusion: From this experiment, Faraday concluded that whenever there is relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field, the flux linkage with a coil changes and this change in flux induces a voltage across a coil. Michael Faraday formulated two laws on the basis of the above experiments. These laws are called Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. Faraday’s First Law Any change in the magnetic field of a coil of wire will cause an emf to be induced in the coil. This emf induced is called induced emf and if the conductor circuit is closed, the current will also circulate through the circuit and this current is called induced current. Method to change the magnetic field: - By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil - By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field - By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field - By rotating the coil relative to the magnet Faraday’s Second Law It states that the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is equal to the rate of change of flux that linkages with the coil. The flux linkage of the coil is the product of the number of turns in the coil and flux associated with the coil. Faraday Law Formula Consider, a magnet is approaching towards a coil. Here we consider two instants at time T1 and time T2. Flux linkage with the coil at time, Flux linkage with the coil at time, Change in flux linkage, Let this change in flux linkage be, So, the Change in flux linkage Now the rate of change of flux linkage Take derivative on right-hand side we will get The rate of change of flux linkage But according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the rate of change of flux linkage is equal to induced emf. Considering Lenz’s Law. - Flux Φ in Wb = B.A - B = magnetic field strength - A = area of the coil How To Increase EMF Induced in a Coil - By increasing the number of turns in the coil i.e N, from the formulae derived above it is easily seen that if the number of turns in a coil is increased, the induced emf also gets increased. - By increasing magnetic field strength i.e B surrounding the coil- Mathematically, if magnetic field increases, flux increases and if flux increases emf induced will also get increased. Theoretically, if the coil is passed through a stronger magnetic field, there will be more lines of force for the coil to cut and hence there will be more emf induced. - By increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet – If the relative speed between the coil and magnet is increased from its previous value, the coil will cut the lines of flux at a faster rate, so more induced emf would be produced. Applications of Faraday’s Law Faraday law is one of the most basic and important laws of electromagnetism. This law finds its application in most of the electrical machines, industries, and the medical field, etc. - Power transformers function based on Faraday’s law - The basic working principle of the electrical generator is Faraday’s law of mutual induction. - The Induction cooker is the fastest way of cooking. It also works on the principle of mutual induction. When current flows through the coil of copper wire placed below a cooking container, it produces a changing magnetic field. This alternating or changing magnetic field induces an emf and hence the current in the conductive container, and we know that the flow of current always produces heat in it. - Electromagnetic Flow Meter is used to measure the velocity of certain fluids. When a magnetic field is applied to an electrically insulated pipe in which conducting fluids are flowing, then according to Faraday’s law, an electromotive force is induced in it. This induced emf is proportional to the velocity of fluid flowing. - Form bases of Electromagnetic theory, Faraday’s idea of lines of force is used in well known Maxwell’s equations. According to Faraday’s law, change in magnetic field gives rise to change in electric field and the converse of this is used in Maxwell’s equations. - It is also used in musical instruments like an electric guitar, electric violin, etc.
A living organism must maintain itself continuously by producing the substances it needs to function. Proteins are one of these key substances and come in a seemingly infinite variety of shapes and structures. They are responsible for virtually everything that goes on in your body and cells, and are produced every second of an organism’s life. They are needed for various functions such as cell growth, tissue repair, signalling between cells, immune responses, muscle movement, enzymes to help carry out chemical reactions, hormones, and they also act as the building blocks for structures such as hair, feathers, insect shells and collagen. The template for making proteins The template that codes for these proteins is a molecule called DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid.The central dogma- or more precisely hypothesis- of molecular biology states that genetic information translates from nucleic acid to protein, and not the other way round. This means that DNA makes RNA, and RNA makes proteins.There are exceptions to this process, such as when certain viruses are able to make DNA copies of their own RNA genome. But in most organisms, DNA is copied to RNA. The process by which DNA is copied to RNA is called transcription, and that by which RNA is used to produce proteins is called translation. This is the reason why DNA is such a key part of every organism’s vital processes. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) In humans, the nucleus of each cell contains 3 billion base pairs of DNA distributed over 23 pairs of chromosomes, and each cell has two copies of the genetic material. This is known collectively as the human genome. The human genome contains around 30 000 genes, each of which codes for one protein. The deoxyribose nucleic acid molecule consists of a sugar molecule connected to one of four bases – guanine, cytosine, adenine and thymine. A Base joined to a sugar is called a nucleotide. Phosphate molecules join the ribose sugars together to form a chain , one side of the DNA double helix. The four bases have different unique shapes which mean that they will only ever fit together in specific ways, like pieces of a puzzle. Adenine will only ever pair with Thymine, and Cytosine will only ever pair with Guanine. This means that the two strands of DNA are complementary, and effectively, are templates of each other. To see how DNA is used to make proteins, we need to introduce its sister compound Ribonucleic acid (RNA). RNA differs to DNA in a number of ways. The most important of these differences are firstly, that it is a single strand, rather than a double strand. And secondly, instead of Thymine, it has Uracil as a base. Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied (transcribed) to messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries the information needed for protein synthesis. Then with the help of enzymes, free-floating nucleotides of mRNA link up with their corresponding nucleotides of DNA, and become joined together in a single strand of mRNA nucleotides. Once the whole gene has become transcribed into a strand of mRNA, the mRNA moves off, and the DNA is zipped back up. Now that the genetic code has been copied into mRNA, the code then needs to be translated to become a protein, and as mentioned earlier, all a protein really is, is a sequence of amino acids. To do this, the mRNA is fed into a tiny molecular ‘machine’, called a Ribosome, which helps match up the correct amino acid for each part of the mRNA code. This is done for every three bases in the RNA sequence, called a codon. This three base sequence, gives a variety of different code combinations, each of which corresponds to a particular amino acid. So as the ribosome runs along the mRNA sequence, the correct amino acids are brought together in the correct sequence, and linked together to become a specific protein. Our lab experiments A lot of the experiments we run at the London BioHackspace are gene-typing experiments, which is essentially looking at our DNA and testing for the presence of certain genes. For example, one of our projects is a test for certain blood types. We can do this because your blood group is determined by a certain combination of antigens in your red blood cells. Because antigens are proteins, coded in your DNA, we should be able to tell which antigens and which blood type you are, just by looking at your DNA. But first we need to get the DNA out. Not only is DNA locked in our cells, deep inside its nucleus, DNA is also tightly wrapped up with proteins. So we first need to take a collection of our own cells, normally by lightly rubbing the inside of our cheeks, and then we break open the collected cells, and extract the DNA using a number of chemical processes, which are outlined in the table below: Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) After breaking down the cells, and extracting the DNA, we now need to identify the gene we’re looking for. But there are a couple of problems. Firstly, we have now collected our entire genome of DNA, and not just the gene we are looking for. And secondly, it is such a small sample of DNA that we’re unlikely to be able to see anything at all. So we need to make lots of copies of the specific section of DNA we’re looking for, and we do this using a method called Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). This is the exact same process that gets used with forensics, and is how they are able to match the DNA of a suspect, from just a small sample of hair. To do PCR, we need to add a few ingredients to the tube, and then repeat a specific cycle of heating and cooling to get the DNA to replicate. This is done in a machine called a thermal cycler. The thermal cycler will go through many cycles of heating the solution through different temperatures. The first stage involves heating to the hottest temperature, 96°C, which will cause the double DNA strands to separate. Then it will be cooled to allow the process of copying the DNA to begin. In order to choose the gene we want to copy, we use primers. Primers are short pieces of DNA that are made in a laboratory. Since they’re custom built, primers can have any sequence of nucleotides you’d like. In a PCR experiment, we use two primers which are designed to match the beginning and the end of the segment of DNA we want to copy. And in the case of our blood typing experiment, we’re using primers that match the beginning of the gene that codes for the blood antigens. In the annealing stage, through complementary base pairing, one primer attaches to the top strand at one end of your segment of interest, and the other primer attaches to the bottom strand at the other end. Then we heat the solution up to allow extension to begin. To copy the remaining sequence of DNA, we use an enzyme called DNA Polymerase. DNA Polymerase is a naturally-occurring enzyme whose function is to copy a cell’s DNA before it divides in two. When a DNA polymerase molecule bumps into a primer that’s base-paired with a longer piece of DNA, it attaches itself near the end of the primer and starts adding nucleotides. Human DNA polymerase would break down at the temperatures we’re using in our PCR experiment. So the DNA polymerase that’s most often used in PCR comes from a strain of bacteria called Thermus aquaticus that live in the hot springs of Yellowstone National Park. It can survive near boiling temperatures and works quite well at 72°C. In our PCR tube we’ve already added a mixture of four types of nucleotides found in DNA – A’s, C’s, G’s and T’s. So in the extension process, the DNA polymerase grabs nucleotides that are floating in the liquid around it and attaches them to the end of a primer, until the whole gene has been copied, and the end of a cycle is reached. Then the process repeats all over again, with the two newly formed double strands of DNA themselves splitting, and being replicated. And so on… Until we have a highly concentrated solution of DNA for our blood type gene. In the tube, even though we’ve successfully copied lots of fragments of DNA which are of the blood type gene, there are many other fragments left over from the PCR reaction. So now we want to be able to separate all of the various fragments of DNA in the tube, so that we can identify the blood typing gene fragment, and we do this by size. To do this we use a process called Gel Electrophoresis. We make a gel out of a chemical called agarose, through which solutions of DNA are able to move, and we place our solutions of DNA from the PCR process into some wells which are indented in the gel. The gel also contains a chemical called Ethidium Bromide, which binds with the DNA, and acts as a fluorescent tag, which will allow us to see the DNA at the next stage. The gel is placed in a solution and an electric current is passed through. Because DNA is a negatively charged molecule, as this current is applied, the strands of DNA will move slowly towards the positive electrode. However, the strands of DNA will move at different speeds. Shorter strands of DNA (for example short leftover chunks from the PCR reaction) find it easier to move through the gel, and so will move along much quicker. Whereas longer strands of DNA (e.g. gene sequences) will move more slowly through the gel. So after running the gel for a certain period of time, the different sized strands of DNA will be separated, appearing at different points along the gel. But for us to find out exactly how long these DNA strands are, we need reference markers, which we call a ladder. This is a solution containing a mixture of DNA fragments of certain sizes (e.g. 300 nucleotides long, 500, 700, 1,000 etc.). When the ladder solution is placed into a well next to one containing our PCR DNA sample, it will run down the gel in the same way, with the various different sized chunks of DNA appearing at different positions down the gel. So if our PCR DNA sample, appears next to the ladder band representing 500 bp, we know our sample contains DNA of a gene roughly 500 nucleotides long. Or if it appears halfway between the bands of 1,500 and 2,000, we can make an estimate of it being roughly 1,750 nucleotides long. Once the gel has run for long enough, we switch off the current, and then place the gel under UV light. The fluorescent marker provided by the Ethidium Bromide we put in at the start, means that the DNA will glow quite clearly under the UV. As you can see, some clear bands of DNA appear roughly around the 347 base pair mark, which is the length of the DNA sequence we are looking for involved in determining blood group. Once we have this section, we add Alu1 restriction enzyme, which cuts the sequence if it is a blood group B allele, but not if it’s A or O.
The cigarette butts that litter our public footpaths are rightly thought of as an environmental waste problem. Not only do they have lethargic rates of biodegradability, but once they do break down, they leach a number of toxic heavy metals – such as arsenic, chromium, nickel and cadmium – into our soil and waterways. Soon, however, cigarette butts could be making amends for their past wrongdoings, and contributing to the sustainability of our cities. A Melbourne scientist has found a way to turn cigarette butts into a brick-like building material that is capable of handling heavy traffic and improving heat conductivity. Dr Abbas Mohajerani, a senior lecturer at RMIT’s School of Engineering, found that bricks containing a mixture of asphalt and cigarette butts can save on both production costs and environmental impact. “I have been trying for many years to find sustainable and practical methods for solving the problem of cigarette butt pollution,” says Mohajerani in research published to the Construction and Building Materials journal on Monday. “In this research, we encapsulated the cigarette butts with bitumen and paraffin wax to lock in the chemicals and prevent any leaching from the asphalt concrete. The encapsulated cigarette butts were mixed with hot asphalt mix for making samples. “Encapsulated cigarette butts developed in this research will be a new construction material which can be used in different applications and lightweight composite products. “This research shows that you can create a new construction material while ridding the environment of a huge waste problem.” According to research, roughly 6 trillion cigarette butts are produced every year, with most of these eventually ending up as environmental waste. These figures are only predicted to increase with a rising population. By trapping the toxic chemicals contained in cigarette butts within building materials, Mohajerani’s work could help combat a huge pollution problem. Further, the product’s thermal conductivity could make a positive contribution to the environment by helping to mitigate the urban heat island effect. “Cigarette filters are designed to trap hundreds of toxic chemicals and the only ways to control these chemicals are either by effective encapsulation for the production of new lightweight aggregates or by the incorporation in fired-clay bricks,” says Mohajerani.
Question – Describe the causes for the tribal movements occurred during the British period. – 2 August 2021 Tribal movements were carried out on local issues, by local leadership and common people. These movements were mainly violent. These movements were sometimes against the British and sometimes against non-British such as money lenders, forest contractors etc. Causes of tribal movements - Forest laws: SuchForest laws were enacted by the British government that prevented tribals from living in protected areas. These forest laws also prohibited the use of products derived from forests. The British government established a forest department in 1864 to control the rich resources of Indian forests. The Government Forest Act, 1865 and the Indian Forest Act, 1868 established complete government monopoly on forest land. - Land revenue system: The British government introducedstringent land revenue system. In addition to this, the traditions of joint ownership of land of tribals was deeply affected by extension of agriculture in the tribal areas or forest area by non-tribals and increased socio-economic discrimination in the egalitarian structure of tribal society. - Exploitation: Beggar forced on the tribals by the forest contractors and external people and encroachment in tribal lands. - Religious reform: Forced religious reform and conversion of tribal communities. The activities of Christian missionaries brought changes in the socio-economic and cultural equations of the tribals, they discouraging people to take up arms against the government. For this reason missionaries were seen as an extension of colonialism. The area of influence of most tribal movements was limited, but these movements laid the foundation of future national movements.
Voltmeters are used to measure voltage;ammetersare used to measure current; ohmmeters are used to measure resistance; and watt meters are used to measure power. It is important to understand that these meters provide a numerical value either in analog or digital format for the unit under test. Compare these meters to anoscilloscopethat is a piece of test equipment that provides a graphical picture of the waveform under test. Traditionally, the analog meter had either a double-pivoted moving-coil type meter movement also known as a d’Arsonval meter movement, or a suspension-type moving-coil meter movement also known as a taut band suspension meter movement. The d’Arsonval meter movement was more common and was characterized by a coil of turns of wire wound on a rectangular frame suspended on jeweled bearings between the curved north- and south-pole pieces of a horseshoe-type permanent magnet. When direct current was passed through the coil, a magnetic field was created that reacted with the magnetic field of the horseshoe-type permanent magnet. The corresponding arc through which the coil rotated was proportional to the strength of the current. A pointer was attached to the moving coil and its deflection over a calibrated scale indicated a numerical value. Analog meters were commonly called VOMs (volt-ohm-millimeters). Prior to solid state electronics, analog meters were called VTVMs (vacuum tube volt-meters). Figure 1. DC voltmeter circuit The digital meter commonly called a DMM (digital multimeter) or DVM (digital voltmeter) usually had three parts: an input section for scaling either the voltage, current, or resistance, an integrator section to perform the A/D (analog to digital) conversion, and a counter section to display the pulse count of the measured quantity. Early DMMs had light emitting diode (LED) displays which required more current to operate but were easier to read in low-light environments. Modern DMMs used liquid crystal displays (LCD) as the display. The main advantage a DMM had over solid-state analog meters was high input resistance. Vacuum tube versions of the analog meters also had high input resistance. The voltmeter is a test instrument used to measure ac or dc voltage. The standard circuit shown in figure 1 is a multiplier resistor (Rm) in series with a DC milliammeter having an internal resistance (Ri). Using Ohm’s law, we can calculate what value of resistance (Rm) would need to be used to cause full-scale deflection of the meter at a designated voltage. To measure ac voltage, either half-wave or full-wave rectifiers would be used to convert the ac waveform into a dc value. Then the standard circuit would be used. The voltmeter is connected in parallel with the device under test. Figure 2. DC ammeter circuit The ammeter is a test instrument used to measure ac or dc current. The standard circuit shown in figure 2 is a shunt resistor (Rs) in parallel with a dc milliammeter having an internal resistance (Ri). Using Ohm’s law, we can calculate what value of resistance (Rs) would need to be used to cause full-scale deflection of the meter at a designated current. To measure ac current, either half-wave or full-wave rectifiers would be used to convert the ac waveform into a dc value. Then the standard circuit would be used. The ammeter is connected in series with the device under test. Clamp-on-type ac ammeters rely on the principle of magnetism about the conductor to measure current. The ohmmeter is a test instrument used to measure dc resistance. There are two types of ohmmeters: the series type and the shunt type. In the series type, the resistance to be measured is connected in series with the meter movement. In the shunt type, the resistance to be measured is connected in parallel with the meter movement. The standard circuit shown in figure 3 consists of a dc voltage source, a dc milliammeter with internal resistance (Ri), and a variable resistor (Rv). An unknown resistance (Rx) is connected between the terminals which causes deflection of the meter indicating an ohmic value. Figure 3. Series ohmmeter circuit The wattmeter is a test instrument used to measure ac or dc power. DC power is expressed as P = VI. DC power is the product of voltage times current. AC power is expressed as P = VI cos θ. AC power is the product of voltage times current times the cosine of theta. In effect, we could measure the current through a device and the voltage across a device and then multiply those numbers together to get dc power, provided that the internal resistance of the ammeter was low and internal resistance of the voltmeter was high relative to the device under test. We cannot do this in the ac case, because we are not taking into account the power factor. The standard circuit for a wattmeter shown in figure 4 consists of a voltage coil and a current coil which are compensated to account for power factor. It is important to note that a wattmeter measures true power not apparent power in an ac circuit. Figure 4. Wattmeter circuit The oscilloscope is a specialized test instrument that is used to measure voltage. It is comprised of the following: input amplifier sections, sweep oscillator, and synchronizing circuits. The oscilloscope allows you to troubleshoot a circuit by looking at the actual waveform being analyzed. It will not only give you a graphical representation of the waveform, but you will also be able to determine the amplitude, time, frequency, and phase relationships when comparing two waveforms on a dual-trace oscilloscope. Circuit theory and network theorems allow you to calculate values of voltage, current, resistance, and power. Test instruments are practical tools that allow you to evaluate circuit parameters and compare measured values to calculated values.
Electron multipliers are perhaps the most common detectors in modern mass spectrometers due to their exceptionally high gain and low noise. A single ion entering the front of the multiplier can result in upwards of one million electrons exiting the back. Principle of Operation The operation of electron multipliers is fundamentally based on the concepts of "dynodes" and "secondary emission". A "dynode" is simply an electrode in vacuum that emits electrons when an ion or electron with sufficient kinetic energy slams into it. This process of emitting electrons is termed "secondary emission". Electron multipliers esentially string together a series of dynodes so that the process of secondary emission happens repeatedly, amplifying the number of electrons exponentially at each step along the way. There are two common geometries for electron multiplier: the "continuous dynode" and the "discrete dynode"... The "discrete dynode" geometry utilizes a series of dynodes that are chained together by resistors. A relatively large negative voltage is applied to the "front" dynode where the ions enter the detector. Meanwhile, the "back" dynode is held at ground. The voltage difference between the front and back of the dynode chain along with the resistors between each dynode results in a gradual voltage drop down the line. Each dynode is typically 100-200V more positive (less negative) than the preceeding dynode: The large negative voltage on the front dynode pulls strongly on a positive ion, which slams into the dynode with high kinetic energy. This event causes a handful of secondary electrons to be emitted from the first dynode; for this example, let's just say two electrons are emitted. These electrons now see an electric field between the first dynode and the less negative second dynode. The 100-200V difference between these two dynodes will cause the two negatively charged electrons to accelerate toward the second dynode, slamming into it with 100-200 eV of kinetic energy. When each of these two electrons strikes the second dynode they will emit more secondary electronds. Again, for this example, let's say that each electron generates two secondary electrons. Now we have four electrons being emitted from the second dynode. These electrons see a 100-200V potential drop toward the third dynode, causing them to accelerate into the third dynode with 100-200eV of kinetic energy, emitting even more secondary electrons. This process continues all the way down the dynode chain, with secondary electrons being accelerated into the subsequent dynode. An exponential increase in electron count occurs down the length of the chain, with all of the electrons eventually reaching the back dynode, which is held at ground. These electrons (viz. current) are usually passed into another circuit that further amplifies the signal. The "continuous dynode" geometry has very similar characteristics to the discrete dynode geometry, with a high negative voltage at the front end and ground at the back end. As with the discrete geometry, an ion is accelerated into the front of the dynode by the high negative potential. The chief difference is that the continuous dynode geometry has one continuous electrode that has sufficient resistance to make the voltage gradually drop from front to back: As with the discrete geometry, electrons are made when the ion initially strikes the front of the dynode. The secondary electrons are accelerated toward the back of the detector by the potential drop, generating more electrons each time they strike the detector's walls. The increase in electron count is again exponential down the length of the detector. At the end/back of the detector, the electrons are passed into circuitry that further amplifies the response. Electron multipliers have a few weaknesses as detectors. Among them is their inability to readily detect negative ions and their mass discrimination. Both issues are addressed through the use of a "conversion dynode", which is another electrode that is placed in front of the electron multiplier with an exceptionally high voltage applied to it (e.g. ±15-25kV). Ions are accelerated into the conversion dynode first, causing secondary emission of ions and electrons, which then enter the electron multiplier like normal. With a standalone electron multiplier whose input is at approximately -1500V, heavy ions (e.g. peptides, proteins, etc.) produce significantly less secondary electrons than light ions when striking the first dynode of the multiplier. This mass discrimination is significantly lessened if the first dynode is held at a much higher voltage, such that ions strike it with much more energy; this is the role of the "conversion dynode". For example, take the figure above, which shows a conversion dynode that is placed in front of the conventional electron multiplier and has -15kV applied to it. Positive ions will strike the conversion dynode with much larger kinetic energies than they would with the multiplier alone. This higher kinetic energy tends to level the playing field across the mass range such that heavy ions produce more secondary particles than they otherwise would. Once the ions strike the dynode, the electrons and negative ions that are emitted from the dynode surface see a steep downhill potential drop between the conversion dynode and front dynode of the multiplier. This causes the secondary particles to accelerate to the front of the electron multiplier, which then operates as explained above. Negative Ion Detection In addition to improving the high mass response of the detector, conversion dynodes also provide a means for detecting negative ions, which would be otherwise impossible with a multiplier alone. In order to detect negative ions, the conversion dynode is held at a high positive voltage (15-25kV): Negative ions are accelerated into the conversion dynode because of its high positive voltage. Upon striking the conversion dynode, positive ions are emitted as secondary particles. These positive particles are then accelerated away toward the front dynode of the electron multiplier. From this point on, the electron multiplier acts as normal.
NASA Additive Manufacturing in Aerospace The aerospace industry is one of the most exciting fields of the development of Additive Manufacturing (I.e. 3D Printing). This sector accounts for almost 20 % of the overall Additive Manufacturing business today, according to the Wohler survey. Light weight and high strength materials are probably recommended in aerospace applications. Additive Manufacturing’s value relies on reducing prices, improved production efficiency and a rise in a range of items to meet customer needs. Additive Manufacturing is a major technology that enables complex structured products to be designed and manufactured that have improved mechanical strength and weight at lower cost as well as less least lead time. In order to produce limited volume, the aerospace industry substituted traditional moulding and machining techniques with 3D print technology. Additive Manufacturing provides low-cost design and fabrication on a limited production volume. BAE Aerospace 3D Printing Around 20 years ago, the aerospace industry proposed Additive Manufacturing. The primary application for 3D printing was prototyping, design and development of jigs, fixtures and tools. In addition, 3D Printing is used in an on-demand situation to manufacture spare components. The opportunity to manufacture on-demand substitute parts lowers the costs for the development of products that will never be purchased when modern equipment is redundant and therefore saves inventory in the factory. For reference, 3D printing window breather pipes are currently used by BAE Systems in jetliner aircrafts. The cost of such pipes is 40 % lower than that of the injection moulding pipes developed and manufactured as needed. Aurora Flight Sciences & Piper Aircraft & Lepron in 3D Printing Technologies Piper Aircraft manufactures equipment with polycarbonates (PC) which can endure 3000 to 6000 psi Hydroforming pressure. Furthermore, Aurora Flight Science developed wings, which weigh one third of the metal parts extremely dense. Those wings have circuitry integrated. In order to use remote controlled helicopters, Lepron produced 200 different models. Aerospace industries are required to substitute tiny parts with 3D printed components, thus reducing the machinery’s weight. Examples include armrests, seat belts, food tray and several other components. NASA Additive Manufacturing In a pressurized cabin in the spacecrafts, NASA recently built a rover reported as Desert RATS. The rover will carry people to Mars. This contains 70 3D imprints from flame retardant vents and containers, camera mounts, wide glass doors, front bumpers, advanced electronics, and many more. The materials used to 3D print of the rover component where Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), PC/ABS (Polycarbonate / Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) and Polycarbonate (PC) and they were developed by the 3D printing machine, FDM Stratasys. Future Additive Manufacturing Requirements Companies have implemented Additive Manufacturing without major improvements in their goods for quick growth. This transition is mostly attributed to the quickly evolving economy and the low cost of constructing these small intrinsic products. A variety of hurdles must be addressed in order to promote Additive Manufacturing progress. Some of these challenges include: - The present Additive Manufacturing pace is slower for the development of bulk production;There are few choices for polymeric materials; The production of large components is not permitted by the current machines. In addition, businesses are required to follow a totally distinct business strategy by customizing the commodity for the finished product and ensuring production on demand. Future work will support the growth of firms with complex geometry and multifunctional structures, which enable new solutions to complicated challenges.The mechanical or thermal response of components may be modified through Additive Manufacturing strategies through the use of functionally graded materials. In fact, on-demand processing lowers expense and avoids future storage loss. - 1 NASA Additive Manufacturing in Aerospace - 2 BAE Aerospace 3D Printing - 3 NASA Additive Manufacturing - 3.1 Future Additive Manufacturing Requirements - 3.2 Some of these challenges include: - 3.3 Additive Manufacturing 3D Printing \| Additive Manufacturing Applications \| 7 Steps to Design aN Additive Manufacturing Product to Improve cost Efficiency - 3.4 CFD Aerodynamic Analysis \| 10 Compelling Reasons Why You Need Aerodynamics Concepts \| The Ultimate Guide to Become an Expert in Aerodynamics Introduction - 3.5 Variable Geometry TurboChargers (VGT) - 3.6 Aerogel \| World’s Lightest Material \| Aerogel Lighter Than Air \| Aerogel Insulation
Levels 10 -12 Use your child's Core5 level as a guide and help build reading skills through these at-home activites for second grade. 1. Read long words together! If your child gets stuck, look for small word parts. For soem words, like "basket", read one syllable at a time (bas-ket). For other words, like jumping, look for the suffix (-ing) and base word (jump). 2. Practice asking and answering questions as you talk about your day using words like who, what, where, when, why, and how. Ask your child questions, such as, "What did you eat for lunch?" and have him/her respond in a complete sentence. 3. Look and listen for similes (as fast as lightening) and metaphors (she is sunshine) in books or movies, on television, or in conversation. Try to use them to describe things around you.
The constitution of India starts with a preamble. It is a brief introductory statement which spells out the guiding purpose and principles of the entire document called the constitution of India. Many constitution and law experts have termed the preamble as the heart and soul of the Indian constitution. There have been many judgments related to the real position of the preamble. The Supreme Court of India, in the Berubari case, stated that the preamble is not an integral part of the Indian constitution. However, in the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case 1973, the Supreme Court of India recognised that the preamble may be used to interpret various parts of the constitution in case of confusion or differing interpretations. In another verdict in 1995 (Union Government Vs LIC of India), the Supreme Court has once again held that the Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution. WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION. The Preamble to the Constitution of India serves the following purposes: - A) It indicates the source from which the Constitution derives its authority; B) It also states the objects, which the Constitution seeks to establish and promote. The Preamble seeks to establish what Mahatma Gandhi described as The India of my Dreams, "…an India in which the poorest shall feel that it is their country in whose making they have an effective voice; …an India in which all communities shall leave I perfect harmony. There can be no room in such an India for the curse of untouchability or the curse of Intoxicating drinks and drugs. Woman will enjoy as the same rights as man."
Did you know that the orbit of a spacecraft can sometimes be a hyperbola? A spacecraft can use the gravity of a planet to alter its path and propel it at high speed away from the planet and back out into space using a technique called "gravitational slingshot". If this happens, then the path of the spacecraft is a hyperbola. (Play with this at Gravity Freeplay) A hyperbola is two curves that are like infinite bows. Looking at just one of the curves: any point P is closer to F than to G by some constant amount The other curve is a mirror image, and is closer to G than to F. In other words, the distance from P to F is always less than the distance P to G by some constant amount. (And for the other curve P to G is always less than P to F by that constant amount.) As a formula: \|PF − PG\| = constant - PF is the distance P to F - PG is the distance P to G - \|\| is the absolute value function (makes any negative a positive) Each bow is called a branch and F and G are each called a focus. Have a try yourself: Try moving point P: what do you notice about the lengths PF and PG ? Also try putting point P on the other branch. There are some other interesting things, too: On the diagram you can see: - an axis of symmetry (that goes through each focus) - two vertices (where each curve makes its sharpest turn) - the distance between the vertices (2a on the diagram) is the constant difference between the lengths PF and PG - two asymptotes which are not part of the hyperbola but show where the curve would go if continued indefinitely in each of the four directions And, strictly speaking, there is also another axis of symmetry that goes down the middle and separates the two branches of the hyperbola. You can also get a hyperbola when you slice through a double cone. The slice must be steeper than that for a parabola, but does not So the hyperbola is a conic section (a section of a cone). By placing a hyperbola on an x-y graph (centered over the x-axis and y-axis), the equation of the curve is: x2a2 − y2b2 = 1 One vertex is at (a, 0), and the other is at (−a, 0) The asymptotes are the straight lines: - y = (b/a)x - y = −(b/a)x (Note: the equation is similar to the equation of the ellipse: x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1, except for a "−" instead of a "+") Any branch of a hyperbola can also be defined as a curve where the distances of any point from: - a fixed point (the focus), and - a fixed straight line (the directrix) are always in the same ratio. This ratio is called the eccentricity, and for a hyperbola it is always greater than 1. The eccentricity (usually shown as the letter e) shows how "uncurvy" (varying from being a circle) the hyperbola is. On this diagram: - P is a point on the curve, - F is the focus and - N is the point on the directrix so that PN is perpendicular to the directrix. The eccentricity is the ratio PF/PN, and has the formula: e = √(a2+b2)a Using "a" and "b" from the diagram above. The Latus Rectum is the line through the focus and parallel to the directrix. The length of the Latus Rectum is 2b2/a. The reciprocal function y = 1/x is a hyperbola!
Extreme weather events linked to climate change impact on the jet stream Unprecedented summer warmth and flooding, forest fires, drought and torrential rain—extreme weather events are occurring more and more often, but now an international team of climate scientists has found a connection between many extreme weather events and the impact climate change is having on the jet stream. "We came as close as one can to demonstrating a direct link between climate change and a large family of extreme recent weather events," said Michael Mann, distinguished professor of atmospheric science and director, Earth System Science Center, Penn State. "Short of actually identifying the events in the climate models." The unusual weather events that piqued the researchers' interest are things such as the 2003 European heat wave, the 2010 Pakistan flood and Russian heatwave, the 2011 Texas and Oklahoma heat wave and drought and the 2015 California wildfires. The researchers looked at a combination of roughly 50 climate models from around the world that are part of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5), which is part of the World Climate Research Programme. These models are run using specific scenarios and producing simulated data that can be evaluated across the different models. However, while the models are useful for examining large-scale climate patterns and how they are likely to evolve over time, they cannot be relied on for an accurate depiction of extreme weather events. That is where actual observations prove critical. The researchers looked at the historical atmospheric observations to document the conditions under which extreme weather patterns form and persist. These conditions occur when the jet stream, a global atmospheric wave of air that encompasses the Earth, becomes stationary and the peaks and troughs remain locked in place. "Most stationary jet stream disturbances, however, will dissipate over time," said Mann. "Under certain circumstances the wave disturbance is effectively constrained by an atmospheric wave guide, something similar to the way a coaxial cable guides a television signal. Disturbances then cannot easily dissipate, and very large amplitude swings in the jet stream north and south can remain in place as it rounds the globe." This constrained configuration of the jet stream is like a rollercoaster with high peaks and valleys, but only forms when there are six, seven or eight pairs of peaks and valleys surrounding the globe. The jet stream can then behave as if there is a waveguide—uncrossable barriers in the north and south—and a wave with large peaks and valleys can occur. "If the same weather persists for weeks on end in one region, then sunny days can turn into a serious heat wave and drought, and lasting rains can lead to flooding," said Stefan Rahmstorf, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), Germany. The structure of the jet stream relates to its latitude and the temperature gradient from north to south. Temperatures typically have the steepest gradients in mid-latitudes and a strong circumpolar jet stream arises. However, when these temperature gradients decrease in just the right way, a weakened "double peak" jet stream arises with the strongest jet stream winds located to the north and south of the mid-latitudes. "The warming of the Arctic, the polar amplification of warming, plays a key role here," said Mann. "The surface and lower atmosphere are warming more in the Arctic than anywhere else on the globe. That pattern projects onto the very temperature gradient profile that we identify as supporting atmospheric waveguide conditions." Theoretically, standing jet stream waves with large amplitude north/south undulations should cause unusual weather events. "We don't trust climate models yet to predict specific episodes of extreme weather because the models are too coarse," said study co-author Dim Coumou of PIK. "However, the models do faithfully reproduce large scale patterns of temperature change," added co-author Kai Kornhuber of PIK. The researchers looked at real-world observations and confirmed that this temperature pattern does correspond with the double-peaked jet stream and waveguide patter associated with persistent extreme weather events in the late spring and summer such as droughts, floods and heat waves. They found the pattern has become more prominent in both observations and climate model simulations. "Using the simulations, we demonstrate that rising greenhouse gases are responsible for the increase," said Mann. The researchers noted in today's (Mar. 27) issue of Scientific Reports that "Both the models and observations suggest this signal has only recently emerged from the background noise of natural variability." "We are now able to connect the dots when it comes to human-caused global warming and an array of extreme recent weather events," said Mann. While the models do not reliably track individual extreme weather events, they do reproduce the jet stream patterns and temperature scenarios that in the real world lead to torrential rain for days, weeks of broiling sun and absence of precipitation. "Currently we have only looked at historical simulations," said Mann. "What's up next is to examine the model projections of the future and see what they imply about what might be in store as far as further increases in extreme weather are concerned."
Mange in cattle is caused by mites. There are three species of mite that affect cattle in the UK: - Surface mite (Chorioptes bovis) - Burrowing mite (Sarcoptes scabiei) - Psoroptic mange mite (Psoroptes sp.) The surface mite is the most common. The first cases of psoroptic mange to be seen in Great Britain since the 1980s have recently been diagnosed by the VLA. Psoroptic mange is caused by Psoroptes sp. mites and although the mites are of the same species as those causing scab in sheep, they are not transferable between species. Mange mites cause irritation, thickened scaly skin, hair loss, hide damage and reduced productivity. Different mites are commonly found in different body areas as follows: Surface mite (Chorioptes bovis) – usually found on the neck, legs, and tail head causing areas of hair loss which increase slowly in size and cause irritation. Hide damage can occur as cattle rub the affected areas. Burrowing mite (Sarcoptes scabiei) – usually found on the neck and the loin area next to the tail. Burrowing throughout the skin, these mites produce intense irritation and severe skin damage, with large areas of skin becoming thick, crusted and eventually infected. This can result in reduced productivity. Psoroptic mange (Psoroptes sp) – usually found along the back, shoulders and tail head of cattle, causing severe dermatitis (inflammation of the skin), scabs and intense itching. Bacterial infections of affected areas is common, leading to bleeding and crusting. Production losses and even death can occur, if skin lesions are extensive. Mange is mainly a problem in autumn, winter and early spring as cattle are housed, with mites becoming less active and numbers reducing in the summer. Itchy animals with thickened skin are likely to have mange. A vet will need to take a skin sample by scraping the skin to to confirm a diagnosis, especially if there is the possibility of lice. Under a microscope, Psoroptes sp mites can be identified as oval with pointed mouthparts, legs that project beyond the body and jointed legs with funnel-shaped suckers. In severe cases, crusting can make it difficult for products to make contact with the mites and scabs may have to be removed before treatment. - Mange can be controlled by the use of injectable 3-ML products (use against sarcoptic and psoroptic mange, and aid in the control of chorioptic mange), 3-ML pour-ons (eg. Depidex® Pour-on) and permethrin based pour-ons (Flypor® is the only synthetic pyrethroid pour-on with a mange claim). - It is important with all mite products to check which species of mites they are effective against. - For severe surface mite infestation, an injection can, if necessary be followed by a pour-on treatment when the skin has recovered sufficiently. Please speak to your vet for advice. - In the case of psoroptes sp. mites the vet should be consultedto discuss diagnosis and treatment as it is essential to ensure effective treatment of this damaging disease. Treatment timing and advice - In general two treatments of Flypor® should provide control of cattle mange (sarcoptic and chorioptic), throughout the housing period. - Always treat all cattle at the same time to prevent re-infection in the herd. - Movement from infected housing should be avoided as burrowing mites (Sarcoptes scabiei) and Psoroptes sp. mites can live off animals and be infective for at least 12 days. - Always dose accurately. Under-dosing can lead to the development of resistance.
What is Annulus fibrosus? What is the role it plays in our body, it’s importance, health issues associated with it? Lets get to know about theses details. Annulus fibrosus is defined as a ring of fibrous tissue. It is the tough circular exterior of the inter-vertebral disc. Annulus fibrosus is composed of a gelatinous material that protects from herniating or leaking out of the disc by hydraulically sealing the nucleus and evenly distributing any pressure and force imposed on the inter-vertebral disc. Protective Sports Gear – Attractive Deals! Annulus fibrosus refers to: - Fibrous ring of heart (Cordis) - Fibrous ring of inter-vertebral disc (Intervertebralis) - Annulus surrounding the tympanic membrane (Annulus fibrosus tympani) The annulus fibrosus is the outer layer of disc that surrounds the gel -like nucleus pulposus (is the inner core of vertebral disc) inside the disc. It is structurally made up of collagen fibers together woven in strong layers in different angles. The spinal discs get their structure by annulus fibrosus, which enables the surrounding vertebrae for easy bending and twisting actions. The elastic inner structure allows the vertebral disc to withstand forces of compression and tortion. Due to age, the spinal discs dehydrate and become stiffer causing the discs to be less able to bear the compression. The nucleus pulposus can herniate through the protective layer of annulus fibrosus, leaks out of the disc space and leads to the inflammation of nerve roots next to the disc. If for some reason an experienced doctor is not available around you, then you can contact us here. Leave a Review How did you find the information presented in this article? Would you like us to add any other information? Help us improve by providing your rating and review comments. Thank you in advance!
Does this sound familiar? STOP YELLING AT YOUR BROTHER!!!!! For me, it is these and other parenting moments that I wish I could erase. I mean, how can my children learn to stop yelling by me yelling at them, right? Children learn emotional regulation and communication skills from their parents, primary care givers, teachers, and peers. Teaching our children emotional regulation skills is one of the most important things we can do to ensure their future stability in life. Children and adolescents who can recognize, regulate, and express emotions appropriately are at less risk for struggling with addiction, relationship issues, and mental health disorders (just to name a few). Emotions do not just go away if we refuse to acknowledge them. Regulating our emotions means that we recognize the emotion, allow ourselves to feel it, and choose to express it in a healthy way. Here are a few tips for teaching this valuable skill to children. Recognize and deal with your own emotions. This can be tough for many of us, because we have been taught that emotional expression is a sign of weakness, or lack of control. Additionally, many of us may have been taught that negative emotions, such as anger, jealousy, or sadness were “wrong”. However, the ability to recognize our emotions and express them appropriately is a very valuable skill. Emotional regulation is essential for maintaining healthy relationships, both personally and professionally. Also dealing with our emotions in an appropriate manner, can help ward off serious mental health, and the development of unhealthy coping behaviors down the road. The important thing to remember, is that we cannot expect children to exhibit self-control/emotional regulation if we are unable to model this for them. Model emotional regulation (self-control). We must be intentional about modeling what emotional regulation looks like. If I am angry, it is healthy for me to acknowledge this feeling, and then express it in an appropriate and healthy way. For example, I can acknowledge that I am angry, and then choose to go for a run, exercise, punch a punching bag, take a “time out”, or any number of healthy outlets for this feeling. When we are able to show our children that even adults have difficult feelings, and that they can choose how to address these feelings, we normalize their own struggles with emotional expression. Promptly address emotional dysregulation. This includes both for ourselves and our children. When we “lose it”, (let’s face it, this happens to all of us), it is important for us to discuss this with our children after we have calmed down. This of course does not give children a “free pass” for misbehavior or defiance. What it does accomplish, is teaching children that while other people’s behaviors can elicit strong emotions within us, we are still responsible for what we do with those emotions. Make a plan for future situations. After discussing what went wrong, ask yourself or your child, “How could I/you handle this situation differently if it happens again?” Doing this helps children to recognize that they do have a choice to respond differently, and it helps them to find creative ways for handling difficult emotions. Use real-life situations as learning opportunities. If you have ever paid attention to your older child when he or she sees another child “losing it”, you probably noticed that they found the other child’s reaction extreme. Unfortunately, children and adolescents are not as skilled at recognizing their own extreme emotional responses. We can use these real-life examples to start a conversation with our own children about what it was like for them to witness this behavior, and how they think the child could have responded differently. It’s amazing the impact that personal experience has on learning. It is important to recognize that we cannot teach what we do not know! As parents, grandparents, care givers, and teachers, it is essential that we learn how to regulate our own emotions so that we can model this for our children. Remember, children learn more from what we do, than from what we say.
