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- Tea Pouches
- Loose Tea
- Iced Tea
- Why Mighty Leaf?
EGCG, Catechins, Antioxidants and Green Tea
Catechins are a type of tannin commonly found in green tea - these chemicals provide both the active antioxidant property of green teas and also the slight astringent taste green teas are noted for.
Black tea also contains catechins, but in smaller amounts because the fermentation process used to make black tea chemically reduces catechins, making them lose their antioxidant properties. The class of chemicals called catechins are powerful, water soluble polyphenols and antioxidants that in can be easily chemically oxidized - making them special as antioxidants in the body.
Several thousand types of catechins occur naturally in the plants. As many as two thousand are known to have a flavon chemical structure and are thus called flavonoids. Catechins are a subclass of flavonoids known for their strong anitoxidant properties.
The most important catechin found in green tea is Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). EGCG is the main active and water-soluble component of green tea - there is more EGCG found in green tea than any other type of catechin, and it is known for being the potent antioxidant of the catechin group.
EGCG accounts for 9-13% of green tea in net weight. Because of its peculiar stereochemical structure, EGCG possesses much stronger anti-oxidant activities and plays an important role in preventing cancer and cardiovascular diseases. In addition, new research suggests that EGCG may potently be used as the reversal agent for Multidrug Resistance (MDR) effects often found in cancer treatment, which may improve the sensitivity of the cancer cell to chemotherapy drugs and reduce toxicity associated with chemotherapy on the heart.
Catechins in general are found in high concentrations in green tea because the black tea fermentation process reduces catechins in black tea.
Research aimed at finding the active compounds in green tea have revealed that its protective effects are due chiefly to catechins. Tea contains four main catechin substances: EC, ECG, EGC and EGCG, all of which are inclusively called catechins.
EGCG as an antioxidant is about 25-100 times more potent than vitamins C and E. One cup of green tea provides 10-40 mg of polyphenols and has antioxidant effects greater than a serving of broccoli, spinach, carrots, or strawberries. The high antioxidant activity of green tea makes it beneficial for protecting the body from oxidative damage due to free radicals. Research shows that green tea may help the arterial wall by reducing lipids. Green tea can protect against experimentally induced DNA damage, and slow or halt the initiation and progression of undesirable cell colonies. Studies show evidence that green tea provides immunoprotective qualities, particularly in the case of patients undergoing radiation or chemotherapy. White blood cell count appear to be maintained more effectively in patients consuming green tea compared to non-supplemented patients.
Green tea is manufactured from fresh, unfermented tea leaves; the oxidation of catechins is minimal, and hence they are able to serve as antioxidants. Researchers believe that catechin is effective because it easily sticks to proteins, blocking bacteria from adhering to cell walls and disrupting their ability to destroy them. Viruses have ‘hooks’ on their surfaces and can attach to cell walls. The catechin in green tea prevents viruses from adhering and causing harm. Catechin reacts with toxins created by harmful bacteria (many of which belong to the protein family) and harmful metals such as lead, mercury, chrome, and cadmium.
Tannin in green tea is mostly catechin and is a key component in its taste providing the astringency. The amount of catechin tends to increase as the season progresses. Spring tea (first crop) contains 12-13% catechin (13-17% as tannin) while summer tea (third crop) contains 13-14% (17-21% as tannin). If leaf order is compared, younger leaves include more catechin than mature ones. First leaves contain 14%, second 13%, third 12%, and fourth 12%. This explains why second and third crop summer teas are more astringent while Bancha is less so. Gyokuro green tea, whose leaves are covered during growth, contains less catechin and astringency (10% as tannin) because it gets less sunshine then Sencha.
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February has been named Dental Health Awareness and Prevention Month in North Dakota.
The proclamation, which was made by Governor Jack Dalrymple on Thursday, promotes the encouragement of families to review preventive measures to ensure healthy teeth, gums and mouths.
"Dental health is often an area of health care that is overlooked, but is so important for a person's overall health," said Kimberlie Yineman, director of the North Dakota Department of Health's Oral Health Program. "By increasing awareness, we are hoping that we can prevent serious long-term health issues."
According to the proclamation made by Dalrymple, "tooth decay affects more than one-fourth of U.S. children ages 2 to 5 years and half of those ages 12 to 15 years, and 20 percent of adolescents ages 12 to 19 years currently have untreated decay."
The Department of Health encourages everyone to brush twice a day with fluoride toothpaste, floss once a day, visit a dentist regularly for checkups, and to get a professional cleaning on a regular basis.
"It's also important for parents to make sure that children are taking care of their teeth," Yineman said, adding that limiting sugary snacks, soda and sports drinks between meals are among the simple ways to ensure good dental health.
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1. To disable with alarm or apprehensions; to depress the spirits or courage of; to deprive or firmness and energy through fear; to daunt; to appall; to terrify. "Be not afraid, neither be thou dismayed." (Josh. I. 9) "What words be these? What fears do you dismay?" (Fairfax)
2. To render lifeless; to subdue; to disquiet. "Do not dismay yourself for this." (Spenser)
Synonyms: To terrify, fright, affright, frighten, appall, daunt, dishearthen, dispirit, discourage, deject, depress. To Dismay, Daunt, Appall. Dismay denotes a state of deep and gloomy apprehension. To daunt supposes something more sudden and startling. To appall is the strongest term, implying a sense of terror which overwhelms the faculties.
"So flies a herd of beeves, that hear, dismayed, The lions roaring through the midnight shade." (Pope) "Jove got such heroes as my sire, whose soul No fear could daunt, nor earth nor hell control." (Pope) "Now the last ruin the whole host appalls; Now Greece has trembled in her wooden walls." (Pope)
Origin: OE. Desmaien, dismaien, OF. Esmaier; pref. Es- (L. Ex) + OHG. Magan to be strong or able; akin to E. May. In English the pref. Es- was changed to dis- (L. Dis-). See May.
(01 Mar 1998)
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Definition of bushido
n. - The unwritten code of moral principles regulating the actions of the Japanese knighthood, or Samurai; the chivalry of Japan. 2
The word "bushido" uses 7 letters: B D H I O S U.
No direct anagrams for bushido found in this word list.
Words formed by adding one letter before or after bushido (in bold), or to bdhiosu in any order:
s - bushidos
Shorter words found within bushido:
bi bid bids bio bios bis bo bod bods bos bosh bud buds bus bush dhobi dhobis dib dibs dis dish do dos dub dubs duh dui duo duos hi hid his ho hob hobs hod hods hub hubs id ids is obi obis od ods oh ohs os oud ouds sh shod si sib so sob sod sou sub udo udos uh us
List shorter words within bushido, sorted by length
All words formed from bushido by changing one letter
Browse words starting with bushido by next letter
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Meet the Other Navy Seals (and Dolphins)Cute—and creepy—photos of the US Navy program that trains marine mammals as minesweepers and underwater sentries.
You've likely heard of the Navy SEAL dog that took part in the raid that killed Osama Bin Laden. Now meet the other Navy seals. Actually, they're sea lions. And dolphins.
For more than five decades, the Navy has enlisted sea lions, dolphins, and other marine mammals as an elite corps of underwater sentries, searchers, and mine-sweepers. Its Marine Mammal Program started in 1960 when weapons researchers studied a Pacific white-sided dolphin named Notty to see if she might teach them something about designing speedier torpedoes. She didn't, but the service has remained intriguiged by sea mammals' speed, stealth, sonar, and smarts. During the Vietnam War, specially trained dolphins were deployed to protect ships in Cam Ranh Bay. The Navy denies that they were dispatched to kill enemy divers as part of a "swimmer nullification program", though more recently sea lions have been trained to "attach restraint devices to swimmers." (The notion of dolphins as trained killers inspired The Day of the Dolphin, a 1973 movie starring George C. Scott.) Since the mid-1970s, the program has expanded to include beluga whales, seals, and and killer whales, though bottlenose dolphins and Californa sea lions have become its two mainstays due to their "their trainability, adaptability, and heartiness in the marine environment."
The Navy says its 100 or so marine mammals' primary missions are mine-hunting and "swimmer defense." Dolphins were first sent to the Persian Gulf in the late 1980s. In 1996, Navy dolphins assisted the Secret Service (PDF) during the Republican National Convention in their home port of San Diego, and NASA reportedly expressed interest in using sea lions to protect Space Shuttle launches (PDF). More recently, both dolphins and sea lions have been sent to the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea to help clear mines and guard ships. The Navy has hailed "swimmer defense dolphins" as "a strong deterrent against terrorist attacks" like the one on the USS Cole in 2000.
Animal-rights activists have long objected to the Navy's marine-mammal program, criticizing the use of benign sea creatures in military operations and the cramped conditions in which they are housed and transported. "Using animals for military defense is unnecessary and cruel and could very well cost lives—not save them," PETA wrote in response to a plan to use dolphins and sea lions to guard a naval base in Washington. The Navy claims that it treats its flippered conscripts humanely, noting that they are fed "higher-than-restaurant-quality fish" and travel in pools designed "to keep the animals in an environment as much like San Diego as possible." It also argues that its work has added to the scientific knowlege of these animals: "The more we know about marine mammals, the better we can protect them."
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Before You Start Your Diabetes Exercise Plan
Fitness plays a special role for people who have diabetes. Being fit means becoming healthier by adding activity to your day. Talk to your doctor or other healthcare provider before getting started. He or she may want you to have a checkup before you become more active. Also, having certain tests first helps you and your doctor learn how you will respond to a fitness program.
A medical checkup helps ensure that your fitness plan will bring you the most benefit. As part of your checkup:
You may have a test called a hemoglobin A1c. The A1c test measures your average glucose (sugar) level over 2 to 3 months. A1C is usually given as a percentage. But it is now also given as a number representing estimated Average Glucose (eAG). Unlike the A1C percentage, eAG gives you a number similar to the numbers listed on your daily glucose monitor.
Your doctor may check the health of your heart. Diabetes can cause heart problems. But a fitness program can help these problems get better. Being fit can also help improve your cholesterol and blood pressure levels.
Your doctor may check the health of your feet. People who have diabetes can have problems with their feet. Your doctor can check your feet before you become more active.
If You Have an Exercise Stress Test
An exercise stress test can show how your heart responds to activity. You will have small electrodes placed on your chest. You will then walk on a treadmill or ride an exercise bike while your heart rate is monitored. If you have this test, your doctor will give you more details.
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COMMON CASE AND BRACELET MATERIALS
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
IS MY BRACELET SCRATCH-PROOF OR SCRATCH-RESISTANT?
HOW DO MAGNETIC FIELDS AFFECT MY WATCH?
HOW DO I GET MY WATCH APPRAISED FOR INSURANCE PURPOSES?
WHAT IS A "SWISS" WATCH?
DO I NEED TO WIND MY AUTOMATIC (SELF-WINDING) WATCH?
A mechanical movement that is wound through the motion of the wearer's arm during normal daily arm movement; sufficient activity is required to build up a power reserve. Also known as a "self-winding" watch.
The part of the watch that secures the watch to the wrist. The two common types of bands are Strap (i.e. leather) and Bracelet.
The rim which secures the crystal in place on the watch case and may be set with diamonds or other stones. Bezels may also be rings which are graduated to track elapsed time, as in a diver's watch. Some bezels are rotating and can be turned to perform different types of timekeeping.
The ornament, often a dome-shaped or faceted precious stone such as a ruby or emerald used to accent the winding crown. Also, the raised dome-shaped markers used to indicate the hours on some watch dials.
The windows or subdials on the dial of a watch that display the day, date, month and/or year.
Also known as graphite fiber, carbon fiber consists of extremely thin fibers, predominantly of carbon atoms, bonded together in microscopic crystals. The vertical alignment of the crystals gives carbon fiber its unique texture, and makes it incredibly strong. Often combined with a polymer, carbon fiber watch cases and dials are exceptionally tough.
The metal housing that contains the internal workings of the watch (the movement, dial and hands).
High-tech ceramic, an extremely hard material containing titanium carbide, is valued by watchmakers for its lightweight and exceptional scratch-resistance. High-polished ceramic timepieces are smooth-to-the-touch, ultra lightweight and durable.
A watch that includes a stop watch feature: a timer that can be started and stopped to time an event.
A timepiece that has met very high standards of accuracy, tested and certified by the C.O.S.C. (an official watch institute in Switzerland). Each chronometer comes with an individual certificate of precision.
The tiny knob on the winding stem used to move the hands to set the time on the watch, and to wind a watch with a manual movement.
The transparent "glass" which protects the dial of the watch. There are three common types of crystals: acrylic, mineral and sapphire. A sapphire crystal is the most expensive, scratch-resistant and durable type of crystal.
A buckle or clasp with a two or three piece inner element that folds onto itself securing the two ends of a strap or bracelet. This type fastener allows the wearer to slip on or remove the watch from their wrist with ease.
Also known as the watch "face." It gives a watch its beauty and character, based on the material from which it is crafted and the style of the numerals, markers, texture and other details that define it.
A sport watch built to withstand underwater pressure, often worn by scuba divers. Among other features, these watches are typically equipped with a screw-down crown that creates a strong seal to prevent water from penetrating the case. Must be water resistant to 20 ATM (the pressure equivalent of being 200m or 660 feet under water) to be classified as a Diver’s watch.
A rotating bezel which can be used to indicate the hour in a second time zone, distinct from the time indicated by the hands on the dial.
A rubber or plastic ring that is used to seal the watch case against dust, moisture and water. Typically used on in conjunction with the crown, crystal and metal case.
A type of design in which thin lines are engraved in a crossed or interlaced pattern to create a decorative textural effect on the dial of the watch.
Another name for a manual wind mechanical movement. See "mechanical movement".
A small synthetic sapphire or ruby placed at various points in a mechanical or quartz watch movement which have been drilled, chamfered and polished to serve as bearings for watch gears reducing friction of mechanical parts to a minimum.
Growing in popularity, K1 mineral is a type of watch crystal that is more shatter-resistant than sapphire crystal, and more scratch-resistant than regular mineral crystal.
Extensions from either end of the case that hold the pin used to fasten the strap or bracelet to the case.
Watch hands coated with a substance, such as Tritium and Superluminova, that makes them glow in the dark. They are especially common in sports models for better visibility underwater.
A type of mechanical movement, also known as a "hand-winding" movement, in which the mainspring of the movement must be wound by hand daily, using the crown. See "mechanical movement".
A watch movement comprised of a series of turning cog wheels and jewels, expertly calibrated by hand. A mechanical movement may be: automatic, also known as "self-winding" (wound by the motion of the arm during daily wear) Or "manual", also known as "hand-winding" (requiring regular/daily winding of the crown by hand).
A function on a watch that can announce the time in hours, quarter-hours, and minutes by means of a push button. An audible chime sounds when the push piece or button is depressed.
A window, often half-moon shaped, in a watch dial that shows the current phase of the moon. This distinctive feature is usually seen in combination with other calendar-related features.
The iridescent lining of the interior shell of a freshwater mollusk that can be thinly sliced and used to create a watch dial. While mother-of-pearl generally has a milky white luster, it is also available in other natural pearlescent colors such as gray, blue and pink.
To ensure your watch’s water resistancy, we recommend inspection and maintenance of the case seals and gaskets every 12-24 months. This will help keep the watch movement safe from air, dust, and moisture, which over time can get into the watch and affect its ability to function properly.
All watch movements will require periodic maintenance. We recommended that a mechanical movement be inspected for possible servicing every 3 to 5 years and quartz movements at each battery change.
A calendar feature on a watch that automatically adjusts to account for the different number of days in each month, and for leap years.
An aperture or subdial on a mechanical watch, often wedge-shaped, that indicates how much longer the watch will operate before requiring winding.
A button that is pressed to operate (start/stop) a mechanism. Pushers are usually found on chronographs and timepieces with minute strikers and alarms.
The letters are an abbreviation for Physical Vapor Deposit, a high-tech vacuum-coating procedure that produces wear-resistant finish.
A watch movement where time is "tuned" to, and measured by, the extremely rapid and consistent vibrations of a quartz crystal. The quartz crystal is powered by a battery. Also known as an Electronic Quartz Movement.
A device that chimes the time when a button is pushed, or a slide is pulled. See "Minute Repeater".
A crown that screws down into the case tube making the watch more water resistant. Provides the best underwater shock protection (against rocks, accidental knocks, scrapes, etc.) to prevent water leakage. To set the time on a watch with a screw-down crown, the crown must first be unscrewed before it can be pulled out to any hand-setting position.
A movement that converts mechanical energy generated by the force of gravity and natural movements of the wearer's wrist into electrical energy which is stored in an accumulator which powers a quartz movement.
Another name for an automatic mechanical movement. See "Automatic" and "Mechanical" movements.
To be qualified as "shock resistant", a watch must have demonstrated the ability to withstand an impact equal to that of being dropped onto a wood floor from a height of three feet during testing.
The dial of the watch is "cut out" to allow the inner workings of a watch's movement to be seen through the transparent crystal and dial on the front side, or a transparent crystal case back. In a watch with a “skeletonized” movement, the rotor, wheels and other moving parts are also painstakingly cut away, creating an elegant transparency all the way through the case.
Abbreviation stands for "Stock Keeping Unit"; an identifying number used when taking inventory. Same as the watch "model number".
A seconds hand that is mounted in the center of the watch dial (vs. one positioned in a sub-dial). A "true" sweep seconds hand is found only on mechanical watches, and has a motion that is undetectable to the human eye. On a quartz watch, the advance of the seconds hand is discernible in tiny step-by-step jumps.
A feature found on chronographs consisting of a calibrated scale, usually found around the perimeter of the dial, that can be used to measure the wearer's speed of travel over a pre-determined distance. Also known as "tachometer".
A rectangular watch case with heavier bars on either side of the dial.
A number (used in addition to the SKU number) that provides coded information on the watch's attributes: case metal, plating; movement size and type; bracelet style; dial color, material, style, etc. Usually engraved on the case back.
A rectangular watch that has two gently bowed or convex sides.
A construction system in a mechanical watch that eliminates timekeeping errors caused by the slight difference in rates at which a watch runs in the horizontal and vertical positions. A rare and sophisticated feature.
Grilamid TR90 is a high-tech thermoplastic composite material that comes in a wide range of opaque and transparent colors. It has a high flexural fatigue strength and good stress-crack and chemical-resistance, making it a tough, lightweight, colorful choice for watch cases.
One of the "hard metals", tungsten carbide is a modern, sport luxury watch material prized for its weighty feel, rich steely blue color and extreme hardness. Tungsten carbide can be polished to a virtually scratch-proof mirror finish. Watches crafted of tungsten carbide are exceptionally resistant to scratches and often maintain their lustrous, like-new appearance for years.
The ability of a watch to withstand water pressure to a stated depth.
Element transmitting motion from the crown to the gears governing movement winding and hand setting.
Common Case and Bracelet Materials
The most popular metal used in watch cases and bracelets
Made of steel alloyed with chromium
Not nickel free, however the nickel molecules are encapsulated; classified as hypoallergenic
In its pure form (24K), it is too soft to work with so base metals are mixed with gold to give it strength; for example, 14K gold is a ratio of 14 parts gold to 10 parts base metal
White gold is created by adding platinum to the mixture, pink or rose gold comes from adding copper
Color cannot "wear off"; the gold is an integral part of the material
A base metal with a thin layer of gold (usually 18K to 23K) applied in a process called electroplating
Thickness of the gold-plating can range from 2-10 microns in depth
Gives appearance of solid gold at lower price level
Not solid gold, so plated finish can wear off over time
One of the most rare precious metals, it has a rich, white luster. Platinum used in jewelry and watches is at least 85-95% pure platinum, with only 5-15% of a base metal
One of the strongest and heaviest metals
Hypoallergenic and tarnish-resistant
White, very durable metal
Stronger and lighter than stainless steel, but softer
Non-corrosive; resistant to salt, perspiration, and high temperatures
Hypoallergenic; does not contain nickel
A metal that is a combination of tungsten and carbon compressed under extreme pressure
Extremely durable and highly scratch-resistant
Heavier than stainless steel
Will not tarnish or rust
Frequently Asked Questions
A watch may be made of a scratch-resistant material, however no material is truly scratch-proof. Therefore, please follow these steps when handling your watch:
Wrap your watch in a soft cloth prior to placing it on any hard surface.
When possible, store your watch in the original box/case.
Avoid dropping the watch in a drawer or jewelry box, to prevent it from being scratched by coming in contact with other pieces of jewelry.
Avoid wearing your watch during high-risk activities, for example, when lifting or moving heavy objects or engaging in sports activities.
Avoid wearing your watch on the same wrist as another piece of jewelry. They could rub against and scratch each other.
The exposure of your watch to strong magnetic fields will affect its time keeping and may cause it to stop. A quartz watch will resume working with original accuracy when it is removed from the magnetic field. A mechanical watch may require demagnetization.
MGI can provide appraisals for watch brands that we manufacture.
Please download, complete and return the Repair and Service Request Form with your watch to the address below. On the form, indicate, "Please appraise my watch for insurance purposes". After we receive your watch, we will mail you an estimate indicating the cost of the appraisal.
109 State Street
Moonachie, NJ 07074
Movements made in Switzerland, where watchmaking began centuries ago, enjoy a reputation throughout the world today for superb craftsmanship, innovative design, and prestige.
Whether they are mechanical or quartz, are synonymous with exceptional quality.
They are recognized for their accuracy, reliability, water resistance and shock resistance They are made with only the highest quality materials.
They must meet certain criteria and pass strict testing in Switzerland before they can be certified as "Swiss made."
Mechanical watches with automatic movements have a spring that is wound by the normal, daily motion of the wearer's arm. The arm movement causes a rotor inside the watch to transmit motion (energy) to the barrel, thus winding the mainspring.
An important feature of every automatic winding watch is "power reserve". If the watch loses its power reserve because it has been idle for an extended period of time, you can wind it up manually (approximately 20 turns of the crown) to create an initial power reserve. To retain the power reserve, as stated above, the watch must be worn continuously and actively. If you plan on wearing your watch daily, you may want to manually wind it once every two weeks to keep the wheels in motion and the oil from drying out. If you do not plan on wearing it daily, we advise you wind the watch about three times a week to ensure continuous operation. Finally, if you do not wear your automatic watch daily, you may want to use a winding box. This box mimics the natural motion of your arm to keep your automatic watch operating.
In contrast, a "manual" mechanical watch does require the watch's mainspring to be hand-wound by turning the crown, and must be wound each time it loses that power.
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By Doug Bradley, NAMI HelpLine Coordinator
One of the biggest stories in mental health over the past few years has been the proposed revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). As the main guide used by psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers in the U.S. to diagnose mental illness, the DSM is an important factor in our mental health system. The manual often influences what type of care people get (or should get), how practitioners are reimbursed, and how people diagnosed with mental illness view themselves and their recoveries.
While the DSM-5 has not been finalized, there are several big changes from the last manual (DSM-IV) starting with the title. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) used roman numerals (i.e., I, II, III) on previous editions but will now use Arabic numbers (i.e., 1,2,3) for two reasons. Firstly, Arabic numbers are more universally recognized. Secondly, updates to the manual will be easier to track. Prior changes were denoted by abbreviations such as –R or –TR, which did not indicate which came first. New updates will be denoted DSM-5.1, DSM-5.2, etc., to clearly show which version is latest.
Another noticeable change is the lack of axes (e.g., Axis I for mood, anxiety and thought disorders; Axis II for personality disorders) to classify illnesses. The DSM-5 work groups felt that there was no scientific basis for this separation and abandoned the axis system for this version.
Instead, an attempt has been made to group similar disorders into 20 categories. However, there have been changes to the familiar DSM-IV groupings. The former “Mood Disorders” chapter is now divided into two sections: “Depressive Disorders” and “Bipolar and Related Disorders.” A brand-new category is “Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders” which includes OCD, hoarding, compulsive hair-pulling, Body Dysmorphic Disorder and others. While all these disorders can cause anxiety, their main distinguishing features are repetitive thoughts and behavior. Also, as the treatment for them is often different than for other anxiety conditions, they have been separated from Anxiety Disorders , which in DSM-5 still contains Panic Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder, etc.
Some other changes are elimination of Aspergers as a separate disorder and merging it into Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The section on Personality Disorders has changed with new criteria for some and the elimination of Schizoid, Paranoid, Histrionic and Dependant Personality Disorders. Researchers feel that people in these categories rarely needed professional help and that many of their symptoms could be better described by the remaining personality disorders. Also, two controversial diagnoses (Attenuated Psychosis and Mixed Anxiety-Depression) have been kept but are in a section for topics needing further study.
As people following the creation of DSM-5 know, this process has been more contentious than past revisions. Opponents of the new manual feel that thresholds for the diagnosis of many disorders have been lowered and many people whose behavior is not currently considered “disordered” will now be labeled as ill. For example, some fear that the removal of the “grief exclusion” from Major Depressive Disorder will cause a normal and necessary part of life to be treated as a sickness. The APA has tried to address this issue by adding a note to the proposed criteria for depression clarifying that while grief itself is not a disorder, grief and depression can co-occur. Since this difference is not noted explicitly in the criteria, however, some feel that practitioners may overlook the distinction.
On the other hand, the new definition of ASD may result in fewer diagnoses. This possibility concerns some who feel that children may lose their ASD diagnosis, ending their eligibility for public programs that their parents have found useful, if not invaluable, for their children’s development.
Critics also claim that researchers have not done all the testing needed to validate the new criteria, perhaps to meet deadlines in the development of DSM-5. The APA counters that more field work and validity testing have been done for this revision than for any in the past. It also claims that there has been more input, partly thanks to the internet, from many mental health professionals and the public. Opponents say that while the APA has accepted much input, it has disregarded most from outside the association.
How will the new DSM affect the practice of psychiatry and people living with mental illness? Will it change who is considered to be living with mental illness? The maddeningly vague answer is that we will only know after DSM-5 is released in 2013. The intent of the authors of the manual, and the hope of everyone touched by mental illness, is that the new DSM will produce more accurate diagnoses leading to better treatment. The fear is that many normal behaviors will be considered symptoms of illnesses resulting in unnecessary labeling and intervention. Ideally, DSM-5 will make for better diagnoses, allowing practitioners to identify and treat mental illness before it shatters people’s lives, yet without wrongly labeling others. It’s a tall order but, at the very least, both sides in this debate will have learned much on how well this process has worked and how it can be improved in the future.
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The following HTML text is provided to enhance online
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Saving Women’s Lives: Strategies for Improving Breast Cancer Detection and Diagnosis
FIGURE 3-4 Mammographic sensitivity increases with a woman’s age.
screens, but a higher percentage of abnormal mammograms, biopsies, and false-positive findings. Therefore—if judged by rates of false positives—the apparent performance of a mammography service or individual radiologist would be influenced by the proportion of how many women are receiving their first mammogram.
Performance and Volume
A relationship between the volume of procedures performed and the outcome of those procedures has been established for many complex medical procedures, particularly in surgery and oncology.55 Many studies have suggested that the volume of mammograms read by a radiologist is correlated with accuracy, and mammography volume standards are mandated by federal law. However, relatively few studies have directly compared the number of mammograms read by a radiologist and the accuracy of their interpretations. The results of these are variable, and are shown in Table 3-4. The most comprehensive study to date was the analysis by Beam and his colleagues in 2003,12 which indicated that the volume of mammograms interpreted by a radiologist accounts for less than 2.5 percent of the variation. This means that more than 97 percent of inconsistency in interpretation is due to other factors.
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The following HTML text is provided to enhance online
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as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy.
rizes some of the more robust findings by listing some phyla from which rRNAs were studied to the right and the inferred branching patterns of the rRNAs on the left, with the implied appearance of some design elements in metazoan body plans indicated. A few of the design elements require comment. For present purposes, the unqualified terms "hemocoel" and "coelom" refer to fluid-filled spaces usually used as hydrostatic skeletons—the former being developed from the topological position of the blastocoel, the latter being developed within mesoderm. Spaces devoted only to serving organs (commonly as ducts or as buffering against solid tissues) are termed "organ hemocoels" or ''organ coeloms." "Seriation" refers to longitudinal repetition of organs, muscles, or other features but not necessarily in a correlated fashion, while "segmentation" refers to serial repetition with correlation among organ systems.
Many of the metazoan relationships indicated in Figure 4 are quite conventional, such as the sequence of choanoflagellates/poriferans/cnidarians/platyhelminths, the sister-group relationship of platyhelminths with higher metazoans, and the sister-group relationship of protostomes with deuterostomes. Less conventional, though hardly shocking, is the sister-group relationship of the arthropods with the unresolved cluster of protostomes, which includes mollusks and annelids. This is a particularly important branching, because it suggests that the last common ancestor of the protostomes was hemocoelic and that the coelom(s) of the deuterostomes arose independently of the coelom(s) of the protostomes. This branching also suggests that arthropod and annelid segmentation arose independently. The next deeper branching, between protostomes and deuterostomes, suggests that while their last common ancestor was not coelomic and need not have been hemocoelic, it did have a blood-vascular system. Other interpretations are possible but they are less parsimonious.