Have students try these activities to expand their knowledge and interest in Colonial America. Have students locate England on a map and see if they can find Plymouth. Next, have students find Massachusetts on a map and locate Plymouth, Massachusetts. Students can use the scale on the map to figure out the distance between the two Plymouths to see the distance the pilgrims traveled. Many other towns in the U.S., particularly along the eastern coast, are named after towns in England or other countries in Europe. Have students look at a map or the index of an atlas to see how many American town names they can find in England. Ask students to write about why they think some American towns have the same name as some European towns. Social Studies, Language Arts, Art Have students imagine themselves back in colonial times leaving a note in a time capsule to be opened sometime in the future. They should write one page about their life so that others, at a later time, will have an idea of how they lived. As a twist, have students write a time capsule note about their current selves. Then reveal to them that they are to “translate” the current letter into a colonial setting. For example, students may translate “I like to play video games” to “I like to carve toys with my pocketknife.” Encourage students to include a sketch of themselves in period clothing with the letter. Ben Franklin is considered one of history’s most versatile and gifted people. Students might investigate his life as an inventor, printer, diplomat, scientist, author, and patriot. A discussion of proverbs from Poor Richard’s Almanac would be a fun follow-up. Here are some: Fish and visitors stink after three days. Beware of little expenses: a small leak will sink a great ship. No gains without pains. Love your neighbor; yet don’t pull down your hedge. At the working man’s house hunger looks in, but dares not enter. Students can discuss what each saying means and which sayings they find amusing, and why. Challenge students to find other sayings from Poor Richard’s Almanac, present them to class, and discuss their meanings. Students can accompany the saying with an amusing or serious illustration. Read the following: Listen, my children, and you shall hear, Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere, On the eighteenth of April, in Seventy-five; Hardly a man is now alive Who remembers that famous day and year. —from Tales of a Wayside Inn, part I, The Landlord’s Tale: Paul Revere’s Ride, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Ask students if they can guess what event the poem is about. If students need a clue, read this line from stanza 8: “The fate of a nation was riding that night.” Have several student volunteers take turns reading the entire Longfellow poem aloud. Games and Activities on Colonial America \| Kids Discover
52 Character Building Thoughts for Children By Leah Davies, M.Ed. The following quotes may be used in a variety of ways by both teachers and counselors. One idea is for a thought to be posted, read, and discussed at the beginning of each week. It could then be read daily with the students. At the end of the week ask them what they learned or how the thought applied to their lives or activities during the week. Have the children give written or oral examples, or have them draw a picture to illustrate their ideas. For more ideas, see our archived article, Encouraging - How I look is not as important as how I act. - I treat others the way I want them to treat me. - I am a good sport; I follow the rules, take turns and play fair. - It is okay to laugh at funny things, but not to laugh at others. - I do not gossip; if I cannot say anything helpful, I do not say anything at all. - When I am sad, I help myself feel better by thinking of things that are good in my life. - In order to have friends, I must act in a kind way. - I believe that I am someone who can do important things. - What I say and how I say it tells others the kind of person I am. - I appreciate my family, my teachers, and my school. - I treat everyone with respect. - When I listen, I show others that I care about them. - I am being a good citizen when I volunteer to help others. - I think for myself and make smart choices that are good for me. - Each day offers a new start to do my best. - I try to understand what my friends are feeling. - Everyone makes mistakes, so instead of getting angry with myself, I try to - I do not give up; I keep trying until I can do my work. - Sharing with others makes me feel good and makes them feel good too. - I work out my problems without hurting myself or others. - I am being polite when I wait for my turn and say please and thank you. - When I smile at people, they usually smile back. - I encourage my friends to do their best. - My values guide me to do what is right. - I am honest; I do not cheat or steal. - When I am angry, I use self-control and do not hurt others. - I am being creative when I dance, draw, paint or write a poem or story. - I say, "No!" to things that could hurt my body like tobacco and - When I do what I say I will do, I am being responsible. - I am grateful for what I have, so I share with others. - I try to learn something new each day. - When things do not go my way, I stop and think of what I can do to make them - I do not make fun of other children because I don't know what their life - I feel successful when I do my best. - Everyone has good and bad feelings. - I take care of myself by eating healthy food, exercising and getting enough - I am being punctual when I am on time and do not keep people waiting. - When I cooperate with others, I get more done. - I follow the rules and try to make my school a better place. - I like to get to know children who are different from me. - Since I tell the truth, my friends trust me. - I look for what is good in others and I say what I like about them. - I buy only what I need and I save my money. - When I use my time wisely, there is usually enough time to do what I want - I think before I act; how I act affects how others treat me. - Using manners helps me keep my friends. - I have courage to stand up for children who are teased. - Before I do something, I ask myself, "Is it safe?" - I am me -- I do not try to be like someone else. - I care about living things on earth so I recycle and do not litter. - When I write down what I think and feel, I learn about myself. - I plan ahead and think about what I want to do when I grow up. Used by permission of the author, Leah Davies, and selected from the Kelly Bear website [www.kellybear.com], Click Below for More.
Languages › Russian How to Learn the Russian Alphabet Share Flipboard Email Print izold / Getty Images Languages English as a Second Language Spanish French German Italian Japanese Mandarin Russian By Maia Nikitina Russian Language Expert M.F.A., Creative Writing, Manchester Metropolitan University Diploma in Translation (IoLet Level 7, Russian), Chartered Institute of Linguists our editorial process Twitter Twitter Maia Nikitina Updated January 10, 2020 The Russian alphabet is based on Cyrillic and Glagolitic scripts, which were developed from Byzantine Greek in order to facilitate the spread of Christianity during the 9th and 10th centuries. Some letters in the modern Russian alphabet look familiar to English speakers — Е, У, К, А — while other letters do not resemble any characters in the English alphabet. Russian Alphabet Sounds The Russian alphabet is relatively easy to learn thanks to its principle of one letter per sound. This principle means that most phonemes (sounds that convey meaning) are represented by their own letters. The spelling of Russian words typically reflects all of the sounds that are part of that word. (This will get more complicated when we move onto allophones—variations of possible pronunciations.) Get to know the Russian alphabet by studying all three columns below. The first column provides the Russian letter, the second column provides an approximate pronunciation (using English characters), and the third column gives an idea of what the letter sounds like, using an example from an English word. Russian Letter Pronunciation Closest English Sound А, a Ah or aah Far, lamb Б, б B Boy В, в V Vest Г, г Gh Guest Д, д D Door E, e Yeh Yes Ё, ё Yoh York Ж, ж Zh pleasure, beige З, з Z Zoo И, и E Meet Й, й Y Toy К, к K Kilo Л, л L Love М, м M Mop Н, н N No О, о O Morning П, п P Pony Р, р R (rolled) С, с S Song Т, т T Train У, у Ooh Boo Ф, ф F Fun Х, х H Loch Ц, ц Ts Ditzy Ч, ч Ch Cherish Ш, ш Sch Shhh Щ, щ Sh (softer than Ш) Shoe Ъ, ъ hard sign (non-vocalized) n/a Ы, ы Uhee no equivalent sound Ь, ь soft sign (non-vocalized) n/a Э, э Aeh Aerobics Ю, ю Yu You Я, я Ya Yard Once you have learned the Russian alphabet, you should be able to read most Russian words, even if you don’t know their meaning. Stressed and Unstressed Vowels The next step is to learn how Russian words are stressed, which simply means which vowel in the word is emphasized. Russian letters behave differently under stress and are pronounced more distinctly according to their alphabet sound. Unstressed vowels are reduced or merged. This difference is not reflected in the spelling of Russian words, which can be confusing to beginner learners. While there are several rules governing the way unstressed letters are pronounced, the easiest way to learn is to expand your vocabulary as much as possible, naturally acquiring a sense of stressed vowels along the way. Russian Vowels: Pronunciation and Usage How to Improve Your Russian Pronunciation 5 Tips to Make Learning Russian Easy What Does IPA Have to Do With the French Language? English Pronunciation: Does It Have Anything to Do With Spelling? Learn How to Pronounce Spanish Vowels Why That Squiggly Mark Over the Spanish Ñ? What Are Vowels and Vowel Sounds in English? What Makes Silent Letters So Tricky? Learn How to Pronounce the Greek Alphabet Rules for Latin Syllabification Learn How to Pronounce 2,500 Words With This French Audio Guide What Is the Most Common Vowel Sound in English Represented by ə? Everything You've Wanted To Know About the Spanish ‘E’ The 44 Sounds in the English Language for Spelling and Reading Do You Know How to Stress Syllables in English?
1) Natural Numbers A. Playing with numbers; I. Finding missing numbers by using addition, subtraction, multiplication II. Finding missing numbers based on the properties of numbers, III. Solving arithmetic problems using order of operation. B. Divisibility of numbers; I. Checking and showing divisibility of numbers, II. Finding the divisor and a multiple based on properties of numbers. I. Properties of exponents, II. Finding ones in some exponents. 2) Fractions and decimals A. Using properties of decimal number system to create decimals; I. Converting fraction to decimal and decimal to fraction, II. Conversion of units: weight, length. 3) Acting on fractions A. Solving problems on fractions and decimals using addition, subtraction, multiplication and division; B. Word problem solving; I. Analyze, solving and checking word problems with fractions and decimals, II. Finding the fraction of a given number, III. Solving word problems with distance, speed, time, money and weight. A. Breakdown given polygons according to properties; B. Angles in polygon; I. Using the property of the sum of angles in the triangle to find external and internal angles, II. Areas and perimeter of polygons, III. Solving practical problems using knowledge of areas and perimeters of 5) Algebraic expressions A. Writing and reading algebraic expression; I. Creation of algebraic expression to different pictures for instance to perimeter of figure, II. Transformation of algebraic expression. B. Creating equation and inequities to word problems; C. Solving equations with one or more variables. A. Prism model and it properties; B. Surface area and volume of prism in word problems. 7) Rational number A. Repeating decimal; I. Converting from repeating decimal to fraction, II. Solving word problem with repeating decimal. B. Power and ratios of rational numbers; C. Mathematical operation; D. Analyzing and solving word problems with rational numbers. A. Percentages in economic and finance; B. Percentages in real life; I. Sales, diagrams, II. Creating percentages diagram using MS Excel. 9) Flat figures A. Area and perimeter of flat figures; B. Breakdown different kind of shapes to the common figures; C. Geometric construction - symmetry, bisector; D. Inscribed angle and described angle to find the angles in the circle. 10) Pythagorean Theorem A. Using Pythagorean theorem in geometric and practical word problems.
So far, life as we know it has needed one ingredient to survive: water. This primordial and basic compound is essential for life on this planet, and a new study shows it is most likely very abundant in the Universe. Ilse Cleeves and Ted Bergin at the University of Michigan wanted to understand the true origin of water on our planet. There are two different theories on this topic: 1.) Molecules on ice comets collided into the Earth and volcanoes on the (then barren) planet Earth all added to one another to give rise to new terrestrial oceans. 2.) Water originated before the solar system which then inherited it. Cleeves’ and Bergin’s experiment (actually a simulation) shows that the origin of perhaps 50 percent of our water is a result of something that predates not only the solar system , but the sun as well. The duo were attempting to find the ratio of “common” water and “heavy” water in our present day solar system, compared to before the solar system even formed. Heavy water comes from a very cold source, apparently a few degrees above absolute zero, and stars (like our own) eliminate the residuals of this primeval water. The simulation started by “winding the clock back” on the solar system to before there even was a solar system. They then allowed the simulation to play itself out for “millions of years,” or the typical lifetime of a planetary disk. Planetary disks are rotating “rings” full of debris and are thought to be the origin of planetary systems. After the millions of years had passed, they found that the chemical processes in the disk were inefficient at making heavy water throughout the solar system. What this implies is that if the planetary disk didn’t create the water, then some of it had to have been inherited. Astronomer Ted Bergin was quoted as saying: “Based on our simulations and our growing astronomical understanding, the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen atoms is a ubiquitous component of the early stages of stellar birth. It is this water, which we know from astronomical observations forms at only 10 degrees above absolute zero before the birth of the star, that is provided to nascent stellar systems everywhere.” “The implications of these findings are pretty exciting, if water formation had been a local process that occurs in individual stellar systems, the amount of water and other important chemical ingredients necessary for the formation of life might vary from system to system. But because some of the chemically rich ices from the molecular cloud are directly inherited, young planetary systems have access to these important ingredients.” So what do you make of these findings? Does this mean that the life-giving nature of water is an abundant substance throughout our Universe and has spawned life? Whatever the case may be, this is a very exciting revelation! Your life path number can tell you A LOT about you. With the ancient science of Numerology you can find out accurate and revealing information just from your name and birth date. Get your free numerology reading and learn more about how you can use numerology in your life to find out more about your path and journey. Get Your free reading.
Here is some basic information that might help when children ask what global warming is and what to do to help. Weather vs. Climate Weather includes lots of things that should be familiar – temperature, rain, snow, wind speeds, or wind direction. Climate refers to the average weather conditions in a certain place over many years. For example, the climate in Minnesota is cold and snowy in the winter, and the climate in Hawaii is warm and humid all year long. The climate in one area, like the Midwest or Hawaii, is called a regional climate. The average climate around the world is called global climate. The Earth is wrapped in a blanket of air called the ‘atmosphere’, which is made up of several layers of gases, such as carbon dioxide. The sun is much hotter than the Earth and it gives off rays of heat (radiation) that travel through the atmosphere and reach the Earth. The rays of the sun warm the Earth, and heat from the Earth then travels back into the atmosphere. The gases in the atmosphere stop some of the heat from escaping into space. These gases are called greenhouse gases and the natural process between the sun, the atmosphere and the Earth is called the ‘Greenhouse Effect’, because it works the same way as a greenhouse. The windows of a greenhouse play the same role as the gases in the atmosphere, keeping some of the heat inside the greenhouse. The Natural Greenhouse Effect The atmosphere has a number of gases, often in tiny amounts, which trap the heat given out by the Earth. To make sure that the Earth’s temperature remains constant, the balance of these gases in the atmosphere must not be upset. The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect Some of the activities of humans also produce greenhouse gases. These gases keep increasing in the atmosphere. The balance of the greenhouse gases changes and this has effects on the whole of the planet. Burning fossil fuels – coal, oil and natural gas – releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Cutting down and burning trees also produces a lot of carbon dioxide. Cows flatulence -ask your parent what that means -produce methane which is linked to global warming. Because there are more and more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, more heat is trapped which makes the Earth warmer. This is known as GLOBAL WARMING. A lot of scientists agree that humans activities are making the natural greenhouse effect stronger. If we carry on polluting the atmosphere with greenhouse gases, it will have very dangerous effects on the Earth. With more heat trapped on Earth, the planet will become warmer, which means the weather all over Earth will change. For example, summers will get hotter, and winters too. This may seem a good idea, but the conditions we are living in are perfect for life, and a large rise in temperature could be terrible for us and for any other living thing on Earth. All over the world, these weather changes will affect the kind of crop that can be grown and even the nutrients in that crop. Plants, animals and even people may find it difficult to survive in different conditions. Higher temperatures will make the water of the seas and oceans expand. Ice melting in the Antarctic and Greenland will flow into the sea. Higher sea levels will threaten the low-lying coastal areas of the world, such as the Netherlands and Bangladesh, and closer to home, New York City, Florida and parts of California. Throughout the world, millions of people and areas of land will be at danger from flooding. The changes in the weather will affect the types of crops grown in different parts of the world. Some crops, such as wheat and rice grow better in higher temperatures, but other plants, such as corn and sugarcane do not. Changes in the amount of rainfall will also affect how many plants grow. The effect of a change in the weather on plant growth may lead to some countries not having enough food. Brazil, parts of Africa, Southeast Asia and China will be affected the most and many people could suffer from hunger. Everywhere in the world, there is a big demand for water and in many regions, such as the Sahara in Africa; there is not enough water for the people. Changes in the weather will bring more rain in some countries, but others will have less rain. Plants & Animals It has taken million of years for life to become used to the conditions on Earth. As weather and temperature changes, the homes of plants and animals will be affected all over the world. For example, polar bears and seals will have to find new land for hunting and living, if the ice in the Arctic melts. What can you do? Reduce, reuse, recycle, repair: Remember your four R’s! Reduce: the most important. If you don’t buy so much stuff in the first place, then you don’t need to reuse or recycle it. Reuse whatever you can (like plastic supermarket bags). If you can’t reuse something, Recycle it! means that something is used again by converting it into something else. Broken class can be made into new glass! Repair it! Do you know how to sew on a new button?- as just one example. If you can’t do any of those things, the waste you generate ends up in huge landfills. Much of what you find in these stinking dumps is plastic waste. Make your own climate… in your home or your room! Turn off things that use electricity when nobody’s using them Leaving lights, heating, air conditioning, computers, TVs and other electronics on when you don’t need them wastes a lot of energy. If it’s warm in one room and cold in another, close the door. The door helps keep heat in. Leaving things on standby (like TVs, computers and stuff) also uses a surprising amount of energy. Newer models mostly use much less standby power but if you’re away for a few days, it still makes sense to turn stuff off. Make your own climate… around you! When it’s hot, dress cool When it’s cold, dress warm Every little thing helps! You can make a difference.
By Pure Matters Osteoarthritis (OA), sometimes called degenerative arthritis, is the most common type of arthritis. In OA, the cartilage that covers the bones in a joint thins and, in some cases, wears away entirely. This leaves bone rubbing against bone, which can cause inflammation. The inflammation causes swelling and pain, and eventually distorts the originally smooth surface of the joints. Bits of bone or cartilage can break off and float inside the joint space. This causes pain and interferes with the joint movement. Sometimes, bone spurs, called osteophytes, grow on the edges of the joint. Can you prevent OA? An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure! The less unnecessary stress you put on your joints, the less likely they are to wear out prematurely. Keep your weight under control. When working and exercising, try to use good posture, and if a joint starts to bother you, rest it immediately. Your health care provider may be able to offer suggestions to minimize your risk for joint injury. The Arthritis Foundation makes the following recommendations to protect joints and prevent osteoarthritis: - Maintain your ideal body weight. Excess weight puts stress on your joints, especially your hips, knees, back, and feet. - Move. Exercise strengthens muscles around joints, this can help prevent wear and tear on cartilage in a joint. - Maintain good posture. Good posture protects your joints from excessive pressure, especially your neck, back, hips, and knees. - Do a variety of physical activity. Alternate periods of heavy activity with periods of rest. For example, if you do weight training one day, do aerobic exercise the next day. Repetitive stress on joints for long periods of time can cause the excessive wear and tear that can lead to osteoarthritis. - Pay attention to pain. If you have joint pain, don't ignore it. Pain after activity or exercise can be an indication you have overstressed your joints and that they need to rest. - Forget the weekend warrior. Start new activities slowly and safely until you know how your body will react to them. This will reduce the chance of injury. Avoid injury to joints. Wear proper safety equipment. Don't leave helmets and wrist pads at home. Make sure your safety gear is comfortable and fits appropriately. Making an accurate diagnosis Symptoms of OA include stiffness in a joint after a period of immobility, swelling in a joint, and hearing noise or feeling a crunch when a joint moves. It's important to see your doctor if you have joint pain, especially in your hip joints, knee joints, or fingers. Your doctor will evaluate the history of your pain and perform a physical examination to clearly diagnose arthritis and what type it is. X-rays may be taken to look for cartilage loss, bone damage, and bone spurs. If an X-ray does not show a cause for the pain, an MRI may be done to look for damage to other joint tissues such as a ligaments. This is important because OA treatment differs from that for other forms of arthritis. A number of other conditions can affect your joints, and only your health care provider can help you determine what type of arthritis you have. Once the diagnosis of OA is made, it is important to understand that there's no cure. With your doctor's help, you can effectively manage this chronic condition. The goals for treatment of OA are to decrease pain, improve joint function, and prevent further damage. Once the diagnosis of OA is made, your health care provider may suggest some of the following: - If you are overweight, lose weight. Excess weight stresses joints, tendons, ligaments, and muscles. It also increases the risk for heart disease and other problems. - Exercise to relieve or prevent pain. OA doesn't have to stop you from enjoying a walk through the park or performing daily activities, such as climbing the stairs or gardening. Exercise can treat and may even help prevent - pain. Your doctor can review the exercises that are best for you. - Medication. Your health care provider may recommend that you take a daily dose of acetaminophen, aspirin, or other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug; glucosamine; a glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate combination or prescription medications to ease pain. - Home remedies. You should discuss with your doctor how you might use traditional self-care remedies, such as a moist heating pad, hot shower, and/or an ice pack to relieve pain. Joint replacement. This is done when the joint is no longer functional or when the pain is so great that you can no longer function. An increasing number of people are choosing this option, especially people in their late 60s and 70s. Currently, replacements are available for knees, hips, shoulders, and finger joints.
The Arctic is not considered a continent because it is a region that is not comprised of one specific land mass. Several countries belonging to separate continents reach into the Arctic region. The Arctic is defined as the region spanning from 65 degrees north latitude from the equator to the North Pole. The majority of the region is covered by the Arctic Ocean, as well as large drifting ice masses. Canada, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States all have land that reaches into the region. Therefore, parts of North America, Europe and Asia fall within its boundaries.
It’s hard to believe that 26 years before the outbreak of the American Civil War, 28 years before the Emancipation Proclamation, and 35 years before African Americans were allowed to vote, Oberlin College opened its doors to both white and black students alike to get a high quality, equal education. In 1835, It became the first University to regularly admit black students and hold a policy that it would accept any qualified student regardless of race. Oberlin was home to many ardent abolitionists and played a significant role in the Underground Railroad. Oberlin was a key stop and offered shelter to fugitive slaves on their escape to other northern states or Canadian territory. Not only was Oberlin the first college to regularly admit African-Americans but it became the first coeducational university in the country. In 1837, four female students enrolled with the rest of the male student body and 3 of them received their Bachelor of Arts degree in 1841. They are the first women ever to receive this type of degree. Oberlin College is truly a path setter in the way it laid the foundation for blacks and women to receive a higher education. It’s also appropriate that the first African-American woman to receive a Bachelor’s degree graduated from Oberlin in 1862. Photo via Oberlin.edu
What is Emergency Lighting?By definition, emergency lighting is a battery-operated light that is programmed to come on any time the power fails in a large building. Most building codes require that these lights be installed in all new commercial and residential buildings, as well as schools, dormitories, and other spaces with large occupancy. Older buildings are also installing these systems since they are critically important for helping people escape from buildings safely. Modern Emergency Lighting describes the type of lighting that is used in all high occupancy commercial, industrial or residential building. Every emergency lighting unit has reflectors that direct the focus of the light and intensify it. The actual source of the light can come from some type of incandescent light bulb, or from light emitting diode (LED) clusters. The design of emergency lighting fixtures may place the reflectors behind the fixture, or the fixture may have a plastic covering over the lighting source. Individual emergency lighting units are typically designed so that the light can rotate, making it possible to redirect the light to any place where the light is needed most.
3.1 How does socio-cultural context influence development? Children grow up in specific physical, social, cultural, economic and historical circumstances (their socio-cultural context), all of which will influence their childhood. Research has shown that children’s socio-cultural context can have a large influence on their development. We know that culture influences how children develop; across different cultures, children can develop in quite different ways (Montgomery, 2008). And we know that children who are deprived of care from a primary caregiver can often experience difficulties in later childhood because their early attachment experiences were affected by this (Bowlby, 1980). Development of course involves a process of learning and improvement, and children can only learn when others are there to support them, like parents, teachers and siblings. This does not conflict with Piaget’s stage theory but does extend it to explain how some of the environmental experiences that children receive can allow them to move from one stage to another, in line with Vygotsky’s socio-cultural approach.
Readers Question: Why does printing money cause inflation? Does this always occur? If the Money Supply increases faster than real output then, ceteris paribus, inflation will occur. If you print more money, the amount of goods doesn’t change. However, if you print money, households will have more cash and more money to spend on goods. If there is more money chasing the same amount of goods, firms will just put up prices. The Quantity Theory of Money The Quantity theory of money seeks to establish this connection with the formula MV=PY. Where - M= Money supply, - V= Velocity of circulation (how many times money changes hands) - P= Price level - Y= National Income (T = number of transactions) If we assume V and Y are constant in short-term, then increasing money supply will lead to increase in price level. Simple example to explain why printing money causes inflation - Suppose the economy produces 1,000 units of output. - Suppose the money supply (number of notes and coins) = $10,000 - This means that the average price of the output produced will be $10 (10,000/1000) Suppose then that the government print an extra $5,000 notes creating a total money supply of $15,000; but, the output of the economy stays at 1,000 units. Effectively, people have more cash, but, the number of goods is the same. Because people have more cash, they are willing to spend more to buy the goods in the economy. Ceteris paribus, the price of the 1,000 units will increase to $15 (15,000/1000). The price has increased, but, the quantity of output stays the same. People are not better off, and the value of money has decreased; e.g. A $10 note buys fewer goods than previously. Therefore, if the money supply is increased, but, the output stays the same, everything will just become more expensive. The increase in national income will be purely monetary (nominal) If output increased by 5%. and the money supply increases by 7%. Then inflation will be roughly 2%. Assumptions in the above example [In the real world, it is possible, if the government printed money, people would just decide to save the extra money and therefore, prices wouldn’t automatically rise. However, to simplify the link between the money supply and inflation, let us assume that consumers are willing to spend the extra money. Also, if you expect inflation to rise, you have an incentive to spend it – rather than see the value of your money fall.] Printing money and devaluation If a country prints money and causes inflation, then, ceteris paribus, the currency will devalue against other currencies. For example, the hyperinflation in Germany of 1922-23, caused the German D-Mark to devalue against the currencies who didn’t have inflation. The reason is that with the German currency buying fewer goods, you need more German D-Marks to buy the same quantity of US goods. Examples of inflation caused by excess supply of money US Confederacy 1861-64. During the Civil War, the Confederacy printed more paper money. In May 1861, they printed $20 million notes. By the end of 1864, the amount of notes printed had increased to $1 billion. It caused an inflation rate of 700% by April 1864. By the end of the Civil War, the inflation rate was hitting over 5,000% as people lost confidence in the currency.[“Inflation in US confederacy:. Encyclopedia.com] Germany 1922-23. In 1921 one dollar was worth 90 Marks. By November 1923, the US dollar was worth 4,210,500,000,000 German marks – reflecting the hyperinflation and loss in value of the German currency. Link between money supply and inflation in the real world The above analysis is something of a simplification. For example, in the real world it is hard to measure the money supply (there are many different measures from M0 narrow money to M4 wide money) Also, in a liquidity trap (recession, different printing money may not cause inflation. (see: Why Printing Money doesn’t always cause inflation) However, this provides a rough explanation why printing money usually reduces the value of money causing prices to increase.
Dry conditions have delayed planting of the 2014-2015 soybean crop, threatening Brazil's goal to reach an output record for a third straight year.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Ironically, soybean production, as well as cattle ranching and logging, are responsible to a great deal of Amazon deforestation, scientists say. Deforestation jumped by 29 percent in the last officially recorded period, between August 2012 and July 2013, marking the first increase since 2008. A survey produced by INPE using satellite imaging showed that the Amazon lost 5,891 square kilometers, or 2,275 square miles, of forests in that period, an area almost five times the size of the city of New York. With fewer trees, the Amazon's capacity to work as a water pump, absorbing moisture from the Atlantic Ocean and releasing millions of liters of humidity into the air, is being reduced, scientists say. Brazilian meteorologist José Marengo, who has contributed to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports, coined the term "flying rivers" in the 1990s to describe air currents that carry water vapor - rising from the Amazon and blocked to the west by the Andes mountains - to central and southeast Brazil and all the way to northern Argentina. About 20 billion tonnes of vapour evaporate from the Amazon region every day. A big Amazonian tree, with a crown measuring 20 meters, can evaporate up to 300 liters a day, compared with one liter evaporated by a square meter of ocean, according to Nobre. In January and February this year, when rain is usually abundant in central and southern Brazil, the flying rivers failed to flow south, according to data from INPE's Center for Weather Forecasts and Climate Research. "What's happening now highlights the importance of preserving and replenishing the Amazon if we want to prevent São Paulo from becoming a desert," Nobre said. (Reporting By Adriana Brasileiro; Editing by Laurie Goering) What do u think will happen if a city of 21 million runs out of water? Use your imagination. Transpiration: Transpiration- The Water Cycle Transpiration is the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small pores on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere. Transpiration is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves. Transpiration also includes a process called guttation, which is the loss of water in liquid form from the uninjured leaf or stem of the plant, principally through water stomata. Atmospheric factors affecting transpiration The amount of water that plants transpire varies greatly geographically and over time. There are a number of factors that determine transpiration rates: Temperature:Transpiration rates go up as the temperature goes up, especially during the growing season, when the air is warmer due to stronger sunlight and warmer air masses. Higher temperatures cause the plant cells which control the openings (stoma) where water is released to the atmosphere to open, whereas colder temperatures cause the openings to close. Relative humidity: As the relative humidity of the air surrounding the plant rises the transpiration rate falls. It is easier for water to evaporate into dryer air than into more saturated air. Wind and air movement: Increased movement of the air around a plant will result in a higher transpiration rate. This is somewhat related to the relative humidity of the air, in that as water transpires from a leaf, the water saturates the air surrounding the leaf. If there is no wind, the air around the leaf may not move very much, raising the humidity of the air around the leaf. Wind will move the air around, with the result that the more saturated air close to the leaf is replaced by drier air. Soil-moisture availability: When moisture is lacking, plants can begin to senesce (premature ageing, which can result in leaf loss) and transpire less water. Type of plant: Plants transpire water at different rates. Some plants which grow in arid regions, such as cacti and succulents, conserve precious water by transpiring less water than other plants. End of excerpt Higher temperatures and humidity combined with increasing deforestation are altering the water cycle of this region and causing an evaporation of water. This is grade school science and yet people seem to have become unable to remember the balance we need in order to live. Like our bodies when we over-stress them the Earth reacts the same way. We need to be planting trees not cutting them down. Sao Paulo, California, Australia, and yes, West Africa where the Ebola virus began are all areas water stressed due to excessive human behavior. It is time to connect the caring for the body the same as caring for the Earth. The Amazon is the lungs of our planet. Would you cut your own lungs out thinking you have any chance of continuing to breathe? Also on edit, Brazil should also stop deforesting land to plant MONSANTO GMO seed to benefit corporate profits and start thinking about sustainable agriculture that feeds the soil and its people. Brazil Drought Crisis Leads To Rationing and Tensions Extreme Drought Causes Environmental Crisis In Colombia Now look at this example that we should all follow. When you give more than you take and work with nature, you prosper and so does Earth and our water: How A 20-Something Persuaded Thousands Of Kenyan Farmers To Save Their Land By Growing Trees
The mysterious dark matter that makes up most of the matter in the universe could be composed, in part, of invisible and nearly intangible counterparts of atoms, protons and electrons, researchers say. Dark matter is an invisible substance thought to make up five-sixths of all matter in the universe. Scientists inferred the existence of dark matter via its gravitational effects on the movements of stars and galaxies. Most researchers think dark matter is composed of a new type of particle, one that interacts very weakly at best with all the known forces of the universe save gravity. As such, dark matter can almost never be seen or touched, and rarely even collides with itself. [Gallery: Dark Matter Across the Universe] This might not hold true for all forms of dark matter, though. Now, some researchers suggest a new kind of dark matter could exist, representing about one-fifth of all dark matter in the universe, making it potentially as plentiful as conventional matter. "There is no good reason to assume that all the dark matter in the universe is built out of one type of particle," study author Andrey Katz of Harvard University told SPACE.com. These new dark matter particles would essentially consist of heavy "dark protons" and light "dark electrons." They would interact with each other far more than other dark matter particles to form "dark atoms" that use "dark photons" to interact through a sort of "dark electromagnetism," much as regular protons and electrons interact through photons in conventional electromagnetism to build the atoms making up the stuff of everyday life. If dark atoms are possible, they could react with each other for dark chemistry, much as regular atoms interact chemically. "The dark world might even be as diverse and interesting as the visible world," Katz and his colleagues wrote May 23 in the journal Physical Review Letters. The interactions between dark protons and dark electrons could make them lose energy over time. As such, they might slow down enough to clump into flat disks around galaxies, just like regular matter does. In contrast, most dark matter apparently forms roughly spherical haloes around galaxies, stars and planets. This concept means galaxies would have two disks, one made of regular atoms and one of dark atoms, which is why the investigators call their idea the double-disk dark matter model. "The double-disk dark matter idea is a novel twist on an intriguing concept — that the physics of dark matter might be as complicated and interesting as the physics of ordinary matter is known to be," said theoretical physicist Sean Carroll of the California Institute of Technology, who did not take part in this study. Carroll and his colleagues had earlier suggested "the basic possibility of a dark force very similar to electromagnetism — a long-range force with positive and negative charges," he said. "Such a model implies dark radiation, dark magnetic fields, and a host of other interesting phenomena. But we only had one kind of dark-matter particle in our model; to go to the world of dark atoms and dark chemistry requires more kinds of particles. That's the direction the new papers are taking." The gravitational effects of a dark atom disk on stars in galaxies could eventually be detectable via the European Space Agency's Gaia space observatory scheduled to launch in October, which aims to map the movement of approximately 1 billion stars in the Milky Way. "This is how we might first detect this dark disk," Katz said. Moreover, since this novel form of dark matter is expected to be much slower on average than regular dark matter, it should be more susceptible "for capture by the Earth, by the sun, or other heavy celestial objects," Katz said. "Annihilation of this dark matter captured by the sun can result in neutrino fluxes, which can be measured directly by the IceCube Neutrino Observatory on the South Pole." In addition, the dark electrons and dark protons the scientists propose might also have antimatter counterparts — dark anti-electrons and dark anti-protons. When these particles collide with their counterparts, they would release gamma rays, the most energetic form of light, which telescopes should be able to spot. Furthermore, dark atoms might also have formed clouds of dark plasma, ripples in which might have influenced the formation of the early universe and thus have visible effects on large-scale cosmic structures that exist nowadays. "Theories of dark matter with new forces provide a wonderful playground for theorists to develop new models of particle physics," Carroll said. "The hard part will be getting the astrophysics right — how does the dark matter evolve and cluster? In the observable world, the presence of electromagnetic fields makes that a very hard problem — when you add dark electromagnetism to the mix, it will only get harder!"
Biofilms are slimy sheets of bacterial buildup that create a serious danger in medical and industrial environments. Once rooted, biofilms are extremely hard to get rid of, and much research has contributed to determining how to prevent and eliminate these harmful agents. Mucus is HelpfulThe team of biological engineers, whose work was published in Current Biology, discovered these polymers, called mucins, are able to catch bacteria and prevent them from sticking together on a surface, making them harmless. Katharina Ribbeck, the Eugene Bell Career Development Assistant Professor of Biological Engineering and senior author of the paper says: "Mucus is a material that has developed over millions of years of evolution to manage our interactions with the microbial world. I'm sure we can find inspiration from it for new strategies to help prevent infections and bacterial colonization." Mucin coverings could aid in preventing biofilm formation on medical devices and may find implementations in personal hygiene, such as combining them into products like toothpaste and mouthwash, which could boost the body's own defenses, specifically in people whose own mucus has been used up. How To Stop Bacteria From Ganging UpMucus runs along the wet surfaces of the body, areas like the respiratory and digestive tracts. "The textbook view of mucus is that it forms a barrier to infection, but it's not at all clear how it does so," Ribbeck says. To answer this question, Ribbeck and her team examined the behavior of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria in a growth method that has soluble purified mucins, long proteins complete with several fastened sugar molecules. In order for bacteria to travel through the mucus layer and infect the tissues below, they need to create groups that can stick to the surface of the tissue. Immune cells are specialized to fight single bacterial cells, therefore, clusters of bacteria are harder for the immune system to eliminate. "In general, you want to have bacteria around, you just don't want them to team up. You want to them to be mixed with many other bacteria that are good for you. You don't want a single species to take over, because then they may overgrow the system." In the current study, investigators found that mucins inhibit bacterial clump formation by not allowing them to stick, which is crucial for them to group together. When bacteria can move, they finish in a gooey mix and do less damage. Ribbeck says, "The mucins have the ability to suppress virulence by keeping the cells separate. It's like keeping your kids in separate rooms, so they will stay out of trouble." Sometimes, bacteria can breach this defense system and create infections. This can be sped up by a decrease in mucus due to dehydration, chemotherapy, and aging, or in mucus-clogged lungs of cystic fibrosis patients. Managing Microbial BehaviorThe main positive effect of using mucins as antimicrobial coverings, is that the substance demobilizes pathogenic bacteria without terminating them. With that being said, it is less likely that bacteria could develop resistance to mucins, as they do to antibiotic medications. The advantageous bacteria that live on mucus membranes would also survive. Ribbeck says, "This is a nice mechanism where you just suppress the virulence traits without killing the bacteria. It's nature's way of managing microbial behavioral in a way that could be useful to take advantage of." Ribbeck and her team are now looking into how mucins block bacteria from being mobile, as well as how they inhibit infection by non moving bacteria. She is also studying mucin interactions with other pathogenic organisms, like yeasts. Written by Kelly Fitzgerald
Researchers Pam Mueller and Daniel M. Oppenheimer found that students remember more via taking notes longhand rather than on a laptop. It has to do with what happens when you’re forced to slow down. As laptops become smaller and more ubiquitous, and with the advent of tablets, the idea of taking notes by hand just seems old-fashioned to many students today. Typing your notes is faster — which comes in handy when there’s a lot of information to take down. But it turns out there are still advantages to doing things the old-fashioned way. For one thing, research shows that laptops and tablets have a tendency to be distracting — it’s so easy to click over to Facebook in that dull lecture. And a study has shown that the fact that you have to be slower when you take notes by hand is what makes it more useful in the long run. In the study published in Psychological Science, Pam A. Mueller of Princeton University and Daniel M. Oppenheimer of the University of California, Los Angeles sought to test how note-taking by hand or by computer affects learning. “When people type their notes, they have this tendency to try to take verbatim notes and write down as much of the lecture as they can,” Mueller tells NPR’s Rachel Martin. “The students who were taking longhand notes in our studies were forced to be more selective — because you can’t write as fast as you can type. And that extra processing of the material that they were doing benefited them.” Mueller and Oppenheimer cited that note-taking can be categorized two ways: generative and nongenerative. Generative note-taking pertains to “summarizing, paraphrasing, concept mapping,” while nongenerative note-taking involves copying something verbatim. And there are two hypotheses to why note-taking is beneficial in the first place. The first idea is called the encoding hypothesis, which says that when a person is taking notes, “the processing that occurs” will improve “learning and retention.” The second, called the external-storage hypothesis, is that you learn by being able to look back at your notes, or even the notes of other people. Because people can type faster than they write, using a laptop will make people more likely to try to transcribe everything they’re hearing. So on the one hand, Mueller and Oppenheimer were faced with the question of whether the benefits of being able to look at your more complete, transcribed notes on a laptop outweigh the drawbacks of not processing that information. On the other hand, when writing longhand, you process the information better but have less to look back at. For their first study, they took university students (the standard guinea pig of psychology) and showed them TED talks about various topics. Afterward, they found that the students who used laptops typed significantly more words than those who took notes by hand. When testing how well the students remembered information, the researchers found a key point of divergence in the type of question. For questions that asked students to simply remember facts, like dates, both groups did equally well. But for “conceptual-application” questions, such as, “How do Japan and Sweden differ in their approaches to equality within their societies?” the laptop users did “significantly worse.” The same thing happened in the second study, even when they specifically told students using laptops to try to avoid writing things down verbatim. “Even when we told people they shouldn’t be taking these verbatim notes, they were not able to overcome that instinct,” Mueller says. The more words the students copied verbatim, the worse they performed on recall tests. And to test the external-storage hypothesis, for the third study they gave students the opportunity to review their notes in between the lecture and test. The thinking is, if students have time to study their notes from their laptops, the fact that they typed more extensive notes than their longhand-writing peers could possibly help them perform better. But the students taking notes by hand still performed better. “This is suggestive evidence that longhand notes may have superior external storage as well as superior encoding functions,” Mueller and Oppenheimer write. Do studies like these mean wise college students will start migrating back to notebooks? “I think it is a hard sell to get people to go back to pen and paper,” Mueller says. “But they are developing lots of technologies now like Livescribe and various stylus and tablet technologies that are getting better and better. And I think that will be sort of an easier sell to college students and people of that generation.”
English Literature is one of richest literatures of the world. Being the literature of a great nation which, though inhabiting a small island off the west coast of Europe, has made its mark in the world on account of her spirit of adventure, perseverance and tenacity, it reflects these characteristics of a great people.It has vitality, rich variety and continuity. As literature is the reflection of society, the various changes which have come about in English society, from the earliest to the modern time, have left their stamp on English literature. Thus in order to appreciate properly the various phases of English literature, knowledge of English Social and Political History is essential. For example, we cannot form a just estimate of Chaucer without taking into account the characteristics of the period in which he was living, or of Shakespeare without taking proper notice of the great events which were taking place during the reign of When we study the history of English literature from the earliest to modern times, we find that it has passed through certain definite phases, each having marked characteristics. These phases may be termed as ‘Ages’ or ‘Periods’, which are named after the central literary figures or the important rulers of . Thus we have the ‘Ages’ of Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, Johnson. Wordsworth, Tennyson, Hardy; and, on the other hand, the Elizabethan Age, the Jacobean Period, the Age of Queen Anne, the Victorian Age, the Georgian Period. Some of these phases are named after certain literary movements, as the Classical Age, the Romantic Age; while others after certain important historial eras, as the Medieval Period, Anglo-Saxon Period, Anglo-Norman Period. These literary phases are also named by some literary historians after the centuries, as the Seventeenth Century Literature, Eighteenth Century Literature, Nineteenth-Century Literature and Twentieth Century Literature. These ‘Ages’ and ‘Periods’ naturally overlap each other, and they are not to be followed strictly, but it is essential to keep them in mind in order to follow the growth of English literature, and its salient and distinctive characteristics during the various periods of its development. England Now let us have a critical survey of the background and development of English literature from the earliest times upto the present age.