Late Precambrian Body Plans. The list of phyla on the right of Figure 4 indicates the body plans of the living organisms studied but certainly does not indicate the body plans of the common ancestors deeper within the branching pattern. On present evidence all of the branching between the choanoflagellate/poriferan and the arthropod/unresolved protostome branches occurred during the Precambian. The bilaterian traces of the Vendian must have been made by descendants of the platyhelminth/higher metazoan branch. The simple earliest trails require active worms with some hydrostatic system, possibly a tissue skeleton, or fluid in part; the relief indicated by these traces implies a non-flat body and that, in turn, a blood-vascular system. Such a worm, a vascularized "roundish flatworm," acoelomate (except possibly for organ spaces), probably
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The Old Town of Narva
The capital of Estonia - Tallinn (Old Town) is told to be a city, built in gothic style; Tartu is told to be a town of classicist style (university, buildings of the central part of the town). Up to the World War II, Narva was famous for its universal style where the gothic, baroque and classicism were mixed. Later, when Narva started expanding and its suburbs were actively built, the Old Town began to be called the Old Narva. Its story began with the terrible fire in 1659, after which only three houses and the fortress remained. After this accident, stone buildings were only allowed to be built in the central part of the town. Incomes from the flourishing trade allowed to erect the stone buildings and, at the same time, build them at breakneck speed. Thus, in two decades, the new stone town centre extended for approximately twenty hectares. For Narva of the 17th century, the two-stored plastered buildings with plentifully decorated portals (main entrances) and the majestic weathercocks were typical. Houses' corner towers (bay windows) were one of the characteristic features of Narva architecture. The heart of the Old Narva was at the Town Hall's square. Town Hall, a striking example of the classicism, was the most important building at the square. At the southern side of the square, the vazhnya was situated (Board of Weights and Measures). There were Baroque residential constructions beside it. Moreover, there also was a chemist's shop. The exchange building (1695-1704), situated across the Town Hall, was opposite the vazhnya and the chemist's shop. The house of the burggraf Jurgen Thunder (in the Middle Ages, the town's head with military and court duties) situated in the eastern part of the square, at the corner of the Suur and Ruutli streets, across the Town Hall's building. Narva's Old Town was destroyed because of the Soviet Union's air force's bombing attacks on March 6 and 8, 1944. In summer 1944, when German forces were retreating, they blew up a few churches, Ivangorod's fortress, Krenholm manufactory's production buildings and many houses. The majority of Old Narva buildings' walls remained after the artillery and bombing attacks. First, the roofs and interior structures of the buildings were destroyed. A part of Old Narva was planned to be reconstructed soon after the war, and the whole Old Narva was taken under State's protection in 1947. In 1950, however, Narva town authorities decided to pull down building's ruins, situated in the town centre. As a result, only three buildings were reconstructed - Narva Town Hall and two houses. Until the last moment it was planned to reconstruct Peter the Great's house and the exchange building. After all, its walls were also pulled down. It is frequently asked why Old Narva was not reconstructed. However, there is no direct response. Then, the walls' destruction was grounded on the necessity of obliterating wars' vestiges. It was also said that the vagabondage was settling among the ruins.
Certainly, huge expenses, needed for its restoration were the main reason of the rejection of Old Narva reconstruction. At last, the point of the ideological causes is that the Old Town represented the culture of the West town architecture and, by taking the ruins away, it became possible to built there the Soviet town. Today, blue and yellow Narva flag is hung out in the anniversary of the bombing of Narva on March 6.
The Town Hall
Being built at the end of 60ies of the 17th century, Narva Town Hall was the most representative public-service building in Narva. Swedish king Charles XI gave an order to the town authorities to build the Town Hall. The project of the master George Teuffel from Lubeck formed the basis of the building, the construction of which started in 1688. After three years, at the latest in 1691, the building was finished when a gold-plated forged weathercock in the form of a crane was put at the top of the tower (it was made by master Grabben). Interior furnishing lasted for another four years. In succeeding years, the clock was installed at the attic, building of the stairs in the Town Hall was finished and portal, brought from Stockholm, was set. Grate of the artistic smithery that connected stairs and handrails (at that time it was gold-plated) and the door-bell (metal ring striking against the door used as a door-bell) were finished last. Indoor wall painting beautified the Town Hall in abundance. During the World War II, the Town Hall was severely damaged: the tower, the roof, the flooring were destroyed, the stairs and the figures at the portal got considerable damages. During the renovation works in the Town Hall (1956-1963), the tower was rebuilt, and the building attained the new roof; the facade and the portal were reconstructed, and the grate that connected stairs and handrails was restored. During the reconstruction, festive entrance hall was only kept from the all-indoor decoration where the stair and the ceiling girders, decorated with the painting were restored. Today the Town Hall is a three-stored stone building with a huge socle store. Elevation of the building is divided by eight Tuscan pilasters where there is a high roof with a well-proportioned tower and baroque cupola, crowning it. There is a crane, the symbol of the vigilance, at the top of the tower. The windows lie in the same plane with an outside wall, which is typical for Narva town. The building is beautified by the portal with three figures that are symbols of three ethical principles: equity, wisdom and moderation. Exactly on the basis of these principles, justice in the Town Hall had to be administered. Historical town's emblem was situated among the figures: at the dark blue escutcheon, there were sword, sabre and three shots that are the symbols of importance of the town as a fortress at the border of the East (sabre) and the West (sword). Two fishes were represented between the symbols of the boundary town. According to one of the hypothesis, they represent the fishery, given to the town by its rulers. In the old days, Estonian ponds were renowned for its fair amount of fish. According to the folk rumours, Peter the Great, while ratifying the emblem of the town in 1585, said: "Be silent as fishes are, and thus you will be obedient to the new rule."
After the renovation works in the Town Hall (1960-1963), there resided the Palace of Pioneers in the name of Victor Kingisepp. For the recent years, the Town Hall is abandoned. However, in the distant prospect, it is planned to become a representative building of town counc
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Nur Khan rendered colossal services for the uplift of national sports of hockey, cricket and squash and enabled Pakistan to reach the pinnacle. Under his tenure as hockey chief, Pakistan won two Olympics, World Cup and Champions Trophy titles with later two tournaments being his own brainchild apart from many new innovations to uplift these sports from decline and decadence. When he became chairman PCB (then BCCP) in February 1980, he made the Asia Cup an enduring reality and introduced neutral umpiring in cricket matches.
He also played a pivotal role in bringing the Cricket World Cup to the subcontinent for the first time. When Nur Khan took over the responsibility of reviving squash in the country, the game saw its zenith. His revolutionary steps for the uplift of the game included introduction of talent hunt scheme which paid dividends and produced a surfeit of world class Pakistan players in the 70s: Qamar Zaman, Gogi Allauddin, Hidayat Jahan, Mohibullah Khan Junior and others. ln 1975, his efforts bore fruit as Qamar Zaman brought back the British Open title to Pakistan after 12 years. He during his short stints as Minister of Education and Governor of West Pakistan made all endeavours to promote education and improve the social fibre of the nation.
Pakistan’s squash greats Jahangir Khan and Jansher Khan were discovered by the PIA when air marshal had the administrative reins of the national career. An ace fighter pilot, a visionary commander and an epitome a leader, Air Marshal Nur Khan emerged on the global landscape a true icon, a legend and a national hero.
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|Bailey's Ecoregions and Subregions of the
United States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands
What this map layer shows:
Ecoregions defined by common climatic and vegetation characteristics,
shown as domains, divisions, provinces and sections.
Ecoregions are ecosystems of regional extent. Bailey's ecoregions distinguish
areas that share common climatic and vegetation characteristics. A
four-level hierarchy is used to differentiate the ecoregions, with the
broadest classification being the domain. Domains are groups of related
climates and are differentiated based on precipitation and temperature.
There are four domains used for worldwide ecoregion classification and
all four appear in the United States: the polar domain, the humid temperate
domain, the dry domain, and the humid tropical domain. Divisions represent
the climates within domains and are differentiated based on precipitation
levels and patterns as well as temperature. Divisions are subdivided
into provinces, which are differentiated based on vegetation or other
natural land covers. Mountainous areas that exhibit different ecological
zones based on elevation are identified at the province level. The
finest level of detail is described by subregions, called sections,
which are subdivisions of provinces based on terrain features.
The purpose of ecological land classification is to provide information
for both the development of resources and the conservation of the environment.
Government and private land managers use this information to estimate
ecosystem productivity, to determine probable responses to land management
practices, and to address environmental issues over large areas, such
as air pollution, forest disease, or threats to biodiversity. This
map layer was compiled by the USDA
The Bailey's Ecoregions and Subregions of the United States, Puerto
Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands map layer shows the ecoregion domains,
divisions, provinces, and sections for this area. Further information
on domains, divisions, and provinces is available from the USDA Forest
Service Rocky Mountain Research Station page describing Ecoregions
of the United States, and detailed information on sections is available
through the USDA Forest Service page, Ecological
Subregions of the United States.
The National Atlas also includes a map layer showing Omernik's
Level III Ecoregions, which are defined by a wide variety of characteristics,
including vegetation, animal life, geology, soils, water, climate,
and human land use, as well as other living and non-living ecosystem components.
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Lovelace, the rockhopper penguin that answers life's questions in the animated film "Happy Feet", probably would be just as stumped as the researchers who reported Friday that the population of his northern relatives has declined by 90 percent over the last 50 years.
The population of northern rockhopper penguins once reached into the millions, but now the largest colonies are estimated at between 32,000 to 65,000 pairs on Gough Island, and 40,000 to 50,000 pairs on Tristan da Cunha Island, according to a study in the journal Bird Conservation International.
Those two South Atlantic islands, which are British overseas territories, account for more than 80 percent of the total species population.
"Historically, we know that penguins were exploited by people, and that wild dogs and pigs probably had an impact on their numbers," Richard Cuthbert of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and lead author of the paper, said in a statement. "However, these factors cannot explain the staggering declines since the 1950s, when we have lost upwards of a million birds from Gough and Tristan."
"The declines at Gough since the 1950s are equivalent to losing 100 birds every day for the last 50 years", he added.
"With more than half the world’s penguins facing varying degrees of extinction, it is imperative that we establish the exact reason why the Northern Rockhopper Penguin is sliding towards oblivion," he said. "Understanding what's driving the decline of this bird will help us understand more about other threatened species in the Southern Ocean."
Possible factors, the researchers said, include climate change, shifts in marine ecosystems and overfishing.
The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds accused British government agencies of internal bickering that has delayed any action to protect the species.
"They are completely disinterested," RSPB staffer Sarah Sanders said of the government. "It's ridiculous and embarrassing. We are meant to be world leaders in biodiversity conservation and we can't even decide who is responsible for the overseas territories."
Other penguin species had been considered in generally good health until recently. The U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service last December proposed listing the African penguin as endangered under the Endangered Species Act, and five others as threatened: the yellow-eyed penguin, the white-flippered penguin, the Fiordland crested penguin and the erect-crested penguin, all from New Zealand; as well as the Humboldt penguin of Chile and Peru.
© 2013 msnbc.com Reprints
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September is Preparedness Month ~ Be prepared for wildfires ~
Posted on 9/2/2008
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
Contact: Cecily Fong
September 2, 2008
Bismarck, ND - With fall fire season nearly upon us, the ND Department of Emergency Services (NDDES) reminds North Dakotans that dry conditions exist in many areas of the state and the risk of wild fire continues to be high. It is important to be aware of a few important factors that will ensure that you and your family are safe.
Learn and teach safe fire practices.
Build fires away from nearby trees or bushes.
Always have a way to extinguish the fire quickly and completely.
Never leave a fire--even a cigarette--burning unattended.
Avoid open burning completely, and especially during dry season.
Always be ready for an emergency evacuation.
Know where to go and what to bring with you.
Plan several escape routes in case roads are blocked by a wildfire.
Children should be aware of evacuation routes and families should practice them together.
Know how to report a fire.
Be aware of your surroundings so you can give a good and accurate location.
Give an approximate size and describe any homes or structures that may be threatened.
Stay on the line to help give further information as requested.
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Neem: The Miracle Herb
There is perhaps no other herb known to man that has so many and varied potential benefits for humanity. Neem has been used for thousands of years and has been widely documented in the ancient herbal healing science of India, Ayurveda. But the value of neem does not rely solely on traditional folklore. Rather, it is one of the most widely studied herbs of modern times, with hundreds of scientific papers having been written about it. The result of both traditional review and modern scientific evidence is that Neem truly is the miracle herb.
The Neem Tree, Azadirachta indica, is a relative of the Mahogany tree. It is extremely hardy and virile, able to thrive in a wide variety of climates and environmental conditions, and overcome deficiencies of the soil or the climate with its native strength and vitality. This signature of neem is a sign in nature of its wide ranging ability to conquer adverse circumstances. The herb that we use contains this same over-arching power within it that we find in the tree and its vital will to live.
Traditional Ayurvedic lore holds that Neem has incredible ability to restore and maintain healthy function of the body in a number of ways. It is used internally to relieve excess heat conditions, as its bitter taste is said to reduce the quality of pitta (hot quality) when it is in excess. It is also used topically in soaps, crèmes and lotions for its ability to soothe and reduce pitta excess conditions on the skin that manifest themselves through heat, redness, itching and swelling, all indicative of pitta out of balance.
Science Validates the Uses of Neem:
Modern science is also studying Neem for its potential use in the field of medicine. Preliminary results and clinical evidence tend to support the extraordinary benefits of neem oil, neem leaf and neem bark. Other studies indicate that Neem supports the structure and function of the immune system. Again, while generally outside the scope of our product line, it is interesting to once again note the wide-ranging benefit of neem and how it is now being recognized throughout the world, and confirmed by scientific studies.
Those interested in learning more about neem and its uses might start with some of the current literature on the subject as follows:
Neem has also been the subject of a major book originally published under the auspices of the Neem Association, a non-profit organization dedicated to informing the public about the uses of neem, and now re-issued in an updated edition by Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin, under the title: Neem: The Ultimate Herb by John Conrick. The author has compiled an extensive list of research studies and scientific reports done on various potential benefits of neem.
The NeemAura Product Line:
NeemAura recognized the value of neem as an herbal ingredient of extreme benefit both applied topically and taken internally. As a result, extensive research was done to develop the most effective way to deliver the benefits of neem to people, and this led to the development of the NeemAura product line.
The product line consists of the following segments:
Personal Care Products:
We supply a neem crème, a neem hand and body lotion, a neem herbal skin conditioning spray, and 4 varieties of ultra-sensitive neem soap. In addition we supply neem oil and neem extracts that can be added to your own lotions and crèmes, shampoos and conditioners, turned into a mouthwash, or in some cases used full strength directly on the skin. We will discuss some of these uses later more extensively.
Herbal Dietary Supplements:
We supply neem capsules, neem extracts and neem leaf and powder, so that you can make teas or encapsulate neem on your own in combination with your other favorite herbs.
Bulk Neem Products:
We are a major importer of the highest quality Neem Oil, organically grown Neem Leaves and Neem Bark. As such we have located the best sources of Neem around the world to ensure that we are always able to supply the cleanest, highest quality, fully certified and guaranteed Neem products anywhere. We have organically grown neem leaf available in both whole leaf and powder form so you can develop your own uses for this incredible herb. We also supply neem bark powder. Once you begin to explore the wide-ranging uses of neem, you will find that our bulk neem products help you to develop and formulate for your own specific needs and uses.
Our Neem Cream is a highly concentrated face and body cream. The organically grown neem leaf is extracted directly into the aloe vera base, together with other synergistic herbal components such as St. Johnswort, Chamomile, White Willow bark, Grape Seed, Arnica, Horse Chestnut, Thyme, Goldenseal, Barberry and Ivy Leaf extract. We use an extra potency of Neem Oil to create a highly concentrated topical cream which is very soothing and moisturizing. Our unique extraction process means that we are able to produce this product with no water. It contains our exclusive NeemAura ® Moisturizing Complex, which means you get the benefit of the neem oil, the herbal extracts and the aloe vera all in one. Our most popular product, a little goes a long way!
Neem Hand and Body Lotion:
This product restores and maintains healthy, radiant skin. This is a soothing, nutritious lotion suitable for face, hand and body. It contains our exclusive NeemAura ® Moisturizing Complex featuring Aloe Vera and Neem, along with synergistic herbal partners. This product makes a wonderful and refreshing general moisturizing lotion suitable for use on the entire body. It absorbs quickly and is non-staining. It is also frequently used for shaving or as an after-shaving lotion, and after exposure to wind or sun.
Neem Soap: Our soap is produced in small batches by hand from neem oil and other essential oils in a vegetable oil base. The soap is especially useful for anyone with sensitive skin, as it is ultra-mild, deep cleansing and moisturizing. It is available in 4 different ultra-sensitive formulations. You can choose from our Refreshing Citrus (for all skin types), Mint (for normal to oily skin), Lavender Oatmeal (for normal to dry skin), or Cornmeal Honey (for combination skin) blends.
Neem Aura Skin Salve:
The active power of neem now available in a topical skin salve. Organically grown Neem Leaf in a natural vegetable oil base. No animal ingredients. No animal testing. Helps maintain healthy skin. Useful for minor irritations and dryness.
Neem Topical Oil:
Concentrated, 100% pure virgin cold pressed wildcrafted Neem Oil has been found useful for a number of skin and scalp concerns. We import the finest quality neem oil with a measured azadirachtin content in excess of 1500 ppm. It can be used either full strength or added to shampoo, lotions or creams to enhance the neem action on the skin. Note that pure Neem oil has a distinctive odor, which causes many to prefer our cream or lotion as the best way to apply neem to the skin.
Neem Leaf Capsules:
Our neem leaf capsules are made from organically grown neem leaf in a vegetarian capsule. As an herbal dietary supplement, used daily to help support proper immune system function and as a part of the diet to maintain healthy blood sugar levels. (*note that these statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease.) It is free of salt, sugar, corn, soy, yeast, wheat, dairy products and are formulated without preservatives, flavors, colors or excipients. Each capsule contains 400 mg. of Neem, and is considered to counteract Pitta (fire element) imbalances.
Neem Leaf Extract:
We supply our extract in both a regular strength and triple-potency form. These alcohol extracts are made under our direct control in small batches to assure the highest quality result. Our original regular strength extract utilizes a 1:15 dry herb to menstruum ratio. Triple potency utilizes a 1:5 ratio. An extract is the fastest way to get neem to work in your body as a dietary supplement.
Neem Herbal Pet Spray:
Use NeemAura Naturals Neem Herbal Pet Spray before and after your pet is exposed to irritating elements such as too much heat and allergens and to reduce irritation resulting from insect bites. NeemAura can soothe the effects of irritated skin no matter what the cause. Don't let your pet suffer. This spray can also be used to get a shiny, glossy coat for your pet and a healthy radiance.
Future Product Developments:
For more information about our products or to locate a convenient outlet,
Neem: The Ultimate Herb, John Conrick. Originally issued under the auspices of the Neem Association. Updated edition Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin, 2001.
Neem, The Ultimate Herb is the most comprehensive book about neem, the world's most amazing plant. This book provides easy-to-understand instructions for using neem along with credible scientific evidence as to its effectiveness. After finishing this book, you will understand and appreciate the amazing qualities found in neem. You will also be able to more intelligently select quality neem products for your own use.
Neem: A Tree for Solving Global Problems, National Research Council, 1992. National Academy Press, Washington DC.
The National Research Council is made up of members of the National Academy of Sciences. They undertook to study the incredible potential of the neem tree. This book is the report of their findings. Spanning a wide range of practical applications. The studies that are discussed in the book show that neem is one of the most valuable natural resources to solve a wide variety of global issues and concerns. The book contains extensive information including citations, safety tests and resources for follow up.
The Yoga of Herbs: An Ayurvedic Guide to Herbal Medicine, Frawley and Lad. 1986, Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin.
For the first time, here is a detailed explanation and classification of herbs, using the ancient system of Ayurveda. More than 270 herbs are listed, with 108 herbs explained in detail. Included are many of the most commonly used western herbs with a profound Ayurvedic perspective. Important Chinese and special Ayurvedic herbs are introduced. Beautiful diagrams and charts, as well as detailed glossaries, appendices and index are included.
Miracles of Neem Tree, Verma. Rasayan Pharmacy, New Delhi, India, 1988.
Neem was featured in the Doctors Prescription for Healthy Living Newsletter during 2001.
How to Find Our Products at Retail: NeemAura Naturals products are available at most major natural products stores and online retailers. If you shop at a store that does not carry the item you are seeking, please ask them to carry it as it is available from their distributors in most cases. If you cannot find our products locally, you are welcome to purchase them through our online store.
How to Find Our Products Wholesale: If you are a retailer interested in selling NeemAura's products, you may contact us directly at Lotus Brands, P O Box 325, Twin Lakes, WI 53181 USA, 262 889 8561 (office phone); 262 889 2461 (office fax). Of course, should you not be able to purchase any of our products through the distributor of your choice, we shall be happy to serve your needs directly. Some of the distributors carrying our product line include: United Natural Foods (UNFI), Mountain Peoples Distributors; Rainbow Distributing; Lotus Light Natural Body Care; Tree of Life and many more.
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A technical analysis by TEPCO has concluded that fuel in Fukushima Daiichi unit 1 has mostly melted out of the reactor pressure vessel and into the primary containment vessel. It also concluded that fuel has melted in units 2 & 3, but has mostly remained within the RPVs.
-Unit 1. TEPCO now estimates that most of the fuel has drained out of the reactor pressure vessel, via the bottom-mounted control rod tubes or instrumentation penetrations, into the concrete primary containment vessel. It reasons that the unit's decay heat before seawater injection 'significantly exceeded' RPV water and materials' heat absorption capacity; it also explains why the RPV temperature has been low from an early stage. Based on what TEPCO calls 'realistic assumptions', and PCV gas analysis results, TEPCO estimates that the corium has eroded the 2m-thick PCV floor by about 70cm, but erosion has now assumed to have stopped.
-Units 2&3. Lesser amounts of fuel from units 2&3 have dropped out of the RPV and into the PCV, because decay heat was less than the total heat absorption capacity of water in the core, and based on evidence from RPV temperature trends after water injection restarted.
The study, presented at a Japanese government workshop, remains in Japanese; this article is based on an English-language summary provided by TEPCO.
In other news, TEPCO has explained how it calculates the total amount of radiation currently being emitted by the damaged Fukushima Daiichi reactors: 60 million Bq/hr.
At unit 1, the amount released is combined from two numbers: the product of radioactive dust concentration around the top of the reactor building time the assumed amount of steam generation, plus the dust concentration near the equipment hatch, times the air flow rate (total: 10 million Bq/hr). Deducted from that amount is the effectiveness of the exhaust filtration system. At unit 2, the amount is the dust concentration at the blowout panel times the air flow rate. Air flow in unit 2 is caused by air from leaks in the truck bay floor and by rising warm vapour from decay heat (total: 10 million Bq/hr). The calculation method for unit 3 is the same as at unit 1 (unit 3 total: 40 million Bq/hr). From these figures, TEPCO concludes that this discharge equates to a personal exposure of 0.1 mSv/yr at the site boundary, assuming average climactic conditions, and including external atmospheric exposure, external ground-based exposure and internal exposure through inhalation.
In other news, Fukushima site director Masao Yoshida has left his post for medical treatment (unspecified, but not linked to the crisis). He is replaced by Takeshi Takahashi, formerly general manager of TEPCO's nuclear power plant management department.
Also, TEPCO has changed the method of nitrogen gas injection in units 1-3 so that it can reach the RPV as well as the PCV. All three systems will inject nitrogen into the RPV via the head spray line, in addition to their current nitrogen injection arrangements into the PCV by various means. The unit 1 nitrogen supply will be via a hose attachment point in series to PCV injection via the AC line; the unit 2&3 RPV line will be attached through jigs to test valves on the instrument rack.
Related ArticlesTrio of vendors submit bids for Temelin nuclear plant Westinghouse announces cooperation with Czech construction firm
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Dental Hygienist» search for more Jobs
Dental Hygienists provide treatment and information regarding prevention and treatment of disorders of the teeth and mouth. They typically work as part of a dentistry team but can also find work in hospitals and educational settings.
Typical tasks include:
- providing education and support to individuals and groups on dental health, oral hygiene, plaque control and nutrition
- using various techniques to remove deposits and stains from teeth, including applying professional tooth whitening agents
- identifying and applying prevention and control strategies for decay and gum disease
- carrying out various procedures including placing fissure sealants, selecting and applying braces, removing dental sutures
- taking impressions of patients’ mouths for the construction of study casts, mouth guards and orthodontic appliances
- selecting and administering pain control techniques
Dental Hygienists may take on similar roles to dental assistants in some clinics and practices. Dental Hygienists are mainly employed as part of a dental team in private practices however opportunities also exist in community health settings, dental hospitals and regional clinics. A degree in oral health and registration to practice is required for these roles.
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Optical fibers are circular dielectric wave-guides that can transport optical energy and information. They have a central core surrounded by a concentric cladding with slightly lower (by ≈ 1%) refractive index. Fibers are typically made of silica with index-modifying dopants such as GeO2. A protective coating of one or two layers of cushioning material (such as acrylate) is used to reduce cross talk between adjacent fibers and the loss-increasing microbending that occurs when fibers are pressed against rough surfaces.
For greater environmental protection, fibers are commonly incorporated into cables. Typical cables have a polyethylene sheath that encases the fiber within a strength member such as steel or Kevlar strands.
The Fiber as a Dielectric Wave-Guide: Fiber Modes
Since the core has a higher index of refraction than the cladding, light will be confined to the core if the angular condition for total internal reflectance is met. The fiber geometry and composition determine the discrete set of electromagnetic fields, or fiber modes, which can propagate in the fiber.
There are two broad classifications of modes: radiation modes and guided modes. Radiation modes carry energy out of the core; the energy is quickly dissipated. Guided modes are confined to the core, and propagate energy along the fiber, transporting information and power. If the fiber core is large enough, it can support many simultaneous guided modes. Each guided mode has its own distinct velocity and can be further decomposed into orthogonal linearly polarized components. Any field distribution within the fiber can be expressed as a combination of the modes. The two lowest-order guided modes of a circularly symmetrical fiber designated LP01 and LP11 are illustrated in Figure 1.
When light is launched into a fiber, the modes are excited to varying degrees depending on the conditions of the launch input cone angle, spot size, axial centration and the like. The distribution of energy among the modes evolves with distance as energy is exchanged between them. In particular, energy can be coupled from guided to radiation modes by perturbations such as microbending and twisting of the fiber increasing the attenuation.
Bandwidth of an optical fiber determines the data rate. The mechanism that limits a fibers bandwidth is known as dispersion. Dispersion is the spreading of the optical pulses as they travel down the fiber. The result is that pulses then begin to spread into one another and the symbols become indistinguishable. There are two main categories of dispersion, intermodal and intramodal.Figure 1aLP01 Mode DistributionFigure 1bLP11 Mode DistributionFigure 1DispersionFigure 2Cross section view of optical fiber and single fiber cable.
As its name implies, intermodal dispersion is a phenomenon between different modes in an optical fiber. Therefore this category of dispersion only applies to mulitmode fiber. Since all the different propagating modes have different group velocities, the time it takes each mode to travel a fixed distance is also different. Therefore as an optical pulse travels down a multimode fiber, the pulses begin to spread, until they eventually spread into one another. This effect limits both the bandwidth of multimode fiber as well as the distance it can transport data.
Intramodal Dispersion, sometimes called material dispersion, is a result of material properties of optical fiber and applies to both single-mode and multimode fibers. There are two distinct types of intramodal dispersion: chromatic dispersion and polarization-mode dispersion.
The index of refraction varies depending upon wavelength. Therefore, different wavelengths will travel down an optical fiber at different velocities. This is known as Chromatic Dispersion.
This principle implies that a pulse with a wider FWHM will spread more than a pulse with a narrower FWHM. Dispersion limits both the bandwidth and the distance that information can be supported. This is why for long communications links it is desirable to use a laser with a very narrow line width. Distributed Feedback (DFB) lasers are popular for communications because they have a single longitudinal mode with a very narrow line width.
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD) is actually another form of material dispersion. Single-mode fiber supports a mode, which consists of two orthogonal polarization modes. Ideally, the core of an optical fiber is perfectly circular. However, the fact that in reality, the core is not perfectly circular, and mechanical stresses such as bending introduce birefringency in the fiber, causes one of the orthogonal polarization-modes to travel faster than the other, hence causing dispersion of the optical pulse.
Light power propagating in a fiber decays exponentially with length due to absorption and scattering losses. Attenuation is the single most important factor determining the cost of fiber optic telecommunication systems, as it determines spacing of repeaters needed to maintain acceptable signal levels.
In the near infrared and visible regions, the small absorption losses of pure silica are due to tails of absorption bands in the far infrared and ultraviolet. Impurities notably water in the form of hydroxyl ions are much more dominant causes of absorption in commercial fibers. Recent improvements in fiber purity have reduced attenuation losses. State-of-the-art systems can have attenuation on the order of 0.1 dB/km.
Scattering can couple energy from guided to radiation modes, causing loss of energy from the fiber. There are unavoidable Rayleigh scattering losses from small-scale index fluctuations frozen into the fiber when it solidifies. This produces attenuation proportional to l/λ4. Irregularities in core diameter and geometry or changes in fiber axis direction also cause scattering. Any process that imposes dimensional irregularities such as microbending increases scattering and hence attenuation.
Typical Spectral Attenuation in SilicaFigure 3DispersionFigure 4Typical Spectral Attenuation in Silica
Numerical Aperture (NA)
The Numerical Aperture (NA) of a fiber is defined as the sine of the largest angle an incident ray can have for total internal reflectance in the core. Rays launched outside the angle specified by a fibers NA will excite radiation modes of the fiber. A higher core index, with respect to the cladding, means larger NA. However, increasing NA causes higher scattering loss from greater concentrations of dopant. A fibers NA can be determined by measuring the divergence angle of the light cone it emits when all its modes are excited.Figure 5Numerical Aperture
Qualitatively, NA is a measure of the light gathering ability of a fiber. It also indicates how easy it is to couple light into a fiber.
The Normalized Frequency Parameter of a fiber, also called the V number, is a useful specification. Many fiber parameters can be expressed in terms of V, such as: the number of modes at a given wavelength, mode cut off conditions, and propagation constants. For example, the number of guided modes in a step index multimode fiber is given by V2/2, and a step index fiber becomes single-mode for a given wavelength when V<2.405. Mathematically, V=2π·NA·a/λ where a is the fiber core radius.
The outer sheath of fiber cables can be removed using electrical cable stripping tools, and scissors or a razor blade can trim the Kevlar strength member. However, the fiber coating must be very carefully removed to avoid damaging the fiber surface flaws and scratches are the cause of most fiber failures. The coating can be removed using our F-STR fiber strippers.
End surface quality is one of the most important factors affecting fiber connector and splice losses. Quality endfaces can be obtained by polishing or by cleaving. Polishing is employed in connector terminations when the fiber is secured in a ferrule by epoxy. The following describes the popular connectors and their endface preparation styles.