Linux has a structure of directories and files very similar to that of DOS/Win. Files have filenames that obey special rules, are stored in directories, some are executable, and among these most have command switches. Moreover, you can use wildcard characters, redirection, and piping. There are only a few minor differences: NOTENOUG.TXT. Under Linux we can do better. If you installed Linux using a file system like ext2 or umsdos, you can use longer filenames (up to 255 characters), and with more than one dot: for example, This_is.a.VERY_long.filename. Please note that I used both upper and lower case characters: in fact... filename.tar.gzare two different files. lsis a command, LSis a mistake; Further, some characters shouldn't be used: some of those are $ # the following command makes a directory called "My old files" $ mkdir "My old files" $ ls My old files bin tmp ' at the end of their name when you issue the ls -Fcommand. For example: $ ls -F I_am_a_dir/ cindy.jpg cjpg letter_to_Joe my_1st_script* old~ my_1st_scriptare executables, that is ``programs''. Under DOS, backup files end in .BAK, while under Linux they end with a tilde ` ~'. Further, a file whose name starts with a dot is considered as hidden. Example: the file .I.am.a.hidden.filewon't show up after the /switch, Linux switches with dir /s<tt> becomes ls -R. Note that many DOS programs, like ARJ, use UNIX-style switches. You can now jump to Section Translating Commands from DOS to Linux, but if I were you I'd read on. UNIX has a type of file that doesn't exist under DOS: the symbolic link. This can be thought of as a pointer to a file or to a directory, and can be used instead of the file or directory it points to; it's similar to Windows shortcuts. Examples of symbolic links are /usr/X11, which points to /dev/modem, which points to either To make a symbolic link: $ ln -s <file_or_dir> <linkname> $ ln -s /usr/doc/g77/DOC g77manual.txt Now you can refer to g77manual.txt instead of /usr/doc/g77/DOC. Links appear like this in directory listings: $ ls -F g77manual.txt@ $ ls -l (several things...) g77manual.txt -> /usr/doc/g77/DOC DOS files and directories have the following attributes: A (archive), H (hidden), R (read-only), and S (system). Only H and R make sense under Linux: hidden files start with a dot, and for the R attribute, read on. Under UNIX a file has ``permissions'' and an owner, who in turn belongs to a ``group''. Look at this example: $ ls -l /bin/ls -rwxr-xr-x 1 root bin 27281 Aug 15 1995 /bin/ls The first field contains the permissions of the file belongs to root, group bin. Leaving the remaining information aside, -rwxr-xr-x means, from left to right: - is the file type ( - = ordinary file, l = link, etc); rwx are the permissions for the file owner (read, write, execute); r-x are the permissions for the group of the file owner (read, execute); (I won't cover the concept of group, you can survive without it as long as you're a beginner ;-) r-x are the permissions for all other users (read, execute). /bin has permissions, too: see Section Directories Permissions for further details. This is why you can't delete the file /bin/ls unless you are root: you don't have the permission to do so. To change a file's permissions, the command is: $ chmod <whoXperm> <file> where who is u (user, that is owner), o (other), X is either -, perm is w (write), or x (execute). Common examples of chmod use are the following: $ chmod +x file this sets the execute permission for the file. $ chmod go-rw file this removes read and write permission for everyone but the owner. $ chmod ugo+rwx file this gives everyone read, write, and execute permission. # chmod +s file this makes a so-called ``setuid'' or ``suid'' file---a file that everyone can execute with its owner's privileges. Typically, you'll come across root suid files; these are often important system files, like the X server. A shorter way to refer to permissions is with digits: be expressed as 755 (every letter corresponds to a bit: --- is 0, --x is 1, -w- is 2, -wx is 3...). It looks difficult, but with a bit of practice you'll understand the concept. root, being the superuser, can change everyone's file permissions. RMP. On the left, the DOS commands; on the right, their Linux counterpart. ATTRIB: chmod COPY: cp DEL: rm MOVE: mv REN: mv TYPE: more, less, cat Redirection and plumbing operators: < > >> \| prn, lpt1: /dev/lp0 or /dev/lp1; lpr DOS Linux --------------------------------------------------------------------- C:\GUIDO>ATTRIB +R FILE.TXT $ chmod 400 file.txt C:\GUIDO>COPY JOE.TXT JOE.DOC $ cp joe.txt joe.doc C:\GUIDO>COPY . TOTAL $ cat * > total C:\GUIDO>COPY FRACTALS.DOC PRN $ lpr fractals.doc C:\GUIDO>DEL TEMP $ rm temp C:\GUIDO>DEL .BAK $ rm ~ C:\GUIDO>MOVE PAPER.TXT TMP\ $ mv paper.txt tmp/ C:\GUIDO>REN PAPER.TXT PAPER.ASC $ mv paper.txt paper.asc C:\GUIDO>PRINT LETTER.TXT $ lpr letter.txt C:\GUIDO>TYPE LETTER.TXT $ more letter.txt C:\GUIDO>TYPE LETTER.TXT $ less letter.txt C:\GUIDO>TYPE LETTER.TXT > NUL $ cat letter.txt > /dev/null n/a $ more .txt .asc n/a $ cat section.txt \| less is smarter under Linux: matches all files except the hidden ones; .matches all hidden files (but also the current directory ` .' and parent directory ` .matches only those that have a ` .' in the middle or that end with a dot; prmatches both `peter' and `piper'; cmatches both `picked' and `peck'; more, press <SPACE> to read through the file, `q' to exit. lessis more intuitive and lets you use the arrow keys; UNDELETE, so think twice before deleting anything; < > >>, Linux has 2>to redirect error messages (stderr); moreover, 2>&1redirects stderr to stdout, while 1>&2redirects stdout to stderr; [abc]matches files starting with a, b, c; [I-N1-3]matches files ending with I, J, K, L, M, N, 1, 2, 3; lpr<file> prints a file in background. To check the status of the print queue, use lpq; to remove a file from the print queue, use RENAME; that is, mv .xxx *.yyywon't work. A REN-like command is available on ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/utils/file; mv -ito be warned when a file is going to be overwritten. To run a program, type its name as you would do under DOS. If the directory Using Directories) where the program is stored is included in the PATH (Section System Initialisation Files), the program will start. Exception: unlike DOS, under Linux a program located in the current directory won't run unless the directory is included in the PATH. Escamotage: being prog your program, type This is what the typical command line looks like: $ command [-s1 [-s2] ... [-sn]] [par1 [par2] ... [parn]] [< input] [> output] -sn are the program switches, parn are the program parameters. You can issue several commands on the command line: $ command1 ; command2 ; ... ; commandn That's all about running programs, but it's easy to go a step beyond. One of the main reasons for using Linux is that it is a multitasking os---it can run several programs (from now on, processes) at the same time. You can launch processes in background and continue working straight away. Moreover, Linux lets you have several sessions: it's like having many computers to work on at once! su - <loginname>. Example: su - root. This is useful, for instance, when you need to perform a task that only root can do. exit. If there are stopped jobs (see later), you'll be warned. &' at the end of the command line: the shell identifies the process with a job number (e.g. $ progname [-switches] [parameters] [< input] [> output] & 123 ; see below), and with a PID (Process Identification Number; 123 in our example). ps ax. This will output a list of currently running processes. kill <PID>. You may need to kill a process when you don't know how to quit it the right way.... Unless you're root, you can't kill other people's processes. Sometimes, a process will only be killed by kill -SIGKILL <PID>. In addition, the shell allows you to stop or temporarily suspend a process, send a process to background, and bring a process from background to foreground. In this context, processes are called ``jobs''. jobs. Here the jobs are identified by their job number, not by their PID. bg <%job>(it becomes a job). fg <%job>. To bring to foreground the last job sent to background, simply type kill <%job>where <job> may be 1, 2, 3,... Using these commands you can format a disk, zip a bunch of files, compile a program, and unzip an archive all at the same time, and still have the prompt at your disposal. Try this with Windows, just to see the difference in performance (if it doesn't crash, of course). To run a program on a remote machine whose name is $ telnet remote.machine.edu After logging in, start your favourite program. Needless to say, you must have a shell account on the remote machine. If you have X11, you can even run an X application on a remote computer, displaying it on your X screen. Let remote.machine.edu be the remote X computer and let local.linux.box be your Linux machine. To local.linux.box an X program that resides on remote.machine.edu, do the following: xtermor equivalent terminal emulator, then type: $ xhost +remote.machine.edu $ telnet remote.machine.edu remote:$ DISPLAY=local.linux.box:0.0 remote:$ progname & DISPLAY..., you may have to write: setenv DISPLAY local.linux.box:0.0. It depends on the remote shell.) Et voila! Now progname will start on and will be displayed on your machine. Don't try this over the modem though, for it's too slow to be usable. Moreover, this is a crude and insecure method: please read the ``Remote X Apps mini-HOWTO'' at
Cancer Staging and GradingSkip to the navigation Knowing the stage and grade of a person's cancer helps doctors know what treatment to use. It also helps predict how long the person will survive or whether there is a good chance for a cure. Staging is a process that doctors use to describe how far cancer has spread. Grading is a process that helps predict how fast the cancer will grow and spread. In general, the stages of most cancers break down this way: - Stage 0: Cancer hasn't spread. - Stages I, II, and III: Cancer has grown or has spread into nearby tissues and perhaps lymph nodes . The higher the stage, the farther the cancer has spread. - Stage IV: Cancer has spread beyond the lymph nodes into other parts of the body (metastasized). Although there are several methods of staging, most doctors now use the TNM method. The TNM method is based on the size of the tumor (T), the spread of the cancer into nearby lymph nodes (N), and the spread of the cancer to other body parts (M, for metastasis). \|T (tumor)\|\|N (lymph nodes)\|\|M (metastasis)\| Most cancers can be described using the TNM system. But certain cancers-for example, cancers of the blood, bone marrow, or brain-use other staging systems. A tumor's grade, from 1 to 4, describes how its cells look under a microscope. The more these cells look like normal cells, the lower the grade and the lower the likelihood that the cancer will spread quickly. Tumor cells that look like normal cells are called grade 1 tumors. They usually grow slowly. A grade 4 tumor, on the other hand, has cells that look very different from normal cells. Grade 4 tumors often grow quickly and spread rapidly. For certain types of cancer, doctors use other grading methods. For example, in prostate cancer, the doctor gives the cancer a Gleason score . Prostate cancer cells that have a low Gleason score grow more slowly than cells that have a higher score. Breast cancer and kidney cancer also use other grading methods. What tests are used to find a cancer's stage and grade? - Physical exams. For some cancers, looking at or feeling the body part involved can give doctors information about how far a cancer has advanced. - Imaging tests. Tests that help doctors look inside the body to find tumors include: - Biopsy . This procedure-to collect tissue samples-can help doctors decide the stage or the grade of cancer. It can sometimes be done in the doctor's office. - Surgery. Sometimes doctors use surgery to view the tumor as well as collect tissue samples. Other Places To Get Help Atlanta, GA 30303 Other Works Consulted - American Cancer Society (2010). Understanding your diagnosis: Staging. Available online: http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/UnderstandingYourDiagnosis/staging. - American Joint Committee on Cancer (2010). What Is Cancer Staging? Available online: http://www.cancerstaging.org/mission/whatis.html. - National Cancer Institute (2004). Tumor grade. National Cancer Institute Fact Sheet. Available online: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/tumor-grade. - National Cancer Institute (2010). Cancer staging. National Cancer Institute Fact Sheet. Available online: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/staging. Primary Medical Reviewer E. Gregory Thompson, MD - Internal Medicine Specialist Medical Reviewer Joseph O'Donnell, MD - Hematology, Oncology Current as ofMarch 12, 2014 To learn more, visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2014 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
\|\|Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak originated in the 15th Century in Northern India. His followers were known as Sikhs: disciples, students, seekers of truth. Guru Nanak was succeeded by 9 Gurus ending with Guru Gobind Singh Sikhs are the disciples of God who follow the writings and teachings of the Ten Sikh Gurus \|Background: The Sant \|\|The relationship between Hinduism and Islam deepened in northern India during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Three factors help account for this. - First was the work of the Hindu saint Ramananda, who engaged in theological debates with representatives of both religions. - Second, a group known as sants or holy people shared a common cause in furthering devotion to the Beloved above all else, including transcending religious affiliations. - Third, the most famous bridge between Hinduism and Islam was the weaver Kabir (1440-1518). He was born in a Muslim family but became the student of a Hindu guru, Ramananda. He used his work on a loom as the path to holiness. He wrote songs about the Divine and believed that doctrinal differences between traditions like Hinduism and Islam could be overcome especially in mystical experiences. He believed that different religions offered intimate contact with the same God. - Born in northern India (Punjab); died in 1539 - Nanak is described as having been a mystical, moody, child who was born into the Hindu tradition. - When he was thirty years old, he had a religious experience in which he encountered the presence of God. - He received an order from God to return to the world and to save people from the evil ages (Kali Yuga) by teaching them to lead compassionate, holy lives. - Nanak claimed that he was neither Muslim or Hindu, but that he followed the path of God - Challenged some of the practices of Islam and Hinduism. - Three Central Teachings - (1) Work hard in society to earn your own living, - (2) Share your earnings with the poor and needy - (3)Continually remember that God is the only Doer, the only \|The Succession of Gurus - Nanak appointed a disciple, Angad Dev, as his successor. Angad Dev continued the Sikh tradition and passed along its teachings, which had developed in the common language. - The second Guru stressed and modeled the Sikh virtues of service and humility. - The Third and Fourth Gurus developed institutional structures for enlarging the church. The Fourth Guru established the holy city of Amritsar and built the Golden Temple, the most sacred shrine of the Sikhs. - The Fifth Guru is credited with writing down the teachings of the Sikhs in the sacred scripture called the Adi Granth, which means original holy book, now known as the Guru Granth Sahib. The Fifth Guru was tortured and executed. - The Sixth Guru, in response to the execution of Fifth Guru, assembled a Sikh army, carried two symbolic swords with one signifying temporal power and one signifying spiritual power, and taught Sikhs to defend their faith. - The Seventh Guru was a pacifist more concerned with feeding the hungry and serving the needy - The Eighth Guru, the Child Guru became a successor to Nanak when he was only five years old and died when he was eight. - The Ninth Guru was martyred in 1675. - Tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, is credited with turning Sikhs into saint-warriors. Under his leadership the martial arts of Sikhism were developed, along with an emphasis on the sacred - In 1699 established the Khalsa (Pure Ones) "a fraternity pledged to a special code of personal conduct and discipline. - The Kahlsa wear the five symbols of devotion - Long, uncut hair under a turban or veil - Steel bracelet - Short under breeches \|Guru Granth Sahib - As he was dying in 1708 Guru Gobind Singh appointed The Adi Granth (the Sikh Collection of Scriptures) to be his spiritual successor. His physical successor was to be the - The Adi Granth thus becomes known as the Guru Granth Sahib. - Sri Guru Granth Sahib is unique in the world of religious scriptures because not only is it accorded the status of being the spiritual head of the Sikh religion, but besides the poetry of the Gurus, it also contains the writings of saints of other faiths whose thoughts were consistent with those of the Sikh Gurus - Loving devotion to the One God who is worshiped by the many religions. God is truth (sat), God is the One Supreme Being (Ik God has many names, but they are representations of the same power, which is beyond and present within all creation. - God s light is present in the following: Guru Granth Sahib, shabd (God' s Holy Word), and all of creation. God suffuses everything. - There are many ways to God, not just one, and not just Sikhism. - Sikhs share beliefs in common with Hinduism, specifically, karma and - Sikhism is monotheistic. - The soldier-saints pledge to protect the religious freedom of all - Sikhism does not proselytize. The conversion of others is not a - Sikhism opposes empty ritualism. - God is present in all persons therefore everyone is to be treated equally. Sikhism denies the validity of Hinduism s caste system. - The purpose of life is to reach mystical union with God. One seeks to realize God through the mundane, day-to-day routine of living, by engaging in sacrificial love, charity, worship, and work. \|\|The Khalsa is the sacred army of the Sikhs and has the responsibility to protect people in need. The men in the army allow their hair to grow long as a form of spiritual crown and wear it in a turban. They believe in exposing their heads only to God. They also wear a steel bracelet as a symbol of their unity with the divine power and their dedication. They always carry a sword to show that they are prepared to defend others. They also wear knee-length pants for modesty and a uniform to show their preparedness to fight. These accessories are called the 5-K s because their names in Indian all begin with the letter K. The langar is a communal eating ceremony to which everyone, regardless of social class, is welcome. All people sit together during worship. The congregation is called the sangat and within it all are equal Worship takes place in gurdwara, the building where the Guru Granth Sahib is glorified and worshiped. Ritual bathing in the tank of holy water at sacred Sikh places. Baptism into the Khalsa erases one's caste. Menial labor is extolled when it is done in God's service. Being a devoted Sikh is demanding. It involves hours of daily prayer, continual inner repetition of Nam, the Name of God. About two hours are required for morning and evening prayers. Additionally, there is kirtan, the chanting of passages from the Guru Granth Sahib. Sikhs are also encouraged to begin the day with private mediations on the name of God. For the Khalsa there is even more such as abstaining from tobacco, alcohol, drugs, renouncing anger, criticism, lust, greed, ego, and attachment.
If you can explain, before the end of July, why hot water freezes faster than cold, you could bag £1,000. That's what the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) is offering for "the most creative explanation" of this phenomenon, known as the Mpemba effect. They say that submissions should be "eye-catching, arresting and scientifically sound", and may use any media, including film. At the end of the month the problem will also be put to an international summer school for postgraduate science students called Hermes 2012, convened at Cumberland Lodge in Windsor Great Park to present research in materials science. The event, organised by Imperial College and sponsored by the RSC, is planned to be a kind of scientific Olympiad. All good fun – except that the Mpemba effect seems at first encounter to be scientific nonsense. How can hot water freeze faster than cold? In order to freeze, hot water has to lose more heat than cold, so why would that happen faster? Even if the cooling of hot water somehow catches up with that of the colder water, why should it then overtake, if the two have at that point the same temperature? Yet this effect has been attested since antiquity. Aristotle mentions it, as do two of the fathers of modern science, Francis Bacon and René Descartes in the 17th century. The effect is today named after a Tanzanian schoolboy, Erasto Mpemba, who was set the project of making ice cream from milk in the 1960s. The pupils were supposed to boil their milk, let it cool, then put it in the fridge to freeze. But Mpemba worried about losing his space in the freezer, and so put in the milk while it was still hot. It froze faster than the others. When Mpemba learned a few years later that this seemed to contradict the theory of heat transfer devised by Isaac Newton, he asked a visiting university professor from Dar es Salaam, DG Osborne, what was going on. Osborne asked his technician to repeat the experiment and in 1969 he published the result in a physics education journal. Yet no one really knows if the Mpemba effect is real. You'd think it should be easy to check, but it isn't. Ice specialist Charles Knight of the National Centre for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, says that the claim is so ill-defined it's virtually meaningless. Does it mean when ice first starts to appear, or when the last bit of water is frozen? Both are hard to observe in any case. And there are so many things you could vary: the amount of water, the shape of the containers, the initial temperature difference, the rate of cooling, etc. Do you use tap water, distilled water, de-aerated water, filtered water? Freezing is notoriously capricious: it can be triggered by tiny scratches on the sides of the flask or suspended dust in the liquid, so it's almost impossible to make truly identical samples differing only in their starting temperature. For this reason, even two samples starting at the same temperature typically freeze at different times. There is one trivial explanation for Mpemba's observations. Hot water would evaporate faster, so if there was no top on the flasks then there could have been less liquid left to freeze – so it would happen faster. Tiny gas bubbles in solution could also act as seeds for ice crystals to form – and hot water holds less dissolved gas than cold. All this means that a single experiment won't tell you much – you'll probably have to do lots, with many different conditions, to figure out what's important and what isn't. And you've only got a month, so get cracking. And, while you're at it, here are some other mysteries to solve at home: There's no complete consensus on the cause of the so-called Brazil nut effect, but current explanations include: • shaken grains in a tall box circulate like convection currents while the big bits get trapped at the top, excluded from the narrow descending current at the sides • little landslides in the void that opens up temporarily under a big grain as it is shaken upwards ratchet it ever higher • it's all about the effect of air between the grains The problem is made harder by the fact that, under some conditions, the big grains can sink to the bottom instead – the "reverse Brazil nut effect". 2. Does the water in a bathtub spiral down the plughole in opposite directions in the northern and southern hemisphere? Cyclones rotate counterclockwise in the north and clockwise in the south, a consequence of the Earth's rotation called the Coriolis effect. But is the effect too weak to govern a plughole vortex? In 1962 an American engineer named Ascher Shapiro claimed that he consistently observed counterclockwise plughole vortices in his lab, but this result has never been verified. The problem is that it's really hard to rid a bathtub of water of any residual currents that could bias the outcome. 3. Why are all six arms of a snowflake sometimes (but not always) identical? How does one arm know what the other is doing? The standard theory of snowflake formation explains the ornate branching patterns as amplifications of random bumps on the sides of needle-like ice crystals. But if they're random, how can one arm look like another? One suggestion is that they listen to one another: acoustic vibrations in the ice crystal set up standing-wave patterns that dictate the shape. But this doesn't seem to work. Most snowflakes aren't actually as symmetrical as is often supposed – but the fact that some are is still unexplained. • Follow Comment is free on Twitter @commentisfree
This chapter doesn’t introduce a new game. Instead it goes over some simple mathematical concepts you will use in the rest of this book. In 2D games the graphics on the screen can move left or right and up or down. These two directions make up two-dimensional, or 2D, space. Games with objects moving around a two-dimensional computer screen need a way to translate a place on the screen into integers the program can deal with. This is where the Cartesian coordinate system comes in. The coordinates are numbers for a specific point on the screen. These numbers can be stored as integers in your program’s variables. Figure 12-1: A sample chessboard with a black knight at a, 4 and a white knight at e, 6. A common way to refer to specific places on a chessboard is by marking each row and column with letters and numbers. Figure 12-1 is a chessboard that has each row and each column marked. A coordinate for a space on the chessboard is a combination of a row and a column. In chess, the knight piece looks like a horse head. The white knight in Figure 12-1 is located at the point e, 6 and the black knight is located at point a, 4. This labeled chessboard is a Cartesian coordinate system. By using a row label and column label, you can give a coordinate that is for one and only one space on the board. If you’ve learned about Cartesian coordinate systems in math class, you may know that numbers are used for both the rows and columns. That chessboard would look like Figure 12-2. Figure 12-2: The same chessboard but with numeric coordinates for both rows and columns. The numbers going left and right along the columns are part of the X-axis. The numbers going up and down along the rows are part of the Y-axis. Coordinates are always described with the X-coordinate first, followed by the Y-coordinate. In Figure 12-2, the white knight is located at the coordinate 5, 6 and not 6, 5. The black knight is located at the coordinate 1, 4 which is not to be confused with 4, 1. Notice that for the black knight to move to the white knight’s position, the black knight must move up two spaces and to the right by four spaces. But you don’t need to look at the board to figure this out. If you know the white knight is located at 5, 6 and the black knight is located at 1, 4, then you can use subtraction to figure out this information. Subtract the black knight’s X-coordinate and white knight’s X-coordinate: 5 - 1 = 4. The black knight has to move along the X-axis by four spaces. Subtract the black knight’s Y-coordinate and white knight’s Y-coordinate: 6 - 4 = 2. The black knight has to move along the Y-axis by two spaces. By doing some math with the coordinate numbers, you can figure out the distances between two coordinates. Cartesian coordinates use negative numbers. Negative numbers are numbers that are smaller than zero. A minus sign in front of a number shows it is negative. -1 is smaller than 0. And -2 is smaller than -1. If you think of regular numbers (called positive numbers) as starting from 1 and increasing, you can think of negative numbers as starting from -1 and decreasing. 0 itself isn’t positive or negative. In Figure 12-3, you can see the positive numbers increasing to the right and the negative numbers decreasing to the left on a number line. Figure 12-3: A number line. The number line is useful to see subtraction and addition done with negative numbers. The expression 4 + 3 can be thought of as the white knight starting at position 4 and moving 3 spaces over to the right (addition means increasing, which is in the right direction). Figure 12-4: Moving the white knight to the right adds to the coordinate. As you can see in Figure 12-4, the white knight ends up at position 7. This makes sense, because 4 + 3 is 7. Subtraction is done by moving the white knight to the left. Subtraction means decreasing, which is in the left direction. 4 - 6 would be the white knight starting at position 4 and moving 6 spaces to the left, like in Figure 12-5. Figure 12-5: Moving the white knight to the left subtracts from the coordinate. The white knight ends up at position -2. That means 4 - 6 equals -2. If you add or subtract a negative number, the white knight would move in the opposite direction. If you add a negative number, the knight moves to the left. If you subtract a negative number, the knight moves to the right. The expression -6 - -4 would be equal to -2. The knight starts at -6 and moves to the right by 4 spaces. Notice that -6 - -4 has the same answer as -6 + 4. Figure 12-6: Even if the white knight starts at a negative coordinate, moving right still adds to the coordinate. Figure 12-7: Putting two number lines together creates a Cartesian coordinate system. You can think of the X-axis as a number line. Add another number line going up and down for the Y-axis. If you put these two number lines together, you have a Cartesian coordinate system like in Figure 12-7. Adding a positive number (or subtracting a negative number) would move the knight up the number line, and subtracting a positive number (or adding a negative number) would move the knight down. The 0, 0 coordinate is called the origin. Subtracting and adding negative numbers is easy when you have a number line in front of you. It can also be easy without a number line too. Here are three tricks to help you add and subtract negative numbers by yourself. Trick 1: “A Minus Eats the Plus Sign on its Left” When you see a minus sign with a plus sign on the left, you can replace the plus sign with a minus sign. Imagine the minus sign “eating” the plus sign to its left. The answer is still the same, because adding a negative value is the same as subtracting a positive value. 4 + -2 and 4 - 2 both evaluate to 2. Figure 12-8: Trick 1 - Adding a positive and negative number. Trick 2: “Two Minuses Combine Into a Plus” When you see the two minus signs next to each other without a number between them, they can combine into a plus sign. The answer is still the same, because subtracting a negative value is the same as adding a positive value. Figure 12-9: Trick 2 - Subtracting a positive and negative number. Trick 3: The Commutative Property of Addition You can always swap the numbers in addition. This is the commutative property of addition. That means that doing a swap like 6 + 4 to 4 + 6 will not change the answer. If you count the boxes in Figure 12-10, you can see that it doesn’t matter if you swap the numbers for addition. Figure 12-10: Trick 3 - The commutative property of addition. Say you are adding a negative number and a positive number, like -6 + 8. Because you are adding numbers, you can swap the order of the numbers without changing the answer. -6 + 8 is the same as 8 + -6. Then when you look at 8 + -6, you see that the minus sign can eat the plus sign to its left, and the problem becomes 8 - 6 = 2. But this means that -6 + 8 is also 2! You’ve rearranged the problem to have the same answer, but made it easier for us to solve without using a calculator or computer. Figure 12-11: Using the math tricks together. The absolute value of a number is the number without the negative sign in front of it. Therefore, positive numbers do not change, but negative numbers become positive. For example, the absolute value of -4 is 4. The absolute value of -7 is 7. The absolute value of 5 (which is positive) is just 5. You can figure out the distance between two objects by subtracting their positions and taking the absolute value of the difference. Imagine that the white knight is at position 4 and the black knight is at position -2. The distance would be 6, since 4 - -2 is 6, and the absolute value of 6 is 6. It works no matter what the order of the numbers is. -2 - 4 (that is, negative two minus four) is -6, and the absolute value of -6 is also 6. Python’s abs() function returns the absolute value of an integer. Try entering the following into the interactive shell: Figure 12-12: The Cartesian coordinate system on a computer screen. It is common that computer screens use a coordinate system that has the origin (0, 0) at the top left corner of the screen, which increases going down and to the right. This is shown in Figure 12-12. There are no negative coordinates. Most computer graphics use this coordinate system, and you will use it in this book’s games. Most programming doesn’t require understanding a lot of math. Up until this chapter, we’ve been getting by on simple addition and multiplication. Cartesian coordinate systems are needed to describe where in a two-dimensional area a certain position is. Coordinates have two numbers: the X-coordinate and the Y-coordinate. The X-axis runs left and right and the Y-axis runs up and down. On a computer screen, origin is in the top-left corner and the coordinates increase going right and down. The three tricks you learned in this chapter make it easy to add positive and negative integers. The first trick is that a minus sign will eat the plus sign on its left. The second trick is that two minuses next to each other will combine into a plus sign. The third trick is that you can swap the position of the numbers you are adding. For the rest of the book, we will use the concepts from this chapter in our games because they have two-dimensional areas in them. All graphical games require understanding how Cartesian coordinates work.
Most people have heard of Big-Five personality Model, (Acronyms to remember OCEAN) which is often used in social psychology studies. Humans, including most animals, expressed many unique characteristics, but grouped into these big 5 categories. The traits are expressed on the continuum scale. But below are some examples and what high scores on each trait would mean (if I remember right I study the model briefly in Intro Psych and Animal Cognition, but I want to add in here because it is related to the article I read.) Openness – Being curious, and open-minded, etc. Conscientiousness- Oriented, dedicated, and organized, etc. Extraversion- Sociable, outgoing, etc. Agreeableness- trusting, kind, tolerant, etc. Neuroticism- anxious, irritable and watchful, etc. One thing to note is that scoring high or low on these traits do not meant “good” or “bad.” People are different; some showed higher score on one trait than the other, both within themselves and in comparison to others. Buss (2009) proposed evolutionary toolkits that could essentially be used as a framework for social psychology studies that investigate personalities in humans, 2). Individual differences are driving factors in human psychology, behaviors and cognition. With regards to point 1, psychology major students and researchers have proposed various theoretical framework and explaining many observed phenomenon and results. However, students, including me, are very aware that most psychology theories are arbitrary and distinct from one another, which makes it difficult to fully connect all different theories in a coherent and systematic way. Anyway here is what Buss (2009) proposed and explained how using evolutionary psychology framework could help and explain different phenomenon, including personality and individual differences. The article began with why individual differences in personalities are important for empirical and theoretical reasons in researches. - Well documented for the existence in many studies. - Have heritable component. - Results in evolutionarily important consequences (for e.g., survival, mating, parenting, social skills, etc.) - Within same sex, differences in personalities exist. The differences affect behaviors profoundly. Tool kits discussed in the study: - Life history theory– the key idea is that individuals allocate the energy differently based on their environmental, social and physiological context. The energy is distributed towards growth/development or mating or parenting, etc. However, energy is limited and finite; organisms invested differentially in one or the other. The bottom line is that personalities are based on the trade-off strategies individuals employ in life. - Costly Signaling Theory– the social signals are costly but honest. They cannot be fake signals. For example, if you have Lamborghini, your wealth cannot be a fake one (even though you could borrow it from a friend or a company). Your signals imply that you are truly rich.Another classic example is peacock’s beauty feathers. Those are true signals to peahen in a sense that these peacocks are healthy (physically attractive) and can avoid predations despite having such troublesome tails. Individual differences in personalities can be partly explained by signaling theories. For example, if you have resources, you are more likely to be have generous personalities, and are both extraverted and social, throwing parties, giving gifts and paying for the groups, etc. - Biological framework is also mentioned. - “Environmental Heterogeneity in Fitness Optima “ – natural selection produces different heritable individual differences. One of the example mentioned was 7R allele of DRD4 gene, associated with extraversion and openness trait. Those who migrate to different locations have longer- allele DRD4 genes. Some studies also showed that those who live in small islands for 20 generations or more showed lower scores on extraversion and openness to experience. In this example, some environments favor individuals with risk-taking traits and others favor individuals with more of a cautious approach to experiences. Artificial selections of dogs whose common ancestors are more wolf-like and wild, also showed traits that are human-likable after many generations. - Frequency dependent selection– the expression of a particular trait and whether it is being selected or not dependent relatively on how others in the society or the niche behave. A classic example is a dove and hawk. Imagine doves and hawk compete for limited food resources, apples. When the dove compete with hawk, hawk wins because it fights off the dove. More hawks would spread and more doves would die off as doves could not get food. As the frequency of hawk number proliferates, more hawks would compete with other hawks than doves (more hawks in the population, hawk would see another hawk more often). They would fight each other off and those, fewer numbers of doves in the population, get apples without injuries. Then doves would proliferate again and more hawks go extinct in the population. For personality trait example, think about the psychopathy trait (as a cheating strategy) in the population. How many people would express? The trend is that Up and down, up and down, up and down. The originally adaptive trait becomes less adaptive as the individual with other trait becomes more adaptive. - Mutation Load: Every human carries mutations, but some are more fatal than the others. Buss (2009) proposed that mutations, which have effects on phenotypes and personalities such as emotional unstability, disagreeableness, could in turn result in social selection. People would be differentially attracted to individuals with those traits, caused by mutation. Buss mentioned and cited this statement in the paper: Mutation load thus can create relationship load. Again the central idea is that the environmental context and genetic components shape individual differences. By using these theoretical tool kits proposed in the article, future psychological studies would have a coherent framework in explaining observed patterns and individual differences and advance scientific understanding in a systematic, rather than random, approach. My summary is not complete at all. Many of the important implications and clarifications were not mentioned in my writing that were described and elaborated the original article. My writings are just personal inspirations, perspectives and public communication. You should click the article below and read it fully, if you desire. Tonight I was planning to do the reading and writing 3 (This is the third article I am exploring) on the suggested reading list. I couldn’t find this special issue article online. But I think I found a similar topics by Buss in 2009, and it’s awesome, informative, and updated. Buss, D. M. (2009). How can evolutionary psychology successfully explain personality and individual differences? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 359-366. But this is the one on the suggested reading list and I just add in here so I can keep track of it. Buss, D.M. (Ed.)(1990). Biological foundations of personality: Evolution, behavioral genetics, and psychophysiology. Journal of Personality. [special issue].
Trees are as important to human beings as food and water are. To keep city air cool and clean, trees should cover at least 40% of city land. One tree can clean toxic emissions from the dirty air exhausted from an average car being driven 4,000 miles. Trees and land plants produce about 30% of the oxygen on earth, the rest (70%) is produced by plants in the ocean (which are being impacted by polluted water). Trees and other plants keep our air breathable by removing carbon dioxide and pollutants. They also add moisture through transpiration. Trees reduce costs of using our resources. For example, shade trees save money and energy. The trees lining city streets can save up to 50% on air-conditioning bills during the summer. In cold places, trees provide windbreaks that can reduce heating bills by as much as 30% in the winter. Trees conserve other resources. Forests hold soil in place. They keep rainwater from running off the land so that it soaks through to the aquifer. Trees keep the water from running off the land too quickly and help control floods. Trees take care of our soil and water. Trees provide shelter, food, recreation, beauty, and homes for birds, insects, and other animals and, we must always remember, chocolate. (The cocoa tree, the source of chocolate, is now on the endangered species list!) As important as trees are, we are destroying them much faster than they can grow without our help. Imagine how many trees are used all over the world. People cut down trees to make room for new farms, housing developments, highways and cities. Trees are used to make newspapers, computer paper, furniture, houses and many other products. Whenever large parts of a forest are cut down, animals lose their homes and everything about the place where the trees grew changes.
Progress spacecraft are automated, unpiloted and single-use vehicles that typically deliver fuel and supplies to the International Space Station three to four times each year. They have been supplying the ISS since 2001. The Progress design was modeled after Russia's Soyuz space capsule, which carries crewmembers to the ISS, but it is specially modified to carry cargo instead of people. Like the Soyuz, Progress vehicles are built to fly themselves but can also be remote-controlled by cosmonauts on the Space Station if required. While Progress today is best known for ISS flights, versions of the spacecraft have been used since 1978. They were first flown by the Soviet Union for the space stations Salyut 6, Salyut 7 and Mir. Russia continued flights after the Soviet Union breakup in the early 1990s. More than 150 flights of Progress have occurred to date, with just a handful of mission-stopping flight problems across nearly four decades of work. Two of the most famous incidents, however, took place during the Mir program; Progress M-24 crashed into Mir while docking in 1994, and Progress-M34 damaged the Spektr module during a 1997 docking test. More recently, two Progress flights (between dozens of successful launches) failed to reach the ISS. Progress M-12M (also known as Progress 44 or 44P) was lost during launch in August 2011. The failure happened due to a malfunction in the Soyuz rocket. In 2015, Progress M-27M (also known as Progress 59 or 59P) spun out of control in low Earth orbit shortly after demating from its rocket, and could not be recovered. The loss was later attributed to a "design peculiarity" between the Soyuz and Progress. The robotic craft, which are about 24 feet (7 meters) long and nearly 9 feet (2.7 meters) wide, consist of three modules. The first is a pressurized forward module, which carries supplies to the ISS, such as scientific equipment, clothes, prepackaged and fresh food, and letters from home. The current version of the Progress craft can carry 1,700 kilograms (3,748 pounds) of such supplies. When the Progress docks itself at the space station, the crew unloads these supplies and then refills the cargo module with trash, unneeded equipment and wastewater for its return journey to Earth. [Video: Launch of the Ill-Fated Progress Cargo Ship] Progress also has a propulsion module, similar in design to the instrumentation/propulsion module on the Soyuz. This module contains the electronic equipment, or avionics, for Progress' systems and sensors, allowing automatic docking to the ISS. Progress' thrusters can also be used to boost the space station's orbit to a higher altitude, or change its orientation. Lastly, Progress has a refueling module in place of the Soyuz descent module. Its eight propellant tanks can hold up to 1,740 kilograms (3,836 lbs.) of fluid, depending on how much weight is carried in the cargo module. Four of the tanks contain fuel while the other four contain the fuel's oxidizer. Like the Soyuz, Progress is launched atop the Soyuz rocket from the central Asian spaceport of Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. A disposable spacecraft, it typically burns up over the Pacific Ocean upon re-entry into Earth's atmosphere. ISS crewmembers typically put trash and unneeded items into the Progress before it undocks from the ISS. One of the more famous trash items was the first treadmill on ISS. After being replaced, the original treadmill was sent away on a Progress in 2013 and burned up in Earth's atmosphere.
Geological evidence indicates that the eastern flanks of Mt. Etna volcano, located on Italy's island of Sicily, suffered at least one large collapse nearly 8,000 years ago. Pareschi et al. modeled this collapse and discovered that the volume of landslide material, combined with the force of the debris avalanche, would have generated a catastrophic tsunami, which would have impacted all of the Eastern Mediterranean. Simulations show that the resulting tsunami waves would have destabilized soft marine sediments across the floor of the Ionian Sea. The authors note that field evidence for this destabilization can be seen in other scientists' accounts of widespread large chaotic deposits of sediments in the Ionain and Sirte Abyssal Plains and tsunami-related deposits called homogenite on local depressions of the Ionian seafloor. They also speculate that this tsunami may have led to the abandonment of a Neolithic village in Israel. Title: The lost tsunami Authors: Maria Teresa Pareschi, Enzo Boschi, and Massimiliano Favalli: Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Pisa, Italy. Source: Geophysical Research Letters (GRL) paper 10.1029/2006GL027790, 2006 Materials provided by American Geophysical Union. Note: Content may be edited for style and length. Cite This Page:
Egyptomania 4: Animals Part 4 of a four-program series. See details under Egyptomania 1: Introduction to Daily Life. Why were so many Egyptian gods part-human and part-animal? This lesson explores how ancient Egyptians observed animal behavior and ascribed animal characteristics to their gods. Students participate in a game to help them classify and link animals with their natural environment. Teacher Information Packet will be mailed. - Open with discussion on students' previous knowledge on Egyptian figures. - Explain that animals were metaphorical to the Egyptians. - View example of animal representations in sculpture and painting and discuss depiction of gods in the guise of animals. - Discuss what characteristics of certain animals might have related to the gods they represent. - Classification of animals in graphic organizer interactivity throughout videoconference. - Students will explore how ancient Egyptians observed animal behavior and ascribed animal characteristics to their gods. - Students will learn how animals were used in Egyptian stories and myths to explain human behavior and the workings of the universe. - Students will be able to identify an animal's physical traits that link it to its natural environment. - Students will classify animals found in ancient and modern Egypt by their scientific family.