Fiber Optic Connector Types
SMA due to its stainless steel structure and low-precision threaded fiber locking mechanism, this connector is used mainly in applications requiring the coupling of high-power laser beams into large-core multimode fibers. Typical applications include laser beam delivery systems in medical, bio-medical, and industrial applications. The typical insertion loss of an SMA connector is greater than 1 dB.
ST the ST connector is used extensively both in the field and in indoor fiber optic LAN applications. Its high-precision, ceramic ferrule allows its use with both multimode and single-mode fibers. The bayonet style, keyed coupling mechanism featuring push and turn locking of the connector, prevents over tightening and damaging of the fiber end. The insertion loss of the ST connector is less than 0.5 dB, with typical values of 0.3 dB being routinely achieved. Drilled-out, metallic ST connectors, with insertion losses of >1 dB, are used with Newports large-core (>140 µm) fibers.
FC the FC has become the connector of choice for single-mode fibers and is mainly used in fiber-optic instruments, SM fiber optic components, and in high-speed fiber optic communication links. This high-precision, ceramic ferrule connector is equipped with an anti-rotation key, reducing fiber endface damage and rotational alignment sensitivity of the fiber. The key is also used for repeatable alignment of fibers in the optimal, minimal-loss position. Multimode versions of this connector are also available. The typical insertion loss of the FC connector is around 0.3 dB. Drilled-out, metallic FC connectors, having insertion losses of >1 dB, are being used with Newports large-core (>140 µm) fibers.
SC the SC connector is becoming increasingly popular in single-mode fiber optic telecom and analog CATV, field deployed links. The high-precision, ceramic ferrule construction is optimal for aligning single-mode optical fibers. The connectors outer square profile combined with its push-pull coupling mechanism, allow for greater connector packaging density in instruments and patch panels. The keyed outer body prevents rotational sensitivity and fiber endface damage. Multimode versions of this connector are also available. The typical insertion loss of the SC connector is around 0.3 dB.
Connector Endface Preparation
Once the optical fiber is terminated with a particular connector, the connector endface preparation will determine what the connector return loss, also known as back reflection, will be. The back reflection is the ratio between the light propagating through the connector in the forward direction and the light reflected back into the light source by the connector surface. Minimizing back reflection is of great importance in high-speed and analog fiber optic links, utilizing narrow line width sources such as DFB lasers, which are prone to mode hopping and fluctuations in their output.Figure 6Connector EndfacesFigure 7A typical F-BK3 cleave is clean, flat and perpendicular.
Flat Polish a flat polish of the connector surface will result in a back reflection of about -16 dB (4%).
PC Polish the Physical Contact (PC) polish results in a slightly curved connector surface, forcing the fiber ends of mating connector pairs into physical contact with each other. This eliminates the fiber-to-air interface, there by resulting in back reflections of -30 to -40 dB. The PC polish is the most popular connector endface preparation, used in most applications.
SPC and UPC Polish in the Super PC (SPC) and Ultra PC (UPC) polish, an extended polishing cycle enhances the surface quality of the connector, resulting in back reflections of -40 to -55 dB and < -55dB, respectively. These polish types are used in high-speed, digital fiber optic transmission systems.
APC Polish the Angled PC (APC) polish, adds an 8 degree angle to the connector endface. Back reflections of <-60 dB can routinely be accomplished with this polish.
Fiber Cleaving is the fastest way to achieve a mirror-flat fiber end it takes only seconds. The basic principle involves placing the fiber under tension, scribing with a diamond or carbide blade perpendicular to the axis, and then pulling the fiber apart to produce a clean break. Our F-BK3 or FK11 Cleavers make the process especially quick and easy. It is wise to inspect fiber ends after polishing or cleaving.
Coupling Light into Fibers
Good coupling efficiency requires precise positioning of the fiber to center the core in the focused laser beam. For multimode fibers, with their large cores, fiber positioners (e.g., Newports FP Series) can achieve good coupling efficiency. Single-mode fibers require more elaborate couplers with submicron positioning resolution, like the ULTRAlign and 562F stainless steel positioners and the F-915 and F-1015 Couplers. These are also useful with multimode fibers when maximum coupling efficiency is required.
The characteristics of the focused beam must match the fiber parameters for good coupling efficiency. For multimode fibers this is straightforward. General guidelines are:
The focused spot should be comparable to the core size.
The incident cone angle should not exceed the arcsine of the NA of the fiber (e.g. 23° for 0.2 NA and 35° for 0.3 NA).
To maximize coupling into a single-mode fiber, you must match the incident field distribution to that of the fiber mode. For example, the mode profile of the HE11 mode of a step index fiber can be approximated by a Gaussian distribution with a 1/e width w given by:
where: d is the core diameter, and
V is the V-number.
For our F-SV fiber, for which V = 2, the Gaussian width is approximately 28% larger than the core diameter, so the light should be focused to a spot size 1.28 times the core diameter at the fiber surface. For a Gaussian laser beam, the required beam diameter D incident upon focusing lens of focal length f to produce a focused spot of diameter w is D = 4λf/(πw). Given the laser beam waist and divergence, its easy to determine the distance needed between the focusing lens and the laser to expand the beam to the required diameter.
The mode field diameter is now given to provide easier matching of lens to optical fiber for a Gaussian beam.
A high numerical aperture lens must collimate the diverging output beam of a laser diode. Newports F-L Series Diode Laser Focusing Lenses, are AR-coated for high transmittance at popular laser diode wavelengths and with numerical apertures up to 0.5 are useful for collimating or focusing.
Mode Scrambling and Filtering
Many multimode fiber experiments are sensitive to the distribution of power among the fibers modes. This is determined by the launching optics, fiber perturbations, and the fibers length. Mode scrambling is a technique that distributes the optical power in a fiber among all the guided modes. Mode filtering simulates the effects of kilometer lengths of fiber by attenuating higher-order fiber modes.Figure 8Launching conditions in a multimode optical fiber.
One scrambling technique is to splice a length of graded-index fiber between two pieces of step-index fiber this ensures that the downstream fibers core is overfilled regardless of launch conditions. Mode filtering can be achieved by wrapping a fiber several times around a finger-sized mandrel; bending sheds the high-order modes.
One way to achieve both scrambling and filtering is to introduce microbending to cause rapid coupling between all fiber modes and attenuation of high-order modes. One approach is to place a stripped section of fiber in a box filled with lead shot. A more precise way is to use Newports FM-1 Mode Scrambler. This specially designed tool uses a calibrated mechanism to introduce microbending for mode scrambling and filtering.
(a) Overfilled (b) UnderfilledFigure 9A schematic of Coupling of light into an optical fiberFigure 10Mode scrambler for optical fibers. The bends tend to couple out higher-order and radiation modes and to distribute the light into a distribution of modes that will remain stable over long distances.
Cladding Mode Removal
Some light is invariably launched into a fibers cladding. Though cladding modes dissipate rapidly with fiber length, they can interfere with measurements. For example, the output of a single-mode fiber will not have a Gaussian distribution if light is propagating in the cladding. You can remove cladding modes by stripping a length of fiber coating and immersing the bare fiber in an index matching fluid such as glycerin.
Common Optical Parameters
The following is a list of common optical parameters associated with fiber optic components. Please call or visit Newports website for application notes on how to measure these parameters.Figure 11
Port Configuration: Number of input ports x number of output ports. e.g. 2 x 2
Coupling Ratio: The ratio of the power at an output port to the launched power expressed in dB. e.g. -10log (P2/P1).
Isolation: The ratio of the power at an output port in the transmitted wavelength band to that in the extinguished wavelength band, expressed in dB.
Directivity: The ratio of the power returned to any other input port to the launched power, expressed in dB. e.g.-10log (P4/P1).
Bandwidth: The range of operating wavelengths over which performance parameters are specified.
Excess Loss: The ratio of the total power at all output ports to the launched power, expressed in dB. e.g. -10log [(P2+P3)/P1].
Uniformity: The difference between maximum and minimum insertion losses.
Extinction Ratio: The ratio of the residual power in an extinguished polarization state to the transmitted power, expressed in dB.
Return Loss: The ratio of the power returned to the input port to the launched power, expressed in dB. e.g.-10log (P5/P1).
Polarization-Dependent Loss (PDL): The maximum (peak-to-peak) variation in insertion loss as the input polarization varies, expressed in dB.
Fiber Optic Communications
The theoretical bandwidth of optical fiber transmission in the 1550 nm window alone is on the order of terabits. Current fiber optic systems have not even begun to utilize the enormous potential bandwidth that is possible.
There are two methods that are employed to achieve an increase in bandwidth. The first is known as Time Division Multiplexing or TDM. Multiple channels are transmitted on a single carrier by increasing the modulation rate and allotting a time slot to each channel. However, more sophisticated high-speed electronics, at both the transmitting and receiving ends of the communications link, are required when increasing the bit rate of a system. And as the bit rate increases, inherent modulation limiting characteristics of optical fibers become dominant. Chromatic and polarization mode dispersion cause pulse spreading, which affects the signal quality over longer transmission distances.
An alternate method for increasing the capacity of fiber optic communications systems is known as wavelength division multiplexing, or WDM. By this method, capacity can be increased by using more than one optical carrier (wavelength) on a single fiber. Therefore, adding a second transmitter and receiver to an optical fiber can double the bandwidth of that communications system. This method of increasing the capacity of an optical system has appeal for a variety of reasons. If a system were to increase in capacity using TDM alone, the existing transmitter and receiver would be replaced with a faster and more expensive transmitter/receiver pair. Using WDM, the existing transmitter and receiver do not need to be replaced. A second transmitter/receiver pair of a different wavelength is simply added. This is done by coupling, or multiplexing the output of the two lasers into a single fiber. At the receiving end, the two wavelengths are then separated, or demultiplexed, and each optical carrier is routed to its own receiver. For transmission systems using a 1310 nm laser, a second laser at 1550 nm is usually added. The reason for choosing these wavelengths is that they lie in the windows or ranges of least attenuation. This allows the signal to travel a longer distance.
The ITU (International Telecommunication Union) has proposed a set of closely spaced wavelengths in the 1550 nm window. This method of WDM is known as Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing, or DWDM. These different wavelengths or channels, are spaced 100 GHz apart, which is approximately 0.8 nm. This set of channels is commonly known as the ITU-T grid, and is specified in frequency. The reason the 1550 nm window was chosen by the ITU is twofold: it is in one of the windows that has the smallest amount of attenuation; and it also lies in the band in which erbium doped optical amplifiers operate.
ITU-T DWDM Grid
The following diagram is a conceptual example of a fiber optic network.
The All-Optical Network
The all-optical network will be the next evolution in optical communications. Current DWDM systems are point-to-point links meaning that the signals have a single distinct starting and ending point. Research is being performed to help these networks evolve into fully configurable networks, which are not limited to fixed point-to-point links.
Transparency in the optical layer opens many possibilities for the future. Digital and analog transmission can occur on the same fiber. Different bit rates using different protocols will all travel together. Current research is being performed on reconfiguring an optical network in real time. Wavelength selective switching allows wavelengths to be routed through the network individually. Some of the applications of this are for network restoration and redundancy, which may reduce or entirely eliminate the need for an entire back up system to help the network recover from failures such as equipment malfunctions or fiber breaks. A reconfigurable network may offer bandwidth on demand to configure itself to optimize for traffic bottlenecks. The future may also include wavelength translation to convert traffic on one wavelength to another wavelength in the optical domain.
All optical switching is still in the research phase; however, researchers are looking for ways to create reliable, low loss switches with fast switching speeds. Investigation into the possibility of optical packet switching and other novel technologies are currently underway. The all-optical network may be just around the corner.
Photonic Crystal Fibers (PCFs)
Photonic Crystal Fiber (PCF) is a subset of Photonic Crystals. The field of PCF was first explored in the latter half of 1990's and quickly evolved into a commercial technology. PCFs are generally divided into two main categories: Index Guiding Fibers that have a solid core, and Photonic Bandgap Fibers that have periodic microstructured elements and a core of low index material (e.g. hollow core). They can provide characteristics that ordinary optical fiber cannot, such as: single-mode operation from the UV to IR with large mode-field diameters, exceptionally high nonlinearity, numerical aperture (NA) ranging from very low to about 0.9, and optimized dispersion properties. Applications of PCFs are found in a wide range of research fields like spectroscopy, metrology, biomedicine, imaging, telecommunication, industrial machining, and military.
Fabrication and CharacteristicsFigure 12Close-up view of PCF preform
The typical starting point for manufacturing of an index guided PCF is an array of hollow capillary silica tubes bundled around a pure silica rod replacing the center capillary. For Photonic Bandgap (PBG) Fibers, one or more capillary tubes may simply be left out in the center of the preform in order to create a hollow 'defect' core. A sleeving tube surrounds the entire assembly that forms the preform. In a fiber draw tower, the preform is heated to around 2000°C and it is carefully pulled into fiber with the aid of gravity and pressure. Typical outer fiber diameter is 125 µm, but diameters from 80 to around 700 µm are routinely fabricated. This fiber maintains the structure of the preform, but now on a microscopic scale. Standard protective polymer coatings are applied to the fibers in order to improve handling characteristics.Figure 13Most PCF fiber can be connectorized too. Call Newport for more information.
The dispersion characteristics of PCFs can be manipulated to create fibers having zero, low, or anomalous dispersion at visible wavelengths. The dispersion can also be flattened. Combining these features with small mode field areas results in outstanding nonlinear fibers. By altering the pattern of air holes or the materials used, it is possible to manipulate other characteristics of PCFs, such as the single-mode cut-off wavelength, the NA, and the nonlinear coefficient. The design flexibility is very large, and designers can use many different, fascinating, and odd air hole patterns to achieve specific PCF parameters. The triangular arrangement of round air holes in the cladding is typically used to create single-mode fibers. Increasing the air-filling fraction in the cladding typically leads to multimode behavior. An elliptical core can create a highly birefringent fiber that is polarization maintaining.
Silica provides superior fiber performance for most applications with wavelengths between 200 and 2500 nm, but use of other materials can enhance specific parameters like nonlinearity or wave-guiding outside this spectral region. Furthermore, a long list of dopants can be added to silica. Doped silica is now used in a variety of fiber lasers and amplifiers; these could be combined with the unique capabilities of PCFs to provide even more useful devices.
Coupling, splicing and connectorization of PCFs are other important issues because the fibers may have extreme parameters of mode field area and NA; coupling methods are in some cases very different from standard fiber methods. However, users may strip and cleave the PCFs with standard fiber tools. For laboratory use, the fibers are typically just cleaved and used with "open" ends. In such cases, it is important to avoid direct exposure of the fiber ends to any liquids since the capillary forces in the holes may draw the liquids several centimeters into the fiber, and thus disturb the wave-guiding properties.
PCFs can be spliced to standard fibers (and take advantage of the various connector schemes of such fibers), or the PCFs may be connectorized directly. Newport provides both PCFs spliced to standard fibers and directly connectorized on a semi-custom basis. Note that the mechanical strength of splices, the connectorized fiber core offset and connector-to-connector coupling are not always the same as standard fibers.
Directly connectorized fibers may furthermore provide beam expansion to lower the fiber end facet intensity and reduce the risk of damage at high power levels. Call Newport for more details.
Newport's F-SM, and F-NL Series are index guided fibers. Similar to conventional fibers, index guiding PCFs transport light through a solid core by total internal reflection. The microstructured air-filled region in PCFs effectively lowers the index of the cladding effectively creating a step-index optical fiber. The fiber behaves in many ways like standard step-index fibers, but it has a number of advantages. Index guiding PCFs are made of undoped silica that provides very low losses, sustains high powers and temperature levels, and may withstand nuclear radiation. Depending on PCF design, the air in the cladding may be utilized to yield fibers with extremely low or extremely high index steps.Figure 14Schematic of an index guided PCFFigure 15Cross section of triangular cladding PCF
A typical cross section of an index guided PCF is shown in Fig 14 and 15. The PCF consists of a triangular lattice of air holes where the core is defined by a missing air hole. The pitch is labeled Λ, and measures the period of the hole structure (the distance between the centers of neighboring air holes). The hole size is labeled d, and measures the diameter of the holes. Figure 16Cross section of air-clad PCF
Some PCFs have a cladding refractive index that exhibits a strong wavelength dependence. Together with the inherently large design flexibility, PCFs allow for a whole range of novel properties to be explored. Such properties include endlessly single-mode fibers (F-SM Series), extremely nonlinear fibers and fibers with anomalous dispersion in the visible wavelength region (F-NL Series).
A unique feature of PCFs is that a single fiber may support single-mode operation over a wavelength range from around 300 nm to beyond 2000 nm even for large mode field areas (of several hundred µm2). This allows PCFs to be utilized for transmission of very high powers with high beam quality without running into nonlinear or damage barriers (several hundred Watts for CW operation). On the other hand, the highly nonlinear fibers made as single-mode fibers have extremely small mode field areas (typically around 3 µm2) and confine light to the core region efficiently.
Compared to standard fiber technology, where the light is guided using solid glasses with different refractive indices, several new properties may be realized using PCF technology. For example:
- Fibers that are single-mode in a very broad spectral range (in principle all wavelengths)
- Very small mode sizes may be obtained (down to approx. 1 µm)
- Very large mode sizes may be obtained (up to 25 µm or larger)
- Zero dispersion wavelengths below 1300 nm is possible (down to approx. 600 nm)
- Exceptionally large birefringence close to 10-2 can be realized
- Very high numerical apertures up to 0.9 may be obtained
Hence, PCFs are ideally suited for applications requiring large non-linearities, broadband operation with single-mode guidance, large mode areas, light collection from a large solid angle, etc.Figure 17Large Mode Area fiber (F-SM Series)Figure 18Near field image of F-SM fiber at 1550 nmFigure 19Mode structure of F-SM20 fiber
Formation of broad continuous spectra through propagation of short femto or picosecond-range high power pulses through nonlinear media (also known as supercontinuum generation, or SCG) was first observed in 1970 and has since then been studied extensively in many different materials. The term supercontinuum does not cover a specific phenomenon but rather a plethora of nonlinear effects leading to considerable spectral broadening of optical pulses and thereby potentially octave-spanning output. The involved nonlinear effects depend on the dispersion in the material and count effects like self-phase modulation (SPM), Raman Scattering, phase matching and solitons.
Results on SCG in PCFs have previously been presented with pumping in the anomalous dispersion regime or at the zero-dispersion wavelength in both the visible and the infrared wavelength range. Most experiments utilize femtosecond pumping as this results in spectacularly broad spectra. Picosecond pumping yields more narrow spectra, but does so with far cheaper laser sources and is therefore commercially interesting.
Although SCG can be observed in a drop of water given enough pumping power, PCFs are ideal media for SCG as the dispersion can be designed to facilitate continuum generation in a specific region. In this way, it is possible to convert light to both higher and lower wavelength, just like super wide spectra covering more than an octave is achievable at previously unthinkable low power levels.
Practical Supercontinuum Tips
SCG-800 and SCG-800-CARS (see Supercontinuum Generation Fiber Devices ) are ideal in generating supercontinuum using an ultrafast laser. When coupling light from a femtosecond laser into a crystal fiber, a number of issues regarding pulse distortion must be addressed to achieve the optimum performance. In this section, we discuss the precautions taken to couple light from a Ti:Sapphire Laser into a 1.7 µm core PCF.
The first issue to be addressed is the 4% reflection from the fiber surface, which can lead to a distortion of the pulse train and in severe cases will stop the laser from mode-locking. Cleaving the fiber at an angle can minimize back reflections. However, we recommend that the problem be avoided by the use of a Faraday Isolator. Coupling out a small portion of the beam and directing it to Newport's PulseScout Autocorrelators (see PulseScout Autocorrelator) allows for real-time monitoring of the pulse width and beam quality.
The femtosecond pulses are easily coupled into the fiber through standard microscope objectives. Magnifications of 40x and 60x provide good results. Aspheric ball lenses can also be used, but as these are not achromatic, they should not be used with short femtosecond pulses due to the broad spectral range of these pulses. The dispersion in the microscope objective should be compensated using a precompensating prism or grating compressor in order to launch the shortest possible (i.e. highest intensity) pulse into the fiber. The diameter of the laser beam should match the aperture of the microscope objective. This is easily achieved with a standard telescope.
Nonlinear effects are inherently very sensitive to variations in the input power, thus a very stable mount is needed. To avoid displacement of the fiber end due to thermal, acoustic and other unwanted effects, the fiber should be mounted as close to the end as possible. Gluing the fiber to the mount, or using a connectorized fiber, can create further stability.
If polarization-maintaining fibers are used, the polarization axis of the linearly polarized femtosecond pulses should coincide with one of the principal axes in the fiber. The relative orientation of the axes can be controlled either by a half-wave plate or by rotating the fiber. To find the principal axis one can measure the polarization state of the output and rotate the half-wave plate or the fiber until the output is linearly polarized.
When using the above described alignment procedure, coupling efficiencies well above 40% are routinely achieved.
Geometry and Strength of F-SM Fibers
In order to screen the fibers from microbending losses, the F-SM Series are fabricated with large cladding diameters for the largest core sizes. All fibers have a single-layer acrylate coating, and have been proof tested with a tension of at least 5.0 N.
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SCIENCE JANUARY 29, 2013
Why do grandmothers exist?
The question is not as unfeeling as it sounds.
From the point of view of the selfish gene, creatures are supposed to drop dead as soon as they lose the power to reproduce. A man can make babies his whole life, even if the sperm of his old age lacks vigor and genetic fidelity. A woman outlives her eggs by about 20 years, which almost no other female mammals do.1 (Only female killer and pilot whales and orcas are known to last as long after the end of their menstrual cycles.)
Besides being classed among the oddities of the animal kingdom, post-menopausal women lack obvious utility. They tend to be weak. They don't have much sex appeal. They eat food working people might make better use of. In Paraguay's Ache tribe, aging women used to listen with terror for the footsteps of the young men whose job it was to sneak up on them with an ax and brain them. Most societies don't actually murder their grannies, but that women manage to attain old age is an evolutionary mystery and requires explanation.
Are senior citizens really "greedy geezers?"
Some people deny that women did live past menopause, whether in the Pleistocene era or the nineteenth century. Before modern hygiene and medicine, the argument goes, people just didn't live very long. But most scientists don't think that anymore. It is true that, in the olden days, fewer people reached their golden years. Children dropped dead with disturbing ease, keeping life-expectancy averages low. But humans still had the capacity to live twice as long as our hominid ancestors. Those who got to 15 had about a 60 percent chance of making it to 45, at which point odds were respectable that they'd reach old age. Many anthropologists and biologists now believe that the bodies of Homo sapiens were designed to last about 72 years.
So why should women stop procreating so early? In 1957, the evolutionary biologist George Williams proposed what is called the "stopping-early" hypothesis: Middle-age women need baby-free time to usher their youngest children into adulthood. In the 1980s, an American anthropologist named Kristen Hawkes and two colleagues came up with a different explanation. They had gone to northern Tanzania to study the foraging habits of the Hadza, the last known hunter-gatherers in Africa. While there, the scholars were struck by how strong the tribe's old women were and how, rather than live off the fruits of others' labor, they worked hard digging up the tribe's main starch staple, a deeply-buried tuber. "Their acquisition rates were similar to the rates of younger women," Hawkes told me, "but these old ladies were spending even more time" than their daughters gathering food, leaving camp earlier, coming back later, and bringing back more than they needed. The anthropologists also noticed that many children with grandmothers or great-aunts had faster growth rates than their counterparts.
From these slim clues, Hawkes and her colleagues developed the "grandmother hypothesis," which holds that women past childbearing age helped not just their children, but their children's children, and lengthened the human lifespan in the process. Without babies of their own to lug around, grandmothers had both time and a very good reason to be useful. When they eked out food for their daughters' children, they reduced the chance that those children would die. That gave the grandmothers a better chance of passing on their own predisposition to longevity. (In general, grandmothers appear to have helped daughters' offspring more than sons'; evolutionary theorists explain this by pointing out that a daughter's maternity affords a surer genetic connection than a son's paternity, unless you all but imprison your daughter-in-law.2)
The grandmother hypothesis also explains another conundrum: Why do humans have shorter birth intervals than other primates? Chimp mothers, for instance, wait five or six years to give birth to another neonate. Women can pop out infants as soon as they've weaned previous ones. It turns out that, once humans learned the art of collaborative child-rearing, old women started spending more time with their daughters' toddlers. That freed up the young women to have more.
As the grandmother effect spread throughout the population over thousands of generations, it changed humans in another way. It made their brains bigger. As life lengthened, so did each stage of it. Children stayed children longer, which let their brains develop a more complex neural architecture.
Not everyone accepts this triumphantly feminist account of our evolutionary history. When anthropologists first heard it, most of them dismissed it as ridiculous. For one thing, it cuts man-the-hunter out of the picture. What about all the calories needed to grow our oversized brains? Didn't those have to come from the meat brought back from the hunt? Moreover, throughout recorded history, young women left their villages to move in with their men. So how would mothers have had access to their daughters' children?
The comeback to these objections is that hunter-gatherer families probably made all kinds of arrangements.3 In the tribes that anthropologists have been able to observe, some couples stayed in the wife's village, some moved in with her parents while starting their families, and some women left home. Patrilocality—men staying put—probably became the norm only when our ancestors settled down to farm, which made men unwilling to leave their land and wealth.
And it's not as if hunters alone brought in enough food to let the children thrive. Hawkes argues that, while meat boosted a tribe's overall nutrition, hunters couldn't be counted on to come home with a kill. When they did, the demands of status made them just as likely to share the bounty with the tribe as to hold it back for their children. The food grandmothers provided, on the other hand, was steady and reliable.
Two decades later, the grandmother hypothesis has gone from oddball conjecture to one of the dominant theories of why we live so long, breed so fast, and are so smart. The extra calories and care supplied by women in their long post-fertile period subsidized the long pre-fertile period that is childhood. And that's what made us fully human.
In a happy coincidence, the grandmother hypothesis comes along just as Americans enter what might be called the Age of Old Age. America's biggest generation, the baby-boomers, began retiring in 2011. This gerontocracy is expected to drain our wealth. By 2060, more than 20 percent of all Americans will be 65 or older, up from 13 percent in 2010. More than 92 million oldsters will roam the land, if roaming is within their power. People who fret about the federal budget point out that, by 2011, Social Security and Medicare were already eating up a third of it. Looming in the near future is the prospect that both programs' trust funds will vanish as the number of workers paying into the system goes down.
But are senior citizens really "greedy geezers" (a term made popular by this magazine in 1988) about to bankrupt us? The grandmother hypothesis suggests not. It suggests that we should see the coming abundance of over-65-year-olds as an opportunity, not a disaster. As gerontologist Linda Fried, dean of Columbia University's school of public health, points out, "Older adults constitute the only increasing natural resource in the entire world."4
If we are going to exploit this resource in the post-industrial world, we'll have to use the social capital of the old the way the Hadza used them to dig up tubers. Mature people of both sexes have a lifetime's worth of education and experience. We'd be crazy to waste that surplus value, especially when so many people languish after retirement, mortified at no longer being needed. To show how much retirees have to offer, Fried started a program that puts them in at-risk public schools in 19 cities. Early results suggest that children read better and get sent to the principal less often in classrooms where seniors spend 15 hours a week, perhaps because they give teachers support and embarrass students inclined to act up. For their part, the volunteers do better on tests of health and happiness, probably because they like feeling useful.
As for actual grandparents, a growing body of research shows how much they help their grandchildren, even when they aren't giving them hands-on care or food. Often enough, though, they do provide those things, especially in poor families or ones with dysfunctional parents. The number of children being raised by their grandparents has been steadily rising since 2000. In 2011, there were 2.75 million such children in the United States.
But grandparents also give grandchildren more intangible gifts. In the mid-'90s, a Stanford University fellow named Luba Botcheva went home to Bulgaria to study how grandparents affected families struggling to survive the fall of communism. In the remote and very traditional region where she did her research, several generations would live under the same roof. The socialist-era factories had been shut down, and jobs were scarce. Botcheva discovered that grandparents' pensions were often the most dependable source of a household's income. In addition to paying the bills, however, grandparents buffered grandchildren against the harsh parenting that comes from acute anxiety. Children who grew up with grandparents in the home reported less depression than those without. "It was the opposite of what we expected," she said. "I called it the 'moderation effect.'" Many of the grandparents had lived through World War II, so when it came to poverty and uncertainty about the future, they had "social wisdom" to share, as Botcheva puts it, which kept tension levels down.5
Unsurprisingly, grandmothers often do more for their grandchildren than grandfathers do. "Older women are the neighborhood watch and the neighborhood glue," says Fried. "They're the community purveyor of norms." When older black people in South Africa first started getting pensions from the post-apartheid government that were big enough to live on, the grandchildren who lived with grandmothers—especially the granddaughters—got taller and heavier, which observers took as a sign that they were eating better.6 But when it was the grandfathers who got the pensions, the grandchildren didn't grow at all. That wouldn't surprise economists who work with microfinance lending programs. They have discovered that female borrowers use their loans to improve their children's lot, whereas male borrowers, on the whole, do not.
Not that all grandparents can or want to be useful. As more people in industrialized countries postpone childbearing, parents become grandparents later and have less energy. The divorced ones may have started second or third families of their own. Global mobility puts distance between the generations. Assisted-living facilities segregate the old. Some retirement communities bar children altogether.
But children still need the nurture they once got from their mothers' mothers. So it's worth thinking, along with Fried, about institutions that would give parents and children that grandparental boost. I dream of communal houses or apartment complexes where families could live near grandparents but not right on top of them. That vision gives rise to others, some of them unlikely in our conservative United States, but realities elsewhere: publicly funded day care, better mothers' and children's aid societies, a national version of Fried's experiment of putting older people in schools. These programs would take advantage of our deepening wellspring of senior talent, which would cut costs, make old people happier, and sew up the threadbare bonds among the generations. If we want to keep enjoying the grandmother effect, we'll just have to broaden our idea of what a grandmother can be.
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First a meteor exploded over Russia, followed closely by an asteroid fly-by. Now, two comets are expected to put on a naked-eye spectacle for sky watchers in the Northern Hemisphere.
Up first is Comet Pan-STARRS, which gets its funky name from the telescope credited with discovering it in June 2001: the Panoramic Survey Telescope & Rapid Response System in Hawaii.
The comet is already visible through telescopes in the Southern Hemisphere, and it should swing into view over the Northern Hemisphere beginning around March 8.
It's hard to predict exactly how bright Pan-STARRS will be, but you should be able to see it without binoculars or telescopes, said Don Yeomans of NASA's Near-Earth Object Program. It should be about as bright as the stars in the Big Dipper.
"There is a chance that it will be a little brighter than this, but likewise, it might not get quite that bright," said Karl Battams of the Naval Research Lab.
Part of the brightness will depend on how close Pan-STARRS gets to the sun. Comets are made up of water, ice, dust and other elements and minerals, all loosely packed together, Battams said. As a comet gets closer to the sun, the sun's heat causes these elements to melt, spewing out dust and gas in a brilliant tail.
"The closer it gets, the more intense the radiation and the more elements will be melted," he said.
Pan-STARRS is expected to get fairly close to the sun. That's bad news for the comet, but it could be a boon for sky watchers if the comet is brighter and easier to see.
Pan-STARRS also could fall apart and fizzle. But if it survives its sunbath, we should be able to see it low on the horizon in the western sky for a couple of weeks, Battams said.
"About half an hour after sunset would be a good time for people take a look," he said.
Here are some key dates:
March 5: Pan-STARRS will be closest to Earth;
March 10: The comet will pass closest to the sun;
March 12 and 13: The best dates to look for Pan-STARRS; it should emerge in the western sunset sky not far from the crescent moon.
Battams has these viewing tips:
1) Safety first: Don't try to look at the comet until the sun sets. Do not look at the sun using regular binoculars or telescopes. Ever! You'll burn up your eyes.
2) Comet Pan-STARRS will stay close to the horizon, so you'll need to get away from trees and buildings.
3) Look carefully! The sky will still be bright at dusk, which can make it hard to spot comets.
4) If the skies are clear, and you are away from city light pollution, you may be able to see the comet with your bare eyes. If not, use binoculars.
5) If you can't escape the city, try using binoculars.
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The avant-garde movements of the early 20th century ushered in a revolution on many fronts: a revolution in the arts, a revolution in political values, and a revolution in thinking itself. In this course, we examine central literary and artistic works of the European avant-garde, studying the movements of Italian futurism, German expressionism, Dada, and French surrealism. At the heart of this course is an inquiry into the crucial nexus of art and politics. What constitutes the central critiques made by the various avant-garde movements? In what ways did these movements induce social and political change? What legacy have they left on our thinking today? Finally, what can we make of the complexities of the avant-garde? How can we understand the futurist leaning toward fascism, the anarchist stance in Dada, and the gender violence in expressionist art and literature? Attention is paid to the visual and verbal arts. We read the genres of poetry, prose, and drama, as well as manifestoes and political tracts. We also view slides of painting, photography, photomontage and performance art. Works by Andr� Breton, Leonora Carrington, Franz Kafka, Mina Loy, F.T. Marinetti, Tristan Tzara, and Frank Wedekind, amongst others. Theoretical texts by Walter Benjamin, Bertolt Brecht, Peter B�rger, and Georg Luk�cs.
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Water from space is 'raining' onto a planet-forming disc at supersonic speeds, new observations from the Spitzer Space Telescope reveal. The unprecedented detail of the observations at this early stage of the disc's formation could help reveal which of two competing theories of planet formation is correct.
Planets form when matter clumps together in swirling discs of gas and dust, called protoplanetary discs, around infant stars. But many details of how this works are still not known. For example, some scientists think giant planets can form in just a few thousand years, while others argue it takes millions of years.
Now, astronomers led by Dan Watson of the University of Rochester in New York, US, have gained an unprecedented view of a protoplanetary disc at the young age of just a few hundred thousand years old.
They used the Spitzer Space Telescope to examine the spectrum of infrared light coming from the vicinity of an embryonic star called IRAS 4B, which lies about 1000 light years from Earth.
At this very early stage, an outer cocoon of gas and dust called an envelope still surrounds the star and its swirling disc.
Previous observations in the microwave portion of the spectrum suggested that this large cocoon is contracting and sending material onto the disc. But the inner region, where the disc meets the cocoon, could not be seen at these wavelengths.
The Spitzer observations probe this inner region and reveal infrared light emitted by massive amounts of water vapour - the equivalent of five times the content of the Earth's oceans.
The vapour is too hot to be explained by the embryonic star's radiation alone, suggesting another process must be heating it up.
The team believes ice from the cocoon is pelting the disc at a rate faster than the speed of sound there, creating a shock front. "The sonic boom that it endures when it lands on the disc heats it up very efficiently" and vaporises it, Watson told New Scientist.
This supersonic shock "has been searched for and theorised about for decades", Watson says. It is a short-lived phenomenon that only occurs during the first few hundred thousand years of the star and disc formation, while the envelope is still feeding the disc.
The light emitted as the icy particles hit the disc can be used to learn more about the disc itself at this early stage, which could shed light on how planets form.
Most astronomers believe planets form according to a model known as "core accretion", in which small particles snowball into larger and larger objects over millions of years.
A competing idea, called "disc instability", is that turbulence in the disc can cause matter to collapse into planets extremely quickly, producing gas giants such as Jupiter in just a few thousand years.
"If you wanted to test between those scenarios, one of the most important places to look would be the stage we're looking at now," Watson says.
Future observations of such young discs could reveal how turbulent the discs are, and thus whether they boast the conditions required for disc instability, he says. "The whole subject of the very beginnings of the development of solar systems is open to study now," Watson says.
Donald Brownlee of the University of Washington in Seattle, US, agrees. "It's interesting to have a new peek into a period of history of what appears to be a forming planetary system, potentially at a timescale that we've never seen before," he told New Scientist. "It forms another important clue to how planetary systems form."
Journal reference: Nature (vol 448, p 1026)
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Barking Up The Wrong Tree
Mon Mar 19 19:02:04 GMT 2012 by Tony Marshallsay
Having been schooled in the theory of planet formation by agglomeration of dust particles over a period of thousands or millions of years, I have recently ceased believing in it for a number of reasons:
1. If agglomeration works so well, why has the Asteroid Belt not agglomerated to a planet?Of course, recent examination by spacecraft has revealed that, while some asteroids are solid, other "potatoes" are, indeed, agglomerates.
2. The agglomeration theory cannot easily - if at all - explain retrograde planetary spins
3. It is difficult to see how agglomeration and an exceedingly slow increase in self-gravity pressure could result in the creation of "rocky" planets like our Earth, with molten iron cores including heavier, radioactive elements to generate internal heating, since any heat generated by the compression process would be dissipated into space over such a long time, making fusion reactions extremely unlikely.
Accordingly, I have come to the opinion that planets of all types are formed initially not over an exceedingly long time but rather almost instantly as core shards of exploding supernovae.
This view, again, has several implications, viz:
A. Outer core shards consisting of light materials would likely be small, lose heat very quickly and cool into misshapes before being able to become spherical under self-gravity.
B. Inner core shards, on the other hand, would have sufficient thermal capacity and radioactive material to maintain heat long enough to develop a spherical shape and the composition of our Earth (we might thus consider the Earth to be a microcosm of a stellar core, albeit under far less heat and pressure).
C. The shards would be flung in all directions, resulting in the multitude of "free planets" recently observed by Japanese investigators.
D. Some of those free planets would inevitably - sooner or later - become trapped in the gravitational fields of stars, creating planetary systems, such as our own Solar System.
E. The inconsistencies of size and composition of the Solar System's planets can then easily be explained by considering the planets as having been captured "missiles" from various supernovae, perhaps even in other galaxies (do the math - it's possible, even at incredibly slow speeds, when you take a few billion years into consideration).
F. A "Gas Giant" can be formed by a heavy, rocky "seed" gathering a thick coat of gas through happening to have been ejected in the direction of a large gas cloud.
Opinions on the above are welcome (I am becoming accustomed to brickbats descending upon my head from a great height!).
All comments should respect the New Scientist House Rules. If you think a particular comment breaks these rules then please use the "Report" link in that comment to report it to us.
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American civil religion
American civil religion is a term given to a shared set of certain fundamental beliefs, values, holidays, and rituals by those who live in the United States of America. These shared values and holidays are based upon, parallel to, but independent of the theological tenets of each specific denomination or religious belief. The notion of a civil religion originated in the United States due to its origins as a religiously diverse nation. From the Pilgrim founders and the other Puritan groups to the numerous other groups fleeing religious persecution, the American nation had a unique experience and developed a system that allowed for maximum freedom of religion for individuals and groups while allowing no one religious denomination to dominate. In this context, the nation developed a religious, primarily Protestant ethos and set of values based on religion but not overtly based on any one tradition.
The term was coined by sociologist Robert Bellah in 1967. The article in which the term is coined, "Civil Religion in America," sparked one of the most controversial debates in United States sociology. Soon after the paper was published, the topic became the major focus at religious sociology conferences and numerous articles and books were written on the subject. The debate reached it peak with the American Bicentennial celebration in 1976.
The American civil religion emerged as a means to permit the creation of a distinct national set of values that was not tied to a specific confession. It permitted religion to play a fundamental role in shaping the moral vision of the country but in a way that removed theological concerns from the public arena.
The United States was settled in part by religious dissenters from the established Church of England, who desired a civil society founded on a different religious vision. Consequently, there has never been a state church in the United States and individual state churches have not existed in the United States since the early nineteenth century. Religious denominations compete with one another for allegiance in the public square. These facts have created a public discourse which accepts regular displays of religious piety by political leaders but in a vocabulary which captures the common values embraced by diverse religious traditions but eschews the particular theological tenets. Unlike countries with established state churches, where the specific religious basis of political discourse is held in common and therefore taken for granted, American civil society developed a way of discussing the intersection of religious and political values in non-theological terms.
Three periods of crisis
In the book The Broken Covenant Bellah argued that America has experienced three periods when a large number of Americans were cynical about the American creed:
Once in each of the last three centuries America has faced a time of trial, a time of testing so severe that … the existence of our nation has been called in question … the spiritual glue that had bound the nation together in previous years had simply collapsed.
Creation of the term
Bellah's ideas about civil religion were not novel. Before Bellah wrote his paper in 1967 coining the term "American civil religion" several prominent scholars had alluded to the concept. But there was no common conceptual term to describe, interpret or analyze civic religious faith in America.
Alexis de Tocqueville
The French thinker Alexis de Tocqueville has a special place in the understanding of the role of religion in American history. In addition to defining the economic factors that separated British culture from that of the Americans, Tocqueville found the role of religion in these societies to be significantly different. He found that many of the differences between the Americans and the English stemmed from diverse spiritual practices and freedoms. In Democracy of America Tocqueville stated:
Religion in American takes no direct part in the government of society, but it must be regarded as the first of their political institutions; for if it does not impart a taste for freedom, it facilitates the use of it. Indeed, it is in this same point of view that the inhabitants of the United States themselves look upon religious belief. I do not know whether all Americans have a sincere faith in their religion for who can search the human heart?—but I am certain that they hold it to be indispensable to the maintenance of republican institutions. This opinion is not peculiar to a class of citizens or to a party, but it belongs to the whole nation and to every rank of society.
Throughout his career, Tocqueville promoted the importance of religious freedom and education without religious influence. The importance he placed on educational innovation led to his strong defense of religious freedom:
They all attributed the peaceful dominion of religion in their country mainly to the separation of church and state. I do not hesitate to affirm that during my stay in America I did not meet a single individual, of the clergy or the laity, who was not of the same opinion on this point.
He viewed religious independence as not a threat to society, but as an inspiration for further social freedoms, and believed the basic freedoms of education, religion, and the press to ultimately foster the spirit of freedom worldwide.
Yet Tocqueville believed religion to be essential to human success, particularly in democracies:
Despotism may govern without faith, but liberty cannot. Religion is much more necessary in the republic … than in the monarchy … it is more needed in democratic republics than in any others. How is it possible that society should escape destruction if the moral tie is not strengthened in proportion as the political tie is relaxed? And what can be done with a people who are their own masters if they are not submissive to the Deity?
Tocqueville saw in America the realization of the idea that inspired him.
Scholarly progenitors of this idea include John Dewey who spoke of "common faith" (1934); Robin Williams's American Society: A Sociological Interpretation, (1951) which stated there was a "common religion" in America; Lloyd Warner's analysis of the Memorial Day celebrations in "Yankee City" (1953 ); Martin Marty's "religion in general" (1959); Will Herberg who spoke of "the American Way of Life" (1960, 1974); Sidney Mead's "religion of the Republic" (1963); and G. K. Chesterton advanced the thesis that the United States was "the only nation … founded on a creed" and also coined the phrase "a nation with a soul of a church."
In the same period, several distinguished historians such as Yehoshua Arieli, Daniel Boorstin, and Ralph Gabriel "assessed the religious dimension of 'nationalism', the 'American creed', 'cultural religion' and the 'democratic faith'".
Today, according to social scientist Rondald Wimberley and William Swatos, there seems to be a firm consensus among social scientists that there is a part of Americanism that is especially religious in nature, which may be termed "civil religion." But this religious nature is less significant than the "transcendent universal religion of the nation" which late eighteenth century French intellectuals such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Alexis de Tocqueville wrote about.
Robert Bellah and colleagues
Bellah and fellow scholar Martin E. Marty studied civil religion as a cultural phenomenon, attempting to identify the actual tenets of civil religion in the United States of America, or to study civil religion as a phenomenon of cultural anthropology. Marty wrote that Americans approved of "religion in general" without being particularly concerned about the content of that faith, and attempted to distinguish "priestly" and "prophetic" roles within the practice of American civil religion, which he preferred to call the "public theology." Bellah wrote that civil religion was "an institutionalized collection of sacred beliefs about the American nation." He identified the American Revolution, the Civil War, and the Civil Rights Movement as three decisive historical events that impacted the content and imagery of civil religion in the United States. He also identified several modalities within U.S. civil religion related to the biblical categories of the priesthood, prophets, and wisdom tradition.
Empirical evidence supporting Bellah
Ronald Wimberley (1976) and other researchers collected large surveys and factor analytic studies which gave empirical support to Bellah's argument that civil religion is a distinct cultural phenomena within American society which is not embodied in American politics or denominational religion.
Examples of civil religious beliefs are reflected in statements used in the research such as the following:
- "America is God's chosen nation today."
- "A president's authority...is from God."
- "Social justice cannot only be based on laws; it must also come from religion."
- "God can be known through the experiences of the American people."
- "Holidays like the Fourth of July are religious as well as patriotic."
Later research sought to determine who embraces views that could be characterized as part of the American civil religion. In a 1978 study by James Christenson and Ronald Wimberley, the researchers found that a wide cross section of American citizens have such beliefs. In general though, college graduates and political or religious liberals appear to be somewhat less likely to embrace civil religion. Protestants and Catholics have the same level of civil religiosity. Religions that were created in the United States, the Mormons, Adventists, and Pentecostals, have the highest civil religiosity. Jews, Unitarians and those with no religious preference have the lowest civil religion. Even though there is variation in the scores, the "great majority" of Americans are found to share the types of civil religious beliefs which Bellah identified.
Further research found that civil religion plays a role in people's preferences for political candidates and policy positions. In 1980 Ronald Wimberley found that civil religious beliefs were more important than loyalties to a political party in predicting support for Nixon over McGovern with a sample of Sunday morning church goers who were surveyed near the election date and a general group of residents in the same community. In 1982 James Christenson and Ronald Wimberley found that civil religion was second only to occupation in predicting a person's political views.
While some have argued that Christianity is the national faith …few have realized that there actually exists alongside … the churches an elaborate and well-institutionalized civil religion in America -Robert Bellah
Civil religion is neither bona fide religion nor ordinary patriotism, but a new alloy formed by blending religion with nationalism. If civil religions were bona fide religions then one would expect to find a soft side to them, teaching love of neighbor and upholding peace and compassion. But this is not the case. -Stjepan Mestrovic
All links Retrieved July 7, 2008.
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Robert Neelly Bellah, "Civil Religion in America" Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 96 (1) (Winter 1967): 1–21 From the issue entitled "Religion in America".
- ↑ Dana Evan Kaplan. The Cambridge Companion to American Judaism.(Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0521822041), 118.
- ↑ Stjepan Meštrović. The Road from Paradise. (University Press of Kentucky, 1993 ISBN 0813118271), 129
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Marcela Cristi. From Civil to Political Religion: The Intersection of Culture, Religion and Politics. (University Press, 2001 ISBN 0889203687)
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 William H. Swatos. Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. (Rowman Altamira, 1998. ISBN 0761989560), 94. "The article caused an almost unprecedented burst of excitement among sociologists and other scholars of religion."
- ↑ Richard T. Hughes. Myths America Lives By. (University of Illinois Press, 2004. ISBN 0252072200), 3
- ↑ Robert Neelly. The Broken Covenant: American Civil Religion in Time of Trial. (University of Chicago Press, 1992), 1
- ↑ French Ministry of Culture, Alexis de Tocqueville. General Council for La Manche. Retrieved June 4, 2007.
- ↑ Gerald A. Parsons, "From nationalism to internationalism: civil religion and the festival of Saint Catherine of Siena, 1940-2003." Journal of Church and State (September 22, 2004)
- ↑ Stjepan Gabriel Meštrović. The Road from Paradise: Prospects for Democracy in Eastern Europe. (University Press of Kentucky, 1993. ISBN 0813118271), 125, 130
American civil religion
- Bellah, Robert Neelly, "Civil Religion in America." Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 96 (1) (Winter 1967): 1–21. From the issue entitled Religion in America.
- Bellah, Robert Neelly. The Broken Covenant: American Civil Religion in Time of Trial. University of Chicago Press, 1985. ISBN 0226041999
- Canipe, Lee, "Under God and anti-communist: how the Pledge of Allegiance got religion in Cold-War America." Journal of Church and State (March 22, 2002 .}
- Cloud, Matthew W., "One nation, under God": tolerable acknowledgment of religion or unconstitutional cold war propaganda cloaked in American civil religion?" Journal of Church and State 46 (2)(March 22, 2004): 311 ISSN 0021-969X .
- Edwords, Frederick, "The religious character of American patriotism." The Humanist (November/December 1987): 20–24, 36
- Gehrig, Gail. American Civil Religion: An Assessment. Society for Scientific Study, 1981. ISBN 0932566022
- Hughes, Richard T. Myths America Lives By. University of Illinois Press, 2004. ISBN 0252072200
- Jewett, Robert, and John Shelton Lawrence. Captain America And The Crusade Against Evil: The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 0802828590, specifically talks about American civil religion, referencing Jones's book, American Civil Religion. 328.
- Jones, Donald G. and Russell E. Richey. American Civil Religion. Mellen University Press, 1990 (Original published in 1974 by Harper). ISBN 0773499970
- Mathisen, James A. "Twenty Years After Bellah: Whatever Happened to American Civil Religion?"
Sociological Analysis 50 (2) (1989):29–46
- Levinson, Sanford, 1979 "The Constitution" in American Civil Religion." The Supreme Court Review (1979): 123–151.
- Luckmann, Thomas. The Invisible Religion. 1967 Published the same year as Bellah's article.
- Neelly, Robert. The Broken Covenant: American Civil Religion in Time of Trial, second ed. University of Chicago Press, 1992. ISBN 0226041999
- Swatos, William H., Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. AltaMira Press, 1998, ISBN 0761989560, 95. Civil Religion entry
- Further information: American exceptionalism
- Churchill, Ward. "The Ghosts of 9-1-1: Reflections on History, Justice and Roosting Chickens."
(Spring 2005)
- Lipset, Seymour Martin. American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1997. ISBN 0393316149
- Book reviews of: Seymour Martin Lipset's American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword Part 1, The Washington Post, The Weekly Standard,', Foreign Affairs,', The Guardian, New Statesman & Society, etc. . accessdate 2008-07-07.
- Zinn, Howard. "The Power and the Glory Myths of American exceptionalism." bostonreview.net accessdate 2006-07-16
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a. Synoptic history
An extratropical low pressure system formed just east of the Turks and
Caicos Islands near 0000 UTC 25 October in response to an upper level
cyclone interacting with a frontal system. The low initially moved
northwestward, and in combination with a strong surface high to the north
developed into a gale center six hours later. By 1800 UTC that day it had
developed sufficient organized convection to be classified using the
Herbert-Poteat subtropical cyclone classification system, and the best track
of the subtropical storm begins at this time
(Table 1 and Figure 1).
Upon becoming a subtropical storm, the cyclone turned northward. This
motion continued for 24 h while the system slowly intensified. The storm
jogged north-northwestward late on 26 October, followed by a
north-northeastward turn and acceleration on the 27th. During
this time, satellite imagery indicated intermittent bursts of central
convection while Air Force Reserve Hurricane Hunter aircraft indicated a
large (75-100 n mi) radius of maximum winds. This evolution was in contrast
to that of Hurricane Michael a week-and-a-half before. Although of similar
origin to the subtropical storm, Michael developed persistent central
convection and completed a transition to a warm-core hurricane.
After reaching a 50 kt intensity early on 27 October, little change in
strength occurred during the next 24 h. The storm turned northeastward and
accelerated further on the 28th in response to a large and cold
upper-level cyclone moving southward over southeastern Canada. A last burst
of organized convection late on the 28th allowed the storm to reach
a peak intensity of 55 kt. A strong cold front moving southward off the New
England coast then intruded into the system, and the storm became
extratropical near Sable Island, Nova Scotia, around 0600 UTC 29 October.
The extratropical center weakened rapidly and lost its identity near eastern
Nova Scotia later that day. It should be noted that the large cyclonic
circulation that absorbed the subtropical storm was responsible for heavy
early-season snowfalls over portions of the New England states and
b. Meteorological statistics
Table 1 shows the best track positions and intensities
for the subtropical storm, with the track plotted in
Figure 1. Figure 2
and Figure 3 depict the curves of minimum central
sea-level pressure and maximum sustained one-minute average "surface" (10 m
above ground level) winds, respectively, as a function of time. These
figures also contain the data on which the curves are based: satellite-based
Hebert-Poteat and experimental extratropical transition intensity (Miller
and Lander, 1997) estimates from the Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch
(TAFB), the Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB) of the National Environmental
Satellite Data and Information Service (NESDIS), and the Air Force Weather
Agency (AFWA), as well as data from aircraft, ships, buoys and land stations.
The Air Force Reserve Hurricane Hunters flew two mission into the storm with
a total of four center fixes. Central pressures on both flights were in the
997-1000 mb range, and the maximum flight level (1500 ft) winds were 60 kt
on the first flight and 61 kt on the second. A weak temperature gradient
was observed in the system on the first flight, suggesting that the cyclone
still had some baroclinic characteristics. The second flight showed a
uniform airmass within 100 n mi the center with temperatures of about
The storm had a large envelope, and many ships reported 34 kt or higher
winds. Table 2 summaries these observations.
There were few observations near the central core. Canadian buoy 44137
reported winds 160/39 kt with a pressure of 979.1 mb at 0200 UTC 29 October,
which is the basis for the lowest pressure. Other reports from this buoy
indicate that the winds increased in the last hour before the center passed,
suggesting that some kind of inner wind maximum was present even as the
storm was becoming extratropical. Earlier, a drifting buoy about 35 n mi
southeast of the center reported a pressure of 996.6 mb at 2051 UTC 27
October, which showed that the storm had begun to deepen.
Sable Island, Nova Scotia, reported a pressure of 980.6 mb as the center
passed over at 0600 UTC on the 29th. Maximum sustained winds were
35 kt after the center passage at 0700 and 0800 UTC. Several other stations
in eastern Nova Scotia and southwestern Newfoundland reported sustained
35-50 kt winds around 1200 UTC on the 29th.
The maximum intensity of this system is uncertain. Satellite intensity
estimates late on the 28th and early on the 29th along
with a 35-40 kt forward motion indicate the possibility of 65-75 kt
sustained winds. However, this is not supported by surface observations
near the center early on the 29th. The maximum intensity is
estimated to have been 55 kt.
c. Casualty and damage statistics
No reports of casualties or damage have been received at the National
Hurricane Center (NHC).
d. Forecast and warning critique
No advisories were written on this storm, as a decision was made
operationally to handle it in marine forecasts as an extratropical storm.
Post-analysis of satellite imagery and of 27 October aircraft data are the
basis for classifying the system now as subtropical. Due to the operational
handling, there are no formal NHC forecasts to verify. Large-scale
numerical models generally performed well in forecasting the genesis and
motion of this cyclone. The models did mostly underestimate the
intensification that occurred north of the Gulf Stream. However, this
strengthening was fairly well forecast by the GFDL model.
No tropical cyclone watches or warnings were issued for this storm. Marine
gale and storm warnings were issued in high seas and offshore forecasts from
Marine Prediction Center and the TAFB of the TPC. Gale warnings were also
issued for portions of the North Carolina coastal waters by local National
Weather Service offices.
Miller, D. W and M. A. Lander, 1997: Intensity estimation of tropical
cyclones during extratropical transition. JTWC/SATOPSTN-97/002, Joint
Typhoon Warning Center/Satellite Operations, Nimitz Hill, Guam, 9 pp.
Best track, Subtropical Storm, 25-29 October 2000.
|Lat. (°N)||Lon. (°W)
|25 / 0000||21.5|| 69.5||1009|| 30|| extratropical low|
|25 / 0600||22.5|| 70.0||1007|| 35||extratropical gale|
|25 / 1200||23.5|| 70.9||1006|| 35||"|
|25 / 1800||24.5|| 71.7||1005|| 35||subtropical storm|
|26 / 0000||25.7|| 71.7||1004|| 35||"|
|26 / 0600||26.6|| 71.7|| 1003|| 35||"|
|26 / 1200||27.4|| 71.8|| 1002|| 40||"|
|26 / 1800||28.3|| 72.1|| 1000|| 45||"|
|27 / 0000||29.2|| 72.5|| 997|| 50||"|
|27 / 0600||30.0|| 72.6|| 997||50||"|
|27 / 1200||30.9|| 72.5|| 997||50||"|
|27 / 1800||32.6|| 71.6|| 996||50||"|
|28 / 0000||34.2|| 70.7|| 994||50||"|
|28 / 0600||35.7|| 69.9|| 992||50||"|
|28 / 1200||36.5|| 68.1|| 990|| 50||"|
|28 / 1800||38.0|| 65.5|| 984|| 55||"|
|29 / 0000||40.5|| 62.6|| 978|| 55||"|
|29 / 0600||44.0|| 60.0|| 980|| 50||extratropical|
|29 / 1200||46.0|| 59.5|| 992|| 45||"|
|29 / 1800|| ||absorbed into larger extratropical low|
|29 / 0200||41.7||61.6||976||55||minimum pressure|
Selected ship and buoy observations of subtropical storm or greater winds
associated with the subtropical storm, 25-29 October 2000.
|Dock Express 20||25/1200||27.0||68.9||050/45||1009.0|
|Splendour of the Seas||25/1800||28.6||65.2||070/40||1015.0|
a 8 minute average wind
b 10 minute average wind
Best track for the subtropical storm, 25-29 October 2000.
Best track minimum central pressure curve for the subtropical storm, 25-29
Best track maximum sustained 1-minute 10 meter wind speed curve for the
subtropical storm, 25-29 October 2000. Vertical black bars denote wind
ranges in subtropical and extratropical satellite intensity estimates.
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Silver birch tree © Bob Press
Slender, open crowned tree up to 30m tall but usually about half this size.
The large branches are pointed upwards but the smaller ones and twigs are hanging down, giving a graceful, weeping appearance.
Silvery white, developing large black diamond-shaped fissures.
Young shoots have pale warts.
Roughly oval or triangular to diamond-shaped with a tapered tip and rounded. The edges are toothed or double-toothed. Both surfaces are dotted with tiny glands.
Slender males are loosely hanging and pale yellow. Female catkins are 2–3cm long and stand upright.
They are loosely hanging and break up when ripe to release small, winged seeds.
Silver birch leaves and catkins.© Robert Vidéki, Doronicum Kft., Hungary
Silver birch tree bark.© Università di Trieste, Dipartimento di Biologia. Photo: Andrea Moro
Silver birch tree bark.© Bob Press
Silver birch tree cones.© Tom DeGomez, University of Arizona, United States
Silver birch tree.© Bob Press
These diagrams explain some of the important tree and plant parts.
These diagrams show the different leaf shapes you might come across on your survey. Leaf shapes are important for identifying trees.
The way leaves are arranged on a stem can be important for identifying trees.
These definitions explain some of the trickier words and phrases used in these pages.
Alternate – the arrangement of leaves on a stem - the leaves attach at different but alternating points, rather than opposite points.
Anther – the part of the stamen that contains pollen.
Apex – the top or end; the tip of a leaf for example.
Bract – a leaf-like structure, usually found below the flower or fruit.
Bud scale – usually a type of modified leaf that encloses and protects a bud.
Catkin – slender inflorescences made up of small flowers, usually reduced to the male and female parts. Catkins are typical of wind-pollinated trees.
Coniferous – trees that have cones, and needle or scale-like leaves.
Crown – in a tree, everything above the trunk.
Deciduous – a tree that sheds its leaves all at once in the autumn.
Evergreen – a tree that retains its leaves all year round.
Girth – the circumference of something, like the trunk of a tree.
Gland (of a leaf) – a small organ on a leaf that gives out oils or similar substances.
Inflorescence – the arrangement of all the flowers on a tree. The shape is used to help identify the plant.
Key – a tool used to identify groups and species of living things.
Leaflet – a subdivision of a leaf - it may look like a leaf but is attached to the leaf stalk or midrib, not to the shoot.
Lobe – a rounded or pointed section of a leaf, not divided into a leaflet.
Margin – the edge of a leaf.
Midrib – the central vein of a leaf.