The respiratory system - the lungs and airways together with the cardiovascular system is responsible for delivering oxygen from thelungs to every cell in the body and then for removing carbon dioxide and returning it to the lungs to be exhaled. How we breathe With each breath, a fresh supply of oxygen enters the bloodstream. It is the job of the red blood cells to transport the oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. The work of emptying and filling the lungs is done by respiratory muscles. The main respiratory muscles is the diaphragm a layer of muscle situated between the chest and the abdomen. As this contracts and relaxes, air is drawn in and forced out at regular intervals. Other muscles that contribute to respiration are located between the ribs, in the neck, and in the abdomen. Any disease that affects these muscles, the passage from the nose to the lungs, or the bones of the chest wall will interfere with normal respiratory function. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a result of progressive damage to the lungs, and is due mainly to smoking. Sleep apnoea is a condition in which breathing is interrupted, usually by the soft tissues of the throat relaxing and blocking the flow of air. It most commonly occurs in overweight people. When the airways is obstructed, breathing becomes laboured and can stop for at least ten seconds, leading to dangerously low levels of oxygen in the blood. In asthma, there is an intermittent narrowing of the airways, causing shortness of breath and wheezing. If asthma is severe, just trying to breath can cause exhausting. What are respiratory disorders? COPD, asthma, and sleep apnoea are three common respiratory disorders that you can avoid or help to treat by making sensible changes to your diet and lifestyle. COPD and asthma are disorders of the lungs and the lower airways (bronchiolitis), whereas sleep apnoea results from obstruction of the upper airway (usually the nasopharynx - the passage that leads from the back of the nasal cavity to the troath). In general, the changes that you need to make are sensible and include maintaining a healthy nutrient dense diet, cutting out or limiting the amount of alcohol that you drink, and giving up smoking or avoiding passive smoking. \|DISORDER\|\|WHAT IS IT?\|\|HOW YOU CAN HELP?\| People with COPD usually have one of two lung conditions -chronic bronchitis or emphysema. In COPD, the airways (bronchi and bronchioles) and tissues of the lungs become damaged over time, causing a shortness of breath. Damage to the lungs caused by COPD is ususally irreversible. - eat nutrient dense food in order to prevent or reverce weight loss and undernutrition. which are both common with this condition - stop smoking Obstructive sleep apnoea is defined as recurrent episodes of apnoea, which is the cessation of breathing during sleep, caused by blockage of the upper airway. - lose weight - avoid alcohol - stop smoking Asthma a form of chronic lung disease caused by inflammation and swelling of the lining of the airways in the lungs. It is associated with exposure to allergens (substnaces that trigger an allergic reaction). - maintain a healthy diet - avoid foods that trigger attacks - exercise to improve your stamina - stop smoking Dietary and lifestyle changes Some dietary changes can help relive these disorders. Since COPD often leads to weight loss, making sure you have a nutrient dense diet will help. Conversely, if you have sleep apnoea you may be overweight, and losing a little weight may successfully treat the disorder. If you have asthma and know of a particular food that triggers an attack, make sure you avoid that food. Lifestyle changes are also very important. Giving up smoking and increasing your leval of exercise will benefit all respiratory disease. You should consult your doctor, however, before embarking on an exercise programme. Who is most at risk for respiratory disorders? Diet and lifestyle Excess body fat, especially if it is around the neck, can cause sleep apnoea, which is also more common in people who are overweight, who smoke, and who drink too much alcohol. COPD is almost always due to smoking in addition, smoking can trigger asthma in some people. Age Asthma occurs more commonly in children, while COPD is more common in people over the age of 40. Gender COPD is twice as common in men than women, whereas adult onset asthma is more common in women. Family history Asthma has been found to run in families. Other risk factors Children with eczema or other allergies are at greater risk of developing asthma. Dust noxious gases and other irritants can cause COPD and trigger asthma. A morning cough and shortness of breath are two early signs of chronic bronchitis and emphysema, which together are known as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Since smoking cigarettes greatly increases your risk of emphysema, it is important to take the symptoms seriously you should avoid people who smoke and kick the habit if you smoke and kick the habit if you smoke. Giving up smoking will produce quite dramatic effects in improving your lung function. Many people with COPD do not eat enough. Weight loss is very common and can increase breathing difficulties. It is therefore veryimportant that people with COPD eat a balanced diet and take in enough calories to avoid under nutrition. Recent studies suggest that foods high in antioxidants, such as fruits and vegetables, and omega-3 fatty acids, such as oily fish, may be helpful in protecting against COPD. Taking a multivitamin supplement will also help you get the right nutrients. Maintain adequate calories If you are underweight and trying to regain your strength, gradually increase the amount you eat with small, frequent, nutrient dense meals that are easy to consume. Other ideal that can help include: - Avoid foods that cause uncomfortable wind or bloating - Increase your intake of fibre rich foods to avoid constipation - Eat three small meals each day plus between meal snacks to get the calories you need. Smaller meals may help you breathe more easily and may be less tiring to eat than large meals. - Select soft foods that are easy to chow - Time your main meal for when you have the most energy and feel you best (often in the morning), and rest before and after mealtimes. - For easy preparation, choose meals that can be cooked in the microwave, such as healthy ready meals (check the labels for salt and saturated fat levels). - Make sure you drink enough fluids at least eight glasses of water or other caffeine free drinks per day to keep your body hydrated. High calorie meals to counteract weight loss in COPD If your condition has led to weight loss and you are trying to gain weight, it does not mean that you should simply eat fatty foods, such as cheese, mayonnaise, and butter, although you can eat them in moderation. High calorie snacks should be as healthy as possible and packed with nutrients, especially vitamins, minerals, and proteins. Bearing in mind the benefits of whole grains and the need to moderate saturated fat try: - Tuna, chicken, or salmon and salad on wholemeal bread - Guacamole with raw vegetables or baked tortilla chis - Two egg omelette with cheese and ham or tomato - Full fat cheese, cream cheese, ham and salad, or peanut butter stuffed in pitta bread pockets - Whole grain cereals with whole milk - Falafel in pitta bread with salad, red peppers, and hummus - Fruits with full fat yogurt or Greek yogurt - Nuts, such as almonds or brazils, or home made trail mix - A glass of whole (full-fat) milk, or a mug of cocoa made with whole milk Asthma and nutrition People with asthma generally have the same nutritional needs and food considerations as anyone else, but if you have asthma it is important to make a healthy diet a regular part of your life. Asthma can place additional stress on your body especially if you take oral corticosteroids, which can deplete your body of vitamins and minerals. Foods that trigger asthma Asthmatics are usually affected by at most two or three foods: it is a common misconception that people are sensitive to a wide variety of foods. The factors that set off and exacerbate asthma symptoms are called "triggers". Identifying and avoiding asthma triggers are essential in preventing flare-up. The most common trigger foods are milk, yogurt, and other dairy products, eggs, prawns, fish, citrus fruits, soy, and wheat. These foods are likely to trigger asthma in children than in adults, and fortunately most children outgrow such allergies. Check food labels because additives found in many canned and processed foods, such as tartrazine, sulphur, benzoic acid, and mono-sodium glutamate, can trigger asthma. If you can identify the specific food or the additive that trigger your asthma, you should simply avoid it. Eat a healthy diet Eat plenty of fruits and vegetables, pulses, wholemeal bread, and whole grain cereals, moderate amounts of law fat dairy products, lean meats, fish, and poultry, and small amounts of fats, oils and sugar. A healthy diet and regular exercise go a long way towards helping improve your well being. Certain foods and additives, however, have been found to trigger or exacerbate asthma. Tips for treating sleep apnoea Obesity contributes to the development of sleep apnoea and a weight loss of as little as 4.5kg can dramatically improve symptoms. If you need to loss weight because of sleep apnoea, you should consult a state registered dietitian for nutritional counselling. However, you may find the following suggestions useful as well: - If you are hungry and have to snack, have fresh fruit or cut up vegetables ready in refrigerator. use low calorie dressings for dipping - Stay out of the kitchen after dinner. eating late at night adds extra calories - Be aware of your quantities and portion sizes both at home and when eating out, skip the starter or share one, and have bread without butter. If you want a dessert, you could share it and skip the wine - If you are tempted by snacks and junk food around the house, don't buy or bring those foods into your house. If you have lots of snack foods for the children, consider them "off limit" - Regular exercise, such as walking swimming, or cycling, will give you more energy and help you sleep better - Alcohol may promote throat closure during sleep and should be avoided In addition to losing weight, there are important lifestyle factors that can help improve your condition. - Avoid smoking - Treat allergies, cold, or sinus problems. Avoid using antihistamines or tranquillizers. - Do not go to sleep immediately after eating, take a walk instead. - Try to sleep exclusively on your site or with the head of the bed elevated.
Bob2 started class by having the students introduce themselves. Then, Bob2 talked about how different parts of science are related. Then he and the students talked acbout the many layers of the atmosphere exist. Bob2 then showed the students a slide that showed the seperate layers. Next, the students learned the definition of ozone, how it is made, and when it is useful and when it is harmful. The students then used a simulation to model a city and see the effect of various factors on the ozone level (smogcity.com). The students then learned what an inversion was and how it is measured using a ballon with a mini-weather station. Inversions were found in different cities across the nation using an on-line weather data center. After lunch, the students worked with STELLA to learn how to build models of different aspects of the world, particularly population models. They also learned how to convert STELLA models into Java, and looked at some other Java applets on the Shodor Interactivate site. The students are preparing to work on their projets that may include STELLA models.
Creating a multi sensory “Undersea Challenge” The ‘Undersea’ challenge is a the basis of a multi sensory session involving number, texture, shape and colour. You can use as much or as little technology as you wish, but many of the “props” are low tech ideas or objects. Try this in a sensory room, classroom, hall or home depending on how big you want it to be. But remember, it can be just as much fun with one person. Each short activity can also be a standalone activity – like reading and exploring just one page of a book! Begin by explaining that you’re taking a trip to the beach to find out more about fish and life undersea! Set the scene – play the sound effect of waves or some soft sea shanty music. “How many fish? Look and see! Let’s count them together we’ll find its … 3!” Use a laundry basket with three plastic fish – make this really exciting by using glow-in-the-dark fish! Shine a UV torch onto the fish to make them glow more brightly. Pass the basket around and slowly reveal and explore the three fishy items you have in there. Alternatively, the 3 fish could live underneath an umbrella. Can you find them with your torch? You could also create a ‘fish’ wheel for a Solar 250 projector or a fish video for a pico/data projector to add to the theme. “The sea is blue, sometimes green. How many colours can be seen?” For this activity you will need objects which change colour (try not to use the fibre optics as they come later.) The bubble tube is a good choice in the sensory room, or a sound to light coaster or bar in a classroom/small space. Can colour changing Meteorlight balls become a sea anemone? Use the app “Flashlight” for a simple iPad colour matching game with the bubble tube. How about using an Underwater Light Starship to cast gently moving coloured light onto any light surface? “In the deep blue cave, the octopus we did see. But how many legs has he or she?“ Here you will need a plastic/soft octopus, a picture of an octopus or an octopus on your iPad – use “Paint Sparkles Draw” so pupils can virtually finger paint their own! Could you create an octopus with different textures on each leg? Perhaps your octopus could live in a black ‘cave’ umbrella with dangling textured legs to explore? You are in a cave – do you need a torch? Making this a black umbrella would enable you to use florescent objects with a UV torch, making this a white umbrella would enable you to project sea images onto it. “Fill the net it looks so bare. How many things can you put in there?” For this you could back to the laundry basket or get yourself a real fishing net. A great one to use is the hanging storage net from IKEA. If you have lots of fishy things around the children or students could post the items in this net. “The magic seaweed shining bright, you really can touch it because it won’t bite!” The idea for this one is to do something with your fibre optics, if you don’t have fibre optics, try using Scoobies. Lay them over a beanbag to make a giant boulder on the seabed. You could even put them inside the cave ‘tent/umbrella’ for extra effect. “Find fishy things to put in the wheel. Look really hard you may find an eel!” For this one you need a wheel projector, like a solar 250. Making wheels is very easy, so put little bits of net and string in the wheel and then project these onto your magical umbrella. “Flat fish, round fish, long fish, short fish. What shape will your fish be?” Various activities would work well here to explore shape/colour/texture or number. Dark paper/card fish painted using fluorescent paints will shine brightly under UV light in the sensory room. Suspended from a rig or umbrella, these would be very effective individually or in number. Perhaps these could be clothes pegged to a net, laying on the floor or hanging on the wall? Using projected images (sea/beach/Finding Nemo) either onto the net/umbrella/wall would add to the theme. For art work to create in the sensory room/dark space, use shadow board and draw onto it with UV light, it’s instant and effective – brilliant for drawing your very own sea monster or making your very first mark. You could also use the card/paper fluoroescent fish on the shadow board and create a shadow shoal! If you continue to use the sound of waves or sea shanties as background music – could you use a bluetooth speaker in a car wash mitt so that pupils could ‘feel’ the music too? A wowee speaker would also do the same thing! “Hear the whales and dolphins talk. Now its your turn to make them squawk!” This can be great fun if you have an echo unit in your sensory room, however a small cheap echo mike would work just as well. Or find a box or a bin (clean) which will create echo’s. Great to encourage vocalisation! Finish by getting all the props together and having fun with all of them – or with just the props from the individual activity you have just completed.
By studying provided examples, as well as studying their own personal choices, students come to understand that a symbol is a representation of a bigger idea or "truth." - Discuss with students their definitions of the word symbol, and then distribute Reproducible 1: "Symbol Skills" (PDF). Ask students to review the definition of symbol on the handout, and then read through the descriptions of symbols in The Golden Compass provided in the reproducible. Discuss the questions as a class or in small groups. (Reproducible answers may vary.) - Invite students to explore symbols and icons in their own lives, and brainstorm a list of personal images. Challenge students to think of symbols at school, at home, and in the media, even in music and on TV. - Distribute Reproducible 2: "Symbols in Your World" (PDF). Students might use the library or the Internet to research the history and connotations of their chosen symbols. - Assign the essay at the bottom of the reproducible. Lesson Extension: Use Reproducible 2: "Symbols in Your World" (PDF) to help students understand symbols in other literary works, such as the ball of yarn in To Kill a Mockingbird or the crimson "A" in The Scarlet Letter. "Make a Difference in Your World" Extension: Some of the dæmon characters in The Golden Compass are animals that, in the real world, are endangered species. For example, the snow leopard (Uncia uncia) is found only in the mountains of central Asia and the Himalayas, and it is estimated that there are only about 4,510—7,350 snow leopards remaining in existence. The golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia), native to Brazil, has been reclassified as endangered from “critically endangered,” yet its survival continues to be threatened due to pressures on its native habitat. Have students research facts about endangered animals in the real world, on such sites as www.worldwildlife.org. Challenge them to incorporate their findings into an essay or a story that broadens an understanding of that animal and its survival. 3. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context, graphics). 7. Students conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems. They gather, evaluate, and synthesize data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and non-print texts, artifacts, people) to communicate their discoveries in ways that suit their purpose and audience. 12. Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information).
There are few hills or mountains that have been connected by railway lines. Some of the important features of these mountain railways are the following. Gradients The gradients of mountain tracks are very steep. Normally tracks with gradients of 3% or more are considered mountain tracks. Gauge Normally narrow gauges with gauge widths of 762 mm or 610 mm are adopted for mountain railways. Curvature The curvature of mountain tracks is very sharp. Curvatures of up to 40° are normally adopted. Alignment Mountain alignment is quite zigzag and not straight in order to gain heights easily. The type of alignments normally followed are zigzag, switch-back, and spiral. Purpose Mountain railways have mostly been constructed for tourist traffic. In some cases, they may be constructed for exploiting hinterland or new areas. Cost considerations The cost of construction of mountain railways is quite high because of the need for a large number of bridges and heavy earthwork. The cost, however, gets considerably reduced by adopting a smaller gauge, narrow gauge (0.762 m or 0.61 m), and then it is possible to have very steep gradients and sharp curvature. Some of the important mountain railways existing in India today are: (i) Kalka-Shimla Railway, (ii) Nilgiri Mountain Railway, (iii) Matheran Light Railway, (iv) Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, (v) The Kangra Valley Railway, and (vi) Haldwani-Kathgodam Railway.
Based on figure 11 of "New data on Ossinodus pueri, a stem tetrapod from the Early Carboniferous of Australia" by A. Warren Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 27(4):850-862. Source: Wikipedia - Ossinodus While creationist doctrinal, evidence-free pseudoscience continues to insist that there are no transitional fossils, and certainly none showing the evolution of a major taxon such as the evolution of terrestrial tetrapods from bony fish, real, evidence-based science not only accepts the available evidence but has moved the debate on. The question is no longer 'if', but when, where and what? As this new fossil from Queensland, Australia, now suggests, the first land vertebrates may have emerged from water earlier than we thought and not in what is now Europe, but in Gondwana before it split to become, in part, Australia. This, of course, is how science progresses. When new evidence is found, science changes its mind and always acknowledges that its current understanding is only as good as the currently available evidence. The origin of terrestrial tetrapods was a key event in vertebrate evolution, yet how and when it occurred remains obscure, due to scarce fossil evidence. Here, we show that the study of palaeopathologies, such as broken and healed bones, can help elucidate poorly understood behavioural transitions such as this. Using high-resolution finite element analysis, we demonstrate that the oldest known broken tetrapod bone, a radius of the primitive stem tetrapod Ossinodus pueri from the mid-Viséan (333 million years ago) of Australia, fractured under a high-force, impact-type loading scenario. The nature of the fracture suggests that it most plausibly occurred during a fall on land. Augmenting this are new osteological observations, including a preferred directionality to the trabecular architecture of cancellous bone. Together, these results suggest that Ossinodus, one of the first large (>2m length) tetrapods, spent a significant proportion of its life on land. Our findings have important implications for understanding the temporal, biogeographical and physiological contexts under which terrestriality in vertebrates evolved. They push the date for the origin of terrestrial tetrapods further back into the Carboniferous by at least two million years. Moreover, they raise the possibility that terrestriality in vertebrates first evolved in large tetrapods in Gondwana rather than in small European forms, warranting a re-evaluation of this important evolutionary event. However, this new evidence is at best tentative and is based partly on the fact that a fossil femur normally associated with fully marine tetrapedal species has a healed fracture which is most likely to have occurred on land because the necessary forces are unlikely to be generated by a fall in water. This is also supported by an internal bone structure which shows a degree of remodelling during life in response to weight-bearing. More evidence is needed to support this view but if it is confirmed, this will show that this transition between major taxons occurred not in small marine tetrapods as we thought but some 2 million years earlier in larger species. The problem creationists have, of course, is that, come what may, they must try to force-fit reality into their favourite Bronze Age creation myth, even at the expense of simply ignoring all the evidence to the contrary. If that's unfair, would any creationists be willing to try to explain why these supposedly non-existent fossils, showing the evolution of new taxons from ancestral ones, keep turning up so regularly? Or is denialism to be the order of the day, still? 'via Blog this'
When your dog demonstrates aggressive behavior, you need to take immediate action to mitigate the behavior before it continues or escalates. Two training methodologies are recommended eliminate aggression: operant conditioning and classical conditioning. In both cases, the focus is not on punishing aggressive behavior. Instead, the focus is on replacing undesirable behavior with a more desirable behavior. Dogs display aggressive behavior for a range of reasons. Provocation or antagonization can make a dog become aggressive. Likewise, some dogs who are afraid of certain stimuli can become aggressive. The first step in dealing with aggression is identifying two things: What triggers your dog to become aggressive, and what his aggression signals are. Examples are baring teeth, growling, body stiffening, and other behaviors. Operant conditioning hinges on the idea that animals will learn to behave in a manner that earns them a reward and helps them avoid punishment. The dog forms an association between a behavior and a consequence. When a dog faces a stimulus that causes aggression and he does not react, you give him a reward -- usually praise and a dog treat. For this to work, the dog must be presented with the stimulus from a distance at first. The distance depends on the stimulus and the dog's usual reaction, but the goal is to start with the dog and the stimulus far enough apart that the dog does not react. Reward the dog for not reacting. Then, gradually move the stimulus closer. Each time the dog doesn't react, he earns a reward. If he does react, move away from the stimulus and try again. Classical conditioning creates an automatic response to a stimulus. The best example of this is the well-known experiment with Pavlov's dogs. His dogs learned that a ringing bell brought dinner, so they would salivate when they heard the bell. With aggressive dogs, the goal is to create an automatic response when the dog is faced with the stimulus that causes aggression. For example, a dog that becomes aggressive in the presence of other dogs should be taught to sit anytime he sees another dog. When he sits -- instead of reacts to the stimulus -- he earns a reward. Over time, with repetition, eventually the dog learns that sitting when he sees another dog earns him a reward, while acting aggressive does not. Handling an aggressive dog takes skill and experience. If your dog displays signs of aggression, you can change that behavior. However, it is imperative that you work with a qualified, professional dog trainer. Seek out a trainer who uses positive reinforcement. Avoid trainers who use physical corrections. In a University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine study published in early 2009, researchers found that type of training can actually exacerbate aggression. If not addressed immediately, aggression can escalate. Work with a trainer at the first sign of aggression. - Comstock/Comstock/Getty Images
- An abbrev is a text string that expands into a different text string when present in the buffer. For example, you might define a few letters as an abbrev for a long phrase that you want to insert frequently. - Aborting means getting out of a recursive edit (q.v.). The commands C-] and M-x top-level are used for this. - Active Region - Setting the mark (q.v.) at a position in the text also activates it. When the mark is active, we call the region an active region. - Alt is the name of a modifier bit that a keyboard input character may have. To make a character Alt, type it while holding down the <Alt> key. Such characters are given names that start with <Alt>- (usually written A- for short). (Note that many terminals have a key labeled <Alt> that is really a <META> key.) See Alt. - See Glossary—Numeric Argument. - ASCII character - An ASCII character is either an ASCII control character or an ASCII printing character. See User Input. - ASCII control character - An ASCII control character is the Control version of an upper-case letter, or the Control version of one of the characters ‘@[\]^_?’. - ASCII printing character - ASCII letters, digits, space, and the following punctuation - Auto Fill Mode - Auto Fill mode is a minor mode (q.v.) in which text that you insert is automatically broken into lines of a given maximum width. - Auto Saving - Auto saving is the practice of periodically saving the contents of an Emacs buffer in a specially-named file, so that the information will be preserved if the buffer is lost due to a system error or user error. See Auto Save. - Emacs can automatically load Lisp libraries when a Lisp program requests a function from those libraries. This is called `autoloading'. See Lisp Libraries. - A backtrace is a trace of a series of function calls showing how a program arrived at a certain point. It is used mainly for finding and correcting bugs (q.v.). Emacs can display a backtrace when it signals an error or when you type C-g (see Glossary—Quitting). - Backup File - A backup file records the contents that a file had before the current editing session. Emacs makes backup files automatically to help you track down or cancel changes you later regret making. See Backup. - Balancing Parentheses - Emacs can balance parentheses (or other matching delimiters) either manually or automatically. You do manual balancing with the commands to move over parenthetical groupings (see Moving by Parens). Automatic balancing works by blinking or highlighting the delimiter that matches the one you just inserted, or inserting the matching delimiter for you (see Matching Parens). - Balanced Expressions - A balanced expression is a syntactically recognizable expression, such as a symbol, number, string constant, block, or parenthesized expression in C. See Balanced Expressions. - Balloon Help - See Glossary—Tooltips. - Base Buffer - A base buffer is a buffer whose text is shared by an indirect buffer - Bidirectional Text - Some human languages, such as English, are written from left to right. Others, such as Arabic, are written from right to left. Emacs supports both of these forms, as well as any mixture of them—this is `bidirectional text'. See Bidirectional Editing. - To bind a key sequence means to give it a binding (q.v.). - A key sequence gets its meaning in Emacs by having a binding, which is a command (q.v.), a Lisp function that is run when you type that sequence. See Binding. Customization often involves rebinding a character to a different command function. The bindings of all key sequences are recorded in the keymaps (q.v.). See Keymaps. - Blank Lines - Blank lines are lines that contain only whitespace. Emacs has several commands for operating on the blank lines in the buffer. See Blank Lines. - Bookmarks are akin to registers (q.v.) in that they record positions in buffers to which you can return later. Unlike registers, bookmarks persist between Emacs sessions. See Bookmarks. - A border is a thin space along the edge of the frame, used just for spacing, not for displaying anything. An Emacs frame has an ordinary external border, outside of everything including the menu bar, plus an internal border that surrounds the text windows, their scroll bars and fringes, and separates them from the menu bar and tool bar. You can customize both borders with options and resources (see Borders X). Borders are not the same as fringes (q.v.). - The buffer is the basic editing unit; one buffer corresponds to one text being edited. You normally have several buffers, but at any time you are editing only one, the `current buffer', though several can be visible when you are using multiple windows or frames (q.v.). Most buffers are visiting (q.v.) some file. See Buffers. - Buffer Selection History - Emacs keeps a buffer selection history that records how recently each Emacs buffer has been selected. This is used for choosing a buffer to select. See Buffers. - A bug is an incorrect or unreasonable behavior of a program, or inaccurate or confusing documentation. Emacs developers treat bug reports, both in Emacs code and its documentation, very seriously and ask you to report any bugs you find. See Bugs. - Button Down Event - A button down event is the kind of input event (q.v.) generated right away when you press down on a mouse button. See Mouse Buttons. - By Default - See Glossary—Default. - Byte Compilation - See Glossary—Compilation. - C- in the name of a character is an abbreviation for Control. - C-M- in the name of a character is an abbreviation for Control-Meta. If your terminal lacks a real <META> key, you type a Control-Meta character by typing <ESC> and then typing the corresponding Control character. See C-M-. - Case Conversion - Case conversion means changing text from upper case to lower case or vice versa. See Case. - Characters form the contents of an Emacs buffer. Also, key sequences (q.v.) are usually made up of characters (though they may include other input events as well). See User Input. - Character Set - Emacs supports a number of character sets, each of which represents a particular alphabet or script. See International. - Character Terminal - See Glossary—Text Terminal. - Click Event - A click event is the kind of input event (q.v.) generated when you press a mouse button and release it without moving the mouse. See Mouse Buttons. - See Glossary—Server. - A clipboard is a buffer provided by the window system for transferring text between applications. On the X Window System, the clipboard is provided in addition to the primary selection (q.v.); on MS-Windows and Mac, the clipboard is used instead of the primary selection. - Coding System - A coding system is an encoding for representing text characters in a file or in a stream of information. Emacs has the ability to convert text to or from a variety of coding systems when reading or writing it. See Coding Systems. - A command is a Lisp function specially defined to be able to serve as a key binding in Emacs. When you type a key sequence (q.v.), its binding (q.v.) is looked up in the relevant keymaps (q.v.) to find the command to run. See Commands. - Command History - See Glossary—Minibuffer History. - Command Name - A command name is the name of a Lisp symbol that is a command (see Commands). You can invoke any command by its name using M-x (see M-x). - A comment is text in a program which is intended only for humans reading the program, and which is specially marked so that it will be ignored when the program is loaded or compiled. Emacs offers special commands for creating, aligning and killing comments. See Comments. - Common Lisp - Common Lisp is a dialect of Lisp (q.v.) much larger and more powerful than Emacs Lisp. Emacs provides a subset of Common Lisp in the CL package. See Common Lisp. - Compilation is the process of creating an executable program from source code. Emacs has commands for compiling files of Emacs Lisp code (see Byte Compilation) and programs in C and other languages - Complete Key - A complete key is a key sequence that fully specifies one action to be performed by Emacs. For example, X and C-f and C-x m are complete keys. Complete keys derive their meanings from being bound (q.v.) to commands (q.v.). Thus, X is conventionally bound to a command to insert ‘X’ in the buffer; C-x m is conventionally bound to a command to begin composing a mail message. - Completion is what Emacs does when it automatically expands an abbreviation for a name into the entire name. Completion is done for minibuffer (q.v.) arguments when the set of possible valid inputs is known; for example, on command names, buffer names, and file names. Completion usually occurs when <TAB>, <SPC> or <RET> is typed. See Completion. - Continuation Line - When a line of text is longer than the width of the window, it normally (but see Glossary—Truncation) takes up more than one screen line when displayed. We say that the text line is continued, and all screen lines used for it after the first are called continuation lines. See Continuation Lines. A related Emacs feature is - Control Character - A control character is a character that you type by holding down the <Ctrl> key. Some control characters also have their own keys, so that you can type them without using <Ctrl>. For example, <RET>, <TAB>, <ESC> and <DEL> are all control characters. See User Input. - A copyleft is a notice giving the public legal permission to redistribute and modify a program or other work of art, but requiring modified versions to carry similar permission. Copyright is normally used to keep users divided and helpless; with copyleft we turn that around to empower users and encourage them to cooperate. The particular form of copyleft used by the GNU project is called the GNU General Public License. See Copying. - The <Ctrl> or “control” key is what you hold down in order to enter a control character (q.v.). See Glossary—C-. - Current Buffer - The current buffer in Emacs is the Emacs buffer on which most editing commands operate. You can select any Emacs buffer as the current one. - Current Line - The current line is the line that point is on (see Point). - Current Paragraph - The current paragraph is the paragraph that point is in. If point is between two paragraphs, the current paragraph is the one that follows point. See Paragraphs. - Current Defun - The current defun is the defun (q.v.) that point is in. If point is between defuns, the current defun is the one that follows point. - The cursor is the rectangle on the screen which indicates the position (called point; q.v.) at which insertion and deletion takes place. The cursor is on or under the character that follows point. Often people speak of `the cursor' when, strictly speaking, they mean `point'. See Cursor. - Customization is making minor changes in the way Emacs works, to reflect your preferences or needs. It is often done by setting variables (see Variables) or faces (see Face Customization), or by rebinding key sequences (see Keymaps). - Cut and Paste - See Glossary—Killing, and Glossary—Yanking. - A daemon is a standard term for a system-level process that runs in the background. Daemons are often started when the system first starts up. When Emacs runs in daemon-mode, it runs in the background and does not open a display. You can then connect to it with the emacsclient program. See Emacs Server. - Default Argument - The default for an argument is the value that will be assumed if you do not specify one. When the minibuffer is used to read an argument, the default argument is used if you just type <RET>. - A default is the value that is used for a certain purpose when you do not explicitly specify a value to use. - Default Directory - When you specify a file name that does not start with ‘/’ or ‘~’, it is interpreted relative to the current buffer's default directory. (On MS systems, file names that start with a drive letter ‘x:’ are treated as absolute, not relative.) See Default Directory. - A defun is a major definition at the top level in a program. The name `defun' comes from Lisp, where most such definitions use the construct defun. See Defuns. - <DEL> is a character that runs the command to delete one character of text before the cursor. It is typically either the <Delete> key or the <BACKSPACE> key, whichever one is easy to type. - Deletion means erasing text without copying it into the kill ring (q.v.). The alternative is killing (q.v.). See Deletion. - Deletion of Files - Deleting a file means erasing it from the file system. (Note that some systems use the concept of a “trash can”, or “recycle bin”, to allow you to “undelete” files.) See Misc File Ops. - Deletion of Messages - Deleting a message (in Rmail, and other mail clients) means flagging it to be eliminated from your mail file. Until you expunge (q.v.) the Rmail file, you can still undelete the messages you have deleted. See Rmail Deletion. - Deletion of Windows - Deleting a window means eliminating it from the screen. Other windows expand to use up the space. The text that was in the window is not lost, and you can create a new window with the same dimensions as the old if you wish. See Windows. - File directories are named collections in the file system, within which you can place individual files or subdirectories. They are sometimes referred to as “folders”. See Directories. - Directory Local Variable - A directory local variable is a local variable (q.v.) that applies to all the files within a certain directory. See Directory Variables. - Dired is the Emacs facility that displays the contents of a file directory and allows you to “edit the directory”, performing operations on the files in the directory. See Dired. - Disabled Command - A disabled command is one that you may not run without special confirmation. The usual reason for disabling a command is that it is confusing for beginning users. See Disabling. - Down Event - Short for `button down event' (q.v.). - Drag Event - A drag event is the kind of input event (q.v.) generated when you press a mouse button, move the mouse, and then release the button. See Mouse Buttons. - Dribble File - A dribble file is a file into which Emacs writes all the characters that you type on the keyboard. Dribble files can be used to make a record for debugging Emacs bugs. Emacs does not make a dribble file unless you tell it to. See Bugs. - Echo Area - The echo area is the bottom line of the screen, used for echoing the arguments to commands, for asking questions, and showing brief messages (including error messages). The messages are stored in the buffer Messages so you can review them later. See Echo Area. - Echoing is acknowledging the receipt of input events by displaying them (in the echo area). Emacs never echoes single-character key sequences; longer key sequences echo only if you pause while typing - We say that a character is electric if it is normally self-inserting (q.v.), but the current major mode (q.v.) redefines it to do something else as well. For example, some programming language major modes define particular delimiter characters to reindent the line, or insert one or more newlines in addition to self-insertion. - End Of Line - End of line is a character or a sequence of characters that indicate the end of a text line. On GNU and Unix systems, this is a newline (q.v.), but other systems have other conventions. See end-of-line. Emacs can recognize several end-of-line conventions in files and convert between them. - Environment Variable - An environment variable is one of a collection of variables stored by the operating system, each one having a name and a value. Emacs can access environment variables set by its parent shell, and it can set variables in the environment it passes to programs it invokes. - See Glossary—End Of Line. - An error occurs when an Emacs command cannot execute in the current circumstances. When an error occurs, execution of the command stops (unless the command has been programmed to do otherwise) and Emacs reports the error by displaying an error message (q.v.). - Error Message - An error message is output displayed by Emacs when you ask it to do something impossible (such as, killing text forward when point is at the end of the buffer), or when a command malfunctions in some way. Such messages appear in the echo area, accompanied by a beep. - <ESC> is a character used as a prefix for typing Meta characters on keyboards lacking a <META> key. Unlike the <META> key (which, like the <SHIFT> key, is held down while another character is typed), you press the <ESC> key as you would press a letter key, and it applies to the next character you type. - See Glossary—Balanced Expression. - Expunging an Rmail, Gnus newsgroup, or Dired buffer is an operation that truly discards the messages or files you have previously flagged - A face is a style of displaying characters. It specifies attributes such as font family and size, foreground and background colors, underline and strike-through, background stipple, etc. Emacs provides features to associate specific faces with portions of buffer text, in order to display that text as specified by the face attributes. - File Local Variable - A file local variable is a local variable (q.v.) specified in a given file. See File Variables, and Glossary—Directory Local Variable. - File Locking - Emacs uses file locking to notice when two different users start to edit one file at the same time. See Interlocking. - File Name A file name is a name that refers to a file. File names may be relative or absolute; the meaning of a relative file name depends on the current directory, but an absolute file name refers to the same file regardless of which directory is current. On GNU and Unix systems, an absolute file name starts with a slash (the root directory) or with ‘~/’ or ‘~user/’ (a home directory). On MS-Windows/MS-DOS, an absolute file name can also start with a drive letter and a colon, e.g., Some people use the term “pathname” for file names, but we do not; we use the word “path” only in the term “search path” (q.v.). - File-Name Component - A file-name component names a file directly within a particular directory. On GNU and Unix systems, a file name is a sequence of file-name components, separated by slashes. For example, foo/bar is a file name containing two components, ‘foo’ and ‘bar’; it refers to the file named ‘bar’ in the directory named ‘foo’ in the current directory. MS-DOS/MS-Windows file names can also use backslashes to separate components, as in foo\bar. - Fill Prefix - The fill prefix is a string that should be expected at the beginning of each line when filling is done. It is not regarded as part of the text to be filled. See Filling. - Filling text means adjusting the position of line-breaks to shift text between consecutive lines, so that all the lines are approximately the same length. See Filling. Some other editors call this feature - Font Lock - Font Lock is a mode that highlights parts of buffer text in different faces, according to the syntax. Some other editors refer to this as “syntax highlighting”. For example, all comments (q.v.) might be colored red. See Font Lock. - A fontset is a named collection of fonts. A fontset specification lists character sets and which font to use to display each of them. Fontsets make it easy to change several fonts at once by specifying the name of a fontset, rather than changing each font separately. See Fontsets. - Formfeed Character - See Glossary—Page. - A frame is a rectangular cluster of Emacs windows. Emacs starts out with one frame, but you can create more. You can subdivide each frame into Emacs windows (q.v.). When you are using a window system (q.v.), more than one frame can be visible at the same time. See Frames. Some other editors use the term “window” for this, but in Emacs a window means something else. - Free Software - Free software is software that gives you the freedom to share, study and modify it. Emacs is free software, part of the GNU project (q.v.), and distributed under a copyleft (q.v.) license called the GNU General Public License. See Copying. - Free Software Foundation - The Free Software Foundation (FSF) is a charitable foundation dedicated to promoting the development of free software (q.v.). For more information, see the FSF website. - On a graphical display (q.v.), there's a narrow portion of the frame (q.v.) between the text area and the window's border. These “fringes” are used to display symbols that provide information about the buffer text (see Fringes). Emacs displays the fringe using a special face (q.v.) called fringe. See fringe. - See Glossary—Free Software Foundation. - FTP is an acronym for File Transfer Protocol. This is one standard method for retrieving remote files (q.v.). - Function Key - A function key is a key on the keyboard that sends input but does not correspond to any character. See Function Keys. - Global means “independent of the current environment; in effect throughout Emacs”. It is the opposite of local (q.v.). Particular examples of the use of `global' appear below. - Global Abbrev - A global definition of an abbrev (q.v.) is effective in all major modes that do not have local (q.v.) definitions for the same abbrev. - Global Keymap - The global keymap (q.v.) contains key bindings that are in effect everywhere, except when overridden by local key bindings in a major mode's local keymap (q.v.). See Keymaps. - Global Mark Ring - The global mark ring records the series of buffers you have recently set a mark (q.v.) in. In many cases you can use this to backtrack through buffers you have been editing, or in which you have found tags (see Glossary—Tags Table). See Global Mark Ring. - Global Substitution - Global substitution means replacing each occurrence of one string by another string throughout a large amount of text. See Replace. - Global Variable - The global value of a variable (q.v.) takes effect in all buffers that do not have their own local (q.v.) values for the variable. - GNU is a recursive acronym for GNU's Not Unix, and it refers to a Unix-compatible operating system which is free software (q.v.). See Manifesto. GNU is normally used with Linux as the kernel since Linux works better than the GNU kernel. For more information, see the GNU website. - Graphic Character - Graphic characters are those assigned pictorial images rather than just names. All the non-Meta (q.v.) characters except for the Control (q.v.) characters are graphic characters. These include letters, digits, punctuation, and spaces; they do not include <RET> or <ESC>. In Emacs, typing a graphic character inserts that character (in ordinary editing modes). See Inserting Text. - Graphical Display - A graphical display is one that can display images and multiple fonts. Usually it also has a window system (q.v.). - Highlighting text means displaying it with a different foreground and/or background color to make it stand out from the rest of the text in the Emacs uses highlighting in several ways. It highlights the region whenever it is active (see Mark). Incremental search also highlights matches (see Incremental Search). See Glossary—Font Lock. - Hardcopy means printed output. Emacs has various commands for printing the contents of Emacs buffers. See Printing. - <HELP> is the Emacs name for C-h or <F1>. You can type <HELP> at any time to ask what options you have, or to ask what a command does. See Help. - Help Echo - Help echo is a short message displayed in the echo area (q.v.) when the mouse pointer is located on portions of display that require some explanations. Emacs displays help echo for menu items, parts of the mode line, tool-bar buttons, etc. On graphical displays, the messages can be displayed as tooltips (q.v.). See Tooltips. - Home Directory - Your home directory contains your personal files. On a multi-user GNU or Unix system, each user has his or her own home directory. When you start a new login session, your home directory is the default directory in which to start. A standard shorthand for your home directory is ‘~’. Similarly, ‘~user’ represents the home directory of some other user. - A hook is a list of functions to be called on specific occasions, such as saving a buffer in a file, major mode activation, etc. By customizing the various hooks, you can modify Emacs's behavior without changing any of its code. See Hooks. - Hyper is the name of a modifier bit that a keyboard input character may have. To make a character Hyper, type it while holding down the <Hyper> key. Such characters are given names that start with Hyper- (usually written H- for short). See User Input. - “Iff” means “if and only if”. This terminology comes from mathematics. Try to avoid using this term in documentation, since many are unfamiliar with it and mistake it for a typo. - An inbox is a file in which mail is delivered by the operating system. Rmail transfers mail from inboxes to Rmail files in which the mail is then stored permanently or until explicitly deleted. See Rmail Inbox. - Incremental Search - Emacs provides an incremental search facility, whereby Emacs begins searching for a string as soon as you type the first character. As you type more characters, it refines the search. See Incremental Search. - Indentation means blank space at the beginning of a line. Most programming languages have conventions for using indentation to illuminate the structure of the program, and Emacs has special commands to adjust indentation. - Indirect Buffer - An indirect buffer is a buffer that shares the text of another buffer, called its base buffer (q.v.). See Indirect Buffers. - Info is the hypertext format used by the GNU project for writing - Input Event - An input event represents, within Emacs, one action taken by the user on the terminal. Input events include typing characters, typing function keys, pressing or releasing mouse buttons, and switching between Emacs frames. See User Input. - Input Method - An input method is a system for entering non-ASCII text characters by typing sequences of ASCII characters (q.v.). See Input Methods. - Insertion means adding text into the buffer, either from the keyboard or from some other place in Emacs. - See Glossary—File Locking. - See Glossary—Incremental Search. - Justification means adding extra spaces within lines of text in order to adjust the position of the text edges. See Fill Commands. - Key Binding - See Glossary—Binding. - Keyboard Macro - Keyboard macros are a way of defining new Emacs commands from sequences of existing ones, with no need to write a Lisp program. You can use a macro to record a sequence of commands, then play them back as many times as you like. See Keyboard Macros. - Keyboard Shortcut - A keyboard shortcut is a key sequence (q.v.) that invokes a command. What some programs call “assigning a keyboard shortcut”, Emacs calls “binding a key sequence”. See Glossary—Binding. - Key Sequence - A key sequence (key, for short) is a sequence of input events (q.v.) that are meaningful as a single unit. If the key sequence is enough to specify one action, it is a complete key (q.v.); if it is not enough, it is a prefix key (q.v.). See Keys. - The keymap is the data structure that records the bindings (q.v.) of key sequences to the commands that they run. For example, the global keymap binds the character C-n to the command function next-line. See Keymaps. - Keyboard Translation Table - The keyboard translation table is an array that translates the character codes that come from the terminal into the character codes that make up - Kill Ring - The kill ring is where all text you have killed (see Glossary—Killing) recently is saved. You can reinsert any of the killed text still in the ring; this is called yanking (q.v.). See Yanking. - Killing means erasing text and saving it on the kill ring so it can be yanked (q.v.) later. Some other systems call this “cutting”. Most Emacs commands that erase text perform killing, as opposed to deletion (q.v.). See Killing. - Killing a Job - Killing a job (such as, an invocation of Emacs) means making it cease to exist. Any data within it, if not saved in a file, is lost. - Language Environment - Your choice of language environment specifies defaults for the input method (q.v.) and coding system (q.v.). See Language Environments. These defaults are relevant if you edit non-ASCII text (see International). - Line Wrapping - See Glossary—Filling. - Lisp is a programming language. Most of Emacs is written in a dialect of Lisp, called Emacs Lisp, which is extended with special features that make it especially suitable for text editing tasks. - A list is, approximately, a text string beginning with an open parenthesis and ending with the matching close parenthesis. In C mode and other non-Lisp modes, groupings surrounded by other kinds of matched delimiters appropriate to the language, such as braces, are also considered lists. Emacs has special commands for many operations on lists. See Moving by Parens. - Local means “in effect only in a particular context”; the relevant kind of context is a particular function execution, a particular buffer, or a particular major mode. It is the opposite of `global' (q.v.). Specific uses of `local' in Emacs terminology appear below. - Local Abbrev - A local abbrev definition is effective only if a particular major mode is selected. In that major mode, it overrides any global definition for the same abbrev. See Abbrevs. - Local Keymap - A local keymap is used in a particular major mode; the key bindings (q.v.) in the current local keymap override global bindings of the same key sequences. See Keymaps. - Local Variable - A local value of a variable (q.v.) applies to only one buffer. - M- in the name of a character is an abbreviation for <Meta>, one of the modifier keys that can accompany any character. - M-C- in the name