Native – a tree that occurs naturally in an area, as opposed to a non-native tree that has been introduced.
Opposite – the arrangement of leaves on a stem - the leaves attach in pairs at the same point, opposite each other, rather than attaching at alternate points.
Palmate – a leaf shape in which the lobes or leaflets radiate from a single point, like fingers from a hand.
Petals – usually larger and more brightly coloured than sepals.
Pinnate – a leaf shape in which the lobes or leaflets are arranged on both sides of the stalk or midrib like a feather.
Pollarded – when the upper branches of a tree have been cut back to encourage new growth.
Sepals – the outermost parts of a flower which cover and protect the flower when it is in bud. They are usually green.
Side shoots – short, spur-like shoots growing from the main shoots.
Spike – an elongated cluster of flowers; a type of inflorescence.
Stalk – the structure that supports the blade of a leaf.
Stigma – the part at the end of the style. It is covered with a sticky substance that pollen adheres to.
Stipule – a small, leaf-like structure, found where the leaf connects to the stem.
Style – a tube-like structure in the centre of a flower that supports the stigma.
Trunk – the woody stem of a tree, before the branches.
Urban forest – the trees in our towns and cities.
Whorl – 3 or more leaves or needles circling around a stem.
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Tuesday, November 29, 2011
Bob Kuska, NIDCR
Mouse study explains bacterium's unique role in periodontitis
NIH-supported study solves the mystery of a devious oral bacterium
Scientists say they have solved in mice the mystery of how an unusual bacterium can trigger the common dental condition periodontitis while residing in low numbers in the space between tooth and gum.
The researchers report that the microbe Porphyromonas gingivalis hacks into the front-line immune cells that police the space between tooth and gum, known as the subgingival crevice, and reprograms them to create living conditions more to its microbial liking. As more immune cells are co-opted to follow the wrong program, the usually benign bacterial residents of the subgingival crevice — not P. gingivalis, as long suspected — opportunistically rise up in number, altering their community dynamics and prompting them to infect the tooth's supportive structures, or periodontium.
The study in the Nov. 17 issue of the journal Cell Host and Microbe was supported by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), part of the National Institutes of Health.
"As the other bacteria attack, and immune cells counterattack, progressively damaging the integrity of the tooth in the process, P. gingivalis sits in the shadows and feasts on the inflammatory spoils," said George Hajishengallis, D.D.S., Ph.D., a researcher at the University of Louisville School of Dentistry and a co-lead author on the study. "This is one ingenious little bug."
According to Hajishengallis, their discovery marks the first documented case in microbiology of a keystone species, or more specifically, a keystone pathogen. Coined by ecologists in the late 1960s, the keystone concept refers to a low-abundance species that exercises a disproportionate influence on its environment. In this case, low-abundance P. gingivalis shapes a microbial community and catalyzes the onset of an oral disease.
The next step is to test whether P. gingivalis follows a comparable evolutionary strategy in people. If so, they already have in their sights drugs that can be applied topically to the affected tooth to block this keystone pathogen from reprogramming the immune cells, providing a more targeted approach to prevent and/or treat periodontitis.
Periodontitis has afflicted humans from time immemorial, and today remains one of the most common causes of tooth loss worldwide. An estimated 53 million American adults have the condition, approximately 2 out of every 10 adults, at a total annual healthcare expenditure of more than $14 billion.
In the late 1970s, P. gingivalis became a subject of research interest when scientists noticed this rod-shaped anaerobe popping up consistently at low levels in studies that explored the microbiology of periodontitis. Further laboratory work showed that this late colonizer of the subgingival crevice arrives bearing an extensive arsenal of noxious chemicals. The assumption being, P. gingivalis employs them selectively to thwart the native, or innate, immune cells that patrol the gingival crevice and keep bacterial levels in balance.
But showing that P. gingivalis actually can cause periodontitis has remained scientifically tricky. The assumption has been that the bacterium could directly cause damage to the periodontium in animal models, independent of periodontitis and its natural disease process. Moreover, scientists have found themselves traversing new conceptual territory to explain how such a low-abundance — some say stealth — pathogen could wreak such havoc in the mouth.
The research story has picked up in recent years as scientists have gained more technologically sophisticated tools to study P. gingivalis, and more biological information from which to form workable hypotheses.
A case in point is the progress in understanding how immune cells process incoming information to respond to the threat at hand. Studies show that some incoming defense signals converge within innate immune cells, a process called signaling crosstalk, which helps them to coordinate their early internal response to infection.
Last year, Hajishengallis and colleagues reported in mouse studies that P. gingivalis has learned through the millennia to exploit this crosstalk. The bacterium does so by jointly activating convergent defense signals involving the Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR-2), which helps to recognize pathogens, and the C5a receptor that is a part of the complement system that will respond to the threat.
"P. gingivalis exploits both receptors to induce a signal with an emergent property," explained Hajishengallis. "In other words, the property doesnít emerge from manipulating just one receptor. Both must be punched."
Hajishengallis said the emergent property impairs the affected immune cell from killing P. gingivalis. It also seems to initiate low-level inflammation that serves no immunological purpose other than possibly to generate nutrients for P. gingivalis.
This discovery pointed to an evasion mechanism that P. gingivalis employs to subvert innate immunity. Left unanswered was the larger question of whether this stealth mechanism also played a role in causing periodontitis.
To get their answer, the scientists revisited two unexplained laboratory observations. First, after mice are inoculated with P. gingivalis and develop advanced periodontitis, the levels of normally benign , or commensal, bacteria increase in the affected periodontium. Secondly, P. gingivalis is extremely difficult to detect at the site of the disease. These observations and last yearís finding on signaling crosstalk suggested that P. gingivalis might compromise the immune system, but the commensals infect the periodontium.
In the current paper, that's exactly what they found. The scientists report that mice bred to produce immune cells without C5a receptors — meaning P. gingivalis can't co-opt their innate immunity — did not develop periodontitis after being inoculated with the bacterium. Commensal levels also remained within the range typically seen in the subgingival space.
In healthy mice kept under conventional laboratory conditions, the opposite was true when inoculated with P. gingivalis. The mice developed active periodontitis and its characteristic damage of the periodontium. They also had increased commensal levels and hardly detectable P. gingivalis.
"In contrast, mice bred to be germ-free were resistant to periodontitis after they were colonized by P. gingivalis," noted Michael Curtis, Ph.D., a co-lead author on the study and a scientist at Queen Mary University in London. "This was especially telling because these mice lacked the normal commensal bacteria in their mouths. In other words, in these sterile animals, P. gingivalis had no bacterial accomplices capable of causing periodontitis."
"There is one key word that explains everything: homeostasis," said Richard Darveau, M.S., Ph.D., a scientist at the University of Washington in Seattle and another co-lead author on the paper. "Periodontal health is a matter of maintaining homeostasis, or equilibrium, among the bacterial inhabitants of the subgingival space and innate immunity cells. P. gingivalis is a master at disrupting homeostasis. Although this bacterium certainly is not the only cause of periodontitis, it stands out as a major culprit."
The scientists say their findings have encouraging therapeutic implications, in part because the microbial conditions in mice likely will be comparable in humans. They point to studies in monkeys that indicate the comparability.
They also note their findings provide a molecular target with tremendous specificity. "To counteract P. gingivalis and the negative outcomes that it orchestrates in patients, we will need most likely to target one of the signaling receptors," said John Lambris, Ph.D., an author on the paper and the Dr. Ralph and Sallie Weaver Professor of Research Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania. "P. gingivalis needs to manipulate both to work its tricks."
The National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR) is the Nationís leading funder of research on oral, dental, and craniofacial health.
About the National Institutes of Health (NIH): NIH, the nation's medical research agency, includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit http://www.nih.gov.
NIH...Turning Discovery Into Health ®
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Advances in adhesive technology for joint replacements - 1
Narrator: This is NIH health matters, I’m Joe Balintfy. Nearly 17 percent of artificial hip or knee replacements have to be redone early. Dr. Lyndon Joseph at the NIH says this can be even more traumatic for patients, and more complicated for doctors.
Joseph: Because they have to take out the implant, give you a big dose of antibiotics and painkillers and so you’re basically laid up in a hospital for an extended period of time.
Narrator: Now engineers are developing a coating for implants to help replacements last longer. The coating causes the patients to produce new bone around the implant, securing it in place. For details, visit www.nia.nih.gov. Health Matters is produced by the National Institutes of Health, part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
About NIH Radio
NIH Radio offers free audio news programs from the National Institutes of Health, your reliable source for health information.
All NIH Radio content is in the public domain and can be used without charge or restriction provided that it is not used to misrepresent our agency nor used to suggest we endorse any private organization, product, or service.
NIH Radio is a service of the Office of Communications & Public Liaison.
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Debate among industry and environmental groups on hydraulic fracturing in New Jersey is heating up, as a bill to ban the practice remains on Gov. Chris Christie’s desk after he signed a flurry of legislation earlier this week.
“New Jersey has one of the highest concentrations of natural gas in the United States, and it’s really had a tremendous growth that many industry experts thought was impossible,” said Jim Benton, executive director of the New Jersey Petroleum Council. “What we really need is the cheaper energy prices that can come from this practice, because you can’t have a successful economic recovery without solid energy growth and competitive energy costs.”
Environmental groups have argued wastewater from fracking threatens the environment and public health, since the state’s treatment plants are not equipped to process the contaminants it contains before releasing it into waterways.
“Radioactivity in wastewater from at least 15 wells was thousands of times higher than the EPA standard … and this waste is already coming into New Jersey, posing a serious public health threat,” said Jeff Tittel, director of the state chapter of the Sierra Club. “There could be accidental spills as fracking wastewater is being trucked to treatment plants with impacts to local communities, water bodies and groundwater.”
But Benton said the coalition’s arguments are “based on a hypothetical fear and unsubstantiated types of claims,” since “the treatment facilities have stated they can claim this water when it comes to them … and recycle it right there on site.”
“Businesses are already operating under regulated parameters … because federal law doesn’t permit the type of activity everyone’s arguing against,” Benton said. “Regulation can easily help the facilities meet the appropriate environmental standards to protect our water and help companies develop this energy to meet our energy needs.”
But with the state still under a one-year ban of the practice, which was supported by Christie, Benton noted “at this point, the interest in properly regulating this hasn’t materialized.”
Still, the state Department of Environmental Protection recently revised its guidelines on fracking wastewater, though Tittel noted there are no federal regulations outlining treatment standards, and “under the (DEP) waiver rule, any regulations the DEP does devise would be waived for gas companies and treatment facilities.”
“Accepting fracking waste takes away sewer capacity from New Jersey businesses, hurting our economic growth,” Tittel said in a statement. “The treatment plants would make more money taking in the fracking waste, undercutting new development.”
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Courtesy of the John D. & Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation
Over the past four decades, Benoit Rolland has made more than 1,400 bows for violins, violas and cellos.
Over the past four decades, Benoit Rolland has made more than 1,400 bows for violins, violas and cellos. Courtesy of the John D. & Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation
Among the 23 recipients of the MacArthur "genius" grants this past week: an economist, a mathematician, a photographer, a neuroscientist, and a Boston-based stringed instrument bow maker.
Benoit Rolland acknowledges that the violin reigns supreme as the star of the strings, capable of fetching millions of dollars at auction. But what about the bow? "A violin with no bow is not a violin, that's clear," says Rolland.
"A lot of people, even some instrumentalists, in our younger years we believe that the violin is of paramount importance and the bow is just a tool," says Elita Kang, assistant concert master of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. "But the bow is just as important as the violin because that is our breath. That's how we draw the sound out of the instrument, so without a fine bow that's responsive and flexible and finely made, we can't express ourselves fully."
Kang says a significant number of BSO musicians use bows made by Rolland. So have some of the most famous string players of all time: Yehudi Menuhin, Stephane Grapelli, Mstislav Rostropovich. Over the past four decades, Rolland has made more than 1,400 bows for violins, violas and cellos.
"I could say the bow is extremely important for a musician because it has to convey the personality, the musicality, the feelings, the emotions of the musician through it, and it's something that has to behave like a muscle," says Rolland.
That understanding is only part of why Rolland won a MacArthur genius grant. He's revered for his knowledge of traditional bow-making skills but also for his innovations. He pioneered the first concert-grade graphite bow. And his most recent invention is an updated "frog" — the piece on the bow's end used to adjust tension.
"It's much more stable," Rolland says, "so it's easier to play, more responsive, the sound is fuller — most of the time, not all of the time. So it's an improvement I think is interesting. And this frog is adjustable on any existing stick."
Rolland's journey as a bow maker began in Paris, where his grandmother was a famous concert pianist. Rolland had perfect pitch, and when he was 9 he fell in love with the violin. He graduated from the conservatories of Paris and Versailles, and was on track to become a professional musician — but then he saw a spectacular bow.
"This bow was so beautiful, fitted with gold, 18 karats, and magnificent mother of pearl and magnificent wood. It was like a jewel," says Rolland. "So at this very moment, I understood this was what I want to do."
He went on to study the traditional French method of bow making and has been doing this ever since. Rolland says the most important variables are the musicians themselves. He interviews them, watches them perform and listens closely to their music.
Miriam Fried has three of his bows and is one of the many musicians who wrote letters to the MacArthur Foundation endorsing Rolland's nomination. She's a violinist and teacher at the New England Conservatory.
"What I'm really excited about is the fact that Benoît Rolland just was one of the recipients of the MacArthur grant, which I think is fabulous," says Fried.
His years of bow making have stiffened his fingers, so it's difficult for him to play nowadays. But Rolland says he still gets pleasure watching and listening to other musicians using his bows. "Because I see this person playing so intimate things — the music — with something I brought in his hands, so it's marvelous," says Rolland.
And he says the MacArthur stipend of $500,000 will enable him not only to improve his centuries-old art, but also to pursue even more innovations.
Note: NPR is among the organizations that the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation supports.
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Using climatic trends for sustainable agriculture
This activity provides opportunities for students to:
- consider the value of weather and climate information to inform management practices
- propose management strategies for resources based on these predictions
- use the Internet as a source of up-to-date information
- predict trends in climatic conditions as a result of El Niño or La Niña events.
Earth and Beyond
6.3 Students argue a position regarding stewardship of the earth and beyond, and consider the implications of using renewable and non-renewable resources.
- information on the Long Paddock website
- ‘Australia's Variable Rainfall Poster' relative to historical records 1890-2004
The poster shows a series of colourful maps providing a record of El Niño cycles in Australia 1890-2004.
Time: 60 minutes
- Accessing resources
- Interpreting data
- Discussing thinking
Before beginning, check that students understand the meanings of these terms:
- Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)
- El Niño
- La Niña
(These terms are explained at the top of the poster; or go to ‘Help’ on the Long Paddock website).
Students access the information available on the Long Paddock web site to complete this activity (or, alternatively, the poster can be used to access most of the information required to complete the activity).
Students use this information for the following activities (described in detail in the free activity sheet, Understanding Australia’s Climate):
- Describe rainfall conditions in the area where they live, at various times during the twentieth century.
- Describe trends in the Southern Oscillation Index during the 1990s and determine climate variability and when El Niño or La Niña conditions may have occurred.
- Relate El Niño or La Niña events to local events such as drought, flood, bushfires and fluctuations in animal and plant populations.
- Relate climate variability to adaptations of local plant and animal species.
- Describe farming practices that can cater for climate variability.
At the conclusion of the activity students brainstorm the implications of El Niño and La Niña effects for pasture and crop management.
Some questions that may prompt discussion include:
- What conditions do we associate with El Niño?
- What conditions do we associate with La Niña?
- How does drought affect pasture growth and rejuvenation?
- How might periods of heavy rain affect the soil?
- What implications does this have for cropping practices (e.g. what is grown, when it is grown, when it is harvested, etc.)?
- What precautions should be taken to ensure that pastures suffer limited effects from degradation as a result of their management during drought conditions?
Students may focus on the implications of El Niño/La Niña climatic variations for one particular aspect of land management. For example:
- Numbers of livestock on grazing properties
- Control of pest plants or animals
- Reducing risk from bushfires
- Control of soil erosion
Prepare a brief report or essay about how management practices might differ during El Niño/La Niña phases, or what might be done to prepare for climate extremes.
Gathering information about student learning
Sources of information could include:
- students’ completed activity sheets
- anecdotal records of students’ contributions to the brainstorming session
- students’ presentations.
Last updated 31 August 2010
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Contact: Ken Kingery, NSCL, Office: 517-908-7482, Kingery@nscl.msu.edu
Published January 4, 2012
For Immediate Release
EAST LANSING, Mich. – The recent measurement of the mass of the short-lived rare isotope manganese-66 has made it possible for nuclear astrophysicists to pin down the underlying heating elements of one of the universe’s most fantastic phenomena—accreting neutron stars.
Out in the cold depths of space, billions of the densest objects known to man sit quietly while their nuclear decomposition processes play out. But some of them are hungry. Some neutron stars sit close enough to a neighboring star for its immense gravity to begin pulling matter from its neighbor into its own mass in an ongoing thermonuclear process. But sooner or later, the fuel for the neutron star is exhausted and it begins to cool rapidly. Through observations of this cooling process and measurements taken at nuclear physics laboratories such as the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory (NSCL), scientists can deduce the inner workings of neutron stars.
In the recent experiment at NSCL, researchers measured the mass of manganese-66, which sits right next to iron-66 on the nuclear chart. Based on the newly discovered mass and previous measurements of iron-66, scientists can determine where in the crust of a neutron star the layer of iron-66 lies, which is one of two heating elements in neutron stars.
“On earth, iron-66 is a rare short-lived isotope with a half-life of about 400 ms,” said Alfredo Estrade, postdoctoral researcher with St. Mary’s University in Halifax, Canada, and GSI in Darmstadt, Germany, and lead author of the study. “However, it also is part of the crust of accreting neutron stars, where it becomes stable due to its high density and it heats the crust by capturing electrons.”
Scientists at NSCL calculated the mass of manganese-66 by doing a time-of-flight experiment. Krypton-86 was accelerated up to 40 percent of the speed of light and smashed into a thin foil of beryllium. Some of the ions shattered after hitting other nuclei in the foil, creating a smorgasborg of new isotopes and particles. The facility then filtered out about 100 desired types of isotopes, some of which they wanted to measure and others that they used for calibrations.
The filtered isotopes traveled down the beamline where they were caught by a detector that identified which isotope was which. Due to their different masses, the different isotopes took different amounts of time to complete their journey. By identifying manganese-66 and measuring the time it took to run the course, the scientists could determine its weight to within one part in 100,000.
The resulting mass was different than what theorists had predicted for the rare isotope, which changes the models of how neutron stars are structured. The result was a bit of a surprise.
“The mass difference between iron-66 and manganese-66 allows us determines the depth needed to induce the heating reactions and therefore the location of the heat source associated with this reaction inside a neutron star,” explained Hendrik Schatz, nuclear astrophysicist at NSCL and Principle Investigator for the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics (JINA), who worked on the paper along with Milan Matos, a postdoctoral researcher at Louisiana State University stationed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. “With this new measurement, all of the critical heat sources now can be located within a neutron star. The heat source turns out to be located much closer to the surface than was assumed before based on theoretical predictions of the mass difference between iron-66 and manganese-66.”
Michigan State University has been working to advance the common good in uncommon ways for more than 150 years. One of the top research universities in the world, MSU focuses its vast resources on creating solutions to some of the world’s most pressing challenges, while providing life-changing opportunities to a diverse and inclusive academic community through more than 200 programs of study in 17 degree-granting colleges.
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Preschool Music Program
At Oakstone Academy, we understand the importance music brings to the preschool program. Our teachers offer musical experiences daily through circle time activities that encourage singing, creative movement, and exploring simple musical instruments. A degreed music professional works with each classroom bi-weekly to help students explore music in their world and engage them in creative movement.
Elementary Music Program
In kindergarten students are exposed to the early concepts of music as they begin to learn how to work together to make music through the use of simple instruments.
Students in the first through third grades continue to develop music concepts through a recorder program. Students are taught to read music and understand related terminology while they learn to play with others. To showcase their accomplishments, students participate in two performances each year.
Fourth and fifth grade students have the opportunity to elect to be in the school band. The band instructor works with students and families to select an instrument appropriate for the young musician. Students who elect to participate in band have two sessions of instruction per week during the school day. These students participate in two performances each year, as well as occasional performances for the students during the school day.
Middle/High School Music Program
During their middle and high school years, students interested in music have many options to explore at Oakstone Academy. A sequential music experience provides students with the knowledge and skills to experience, create, and enjoy singing, reading, writing, playing, or listening to music. Instruments and movement offer students hands-on and active experiences. Some students may elect to participate in band or choir, while smaller classes may elect to take part in a guitar or keyboard lab. Regardless of the type of music class enrolled in, classes are aimed to promote critical thinking and an appreciation and understanding of music.
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NASADAD urges a letter-writing campaign to the makers of home pregnancy tests to ask them to place warnings on their test kits which advise women about the risks of alcohol use during pregnancy. Read More
(Letter used with the permission of Rob Morrison, NASADAD)
September 9, 2012 - International FASD Awareness Day
Every year on September 9, communities throughout the world observe International FASD Awareness Day. Events are often held at 9:09 am, the 9th minute of the 9th hour of the 9th day of the 9th month of the year. This date and time is used to remind women not to drink during the nine months of pregnancy. The first FAS Awareness Day was held on 9/9/99. Since then, the Federal government and many State and local governments have officially recognized FASD Awareness Day.
Individuals, organizations, and communities have been active every year organizing events to promote FASD awareness and increase compassion for individuals with an FASD. If you would like more information or ideas for your September 9th programming, please visit a website that was established to promote International FASD Awareness Day: FASDay.com. Our OASAS FASD web pages also contain many downloadable FASD materials that can be used to promote your FASD education and awareness activities.
Alcohol consumption among pregnant women is still an important public health concern. A July 2012 CDC report examining alcohol use and binge drinking among pregnant and non-pregnant women of childbearing age (18-44 years) in the United States found that 7.6 percent of pregnant women (or 1 in 13), and 51.5 percent of non-pregnant women (or 1 in 2) reported drinking alcohol in the past 30 days.
Clearly, pregnant and non-pregnant women of childbearing age who misuse alcohol are an important population for education and intervention. Because no safe level of alcohol during pregnancy has been established, and alcohol is known to cause birth defects, developmental disabilities, and other adverse pregnancy outcomes, women who are pregnant or who might become pregnant should refrain from drinking any alcohol at any time during pregnancy. Women who are contemplating becoming pregnant, or are sexually active, should refrain from drinking because they could become pregnant and not know for several weeks or more. FASD is 100 percent preventable if alcohol is not consumed during pregnancy, so why take the risk?
Meet Jasmine Suarez-O’Connor, a young adult living with FASD
Jasmine Suarez-O’Connor is the 20 year old daughter of Dianne and Mickey O’Connor. Dianne works part-time in the OASAS Prevention Services Bureau in Albany on a statewide FASD prevention initiative called Project CHOICES.
Jasmine was diagnosed with Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE) when she was three years old. With many supports, Jasmine graduated Scotia-Glenville High School in June 2008. Along with her mother and older sister, Jasmine was an opening plenary speaker, for the “Sharing Personal Stories” panel at the annual 2008 Building FASD State Systems national meeting. In 2009, Jasmine and her mother Dianne were featured in a Patient Education Video produced by the American Congress of Gynecologists and Obstetricians (ACOG) of NYS. This video has been viewed in hospitals and medical settings across the United States in over 1,000 locations.
In 2009, Jasmine was nominated for a seat on the SAMHSA FASD Center for Excellence FASD Expert Panel. The role of the Expert Panel is to provide oversight, advice, and guidance to the Center based on the member’s professional expertise and/or personal experience with FASD. Jasmine brings her voice to the Expert Panel on how FASD has affected her life, finding ways to help families and caregivers living with FASD lead successful lives, and getting the word out to the college population about alcohol use and pregnancy.
Jasmine, along with another young adult with FASD and is also a member of the Expert Panel, launched the national “Self Advocates with FASD in Action” (SAFA) group. Jasmine helped to plan the first-ever conference by and for individuals with an FASD during the 2011 Building FASD State Systems meeting. This past year Jasmine was nominated by the FASD Center for Excellence to take part in the development of a Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) to be titled Addressing Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD). This publication will be issued by the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP) in early 2012.
Jasmine currently co-presents with her mother at various conferences, training workshops, and advocacy sessions across NY. In 2010, Jasmine was featured by the National Organization on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (NOFAS) about her experiences, in their series “Get to Know Me: My Life with FASD.” Learn More.
2009 FASD Prevention Poster Contest
At a special ceremony on June 3, three Johanna Perrin Middle School students from Fairport, NY were recognized for winning the First FASD Prevention Poster Contest. The Poster Contest was designed to help educate students in grades 6-12 from across the state, and to raise awareness among the general public about the dangers of alcohol consumption during pregnancy. The culmination of the contest coincided with the annual observance of Alcohol and other Drug-related Birth Defects Awareness Week in May.
The winning students are Corteney Miller, Tessa Ooyama and Daniel Pariso. These three 7th grade students were selected from over 100 designs submitted by students through their local Councils on Alcoholism and Substance Abuse. The awards ceremony included the 7th grade health classes at Johanna Perrin Middle School, the parents of the three winning students, their health teachers, and other school administrators, including the Principal and School District Superintendent. Awards were presented by Jennifer Faringer, Director of the Rochester area National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence, and Margo Singer, State FASD Coordinator at OASAS. OASAS has produced a FASD prevention poster which includes the art work of all three recipients. To order copies of the poster in bulk at no charge, contact Margo Singer at 518-457-4384 or email firstname.lastname@example.org.
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Ask Mary Jo
What is casual contact?
Q.I don’t understand what casual contact is. In school, my health teacher said that AIDS isn’t spread by casual contact, but nobody explained what that is.
– 13-year-old male
Mary Jo’s response: An outstanding question that reminds me to never assume someone knows what I’m teaching. I use this poem, “Knots,” by R.D. Laing when I do professional trainings. It keeps me focused on the need to articulate the obvious when teaching – which simply means that a teacher needs to share information clearly:
There is something I don’t know that I am supposed to know.
I don’t know what it is that I don’t know and yet am supposed to know, and I feel I look stupid if I seem both not to know it and not know what it is I don’t know.
Therefore I pretend I know it.
This is nerve-racking since I don’t know what I must pretend to know.
Therefore I pretend to know everything.
I feel you know what I am supposed to know but you can’t tell me what it is because you don’t know that I don’t know it.
You may know what I don’t know, but not that I don’t know it, and I can’t tell you.
So you will have to tell me everything.
Casual contact means that people connect with one another but there is no chance for body fluids to go from one person to another – no sexual contact, no needle-sharing, no breastfeeding, no blood or fluid exchange. Let’s be clear about some myths:
Research has shown that HIV is NOT spread by:
• Breathing the same air as someone who is HIV-positive
• A mosquito bite
• Touching a toilet seat or doorknob handle after an HIV-positive person
• Drinking from a water fountain
• Hugging, kissing or shaking hands with someone who is HIV-positive
• Sharing eating utensils with an HIV-positive person
• Using exercise equipment at a gym
It is true that HIV can be spread through blood, semen, vaginal fluid or breast milk.
I hope that helps make the idea of casual contact clear. If you have more questions or just want to talk, I’m at 412-877-4906.
Youth Champions: Who said February is a boring month? Our peer educators are busy planning two important February events:
One Billion Rising: The public is invited to our “rising” from 5 to 6 p.m. Feb. 13 at our Common Ground Teen Center (53 N. College St., Washington). One Billion Rising is an international call to action (http://onebillionrising.org/). One in three women on the planet will be raped or beaten in her lifetime. One billion women violated is an atrocity. One billion women dancing is a revolution. Men and women are invited to join our young people as they enjoy solidarity in dance and participate in an educational hour to focus on our common humanity. Violence does not need to be the status quo.
Black History Month Essay Contest: Any Washington County teen (14-18) may enter this contest honoring Black History Month. Essays must be between 300 and 500 words. The topic is any African-American, living or dead, who contributed to making our community stronger and better. Essays may focus on a local individual or a national figure. Completed essays must be sent by email only to email@example.com and must include the name, address, phone number and email address of the essayist. Entries must be received no later than midnight on Feb. 22. The winner will be announced at our Black History Day program on from 5 to 6 p.m. Feb. 27 at the Common Ground Teen Center. A $100 Amazon gift card will be awarded to the best essay.
Lippincott bridge being restored (231)
Costanzo, Lucas virtually assured election in Nov. (4932)
Election roundup (3996)
Judge orders Manning memo posted at polls be impounded (2788)
Polamalu believes injury issues are behind him (1082)
Seahawks waive Portis after DUI arrest (965)
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Researchers studying a school-based programme credited with
reducing the rates of obese and overweight 7-year-olds have
now found a reduction in asthma symptoms.
Asthma is a potentially serious breathing disorder in which
airways become inflamed. Its causes are not known, but in
many cases it is linked to allergies.
Project Energize, a healthy-nutrition and physical activity
scheme, began as a trial in Waikato in 2004 and was later
converted to an intervention funded at all Waikato primary
schools by the area's district health board.
In five years, the proportion of 7-year-olds who were
overweight - the group in which the greatest change in body
mass index occurred - declined by 4 percentage points. There
was a smaller fall in the obesity rate for 7-year-olds and
the picture was more mixed for older children.
Now, data has been made public on the prevalence of asthma as
counted in Project Energize surveys from 2004 to last year.
The researchers found a drop in asthma symptoms for several
demographic groups, including 7-year-old girls, European New
Zealanders and those attending schools serving wealthier
They also found that 17.7 per cent of the 7-year-olds were
experiencing asthmatic wheezing when their parents responded
to last year's survey, compared with 22.2 per cent of
children aged 6 or 7 in several regions nationally when last
checked in 2001-2003 as part of a multi-country survey.
That survey, published in 2008, found that although the
prevalence of reported asthma in New Zealand had risen to
nearly one in three for children and adolescents, there had
been a reduction in the prevalence of asthma symptoms, such
as "current wheeze", and also the severity of symptoms.
A researcher involved in Project Energize, Professor Elaine
Rush of Auckland University of Technology, noted that its
children could run 13 per cent faster than other youngsters
"If they have more physical fitness and better nutrition we
hope that the severity of asthma might be less because unless
we have good nourishment, any disease is going to be worse.
Food is your first medicine."
Professor Julian Crane, head of the Wellington Asthma
Research Group at Otago University, said the Waikato findings
were interesting, although the changes within Waikato over
time were more informative than the comparison with the
"There is evidence that exercise does help asthma control. It
won't stop you getting asthma, but if you have it, exercise
can improve management - so this finding is perfectly
"However, an observational study like theirs can never prove
it; for that you would need a randomised trial."
Dunedin respiratory physician Professor Robin Taylor agreed
the Waikato findings were not conclusive, but said the
significance of the difference from the multi-region rate for
current wheeze was "striking".
"Lifestyle issues may be important and appear to have
influenced the prevalence of asthma symptoms for the better."
- Martin Johnston, New Zealand Herald
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New measures governing the use of animals in scientific procedures were set out by the UK government on 17 May.
The measures are being introduced to implement the new EU Directive 2010/63/EU which uses many of the UK’s existing standards as a template. However, as some European member states currently offer very limited protection for animals used in experiments, some of the new standards are lower than those of the UK.
Animal welfare groups including OneKind have engaged in detailed dialogue with the government throughout the transposition process so far, aiming to ensure that the UK’s existing animal welfare standards are maintained. Public concern over this issue was also demonstrated by the over 13,000 individuals and almost 100 organisations who submitted views and ideas to the Home Office consultation.
The government has now clarified that it intends to ‘copy out’ most of the provisions of the Directive, but to retain current stricter United Kingdom standards in some areas.
Rules being retained by the UK include:
- special protection for dogs, cats and horses as well as non-human primates
- stricter care and accommodation standards than those set out in the Directive (although there continues to be concern about reduced cage sizes for dogs).
- restrictions on procedures involving endangered species and great apes
- a requirement for individuals carrying out regulated procedures on animals to hold a personal licence (although the government plans to simplify the regime and remove some current requirements)
- a risk-based approach to inspection and a full programme of inspections (the Directive introduces inspection regimes for all Member States but with a lower minimum frequency than currently practised in the United Kingdom).
On the negative side, the government intends to reduce the extent and nature of the statistics that it collects about experiments in the UK, against the advice of animal welfare groups. On the important issue of freedom of information, where animal welfare groups had called for greater transparency about experiments by means of repealing s.24 of the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act, the government has simply said it will consider the options for revising the section, and publish its conclusions separately, in due course
Animal protection groups had argued for the transposition process to be pro-active in reducing the use of primates in UK laboratories, for example by clearly defining the medical conditions which would permit the use of non-human primates for research, rather than leaving this open to interpretation. The government has decided not to follow this option, although it does plan to press for a European definition of the relevant conditions.
Animal welfare groups also pressed for the UK to take a lead in using the new provisions for thematic reviews, to identify areas of research for replacement, an area which offers enormous scope for reducing animal suffering. The government now says that it will consult further with stakeholders to develop a programme of reviews.
Other key aspects of the Directive include a new legal requirement to implement non-animal methods, ensuring that ‘a scientifically satisfactory, non-animal method or testing strategy is used wherever possible and that the number of animals used is reduced to a minimum consistent with the objectives of the project’.
The Directive also creates a new requirement for the retrospective assessment of projects using non-human primates, as well as procedures classified as 'severe'. The UK government plans to extend this mandatory requirement to all specially protected species (cats, dogs and horses, as well as non-human primates). Other projects will be assessed on a case-by-case basis.
The number of experiments on animals in the UK has risen steadily over the last decade to just over 3.7 million in 2010, a figure which the government has committed to reducing. Announcing the proposals, Home Office Minister Lynne Featherstone MP said that the government would continue to promote measures to ‘Replace, Reduce and Refine’ the use of animals, and would introduce a ban on the testing of household products on animals in due course.
The UK must transpose EU Directive 2010/63/EU by 10 November 2012 with national legislation being implemented from 1 January 2013. OneKind will continue to work with partners in the animal protection movement and press the government to deliver on its commitment to reduce animal testing.
See the OneKind submission to the consultation (PDF) from September 2011.
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Jump to: General, Art, Business, Computing, Medicine, Miscellaneous, Religion, Science, Slang, Sports, Tech, Phrases
We found 7 dictionaries with English definitions that include the word ovality:
Click on the first link on a line below to go directly to a page where "ovality" is defined.
General (6 matching dictionaries)
- ovality: Collins English Dictionary [home, info]
- ovality: Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, 11th Edition [home, info]
- ovality: Infoplease Dictionary [home, info]
- ovality: Dictionary.com [home, info]
- Ovality: Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia [home, info]
- Ovality: Dictionary/thesaurus [home, info]
Computing (1 matching dictionary)
- Ovality: Encyclopedia [home, info]
(Note: See oval for more definitions.)
Quick definitions from WordNet (oval)
▸ noun: a closed plane curve resulting from the intersection of a circular cone and a plane cutting completely through it
▸ adjective: rounded like an egg
▸ Also see oval
Additional searches for ovality...
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1 GCC The GCC command invokes the GNU C compiler. GCC file-spec 2 Parameters file-spec A C source file. If no input file extension is specified, GNU C assumes .C as the default extension unless the /PLUS qualifier is given, in which case .CC is assumed as the default extension. If an extension of .CPP is given, then the source file is assumed to be the output of the preprocessor, and thus the preprocessor is not executed. If an extension of .S is given, then the source file is assumed to be the assembly code output of the compiler, and only the assembler is called to generate an object file. 2 Qualifiers GNU C command qualifiers modify the way the compiler handles the compilation. The following is the list of available qualifiers for GNU C: /CASE_HACK /CC1_OPTIONS=(option [,option...]]) /DEBUG /DEFINE=(identifier[=definition][,...]) /G_FLOAT /INCLUDE_DIRECTORY=(path [,path...]]) /LIST[=filename] /MACHINE_CODE /OBJECT[=filename] /OPTIMIZE /PLUS /PROFILE[=identifier] /SCAN=(file[,file...]) /SHOW[=option] /UNDEFINE=(identifier[,identifier,...]) /VERBOSE /VERSION /WARNING 2 Linking When linking programs compiled with GNU C, you should include the GNU C library before the VAX C library. For example, LINK object-file,GNU_CC:GCCLIB/LIB,SYS$LIBRARY:VAXCRTL/LIB You can also link your program with the shared VAX C library. This can reduce the size of the .EXE file, as well as make it smaller when it's running. For example, $ LINK object-file, GNU_CC:GCCLIB/LIB,SYS$INPUT/OPT SYS$SHARE:VAXCRTL/SHARE (If you use the second example and type it in by hand, be sure to type ^Z after the last carriage return). A simpler alternative would be to place the single line: SYS$SHARE:VAXCRTL/SHARE into a file called VAXCRTL.OPT, and then use the link command: $ LINK object-file, GNU_CC:GCCLIB/LIB,VAXCRTL.OPT/OPT If a program has been compiled with /G_FLOAT, then the linking instructions are slightly different. If you are linking with the non-shared library, then the command that you should use would be: LINK object-file,GNU_CC:GCCLIB/LIB,SYS$LIBRARY:VAXCRTLG/LIB - ,SYS$LIBRARY:VAXCRTL/LIB Note that both VAXCRTL and VAXCRTLG must be linked to. If you are using the shared VAX C library, then you should use a command like: $ LINK object-file, GNU_CC:GCCLIB/LIB,SYS$INPUT:/OPTIONS SYS$SHARE:VAXCRTLG/SHARE In the case of the sharable library, only one library needs to be linked to. 2 /CASE_HACK /[NO]CASE_HACK D=/CASE_HACK Since the VMS Linker and Librarian are not case sensitive with respect to symbol names, a "case-hack" is appended to a symbol name when the symbol contains upper case characters. There are cases where this is undesirable, (mainly when using certain applications where modules have been precompiled, perhaps in another language) and we want to compile without case hacking. In these cases the /NOCASE_HACK switch disables case hacking. 2 /CC1_OPTIONS This specifies additional switches to the compiler itself which cannot be set by means of the compiler driver. 2 /DEBUG /DEBUG includes additional information in the object file output so that the program can be debugged with the VAX Symbolic Debugger. To use the debugger it is also necessary to link the debugger to your program, which is done by specifying the /DEBUG qualifier to the link command. With the debugger it is possible to set breakpoints, examine variables, and set variables to new values. See the VAX Symbolic Debugger manual for more information, or type "HELP" from the debugger prompt. 2 /DEFINE /DEFINE=(identifier[=definition][,...]) /DEFINE defines a string or macro ('definition') to be substituted for every occurrence of a given string ('identifier') in a program. It is equivalent to the #define preprocessor directive. All definitions and identifiers are converted to uppercase unless they are in quotation marks. The simple form of the /DEFINE qualifier: /DEFINE=vms results in a definition equivalent to the preprocessor directive: #define VMS 1 You must enclose macro definitions in quotation marks, as in this example: /DEFINE="C(x)=((x) & 0xff)" This definition is the same as the preprocessor definition: #define C(x) ((x) & 0xff) If more than one /DEFINE is present on the GCC command line, only the last /DEFINE is used. If both /DEFINE and /UNDEFINE are present on a command line, /DEFINE is evaluated before /UNDEFINE. 2 /G_FLOAT Instructs the compiler to use "G" floating point arithmetic instead of "D". The difference is that double precision has a range of approximately +/-0.56e-308 to +/-0.9 e+308, with approximately 15 decimal digits precision. "D" floating point has the same range as single precision floating point, with approximately 17 decimal digits precision. If you use the /G_FLOAT qualifier, the linking instructions are different. See "Linking" for further details. 2 /LIST /LIST[=list_file_name] This does not generate a listing file in the usual sense, however it does direct the compiler to save the preprocessor output. If a file is not specified, then this output is written into a file with the same name as the source file and an extension of .CPP. 2 /INCLUDE_DIRECTORY /INCLUDE_DIRECTORY=(path [,path...]) The /INCLUDE_DIRECTORY qualifier provides additional directories to search for user-defined include files. 'path' can be either a logical name or a directory specification. There are two forms for specifying include files - #include "file-spec" and #include <file-spec>. For the #include "file-spec" form, the search order is: 1. The directory containing the source file. 2. The directories in the /INCLUDE qualifier (if any). 3. The directory (or directories) specified in the logical name GNU_CC_INCLUDE. 4. The directory (or directories) specified in the logical name SYS$LIBRARY. For the #include <file-spec> form, the search order is: 1. The directories specified in the /INCLUDE qualifier (if any). 2. The directory (or directories) specified in the logical name GNU_CC_INCLUDE. 3. The directory (or directories) specified in the logical name SYS$LIBRARY. 2 /MACHINE_CODE Tells GNU C to output the machine code generated by the compiler. The machine code is output to a file with the same name as the input file, with the extension .S. An object file is still generated, unless /NOOBJ is also specified. 2 /OBJECT /OBJECT[=filename] /NOOBJECT Controls whether or not an object file is generated by the compiler. 2 /OPTIMIZE /[NO]OPTIMIZE Controls whether optimization is performed by the compiler. By default, optimization is on. /NOOPTIMIZE turns optimization off. 2 /PLUS Instructs the compiler driver to use the GNU-C++ compiler instead of the GNU-C compiler. Note that the default extension of source files is .CC when this qualifier is in effect. 2 /PROFILE /PROFILE[=identifier] Instructs the compiler to generate function profiling code. You must link your program to the profiler when you use this options. The profile statistics are automatically printed out on the terminal during image exit. (i.e. no modifications to your source file are required in order to use the profiler). There are three identifiers that can be used with the /PROFILE switch. These are ALL, FUNCTION, and BLOCK. If /PROFILE is given without an identifier, then FUNCTION is assumed. 3 Block_Profiler The block profiler counts how many times control of the program passes certain points in your program. This is useful in determining which portions of a program would benefit from recoding for optimization. The report for the block profiler contains the function name, file name, PC, and the source file line number as well as the count of how many times control has passed through the specified source line. 3 Function_Profiler The function profiler counts how many times each function is entered, and keeps track of how much CPU time is used within each function. You should be careful about interpreting the results of profiles where there are inline functions. When a function is included as inline, then there is no call to the internal data collection routine used by the profiler, and thus there will be no record of this function being called. The compiler does generate a callable version of each inline function, and if this called version is used, then the profiler's data collection routine will be called. 2 /SCAN /SCAN=(file[,file...]) This qualifier supplies a list of files that will be read as input, and the output will be discarded before processing the regular input file. Because the output generated from the files is discarded, the only effect of this qualifier is to make the macros defined in the files available for use in the main input. 2 /SHOW /SHOW[=option] This causes the preprocessor to generate information other than the preprocessed input file. When this qualifier is used, no assembly code and no object file is generated. The output of the preprocessor is placed in the file specified by the /LIST qualifier, if present. If the /LIST qualifier is not present, then the output is placed in a file with the same name as the input file with an extension that depends upon which option that is selected. 3 DEFINITIONS This option causes the preprocessor to dump a list of all of the definitions to the output file. This is useful for debugging purposes, since it lets you determine whether or not everything has been defined properly. If the default file name is used for the output, the extension will be .DEF. 3 RULES This option causes the preprocessor to output a rule suitable for MAKE, describing the dependencies of the main source file. The preprocessor outputs one MAKE rule containing the object file name for that source file, a colon, and the names of all the concluded files. If there are many included files then the rule is split into several lines using the '\'-newline. When using this option, only files included with the "#include "file" directive are mentioned. If the default file name is used for the output, a null extension will be used. 3 ALL This option is similar to RULES, except that it also mentions files included with the "#include <file.h>" directive. If the default file name is used for the output, a null extension will be used. 2 /UNDEFINE /UNDEFINE cancels a macro definition. Thus, it is the same as the #undef preprocessor directive. If more than one /UNDEFINE is present on the GCC command line, only the last /UNDEFINE is used. If both /DEFINE and /UNDEFINE are present on a command line, /DEFINE is evaluated before /UNDEFINE. 2 /VERBOSE Controls whether the user sees the invocation command strings for the preprocessor, compiler, and assembler. The compiler also outputs some statistics on time spent in its various phases. 2 /VERSION Causes the preprocessor and the compiler to identify themselves by their version numbers, and in the case of the compiler, the version number of the compiler that built it. 2 /WARNING When this qualifier is present, warnings about usage that should be avoided are given by the compiler. For more information, see "Using and Porting the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)", in the section on command line options, under "-Wall". Warnings are also generated by the preprocessor when this qualifier is given. 2 Known_Incompatibilities_with_VAX-C There are several known incompatibilities between GNU-C and VAX-C. Some common ones will be briefly described here. A complete description can be found in "Using and Porting the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)" in the chapter entitled "Using GCC on VMS". GNU-C provides case hacking as a means of giving case sensitivity to symbol names. The case hack is a hexadecimal number appended to the symbol name, with a bit being set for each upper case letter. Symbols with all lower case, or symbols that have a dollar sign ("$") are not case hacked. There are times that this is undesirable, namely when you wish to link your program against a precompiled library which was compiled with a non-GNU-C compiler. X-windows (or DECWindows) is an example of this. In these instances, the /NOCASE_HACK switch should be used. If you require case hacking in some cases, but not in others (i.e. Libg++ with DECWindows), then it is recommended that you develop a header file which will define all mixed case functions that should not have a case hack as the lower case equivalents. GNU-C does not provide the globaldef and globalref mechanism which is used by VAX-C to coerce the VMS linker to include certain object modules from a library. There are assembler hacks, which are available to the user through the macros defined in gnu_hacks.h, which effectively give you the ability to perform these functions. While not syntactically identical, they do provide most of the functionality. Note that globaldefs of enums is not supported in the way that it is under VAX-C. This can be easily simulated, however, by globaldefing an integer variable, and then globalvaluing all of the enumerated states. Furthermore, the way that globalvalue is currently implemented, the data type of the globalvalue variable is seen to the compiler to be a pointer to the data type that you specify. This is necessary in order to make the compiler correctly address the globalvalue variables.
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2.0 Developing Operations Objectives
Operations objectives and their associated performance measures are the focal point for integrating operations into the planning process. They are contained in the MTP and guide the discussion about operations in the region. While goals relate to the overall vision or desired end-result, operations objectives are specific and measurable. Unlike goals, progress toward an operations objective and its achievement can be evaluated with performance measures.
Regional goals reflect the region's values and vision for the future, and operations objectives should be developed to support one or more regional goals. This ensures that projects developed based on operations objectives are responding to the explicit values and overall goals for the region. Operations objectives describe what needs to occur to accomplish a regional goal. The operations objectives state what a region plans to achieve concerning the operational performance of the transportation system and help to determine what strategies and investments to include in the MTP.
Operations objectives typically place a focus on issues of congestion, reliability, safety and security, incident management, and work zone management, among other issues. Operations objectives aim to "optimize the performance of existing [and planned] infrastructure through the implementation of multimodal and intermodal, cross-jurisdictional systems, services, and projects designed to preserve capacity and improve security, safety, and reliability of the transportation system."7
2.1 Outcome-Based and Activity-Based Operations Objectives
The operations objectives contained in Section 3 range from objectives that focus on high-level outcomes, such as system reliability, to objectives that focus on low-level operations activities, such as signal timing. Operations objectives span a continuum between outcome-oriented (higher order) to activity-oriented (lower order) objectives. While there is not a strict boundary between the two primary orientations, most fit within one label or the other.
Given that the fundamental purpose of M&O strategies is to improve the transportation system, operations objectives that guide operations throughout the plan are preferably described in terms of those system performance outcomes experienced by users. Aspects of system performance experienced by the user include travel times, travel time reliability, and access to traveler information. The public cares about these measures, and, in many regions, data may be available to develop specific outcome-based operations objectives. Regions also may develop operations objectives that are activity-based and support desired system performance outcomes. Planners may find that the activity-based objectives are more appropriate for guiding the development of specific sections of the MTP or for use in supporting documents such as the regional concept for transportation operations. All lower level, activity-oriented operations objectives should support an existing outcome-oriented operations objective, providing a simple check to make sure that operations activities are performed in pursuit of a system performance outcome.
By establishing one or more activity-based objectives for each outcome-based objective, planners and operators further define how each outcome-based objective can be accomplished. Planners and operators can develop specific M&O strategies or actions to support the objectives and, in turn, the goals by examining how the activity-based objectives can be accomplished.
2.2 Characteristics of Operations Objectives
By creating specific, measurable objectives for operations, regions can use these operations objectives for making investment decisions as well as tracking progress. An operations objective should have the SMART characteristics defined below:
- Specific. The objective provides sufficient specificity (e.g., decrease travel time delay) to guide formulating viable approaches to achieving the objective without dictating the approach.
- Measurable. The objective facilitates quantitative evaluation (e.g., by 10 percent), saying how many or how much should be accomplished. Tracking progress against the objective enables an assessment of the effectiveness of an action or set of actions.
- Agreed. Planners, operators, and relevant planning participants come to a consensus on a common objective. This is most effective when the planning process involves a wide range of stakeholders to facilitate regional collaboration and coordination.
- Realistic. The objective can reasonably be accomplished within the limitations of resources and other demands. The objective may require substantial coordination, collaboration, and investment to achieve. Because determining the realism of the objective cannot occur until after strategies and costs are defined, the objective may need to be adjusted to be achievable.
- Time-Bound. The objective identifies a timeframe within which it will be achieved (e.g., within 5 years). By selecting a performance target as part of the operations objective, regions make decisions knowing the degree of improvement they are striving for rather than just the direction of improvement. For example, the objective of "decrease travel time delay" conveys direction ("decrease") but does not indicate the desired degree of improvement. The objective "decrease travel time delay by 10 percent within 5 years" gives the region a specific and measurable target to reach.
It is common for metropolitan transportation plans to have more general objectives relating to the performance of the transportation system, such as, "Relieve congestion on the freeway and arterial systems in the region." This example objective provides the direction—to relieve congestion— but does not express to what degree it must be relieved to be met.
To make this objective SMART, it must define congestion in measurable terms. One measure used for congestion is the travel time index that compares travel during peak periods to travel at free flow or the posted speed limit. In addition, the objective needs a performance target for the region, such as a 0.10-point reduction in the index. The objective also must establish the timeframe in which it must be accomplished. Establishing a realistic objective and reaching agreement on it must be done within the context of the region and the participating organizations. Using the SMART characteristics as a guide, the general operations objective, "Relieve congestion on the freeway and arterial systems in the region" can be transformed into a SMART objective: "Reduce the regional average travel time index on freeways and arterials in the region by 0.10 points within 10 years."
Incorporating SMART operations objectives into the MTP provides the opportunity for decisionmakers to invest in near-term, relatively low-cost operations strategies that provide immediate improvements to the transportation system. These can complement longer-term improvement strategies that may require time to study and fund. Thus, it would be appropriate for an operations objective to have a timeframe that is shorter than the horizon year of the MTP. The cyclical updates required of these plans provide the logical opportunities to determine if adjustments are needed to the timeframe or degree of the objective and help determine whether different or additional actions are appropriate.
2.3 Scope of Operations Objectives
An operations objective is the product of many decisions. As mentioned in the previous section, those who draft the objective must decide on what they want to improve or maintain, the direction of that improvement (e.g., increase), the degree of improvement desired (e.g., by 25 percent), and the timeframe for reaching the objective (e.g., within 10 years).
In determining what to improve, several dimensions often come into consideration. These dimensions determine the scope of the operations objective. One or more of the following dimensions may need to be addressed while developing or refining the objective. In using the menu of objectives in the next section, the dimensions of the objective can be tailored to specific needs of the region.
- Area. This dimension defines the spatial aspect of the objective. What is the geographic area of focus? Does the objective aim to make improvements for the entire region, urban centers, corridors, freight-significant highways, work zones near major activity centers in the region, or another area?
- Time. What are the time periods of interest for operational improvements? Is there a focus on peak periods, off-peak periods, weekdays, during certain events, or other times? Frequently, operations objectives aim to make improvements during all time periods.
- Mode and Facility Type. Is the objective mode-neutral or does it target one or more specific modes such as walking, bicycling, public transit, or facility types such as highways/arterials, rails, or local connectors?
- User Type. Is there a particular transportation system user type that is the focus of this operations objective? Does the objective center on freight companies, single-occupancy vehicle drivers, transit-only travelers, or others?
While defining operations objectives, developers must consider how best to measure progress toward the objective because this impacts how the objective is stated and, subsequently, the improvements that are made. This process includes considerations such as whether the improvements are measured per person, per vehicle, per facility, or for the total population. Does the region want to improve the average performance or make strides toward reducing the worst performance? These are strategic decisions that must be made when developing operations objectives.
In the menu of objectives in Section 3, the scope of the objective can be adjusted along these dimensions to fit a region's specific needs.
2.4 Connecting Operations Objectives
Using the structure of a tree to develop operations objectives and ensure that the supporting connections exist is a common technique in strategic planning and systems analysis. The method of developing an objectives tree is more fully described in other resources,8 but an example can be found in Figure 2, which illustrates the parts of an objectives tree. For the sake of brevity, the operations objectives are not written as full SMART objectives in the figure.
The objectives tree concept can be put to use in developing a logical set of operations objectives and in understanding the necessary connections between goals, operations objectives, and management and operations strategies. An objective tree illustrates the logical hierarchy that exists between outcome-based objectives and activity-based objectives. It can be used to connect regional goals to objectives and objectives to M&O strategies. It is also helpful in thinking through the interactions between operations objectives.
An objectives tree begins with a broad goal or high-order objective relating to the performance of the transportation system. This objective answers the question, "What do we ultimately want to achieve?" Examples may focus on improved system reliability, efficiency, system options, or high service quality. In the example shown in Figure 2, the tree begins with the broad goal, "Improve system reliability." Based on that goal, the higher-order, outcome-based objective, "Reduce nonrecurring delay" was formed. This is how the region aims to achieve its goal of improving system reliability. From this high-order objective, the developers form more specific and detailed operations objectives that answer the question, "How can this objective be accomplished?" These detailed or lower order objectives are then linked to the higher order objective. This process is repeated for each goal or high-order objective until the developers reach the point where the lower order operations objectives can be acted upon. These are typically activity-oriented operations objectives that can be readily addressed through one or more M&O strategies. Lower order operations objectives connected to a higher operations objective answer the question of how that higher objective can be accomplished. Similarly, the higher operations objective answers the question of why the lower objective should be accomplished. M&O strategies can be placed below each of the lowest objectives in the tree to indicate which strategies are needed to accomplish those objectives. In Figure 2, the M&O strategy of "Organize additional regional coordinated incident response teams to cover six more corridors" stems from one of the activity-based objectives.
Regions can select which operations objectives in the objectives tree are most important to be included in the MTP or other planning documents. Outcome-oriented objectives such as those that may be near the top of an objectives tree are used to guide the operations elements of the entire plan. Activity-based objectives are used in specific sections to guide the development of M&O strategies.
Figure 2. Example of an Objectives Tree
2.5 Using Objectives to Identify and Select M&O Strategies
Operations objectives are used within the regional transportation planning process to help select strategies that will be included in the MTP and corresponding TIP. This occurs through a systematic process in which objectives lead to performance measures, data collection and analysis, and identification and prioritization of strategies. Each of the sample objectives in Section 3 identifies sample performance measures; anticipated data needs, data resources, and partners; and M&O strategies to consider.9 Specifically, developing operations objectives leads to performance measures that can be used to assess and track regional system performance. These regional performance measures can be tracked and forecasted under various plan scenarios. By identifying specific and measurable performance outcomes, operations objectives also can lead to developing performance measures at a micro level, such as to determine the performance of corridors, road segments, intersections, or transit routes. For instance, while an operations objective might include a specific target for regional delay, different thresholds can be used to define unacceptable delay within the region based on location (e.g., urban or suburban), facility type (e.g., freeway, high occupancy vehicle [HOV] lane, transit route, arterial), and time period (e.g., peak commute periods, periods of special events).
Data are needed to use performance measures. Consequently, collecting data for performance measures is a key step in the planning process. Limitations in data are often a concern in selecting performance measures, particularly since MPOs typically are not responsible for operating the transportation system. However, many types of data currently are being collected by MPOs (e.g., census data on journeys to work, population, traffic counts, travel times). A wealth of data is being collected by transportation system operators, such as transit agencies, State DOTs, local transportation agencies, and toll authorities. It particular, intelligent transportation systems (ITS), such as toll tag readers, video detector systems, and traffic management systems, offer the opportunity for more detailed data to be used in planning, enabling analysis of issues such as variations in travel speeds. MPOs can team with agencies to collect and use the data.
An analysis of system- and corridor-level deficiencies (e.g., problems in specific parts of the region and corridors, times of year, or types of trips) and financial constraints should be used to help identify and select specific M&O strategies to include in the MTP and TIP. The assessment should consider cost-effectiveness in meeting operations objectives along with co-benefits, such as improved safety, and ability to support other regional goals. Analysis tools, such as sketch planning tools, travel demand forecasting model post-processors, and simulation modeling may be used to help forecast system deficiencies and analyze the potential benefits of operations strategies.
It is important to recognize that M&O strategies may be implemented as individual programs or projects, such as a regional incident management system, traveler information system, or transit smart card. They also can be implemented as part of transportation preservation projects, safety projects, or capacity improvements. For instance, as part of any new highway expansion, it may be useful to consider the role of transportation pricing, HOV lanes, flexible design to accommodate concurrent flows of traffic, or demand management programs.
7 Excerpted from the definition of transportation systems management and operations (TSM&O) in the SAFETEA-LU Technical Corrections Act of 2008 that amended Section 101(a) of Title 23 U.S.C. Return to note 7.
8 The specific strategies to be included within a plan should be based on analysis of the conditions in each metropolitan area. Return to note 8.
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The orangutan is the only strictly arboreal ape and the largest tree-living mammal in the world.
Although other apes do climb and build sleeping nests in the trees, they are primarily terrestrial (spending their lives on the ground).
Even the bright reddish-brown hair colour is unique to the orangutan.
They have the most remarkable ability to travel through the forest treetops. Each night building a new nest out of leaves and branches in the very tops of the trees – sometimes as much as 100 feet above the ground.
Almost all of the food they eat grow in the treetops and the frequent rains fill the leaves, supplying them with drinking water.
When water is difficult to find, they chew leaves to make a sponge to soak up the droplets in tree cavities. Although, when it rains hard, they might make an umbrella for out of big leaves.
Some might say orangutans have four hands instead of two hands and two feet.
These appendages make them graceful and agile while climbing through the trees, but makes walking on the ground somewhat slow and awkward. This is why they are at a great disadvantage on the ground, and rarely comes down from the treetops.
Recent studies show that some orangutans fashion tools to aid in the difficult task of foraging for food and have even been observed using sticks to catch fishing lines.
Orangutans emit a variety of calls and vocalisation including the 'long call' of males to attract females or discourage other males and the kiss-squeak, often made when observers get too close.
To hear these and other calls, visit the Zurich's University Anthropological Institute & Museum here.
For recent news articles on orangutan behaviour, click here.
Photos: Sue Floyed, Fleur Butcher
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ORLANDO - Mosquito populations are exploding throughout the entire Orange County area as a result of the heavy rains we recently experienced. Orange County Mosquito Control has increased spraying in all areas of the county in an attempt to control the populations. The usual precautions with mosquito repellents, long sleeves, long pants are critically important now.
Throughout the year, OCHD works with Orange County Mosquito Control, the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, and state universities, to monitor for the presence of illnesses carried by mosquitoes. This "It is important for people to be aware that standing water is a breeding ground for mosquitoes and can lead to an increase in the insects. There are simple measures to reduce the chances of contracting a mosquito-borne illness," said Dr. Kevin M. Sherin, Director of the Orange County Health Department.