of a character is an abbreviation for Control-Meta; it means the same thing as `C-M-' (q.v.). - M-x is the key sequence that is used to call an Emacs command by name. This is how you run commands that are not bound to key sequences. - Mail means messages sent from one user to another through the computer system, to be read at the recipient's convenience. Emacs has commands for composing and sending mail, and for reading and editing the mail you have received. See Sending Mail. See Rmail, for one way to read mail with Emacs. - Mail Composition Method - A mail composition method is a program runnable within Emacs for editing and sending a mail message. Emacs lets you select from several alternative mail composition methods. See Mail Methods. - Major Mode - The Emacs major modes are a mutually exclusive set of options, each of which configures Emacs for editing a certain sort of text. Ideally, each programming language has its own major mode. See Major Modes. - The space between the usable part of a window (including the fringe) and the window edge. - The mark points to a position in the text. It specifies one end of the region (q.v.), point being the other end. Many commands operate on all the text from point to the mark. Each buffer has its own mark. - Mark Ring - The mark ring is used to hold several recent previous locations of the mark, in case you want to move back to them. Each buffer has its own mark ring; in addition, there is a single global mark ring (q.v.). See Mark Ring. - Menu Bar - The menu bar is a line at the top of an Emacs frame. It contains words you can click on with the mouse to bring up menus, or you can use a keyboard interface to navigate it. See Menu Bars. - See Glossary—Mail. - Meta is the name of a modifier bit which you can use in a command character. To enter a meta character, you hold down the <Meta> key while typing the character. We refer to such characters with names that start with Meta- (usually written M- for short). For example, M-< is typed by holding down <Meta> and at the same time typing < (which itself is done, on most terminals, by holding down <SHIFT> and typing ,). On some terminals, the <Meta> key is actually labeled <Alt> - Meta Character - A Meta character is one whose character code includes the Meta bit. - The minibuffer is the window that appears when necessary inside the echo area (q.v.), used for reading arguments to commands. - Minibuffer History - The minibuffer history records the text you have specified in the past for minibuffer arguments, so you can conveniently use the same text again. See Minibuffer History. - Minor Mode - A minor mode is an optional feature of Emacs, which can be switched on or off independently of all other features. Each minor mode has a command to turn it on or off. Some minor modes are global (q.v.), and some are local (q.v.). See Minor Modes. - Minor Mode Keymap - A minor mode keymap is a keymap that belongs to a minor mode and is active when that mode is enabled. Minor mode keymaps take precedence over the buffer's local keymap, just as the local keymap takes precedence over the global keymap. See Keymaps. - Mode Line - The mode line is the line at the bottom of each window (q.v.), giving status information on the buffer displayed in that window. See Mode Line. - Modified Buffer - A buffer (q.v.) is modified if its text has been changed since the last time the buffer was saved (or since it was created, if it has never been saved). See Saving. - Moving Text - Moving text means erasing it from one place and inserting it in another. The usual way to move text is by killing (q.v.) it and then yanking (q.v.) it. See Killing. - Prior to Emacs 23, MULE was the name of a software package which provided a MULtilingual Enhancement to Emacs, by adding support for multiple character sets (q.v.). MULE was later integrated into Emacs, and much of it was replaced when Emacs gained internal Unicode support in version 23. Some parts of Emacs that deal with character set support still use the MULE name. See International. - Multibyte Character - A multibyte character is a character that takes up several bytes in a buffer. Emacs uses multibyte characters to represent non-ASCII text, since the number of non-ASCII characters is much more than 256. See International Characters. - Named Mark - A named mark is a register (q.v.), in its role of recording a location in text so that you can move point to that location. - Narrowing means creating a restriction (q.v.) that limits editing in the current buffer to only a part of the text. Text outside that part is inaccessible for editing (or viewing) until the boundaries are widened again, but it is still there, and saving the file saves it all. See Narrowing. - Control-J characters in the buffer terminate lines of text and are therefore also called newlines. See Glossary—End Of Line. nil is a value usually interpreted as a logical “false”. Its t, interpreted as “true”. - Numeric Argument - A numeric argument is a number, specified before a command, to change the effect of the command. Often the numeric argument serves as a repeat count. See Arguments. - Overwrite Mode - Overwrite mode is a minor mode. When it is enabled, ordinary text characters replace the existing text after point rather than pushing it to one side. See Minor Modes. - A package is a collection of Lisp code that you download and automatically install from within Emacs. Packages provide a convenient way to add new features. See Packages. - A page is a unit of text, delimited by formfeed characters (ASCII control-L, code 014) at the beginning of a line. Some Emacs commands are provided for moving over and operating on pages. - Paragraphs are the medium-size unit of human-language text. There are special Emacs commands for moving over and operating on paragraphs. - We say that certain Emacs commands parse words or expressions in the text being edited. Really, all they know how to do is find the other end of a word or expression. - Point is the place in the buffer at which insertion and deletion occur. Point is considered to be between two characters, not at one character. The terminal's cursor (q.v.) indicates the location of point. See Point. - Prefix Argument - See Glossary—Numeric Argument. - Prefix Key - A prefix key is a key sequence (q.v.) whose sole function is to introduce a set of longer key sequences. C-x is an example of prefix key; any two-character sequence starting with C-x is therefore a legitimate key sequence. See Keys. - Primary Selection - The primary selection is one particular X selection (q.v.); it is the selection that most X applications use for transferring text to and from The Emacs kill commands set the primary selection and the yank command uses the primary selection when appropriate. See Killing. - A prompt is text used to ask you for input. Displaying a prompt is called prompting. Emacs prompts always appear in the echo area (q.v.). One kind of prompting happens when the minibuffer is used to read an argument (see Minibuffer); the echoing that happens when you pause in the middle of typing a multi-character key sequence is also a kind of prompting (see Echo Area). - Query-replace is an interactive string replacement feature provided by Emacs. See Query Replace. - Quitting means canceling a partially typed command or a running command, using C-g (or C-<BREAK> on MS-DOS). See Quitting. - Quoting means depriving a character of its usual special significance. The most common kind of quoting in Emacs is with C-q. What constitutes special significance depends on the context and on convention. For example, an “ordinary” character as an Emacs command inserts itself; so in this context, a special character is any character that does not normally insert itself (such as <DEL>, for example), and quoting it makes it insert itself as if it were not special. Not all contexts allow quoting. See Quoting. - Quoting File Names - Quoting a file name turns off the special significance of constructs such as ‘$’, ‘~’ and ‘:’. See Quoted File Names. - Read-Only Buffer - A read-only buffer is one whose text you are not allowed to change. Normally Emacs makes buffers read-only when they contain text which has a special significance to Emacs; for example, Dired buffers. Visiting a file that is write-protected also makes a read-only buffer. - A rectangle consists of the text in a given range of columns on a given range of lines. Normally you specify a rectangle by putting point at one corner and putting the mark at the diagonally opposite corner. - Recursive Editing Level - A recursive editing level is a state in which part of the execution of a command involves asking you to edit some text. This text may or may not be the same as the text to which the command was applied. The mode line indicates recursive editing levels with square brackets (‘[’ and ‘]’). See Recursive Edit. - Redisplay is the process of correcting the image on the screen to correspond to changes that have been made in the text being edited. - See Glossary—Regular Expression. - The region is the text between point (q.v.) and the mark (q.v.). Many commands operate on the text of the region. See Region. - Registers are named slots in which text, buffer positions, or rectangles can be saved for later use. See Registers. A related Emacs feature is `bookmarks' (q.v.). - Regular Expression - A regular expression is a pattern that can match various text strings; for example, ‘a[0-9]+’ matches ‘a’ followed by one or more digits. See Regexps. - Remote File - A remote file is a file that is stored on a system other than your own. Emacs can access files on other computers provided that they are connected to the same network as your machine, and (obviously) that you have a supported method to gain access to those files. See Remote Files. - Repeat Count - See Glossary—Numeric Argument. - See Glossary—Global Substitution. - A buffer's restriction is the amount of text, at the beginning or the end of the buffer, that is temporarily inaccessible. Giving a buffer a nonzero amount of restriction is called narrowing (q.v.); removing a restriction is called widening (q.v.). See Narrowing. - <RET> is a character that in Emacs runs the command to insert a newline into the text. It is also used to terminate most arguments read in the minibuffer (q.v.). See Return. - Reverting means returning to the original state. Emacs lets you revert a buffer by re-reading its file from disk. See Reverting. - Saving a buffer means copying its text into the file that was visited (q.v.) in that buffer. This is the way text in files actually gets changed by your Emacs editing. See Saving. - Scroll Bar - A scroll bar is a tall thin hollow box that appears at the side of a window. You can use mouse commands in the scroll bar to scroll the window. The scroll bar feature is supported only under windowing systems. See Scroll Bars. - Scrolling means shifting the text in the Emacs window so as to see a different part of the buffer. See Scrolling. - Searching means moving point to the next occurrence of a specified string or the next match for a specified regular expression. - Search Path - A search path is a list of directory names, to be used for searching for files for certain purposes. For example, the variable holds a search path for finding Lisp library files. See Lisp Libraries. - Secondary Selection - The secondary selection is one particular X selection (q.v.); some X applications can use it for transferring text to and from other applications. Emacs has special mouse commands for transferring text using the secondary selection. See Secondary Selection. - Selected Frame - The selected frame is the one your input currently operates on. - Selected Window - The selected window is the one your input currently operates on. See Basic Window. - Selecting a Buffer - Selecting a buffer means making it the current (q.v.) buffer. See Select Buffer. - Windowing systems allow an application program to specify selections whose values are text. A program can also read the selections that other programs have set up. This is the principal way of transferring text between window applications. Emacs has commands to work with the primary (q.v.) selection and the secondary (q.v.) selection, and also with the clipboard (q.v.). - Self-documentation is the feature of Emacs that can tell you what any command does, or give you a list of all commands related to a topic you specify. You ask for self-documentation with the help character, C-h. See Help. - Self-Inserting Character - A character is self-inserting if typing that character inserts that character in the buffer. Ordinary printing and whitespace characters are self-inserting in Emacs, except in certain special major modes. - Emacs has commands for moving by or killing by sentences. - Within Emacs, you can start a `server' process, which listens for connections from `clients'. This offers a faster alternative to starting several Emacs instances. See Emacs Server, and - A sexp (short for “s-expression”) is the basic syntactic unit of Lisp in its textual form: either a list, or Lisp atom. Sexps are also the balanced expressions (q.v.) of the Lisp language; this is why the commands for editing balanced expressions have `sexp' in their name. See Sexps. - Simultaneous Editing - Simultaneous editing means two users modifying the same file at once. Simultaneous editing, if not detected, can cause one user to lose his or her work. Emacs detects all cases of simultaneous editing, and warns one of the users to investigate. - <SPC> is the space character, which you enter by pressing the - The speedbar is a special tall frame that provides fast access to Emacs buffers, functions within those buffers, Info nodes, and other interesting parts of text within Emacs. See Speedbar. - Spell Checking - Spell checking means checking correctness of the written form of each one of the words in a text. Emacs can use various external spelling-checker programs to check the spelling of parts of a buffer via a convenient user interface. See Spelling. - A string is a kind of Lisp data object that contains a sequence of characters. Many Emacs variables are intended to have strings as values. The Lisp syntax for a string consists of the characters in the string with a ‘"’ before and another ‘"’ after. A ‘"’ that is part of the string must be written as ‘\"’ and a ‘\’ that is part of the string must be written as ‘\\’. All other characters, including newline, can be included just by writing them inside the string; however, backslash sequences as in C, such as ‘\n’ for newline or ‘\241’ using an octal character code, are allowed as well. - String Substitution - See Glossary—Global Substitution. - Syntax Highlighting - See Glossary—Font Lock. - Syntax Table - The syntax table tells Emacs which characters are part of a word, which characters balance each other like parentheses, etc. See Syntax Tables. - Super is the name of a modifier bit that a keyboard input character may have. To make a character Super, type it while holding down the <SUPER> key. Such characters are given names that start with Super- (usually written s- for short). See User Input. - Suspending Emacs means stopping it temporarily and returning control to its parent process, which is usually a shell. Unlike killing a job (q.v.), you can later resume the suspended Emacs job without losing your buffers, unsaved edits, undo history, etc. See Exiting. - <TAB> is the tab character. In Emacs it is typically used for indentation or completion. - Tags Table - A tags table is a file that serves as an index to the function definitions in one or more other files. See Tags. - Termscript File - A termscript file contains a record of all characters sent by Emacs to the terminal. It is used for tracking down bugs in Emacs redisplay. Emacs does not make a termscript file unless you tell it to. - `Text' has two meanings (see Text): - Data consisting of a sequence of characters, as opposed to binary numbers, executable programs, and the like. The basic contents of an Emacs buffer (aside from the text properties, q.v.) are always text in this sense. - Data consisting of written human language (as opposed to programs), or following the stylistic conventions of human language. - Text Terminal - A text terminal, or character terminal, is a display that is limited to displaying text in character units. Such a terminal cannot control individual pixels it displays. Emacs supports a subset of display features on text terminals. - Text Properties - Text properties are annotations recorded for particular characters in the buffer. Images in the buffer are recorded as text properties; they also specify formatting information. See Editing Format Info. - A theme is a set of customizations (q.v.) that give Emacs a particular appearance or behavior. For example, you might use a theme for your favorite set of faces (q.v.). - Tool Bar - The tool bar is a line (sometimes multiple lines) of icons at the top of an Emacs frame. Clicking on one of these icons executes a command. You can think of this as a graphical relative of the menu bar (q.v.). See Tool Bars. - Tooltips are small windows displaying a help echo (q.v.) text, which explains parts of the display, lists useful options available via mouse clicks, etc. See Tooltips. - Top Level - Top level is the normal state of Emacs, in which you are editing the text of the file you have visited. You are at top level whenever you are not in a recursive editing level (q.v.) or the minibuffer (q.v.), and not in the middle of a command. You can get back to top level by aborting (q.v.) and quitting (q.v.). See Quitting. - Transient Mark Mode - The default behavior of the mark (q.v.) and region (q.v.), in which setting the mark activates it and highlights the region, is called Transient Mark mode. In GNU Emacs 23 and onwards, it is enabled by default. See Disabled Transient Mark. - Transposing two units of text means putting each one into the place formerly occupied by the other. There are Emacs commands to transpose two adjacent characters, words, balanced expressions (q.v.) or lines - Trash Can - See Glossary—Deletion of Files. - Truncating text lines in the display means leaving out any text on a line that does not fit within the right margin of the window displaying it. See Truncation, and - See Glossary—Text Terminal. - Undoing means making your previous editing go in reverse, bringing back the text that existed earlier in the editing session. - Unix is a class of multi-user computer operating systems with a long history. There are several implementations today. The GNU project (q.v.) aims to develop a complete Unix-like operating system that is free software (q.v.). - User Option - A user option is a face (q.v.) or a variable (q.v.) that exists so that you can customize Emacs by setting it to a new value. See Easy Customization. - A variable is an object in Lisp that can store an arbitrary value. Emacs uses some variables for internal purposes, and has others (known as `user options'; q.v.) just so that you can set their values to control the behavior of Emacs. The variables used in Emacs that you are likely to be interested in are listed in the Variables Index in this manual (see Variable Index). See Variables, for information on variables. - Version Control - Version control systems keep track of multiple versions of a source file. They provide a more powerful alternative to keeping backup files (q.v.). See Version Control. - Visiting a file means loading its contents into a buffer (q.v.) where they can be edited. See Visiting. - Whitespace is any run of consecutive formatting characters (space, tab, newline, and backspace). - Widening is removing any restriction (q.v.) on the current buffer; it is the opposite of narrowing (q.v.). See Narrowing. - Emacs divides a frame (q.v.) into one or more windows, each of which can display the contents of one buffer (q.v.) at any time. See Screen, for basic information on how Emacs uses the screen. See Windows, for commands to control the use of windows. Some other editors use the term “window” for what we call a `frame' (q.v.) in Emacs. - Window System - A window system is software that operates on a graphical display (q.v.), to subdivide the screen so that multiple applications can have their] own windows at the same time. All modern operating systems include a window system. - Word Abbrev - See Glossary—Abbrev. - Word Search - Word search is searching for a sequence of words, considering the punctuation between them as insignificant. See Word Search. - Yanking means reinserting text previously killed (q.v.). It can be used to undo a mistaken kill, or for copying or moving text. Some other systems call this “pasting”. See Yanking.
18 Professional Automotive Wiring Diagram Training Solutions Related photos in this ideas: Other recommended ideas you might needed: Automotive Wiring Diagram Training - Primary diodes are generally represented with a triangle pressed up towards a line. Diodes are also polarized, so every of the two terminals require distinguishing identifiers. The high quality, anode is the terminal walking into the flat edge of the triangle. The negative, cathode extends out of the road inside the image (consider it as a - signal). Like bjts, mosfets have three terminals, however this time they’re named supply (s), drain (d), and gate (g). And once more, there are two specific versions of the symbol, depending on whether you’ve got an n-channel or p-channel mosfet. There are a number of usually used symbols for every of the mosfet types:. Nodes supply us a way to mention that “wires crossing this junction are linked”. The absences of a node at a junction manner two separate wires are simply passing via, now not forming any type of connection. (When designing schematics, it’s generally excellent exercise to avoid those non-linked overlaps anywhere possible, however every so often it’s unavoidable). The prefixes of names are quite well standardized. For a few components, like resistors, the prefix is simply the first letter of the aspect. Different call prefixes aren't so literal; inductors, as an example, are l’s (because contemporary has already taken i [but it starts with a c…electronics is a silly place]). Here’s a short table of commonplace additives and their call prefixes:. Voltage nodes are unmarried-terminal schematic components, which we can join factor terminals to so as to assign them to a particular voltage stage. Those are a special utility of net names, meaning all terminals linked to a like-named voltage node are linked together. Every now and then – on truely busy schematics specifically – you can assign special symbols to node voltages. You can connect devices to these one-terminal symbols, and it’ll be tied directly to 5v, three.3v, vcc, or gnd (floor). Tremendous voltage nodes are generally indicated by using an arrow pointing up, even as floor nodes typically contain one to a few flat lines (or now and again a down-pointing arrow or triangle).
Knee bursa are small fluid filled sacs which contain synovial fluid. Bursa are found all over the body and there are approximately fourteen around the knee. They sit between two surfaces, usually muscle and bone, to reduce friction, a bit like ball bearings. This allows everything to move smoothly preventing inflammation. Sometimes the knee bursa get damaged, known as bursitis, which can cause pain. This is usually when there is excessive friction over the bursa causing it to either become inflamed, or when it dries out so it no longer works properly. So lets have a look at knee bursitis anatomy, particularly focusing on the 5 main knee bursa, which are the ones that are most commonly injured. Then we will look at what can go wrong with the bursa. The prepatellar bursa is found directly in front of the kneecap. Repetitive or prolonged, forwards kneeling places a great deal of pressure and friction on the the knee bursa which can lead to inflammation. Inflammation is known as prepatellar bursitis, or Housemaids Knee, but today is more common in trades such as roofers and carpet fitters. There are actually two infrapatellar bursa both found underneath the kneecap protecting the patellar tendon. They are known as the deep and superficial infrapatellar bursa. Inflammation here is known as infrapatellar bursitis, or Clergyman's Knee, and is usually caused by more erect kneeling than with prepatellar bursitis - visit the infrapatellar bursitis section to find out more. This is found on the inner side of the knee approximately two inches below the joint between the tendons of the sartorius, gracilis and semitendinosis muscles and the medial collateral ligament. Inflammation of Pes Anserine is especially common in runners and swimmers - visit the pes anserine bursitis section to find out more. Inflammation of the bursa is known as semimembranosus bursitis, or, more commonly, a Bakers Cyst, which can be extremely painful. This is ususally caused by excess fluid in the knee, usually from an injury or arthritis, which leaks back into the bursa causing it to swell. A lump forms behind the knee, like a squashy orange. This is found above the kneecap underneath the quadriceps tendon at the bottom of the thigh preventing friction from the femur. The other bursa knee locations are: Problems usually develop in the bursa when there is muscle tightness or weakness which causes excessive friction on the bursa and can lead to knee bursitis. bursa can become either: 1. Inflamed: i.e. swollen known as 2. Dried out: i.e. they lose the fluid inside them This results in more friction on the bone and muscles/tendons leading to bursa knee pain. Usually a combination of strengthening and stretching exercises, medication and injections helps them to recover. Inflammation and irritation of the knee bursa is a common cause of knee pain. To find out more about what can go wrong, visit the bursitis of the knee section to find out more about prevention and bursitis treatment. To find out more about this different structures in the knee, including the muscles, ligaments and cartilage, visit the anatomy section. Alternatively, if you have a problem with your knee and would like help working out what is causing it, visit the knee pain diagnosis section. Page Last Updated: 09/27/19 Next Review Due: 09/27/21
- Identify the classes of cells that make up nervous tissue - Discuss how nervous tissue mediates perception and response Nervous tissue is characterized as being excitable and capable of sending and receiving electrochemical signals that provide the body with information. Two main classes of cells make up nervous tissue: the neuron and neuroglia (Figure 4.19). Neurons propagate information via electrochemical impulses, called action potentials, which are biochemically linked to the release of chemical signals. Neuroglia play an essential role in supporting neurons and modulating their information propagation. Figure 4.19 The Neuron The cell body of a neuron, also called the soma, contains the nucleus and mitochondria. The dendrites transfer the nerve impulse to the soma. The axon carries the action potential away to another excitable cell. LM × 1600. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012) Follow this link to learn more about nervous tissue. What are the main parts of a nerve cell? Neurons display distinctive morphology, well suited to their role as conducting cells, with three main parts. The cell body includes most of the cytoplasm, the organelles, and the nucleus. Dendrites branch off the cell body and appear as thin extensions. A long “tail,” the axon, extends from the neuron body and can be wrapped in an insulating layer known as myelin, which is formed by accessory cells. The synapse is the gap between nerve cells, or between a nerve cell and its target, for example, a muscle or a gland, across which the impulse is transmitted by chemical compounds known as neurotransmitters. Neurons categorized as multipolar neurons have several dendrites and a single prominent axon. Bipolar neurons possess a single dendrite and axon with the cell body, while unipolar neurons have only a single process extending out from the cell body, which divides into a functional dendrite and into a functional axon. When a neuron is sufficiently stimulated, it generates an action potential that propagates down the axon towards the synapse. If enough neurotransmitters are released at the synapse to stimulate the next neuron or target, a response is generated. The second class of neural cells comprises the neuroglia or glial cells, which have been characterized as having a simple support role. The word “glia” comes from the Greek word for glue. Recent research is shedding light on the more complex role of neuroglia in the function of the brain and nervous system. Astrocyte cells, named for their distinctive star shape, are abundant in the central nervous system. The astrocytes have many functions, including regulation of ion concentration in the intercellular space, uptake and/or breakdown of some neurotransmitters, and formation of the blood-brain barrier, the membrane that separates the circulatory system from the brain. Microglia protect the nervous system against infection but are not nervous tissue because they are related to macrophages. Oligodendrocyte cells produce myelin in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) while the Schwann cell produces myelin in the peripheral nervous system (Figure 4.20). Figure 4.20 Nervous Tissue Nervous tissue is made up of neurons and neuroglia. The cells of nervous tissue are specialized to transmit and receive impulses. LM × 872. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Workers digging in the Chhotu Chutria village in Kalyani, West Bengal, never thought they were about to unearth valuable pieces of history! As the workers were digging a pond in Kalyani, they stumbled upon two cylinders, each 50-inch long and about 38 inches in diameter. Upon cleaning, they realised that the cylinders were in fact, bombs from the World War 2 era! Kalyani is a relatively new town, formed only in February 1951. Before independence, it was called Roosevelt Town or Roosevelt Nagar, after the 32nd President of the USA, Franklin D Roosevelt. Although it seems quite odd that a town in British-occupied-India was named after a US President, there’s a very good reason for it. “Roosevelt Town used to be a large US Army base, encompassing nearly 45 villages,” an army officer told the Times of India. He added, “Some say the town was also used by the US Army Air Force (USAAF) for Over the Hump Operations and the China-Burma-India (CBI) Theater.” The discovery of the bombs has reopened a chapter in history that remains unknown to many. In 1942, World War 2 had reached scaling heights. American troops had started entering India in their effort to defend the Chinese war efforts of Chiang Kai-Shek, securing their foothold against the Japanese offensive. “China-Burma-India (CBI) Theater”, as it was called, became an operation that would utilise the strategic port of Calcutta and Assam to carry out airlift missions for the American and Chinese militaries daily. Beginning in April 1942, US air force troops in India had a brave task at hand. Japanese troops had blocked the Burma route, which prompted President Roosevelt to channel support from roadways to airways. USAAF was to supply an ambitious amount of essentials to American and Chinese troops. “Chiang Kai-Shek clamoured for the airlift to fly 10,000 tons a month. The officially stated US goal was 4000 tons,” reports John Correll. But in reality, all the military could manage was a few hundred tons every month. Eastern Himayalas, that separate India from China and Burma played a crucial role in making this World War 2 operation a near impossible task for the pilots. The majestic height of the range and the unpredictable extreme weather coupled with a lack of reliable charts and radio navigation aids made the American pilots coin an ironic name for the Eastern Himalayas–The Hump. Regular operations over “The Hump” began in May 1942, initially with 27 aircraft. The first phase of their journey was over the dense Assamese jungles that would pose as foggy obstacles to USAAF. The absence of emergency landing fields and the lack of proper radio navigation would lead to several plane crashes. Pilots would have to bail out of their Douglas DC-3 aircraft, dropping and surviving in these jungles, till rescue pilots saved them. Reports by Army Air Forces claim that, “every vehicle, every gallon of fuel, every weapon, every round of ammunition, every typewriter, and every ream of paper which found its way to Free China for either the Chinese or the American forces during nearly three years of war was flown in air from India.” The CBI-Theater operations in World War 2 carried a total of 6,85,304 gross tons of cargo from India to China. This included over 3,92,000 tons of gasoline and oil–nearly 60% of which was delivered only in 1945. USAAF troops left India in 1945, having made over 1,56,000 trips in just three years. You may also like: 6 Indian World War II Martyrs You Probably Haven’t Heard of Before CBI Theater operations over “The Hump” give us a perspective of the strategic importance of US bases in West Bengal and Assam. Although Kalyani–or Roosevelt Nagar was not their primary base, military historians believe that a part of their arsenal was stored here. This is possibly why the bombs were recently discovered by the workers in Bengal. Even if the discovered arsenal is merely dud bombs used for practice, as suggested by one army official, the discovery helped unearth the CBI-Theater operation over “The Hump”–one of the least known operations based in India. (Edited by Shruti Singhal)
Competency 2: To reinvest understanding of oral and written texts The ESL Program enables students to explore a variety of authentic texts: comics, picture books, recipes, podcasts, etc. The Internet is full of interesting audio and written texts that you can use with your students in your learning sequences. It is important to develop this competency even in an online context, and there are many ways to organize valuable activities online. Students can carry out some tasks online with you and do others at home. Here are some examples: - Have students read texts and check their comprehension with online quizzes (Forms, Quizziz, Socrative, Edpuzzle, etc.) or complete a collaborative document. This enables you to check understanding quickly and, in some cases, offer instant feedback using corrective features. It also helps you keep track of students' work. - Have students create or write their final product using online tools or apps. - Check the results of “demonstration of understanding” activities and review anything that wasn’t clear with students. - Have students work on texts with classmates to construct meaning (e.g. “compare and contrast” activity). In order to do a complete reinvestment task, students need to read, select, organize information, develop ideas and expand their range of words and expressions to deliver a personalized product. It’s important for the teacher to check for understanding and work on what was not understood before moving on to the final reinvestment task. To learn the tools mentioned in this module, please consult the Tool Box section (Boîte à outils) of the website. The Intensive English context provides more time to read and work with texts in order to develop this competency, so students have more time to work on the competency online with the teacher. Since we often ask students to create a final product (poster, video, book, comic strip, audio clip, etc.) when working on this competency, there are a number of interesting ways to be creative with online tools or apps. Consult the Distance Teaching Website Open in a new window for interesting resources. To learn more about incorporating these types of tools in your planning, check out the Campus RÉCIT online course Planning the Integration of Technologies in ESL Open in a new window. If you wish to read a book with your students online, you should contact the publisher for permission to do so. The Copibec service can give you information about copyright. Click on the link below to visit their site: The Samuel catalog in the Copibec website gives you access to over 30,000 books, illustrations, song lyrics and other useful resources for you and your students. Click on the image below to view the catalogue.Open in a new window
Comprehensive lessons for teaching about puberty! Overview of Changes, Changes, Changes Changes, Changes, Changes is an expansion of the classic New Methods for Puberty Education. This new edition features nine chapters with more than 40 engaging and informative lesson activities. Topics range from emotional and physical puberty changes, to problem-solving and social situations, to dealing with homophobia, to social media safety. Comprehensive educator instructions are given to help create a safe and inclusive classroom environment where student participation and fun are given as much importance as the critical lessons being taught. Chapter 1: Introduction How to Use Changes, Changes, Changes An overview of the manual’s organization. Principles for Sexual Health Education Shows how Changes, Changes, Changes! engages with the CSE Principles for Sex Education. Creating a Supportive Environment for Learning about Sexual Health Provides interaction guidelines for educators. Why Teach in Coed Groups? Reviews how to facilitate coed interactions in the classroom. Objectives for Sexual Health Education Reviews the objectives for the lessons in this manual. Top 13 Teaching Sex Ed Tips Reviews some of the poignant tips for educating about sex in a classroom. Making Random Groups What are some of the different strategies for creating groups in the classroom? This resource gives you different tools for group creation. The Importance of Feedback and Processing It is exceptionally helpful and meaningful to ask students for their feedback and future improvements after each class session or activity. This resource gives you some example feedback questions. Chapter 2: Getting Started in the Classroom Cross the Room Puberty can be a difficult time in an adolescent’s life. They may feel overwhelmed with their physical changes and unprepared to deal with various experiences in their personal lives. This activity allows students to see that they are not alone in their experiences, and that other students may have the same concerns and issues that they do. This ice breaker activity encourages students to interact with a large number of their classmates, including classmates they might not otherwise speak with. It also allows for students to determine what kinds of questions are easy for their classmates to answer and those that are more difficult or embarrassing. This lesson intends to assess the students’ level of knowledge of sexual terms, to provide initial practice in saying these words aloud in the classroom and to identify basic anatomical differences between males and females. It also is designed to establish the vocabulary that is appropriate for classroom discussion. “This and That” This lesson serves both as a review of the reproductive systems for students who have already received some background information on reproductive anatomy as well as a group-building activity where students practice communicating effectively with each other. It is intended to help the class become aware of the need to use scientific vocabulary and provides students with an opportunity to practice using appropriate terminology so that others do not have to make assumptions about what they are trying to communicate. Buying Body Care Products This lesson addresses various body care products a person might purchase and some of the feelings that might arise when purchasing these products. Chapter 3: Puberty Basics “Before You Begin” Quiz: A Test for Teachers This quiz is intended to help you clarify your knowledge and attitudes about puberty development Sexual Development and Sexual Behavior Problems in Children Ages 2-12 This Fact Sheet provides basic information about sexual development and problematic sexual behavior in children ages 2-12. This information is important for parents and professionals who work with or provide services to children such as teachers, physicians, child welfare personnel, daycare providers, and mental health professionals. Stages of Puberty Development for Girls and Boys This Fact Sheet outlines the changes that girls and boys experience during puberty. Physical Anatomy and Puberty Changes This lesson includes many anatomy diagrams as well as a humorous story that helps students to explore this sensitive topic in a nonthreatening way. By participating in this activity, students will become familiar with the roles of estrogen and testosterone in puberty as well as the mechanisms by which they are produced in internal sex organs. Furthermore, this exercise will provide an interactive environment in which students can actively engage with the material. How Hormones Affect Puberty Changes This lesson helps participants learn the body changes during puberty that are caused by the action of hormones, and it helps participants understand which glands produce which hormones. Life is a Roller Coaster Ride In this lesson, participants become familiar with the pros and cons of puberty. This lesson is a multimodal game that can be used to provide students with a context to learn, review, question and communicate about pubertal changes in a humorous and friendly way. Pop Goes Puberty This activity addresses factual information as well as changes that young males and females may experience throughout their development. Clearing Up Misconceptions about Acne This lesson is intended to help students assess what they already know about acne and to correct any misinformation they might have. The discussion part of the lesson encourages students to question the information they receive and to verify accuracy. Good and Secret Touch This lesson will give students a chance to learn about good and secret touch in a comfortable and safe environment, where they will be able to ask questions and get the answers they need. Furthermore, students will be able to discuss ways in which they can react and protect themselves from being touched inappropriately and will identify a trusted adult they can speak to about this subject. Chapter 4: Body Basics – Boys By developing their own models with everyday items, students will be able to use their creativity in a way that will promote their knowledge of these reproductive systems. Let’s Talk about Sexuality This lesson allows students to talk with their same-gender and other-gender peers about issues involving puberty and sexuality. Teaching about Seminal Emissions This lesson activity builds upon the previous male reproductive anatomy lessons by explaining the process of seminal emissions. Chapter 5: Body Basics – Girls Uncovering the Hidden Story This lesson gives them permission to talk openly about sexual language, both formal and slang, as well as ask their questions. Menstruation: Feelings, Questions, and Answers This lesson activity will encourage students to ask questions about this process, and provide a safe and understanding environment for such discussions to take place. Periods, Pads, and More This lesson will provide students with critical information about the female reproductive system, as well as the menstrual cycle. Caring about Menstrual Care This lesson activity encourages class participation and provides students with important information about menstrual care products. Chapter 6: Social Rules This lesson helps students examine common attitudes and beliefs about masturbation in a nonthreatening, nonjudgmental manner. This lesson activity engages students by using competition to motivate their creativity in coming up with fun, safe and nonsexual activities. “Texting about Sex” This lesson activity utilizes a fictional story that illustrates the value of having a “sex talk” with parents/guardians. Beyond Pink and Blue In this lesson, students are prompted to think about their assumptions regarding gender roles and stereotypes. Discussing Puberty with Peers This lesson provides students with an opportunity to explore puberty related issues in an anonymous and private way. More than “Just Friends”? This lesson helps students identify the qualities they value in any friendship, including a dating relationship. A Lesson on Homophobia and Teasing This lesson will encourage discussions concerning what it means to have gay, lesbian or bisexual parents or family members and the negative effects of homophobic bullying, as well as how gay and lesbian families are similar to other types of families. This lesson will allow students to participate in a group discussion about what they should do if they witness someone being teased or bullied for being gay/lesbian/bisexual/ transgender or having a family member who is gay/lesbian/bisexual/transgender. Chapter 7: Body Image and Self Esteem Conformity and Individuality This lesson attempts to help students explore how conformity and individuality operate in their lives, without attempting to undermine the importance of either. Ready or Not? This lesson helps teens identify, define and evaluate the variety of factors that help determine whether or not a person is ready for intercourse, and it helps them recognize signs of readiness in a couple’s relationship. Check It Out! In this lesson, young people have the opportunity they need to discuss the qualities they value in relationships and to assess a relationship they know about. They also learn a process for communicating their feelings and needs to a partner. Body Image v. Real Ideal The goal of this activity is to increase students’ awareness of their physical selves and of media influences on their self-image and behavior. This lesson is meant to help children see beyond the Madison Avenue images and consider what body types are overrepresented in the media, as well as what types are underrepresented or missing. Learning about My Self Image This lesson helps students put their body concerns into a broader perspective and allows them to recognize a range of traits that make them unique individuals. Chapter 8: Problem Solving and Perception This lesson helps young people identify the six steps in the problem-solving process and apply the problem-solving process to issues that involve body care and body concerns. Adjusting to Changes This lesson provides a format for examining the adjustment process in a manner that incorporates humor and active student participation. Presenting Images to Others By focusing attention on the inanimate characters, the lesson provides a safe structure for examining physical traits, such as height and weight, while also expanding students’ understanding that a person is much more than his or her physical makeup. How Other People Respond to Our Appearance This lesson is intended to help students learn about how others respond to this experimentation and how these responses might affect their self-concept. Chapter 9: Problems with Technology This lesson will allow students to consider various scenarios that deal with Internet safety. Practicing Safe Text In this lesson, participants are invited to explore the potential benefits and consequences of tech use. “What’s Real?” Activity Kit This lesson will provide an opportunity for students to consider their beliefs about pornography, particularly regarding how they view bodies and images that they see online. Foreword for Changes, Changes, Changes By Bill Taverner Congratulations to Stephanie Mitelman, Susan Milstein, and Amanda Saxe on the publication of Changes, Changes, Changes: Great Methods for Puberty Education. This work builds and expands on the original work of New Methods for Puberty Education by Carolyn Cooperman and Chuck Rhoades. Their work was first published in 1983 … when I was going through puberty! Ah, puberty. I distinctly remember my seventh grade health class, in which the teacher clearly did not have the benefit of having Cooperman and Rhoades’ masterpiece in hand. He told the students, “We’re going to learn everything we need to know about female sexual anatomy.” Then, having the attention of every student in the room, he raised the projection screen to reveal a 12-foot, detailed, color-coded diagram of the internal female reproductive system. Not only was it overwhelming (it seemed every fimbria was labeled), but it looked nothing like what we imagined (or knew) female sexual anatomy to be! While he had momentarily captivated my attention with the idea of having all my questions about sex answered, it soon became clear this was just going to be another class of stuff to memorize. By contrast, Cooperman and Rhoades made puberty education engaging, interactive, memorable, and fun. I wonder what it would’ve been like to be a student in a classroom where the teacher was using their guide. In my class, and probably most classes, lots of facts were disseminated to us. There was no principle of “meeting students where they are.” There were no discussion questions, no kinesthetic activities, no paired or small group activities. Furthermore, the topic did not extend far beyond the “plumbing” of puberty. Changing feelings, social pressure, dating, and healthy versus unhealthy relationships were not on the agenda. And while the teacher was a very nice man, none of us had the courage to ask about something truly on our minds. We didn’t learn very much about puberty that year, but we did learn to make paper airplanes. New Methods for Puberty Education created a student-centered approach to teaching about puberty, one that would become a hallmark of all publications by The Center for Sex Education (CSE). One of my favorite activities in that manual is “Conformity And Individuality,” in which students move around the room all bunched up together as a collective “clump” to illustrate and then critically evaluate the pros and cons of groupthink and self-expression. I was glad to see that lesson make the new edition! Another favorite is the “This And That” lesson, which shows how chaotic it can be when we are vague about naming things; it brilliantly illuminates the importance of using accurate sexual terminology. In New Methods for Puberty Education, Cooperman and Rhoades constructed a teaching resource built to last — focused on the things young people needed to know — with activities that would captivate students (other than me) for generations. And New Methods for Puberty Education did last. For decades, teachers would look past the old Courier typewriter font and know a great, timeless lesson when they saw one. But we knew we would need to publish something new, and soon. The world was changing fast, and these changes, changes, changes were affecting the context in which young people were experiencing puberty. Politics, school budget cuts, and competing educational priorities result in minimal learning about puberty today. My own children’s puberty education programs consisted of little more than a field trip to a local wellness center, where they would supposedly learn everything they needed to know in the span of a few hours. I accompanied my older son on his trip, and while his ability to answer every single question made for a very proud father, I was also saddened by the other students’ inability to answer any question. Maybe they knew some of the answers, but they certainly hadn’t developed the confidence and skills to talk about sex that are implicit in New Methods for Puberty Education. What is it with the USA? In my opinion, the absolute best puberty education book available is It’s Perfectly Normal by Robie H. Harris, celebrating its 25th anniversary this year. When I visited Stockholm, Sweden, on a cross-cultural sex education exchange program, I had some downtime in a Swedish library and looked up Harris’s book, which was titled På tal om sex (English translation: Speaking of Sex). You don’t have to know Swedish to know there’s something very different about that title. In the United States, we spend so much time trying to reassure ourselves that puberty and sexual development are “perfectly normal,” with some Americans disagreeing and calling to censor and ban Harris’s book. But in Sweden — and many other developed nations — the normalness of sexual development is understood and no convincing is necessary, making it completely appropriate to title a children’s puberty book “Speaking of Sex.”** But back to New Methods for Puberty Education. Two serendipitous things happened two years ago First, Carolyn Cooperman, now in retirement, came by with five prototype lessons on sex education and technology, and offered to author what would eventually become Sex Ed in the Digital Age, also published in 2014. It was so exciting to reconnect with Carolyn and see how her mind works. She is truly one of the most skilled people I have ever encountered when it comes to pedagogical design. Second, Stephanie Mitelman called. Stephanie is the owner of Sexpressions, the largest sex education organization in Canada. Her organization produces DVDs, posters, and a full library of educational materials addressing a spectrum of sexual health topics. We were talking about some of our respective new initiatives, and I mentioned how I had hoped to do a new edition of New Methods for Puberty Education, but was finding it difficult to find the time. Stephanie enthusiastically offered to write the new edition, noting she could also integrate some of her exceptional illustrations into the new publication. So we had a deal. Stephanie would update and expand New Methods for Puberty Education, Sexpressions would sell the new edition in Canada, and CSE would sell it in the United States. Under Stephanie’s leadership as Editor-in-Chief, the new manual underwent some substantial changes, not the least of which was the title itself, Changes, Changes, Changes: Great Methods for Puberty Education. The subtitle serves as a tribute to the original work of Cooperman and Rhoades. Major changes include: - Revisiting and critically examining all the original lessons and making edits and cuts where appropriate - Incorporating new activities and lessons, expanding the scope of the manuscript and keeping up with contemporary knowledge about young people, puberty, and society - Adding clear new images and diagrams - Incorporating discussions of contemporary issues, such as online safety - Having the manuscript critically reviewed by peer experts and implementing their recommendations Stephanie worked closely with Sexpressions associate Amanda Saxe to bring revisions to life, and then Susan Milstein joined the team. Susan is an outstanding editor who has worked on several other CSE publications, including the award-winning Teaching Safer Sex, Volumes 1 and 2. The team worked tirelessly to perfect this work, and the result is the publication you hold in your hands. There are indeed a lot of changes in this edition! I counted 19 brand-new lesson plans and activities. There is an expansion of content addressing gender, sexual orientation, homophobia, healthy and unhealthy relationships, and safety — both in person and online. One particularly important new lesson is “Good And Secret Touch,” which helps students identify and differentiate between healthy and abusive touch. “Pop Goes Puberty” is a fun lesson. (Really, any time you can incorporate balloons into a lesson plan, you will have students’ undivided attention!) Lessons on abstinence and masturbation provide for vital conversations often omitted in puberty education. “Beyond Pink And Blue” helps students challenge common stereotypes about gender, while “A Lesson On Homophobia And Teasing” and “Fighting Homophobia” establish the classroom norm that students’ engaging in name-calling putdowns is not ok. “Body Image: Real Vs. Ideal” supplements several excellent lesson plans that allow students to challenge socially reinforced messages about beauty. And finally the brand-new section on technology offers three important lessons, including “Practicing Safe Text” and the “’What’s Real?’ Activity Kit” for helping students consider safety and decision-making in a world quite different from when we all had our first puberty lessons. Editor-in-Chief Stephanie Mitelman and Associate Editors Susan Milstein and Amanda Saxe have done well building and expanding on the groundbreaking work of Carolyn Cooperman and Chuck Rhoades. I commend them for their tireless work creating what may be the most comprehensive puberty education resource in print. On behalf of everyone involved in this publication, I wish you lively and invigorating classroom discussions about puberty. I commend you for being a positive and memorable force as your students navigate the changes, changes, changes in their lives.
The learning intentions from Week 5 to Week 10 are outlined as follows: 1 MULTIPLYING SIMPLE FRACTIONS, DIVIDING SIMPLE FRACTIONS, FINDING THE FRACTION OF A QUANTITY, FRACTIONS WORD PROBLEMS 2 DECIMAL CURRENCY, PROBLEM INVOLVING MONEY, ROUNDING OFF MONEY, BEST BUY PROBLEM, BASIC FINANCIAL WORDS 3 PROBLEM-SOLVING INVOLVING — FRACTION/EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS/SIMPLIFYING AND COMPARING FRACTIONS/CONVERTING MIXED TO IMPROPER FRACTIONS Jack always participates in sessions in a timely manner. Jack is interactive to communicate with the teacher and peers and he is always polite to the teacher and his peers. Apart from that, he can engage in most of the sessions. Regarding the homework,… Read more » Jack has improved in the areas of: a) spelling and speech writing b) new vocabulary c) creative writing skills d) structure of paragraphs The learning intentions from Week 1 to Week 5 are outlined as follows: PLACE VALUE, FACTORS, MULTIPLES, HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR, LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE, ROUNDING OFF SQUARE AND TRIANGULAR NUMBERS, PRIME AND COMPOSITE NUMBERS, THE FOUR BASIC OPERATIONS, ADDING WHOLE NUMBERS, SUBTRACTING WHOLE NUMBERS, DIVIDING WHOLE NUMBERS IMPORTANT WORDS IN MATH, AVERAGE, PROBLEM-SOLVING, GUESS AND CHECK, FINDING A PATTERN, DRAWING AND TREE DIAGRAMS, TO WORK BACKWARDS, NEGATIVE NUMBERS, NEGATIVE OR MINUS TEMPERATURES, THE NUMBER LINE FRACTION/EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS/SIMPLIFYING AND COMPARING FRACTIONS/CONVERTING MIXED TO IMPROPER FRACTIONS ADDING AND SUBTRACTING SIMPLE FRACTIONS, FRACTION WITH DIFFERENT DENOMINATORS, ADDING AND SUBTRACTING MIXED FRACTIONS Jack always participates… Read more » The learning intentions from Week 6 to Week 10 are outlined as follows: To tell analogue time as minutes past the hour To be able to recognise the right, obtuse and acute angles To be able to tell the sharper or smaller one between two angles To be able to calculate the total change for goods To be able to draw a line of symmetry To be able to understand grams and kilograms as metric units for weight To be able to pick the heavier one between two objects To be able to recognise verbs, nouns and pronouns in a… Read more » The learning intentions from Week 1 to Week 5 are outlined as follows: 1. To be able to find the fraction after one fraction 2. To be able to trace the perimeter of a specific shape 3. To be able to understand the line of symmetry of a shape 4. To be able to draw the top view and side views of a shape 5. To be able to put words into an alphabetical order 6. To be able to understand synonyms and antonyms 7. To be able to write words in words and numerals 8. To be able to… Read more » Jack actively joins the class and has a passion for learning. He actively learns from the teacher during class. Jack needs to work on mathematical vocabulary, English vocabulary and grammar. During term 3, the class was focused on: Money Time Fractions 2D and 3D shapes Measurements rhyming synonyms and antonyms singular and plural nouns pronouns, nouns and verbs Next term, the class content will include Year 3 Algebra, Geometry, and English. Jack was usually very quiet in class and could obey class discipline. He demonstrated good understanding of the mathematical knowledge and could answer most of the questions when asked. One thing Jack can improve in the future is try to pay more attention in class, especially when the whole class is working on the same learning activity. Also, be more confident and don’t be afraid to share your thoughts with the class. Overall, Jack’s performance was satisfactory and I did see an improvement in his learning and understanding. Keep up the good work 🙂 © Copyright 2020 Brighten Education Brighten Education All rights reserved.
According to psychologist Gordon Lopper, social psychology is a discipline that Uses scientific methods “to understand and explain how the thought, feeling and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other human beings” (1985). Social psychology looks at a wide range of social topics, including group behavior, social perception, leadership, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and prejudice. It is important to note that social psychology is not just about looking at social influences. Social perception and social interaction are also vital to understanding social behavior. The primary research strategies used in social psychology are descriptive, correlation, and experimental research . The goal of descriptive research is to portray what already exists in a group or population. Unlike causal and relational studies, descriptive studies cannot determine if there is a relationship between two variables. They can only describe what exists within a given population. An example of descriptive research would be conducting a survey to find out people’s attitudes toward a reticular social issue such as divorce, capital punishment, or gambling laws. Social psychologists use correlation research to look for relationships between variables. For example, a social psychology might carry out a correlation study looking at the relationship between media violence and aggression. Experimental research is the key to uncovering causal relationships between variables. In experimental research, the experimenter randomly assigns participants to one of two groups: the control group and the experimental group. The control group receives no treatment and serves s a baseline. Researchers manipulate the levels of some independent variable in the experimental group and then measure the effects. Because researchers are able to control the independent variables, experimental research can be used to find causal relationships between variables. One example of experimental research would be finding the relationship between a group who does yoga everyday and one that does yoga everyday while eating a balanced diet. Multicultural psychology is the systematic study of all aspects of human behavior as it occurs in settings where people of different ultra backgrounds encounter each other. Multiculturalism has been considered a “fourth force” in the field of psychology, supplementing behaviorism, psychodrama theories, and humanistic psychology. Multicultural psychologists prefer a salad bowl rather than a melting pot as metaphorical image, viewing the United States, for example, as a society in which groups maintain their distinctiveness (Modeled & Curling, 2006). They stress and argue for the necessary development of multicultural competence by psychologists and others. Such competence includes understanding of our own culture, respect for other cultures, and acquiring appropriate culturally sensitive interpersonal skills. To this end, professional guidelines have been proposed (and adopted) for education, training, and practice. Such guidelines are approved by the American Psychological Association (PAP) for practice with persons of color (PAP, 2003), practice with sexual minorities (PAP, 2000), and practice with girls and women (PAP, 2007). In conclusion, the textbook stated that each of us is a multicultural human being. This simple and basic proposition, most descriptive of those of us who live in anthropometry heterogeneous societies, constitutes the basic (though complex) theme of this book.
The federal government and all Canadian provinces and territories have human rights laws with agencies to enforce their legislation. However, not all offer the same human rights protections. For example, not all provinces protect people because of their political beliefs or social condition. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms All human rights legislation must follow the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, passed in 1982. Section 15(1) of the Charter states: “Every individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination...” An individual can only use the Charter to challenge a governmental decision, action or law (such as the Ontario Code) on the grounds that it does not offer the protection to individuals provided by the Charter. An example of a successful challenge of the Ontario Code occurred in 1992 in a case known as Leshner v. Ontario. The Code defined “marital status” as limited to persons “of the opposite sex.” This was found to violate Section 15(1) of the Charter. A tribunal ruling directed that, in future, the definition of “marital status” omit the words “of the opposite sex.” Minority language educational rights The Charter also provides that Canadian citizens whose first language of English or French is the minority language where they live, or who were educated in the primary grades in English or French in Canada and live in a province where that language is a minority, have the right (where numbers warrant) to have their children receive primary and secondary school instruction in their language and in minority language educational facilities. In Ontario, the Education Act further guarantees that minority language education will be provided regardless of whether numbers warrant or not. In Canada, francophones have often experienced prejudice and discrimination in the workplace, in school and in their communities. Generally, human rights legislation has not offered protection explicitly based on language. Quebec and the Yukon Territory are the only Canadian jurisdictions that specifically identify language as a prohibited ground of discrimination in employment. The Human Rights Tribunal of Ontario has accepted language-based applications under the related grounds of “ancestry,” “ethnic origin” and “place of origin.” The Canadian Human Rights Act The Canadian Human Rights Act was passed in 1976. While its intent is similar to provincial legislation, its jurisdiction covers services, agencies and organizations regulated by the federal government, including those in the banking, communications and transportation sectors and crown corporations (such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation). It provides protection against discrimination on many of the same grounds as the Ontario Code. The Canadian Human Rights Act is enforced by the Canadian Human Rights Commission, which has offices in all regions of the country. The Ontario Human Rights Code The Ontario Human Rights Code has primacy—or takes precedence—over all other legislation in Ontario unless that legislation specifically states that the Code does not apply. For example, if a requirement in the Education Act governing Ontario public schools is found to discriminate against individuals or groups protected under the Code, the Code would prevail if it could not objectively be proven that the requirement was necessary and would cause undue hardship if removed from the Act. The same would be true of conflicting requirements under the Occupational Health and Safety Act. An example of where the Code does not apply is when persons with certain disabilities (such as uncontrolled seizures) are prohibited from driving under the Highway Traffic Act. What human rights legislation does The main intent of human rights legislation is to remedy the situation for the person or group discriminated against and prevent further discrimination—the intent is not to punish the individual or company that has discriminated. The Ontario Human Rights Code provides for civil remedies, not criminal penalties. Persons or companies found to have discriminated are not sent to jail but can be made to compensate an applicant or make changes in the way they operate. One major difference between human rights legislation and criminal law lies in the different standards of proof applied to evidence at a tribunal hearing. In criminal law, allegations must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt. The standard of proof under the Code, as in civil law, is on the balance of probabilities. In other words, did the discrimination more likely occur than not? The applicant has the responsibility to prove the allegations. Once discrimination has been proven to have occurred, then the respondent must prove that there is a bona fide reason behind the actions and that to accommodate would result in undue hardship.
Managing white grub for forestry White grubs are beneficial to soil health on the one hand, but on the other they can damage or kill tree seedlings after planting, increasing plantation re-establishment costs and reducing productivity. A research project led by Dr Benice Sivparsad of the Institute for Commercial Forestry Research (ICFR) uncovers some interesting facts about white grubs, and provides useful guidelines for effective management of white grubs to reduce crop damage. By Dr Benice Sivparsad A complex of indigenous soil pests has been shown to contribute to post-planting mortality when re-establishing black wattle (12%) and eucalypts (23%) by planting. Of these pests, white grubs are considered the most problematic because of their abundance in the soil, frequency of occurrence and the type of damage they can cause during regeneration of pine, wattle and eucalypt plantations. ‘White grub’ is the collective term given to the larval stages of chafer beetles, including the large wattle chafer, longleg chafer and wattle leaf chafer. The larvae are C-shaped, white in colour with a distinctive brown head and three pairs of well-developed legs. Larval development consists of three stages. They grow from about 1–2 mm in length (first larval stage) to 10-30 mm when mature (third larval stage), depending on species. The second and third larval stages of white grubs feed on the fine roots of newly planted seedlings. In severe cases, the root plug is completely eaten away, with the under-ground portion of the stem ring-barked up to ground level. Damaged seedlings appear stressed and can be easily uprooted. Root damage can result in reduced tree growth and if severe, death of the young plants. The larvae (white grubs) and adults (chafer beetles) include species that feed on the roots, stems, fruit or foliage of many crops, and are therefore considered sporadic forestry and agricultural pests worldwide. In the KZN-Midlands, white grubs are known pests of forestry and sugarcane. Forest certification requirements At the outset of this work, the recommended insecticide for application at time of planting to control white grub damage was Deltamethrin. However, continued use of this chemical was limited by Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) requirements associated with pesticide use. The systemic neonicotinoid imidacloprid has held promise as an alternative to Deltamethrin; applied either mixed into planting water or as a slow release tablet. However, imidacloprid has been listed by the (FSC) as a restricted, highly hazardous pesticide (HHP). Any future use of HHPs in FSC certified plantations will now require the formulation of an integrated pest management framework, that considers all possible alternatives. Therefore, the need for further tests of alternative insecticides became an important research priority. Limiting the use of insecticides for white grub control by better targeting of at-risk planting situations can also make an important contribution in meeting the FSC aim of reduced pesticide use in forestry operations. Therefore, an improved understanding of white grub incidence in plantation regeneration was also identified as a research priority. For these reasons, a study was initiated at the ICFR to contribute towards a sustainable, FSC compliant strategy for the management of soil-borne pests at regeneration (under Project 303: Eucalypt forest Protection). The study focused specifically on the following objectives: • Conduct pot trials to evaluate the effectiveness of alternative environmentally acceptable insecticides and biologicals to reduce the impact of white grubs on post-planting performance. • Monitor the incidence of white grub in selected sites to provide temporal trends of pest activity. This research project was made possible through funding from Mondi, Sappi, NCT and TWK. In addition to these clients, the project team included academics and scientists from various institutions including the South African Sugarcane Research Institute, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Nelson Mandela University and the University of KwaZulu-Natal. The study was initiated in 2017 with the implementation of pot trial testing and monitoring. Research activities were completed in 2019. For pot trials, a controlled experiment was used to determine the effectiveness of various chemical, natural and biological control options to reduce white grub damage on Eucalyptus grandis and Acacia mearnsii seedlings. White grub were introduced to pots where seedlings were planted. A total of 14 insecticides (three biological, three natural and eight chemical) were evaluated. The study showed that currently registered products (imidacloprid tablets and liquid) worked the best out of all products tested. Clothianidin (a chemical alternative) and the experimental fungus Beauveria brongniartii strain HHWG1 (a biological alternative) showed promise in protecting seedlings from damage. The white grub monitoring programme aimed to: • survey white grub densities in selected sites and find correlations with environmental and site variables; • determine the dominant white grub species and their relative abundance and composition in selected sites; • compare forestry sites in sugarcane and non-sugarcane growing areas to reveal trends that increase risk of white grub damage. Over two years, six soil survey sites planted to pine, eucalypt and wattle and located in sugarcane and non-sugarcane areas of KZN were sampled bi-monthly for white grub larvae, pupae and adults. In addition, kairomone-baited black panel traps and light traps were erected near soil survey sites during peak flight season from November 2018 to January 2019 to determine the occurrence, relative abundance and diversity of white grub adult beetles. Over the two year period, an average area-wide density of 0.9 white grubs per pit was recovered. Results indicated that the presence of sugarcane cultivation nearby did increase white grub abundance in wattle, pine and eucalypt. The greatest diversity and abundance of white grubs was found in the wattle site close to sugarcane. Interestingly, burning and harvesting operations reduced the abundance of white grubs, especially when sugarcane was not present in the area. A total of nine morphospecies were identified from soil surveys and 14 morphospecies identified from adult traps. Schizonchya affinis (M4), Maladera sp (M1), Heteronychus sp. (M2) were the most abundant species. Other common species encountered in adult traps and soil surveys include: Pegylis sommeri, Monochelus sp., Adoretus sp., S. fimbriata, and fruit/flower chafers. Benefits of white grubs What many readers might not know is that not all white grub species are known pests of forestry crops. Larvae of fruit chafer and compost beetles feed on dead and decaying plant matter and are considered beneficial to the soil and the environment. In this study, fruit/flower chafers were recovered from soil surveys and adult traps located in sugarcane areas only. Their presence as a beneficial species should be noted when considering the use of insecticides. Practical recommendations for control 1. Application of insecticides Two insecticidal treatments containing the systemic neonicotinoid imidacloprid have been registered for use against white grubs: imidacloprid SC mixed into planting water at 0.525 g active ingredient (a.i.)/seedling at planting in 1 to 2 l and a tablet formulation placed in the planting pit directly below the roots of seedlings at planting. Results of our pot trials have indicated that these insecticides provide good control of white grubs. 2. Know the risks Crops at highest risk: Our monitoring study confirms that planting in a site where the preceding crop was wattle carries the highest risk of white grub damage. Site history: Sites supporting wattle and sugarcane have enhanced nitrogen and (with wattle) organic matter making them ideal environments for abundant scarab larvae. The risk of white grub damage and postplant mortality is increased when eucalypt and pine is planted in sites following wattle or sugarcane. However, the risk where the preceding crop was eucalypt or pine is considerably less. 3. Avoid planting during high risk periods White grub related mortality coincides with seasonal adult beetle emergence, flight and oviposition that occurs prior or during planting. Hence, in the summer rainfall region, new plantings are most susceptible to white grub damage from December to April. Therefore, it is recommended, that if one or more risk factors are present, planting in the period from November to January should be avoided. Early summer (October) or late summer (early March) plantings do not coincide with peak beetle flight and should suffer less post-plant mortality due to white grub damage. 4. Modify planting practice Introducing a fallow period prior to planting and planting into a rip line can result in up to a five-fold reduction in the incidence of soil invertebrate pests. Moreover, a rip line can result in an 18-fold decrease in white grub incidence. Ripping of the topsoil has the same effect as the cultural practice of ploughing and disking, which has traditionally been used in sugarcane farming to reduce beetle numbers. However, mechanical soil disturbance and residue burning may negatively impact long term nutrient availability, reduce soil organic carbon, increase soil erosion and machinery impact 5. Weed management Avoiding broadcast post-emergent herbicide applications could reduce risk when planting in high risk sites. Broad spectrum herbicides create a ‘weed-free’ environment which divert feeding of resident white grub populations from weeds to young transplants. Retaining weeds that are not seriously competing with the planted seedlings, such as by a ring-hoe, may assist to mitigate high post plant mortality due to divergent white grub feeding. These studies were intended to identify an alternative FSC compliant integrated pest management strategy for the control of white grubs in plantation forest regeneration. We believe that results from pot trial and monitoring studies provide a firm foundation for the formulation of such a strategy. With the white grub research drawing to a close, our research focus will be concentrated on the use of exclusion plots to evaluate the impact of eucalypt canopy pests on growth and productivity. Related article: Illegal application of pesticides killing our bees
Combining the verbal and the visual to improve retention. Dual-coding theory suggests that both visual and verbal information is used to represent information. Visual and verbal information are processed differently and along distinct channels in the human mind, creating separate representations for information processed in each channel. With this in mind, each year group have created a Dual Coding schema for each of their topics. The schema is made up of simple, meaningful images linked with words which organises the content that will be learnt throughout the topic. Please click on your child's year group below to see the Dual Coding schema for their topic. In the Foundation Stage, they also use dual coding symbols across their curriculum where they feel it is effective.
Reinforcement, or the use of a reinforcer, is a process identified and used within the framework of operant conditioning. In its simplest form, reinforcement occurs if the preceding behavior increases by some measure. It is exclusively identified by its effect on a preceding behavior. If the behavior increases in frequency or probability, duration, strength, rate, or a similar measure, then the condition following the behavior is considered to be a reinforcer. The process of administering, providing access to, encountering, or withdrawing something that results in the increase in frequency, strength, or improvement of a preceding behavior is considered reinforcement. [Page 1396]Reinforcement theory is generally considered to have been developed and refined by B. F. Skinner, during the 1930s–1980s, within the context of behaviorism. He interpreted reinforcement ... Looks like you do not have access to this content.
An online school (virtual school or e-school or cyber-school) teaches students entirely or primarily online or through the Internet. It has been defined as “education that uses one or more technologies to deliver instruction to students who are separated from the instructor and to support regular and substantive interaction between the students. Online education exists all around the world and is used for all levels of education (K-12, college, or graduate school). This type of learning enables the individuals to earn transferable credits, take recognized examinations, or advance to the next level of education over the Internet. Virtual education is most commonly used at the high school or college level. Students who are of the age 30 or older, tend to study on online programs at higher rates. This group represents 41% of the online education population, while 35.5% of students ages 24–29 and 24.5% of students ages 15–23 participate in virtual education. Virtual education is becoming increasing used worldwide. There are currently more than 4,700 colleges and universities that provide online courses to their students. In 2015, more than 6 million students were taking at least one course online, this number grew by 3.9% from the previous year. 29.7% of all higher education students are taking at least one distance course. The total number of students studying on a campus exclusively dropped by 931,317 people between the years 2012 and 2015. Experts say that because the number of students studying at the college level is growing, there will also be an increase in the number of students enrolled in distance learning. Instructional models vary, ranging from distance learning types which provide study materials for independent self-paced study, to live, interactive classes where students communicate with a teacher in a class group lesson. Class sizes range widely from a small group of 6 pupils or students to hundreds in a virtual school. The courses that are independent and self paced are called asynchronous courses. Typically for this type of learning, the students are given the assignments and information, and are expected to complete the assignments by the due date. This is done on their own time. There is no scheduled time when the class meets. Usually the only interactions that takes place are through discussion boards, blogs, and wikis. On the other hand, synchronous online courses happen in real time. The instructor and students all interact online at the same time. This is done either through text, video, or audio chat. Therefore these lessons are socially constructed. In addition to the scheduled class time, there is usually additional assignments to complete. Hybrid, sometimes also called blended, courses are when students learn and interact both in person and online. Theses classes meet in person during the semester in addition to computer based communication. Fore more info click here
A complex speech sound or perhaps glide which usually commences with just one Irish vowel and progressively develops to a new Irish vowel while in the very same syllable, as (oi) in boil or (i) in fine. A diphthong when it comes to Irish language (literally indicates “two sounds” or “two tones”), typically known as a gliding vowel. Irish diphthong is recognized as two neighboring vowel sounds occurring while in the very same syllable. Basically, a Irish diphthong is a vowel having two varying objectives – which is, your tongue moves in the course of the pronunciation of your vowel. Learn More Diphthongs present in Irish language differenciate with monophthongs, while the tongue does not rotate and simply one particular vowel sound is actually heard in a syllable. Where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables-for instance, in the English word re-elect the result is identified as break, and not as a diphthong. Learn Irish Language Online Diphthongs in Irish Language generally form when ever individual Irish vowels are generally operated mutually in rapid conversation during a dialogue in Irish Language. \|Diphthongs are generally irregular and can be learned only by experience. For example, 'ai' in "Corcaigh" (the city and county of Cork) is pronounced like the 'i' in "dig" but the 'ai' in "faic" (nothing) is pronounced like the 'a' in "hack", and the 'ai' in "haigh!" (hi!, transliteration of a loan-word) is pronounced like the 'i' in "high".\|\| Select the hyperlinks below to find a list of beneficial Irish travel keyword phrases that are sorted by category. For each holiday word or phrase in Irish, you will find the English interpretation.
Crocodile hunter Steve Irwin's well-publicised death in 2006 from a stingray attack only heightened public fascination with the animals. Their stings, located on the tail, are sharp, with backward-pointing serrations and venom from mucous secretions at their bases. Most human stings result from bathers stepping on an unsuspecting stingray, innocently resting on the sea bottom, which produces a defensive reflex of the tail forward. But stingrays are not limited to saltwater. Although the Potamotrygonidae family of freshwater stingrays has been known since 1843, two remarkable new species from South America were recently described. Both are nearly circular in shape, the most round disc of any of the current tally of approximately 200 known species of stingrays. The genus was named Heliotrygon, a combination of helio – sun – and trygon, which means ray. Although the two species are new to science, specimens of the genus have shown up in the aquarium fish trade under common names such as "round" or "pancake" rays. These species have tiny eyes and live in murky waters of the central channel areas of Amazonian rivers, coming closer to shore mostly at night to feed. Even though they have reduced mouths that are located away from their snouts, they eat fish almost exclusively. You may be asking how a flat ray, with a tiny mouth located on the underside of its body, could catch fish. Using their "lateral line system", sense organs that can detect movements and pressure changes in surrounding water, they spot their prey, thrust upward, lift the snouts and quickly open their small but very strong mouths to swallow a fish almost whole. One specimen examined by x-ray had a large catfish in its gut, spines and all. Although these rays are the last thing seen by many fish, they present no danger to us. The stings of Heliotrygon gomesi are among the smallest of all stingrays. A specimen 70cm across has a sting only about as long as the fingernail of your pinky and only one-tenth as wide, incapable of inflicting much damage. Dr Marcelo de Carvalho of the Universidade de São Paulo, one of the scientists who discovered the new species, says that the discovery highlights two important aspects of modern biodiversity science: "That we still have much to discover and that there are too few researchers devoting themselves to this type of research." De Carvalho says that fieldwork over the past decade has led to the discovery of 15 new species in this specific stingray family. He stresses: "We're talking here of large stingrays, up to one metre wide. There are a mere 10 research groups working on the taxonomy and diversity of sharks and rays worldwide, even though much collecting and fieldwork is needed to understand the diversity of the group. Part of the challenge is remarkable genetic diversity: no two specimens, even those collected side by side and of the same gender, size, and species, are entirely alike. This great variation has to be properly understood before we can know the true diversity of the group." Ecologically, because stingrays have internal fertilisation and reproduce slowly compared to many freshwater fishes, they are more easily threatened by environmental degradation or illegal harvesting by the aquarium industry. "They may be good indicators of general environmental health, as top predators usually are," says de Carvalho. "And all that rests of the shoulders of good descriptive taxonomy and biodiversity science." Quentin Wheeler is director of the International Institute for Species Exploration, Arizona State University
Where was the Trail of Tears located? Similarly, where does the Trail of Tears begin and end? General Winfield Scott sped the removal along as well as put many Indians into stockades along the way. The Trail of Tears found its end in Oklahoma. Nearly a fourth of the Cherokee population died along the march. It ended around March of 1839. Furthermore, how long was the Trail of Tears? It eventually took almost three months to cross the 60 miles (97 kilometres) on land between the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. The trek through southern Illinois is where the Cherokee suffered most of their deaths. In respect to this, where did the trail of tears take place? In 1838 and 1839, as part of Andrew Jackson's Indian removal policy, the Cherokee nation was forced to give up its lands east of the Mississippi River and to migrate to an area in present-day Oklahoma. The Cherokee people called this journey the "Trail of Tears," because of its devastating effects. In which era Does the trail of tears belong? Answer: Trail of Tears, in U.S. history, the forced relocation during the 1830s of Eastern Woodlands Indians of the Southeast region of the United States (including Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole, among other nations) to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River.
In this quarter-length course, we study how water interacts within different Earth systems. The course will focus on how the water cycle works with the rock cycle to reshape the land around you. You will learn about precipitation, lakes, streams, rivers, groundwater, watersheds, atmospheric processes, coastal regions, and aquatic ecology. You will also consider wastewater, conservation, and water shortages, and apply the information and skills you learn to solve real world problems. Course activities include investigation of the properties of water, real and virtual labs, and hydrology focused problem solving. Course materials: NOAA.gov, EPA.gov, SI.edu, and other science sites. Virtual labs are conducted online. Any supplies, including a ruler and protractor, can be found easily or made at home. Standards met: This course meets some of the standards and benchmarks in the following strands of the 2019 Minnesota Science Standards for Grades 9-12: Earth and Space Science. Honors opportunity: Yes Prerequisites: None. Before a student can enroll in a MNOHS science course, MNOHS must receive a permission form signed by a parent or guardian (if the student is under 18).
Darwin's Theory of Evolution Evolution, as understood by biologists, is the change through time that occurs in populations of organisms in response to changing environments. The changes, coded in the molecules of DNA, are transmitted from generation to generation and over the history of the Earth have resulted in progressively more complex life forms. The name of Charles Darwin and his theory of natural selection are inexorably attached to evolution and, together with the mechanisms of genetics, form the basis of the modern theory of evolution. Simplifying and paraphrasing from Darwin's book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, and adding current interpretations, the main points of his theory are: all life came from one or a few kinds of simple organisms; new species arise gradually from preexisting species; the result of competition among species is extinction of the less fit; gaps in the fossil record account for the lack of transitional forms. These assertions set the stage for the next part of the theory, why life evolves: the number of individuals increases at a geometric rate; populations of organisms tend to remain the same size because the resources are limited, and only the fittest survive; the survivors are variable, and those that survive reproduce, perpetuating the favorable traits. Natural selection, according to Darwin, is similar to artificial selection. The environment acted as the selecting force in natural selection. Unlike the relatively rapid selection pressures instituted by breeders, however, natural selection took long periods of time to accomplish change. Darwin was familiar with the then new conclusions of geologists that the Earth was far older than previously thought, which gave his theory of natural selection sufficient time in which to work. A major problem was an explanation for how the favorable selections were perpetuated. In the 1860s the idea that offspring were blends or mixtures of the traits of their parents, the so‐called “blending theory of inheritance,” was unable to accommodate transmittal of favorable adaptations from one generation to the next. With botanist Gregor Mendel's ideas and the development of genetics, the inheritance portion of Darwin's theory no longer posed a problem.
Breast Cancer Definition Breast cancer is a disease that can affect both men and women, although it’s far more common in the latter. When cells within the breast become abnormal and multiply uncontrollably, a tumor is formed. If this tumor is untreated, cancer can spread from the breast to other areas in the body in a process called metastasis. There are numerous types of breast cancer, and they are identified by the malignant cells within the breast. Most varieties of breast cancer originate in the ducts that carry milk to the nipple, but others start in the milk glands themselves. Less common varieties start in other breast tissues. Breast Cancer Stages Understanding the causes of breast cancer will better help you understand the various stages and how that information relates to treatment and prognosis. Breast cancer stages are broken down into five categories, Stage 0 to Stage IV. Just like other forms of cancer, no two breast cancers are exactly the same. Your doctor will prescribe a series of tests on tissues and the cancer itself to develop a profile of your specific cancer. Some tests are done after your biopsy, and others will take place after your lumpectomy or mastectomy. The cumulative results of these tests become known as your “pathology report.” This information is also used to determine breast cancer stages. There are four characteristics that also help determine each of the breast cancer stages. These include: ● The cancer’s size ● Whether it’s non-invasive or invasive ● Whether it’s spread to the lymph nodes ● Whether it’s spread to other areas in your body other than the breast If your breast cancer is confined to the breast, it may be referred to as “local.” If it’s spread to nearby lymph nodes, like those in your armpit, the cancer may be referred to as “regional.” If cancer is found in other parts of your body, your doctor may refer to it as “distant.” Understanding which stage your cancer is in will help you and your doctor determine possible treatment options and your overall prognosis (the most likely outcome). How breast cancer stages are defined offer a common framework that makes it easier to understand how your cancer compares to that of other patients. Still, your cancer is unique, so it’s important to weigh treatment decisions carefully. Breaking Down Breast Cancer Stages What follows is a brief overview of each of the breast cancer stages. Stage 0 Breast Cancer – These are non-invasive breast cancers. The cancer is localized to the breast in which they started, with no evidence of spreading to any neighboring tissue. This includes both cancerous and non-cancerous cells. Stage I Breast Cancer – This describes invasive breast cancer cells that are invading normal breast tissue surrounding the tumor. Stage I breast cancer is further broken down into State IA and Stage IB. If the tumor measures 2 centimeters or less and has not spread throughout the breast or nearby lymph nodes, it’s referred to as Stage IA. Stage IB describes invasive breast cancer that meets the following criteria: ● In the absence of a tumor in the breast, small groups of cancer cells smaller than 2 millimeters but larger than 0.2 millimeters are found in the lymph nodes. ● There is a breast tumor smaller than 2 centimeters in size, and there are small groups of cancer cells smaller than 2 millimeters but larger than 0.2 millimeters in the lymph nodes. In Stage I breast cancer, invading cancer cells measuring less than 1 millimeter in size have just started to invade tissue outside of the lobule or duct lining. This is called ‘microscopic invasion.” Stage II Breast Cancer – As with Stage 1, this stage is broken down into two subcategories – Stage IIA, and Stage IIB. Each is considered an invasive form of breast cancer. The following criteria define various forms of Stage IIA Breast Cancer: ● No breast tumor is identified, but cancer is found in 1 to 3 axillary lymph nodes that are at least 2 millimeters in size. Relative lymph nodes are located under the patient’s arm or near their breastbone. ● The tumor is no larger than 2 centimeters and has spread to the lymph nodes under the arm. ● The tumor is under 5 centimeters in size but larger than 2 centimeters, and has not spread to any lymph nodes. Stage IIB Breast Cancer is defined as: ● A tumor smaller than 5 centimeters, yet larger than 2 centimeters, and a small group of cancer cells at least .2 millimeters but not larger than 2 millimeters in size also found in the lymph nodes. ● A tumor no larger than 5 centimeters and larger than 2 centimeters, and cancer that has spread to 1 to 3 lymph nodes in the armpit or near the breastbone. ● A tumor that is bigger than 5 centimeters but hasn’t spread to any lymph nodes. Stage III Breast Cancer Stage III breast cancer is broken down into 3 subcategories, Stage IIIA, Stage IIIB, and Stage IIIC. All are invasive. Stage IIIA defines breast cancer that fits any of these sets of criteria: ● The breast tumor may be any size or not present at all, but cancer is found in from 4 to 9 axillary or breastbone lymph nodes. ● The breast tumor is bigger than 5 centimeters in size, and small groups of cancer cells are found in the lymph nodes that measure from .2 to 2 millimeters. ● The breast tumor is bigger than 5 centimeters in size, and cancer has spread to 1 to 3 axillary or breastbone lymph nodes. Stage IIIB breast cancer refers to cancers that meet the following sets of criteria: ● The breast tumor is any size and has spread to the skin of the breast or chest wall. There is also an ulcer or swelling. ● The cancer may have spread to up to 9 lymph nodes in either the breastbone or under the arm (axillary). ● The breast cancer is “inflammatory.” This means that a large portion of the breast may exhibit signs of reddening, feels warm, is swollen, or that cancer cells have spread to lymph nodes or the skin. Stage IIIC breast cancer is defined as any of the following: ● There may be no sign of breast cancer, or the tumor may be of any size and could have spread to the skin of the breast and/or the chest wall AND any of the following… ● Cancer has spread to 10 or more axillary lymph nodes ● Cancer has spread to lymph nodes located below or above the collarbone ● Cancer has spread to breastbone or axillary lymph nodes Stage IV Breast Cancer This describes breast cancer that has spread beyond the regional area and lymph nodes surrounding the breast to other organs of the body, including lungs, skin, bones, lymph nodes, bones, brain, or liver. Stage IV breast cancer may also be described as “metastatic” or “advanced.” A Few Words about the TNM Staging System TNM stands for Tumor, Node, Metastasis. The TNM staging system is used by researchers to provide more detailed information about how a particular cancer looks and behaves. Your healthcare provider may or may not mention TNM classification, but it’s more commonly used when patients who participate in clinical trials. The TNM staging system seeks to codify information about the cancer into the three categories that comprise its acronym. The size of the tumor is measured by T. Lymph node involvement is measured by N. If the cancer has metastasized (moved to other parts of the body), it is measured with the M. The primary tumor (T), is categorized as follows: ● TX means no tumor was found ● T0 means no evidence of the primary tumor exists ● Tis means the tumor has not yet grown into healthy breast tissue (in situ) ● T1, T2, T3, T4 identify the size of the breast tumor and the level to which it’s grown into neighboring tissue. Larger T-numbers means more growth. The (N) is categorized as follows, and refers to lymph node involvement: ● NX means nearby lymph nodes can’t be located or measured ● N0 identifies cancer-free lymph nodes ● N1, N2, N3 identify the quantity of affected lymph nodes. Larger numbers represent greater lymph node affectation. The (M) relates information related to metastasis: ● MX means metastasis cannot be found or measured ● M0 means there is no metastasis present in distant parts of the body ● M1 means that metastasis is present. This information is used by your pathologist to assign a State to your particular breast cancer. Breast Cancer Statistics How likely are you to get breast cancer? How effective are breast cancer treatments? How likely are men to get breast cancer? There are a number of statistics readily available that illustrate just how widespread breast cancer is in the United States. What follows are some interesting facts related to both non-invasive and invasive breast cancer. ● Breast cancer affects 1 in 8 women in the United States at some point in their life. ● It is estimated that in 2018, more than 63,000 cases of non-invasive breast cancer, and over 266,000 cases of invasive breast cancer, will be diagnosed in women in the United States. ● A man has only a 1 in 1,000 chance of being diagnosed with breast cancer. ● Breast cancer incidence rates have been dropping since the year 2000. Some medical professionals believe this is due to the reduced use of hormone replacement therapy, which suggests a link between HRT and increased risk of breast cancer. ● Death rates are also decreasing among women suffering from breast cancer. A little over 40,000 women are expected to die from breast cancer in 2018. Better awareness, better screening, and better treatment are all cited as factors for reducing death rates. ● Breast cancer death rates are higher for women than any other form of cancer except lung cancer. ● African American women are more likely to die from breast cancer than Caucasian women. ● If a woman has a mother, sister, or daughter that’s been diagnosed with breast cancer, her risk of the disease is doubled. ● Nearly 85% of breast cancer occurs in women with family history of the disease. In these cases, breast cancer is due to genetic mutations associated with age and external factors rather than those that are inherited. ● Age and gender are the most significant risk factors for developing breast cancer. Causes of Breast Cancer The causes of breast cancer are unclear to doctors and scientists, but there are certain risk factors that can be identified. Even so, high risk candidates for breast cancer seldom get the disease, while many women with limited risk factors do. A risk factor is anything that may increase a person’s risk of getting breast cancer. Some of the more common risk factors include a family history of breast cancer and simply getting older. Some risk factors can’t be avoided while others, like drinking alcohol or smoking cigarettes, can be avoided. Women who have certain types of benign breast lumps or who have previously had breast cancer are also at higher risk. Women with direct relatives who have suffered from breast cancer are also far more likely to develop the disease. If you have a family member with breast cancer, then you may have genetic markers that make you more likely to develop the disease. There is a clear link to hormones within your body and breast cancer. As a woman ages, her exposure to estrogen and progesterone rises and falls. If a woman begins menstruating before the age of 12, her risk of breast cancer increases. This is also true when: ● A woman has her first child after the age of 30 ● A woman stops menstruating after the age of 55 ● A woman whose menstrual cycle is shorter or longer than 26-29 days There is some debate on whether risk factors increase or decrease when dietary choices enter the mix. Some studies indicate that high-fat diets increase breast cancer risk factors. Obesity and alcohol consumption may also play a role. Still other studies show that woman who limit their daily fat calorie macros to 20% to 30% reduce their chances of getting breast cancer. Obviously, there is still much to learn in regards to causes of breast cancer. There is promising work in some areas of alternative breast cancer treatments, which seem to indicate that diet plays an even stronger role than traditionally suspected. Breast Cancer Symptoms – Signs of breast cancer Most people think that breast cancers always begin with a noticeable lump, but this is not always true. Sometimes there are no symptoms at all, which underscores the importance of routine screening mammograms. Mammograms are capable of detecting cancers at their earliest stages, often before symptoms develop, and even before they’re felt. Still, it’s important to know how your breasts normally look and feel, so that you can identify potential symptoms if and when they appear. The most common of breast cancer symptoms is a new mass or lump on the breast. If this mass is hard, has irregular edges, and doesn’t cause any noticeable pain, it is more likely to be cancer. However, these masses may also cause pain, sometimes significant pain. There are other possible breast cancer symptoms to be aware of. These include: ● Swelling in all or part of the breast (regardless of whether a lump is present) ● Dimpling or irritation in the skin (this may have an “orange peel” wrinkling) ● Pain in the breast or nipple ● Turning inward of the nipple (also called nipple retraction) ● Thickening, scaling, or redness in the breast’s skin or nipple ● Nipple discharge of anything other than breast milk It’s also possible to notice lumps or swelling in the lymph nodes under the arm or around the collar bone area. This could be a sign of breast cancer that has spread into a lymph node. It may also be unrelated to breast cancer, yet still potentially cancerous as in cases of lymphoma and sarcoma. If you notice any swelling in your lymph nodes, you should have them checked by your healthcare provider without delay. Even mammograms are incapable of detecting every form of breast cancer, so it’s important to recognize any changes in your breasts. You should also familiarize yourself with these signs of breast cancer, so you can do everything you can to detect a tumor as early as possible. Triple Negative Breast Cancer – An Overview The three most common receptors that fuel breast cancer growth are estrogen, progesterone, and the epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2). When none of these receptors are present in the tumor, this is referred to as a triple negative breast cancer. Triple negative breast cancers cannot be treated with drugs that target these receptors, nor are they receptive to hormone therapy. This leaves chemotherapy and alternative breast cancer treatments as possible options. Some studies seem to indicate that triple negative breast cancer responds better to chemotherapy in its early stages than other varieties of cancer. Triple negative breast cancer is more prevalent than many people realize, as it occurs in about 10% to 20% of diagnosed breast cancers. It’s also more likely to affect African Americans, Hispanics, younger people, and patients with a BRCA1 gene mutation. Unfortunately, triple negative breast cancer can be more difficult to treat due to its aggressive nature and ability to spread and recur in many patients. Breast Cancer Screening and Prevention The best way to prevent suffering the devastating effects of breast cancer is to find it in its earliest stages. Screening for breast cancer can be done using any method where a woman’s breasts are checked for cancer before signs of cancer develop. Health professionals agree that the best way to screen for breast cancer is with a mammogram. A mammogram is an x-ray of the breasts that is able to pinpoint breast cancer before it’s large enough to feel or cause any symptoms in the patient. It is proven that regular mammograms reduce the risk of dying from breast cancer. Breast Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment Women at average risk of developing breast cancer between the ages of 50 to 74 should receive a mammogram once every two years. Woman between 40 and 49 should speak to their healthcare provider about when to start and how frequently to get a mammogram. Women who are high-risk candidates for breast cancer may also want to seek screening in the form of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). An MRI uses radio waves and magnets to take detailed pictures of the breast in an effort to find cancer in its earliest stages. MRIs are routinely used with mammograms to screen women with high risk of developing breast cancer, but not for women with average risk or below. Breast exams are another form of screening, and can either be self-administered or administered by a healthcare professional. Clinical and personal breast exams seek to find areas on the breast that have lumps, are painful, or have changed in size. If you notice any of these symptoms when performing a self-screening breast exam, you should immediately inform your doctor. Keep in mind that statistics show self-exams and clinical exams do not lower the risk of dying from breast cancer, so you should take note of other screening options that apply to your situation. While there is no way to change genetic risk factors for breast cancer, there are lifestyle choices that may help prevent the risk of acquiring the disease. These changes are worth considering no matter your personal risk factors, but women at high risk for breast cancer should seriously take note of their lifestyle choices. ● Alcohol Consumption – The more alcohol you drink, the higher your chances of developing breast cancer. Research indicates that high risk patients should drink no more than one drink per day. ● Smoking – Evidence indicates that smoking increases the risk of developing breast cancer. There are numerous other benefits to quitting smoking, many of which are cancer prevention related. ● Weight – There is a proven link between obesity and breast cancer risk. ● Activity Level – Exercise not only helps you maintain a healthy weight, it also benefits the body in numerous other ways that can help prevent the onset of cancer. ● Breastfeeding – There is clinical evidence that suggests breastfeeding plays a fundamental role in breast cancer prevention. Breast feeding for a longer duration increases this overall effect. ● Hormone Therapy – If you have menopause, and take hormone therapy to help with symptoms, you may want to seek other medical options. Studies show that hormone therapy of only three years can increase the risk of developing breast cancer. ● Exposure to Radiation and Pollution – You should only have tests that use radiation when necessary. This reduces your overall exposure to radiation, which can have an adverse effect on your health. The same is true of environmental pollution, some of which can have a cumulative effect on your body. ● Diet – Obviously, a healthy diet will help you control your weight, but some foods may even decrease your risk of developing cancer. Some oil-rich and plant-based diets have also been associated with risk mitigation. There are even some alternative breast cancer treatments based around diet. Alternative Breast Cancer Treatment Traditional breast cancer treatments focus on the disease, not the patient. Some say that this is problematic, because every patient’s breast cancer is unique to them. While traditional drug therapy or chemotherapy may work for one patient, it may totally fail for another. For this reason, many patients don’t actually die because of their malignancy, but because of the side effects resulting from treatment. Further complicating matters is the fact that treatment may only work for a period of time before the breast cancer returns. Alternative breast cancer treatments seek non-traditional means to fight the specific cancer in each individual patient. Sometimes alternative treatments use a combination of traditional and non-traditional treatments, depending on the stage and severity of the cancer. Some alternative breast cancer treatments focus on the body’s natural ability to heal itself. The goal is the bolster the body’s immune system so that it naturally fights and kills the breast cancer cells. Alternative breast cancer treatment are also called “complementary” methods. These are alternative treatment methods that seek to relieve symptoms and improve the patient’s quality of life as treatment progresses. The reason they are called “alternative” is because they fall outside of what is considered “mainstream medicine.” Some other forms of alternative breast cancer treatments include: ● Traditional medicine ● Special diets The choice to pursue alternative breast cancer treatment is ultimately up to the patient. Before entering into any breast cancer treatment protocol, you should explore your options and seek medical advice from a health professional whom you trust. Vitamins and Supplements Used in the Treatment of Breast Cancer As mentioned above, vitamins and supplements may be used to treat breast cancer, or reduce the symptoms associated with the disease and its treatment. There is a long list of vitamins and supplements used for these purposes, with varying degrees of evidence that support their effectiveness. Some of the more promising vitamins and supplements used to treat breast cancer include beta-carotene, olive, soy, and Vitamin A. There are many others that may help, but there aren’t enough studies to prove their effectiveness. Some of these include black cohosh, Brussels sprouts, collards, ginseng, kale, Vitamin C, and Vitamin K, among others. One of the best ways to ensure you’re getting necessary vitamins is by maintaining a healthy diet full of fresh vegetables. It’s also important to talk to your doctor before considering any supplement or vitamin to help with cancer treatment or alleviating symptoms. Natural Remedies that May Help Breast Cancer Not only do those suffering from breast cancer often seek natural remedies for prevention and treatment, they also seek ways to counter the adverse of effects of traditional treatments like chemotherapy. Even if treatments are successful, breast cancer patients may be left with a number of side effects that can make life feel like a struggle. Common side effects associated with many mainstream breast cancer treatments include: ● Chronic fatigue syndrome ● Breast pain Diet plays a considerable role in a patient’s overall health when dealing with the side effects of treatment. It’s important to make sure that you’re getting enough calories in your diet. These should be divided between proteins, carbohydrates, and healthy fats. Also referred to as “macros,” your doctor will help you better understand how essential foods ensure you get the right vitamins in their proper doses. It’s also important to recognize that exercise is its own natural remedy. Cancer treatments can decrease your energy and make it difficult to sleep. For the body to combat these side effects of treatment, it needs to be in optimal health. An active lifestyle will help you increase endurance, sleep better, and reduce your stress levels. It may also reduce your risk of breast cancer recurrence. Other natural remedies are anything that help you deal with pain, and can include ice packs, warm compresses, or even an Epsom salt bath. Increasing your comfort level will help you deal with the nasty side effects associated with treatment, which in turn may help you heal faster. Breast Cancer in Men For most men, breast cancer symptoms are identical to that of their female counterparts. However, because breast cancer in men is so rare, they often don’t seek treatment until severe symptoms like bleeding from the nipple are encountered. It’s rare for men under 35 years of age to develop breast cancer, and most cases involve men over 60. Many of the same risk factors affect men that affect women, but men may also be at higher risk of developing breast cancer if any of the following applies: ● They take estrogen ● There is enlargement of their breasts (gynecomastia) ● They have Klinefelter’s Syndrome ● They have cirrhosis of the liver ● They have a disease of the testicles, injury to the testicles, or an undescended testicle Symptoms are similar to that of women, so if a man notices a lump on their breast they should have it immediately checked out by a doctor. Diagnosis and treatment are also very similar. If you have any questions or concerns about breast cancer, schedule a free consultation at Causenta Cancer Treatment Center today. “There is no cookie cutter or one-size-fits-all approach at Causenta.” Watch this 3-minute video to see how different our doctors’ treatment philosophy is. 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Scientists have discovered more than 100 new genes that determine hair pigmentation variation. A study published in Nature Genetics by researchers from Kings College London, (UK) and Erasmus MC University Medical Center (Rotterdam, Netherlands) has identified 124 new genes responsible for determining hair color variation, or pigmentation. Many conditions – from skin cancer to Crohn’s disease – have been associated with pigmentation. The heritable component of pigmentation has long been known but has been limited to only a few genes. The discovery of these 124 new genes could help scientists to understand the mechanisms behind these conditions. Co-author David Hinds explains, “While the genetics of hair color is an interesting problem in itself, we hope that better understanding of the biology of melanin pigmentation will be applicable to studies of diseases that interact with pigmentation, such as skin cancer or vitiligo.” Researchers gathered data from a wide range of sources, including UK Biobank and 23andMe Inc., to generate a sample of 300,000 people. These data included their DNA and reported hair color. When they compared the genetic variation at millions of loci across the participant’s genome to their associated hair color, the team identified more than 100 genes not previously associated with pigmentation. They also found that the new genes were better predictors of hair color than the old associated genes. Other than understanding disease the authors hope that their work will be helpful to forensic scientists. “Besides substantially increasing our understanding of human pigmentation genetics in general, finding these new hair color genes is also important for further increasing the accuracy of hair color prediction from DNA traces in future forensic applications, which can help to find unknown perpetrators of crime,” concluded Manfred Kayser, co-lead author of the study.