Orange County residents and visitors should remain diligent in protecting themselves from mosquito bites by following the "5 D’s," which include:
- DRAINAGE – Check around your home to rid the area of standing water, where mosquitoes can lay their eggs.
- DEET – When the potential exists for exposure to mosquitoes, repellents containing DEET (N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide, or N,N-diethyl-3- methylbenzamide) are recommended. Picaridin and oil of lemon eucalyptus are other repellent options.
- DRESS – Wear clothing that covers most of your skin.
- DUSK and DAWN – Avoid being outdoors when mosquitoes are most active.
Tips on Eliminating Mosquito Breeding Sites
- DRAIN standing water to stop mosquitoes from multiplying.
- DISCARD: Old tires, drums, bottles, cans, pots and pans, broken appliances and other items that aren't being used.
- EMPTY and CLEAN: Birdbaths and pet's water bowls at least once or twice a week.
- PROTECT: Boats and vehicles from rain with tarps that don't accumulate water.
- MAINTAIN: The water balance (pool chemistry) of swimming pools. Empty plastic swimming pools when not in use.
Symptoms of mosquito-borne illnesses such as West Nile virus (WNV), St. Louis Encephalitis (SLE), and Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE) may include headache, fever, fatigue, dizziness, weakness, and confusion. Physicians should contact their county health department if they suspect an individual may have a mosquito-borne illness. Department of Health (DOH) laboratories provide testing services for physicians treating patients with clinical signs of mosquito-borne illnesses.
For more information on mosquito-borne diseases, visit the DOH Environmental Health website at http://www.doh.state.fl.us/Environment/medicine/arboviral/index.html
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Bachaya Ibn Pakuda
Rabbi Saadyah wrote the first
Jewish work of philosophy in 933. Rabbi
Bachaya wrote the first work of Jewish ethics more than a century later.
Rabbi Saadya flourished during the twilight of once glorious
Babylonian Jewry; Sephardic Jewry continued its magnificent history in
Spain, reflecting the shift from Asia to Europe, where R. Bachaya lived and
created his magnum opus, Duties of the Heart (Chovot HaLevovot).
Rabbi Bachaya lived in Muslim Spain, probably in Saragossa, and served as a judge, but little else is known about his life. He was thoroughly conversant with the entire Biblical and Talmudical literature and was also master of all the knowledge and science of his day.
Though a philosopher in his own right, Rabbi Bachayas essential contribution is that of creator of a new genre in Jewish literature, Jewish ethics. The first chapter of his work which is devoted to the unity of G-d employs philosophical arguments which some felt were not readily understandable and was skipped over by many students.
Rabbi Bachayas work, as indicated by its title, focused on the non-physical obligations of the Jew: the obligations of feeling, heart and mind in contrast to those mitzvot that involve the limbs. Pointing to the neglect of this group of mitzvot, he underscored their critical importance.
Rabbi Bachayas central focus was on Service of G-d and abiding by His will, and fulfilling the duties of the heart was viewed as the entree to nearness to G-d, the ultimate objective. Understandably, the tenth and last chapter of the book is Love of G-d.
Though emphasizing the importance of rational thought, Rabbi Bachayas real goal was the experience of G-d. A systematic, carefully constructed work, Duties of the Heart, has remained to this day a favorite of serious, sensitive students.
The Chatam Sofer studied with his students from Duties of the Heart for 15 minutes before his lecture in order to inspire their hearts with fear of G-d.. and almost all his musar was taken from that book (Chut HaMeshulash). And, Rabbi Yonah Landsofer, an eighteenth century gaon wrote, a person must attach himself to the Duties of the Heart from whence he can acquire the choice midot for the service of the Lord. And one must plummet its depths more than when studying Negayim and Oholot (Two of the most difficult tractates of the Mishne) because of the greatness of its inwardness and refinement.
The above graphic includes photographs that were provided by VERAfilm archives.
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Four people are chosen for the round and three of the four are taken out of the room. The one that remains is told to mime something such as the statue of liberty or barney the dinosaur. Before they start, a second person is brought into the room and told to watch. When the first demonstration is done, the first person is allowed to sit down and the third person is brought into the room. The second (who has just seen the demonstration) is told that they have to act out what they have just seen for the third person. After it's done, the fourth person enters and the scene is acted out again by the third person.
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There are many types of smartcards. Phonecards are one type of smart-cards. Generally, a smart-card is any type of pocket-sized card (like credit cards) with an embedded chip on one side. This chip is actually a microcontroller with a non-volatile memory of specific size.
Pinout configuration of telecard smart-cards
First of all, let's see the pinout of those phonecards. If you take a closer look to the parallelogram chip, you will notice that there are lines which separates the surface into 6 or 8 areas:
Each one of these areas is a pin used either to provide power to the embedded microcontroller, or to interface this microcontroller with the outside world. For the telecards, these pins are:
1: VCC, the 5 volts supply for the microcontroller
4: Reserved for Future Use
6: VPP, programming voltage (5 or 21 volts if NMOS card)
7: I/O pin
8: Reserved for Future Use
Short description: Number 1 and 5 are for the chip's power supply, which is 5 volts. Number 3 and 7 are the clock and data pins for the interface: By providing pulses to the clock pin, the corresponding bit of the current memory position of the chip appears at the I/O pin, it is THAT simple. Finally, the Reset pin: This pin is used to reset the memory position counter.
The communication protocol
Like any other interface, smart cards have their own interface protocol. For the telecards, this protocol is very simple. One thing that I must mention is that this page talks about only the Greek second generation phonecards with 128 bits memory and 5-bytes octal counter! For more information regarding other types of phonecards, check out the references section of this circuit.
Let's take a look now the available 4 operations that we can do with a phonecard:
1 Reading the phonecard memory
During the reading operation, the reset pin must be held LOW. There is an internal memory position counter (MPC) which increases each time a pulse is applied to the clock pin. The MPC increases during the positive edge of the clock pulse. During the negative edge, the data of the memory position that the MPC points appears at the I/O pin. Here is the timing diagram of this operation:
2 Resetting the MPC (Memory Position Counter)
There is no direct method to define which memory position bit we want to perform a read operation. The only way is to reset the counter and start again reading from memory position #0. It is very important to run a cold reset sequence before start reading the phonecard, because there is no other reliable method to determine in which memory position the MPC points at. The sequence to do a cold-reset is this:
After this sequence, the Memory Position Counter will become 0, and the very first bit of the card memory (position 0) will appear at the I/O pin. You can immediately read this bit and go on reading the rest of the card memory as explained before.
Here is the timing diagram of the reset sequence:
3 Write to the memory card
With this command you can write to the octal counter in the card's memory position which holds the calling units. Later on we will discuss about the memory mapping of the phonecards. In short, the octal counter is a 4 or 5 bytes long counter which holds the calling units that a telecard has. I do not know for the other smartcards, but as far as the phonecards are concerned, you can only decrease this value. This makes absolute sense of course. Should the embedded microcontroller had allowed someone to increase this octal counter, then we could increase this counter whenever a phonecard ran out of calling units and refill it again. The octal counter can ONLY be decreased... No other operation is allowed.
Although the write sequence is common for all phone cards, the counter may differ from country to country. Go to the references section to get more info. I will only discuss about the 2nd generation Greek phonecards. These cards have a 5-byte long octal counter and a write command can only turn aces into zeros. Here is the write sequence:
After this sequence is ended, the unwritten memory position bit will be erased and the new value will automatically appear at the I/O pin. Here is a timing diagram of this sequence during which the ace (1) bit of the current memory position is written so that it becomes zero (0):
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Canada @ UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is the United Nations' main organization responsible for culture. 2006 marks the 60th anniversary of UNESCO, which currently has 191 Member States.
Canada has been a member since UNESCO's creation in 1946, and it is proud to be among the some 174 countries with a permanent mission, which is responsible for representing our interests at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris, France.
Canada has played an active role within UNESCO in recent years, serving on UNESCO's Executive Board for a renewable term ending in 2007.
Canadian Heritage and its partners participate in UNESCO activities in close co-operation with Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada (DFAIT), which is responsible for maintaining official relations with UNESCO, and with the Canadian Commission for UNESCO (CCU), an independent consultative forum that advises the Government of Canada on its relations with UNESCO and coordinates UNESCO's activities in Canada. Canadian Heritage sits on the CCU Executive Committee and actively participates in the CCU's sectoral commissions.
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displays the family and group of the language named in the edit field of the dialogue box. The current language is chosen by default. Any new language name which is entered becomes the current language, provided it occurs in the database.
lists and counts all the segments of the language named in the edit field of the dialogue box. The current language is chosen by default. Any new language name which is entered becomes the current language, provided it occurs in the database. The check-box Normal phonemes (checked by default) prevents the display of anomalous segments. When the box is unchecked all the segments of the language - including rare ones, loans etc. - are displayed.
lists and counts all the segments of the language named in the first edit field of the dialogue box which meet the feature conditions provided in the second. The feature conditions must be expressed as a list, in square brackets, of feature names separated by commas. The order of the features is not significant. Features with negative values, such as -bilabial, are permitted in order more easily to exclude certain segment types. (UPSID itself uses only unary features). Extra control on segment selection is provided by the check-box Normal phonemes which is checked by default. Users unfamiliar with the feature set used in UPSID may reset the feature conditions by issuing the command Reset features, see below.
identifies the number of distinctions found in selected phonetic parameters when the segments of the current language, which meet the given feature conditions, are examined. One or more phonetic parameters may be selected by clicking or shift-clicking in the scrolling list provided. Feature conditions to establish the required subsystem are entered in the second edit field (as in Subsystem above), and the check-box Normal phonemes is used as in previous commands.
Three separate window formats are used to handle the different segment types.
In all plot windows, the language name is provided below the corresponding plot. A list (in square brackets) identifies any features which have been chosen to restrict the set of phonemes displayed. An empty list [ ] indicates that no such features have been chosen.
provides two dimensional plots of the vowel and consonant systems of the current language (named in the edit field of the dialogue box). Consonants, vowels or diphthongs (or all three by default) are chosen by clicking (or shift-clicking) the appropriate buttons. The check-box Normal phonemes is used as in Subsystem. The use of pointers in these graphic windows is described under the commands for the different window types below.
provides the same display as Plot all for the vowels of a language but allows for more detailed sub-system selection by clicking (or shift_clicking) the secondary articulation features in the scrolling list. The selected feature list is displayed in the window below the language name.
If New window is checked, the display is generated in a new window immediately over the original vowel window. This new window can be dragged to one side so that comparisons of subsystems with different feature conditions can be made. Surplus windows may be hidden (using Hide... in the MacProlog Windows menu) or closed using the close box (but see the advice under Kill hidden windows below). Closed or hidden graphic windows may be retrieved using the MacProlog Select window... command also in the Windows menu.
Clicking on a segment symbol (a filled cell) in a vowel window generates a message identifying:
The dialog for generating consonant displays parallels that for vowels in all but the list of secondary articulations: the pointer in the graphocs window functions in exactly the same manner.
Here again the same dialog pattern is used, but, in a graphics window for diphthongs, two different pointers are available. With the arrow pointer selected, clicking on a filled cell generates a message showing:
With the target pointer selected, the corresponding message identifies:
Whenever the selected cell contains segments with secondary features not shown in the cell label (e.g. nasalized), these features appear (abbreviated and asterisked) in initial sub-bundles grouped with the corresponding target (or source) features.
This command provides a simple reminder of the ordering of fetaures on the axes in the various display windows.
UPSID graphic windows can be chosen for printing using the standard MacProlog Print... command from the File menu. When the print dialogue appears, click the check-box Graphic click the button Select ..., and choose the required windows from the scrolling list. Normal Macintosh screen dumps to MacPaint format files (using <command> <shift> 3) are obviously also possible.
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Hearing loss affects an estimated 50 million Americans. Some hearing loss is temporary, and may be caused by short exposures to loud noises, but for many people, it is permanent. Hearing Health Foundation, the largest private funder of hearing research, has organized a Consortium of researchers through the Hearing Research Project, with a goal of accelerating the timeline for a genuine cure for most types of acquired hearing loss. The cure focuses on the specialized cells that make hearing possible.
Hair cells located in the inner ear turn sounds into electrical signals that transmit the sound information to the brain. In humans, exposure to loud noises, age and even some medications can damage or even kill these hair cells, thus causing permanent hearing loss. But birds and fish are able to spontaneously regrow their damaged hair cells, leading scientists to discover how this ability can be replicated in humans.
As a college student, Katharine Simpson began to notice she was missing sounds - but ignored the symptoms until she drove through a toll road pass and didn't hear the transponder beep. Her younger brother had already experienced hearing loss in his teens, and Simpson discovered her hearing patterns matched the loss her brother had experienced years before.
While coming to terms with her hearing loss, Simpson started seeking out researchers and scientists, reading any information on new developments that she could find, giving her hope for a cure.
"Part of the reason I wanted - or, needed, rather - to embrace my hearing loss is my little brother," Simpson says. "I watched how hard it was for him to grow up with hearing loss, and he still struggles with it to this day."
Simpson's friends helped her manage her hearing loss in social situations, and began choosing to eat at quieter restaurants and turning on the closed captioning for shows on television. But movie theaters, noisy bars and nightclubs and even whispered conversations are difficult for Simpson to hear. The hope for a cure for both herself and her brother helps her stay strong.
The Hearing Research Project is looking to discover what prevents regeneration of hair cells in human ears, and what can be done to promote regeneration.
"Hearing Health Foundation is ideally positioned to lead this world-class consortium and deliver on the goal of a cure," says Andrea Boidman, executive director of the foundation. "For too many years, biomedical research has been conducted in relative isolation, one researcher or one institution working alone to tackle a major health issue. So we developed the consortium model to accelerate the path to the cure by eliminating repetitive work and fostering cooperation among scientists, rather than competition."
The Consortium is comprised of 14 talented and creative researchers who are already established in the area of cell regeneration in the ear. These researchers, who have been working individually on significant contributions to the field of cell regeneration, have pledged, through the HRP, to work collaboratively with each other. They will not only share information but also work together on the HRP-funded projects.
Expediting the timeline to a cure for permanent hearing loss is the goal for the Hearing Research Project. The promise of a real, biologic cure is focused on the inner ear hair cells that make hearing possible. To learn more, visit www.hearingrestorationproject.org.
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Beyond the Antietam Battlefield: Hospital Centers
Beyond the Antietam Battlefield
As war raged during the four-year conflict, local residents witnessed the human cost of the fighting. Thousands of soldiers were wounded in battles and skirmishes, and much of the area resembled one big hospital ward for much of the war. Large government tent hospitals were erected in fields, and many churches, homes, barns, schools, and other public buildings were also used to care for the sick and wounded. In the fall of 1862, just days after playing host to both armies during the battles of South Mountain and Antietam, Frederick was inundated with more than 9,000 wounded and sick soldiers.
Westminster and Hagerstown played similar roles in hospital care, as did smaller towns such as Boonsboro and Burkittsville. Future US President Rutherford B. Hayes recovered in a Middletown dwelling from wounds suffered at nearby South Mountain; future Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes convalesced in Hagerstown at the Howard Kennedy home; and Paul Joseph Revere (inset), grandson of the famed Revolutionary War patriot, died in Westminster from wounds at Gettysburg. In October 1862, President Lincoln visited the wounded at Sharpsburg and made a personal visit to see Gen. George L. Hartsuff, who was being cared for in a private home in Frederick. During the war, 600 sisters from a dozen religious communities served as nurses. Following Gettysburg, the Daughters of Charity, based in nearby Emmitsburg, were among the first at the battlefield to give aid to the wounded.
This information was provided by the Hagerstown/Washington County Convention and Visitor's Bureau - www.marylandmemories.com
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What You Should Know About Using HBO In Diabetic Wounds
- Volume 16 - Issue 5 - May 2003
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How HBO Can Facilitate Wound Healing
HBO consists of a patient breathing 100 percent oxygen while his or her entire body is enclosed in a pressure chamber. The topical application of oxygen is not recognized by the FDA as hyperbaric therapy and is not reimbursed by Medicare.
Oxygen is transported two ways in that it is chemically bound to the hemoglobin and physically dissolved in the plasma. When the patient breathes air at sea level, the hemoglobin is already fully saturated so increasing the amount of respired oxygen can affect only the plasma-dissolved oxygen. Breathing oxygen at an elevated atmospheric pressure produces an increase in the plasma-dissolved oxygen fraction, which is proportional to the atmospheric pressure of the respired gas.
Monoplace hyperbaric chambers are usually compressed with oxygen whereas multiplace chambers are compressed with air while the patient breathes 100 percent oxygen using a hood or aviator’s face mask. Typical treatments involve 90 minutes of oxygen breathing at 2.0 to 2.5 atmospheres absolute (ATA) with air breaks administered at 20- to 30-minute intervals in order to reduce the risk of central nervous system oxygen toxicity.
(While HBO treatment is remarkably safe, be aware that otologic and pulmonary barotrauma and central nervous system, pulmonary and ocular oxygen toxicity can occur. Central nervous system oxygen toxicity is rare, but it can manifest as seizures. Seizures are less likely to occur if there are brief periods of air breathing.)
Arterial PO2 elevations of 1500 mmHg or greater are achieved when the body is exposed to pressures of 2 to 2.5 ATA. Soft tissue and muscle PO2 levels can be elevated to about 300 mmHg. Oxygen diffusion varies in a direct linear relationship to the increased partial pressure of oxygen present in the circulating plasma caused by HBO. At pressures of 3 ATA, the diffusion radius of oxygen into the extravascular compartment is estimated to increase from 64 micons to about 247 micons at the pre-capillary arteriole.
This significant level of hyperoxygenation allows for the reversal of localized tissue hypoxia, which may be secondary to ischemia or to other local factors within the compromised tissue. Hypoxia is a biochemical barrier to normal wound healing.
In the hypoxic wound, HBO treatment allows an acute correction of the pathophysiology related to oxygen deficiency and impaired wound healing. Using HBO increases oxygen levels within the marginally vascularized periwound compartment, enhancing leukocyte bacteriocidal function. It may also potentiate some antibiotic effects. There are direct toxic effects on anaerobic bacteria and suppression of exotoxin production. It also enhances collagen synthesis and cross-linking, and other matrix deposition.
What The Clinical Evidence Reveals
Additionally, recent evidence suggests that HBO may induce specific growth factor receptors (PDGF) and stimulate growth factor (VEGF) release. There is also evidence that employing HBO may ameliorate or prevent leukocyte-mediated ischemia reperfusion injury.10-13
There have been 13 published peer-reviewed studies (including seven randomized, controlled trials) of HBO in diabetic foot wounds. A total of 606 diabetic patients received HBO with a 71 percent bipedal limb salvage rate, compared to 463 control patients who had a 53 percent bipedal limb salvage rate. All diabetic wounds were Wagner III-IV. It is interesting to compare this to the becaplermin clinical trials that involved Wager II ulcers. Control patients had healing rates of 25 percent while those receiving becaplermin had healing rates of 43 percent.
A large retrospective series of 1,144 diabetic foot ulcer patients demonstrated the effectiveness of using adjunctive HBO in modified Wagner III, IV and V (equivalent to Wagner grade II, III and V) ulcers, based on ulcer/wound improvement, healing and salvage of bipedal ambulation (see “The Impact Of HBO: What One Study Shows” above).14 Currently, CMS policy reimburses only for treatment of Wagner III and greater ulcers.
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The politician wants men to know how to die courageously;
the poet wants men to live courageously.
—Italian poet Salvatore Quasimodo, Nobel lecture, 1959
Since the invasion of Iraq in 2003, the relationship between politics and poetic protest has taken on fresh urgency for American readers and writers. "I suspect the writers know in their hearts how ineffectual poetry is in greater American society," W. S. Di Piero wrote in Poetry magazine in October 2003. He was commenting on the Poets Against the War movement and updating Dana Gioia’s plaint made in the controversial 1991 essay, "Can Poetry Matter?" In it, Gioia asserts that it is a "difficult task to marry the Muse happily to politics," given that poets lack a role in the broader culture and therefore do not have the confidence to create public speech.
Why is it that in this country poetry is viewed as separate from the business of the nation? Certainly this is an Anglophone peculiarity. In Latin America, José Martí, one of the region’s most beloved poets, led the movement to liberate Cuba from colonial domination. The Nicaraguan poet and priest Ernesto Cardenal was engaged in the Sandinista revolution and later served as his country’s Minister of Culture. The Nobel Prize-winning Chilean poet Pablo Neruda was a diplomat, and a senator, and joined the ranks of Spanish poets such as Federico García Lorca and Miguel de Unamuno, who spoke out against General Franco during the Spanish Civil War. Both Lorca and Unamuno lost their lives as a consequence of their Republican sympathies.
In France, Paul Éluard, René Char, and Robert Desnos wrote dissenting poetry while fighting for the Résistance. In Italy, Quasimodo and Cesare Pavese were repressed for denouncing the regime under which they lived, as were Russian and Polish poets such as Ossip Mandelstam, Anna Akhmatova, Wislawa Szymborska, and Czeslaw Milosz.
Contemporary Middle Eastern poets such as Badr Shakir al-Sayyab, Nizar al-Qabbani, Adonis, Ghazi al-Gosaibi, and Mahmoud Darwish have embraced the idea of committed literature, or a literature engagée, as Sartre termed it.
And yet, in the Anglophone West, poets ranging from W. H. Auden to W. B. Yeats are invoked for their epithets that warn against involving politics in poetry. Both poets were cited repeatedly in the wake of the White House poetry debacle of February 2003, when Laura Bush canceled her symposium on "Poetry and the American Voice" after she learned that some of the poets on her guest list refused to attend in protest against the impending war. Sam Hamill, poet and founding editor of Copper Canyon Press, intended to present her with a petition and a compilation of protest poetry. Laura Bush’s spokeswoman said that it would be "inappropriate to turn a literary event into a political forum." The conflict helped spark Hamill’s creation of the Poets Against the War movement.
Media accounts of the movement often quote Auden’s line "Poetry makes nothing happen," or three lines from Yeats: "I think it better that in times like these / A poet keep his mouth shut, for in truth / We have no gift to set a statesman right." It is not accurate to invoke these poets or their words as emblems of the apolitical poetry camp without recognizing that each in his own way led a profoundly political existence. Yeats aided the national cause in the uprising against British colonial power and later served as Senator for the newly freed Republic of Ireland. He rejected the aestheticism of "art for art’s sake," declaring, "Literature must be the expression of conviction, and be the garment of noble emotion, and not an end in itself."
And in fact, Auden’s poem—an elegy for Yeats—concludes by exhorting the poet to "follow right":
With the farming of a verse
Make a vineyard of the curse,
Sing of human unsuccess
In a rapture of distress;
In the deserts of the heart
Let the healing fountain start,
In the prison of his days
Teach the free man how to praise.
Auden, who traveled to Spain to support the Republican cause during the Spanish Civil War, argued in 1939 that "In so far as poetry, or any other of the arts, can be said to have an ulterior purpose, it is, by telling the truth, to disenchant and disintoxicate."
Acting on their beliefs often led Auden and Yeats to the dynamic center of public life. Each remained wary of the traps of dogma and expressed that caution in his work, particularly later in life. But a political belief mixed with ambivalence and pessimism is nonetheless a political belief. The fact that it is tempered with an awareness of human failings, foibles, and hypocrisies is the mark of a responsible conscience—and when they appear in poetry, such complexities are the signature of great art.
Why is it that poets today are not considered by the nation as legitimate actors in the public sphere? What transpired in the Anglophone literary imagination since Percy Bysshe Shelley claimed nearly two hundred years ago that poets were the "unacknowledged legislators of the world"? The separation created between the world of political contingency and the world of poetry has its roots in the early nineteenth century, when poetry began moving toward Romanticism and the individualized, subjective lyric. Literary thinkers of the 1830s and 1840s placed the poet above and not among the people—on a far shore well away from the public sphere. Rather than the chronicler of public memory or the raiser of alarms, the poet was depoliticized and cast as a "keeper of public morals," as Betsy Erkkila writes in Whitman the Political Poet.
Romanticism may have bequeathed an inheritance of inward-focused lyrics and an emphasis on personal experience, but as Richard Jones points out in Poetry and Politics, the Romantic poets had a strong social consciousness and were concerned with "the abuses of industrialization, the squalor and alienation of urban life, the excitement of the French Revolution and the disillusionment that followed." This set of concerns was precisely what the next generation held against them; and ultimately, the Romantic legacy would be divorced from its political activity, and instead, the Modernists would retain the notion of poetry as sanctified by its otherworldly nature.
There is a notable exception mid century: While Emerson was envisioning a poetry of transcendental truths and Poe was championing "pure poetry," Walt Whitman advocated a democratic poetics of open, all-embracing forms and a politics of inclusion. "All others have adhered to the principle that the poet and savan form classes by themselves, above the people, and more refined than the people; I show that they are just as great when of the people, partaking of the common idioms, manners, the earth, the rude visage of animals and trees, and what is vulgar," he wrote. "Imagination and actuality must be united."
Whitman notwithstanding, the idea that poetry exists apart from mundane concerns and the affairs of the nation continued to be strengthened with the emergence of the art for art’s sake movement. Victorian critic Matthew Arnold wrote essays calling for morally concerned poetry that would "animate and ennoble." In a reaction against the political agitation of Romantic poets, he extolled classical balance, sanity, reason, proportion, and order, and the poem that remained independent from the realm of historical contingency. For Arnold’s heirs, the Modernists in the wake of the Great War, literature became a refuge, and literary criticism, a science.
The New Critical movement, which arose during the first decades of the twentieth century, placed emphasis on the text excised from its historical, social, and biographical context, reinforcing the division between poetry and politics. Poets and critics such as Robert Penn Warren, Cleanth Brooks, and Allen Tate promulgated a view of poetry as irrevocably isolated from the grime and disarray of everyday life. Robert Scholes calls this positioning an "elite cultural ghetto."
"My case against the New Criticism is that it opened up too great a space between words and deeds, and between the rhetorical and the poetic," Scholes writes in The Crafty Reader. "It took a certain patrician attitude of cool detachment and made it the measure of all good writing." Brooks and Warren’s tome, Understanding Poetry, codified these views and became the American poetry textbook of choice.
This account of the segregation of literature from politics does not tell the whole story, however. The history of American poetry is a history of battling narratives and counter-narratives about poetic activity itself. The twenties were marked by the High Modernist dictates of Eliot and Pound, but Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen, and Sterling Brown were also at work. The thirties saw the appearance of Understanding Poetry, but it was also a decade that yielded a burgeoning of political poetry and a poetry of conscience, including that of Carl Sandburg, Muriel Rukeyser, Auden and his generation, and the Objectivists George Oppen, Louis Zukofsky, Charles Reznikoff, and Carl Rakosi.
The second half of the century was heralded in by the Library of Congress’s award of the first Bollingen prize to Ezra Pound in 1948 for an expurgated version of his Pisan Cantos—that is, with some of the virulently anti-Semitic passages excised by his publisher. The prize was announced along with the statement that "To permit other considerations than that of poetic achievement to sway the decision would destroy the significance of the award and would in principle deny the validity of that objective perception of value on which civilized society must rest."
An "objective perception of value" might have been the word of the day, but other poetic currents were running at variance. The fifties were also the decade of Allen Ginsberg’s Howl, the Beats, and Black Mountain Poets such as Charles Olson and Robert Creeley. And all of this occurred before the explosion of political poetry in the sixties and the seventies, when Robert Bly, Denise Levertov, and Robert Lowell wrote in protest against the Vietnam War, Adrienne Rich and Audre Lorde worked to re-inscribe the life of women into poetry, and poets such as Gwendolyn Brooks, Amiri Baraka, and Nikki Giovanni were active in the Black Arts Movement and the struggle for civil rights.
In the last quarter of the century, others such as Carolyn Forché championed the ethical responsibility of poetry to bear witness, claiming that all language is political. Forché said, "Vision is always ideologically charged; perceptions are shaped a priori by our assumptions and sensibility formed by consciousness at once social, historical, and aesthetic." In her anthology of twentieth century poetry of witness, Against Forgetting, Forché calls for a poetry of the social space, which resides between the state and the "safe havens of the personal."
All of the writers mentioned in this cursory enumeration have been assailed at one time or another for voicing their political convictions in their poetry. Granted, there is a grave difference between dissent that is voiced within a democracy and dissent that speaks against a totalitarian regime; repression within a democracy does not approach the level of brutality perpetrated in a variety of political circumstances around the globe. Nonetheless, these American writers are laudable for striving to step out of what Edward Said terms the nation’s "depoliticized or aestheticized submission." This submission, along with the fostering of xenophobia and apathy, represents a contemporary mode of repressing the desire for democratic participation. In his last book, Humanism and Democratic Criticism, Said writes, "One of the hallmarks of modernity is now at a very deep level, the aesthetic and the social need to be kept, and are often consciously kept, in a state of irreconcilable tension."
Since the invasion of Iraq, a symphony of voices has reasserted the American poet’s role in the public sphere. "It’s impossible for poetry not to be political," Li-Young Lee said to a St. Petersburg Times reporter. Galway Kinnell told the New York Times, "It’s poetry’s duty and part of its role to speak out." And Sam Hamill says in an open letter dated June 29, 2004, "Being a citizen of the world is political."
Conversation elevates society and creates conditions conducive for democracy. Poetry can fuel this democratic deliberation by transforming the individual and the community. The poet is an intellectual in Italian revolutionary Antonio Gramsci’s sense: "Non-intellectuals do not exist," he writes, because "there is no human activity from which every form of intellectual participation can be excluded: homo faber cannot be separated from homo sapiens." Gramsci suggests that activism, not only eloquence, is a determining principle of the intellectual’s function "as constructor, organizer, ‘permanent persuader,’ and not just a simple orator."
There is no escaping the forces that press against the poem, incise themselves into it, just as there is no escaping the urgency of the questions that rain into our homes, leaking through the roofs and sliding under dormers. However heat-proofed the dwelling, the questions slip into view: What does it mean that we are alive? For what purpose do we suffer? What does it mean to be a thinking, feeling, merely human being, as E. E. Cummings says?