Featured Sources Used in the Classroom: Everyone loves Tim & Moby! Fun, engaging videos on a variety of topics. It is important that students know what is going on in current events. My homeroom will start some days by watching a student-friendly version of current events from all over the globe. It is a fun and engaging way of learning about the news. Click on the icon to the right to see the day's latest current events. 2020 - 2021 Social Studies Pacing Guide Marking Period 1: Unit 1 - Cultural Diversity What was the global impact of resources, innovations and inventions during the Age of Exploration? Marking Period 2: Unit 2 - The Struggle for Freedom, Equality, and Social Justice Marking Period 3: Unit 3 - The Impact of Geography on History Marking Period 4: Unit 4 - An American National Identity Discovery Education Experience provides engaging high-quality content, ready-to-use digital lessons, creative collaboration tools, and practical professional learning resources to give educators everything they need to facilitate instruction and create a lasting educational impact in any learning environment. A variety of engaging content that is adjustable to the Lexile (reading level) of students. Click on the logo to learn more about Newela. Students log into Newsela using their Google accounts. Please see the "Distance Learning" page for all social studies lessons week-by-week. What is PBL? It stands for Project Based Learning. In a nutshell PBL is where students find a solution to a question using investigation in order to solve a real world problem. How will this look in 5th Grade? FUN!!!! The major themes this year will be of Cultural Diversity and an American National Identity. This includes: Students will use inquiry and investigation in the areas of history, civics, economics, and geography. Fifth Grade Social Studies Standards Here is a list of social studies skills students learn in fifth grade! These skills are organized into categories, and you can move your mouse over any skill name to preview the skill. To start practicing, just click on any link. IXL will track your score, and you will get immediate feedback as you practice! In class we will supplement our learning using the Scott Foresman Social Studies text: The United States. Unit 1: Early Life, East and West Unit 2: Connections Across Continents Unit 3: Colonial Life in North America Unit 4: The American Revolution Unit 5: Life in a New Nation
With the emphasis on teaching for exams and preparing for inspections increasingly evident, the age-old artform of storytelling is showing signs of decline in British classrooms. Whilst helping children to achieve top results is important, it’s also crucial that we don’t sacrifice the innovation and freedom that comes with this powerful learning tool. Despite its name, storytelling isn’t as simple as reading a story out loud. Instead, it incorporates rich language, physical movement, imagination, emotion and conceptualisation in order to reveal key details and turn words into visual imagery, also integrating collaboration as a means of encouraging input from students. This format of teaching is so valuable that there are even Storytelling Schools that focus on using it as a springboard for learning, assisting students to master both language and subject content. What’s more, storytelling doesn’t just apply to reading and writing. By using it to engage students and welcome participation, it can be put into practice across the entire curriculum, even in subjects that traditionally lack narratives, such as maths and science. Whilst it can be tricky to perfect this method, it’s very easy to begin delivering it in your classes – all you need to do is explore ways to make topics more exciting and demonstrate how facts, figures and information can be linked to one another. Here are some tips for creating impactful stories that children will enjoy and remember: - Build a strong series of core elements that are at their most effective when in a specific order, leaving room for queries and creativity. - To get students invested in a story, you must show your own excitement and passion from the start and throughout. - Modulate your voice, make regular eye contact and use gestures to bring the subject matter to life. - Metaphors and creative license add value to a story, providing they don’t disrupt the flow or obscure the facts. - Rather than a nonstop string of statements, include the occasional question and invite the class to finish some sentences that revolve around previously learned themes. - As with any story, there should always be an ending that sums everything up and provides food for thought. - If possible, set a task for children to write their own mini story at the end of a lesson or module, as this will allow them to show their understanding and express individual perspectives. - Most importantly, make it fun and memorable, as this will support your students in retaining the fundamental details that they need for exams and life alike. If you still need convincing that storytelling is at the foundation of all information, simply pick up a newspaper, go to a favourite blog, log onto your social media channels, watch TV or simply ask a friend how their day was. You’ll soon see that people don’t simply list the particulars without adding visual triggers and expressive vocabulary. And if we as adults use storytelling on a daily basis, it seems only logical and fair that teachers champion its implementation in the classroom too. Get in touch We specialise in marketing and design for the education sector. To find out more about how we can help, get in touch at email@example.com or call us on 0161 507 3365.
Emergency Management is the discipline and profession of applying science, technology, planning, and management to deal with extreme events that can kill or injure large numbers of people, do extensive damage, and disrupt a community. Mitigation refers to activities that actually eliminate or reduce the chance of occurrence or the effects of a disaster. Recent research has shown that much can be done to either prevent major emergencies or disasters from ever happening or if nothing else, at least reduce the damaging impact if they cannot be prevented. The planning of how to respond in case an emergency or disaster occurs and working to increase resources available to respond effectively. Preparedness activities are designed to help save lives and minimize damage by preparing people to respond appropriately when an emergency is imminent. To respond properly, Gloucester County must have a plan for response, trained personnel to respond and necessary resources with which to respond. Response is the activities occurring during and immediately after a disaster. These activities are designed to provide emergency assistance to victims of the event and reduce the likely hood of secondary damage. Gloucester County Office of Emergency Management, Gloucester County Police, and Local Fire, Police, and Emergency Medical Service providers are primary responders. This is the final phase of the emergency management cycle. Recovery continues until all systems return to normal or near normal. Short term recovery returns vital life support systems to minimal operating standards. Long term recovery from a disaster may go on for years until the entire disaster area is completely redeveloped, either as it was in the past or for entirely new purposes that are less disaster-prone.
A dowel is a cylindrical rod, usually made from wood, plastic, or metal. In its original manufactured form, a dowel is called a dowel rod. Dowel rods are often cut into short lengths called dowel pins. Dowels are commonly used as structural reinforcements in cabinet making and in numerous other applications, including: - Furniture shelf supports - Moveable game pieces (i.e. pegs) - Hangers for items such as clothing, key rings, and tools - Wheel axles in toys - Detents in gymnastics grips - Supports for tiered wedding cakes The traditional tool for making dowels is a dowel plate, an iron (or better, hardened tool steel) plate with a hole having the size of the desired dowel. To make a dowel, a piece of wood is split or whittled to a size slightly bigger than desired and then driven through the hole in the dowel plate. The sharp edges of the hole shear off the excess wood. A second approach to cutting dowels is to rotate a piece of oversized stock past a fixed knife, or alternatively, to rotate the knife around the stock. Machines based on this principle emerged in the 19th century. Frequently, these are small bench-mounted tools. For modest manufacturing volumes, wood dowels are typically manufactured on industrial dowel machines based on the same principles as the rotary cutters described above. Such machines may employ interchangeable cutting heads of varying diameters, thus enabling the machines to be quickly changed to manufacture different dowel diameters. Typically, the mechanism is open-ended, with material guides at the machine's entry and exit to enable fabrication of continuous dowel rod of unlimited length. Since the 19th century, some of these dowel machines have had power feed mechanisms to move the stock past the cutting mechanism. High-volume dowel manufacturing is done on a wood shaper, which simultaneously forms multiple dowels from a single piece of rectangular stock (i.e., wood). These machines employ two wide, rotating cutting heads, one above the stock and one below it. The heads have nearly identical cutting profiles so that each will form an array of adjoined, side-by-side "half dowels". The heads are aligned to each other and one head is shaped to make deeper cuts along the dowel edges so as to part the stock into individual dowel rods, resulting in a group of dowel rods emerging in parallel at the machine's output. The wooden dowel rod used in woodworking applications is commonly cut into dowel pins, which are used to reinforce joints and support shelves and other components in cabinet making. Some woodworkers make their own dowel pins, while others purchase dowel pins precut to the required length and diameter. When dowels are glued into blind holes, a very common case in dowel-based joinery, there must be a path for air and excess glue to escape when the dowel is pressed into place. If no provision is made to relieve the hydraulic pressure of air and glue, hammering the dowel home or clamping the joint can split the wood. An old solution to this problem is to plane a flat on the side of the dowel; some sources suggest planing the flat on the rough stock before the final shaping of the round dowel. Some dowel plates solve the problem by cutting a groove in the side of the dowel as it is forced through; this is done by a groove screw, a pointed screw intruding from the side into the dowel cutting opening. Some dowel pins are Fluted with multiple parallel grooves along their length to serve the same purpose. When two pieces of wood are to be joined by dowels embedded in blind holes, there are numerous methods for aligning the holes. For example, pieces of shot may be placed between the wood pieces to produce indentations when the pieces are clamped together; after the clamp is released, the indentations indicate the center points for drilling. Dowel centers are simple and inexpensive tools for aligning opposing blind holes. Various commercial systems, such as Dowelmax, have been devised to solve this problem. The word dowel was used in Middle English; it appears in Wycliffe's Bible translation (circa 1382-1395) in a list of the parts of a wheel: "...and the spokis, and dowlis of tho wheelis..." Cognates with other Germanic languages suggest that the word is much older (deuvel in Dutch, Dübel in German). Wooden dowels have been used in manufacturing and woodworking for many centuries. One of the earliest documented uses of wooden dowels was in Japanese shrines in AD 690, which were constructed using only wood, wooden dowels and pegs, and interlocking joints. Around AD 1000, Leif Erikson sailed across the North Atlantic in a ship that was largely constructed of overlapping planks held together by wooden dowels and iron nails. The wooden dowels did not rust and thus were more reliable than iron for long expeditions. Dowel pins are often used as precise locating devices in machinery. Steel dowel pins are machined to tight tolerances, as are the corresponding holes, which are typically reamed. A dowel pin may have a smaller diameter than its hole so that it freely slips in, or a larger diameter so that it must be pressed into its hole (an interference fit). When designing mechanical components, mechanical engineers typically use dowel holes as reference points to control positioning variations and attain repeatable assembly quality. If no dowels are used for alignment (e.g., components are mated by bolts only), there can be significant variation, or "play", in component alignment. Typical drilling and milling operations, as well as manufacturing practices for bolt threads, introduce mechanical play proportional to the size of the fasteners. For example, bolts up to 10 mm (0.394 in) in diameter typically have play on the order of 0.2 mm (0.008 inches). When dowels are used in addition to bolts, however, the tighter dimensional tolerances of dowels and their mating holes—typically 0.01 mm (0.0004 inches)—result in significantly less play, on the order of 0.02 mm (0.0008 inches). Manufacturing costs are inversely proportional to mechanical tolerances and, as a result, engineers must balance the need for mechanical precision against cost as well as other factors such as manufacturability and serviceability. There are a variety of specifications, military, ISO, DIN, ASME that pins may be made to. And size can even vary by dowel pin material. Metric dowel pins are often found in two size. In DIN 6325 standard the dowel pins are slightly larger than the nominal value. For example a 3 mm dowel pin will range from 3.002 to 3.008 mm (0.1182 to 0.1184 inches). In the ISO 2338 standard the dowel pins are slightly smaller - 3 mm nominal range is 2.986 to 3.000 mm (0.1176 to 0.1181 inches). The terminology (e.g. "oversized", "standard") is not entirely consistent across suppliers. In inch pins "oversized" refers to pins that are more significantly oversized for worn out dowel pin holes. The most common inch sized pins are slightly oversized, and "undersized" versions are also available. In automobiles, dowels are used when precise mating alignment is required, such as in differential gear casings, engines, and transmissions. Bolts in a bolted joint often have an important function as a dowel, resisting shear forces. For this reason, many bolts have a plain unthreaded section to their shank. This gives a closer fit to the hole and also avoids some problems with fretting wear when a screw thread bears against an unthreaded component. A cross dowel is a cylindrically shaped metal nut (i.e., a metal dowel) that is used to join two pieces of wood. Like other metal nuts, it has an inside threaded hole, although the hole is unusual in that it passes through the sides of the dowel. One or both ends of the dowel are slotted, with the slots oriented parallel to the threaded hole through which the bolt will pass. In a cross dowel application, the two pieces of wood are aligned and a bolt hole is drilled through one piece of wood and into the other. A dowel hole is drilled laterally across the bolt hole and the cross dowel is inserted into it. A screwdriver is inserted into the slot at the end of the cross dowel and the dowel is rotated so that its threaded hole aligns with the bolt hole. The bolt is then inserted into the bolt hole and screwed into the cross dowel until the wood pieces are held tightly together. - Ivin Sickels, Exercises in Wood-Working, American Book Company, 1889; see Exercise 18.— Uniting with Dowels, pages 104-105. - Dowel Making and Doweling, Scientific American, Vol. XLIX, No. 6 (Aug. 11, 1883); page 88. - H. H. Parker, Making Wood Dowels, Popular Mechanics, Vol. 41, No. 6 (June, 1924); page 957. - William H. Whitlock, Improvement in Turning Tool, U.S. Patent 83,573, granted Oct. 27, 1868. - Sanford A. Penny, Lathe, U.S. Patent 398,077, granted Feb. 19, 1889. - Edward A. Cherry, Tool for Forming Round Dowels and Rods, U.S. Patent 1,367,462, granted Feb. 1, 1921; this is the Stanley No. 77 Dowel and Rod Turner. - Abdul Aziz, Leonard G. Lee and Lloyd Sevack, Dowel Maker, U.S. Patent 6,263,929, granted Aug. 26, 2001; this is the Lee Valley Veritas Dowel Maker. - Oscar H. Ordway, Dowel Making Machine, U.S. Patent 603,965, granted May 10, 1898. - George W. Davis, Dowel-Making Machine, U.S. Patent 1,427,073, granted Aug. 22, 1922. - 3 Kings 7:33 in Wycliffe's Bible.
Modern zoos attract visitors of all demographics. The first zoos, however, could only be enjoyed by the elite. Royal menageries opened to the public in the seventeenth century in a bid for public favor by the elite. The eighteenth century saw further replacement of royal menageries in Europe with public zoos, most notably with the famous royal menagerie of Versailles turning public in 1793. America’s first zoological parks of the late nineteenth century launched as public establishments. Zoos of this era especially appealed to the urban citizen who lived in a world of increasing industrialization. Middle-class city dwellers sought out nature not merely as a thing to possess, but also an experience with which to relax and rejuvenate. Zoological gardens advertised themselves as educational epicenters, conserving nature and making it available for study. The latter usage existed almost exclusively in Europe. American zoos primarily served as parks for recreation. Overall, the zoo presented natural history for the average person, making the newly professional field more accessible to the public. Ironically, it was not until the late twentieth century that American zoos adopted a more naturalistic environment. Most of these institutions began minimally with four concrete walls. All zoos shared the similar feature of the “one-way gaze,” and many such designs also produced prisons, mental institutions, barracks, and factories. While zoos claimed to domesticate exotic animals, in reality the organizations reaffirmed the power of man over nature. The most simplistic view of early zoos has been the colonial domination of foreign creatures. Certainly there existed a competition between American city zoos to be the first owners of particular exotic specimens. Yet the zoo held different meaning for the human administrators and the human visitors. Audiences of these animal gardens likely viewed the inhabitants as ambassadors, symbols, curiosities, and entertainment. While zoos exhibit exotic animals, circuses use both common and foreign creatures in a display of unnatural acts, advertised as natural behavior. Any stage show worth witnessing required horses, and elephants often appeared as tantalizing incentive to buy tickets. Animal shows in the seventeenth century were mostly restricted to London. During the Enlightenment, more animal shows purportedly presented a form of education and the nineteenth century has earned the epithet of the ‘Age of Edutainment.’ By this time, circuses thrived as a substantial industry in the USA. New York’s first permanent circus building, also a scene for trotting races, arose around 1850 and the American invention of circus ships appeared in Europe within the second half of the nineteenth century. Yet just as with early zoological gardens, circuses did not treat well the animal performers. In the beginning of the twentieth century, Jack London exposed the cruelty in circus animal training, which prompted animal rights activity like the spread of humane, Hagenbeck training techniques. Rather than force the animals to perform out of fear, trainers attempt to build friendship and respect with the creatures to inspire good behavior. Until the seventeenth century, only the aristocracy participated in horse racing. Horse racing, especially in England, became more popular around the 1830s, possibly in reaction to the rise of trains. Racing provided incentive for breeding programs and stimulated trade and importation of desired stock. Financially speaking, racing also offered a particular niche for betting spectators. Horse racing would later come into competition with other gambling animal sports, such as dog racing. At the same time that horse racing arose as a prime sport in England, bullfighting blossomed in Spain. The sport developed into a brand of ritual by the end of the eighteenth century, with humans fighting bulls to the death. Unlike racing, however, the victor was largely predetermined, with picadors wounding the bull and tiring the beast before the matador confronts the bovine. Animal Attractions: Nature on Display in American Zoos, Introduction, 2002, Hanson, Elizabeth, published by Princeton University Press Looking at Animals in Human History, p. 153-154, 2007, Kalof, Linda, published by Reaktion Books Ltd: London, UK Ibid. p. 115 Ibid. p. 145 Animals & Men, p. 307-308, 1966, Dembeck, Hermann, translated by Richard and Clara Winston, published by Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd: London, UK Ibid. p. 310-311 Animals, Men, and Myths, p. 277-281, 1954, Lewinsohn, Richard, published by Harper & Brothers: New York, USA
Oral cancer is a cancer that develops in the tissues of the mouth or throat. It can occur in the tongue, tonsils, gums, and other parts of the mouth. This year, more than 51,000 U.S. people will be diagnosed with oral cancer. Men are more likely to have this type of cancer, though there are ways to minimize your risks. Within the past 30 years, the death rate for oral cancer has decreased. As with other cancers, prompt treatment and early diagnosis improve your chances of survival. Are you at risk? Keep reading to learn more about who’s at risk for oral cancer, as well as the signs, symptoms, and causes. Oral cancer may also appear as white or red patches on the gums, tonsils, or the lining of the mouth. This is what cancer in the mouth looks like. Other symptoms include: Researchers aren’t exactly sure what causes oral cancers. But scientists now believe that cancers start after there’s damage or mutations in the genetic code that controls cell growth and death. These factors are known to increase your risk of developing oral cancer: - Tobacco use. Smoking cigarettes, cigars, pipes, or using smokeless tobacco or chewing tobacco is one of the most well-known risks of oral cancer. - Consuming large amounts of alcohol. Heavy drinkers are more likely to be diagnosed with oral cancer. For people who use tobacco along with alcohol, the danger is much higher. - Human papillomavirus (HPV). Cancers that are linked to HPV are generally found at the back of the throat, the base of the tongue, and in the tonsils. Although the overall cases of oral cancer are dropping, cases due to HPV have been rising. - Sun exposure. An excess of sun exposure on your lips increases your risk of oral cancer. You can reduce the danger by using a lip balm or cream containing SPF. Other risk factors include being older than 45, being exposed to radiation, and having another type of head and neck cancer. Cancers of the mouth are among the most preventable types of cancers. The number one thing you can do to prevent oral cancer is to never start smoking, or quit smoking if you currently do. You can also reduce your risk by: - limiting your exposure to the sun and wearing SPF lip balm - eating a balanced, well-rounded diet of fruits and vegetables - drinking in moderation, if you drink alcohol - removing your dentures at night and cleaning them every day - practicing good oral health habits While it’s impossible to fully prevent oral cancer, taking these steps can help reduce your chances of diagnosis. Visiting your dentist on a regular basis will help ensure any signs of oral cancer are identified as early as possible.
Author Rhonda Livingstone – ACECQA National Educational Leader Effective hygiene practices are promoted and implemented Ensuring the safety, health and wellbeing of children attending education and care services is a key objective and guiding principle underpinning the National Quality Framework (NQF). This is a fundamental right of all children attending education and care services, and a reasonable expectation of families. To prevent the spread of infectious diseases and promote the optimum health of children, Element 2.1.3 of the National Quality Standard (NQS) requires that effective hygiene practices are promoted and implemented. Effective hygiene practices assist in significantly reducing the likelihood and risk of children becoming ill due to cross infection, or as a result of exposure to materials, surfaces, body fluids or other substances that may cause infection or illness. The Early Years Learning Framework (p.32) and Framework for School Age Care (p. 31) highlight how educators can promote children to take an increasing responsibility for their own health and physical wellbeing, and specifically for younger children, actively supporting them ‘to learn hygiene practices’. The Guide to the National Quality Standard provides some examples of what an authorised officer may look for when visiting a service, what they may observe, discuss and ask to sight. These tips can support your understanding of the expectations of the NQS. Reviewing your philosophy, policy and practices Reviewing service philosophy, policy and practices is an important part of the quality improvement process, particularly as practice evolves and new research and evidence becomes available. Many education and care services refer to the guide, Staying Healthy in Child Care – Preventing infectious diseases in child care (5th edition) to inform decision making about the service’s health and hygiene policies, practices and procedures. This guide provides simple and effective methods for minimising the spread of disease. The advice in the guide aims to reduce the risk of serious infections and infectious diseases spreading through children attending education and care services and also on to staff, families and the community. The guide often refers the reader to the use of chemical based cleaning products, an evidenced based and accepted practice. Recognising the move to exploring more sustainable practices, the guide acknowledges that ‘some services may have a philosophy of environmental sustainability, and a consequent greater emphasis on considering the resources they use. They may have policies and procedures in place to minimise waste or the use of chemicals’ (2013, p.2). The National Quality Framework enables services to decide which approach best meets the NQS and legislative standards and best fits with the needs and expectations of children, families, educators and community. Sustainable approaches to support effective hygiene procedures and practices Robert Pratt from Kenmore West Kindergarten in Brisbane, shares some practical examples in the book Young Children and the Environment: Early Education for Sustainability (2nd edn, 2015). Robert notes the importance of undertaking research to gather evidence to inform decisions about how best to meet the NQS and legislative standards. He identifies the importance of ‘recognising that barriers continue to exist in many early childhood settings around ‘safe’ cleaning’ (p. 87) and makes the following suggestions to support the change process: - research green cleaning practices and gather evidence to support such practices - find out from other services what products and practices they are using - make small changes, incremental steps; phase in green cleaning products one at a time, discuss green cleaning practice with children - share your ideas with families - investigate alternate environmentally friendly cleaning products (there are countless websites and publications) - explore traditional products and practices ‘that grandma used to use’ as they may be effective and appropriate - conduct a chemical audit in your service – both indoor and outdoor. Check warning labels on products…’ (pp.87-88). Another resource that educators may find helpful is the Eco Resource Kit, developed by UnitingCare Gippsland. This kit provides links to many resources, as well as a section on page 16 to support the move away from chemical based products to more environmentally friendly choices. In a recent article published on the National Education Leader page on the ACECQA website, we spoke with Rosanne Pugh, from KU Ourimbah Preschool & Children’s Centre (NSW), about the service’s approach to sustainable practice. Rosanne told us that ‘sustainability is a deep and wide issue; it’s a way of life, a personal as well as professional commitment. Our service-based environmental audits have given us a quick view of any gaps we need to address alongside gathering and analysing data which has led to considered decisions about eco-friendly provision’. Reflecting on these suggestions, undertaking action research within the service and seeking out additional evidence can assist services in the process of continually improving practice, support improvements in ratings (specifically in Quality Areas 2 and 3) and most importantly, enhance outcomes for children and families. Pratt, R. (2015). Practical possibilities and pedagogical approaches for early childhood education for sustainability: The Kenmore West Story. In J Davis (ed.) Young Children and the Environment: Early Education for Sustainability (2nd edn.) Port Melbourne, Vic: Cambridge University Press.
When reading about Hemingway, I came across his iceberg Theory. The Iceberg Theory (also known as the “theory of omission”) is a term used to describe the writing style of American writer Ernest Hemingway. The theory is this: The meaning of a piece is not immediately evident, because the crux of the story lies below the surface, just as most of the mass of a real iceberg similarly lies beneath the surface. For example The Old Man and the Sea is a meditation upon youth and age, even though the protagonist spends little or no time thinking on those terms.In his essay “The Art of the Short Story”, Hemingway is clear about his method: “A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit.” From reading Rudyard Kipling he absorbed the practice of shortening prose as much as it could take. Of the concept of omission, Hemingway wrote in “The Art of the Short Story”: “You could omit anything if you knew that you omitted and the omitted part would strengthen the story and make people feel something more than they understood.” By making invisible the structure of the story, he believed the author strengthened the piece of fiction and that the “quality of a piece could be judged by the quality of the material the author eliminated.”
For six weeks from September to November 2001, the Healy tracked the Atlantic Layer, more often called the Gulf Stream,the warm, salty current that moderates the climate of communities in the North Atlantic, especially northern Europe,as it enters the Arctic between Norway and Svalbard Island in the Eurasian Arctic. Scientists know that currents driven by differences in temperature and salinity, called thermohaline currents, form a conveyor belt circulating into, through and out of the Arctic Ocean and through all the oceans of the world. A part of these ocean currents, the Gulf Stream Current dives beneath colder water and is held down in layers, but scientists know that the freshwater fluxes from the melting Arctic glaciers, the Greenland ice cap and salt-depleted sea ice can affect thermohaline currents. They believe that any change or discontinuity in the direction, velocity or volume of these currents will affect climate. That's why scientists envision the Arctic Ocean as a "switch" that can flip the global climate. If the Atlantic Layer slowed or diverted, the North Atlantic region would become cooler while the rest of the world warms up. On board the bow of the Healy. "Fresh water intrusions from melting glaciers and salt-depleted sea ice in the Arctic front may have such an impact," Martin said. When sea ice melts, the sea level does not change. (Iced tea doesn't spill over the rim as ice cubes melt in a full glass.) On the other hand, if ice caps such as those covering the landmasses of Greenland and Antarctica were to disappear, "seas would rise dramatically," Martin said. "And since this would also represent a large infusion of fresh water, bio-chemical changes would be profound." 's science lounge, scientists frequently speculate on the impact of climate change on animal habitats. "We're pretty sure that the shrinkage of the Arctic ice cap,the preferred home of the polar bear,has, to some extent, upset the feeding and reproductive regimes of this animal," Martin said. Norwegian scientists have produced a model indicating that if present trends continue, the Arctic may be ice free in summers by mid-century. "Others say this doomsday prediction is baloney," Martin said. "The conservative side says change is natural. Is it natural or caused by us? Nobody is sure. But it's definite: they all agree that things are changing." A report on Arctic warming published on November 1 in the American Meteorological Society's Journal of Climate chillingly underscores the point that the perennial Arctic ice pack has shrunk. According to satellite data, the rate of warming in the Arctic between 1981 and 2001 was eight times the rate of warming over the last 100 years. During Arctic summers temperatures over sea ice increased by an average of more than two degrees Fahrenheit each decade. A team of Chinese scientists found that the thickness of the sea ice now averages 8.8 feet, down from an average of more than 15 feet in the 1980s.
How reproductive isolation keeps species distinct. An explanation of keystone species. Definition and examples of endangered species. Understanding asexual reproduction. Explanation of plant reproduction. The structure and function of the reproductive system. How species are formed. Understanding gene expression in reproduction. How related species diverge. Understanding sex-linked genes in reproduction. The fast evolution of species with a common ancestor. How unrelated species acquire similar traits. How species influence each other's evolution. An overview of Biology classification systems. The process of binary fission. Understanding the parts of behavioral ecology. The different steps in meiosis.
The protective fortress, winding cobblestone streets, and medieval urban layout are all characteristics of many coastal European towns. But when exploring the French town of Saint-Malo, it is difficult to believe that this is hardly the original city. What separates Saint-Malo from many other European towns located by the sea—aside from its striking location jutting out from the coastline—is the complex history of how it was heavily destroyed in World War II, but rebuilt to its original aesthetic. Saint-Malo was founded in the 1st century BC, a short distance south of its current location in Brittany, in northwestern France. The first settlement, in what is now St-Servan, was built by Celtic tribesmen in order to control the entrance to the Rance River for economic and military purposes. After the fall of the Roman Empire, a new settlement that would eventually become the walled town of modern-day St Malo was created by monks fleeing the British Isles. In 1144, the bishop Jean de Châtillon gave the town of Saint-Malo the status of rights of asylum which encouraged all manner of thieves and rogues to move there, making it the ideal home to the French Corsairs, or The King of France’s appointed pirates. The Corsairs grew their wealth by pillaging foreign ships in the English Channel, even traveling as far as Plymouth on the English coast. As Saint-Malo’s wealth began to grow, the city's limits expanded, bridging from the island to the mainland. However, the walled coastline continued to play a key role in defining Saint-Malo's place in the world for centuries to come. In 1940, Nazis invaded the city of Saint-Malo and occupied it as part of the Atlantic Wall. Although by the end of the war less than 100 troops and two anti-aircraft installations remained, the Allies believed the Axis powers had major armaments built up within the city walls. As a result, Saint-Malo was severely bombed by the Allies in 1944, and was almost completely destroyed by the American shelling and British naval gunfire. 80% of the city was lost. Over the 12-year span from 1948-1960, the city was rebuilt brick by brick by the determined Malouins. However, instead of attempting to modernize the style of architecture in Saint-Malo, it was restored to its original glory, maintaining its medieval character. Those in charge of its reconstruction planned it to be close to the original, with a few modifications. While the castle was replicated and transformed into the city hall, the hospital and prison were relocated outside of the city walls. Mansions were rebuilt with identical granite facades and only a handful of half-timbered homes from the 1600s were retained. In contrast to other cities that were rebuilt after the war, such as Warsaw and Dresden, there are no obvious signs of modern construction. Saint-Malo seems to be the perfect case study to examine a time when European cities were developed around Medieval transit systems, when walkability was necessary, and when the wealthiest lived in the urban core. Today, during Saint-Malo's peak tourist season, the city accommodates more than 200,000 people. At approximately 57 people/acre, this is more dense than the average densities of both Tokyo (25 people per acre) and Vancouver (22 people per acre), making it a fantastic example of how traditional urbanism can still be built and accommodate dense populations without the default of becoming a high-rise megacity.
In the 1560s, if you were a European mariner in search of fish in the northwest Atlantic, you did not go to Newfoundland or Canada or New France. These were rarely used terms and the places they represented still lay outside accepted geography, holding sway only with a handful of Italian cartographers. For a while some Portuguese and English geographers thought that there was indeed an island or archipelago called New-found-isle, one that would prove to be like Madeira or Hispaniola, a model island colony carefully enshrined in a wider imperial framework, but these dreams came to a crashing end around 1520 when people actually tried and failed to colonize the region. Instead, in the 1560s mariners visited each year a place they called Terra Nova: Terre-Neufve, Terranova, Tierra Nueva, Terra Nuova, Newland. It was their own word, used by fishermen from Portugal to Brittany to Holland, to describe the place they visited in their five-month-long fishing voyages. The vast region of encompassed all the waters of what is today maritime Canada, Newfoundland and Labrador, and was wholly defined by the way in which humans interacted with the environment: Terra Nova was wherever you went to catch codfish, and its boundaries could shift with the movement of the fish. The name may have been used partly as a wry jest, for it encompassed the maritime spaces of the northwest Atlantic Ocean (certainly not Terra) which possessed an ecology and climate which most closely resembled northern Europe (certainly not Nova). Terra Nova only existed for part of the year, the warm months when a ship could actually move on the ice-free waters, before becoming closed off to visitors with the onset of an early winter. It was a concept of geography (for Terra Nova was articulated by mariners as a definite place on the map) which was defined by water, by ecology and by food production rather than land and cartographic conceits. The story of Terra Nova, rather than Newfoundland or Canada, has been overlooked because so much of the history written about the fisheries of the northwest Atlantic has focused on the eighteenth through twentieth centuries. But the idea of Terra Nova, and the multi-national fishery which defined it, was firmly centered on the sixteenth century. It is also an idea which only appears when we approach the region from below, to see how those who actually worked the waves thought and experienced life on the far north Atlantic Ocean. The use of the term Terra Nova by mariners rather than Newfoundland or Canada is an environmental problem, for their geographic conception was so deeply shaped by climate and ecology. It can tell us little about the transformative early modern phenomenon which historians seem to fixate on: the rise of the Anthropocene, the reshaping of the global landscape and demography or the spread of disease regimes. In other words, Terra Nova has little to do with the present: it neither connects to modern debates, resonates with the great environmental upheavals we face, and long predates the industrial era. But it is important to examine ideas like Terra Nova and the environmental frameworks which shaped them, for the behavior of European mariners in the sixteenth century makes no sense without them. Mariners envisioned an open and vast world in the northwest Atlantic, one which defied state control and which was deeply familiar to those who had worked on the coastal fisheries of western Europe. The way they understood space and the environment shaped their economic and social behavior, which in turn touched shaped their relationship with indigenous peoples and emerging European empires. And it points to innumerable related questions as yet unanswered: why did the idea of Terra Nova not endure beyond the sixteenth century? Did similar geographic conceptions develop amongst maritime communities elsewhere in the Atlantic? How does the idea of Terra Nova challenge our modern notion of Canada, Newfoundland or the maritime peninsula as defining geo-political features of the northwest Atlantic? How did the idea of Terra Nova, a phrase which was originally coined by the Portuguese, spread between maritime communities? These are important questions which will tell us much about the relationship between humans and the environment in the sixteenth century, though not necessarily thereafter. But for that reason we need to look closer at them: the sixteenth century is more than just chapter one in some longer story, and more than a precursor to our current debates about the environment. It is something important to understand on its own terms. My work focuses on the commercial cod fisheries of the northwest Atlantic in the sixteenth century, what was called Terra Nova instead of Newfoundland, and their place in a wider Atlantic and European context. At its heart my work is about humans, the environment and food production in the earliest years of European expansion into the Atlantic basin. Although I am trained as an early modernist, the overwhelming dominance of late seventeenth/eighteenth century studies in early modern environmental and Atlantic history means I identify more as a late medievalist/early-early modernist. What has been most striking to me as I’ve worked through my project, and which has required an adjustment to my thinking, is how under-represented the early modern period is in environmental history. This is doubly true of the early-early modern, and even the late medieval, world. As I moved deeper into my project and engaged more with environmental history scholarship, two strands of presentism became clear, each of which make me apprehensive for different reasons. The first is the overwhelming focus by historians on the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. During a recent visit to ASEH I spent considerable time discussing the matter with a colleague who studies the fifteenth century like I do, after we both noticed that barely two panels out of the dozens present touched upon the pre-eighteenth century world. It has consistently been my experience that pre-eighteenth century environmental history remains something of a fringe curiosity at conferences, and monographs are few and far between. It has been hard not to feel somewhat isolated in an academic field so relentlessly focused on the present. This state is surprising inasmuch as the early modern world offers such fertile fields for environmental historians. There is something so immediate about the relationship between humans and their environment in the sixteenth century, and the sources are so rich and challenging. This relationship, more visible than in earlier eras, is much closer to the long historical norm of human-environmental balance than our present state. Even so, the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were a period where human communities engendered some of the most dramatic transformations of the global environment: the biological exchange in the Atlantic, forced mass migration and demographic collapse, the land reclamation projects in northern Europe, the rise of enclosure farmland, the terraforming of new colonial spaces. It was also a period when the ecological, climatological and geographical constraints on human behavior were so much starker and more pressing than they would be from the late seventeenth century on. Fishermen bobbing on the cold waters of the Scotian Shelf in the 1540s were rightly awed by the inscrutable power and danger of the ocean, and the sudden seasonal shifts which drove them home each September. Carefully parsing that paradoxical relationship, whereby humans could have outsized impact on the environment in some cases and be almost hostages in the next, remains the great task of early modern environmental historians. A second trend is the pressure to connect the early modern period to contemporary environmental concerns and debates. I was vaguely aware when I began my project that I was wading into something which was being reflected in the news around me. The success of Mark Kurlansky’s book Codand later Jeffrey Bolster’s work on the New England fisheries ensured that my topic was familiar to many historians and non-historians alike. I increasingly became aware of how the sixteenth century fishery could be seen as resonating with contemporary debates: the collapse of the Newfoundland fisheries, debates over fisheries management and the future of the oceans, questions about food security and public health. Many early modern historians are limited by a focus on the big problems whereby humans shape the environment, on the most extreme ways in which humans and the environment interact. This represents a kind of presentism, a projection of our own fears into the pre-eighteenth century world. This is the struggle at the heart of early modern environmental history, for there are many transformation in the sixteenth century and beyond which resonate with academics and audiences today, but there is also an implicitly increased pressure to find and highlight these links and connections, to inject the twentieth century into the sixteenth. By and large I have tried hard to moderate the inclination to engage with these kinds of issues in my work. The problem is that so many of the crucial structures which define our current relationship with the environment were absent in the sixteenth century. In the far north Atlantic there was a marked absence of strong (or even vaguely coherent) central states, of commercial capitalism, even of permanent settlements by Europeans. Humans’ (especially coastal Europeans’) understanding of nature and ocean spaces were contested and evolving, a mish-mash of folklore, classical theory and religious sentiment. The very idea of an Atlantic Ocean didn’t exist. I did not want to follow earlier historians and frame the formation of fisheries at Newfoundland as just the starting point to a much longer and larger story about commerce, empire and the creation of Canada. The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, especially the catastrophes of the latter, loom large over the history of early Newfoundland and its fisheries, but I think there is value to understanding the relationship between humans and the environment outside of how it directly connects to our own world and our own fears. For instance, the modern concerns with over-fishing the seas and ocean fisheries management is a moot question in the sixteenth century. European understandings of ocean fish stocks and ecosystems were very different from our own, and different from their understanding of freshwater fish. If Newfoundland, Iceland or Morocco were ruthlessly exploited for fish without collapsing it was not because of better management or unbridled commercial interests but rather because the number of humans relative to the size of marine biomass was so small. On a practical level, over-fishing on anything more than a local scale was entirely beyond the technical capacity of sixteenth century fishermen (I suspect most European fishermen would have willingly over-exploited the oceans if they could). Ultimately, even if over-fishing were an understandable proposition, the tools by which it could be limited- state regulation, multilateral treaties, quota systems, fines- could not be achieved with the limited resources and capabilities of fledgling sixteenth century states. If fisheries were better managed in the sixteenth century it was a product of the constraints fishermen faced rather than intentional choices, and therefore we have few lessons to draw from their behavior. Rather than inform our discussion of fisheries management and over-exploitation, the formation of the Newfoundland fisheries can tell us how modern and anomalous those concerns may be. The prevailing interest in presentism, both in temporal focus and in connecting to contemporary issues, comes from a good place. We, both historians and non-historians, are more aware than ever about the importance of environmental issues to our modern world and the need to study their historical context. But I would not want us to devalue early modern history that does not engage with major environmental issues and debates or which lies outside the industrial era. This is the problem with the rising interest in the Anthropocene: at best the early modern period is the tentative start point for this narrative, at worst it is outside the Anthropocene and thus removed from the greatest environmental history project of our times. To return to the idea of Terra Nova, this was a place that had no place in the Anthropocene. Its boundaries and features were defined by nature in a way that no amount of commercial exploitation in the could alter. It was shaped by the under-appreciated inertia of late medieval social, economic and intellectual structures, so that Breton or Basque fishermen off of Newfoundland in the 1570s interacted with the environment in a way that would have been familiar to a West Country fisherman on the Irish Sea in the 1340s. Yet precisely for that reason we should examine it: the idea of Terra Nova, in being so starkly different from the present while still shaping human behavior, shows how narrow and unhelpful this presentism can be for understanding the past. In studying how European mariners understood space, the environment and food production in the sixteenth century I hope to add to the growing voice of late medieval and earl-early modern environmental historians who are trying to show how much we have to offer the field at large. Jack Bouchard recently received his PhD from the History Department at the University of Pittsburgh, and next year will be joining the Folger Shakespeare Library as a Postdoctoral Fellow on the ‘Before Farm to Table: Early Modern Foodways and Cultures’ project. His work looks at the north Atlantic fisheries, especially at Newfoundland, in the sixteenth century. Featured image: World Map by Jean Rotz (1542), detail.
Science Readers: Content and Literacy in Science Improve nonfiction reading comprehension while learning key scientific concepts. This series helps students simultaneously build literacy skills and science content knowledge with high-interest, appropriately leveled informational text featuring hands-on simple science experiments. Each kit provides multiple texts around common strands: life science, physical science, earth and space science, and scientific practices. - Improve literacy and scientific knowledge with colorful science readers (16 books, six copies each) in print and digital formats. - Minimize prep time by utilizing science lesson plans, assessments, and strategies included in the Teacher’s Guide. - Extend learning with digital resources, including PDFs of books, audio recordings of each book, and student activity sheets. - Create an engaging, interactive learning experience with Interactiv-eBooks.
Gingivitis is an inflammation of the gums and a form of periodontal disease. This inflammation can damage the tissues in the mouth, including the gums and tooth sockets. What Causes Gingivitis? Plaque deposits on the teeth cause gingivitis to develop. Bacteria, mucus, and food residue combine to form a sticky substance on the teeth that is known as plaque. A buildup of plaque leads to tooth decay. If plaque is allowed to remain on the teeth and not removed, it becomes tartar. Tartar is a hard substance that forms at the base of the teeth and inflames the gums. The bacteria in plaque and tartar can cause the gums to become inflamed, infected, swollen, and tender. Risk Factors for Gingivitis There are a variety of factors that increase a person’s risk for developing gingivitis, including the following: - Certain diseases and infections; - Poor dental hygiene practices; - Hormonal changes of pregnancy; - Diabetes, particularly when uncontrolled; - Certain medications, including some types of birth control pills; - Unclean mouth appliances, including braces, dentures, and crowns; - Misaligned teeth. Symptoms of Gingivitis If you have gingivitis, you may experience a variety of symptoms. Your gums may look red and swollen. Your gums may bleed easily, particularly while you are brushing your teeth. This is often one of the first symptoms that people notice when they have gingivitis. It is a common sign of inflammation in the gums. There is often no pain associated with gingivitis, which means that it can go unnoticed and untreated for extended periods of time. The gums may be tender to the touch, but otherwise painless. People who have gingivitis may also experience bad breath. The bacteria and food residue that are present in the mouth can cause chronic bad breath, and can also create an unpleasant taste in the mouth. As gingivitis progresses, the gums may begin to recede. This causes the teeth to lose their supportive structure of bone. The teeth may become loose. The upper and lower teeth may not fit together in the same way as they once did, and partial dentures may no longer fit properly. Treatment for Gingivitis The object of treatment for gingivitis is to reduce the inflammation of the gums. Your dentist or dental hygienist will perform a professional cleaning to remove any plaque or tartar buildup from your teeth and gums. They might also recommend that you have more frequent professional cleanings. You will be shown how to properly brush, floss, and use antibacterial mouth rinses. Your dentist might also recommend that you use topical or systemic antibiotics. Scaling or root planning might be recommended, which involves the deep cleaning of tartar and bacteria from the roots of the teeth and gums. If misaligned teeth are contributing to the gingivitis, your dentist may recommend that you undergo treatment to correct the alignment. Prevention of Gingivitis You can help to prevent gingivitis through good oral hygiene. Brush your teeth at least twice every day, and floss at least once a day. It is particularly important to brush and floss before you go to bed at night. Brushing after each meal is helpful. Visit the dentist for a routine cleaning every six months. If your gums are red, shiny, swollen, or bleeding, contact your dentist. If you have symptoms of gingivitis or are overdue for a dental checkup, get in touch with the office of Dr. TJ Bolt. Dr. Bolt provides comprehensive dental care from a lifestyle approach. The office provides a warm, welcoming, soothing environment where you can receive the dental care that you need. Call Dr. Bolt’s office to make an appointment today.
PHP, an acronym for Hypertext Preprocessor, is a widely-used open source general-purpose scripting language. It is a cross-platform, HTML-embedded server-side scripting language and is especially suited for web development. - Server-side means that PHP scripts execute on the Web server, not within the browser on your local machine. - Cross-platform means that PHP scripts can run on many different operating systems and Web servers. PHP is available for the two most popular Web server configurations IIS and Apache. - HTML embedded scripting language means that PHP statements and commands are actually embedded in your HTML documents. When the Web server sees the PHP statements in the Web page, the server executes the statements and sends the resulting output along with the rest of the HTML. PHP commands are parsed by the server much like Active Server Pages or Cold Fusion tags. The basic syntax of PHP is similar to C, Java, and Perl, and is easy to learn. PHP is used for creating interactive and dynamic web pages quickly, but you can do much more with PHP. A simple example <html> <head> <title>First PHP example</title> </head> <body> <?php echo "This is a simple PHP script!"; ?> </body> </html> In the above example we have written a HTML script with some embedded code to display some text. The PHP code is enclosed in special start (<?php) and end (?>) tags that allows to go in and out of PHP mode. The extension of a php file is ".php". Benefits of PHP - PHP is an open source software. - PHP costs nothing, it is free to download and use. - PHP is a server-side scripting language and is used for websites and the web applications. - PHP scripts are executed on the server. - PHP supports a wide range of databases. - PHP runs on various platforms like Linux, Windows, Unix etc. - PHP supports most web servers (for example Apache, IIS). - PHP converses with several network protocols. Features of the w3resource PHP tutorials In this series of tutorials, we have covered PHP 5 in detail. While creating this, we have to take care that learners can master the basics of PHP and can be prepared to develop web based applications. Here is a list of features we have included in all of the chapters : 1. We have started with a clear and simple description. 2. We have given a Syntax / Usage so that you can remember how to write it. 3. Example(s) to show how the associated concept is implemented. 4. We have shown the Output of the usage. 5. View the example in a browser. 6. Pictorial presentation to help you to understand the concept better.
Named By: Edward Drinker Cope - 1889. Synonyms: Longosaurus, Megapnosaurus, Rioarribasaurus. Possibly Gojirasaurus?, Podokesaurus?. Classification: Chordata, Reptilia, Dinosauria, Saurischia, Theropoda, Coelophysidae, Coelophysinae Species: C. bauri (type), C. kayentakatae, C. rhodesiensis. Possibly C. holyokensis. Size: 2.8-3 meters long. Known locations: USA, New Mexico and Arizona. Quite possibly other areas of the US and even further afield. Time period: Carnian to Norian of the Triassic. Fossil representation: Many specimens are known, in fact they are so numerous the exact figure is not easy to establish. is frequently used as an example of the early dinosaurs. Its bipedal stance from two legs that supported its body from underneath as opposed to sticking out to the sides, smaller arms and head mounted on an 'S curved' neck give it the distinctive theropod look. Coelophysis also had sharp recurved teeth that were serrated on the front and back edges, making them perfect for slicing. Inside, the limb bones were hollow making Coelophysis very light. This combined with the long legs mean that Coelophysis would have been able to easily cover a greater distance in the search for prey, suggesting that Coelophysis most probably lived the life of an opportunistic carnivore in that not only did it hunt for small animals, it may have actively sought out carrion as well. It was long assumed that Coelophysis was cannibalistic. This view was based upon the remains of smaller creatures found in what would have been the gut of Coelophysis. Although upon first glance they appeared to be Coelophysis juveniles, later study in 2002 by Rob Gay proved that they were the bones of reptiles that belonged to the crurotarsan group. These reptiles were common during this time of the Triassic, and the evidence now points to the crurotarsan reptiles forming a key part of the diet of Coelophysis, at least in this fossil location. Coelophysis remains can be sub divided into robust and gracile forms, and it is now thought that these represent males and females of the species. This sexual dimorphism is also clearly seen in group concentrations of Coelophysis remains, and shows that they would at times cluster together. It is still unknown if this is evidence of an established pack, or just a number of individuals taking advantage of an abundant food source like can be seen with bears fishing for salmon in rivers today. The most famous group concentration of Coelophysis comes from the Ghost Ranch deposit discovered in 1947. It is thought by many that the Coelophysis individuals deposited there were killed by a flash flood, something that is considered to have been a frequent occurrence during this time. The specimens recovered from this deposit were in a much better state of preservation than the early fossils that had been described by Cope in 1889, and because of this, the phylogenetic position of Coelophysis would need to be shuffled around. The original type specimen was in a very poor state of preservation, so poor in fact, some were uncertain about the legitimacy of assigning the Ghost Ranch specimens to the name Coelophysis. In 1991 the new name of Rioarribasaurus was assigned to these specimens but quickly contested on the grounds that the majority of the knowledge, written material and reconstruction of Coelophysis was based upon the Ghost Ranch fossils. Considering the arguments of the petition the ICZN voted to restore the name Coelophysis, and also decreed that a new type specimen of Coelophysis be taken from the Ghost Ranch deposits so that new specimens may be referred against more complete material. A consequence of this decision was Rioarribasaurus becoming a nomen rejectum (meaning 'rejected name'), and has since been placed as a synonym to Coelophysis. Further to the above, some palaeontologists also think that a later dinosaur named Megapnosaurus is actually a late surviving Coelophysis. Support for this comes from striking similarities between the two dinosaurs. If it can be proven that Megapnosaurus is a synonym, the temporal range of Coelophysis would extend beyond the Norian and well into the early Jurassic. - Podokesaurus holyokensis, a new dinosaur from the Triassic of the Connecticut Valley. - American Journal of Science. 4 31: 469–479. - M. Talbot - 1911. - The Triassic dinosaur genera Podokesaurus and Coelophysis. - American Museum Novitates 2168: 1–12. - E. Colbert - 1964. - Rioarribasaurus, a new name for a Late Triassic dinosaur from New Mexico (USA). - Paläontologische Zeitschrift. 65 (1/2): 191–198. - A. P. Hunt & S. G. Lucas - 1991. - Coelurus bauri Cope, 1887 (currently Coelophysis bauri; Reptilia, Saurischia): Proposed replacement of the lectotype by a neotype. - Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature. 49 (4): 276–279. - E. H. Colbert, A. J. Charig, P. Dodson, D. D. Gillette, J. H. Ostrom & D. B. Weishampel - 1992. - Geology and taphonomy of the Coelophysis quarry, Upper Triassic Chinle Formation, Ghost Ranch, New Mexico. - Journal of Paleontology 68 (5): 1118–1130. - Hilde L. Schwartz, David D. Gillette - 1994. - Opinion 1842: Coelurus bauri Cope, 1887 (currently Coelophysis bauri; Reptilia, Saurischia): lectotype replaced by a neotype. - Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 53 (2): 142–144. - International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature - 1996. - Eucoelophysis baldwini, a new theropod dinosaur from the Upper Triassic of New Mexico, and the status of the original types of Coelophysis. - Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology19. - R. M. Sullivan & S. G. Lucas - 1999. - An unusual adaptation in the caudal vertebrae of Coelophysis bauri (Dinosauria: Theropoda). - PaleoBios 21: 55. - R. J. Gay - 2001. - Forelimb bio-mechanics of non-avian theropod dinosaurs in predation. - Senckenbergiana Lethaea 82: 59–76. - K. Carpenter - 2002. - The myth of cannibalism in Coelophysis bauri. - Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 22 (3): 57A. - R. J. Gay - 2002. - Preliminary statistical analysis defining the juvenile, robust and gracile forms of the Triassic dinosaur Coelophysis. - Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 21: 93. - L. F. Rinehart, S. G. Lucas & A. B. Heckert - 2004. - A juvenile coelophysoid skull from the Early Jurassic of Zimbabwe, and the synonymy of Coelophysis and Syntarsus. - Palaeontologia Africana 40: 31–41. - A. Bristowe, & M. A. Raath - 2004. - The sclerotic ring of the Late Triassic theropod dinosaur Coelophysis. - New Mexico Geological Society Spring Meeting 26: 64.- L. F. Rinehart, A. B. Heckert, S. G. Lucas & A. P. Hunt - 2004. - Prey choice and cannibalistic behaviour in the theropod Coelophysis. - Biology Letters. 22 2 (4): 611–614. - S. J. Nesbitt, A. H. Turner, G. M. Erickson & M. A. Norell - 2006. - Furculae in the Late Triassic theropod dinosaur Coelophysis bauri. - Paläontologische Zeitschrift 81 (2): 174–180. - L. F. Rinehart, S. G. Lucas & A.P. Hunt - 2007. - A critical re-evaluation of the Late Triassic dinosaur taxa of North America. - Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 5 (2): 209–243. - S. J. Nesbitt, R. B. Irmis & W. G. Parker - 2007. - The paleobiology of Coelophysis bauri (Cope) from the Upper Triassic (Apachean) Whitaker quarry, New Mexico, with detailed analysis of a single quarry block. - New Mexico Museum of Natural History & Science, a division of the Department of Cultural Affairs Bulletin 45: 260. - L. F. Rinehart, S. G. Lucas, A. B. Heckert, J. A. Spielmann & M. D. Celesky - 2009.
Today, properly caring for the human remains of fallen Soldiers is considered one of the military's most important duties. Yet this was not always the case. Standards for care have evolved steadily since the 19th century. During the years between the Spanish-American War and the close of World War I, many dedicated Soldiers, most notably Chaplain Charles C. Pierce, engineered a critical transformation in the Quartermaster mortuary affairs mission and culture. EARLY CARE FOR SOLDIERS' REMAINS Before the Civil War, many frontier posts maintained a cemetery for their Soldiers, but they had few provisions for the proper burial of Soldiers who died in a campaign. When the United States created a cemetery for Soldiers who died in the Mexican-American War, procedures were so poor that not a single body was identified. During the Civil War, attitudes shifted toward providing better care for the war dead. These men had given their lives for the nation, and both Soldiers and civilians believed they deserved a decent burial. In July 1862, Congress authorized a national cemetery system to be operated by the Quartermaster General. This act is considered the beginning of the quartermaster mortuary affairs mission. Unfortunately, the act merely authorized the cemeteries. The Army lacked the organization, doctrine, and procedures to identify human remains and provide timely burials. Only 60 percent of the Union Soldiers who died in hospitals and on the battlefield were identified. A Soldier who died on the battlefield had a much lower chance of being identified, especially if he was on the losing side of an engagement. In fact, so many casualties were left on the battlefields that the Army searched from 1866 to 1870 to find fallen Soldiers and bury them, usually as unidentified. PROCEDURES ESTABLISHED IN CUBA In 1898, the United States went to war with Spain to end Spanish rule over Cuba. As a result of that war, the United States acquired the Philippine Islands and began a prolonged conflict with the Filipinos, who desired independence. The experience of overseas fighting in Cuba and the Philippines produced major changes in the procedures for handling the remains of fallen Soldiers. In Cuba, Army regulations prescribed some minimal procedures for care of remains by the Soldiers' units. Casualties in Cuba were placed in temporary graves to be exhumed and returned to the United States after the fighting. Procedures specified that the units place identification information in a bottle to be buried with the Soldiers. Timely identification by the unit was essential to the process. The Quartermaster Department employed a burial corps, consisting of civilian morticians working under contract, to exhume and return the remains of casualties from Cuba. With the new procedures in place, the identification rate rose to 87 percent. IDENTIFYING HUMAN REMAINS Although the burial corps also operated in the Philippines under contract with the Quartermaster Department, the most important developments came in the Philippines within the U.S. Army Morgue and Office of Identification in Manila. In response to the commanding general's request, Chaplain Charles C. Pierce took charge of the morgue and instituted procedures that dramatically improved the management of Soldiers' remains. When he assumed responsibility for the morgue, Chaplain Pierce faced the problem of identifying human remains scattered in temporary graves around the Philippines. He established a process of collecting all available information regarding the possible identity of these casualties, such as the approximate place of death, the Soldiers' physical characteristics, the nature of the wounds if known, and any other information that might provide a clue. He then began exhuming bodies that were often weeks or months old and comparing the human remains with the available information on potential identities. By comparing the information, he achieved the previously impossible task of identifying all of these Soldiers. This marked the beginning of modern identification procedures. Responsibility for the human remains did not end with identification. Pierce also ensured that each Soldier received a new uniform for burial. With the aid of some of his Soldiers, he pioneered techniques for embalming human remains in the tropical climate. In time, however, the combination of hard work and tropical climate left Pierce too sick to remain in the Philippines, so he returned to the United States. In 1908 the lingering effects of duty in the Philippines resulted in his retirement from the Army, and he resumed his career as an Episcopal minister. DOG TAG CONCEPT BORN As he left the Philippines, Pierce made one last recommendation: All Soldiers should be required to wear identification tags. Those tags became famously known as "dog tags." Since the Civil War, Soldiers had frequently purchased some form of identification to be worn around the neck. Pierce recommended that instead of Soldiers voluntarily purchasing the tags, the Army should provide aluminum disks and require their use. In his final report to the Adjutant General, Pierce noted, "It is better that all men should wear these marks [ID tags] as a military duty than one should fail to be identified." By World War I, the dog tag was widely accepted, and it has been standard Army practice ever since. GRAVES REGISTRATION SERVICE After the Quartermaster Department changed to the Quartermaster Corps in 1912, military units could be organized to provide necessary services that had previously been contracted. As a result, military units would eventually replace the contracted burial corps. As the United States watched Europeans fight during World War I, it realized that entering the war would result in massive casualties and the need for a system to handle human remains. On May 31, 1917, less than two months after the United States entered World War I, the Army recalled Pierce to active duty, this time as a major in the Quartermaster Corps. Because of his experience in the Philippines, the Army placed him in charge of the emerging Graves Registration Service for the war. Subsequently he rose to full colonel (with an administrative reduction to lieutenant colonel after the war). The Graves Registration Service was established in August 1917, and Pierce arrived in France in October. His organization initially consisted of only two officers and approximately 50 enlisted personnel. From this nucleus, the organization grew to 150 officers and 7,000 enlisted personnel in 19 companies. Over the course of the war, the organization supervised more than 73,000 temporary burials. These initial graves registration Soldiers established how the service would operate during major conflicts. Like so many logistics functions, graves registration seemed simple in theory but was complicated in practice. Because the Army lacked the assets to transport human remains back to the United States, casualties were placed in temporary graves until after the war. Timely identification and burial was considered the key to ensuring correct identification of the Soldiers. Combat units performed much of the labor, with graves registration personnel assisting the units and recording all temporary burials. In addition to religious services, the unit chaplains typically helped to record the necessary information. The French government purchased the land for temporary cemetery sites on behalf of the United States. This process required careful coordination. The French wanted to avoid graves located near water supplies or heavily trafficked areas. When combat conditions produced isolated graves or small clusters, the rules were frequently ignored. DEVELOPING IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURES In practice, the work proved to be more complicated than expected. With no comparable experience to work from, the Soldiers in France had to create their own procedures. For example, since there was no standard grave marker, Pierce and his staff decided on a simple cross for Christian Soldiers and a Star of David for Jewish Soldiers. The identification information was to be recorded carefully and placed with the grave marker. The graves registration Soldiers needed to design and create forms for documenting their activities. In theory, the deceased received temporary burials at locations far enough from the battlefield to allow the graves to remain undisturbed in temporary, reasonably large cemeteries for the rest of the war. In reality, combat conditions frequently produced burials in isolated graves or in very small plots. Often the graves were shallow or improperly prepared. Artillery or troop movement could disturb the grave and the identification information. Identification of the human remains relied heavily on the units' ability to identify their own Soldiers in a timely manner and on the new dog tags, which had been adopted as standard issue in 1913. When necessary, however, the graves registration personnel used the procedures of comparing physical characteristics to known information, which Pierce had pioneered in the Philippines. Their work resulted in a 97-percent identification rate--something previously unimaginable for battlefield deaths on such large scale. POST WAR OPERATIONS After the hostilities ended, the work of the Graves Registration Service entered a new phase. First, the graves registration personnel needed to relocate the human remains of the Soldiers to a manageable number of locations since the human remains of more than 70,000 Soldiers were scattered in 23,000 burial sites. After extensive searches and labor, the Army moved the human remains into 700 temporary cemeteries to await final disposition. Next, the United States resolved the issue of closing the temporary cemeteries and moving the deceased Soldiers to their final resting places. After much discussion, the War Department decided to place the decision with the families. Families could chose burial in an overseas U.S. cemetery, in a government cemetery in the United States, or in a private cemetery. In the first two options, the government paid all the costs. In the last option, the family provided for the cost of the private burial plot. Overseas, the United States obtained eight permanent cemeteries, one each in Great Britain and Belgium and six in France. Until the American Battle Monuments Commission was established in 1923, the Quartermaster Corps developed and maintained these cemeteries. To this day, these cemeteries are impeccably maintained by the American Battle Monuments Commission. From 1930 to 1933 the Quartermaster Corps sponsored the visits of widows and mothers of the casualties to the overseas cemeteries. DISPOSITION OF HUMAN REMAINS Transferring human remains to the United States presented an entirely different set of problems, especially within a war-ravaged nation. Exhumation required careful observance of French health regulations, especially for Soldiers who died from disease. Transportation of the human remains required close coordination with France and Belgium to manage scarce transportation resources and allow the Europeans to render a last salute to the American casualties. Inevitably, thousands of requests for exceptions to policy were received and had to be decided individually. Parents living in Europe often requested the transfer of remains to their own homeland. Marines who fought and died with the Army were managed according to Department of the Navy policies. In cases where the grave markings were disturbed by combat or other activities, the Army needed to verify the identity of the human remains. Following the example of France and the United Kingdom, the United States decided to honor all of its war dead by placing one unidentified World War I Soldier into a special tomb at Arlington National Cemetery on Nov. 11, 1921. This became the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. PIERCE'S FINAL CONTRIBUTIONS Pierce remained in France until July 1919, when he transferred to Washington D.C. to take charge of the Cemetery Division of the Office of the Quartermaster General. From there he continued to direct the work of moving the remains of U.S. Soldiers to their final resting places. In May 1921, Pierce and his wife went to France with members of the National Fine Arts Commission to oversee the development of the U.S. cemeteries. While in France, both Pierce and his wife died from illness within three weeks of each other. In June 2013 Charles C. Pierce was inducted into the Quartermaster Hall of Fame in recognition of his pioneering work in graves registration. The Army changed the name of the Graves Registration Service to Mortuary Affairs in 1991. During the century since World War I, much has changed in the Army's mortuary affairs procedures. The practice of temporary overseas burials ended during the Korean conflict when the communist counteroffensive overran some cemeteries and threatened others. It was better to return the remains during the conflict than to risk having remains fall into enemy hands. By the Vietnam War, Air Force transportation could return the remains of fallen Soldiers within days. Modern technology has established a standard for 100-percent identification of American service members killed in recent conflicts, yet the professional ethos established in the early years remains. The United States makes every reasonable effort to ensure that the remains of fallen service members are recovered and returned with all due respect and care. Dr. Leo Hirrel is the Quartermaster School historian. He holds a Ph.D. in American history from the University of Virginia and a master's of library science from the Catholic University of America. He is the author of several books and articles. This article was published in the July-August 2014 issue of Army Sustainment magazine.
Even though your teeth are largely composed of a mineral softer than that found in sharks, new tests reported in the Journal of Structural Biology suggest that they're just as tough. In sharks, the material coating the teeth is largely composed of fluoroapatite, a fluoridated phosphate mineral that in its pure form is harder than the hydroxyapatite found in the enamel of human teeth. But by pressing tiny metallic pyramids into the surfaces of teeth from a shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus, shown) and a tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier), researchers found that the enameloid coating on shark teeth is no harder than that of the enamel on a human wisdom tooth. The teeth are, in fact, of comparable hardness because their surfaces aren't pure mineral but instead are made of mineral crystals bound together with proteins so that the material doesn't shatter under a sudden impact. keyboard shortcuts: V vote up article J next comment K previous comment
Do plants cry? You may think your indoor plants are shedding tears when you see them dripping water, but just like outdoor plants, they can form dew drops on leaves, particularly when they are under stress or in growing conditions that are less than ideal. Even when you think you are doing everything right by your plants, they may have trouble adjusting. Sometimes they can adapt to conditions indoors and sometimes they can't. Dripping leaves is one way houseplants attempt to regulate their growing conditions on their own. Water Droplets on Leaves When houseplant leaves develop droplets of water on their tips, it is probably just transpiration as water moves through the plant and evaporates from its leaves, stem, and flowers. Leaves dripping water is a natural occurrence, just like people sweating. If it's humid or dewy out, water droplets collect on leaves. This generally occurs in the summer, especially if windows are open. The humidity during the day and the moisture in the air when the dew settles in the morning are all absorbed, to some degree, by plant leaves. Usually, this is a good thing. However, when a plant is already saturated, it needs to release the excess moisture, and it does so by transpiration through its leaves. You won't see a flood of water being released, just a droplet or two on the tips. This will fall off or evaporate, and you won't see it happen again until conditions are once again right. This transpiration is not hurting your plants, but it might be harming your furniture or floors. There's an easy way to stop the dripping leaves: Cut back on how much you water your plants. The leaves are dripping because they already have as much moisture as they can hold and are expelling the excess water. During humid spells, most plants will not need as much water as they normally would. Let your plants be your guide and adjust the amount of water you give them accordingly. Cut back from weekly watering to every other week or so and monitor the plants to see if they still drip or if you have gone too far in the other direction and they are now wilting between waterings. The amount of water needed will change throughout the year. Calla Lily Leaves Dripping Water There is another reason why indoor plants may have water dripping from their leaves: guttation. This phenomenon occurs when droplets of xylem sap are released from the tips or edges of a plant's leaves. This sap is often mistaken for water by indoor gardeners, but it's something entirely different. While guttation can occur with many vascular plants, grasses, and several species of fungi, indoors it is particularly common with calla lilies. When guttation occurs, it's a sign that you have over-watered your plant––the saturated roots create pressure on the rest of the plant, which forces it to exude moisture in the form of sap. Cut back on watering and your plant should stop releasing sap.
Sometimes when we consume contaminated food or drinks we may experience food poisoning. It is usually relatively harmless but can it can turn to into a deadly illness. Common symptoms of food poisoning are nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramping, and diarrhea. People usually recover quickly from most types of food poisoning and they have very few symptoms. There are over 250 diseases that can be transmitted through food though The two main causes for food poisoning are infectious agents and toxic agents. Infectious agents are the ones that include viruses, bacteria’s and parasites. Toxic agents are the ones that include poisonous mushrooms and exotics food that are not prepared accordingly (sushi), and pesticides on unwashed fruits and vegetables. Most of the time, contaminated food is the result of improper handling and bad sanitation. Food handlers who do not wash their hands after retuning to work are a common cause for food poisoning. Food poisoning symptoms vary depending on the type of agents, infectious or toxic, and the amount ingested. They can develop as early as 30 minutes after consuming the food or very slowly dragging on for days and weeks. Viruses are the biggest cause of food poisoning where a specific contaminant is found. Noroviruses cause mild illness such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headaches and fever. Generally these viruses are mild, and only last a few days after the food poisoning has occurred. They occur from water, shellfish and vegetable contaminated by feces. Rotavirus: this virus causing mild illness is mostly present in children and infants through play areas and fecal contamination. The symptoms are vomiting followed watery diarrhea and fever Hepatitis A: a more serious virus with symptoms lasting for about 2 months with the possibility of it extending for a longer period of time. The virus is again transmitted from human to human through fecal contamination. It causes loss of appetite, abdominal pain and a feeling of tiredness. Bacteria can also cause food poisoning in two different ways. It either causes difficulty in absorbing nutrients by invading the intestines, which in turn leads to diarrhea. Some bacteria can also produces chemicals which are harmful to the human digestive system causing nausea, vomiting, kidney failure and also death. Parasites can also sometimes cause food poisoning but they are usually rare. They are swallowed in contaminated water and cause long lasting but mild symptoms. Toxic agents cause less food poisoning but are usually isolated cases of bad food preparation. The most common toxic agents are poisonous mushrooms and eating sushi that was not well prepared. Eating fruits and vegetables that have not been washed after been sprayed with pesticides also causes food poisoning. Most of the time food poisoning which includes vomiting and diarrhea can be taken care of with home treatment: 1. Do not eat solid foods when vomiting but drink plenty of liquids 2. Tea with lemons and ginger can be used to get rid of the symptoms After the vomiting and nausea has stopped it is recommended you eat plain foods in small amounts such are rice, wheat, bread and potatoes. You should seek medical care when: 1. You have nausea, diarrhea and have been vomiting for more than two days 2. Other family members who ate the same thing are also sick 3. You are sick after a recent trip abroad 4. You cannot keep liquids down 5. Your situation does not improved after two days even if you are drinking a large amount of liquids \|agents, cause, diarrhea, eating healthy, food, nausea, poisoning, symptoms, toxic, vomiting\|
Using Jolly Phonics to Teach Phonics Skills How to use phonic skills to teach children to read and write Jolly Learning Ltd is a system designed to help children to develop their phonics skills. It was founded by British man Chris Jolly in 1987, and after collaborating with Sue Lloyd he published the first part of Jolly Phonics in 1992. The methodology provides excellent structure to the teaching of phonics to young children, and I also used it to great effect with older primary children who had not been taught the phonic sounds and struggled with spelling and decoding words. There are a lot of resources available, but I have only reviewed the ones that I have actually used myself and know that they do indeed help children's phonic skills to progress. What is Jolly Phonics? An introduction to the methodology. With Jolly Phonics the letter sounds are split into seven groups, with each group taking about a week to teach. The sounds are not taught in alphabetical order and letters that are easily transposed, like b and d and p and q are deliberately put into different groups. The letters are grouped so that, for example, b and d and p and q , are not taught together. Children often transpose these letters, so it is sensible to introduce them separately. The 42 letter sounds are taught in groups of 6 sounds, and as the children learn the sounds they are also shown how to blend them together. For example blending the b sound with the r sound: b + r = br The use of visual prompts, and the way that the letter sounds are grouped also makes this an ideal way to teach dyslexic children (or adults) to read and write. I know this from experience as I have personally used Jolly Phonics to teach dyslexic children. The 42 sounds in the Jolly Phonic system includes digraphs, for example ai makes a long a sound, as in paid. Each of the sounds has its own unique action, a song and a story. This use of different learning styles helps the child to reinforce the sound effectively. The seven groups of Jolly Phonics letter sounds are: s, a, t, i, p, n ck, e, h, r, m, d g, o, u, l, f, b ai, j, oa, ie, ee, or z, w, ng, v, oo, oo y, x, ch, sh, th, th qu, ou, oi, ue, er, ar Jolly Phonics Letter Sounds (British English) My Personally Recommended Jolly Phonics Resources: To Buy The Phonics Handbook - Essential for anyone wanting to teach the program The Jolly Phonics Handbook provides an excellent starting point for anyone wanting to teach Jolly Phonics. If you only want to buy one teaching resource for Jolly Phonics, then this would be the one that I would recommmend - the one that I used or referred to in every phonics lesson. It would also be an excellent homeschool resource to aid the teaching of reading and writing via phonics. Each of the 42 sounds has a page with a picture to represent the sound and space to practise writing the letter underneath. These pages are in black and white and are designed to be photocopied. There are also sound cards, word cards and worksheets that can be photocopied and taken home for extra practise. For educators who are new to this phonics system everything that you need to know is fully explained, and there is a letter that can be copied and sent home to parents that explains the Jolly Phonics methodology. 7 Finger Phonic Big Books Made from board, in the same way that books aimed at toddler's are, these books are very hard wearing and designed to be handled by lots of little fingers. Each of the letters or sounds is cut out of the card, so that it is possible for children to run their fingers along and feel the shape of each sound. Children learn best when they get the chance to explore concepts in different mediums, and this tactile approach is useful in helping them to memorise the 42 sounds. Using Finger Phonics Books I used these Finger Phonics books when working with small groups of children, and they also liked to read them themselves, running their finger along the grooved shape of the sound. These books are both very visual and tactile and provide an excellent visual aid to phonics lessons, helping to reinforce the sounds being taught. All children learn differently, and being able to be hands on with resources like this is a huge advantage for a lot of children. Another technique that is very good is to get the children to create the shape of the sound in a tangible way. This can either be by using their finger to create the shape mid air, or by using a tray of shaving foam or sand to draw the sound in. I have my own personal copy of the Jolly Phonics CD and I use it regularly. Singing is an excellent way of reinforcing the sounds, and nearly all children love to sing. It is useful when teaching the songs to the children, espescially if you are not a very confident singer. I also play it when the children are doing any sound or writing based lesson, as background music, and they sing along as they are working. Jolly Phonics Songs Inky The Mouse Tips On Teaching Tricky Words How did you learn to read and write? My Personally Recommended Jolly Phonics Resources Group 1: s,a,t,p,i,n This group of resources is intended to give you an idea of what is available. These on line sites will also have resources for the other groups of sounds.
Bones serve as the framework of the human body. Bone is living tissue which undergoes a cyclical process of building, degradation and rebuilding. While healthy bones can withstand external pressure well enough to prevent breakage, some conditions such as osteoporosis affects building and rebuilding process itself. Instead of strong bones, a person with the disease suffer from the consequences of brittle bones. Weakened bones due to age and a decrease in bone density Men and women may have been diagnosed with osteoporosis, although the condition is more common in women, especially women over 50. Just at a younger age, people form more bone than they lose, the process of bone rebuilding slows women approaching menopause. According to the National Osteoporosis Foundation, a decrease in bone density is a sign of osteoporosis. Bone density is measured with a painless radiologic procedure similar to the X-ray and compared with the average of measurements to a man 20 to 30 years. It can lower the risk of osteoporosis by daily right kind of food and regular exercise. Key nutrients to build strong bones Vitamin D and calcium are two main nutrients required by the body to form strong bones. This is especially important in young children, the bones are still forming, while vitamin D is necessary for the absorption of calcium, the latter is a key component of teeth and bones. Vitamin D is also important for bone growth. Both of these substances work together to prevent fracture. The risk of developing osteoporosis increases as people age, particularly in women. Because of this, it is necessary to pay attention to the recommended daily intake of vitamin D and calcium, which includes planning meals with ingredients that are rich in these compounds. The recommended daily allowance for calcium in adults over 51 is 1,200 mg. At the same time, adults over 50 should get 600 international units (IU) of vitamin D. On the other hand, adults aged 50 and below should get 200 IU of vitamin D and 1,000 milligrams of calcium. Physical exercise to promote stronger bones Physical activity can be useful in maintaining bone density. There are two different types of exercise that are specifically intended to promote optimal bone strength. These include strengthening muscles and weight-bearing exercises. Muscle strengthening exercises are usually made with resistance to improve the strength of muscle contraction. Lifting weights, elastic, or practice on the weight machines to contribute to an increase in the number of muscle fibers in the targeted muscle or muscle group. Stronger muscles have a better ability to support bone. On the other hand, are weight-bearing exercises movement taken while upright while legs are permanently planted on the ground and body are moving. Weight-bearing exercises can either be low impact activities (aerobics, step up training) or high impact activities (dance, running, jumping rope). These exercises contribute to building bones and increase bone strength by promoting more compact bone tissue deposition.

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