"A poem floats adjacent to, parallel to, the historical moment. What happens to us as readers when we board the poem depends upon the kind of relation it displays towards our historical life," Seamus Heaney writes in The Government of the Tongue. Poetry, like all art, is a public form, and poetry in particular is a form of public speech. It is not separate from the world; it is made of the world, just as our vision of the world is constituted through language. Not only explicitly political or satiric verse, but also the lyric and the meditative poem are modes of conversing with society.
This conversation is what humanizes the world, according to Hannah Arendt. "However much we are affected by the things of the world, however deeply they may stir and stimulate us, they become human for us only when we can discuss them with our fellows," she writes in Men in Dark Times. "We humanize what is going on in the world and in ourselves only by speaking of it, and in the course of speaking of it we learn to be human."
Every word that is recorded necessarily exists in the public sphere. Writing and speaking are revolutionary acts because they differentiate the speaker from those who remain in the private sphere. It is here that the public obligations of the poetic voice come to bear. Our dialogue—or as Yeats would say, our quarrel with ourselves—is what maintains our humanity.
Perhaps the best way for poets to regain a place in the public sphere today is to extract poetry from the sanctified realm that has been designated for it by thinkers dating back to Romanticism—and to bring the poetic utterance into the public sphere in the form of ideas, criticism, analysis, and new poems. The responsibility of the writer and reader in a self-aware culture is to engender engaged participation, as Said says. Allow poetry into unexpected places. Advocate the widening of its purveyance in the media and in the spheres of daily travel. This is not an effort to create univocality; on the contrary, it will increase the visibility and audibility of all manner of dissenting ideas about poetry as well as about politics. "Every age must strive anew to wrest tradition away from the conformism that is working to overpower it," Walter Benjamin writes.
One way for Americans to accomplish this is to make the effort to gain access to other ideas, perspectives, and cultures. Reading poetry from other national traditions can clarify our vision, provide a different perspective on our own tradition, modes of thinking, and strategies, and most importantly, offer another version of the human circumstance. This is the most patriotic act of all—in the sense that our patria is the state of being human. The reader who encounters the poem openly and freely becomes a receptive beholder, as Martin Buber would say; the poem is no longer viewed at arm’s length, and the reader enters into dialogue with it.
When shades of political opinion and the complexities of human activity and feeling are represented, solo voices turn symphonic, and poets and other writers lay claim to their role in society. "All I have is a voice / to undo the folded lie," Auden writes. It is vital to protect the right to speak freely. "This is not always a matter of being a critic of government policy," Said writes, "but rather of thinking of the intellectual vocation as maintaining a state of constant alertness, of a perpetual willingness not to let half-truths or received ideas steer one along."
What kind of American poetry might speak of life as it is now being lived? A poetry that is elastic enough to contain the modern experience of speed and stillness, as well as a sense of wonder. One that smells of rubber, plastic, and tar, and can contain the constellations of nanotechnology; a poetry that bears witness to the exigencies and horrors of the political moment in which the poem, and the poet, exists. This kind of poetry carries on speaking to the unimagined future. It sings of a spiritualized and a politicized vision, and it leaps into infinity. "A poet is a poet when he does not renounce his existence in a given country, at a particular time, defined politically," Quasimodo writes in his "Discourse on Poetry." "And poetry is the liberty and truth of that time, and not abstract modulations of sentiment."
It is also crucial to remind the nation that the American artist has an urgent word, is prepared to step out of the atelier and into the street, and that as much as a pop song or a feature film, a poem can provide a new and vital way of looking at the world—and one that is less saturated with corporate interests. In our present age of multimedia entertainment, poetry is an art form nearly free of materials. It is the most portable mode of art other than singing, and it is similar to singing: when a group of people gathers and recites poems together, the poems are re-inspired, breathed alive, and reinterpreted, transforming and transformed by the reciter and the listeners.
Artists are more capable than theorists or pundits in representing the consciousness of the people, because the language of art is a language of immediacy, of spirit, and of the transporting analogy. In his essay "Democratic Vistas," Whitman writes, "It is acknowledged that we of the States are the most materialistic and money-making people ever known. My own theory, while fully accepting this, is that we are the most emotional, spiritualistic, and poetry-loving people also."
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Little Green Sedge (Carex viridula)
Little Green Sedge Species Description
This species is native to North America north of Mexico.
Allergenicity: Little Green Sedge (Carex viridula) is a moderate allergen.
Pollination: Occurs in following seasons depending on latitude and elevation: Spring to Summer.
Angiosperm - Flowering Monocot: Plants in this group have one embryonic leave (single cotyledon). This group include the grasses, lilies, orchids and palms.
Grass/Grass-like: Any plant characterized by parallel-veined leaves that arise from nodes in the stem, wrap around it for a distance, and leave, especially those grown as ground cover rather than for grain.
Perennial: Living for many years.
Wetland Plant: Plants growing in aquatic or wetland habitats. These include all known floating, submerged, and emergent taxa, plus those that are found in permanently or seasonally wet habitats.
Herbaceous Stem: Not woody, lacking lignified tissues.
Little Green Sedge Species Usage
More Little Green Sedge (Carex viridula) imagesby Jessie M. Harris from BONAP
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Facts about Adolescents from the Demographic and Health Survey: Statistical Tables for Program Planning
The Population Council began its work on adolescents in the mid-1990s, and has emphasized the need to look beyond the health sector in addressing adolescents' needs, focusing on early marriage, livelihoods, schooling, and social structure. The Council has especially concerned itself with the adolescent girl, whose world contracts at this stage in her life, as limitations on her autonomy, mobility, opportunity, and power increase.
One challenge to moving beyond the health sector has been that comprehensive data on adolescents in developing countries have not been easily accessible nor compiled with this multisectoral view in mind. To fill this void, the Population Council began analyzing Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data in a way that could clearly illustrate the diversity of adolescents' lives. It is the Council's goal that these analyses be used to improve understanding about the adolescent experience and to build interventions based on fact rather than assumption. These analyses are presented in 46 individual country reports; each report consists of 14 data tables* and commentary highlighting some of the more noteworthy information.
Annexes: Selected DHS data on 10–14-year-olds
The period of early adolescence is one of both extreme vulnerability and enormous opportunity in the developing world and is deserving of special attention. Although early adolescence often is marked by energy, creativity, and resilience, it may also be the stage at which young adolescents are pulled out of school, start working, begin substance abuse (primarily alcohol and tobacco use), initiate sexual activity, and, in some regions, get married and start having children. It is vital to reach this age group when health behaviors and gender norms still are malleable.
There is a dearth of data on very young adolescents (VYAs)—those 10–14 years old—as adolescents ages 10–19 often are grouped together in statistical reporting, and 10–14-year-olds typically are excluded from reproductive health surveys. To learn more about the lives and needs of VYAs, Council researchers returned to the Demographic and Health Survey, focusing particularly on the presence of potentially protective structures (such as family and school) and access to media. Forty-nine country reports were presented and disseminated at the World Health Organization’s Technical Meeting on 10–14-year-olds, “Very Young Adolescents: The Hidden Young People,” held in April 2003. The reports are intended to complement the above-mentioned series, “Facts about adolescents from the Demographic and Health Survey,” and are best considered in conjunction with those reports to view young adolescents’ experiences in context.
Both French and English versions are available for West African countries where noted. The Council will produce updated reports as new data become available. The reports are available in PDF format. If you would like copies sent to you, please e-mail firstname.lastname@example.org.
* List of table titles
Table 1 Urban–rural residence and population distribution
Table 2 Parental survival status and residence in household
Table 3 Characteristics of head of household
Table 4 Educational enrollment and attainment
Table 5 Educational enrollment and attainment in urban areas
Table 6 Educational enrollment and attainment in rural areas
Table 7 Educational enrollment in urban and rural areas: Comparison summary
Table 8 Marital status
Table 9 Sexuality and childbearing
Table 10 Educational enrollment and work status
Table 11 Awareness and use of modern contraceptive methods
Table 12 Awareness of HIV/AIDS
Table 13 Experience with sexually transmitted diseases
Table 14 Female genital circumcision
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Sheet, pillow case and carving napkin, linen, probably hand woven by Janet Primrose Monteath, Clackmannonshire, Scotland, 1860-1870
This small collection of handwoven domestic linen articles - a sheet, pillow case and carving napkin - were woven in the Alloa region of Clackmannanshire in Scotland, probably in the 1860s or 1870s. They were brought to Australia in 1920 in her trousseau by the donor's mother Janet Rolland Stirling, who was born in Alloa.
Although Stirling family tradition indicates that the linen textiles were handwoven by the donor's great great great grandmother Janet Primrose in about 1800, it seems more likely that they were woven by her grand-daughter Janet Primrose Monteath. The carving napkin was used by her husband Alexander Brown Sitrling who would apparently refuse to begin carving for their family of eight boys until his wife had tied the napkin around his neck.
The linen weaving industry in Scotland formed the basis of community life, and mention is made as early as 1491. The wool and linen industries in Scotland were supported, from the early part of the 18th century, by bounties and premiums paid out by the Board of Trustees for Fisheries and Manufactures who provided incentives for production, training for intending craftsmen and women in specialised continental methods, and encouragement towards mechanisation. From 1750 onwards the effects of the Industrial Revolution were felt in Scotland and, by 1784, machines for spinning flax fibres into linen were already in use. The art of hand weaving survived however among skilled women.
The sheet and pillow case are both handwoven in plain weave, while the carving napkin is handwoven in damask weave with the field in a diaper pattern and the border probably in the Monk's Belt pattern. Domestic textiles such as sheets, pillow cases and napkins have been made of linen for centuries as linen withstands scrubbing and washing in hot water and can be bleached by spreading in the sun.
Linen cloth is made from flax, a strong and durable bast fibre that resists rotting in damp climates. With a longer staple than cotton, flax is one of the few fibres that has a greater breaking strength wet than dry. The traditional preparation of flax fibres from the plant is a long and complicated process. Ripe flax was pulled up by the roots and laid out to dry in the sun for a few days, being turned two or three times a day until thoroughly cured. The stalks were then drawn through a coarse comb, with teeth of wood or wire fastened in a plank, to remove the seeds; it was then tied in bundles and spread on the ground and kept wet for several days. Once the hard, woody stem had rotted, the leaves would fall off when shaken and they would be dried again in bundles. The flax was then beaten and pounded (swingling and striking), before being pulled through a 'hatchel'. The fine residual filaments were then spun into threads and washed, rinsed and bleached several times before being ready for the loom.
All three of these handwoven, linen textiles - the sheet, the pillow case and carving napkin - have been passed down through the families of Primrose, Monteath and Stirling since at least the mid 1800s, and possibly earlier.
Janet Primrose, born 17 November 1786, was the weaver according to Stirling family history, although this is questioned by the donor John Stirling. Janet Primrose Monteath, born 6 August 1846 and married Alexander Brown Stirling 9 June 1871. She was the grand-daughter of Janet Primrose and is conservatively identified here as the weaver, in part because of the machine-stitched hems on the sheet and pillow case. Janet Rolland Stirling, born 29 March 1900 and married William Lorne Stirling 16 June 1920: the donor's mother and Janet Primrose's great great grand-daughter. William John Stirling, the donor.
According to family history the linen items were woven in Alloa (or thereabouts) in Clackmannonshire, Scotland, by Janet Primrose - great great great grandmother of the donor - in about 1800. However, as both the sheet and pillow case are machine stitched, it seems more likely that they were woven by her grand-daughter Janet Primrose Monteath in the mid to late 1800s. The carving napkin, according to a note written by the donor's mother and dated 1988, was said to have belonged to Janet Primrose Monteath's husband Alexander Brown Stirling; he would refuse to begin carving the meat for their family of eight boys until his wife had tied the napkin around his neck.
The linen textiles were brought to Australia by the donor's mother Janet Rolland Stirling in her troussseau in 1910. A family photograph shows the wedding of Janet Rolland Stirling to William Lorne Stirling in 1920. The donor's sister Primrose Catherine Ann Campbell owns a second sheet and pillow case which she's willing to donate to the Museum to keep the set together.
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All Grown Up With HIV
by Cristina González
Thirty years into the epidemic, a new crop of kids faces adulthood—with HIV. From babies born with the virus to teens who acquired it behaviorally, members of this new generation struggle to navigate survival while making their way through the world. The stories of these four brave young people are examples for how to succeed in spite of HIV. They also serve as cautionary tales, reminding us of the price we pay for not teaching our children well. Let lessons be learned.
to read a digital edition of this article.
The headline-making National Survey of Family Growth, released this year by the federal government, reported that teenage abstinence was on the rise—from 22 percent in 2002 to about 28 percent by 2008. But the media coverage buried the lead: Seven out of 10 people in their late teens and early 20s are having sex.
This might not be an issue if many of them weren’t having unsafe sex. But they are, in droves. Philadelphia, for example, has the highest rate of teen sexual activity in the country—and the lowest rate of condom use.
It should come as no surprise then that Philadelphia also has the nation’s fifth highest teen HIV rate. The story is repeated all over the country. In Tennessee the number of people ages 15 to 24 who were newly infected with HIV jumped 32 percent between 2005 and 2009. Overall, Americans between ages 13 and 20 comprise 34 percent of the country’s new HIV infections. Globally, people younger than 25 account for more than half of all new HIV cases.
As long as we deny that kids are having sex and refuse to teach comprehensive sex ed, offering instead abstinence-only or abstinence-until-marriage, kids will remain powerless to protect themselves while gripped by raging hormones. You don’t need a degree from the Harvard School of Public Health to foresee the consequences to individual and public health.
When we teach kids not to have sex in order to protect their virginity, the message often comes through as, “You can do anything except put a penis in a vagina.” As a result, many young people have oral and anal sex, often unprotected, in the name of abstinence. Others, lacking any sex or HIV education at all, see no reason to put on a condom (similarly, they don’t know the risks in sharing injection drug equipment). Add these practices to the incidence of sexual abuse of young people, and you have a recipe for an HIV epidemic.
Other kids are growing up with HIV—those who contracted HIV in utero, at birth or through breast feeding from their HIV-positive mothers. While mother-to-child transmission has been nearly eliminated in the United States, there are a fair number of survivors who were born with the virus.
All these young people face similar challenges: learning to discuss and disclose HIV while developing social skills; dealing with HIV stigma while striving for self-esteem and self-empowerment; committing to the responsibility of daily treatment at a time of carefree youth; being accountable for their health and the health of others while they are still developing a sense of responsibility; and facing mortality at an age when feeling invincible is the norm. On top of this, they face the additional challenges of anyone living with HIV: handling the diagnosis of a serious and lifelong disease; finding, getting to, paying for and tolerating care and treatment; negotiating personal and family relationships in the face of HIV; dealing with mental health issues; and fighting stigma, discrimination and fear.
What is amazing is how well many young people deal with HIV. The first-person accounts of the strong, brave, smart “kids” on the next pages show that with the right attitude, the right support system and connection to care and treatment, growing up with HIV doesn’t have to rob kids—and society as a whole—of the glories of youth.
Pages: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5
Search: Philadelphia, Brooklyn, New York, Indianapolis, National Survey of Family Growth, abstinence, sex education, Perinatally Infected, iChoose2live, LGBT, Red Cross
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Immunohistochemistry - tissues
Immunohistochemistry - cells
Immunofluorescence - cells
Immunohistochemistry - tissues
The protein atlas contains histological images of sections from human tissues. The images represent a view similar to what is seen in a microscope when examining sections of tissue on glass slides. Each antibody in the database has been used for immunohistochemical staining of both normal and cancer tissue. The specific binding of an antibody to its corresponding antigen results in a brown-black staining. The tissue section is counterstained with hematoxylin to enable visualization of microscopical features. Hematoxylin staining is unspecific and results in a blue coloring of both cells and extracellular material.
Tissue microarrays provide the possibility to immunohistochemically stain a large number and variety of normal and cancer tissues (movie about tissue microarray production and immunohistochemical staining). The generated tissue microarrays include samples from 46 different normal tissue types from 138 individuals and 20 different types of cancer from 216 patients. For each antibody, the protein expression pattern in normal tissue is represented by triplicate samples and protein expression is annotated in 66 different normal cell types present in these tissues. For cancer tissues each tumor is represented in duplicate samples and protein expression is annotated in tumor cells. Normally, a smaller fraction of the 570 images are missing for each antibody due to technical issues. Specimens containing normal and cancer tissue have been collected and sampled from anonymized paraffin embedded material of surgical specimens, in accordance with approval from the local ethics committee.
Since specimens are derived from surgical material, normal is here defined as non-neoplastic and morphologically normal. It is not always possible to obtain fully normal tissues and thus several of the tissues denoted as normal will include alterations due to inflammation, degeneration and tissue remodeling. In rare tissues, hyperplasia or benign proliferations are included as exceptions. It should also be noted that within normal morphology there exists inter-individual differences and variations due to primary diseases, age, sex etc. Such differences may also effect protein expression and thereby immunohistochemical staining patterns.
Samples from cancer are also derived from surgical material. The inclusion of tumors has been based on availability and representativity. Due to subgroups and heterogeneity of tumors within each cancer type, included cases represent a typical mix of specimens from surgical pathology. However, an effort has been made to include high and low grade malignancies where such is applicable. In certain tumor groups, subtypes have been included, e.g. breast cancer includes both ductal and lobular cancer, lung cancer includes both squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma and liver cancer includes both hepatocellular and cholangiocellular carcinoma etc. Tumor heterogenity and inter-individual differences is also reflected in diverse expression of proteins resulting in variable immunohistochemical staining patterns.
In order to provide an overview of protein expression patterns, all images of immunohistochemically stained tissue were manually annotated by a board certified pathologist or by specially educated personnel (followed by verification of a pathologist). The pathologists are experienced in interpretation of tissue morphology under the microscope and have used a specially designed software to view and annotate the histological images. Annotation of each different normal and cancer tissue was performed using a simplified scheme for classification of immunohistochemical outcome. Each tissue was examined for representativity and immunoreactivity. The different tissue specific cell types included in each normal tissue type were annotated. For each cancer, tumor cells and stroma were annotated. Basic annotation parameters included an evaluation of i) staining intensity (negative, weak, moderate or strong), ii) fraction of stained cells (rare, <25%, 25-75% or >75%) and iii) subcellular localization (nuclear and/or cytoplasmic/membranous). The manual annotation also provides a summarizing text comment for each antibody.
The terminology and ontology used is compliant with standards used in pathology and medical science. SNOMED classification has been used for assignment of topography and morphology. SNOMED classification also underlies the given original diagnosis from which normal as well as cancer samples were collected from.
A histological dictionary used in the annotation is available as a PDF-document, containing images which are immunohistochemically stained with antibodies included in the protein atlas. The dictionary displays subtypes of cells distinguishable from each other and also shows specific expression patterns in different intracellular structures. Annotation dictionary: screen usage (15MB), printing (95MB).
Annotated protein expression aims to create a comprehensive map over protein expression patterns in normal human tissues and cells. The conflation of data from two or more antibodies directed towards the same protein target (non-overlapping epitopes), evaluation of the performance of respective antibodies and a review of available protein/gene characterization data, allows for a knowledge-based interpretation of the distribution pattern and relative abundance of proteins in various tissues. An annotation of protein expression is possible for all genes for which there are two or more antibodies directed towards the corresponding protein target.
The immunohistochemical staining pattern in normal tissues provides the fundament for a subsequent annotated protein expression. The annotation of an immunohistochemical staining pattern is subjective and based on the experienced evaluation of positive immunohistochemical signals in defined subpopulations of cells within a tissue context. The microscopical images and previous annotations of the included 66 normal cell types are reviewed simultaneously and compared. The annotation data is merged and results in a single expression profile for each protein. In addition to accounting for performance of antibodies and available protein/gene characterization data, the review also considers sub-optimal experimental procedures. This includes immunostaining errors such as sub-optimal titration of the primary antibody and suspected cross-reactivity as well as the fact that multiple immunostainings have been performed on non-consecutive tissue microarray sections, allowing for differences in immunohistochemical staining patterns caused by inter-individual and inter-specimen variations. The final annotated protein expression is considered as a best estimate and as such reflects the most probable histological distribution and relative expression level for the evaluated proteins.
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Immunohistochemistry - cells
As a complement to the representation of normal and cancer tissue, the protein atlas displays images of a selection of widely used and well characterized human cell lines as well as cell samples from healthy individuals and leukemia/lymphoma patients.
A cell microarray has been used to enable immunohistochemical staining of a panel of cell lines and cell samples. Duplicates from 47 cell lines and 9 samples of primary blood cells renders a total of 118 cell images per antibody. Included cell lines are derived from DSMZ, ATCC or academic research groups (kindly provided by cell line founders). Information regarding sex and age of the donor, tissue origin and source is listed here. All cells are fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and dispersed in agarose prior to paraffin embedding and immunohistochemical staining.
While the TMAs include samples from solid tumors, the CMA enables representation of leukemia and lymphoma cell lines, covering major hematopoietic neoplasms and even different stages of differentiation. In addition, certain solid tumors not represented in the TMAs are represented as cell lines in the CMA, e.g. sarcoma, choriocarcinoma, small cell lung carcinoma. The simultaneous staining using the same protocol for both tissue and cell arrays allows for comparison of IHC staining between cell lines and tissue. Several tumors included in the TMAs are also represented by a cell line derived from corresponding tumor type.
The immunohistochemical protocols used result in a brown-black staining, localized where an antibody has bound to its corresponding antigen. The section is furthermore histochemically counterstained with hematoxylin to enable visualization of microscopical features. Hematoxylin staining is unspecific, and results in a blue coloring of both cells and extracellular material.
In order to provide an overview of protein expression patterns, all images of immunohistochemically stained cell lines were annotated using an automated recognition software for image analysis. The image analysis software, TMAx (Beecher Instruments, Sun Prairie, WI, USA), built on a object-oriented image analysis engine from Definiens, utilizes rule-based operations and multiple iterative segmentation processes together with fuzzy logic to identify cells and immunohistochemical stain deposits.
Output parameters from the software always displayed in conjunction with the annotated images are:
In addition, two overlay images with additional numerical information are presented to facilitate interpretation. The information displayed includes:
- number of objects defined as cells in the image
- staining intensity (negative, weak, moderate and strong)
- fraction (%) of positive cells
- object based view representing fraction (%) of immunostained cells. The color code for each cell represents a range of immunoreactivity, blue (negative/very weak), yellow (weak/moderate), orange (moderate/strong) and red (strong) cells. This classification is based on areas of different intensities within each object (cell). This differs slightly from the subjective classification provided by manual annotation of cells in normal and cancer tissue.
- area based view representing immunostained areas (%) within cells. The color code represents a range of immunoreactivity, yellow (weak/moderate), green (moderate/strong) and red (strong). Negative/very weak areas are transparent. The intensity score is generated from this area based analysis.
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Immunofluorescence - cells
As a complement to the immunohistochemically stained cells and tissues, the protein atlas displays high resolution, multicolor images of immunofluorescently stained cells. This provides spatial information on protein expression patterns on a fine cellular and subcellular level.
Originally three cell lines, U-2 OS, A-431 and U-251 MG, originated from different human tissues were chosen to be included in the immunofluorescent analysis. Starting from year 2012, the cell line panel has been expanded to include additional cell lines: A-549, CACO-2, HEK 293, HeLa, Hep-G2, MCF-7, PC-3, RT-4, TIME, SiHa, RH-30 and BJ. To enhance the probability for a large number of proteins to be expressed, the cell lines were selected from different lineages, e.g. tumor cell lines from mesenchymal, epithelial and glial tumors. The selection was furthermore based on morphological characteristics, widespread use and multitude of publications using these cell lines. Information regarding sex and age of the donor, cellular origin and source is listed here. For each antibody two suitable cell lines from the cell line panel are now selected for the immunofluorescent analysis, based on RNA sequencing data. The third cell line chosen for each antibody is always U-2 OS, in order to localize the whole human proteome on a subcellular level in one cell line.
Besides the HPA antibodies, the cells are also stained with reference markers in order to facilitate the annotation of the subcellular distribution of the protein targeted by the HPA antibody. The following probes/organelles are used as references; (i) DAPI for the nucleus, (ii) anti-tubulin antibody as internal control and marker of microtubules, and (iii) calreticulin for the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
The resulting confocal images are single slice images representing one optical section of the cells. The microscope settings are optimized for each sample. The different organelle probes are displayed as different channels in the multicolor images; the HPA antibody staining is shown in green, nuclear stain in blue, micro-tubules in red and ER in yellow.
In order to provide an interpretation of the staining patterns, all images of immunofluorescently stained cell lines are manually annotated. For each cell line and antibody the intensity and subcellular location of the staining is described. The staining intensity is classified as negative, weak, moderate or strong based on the laser power and detector gain settings used for image acquisition in combination with the visual appearance of the image. The subcellular location is further combined with parameters describing the staining characteristics (i.e. smooth, granular, speckled, fibrous, dotty or clusters).
Knowledge-based annotation of subcellular location aims to provide an interpretation of the subcellular location of a protein in three human cell lines. The conflation of immunofluorescence data from two or more antibodies directed towards the same protein and a review of available protein/gene characterization data, allows for a knowledge-based interpretation of the subcellular location.
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Western blot analysis of antibody specificity has been done using a routine sample setup composed of IgG/HSA-depleted human plasma and protein lysates from a limited number of human tissues and cell lines. Antibodies with a non-supportive routine WB have been revalidated using an over-expression lysate (VERIFY Tagged Antigen(TM), OriGene Technologies, Rockville, MD) as a positive control. Antibody binding was visualized by chemiluminescence detection in a CCD-camera system using a peroxidase (HRP) labeled secondary antibody.
Antibodies included in the Human Protein Atlas have been analyzed without further efforts to optimize the procedure and therefore it cannot be excluded that certain observed binding properties are due to technical rather than biological reasons and that further optimization could result in a different outcome.
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All purified antibodies are analyzed on antigen microarrays. The specificity profile for each antibody is determined based on the interaction with 384 different antigens including its own target. The antigens present on the arrays are consecutively exchanged in order to correspond to the next set of 384 purified antibodies. Each microarray is divided into 14 replicated subarrays, enabling the analysis of 14 antibodies simultaneously. The antibodies are detected through a fluorescently labeled secondary antibody and a dual color system is used in order to verify the presence of the spotted proteins. A specificity profile plot is generated for each antibody, where the signal from the binding to its own antigen is compared to the unspecific binding to all the other antigens. The vast majority of antibodies are given a pass, but a fraction are failed either due to low signal or low specificity.
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In total eleven cell lines, A-431, A-549, CACO-2, HEK 293, HeLA, Hep-G2, MCF-7, PC-3, RT-4, U-2 OS and U-251 MG, have been analyzed by RNA-seq to estimate the transcript abundance of each protein-coding gene. Information regarding cellular origin and source is listed here.
All the cell lines were analyzed on the Illumina HiSeq 2000 system using the standard Illumina RNA-seq protocol for paired-end reads with a read length of 2x100 bases. Early-split samples were used as duplicates and total RNA was extracted using the RNeasy mini kit. For each gene, FPKM values or 'number of Fragments Per Kilobase gene model and Million reads', are calculated and the mean value for two duplicates are used to estimate the transcript abundance in each of the cell lines. Threshold levels to detect presence of a transcript for a particular gene are calculated using the intergenic background approach described by Ramsköld et al (2009) and for these cell lines range between 0.02 and 0.05 FPKM.
For each of the eleven cell lines, the total set of FPKM values from all genes have been ordered into three classes: low (the bottom third of the set), medium (middle third of the set) and high (top third of the set). These three classes are used to determine the abundance level for each gene in the cell line(s) where it was detected.
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For each gene, a protein evidence summary score was calculated based on three parameters: UniProt protein existence (UniProt evidence),
transcript profiling categories (RNA evidence) and a Protein Atlas antibody based score (HPA evidence).
The UniProt protein existence data was assigned to classes
- evidence at protein level (class 1)
- evidence at transcript level (class 2)
- inferred from homology (class 3)
- predicted (class 4)
- uncertain (class 5)
The UniProt protein ids were mapped to genes from
Ensembl version 69.37.
The RNA evidence was based on the gene abundance level described in the RNA section above.
The HPA evidence was calculated based on the manual curation of Western blot, tissue profiling and subcellular location as described in
Supplementary Table 1 in Fagerberg et al.
The protein evidence summary score for each gene was assigned “High” if a gene was found having both UniProt evidence class 1 and “High”
in the HPA evidence; “Medium” if the gene had UniProt evidence class 1 or was scored “High” in the HPA evidence; “Low” if the HPA evidence
was “Medium” and the UniProt evidence class was 2, 3, 4 or 5; “Only RNA” if UniProt evidence class was 2 or RNA evidence was “High”; and “None”
if RNA evidence was “Medium” or lower and the gene was scored as UniProt evidence class 3, 4 or 5.
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There have been several or more “isms” that refer to discrimination and/or prejudice against certain groups of people. In the US, racism has been a prominent one. Sexism is another. Even ageism, as I now personally recognize as I pass social security age.
In South Africa, I recently heard about the term gayism, referring to the violent treatment of homosexuals, especially lesbians, which then combines sexism with the gayism. “Corrective” enforced rape is not infrequently applied by indigenous South African males.
Historically and worldwide, anti-Semitism against those of Jewish heritage has been common. Whether this long history of anti-Semitism is a causal or coincidental factor, or not, starting with Freud those of Jewish heritage were responsible for the development of modern psychiatry. Perhaps this could be considered to be an antidote of sorts to the anti-Semitism.
Often, there is some sort of mental health or general health toll to those subject to one of these “isms.” At times, those guilty of racism were considered to have a psychological disorder. These common and recurrent “isms” may reflect a natural evolutionary tendency to scapegoat groups who are different, due to fears of the “other.”
I don’t think by today that there can be any question that there is significant discrimination and prejudice against those who are deemed to have some sort of significant mental problem. Many times, that has resulted in trying to keep such people out of mainstream society, whether that be hospitalization, not being able to live in certain neighborhoods, and not being hired for work.
We have had mental disorders “carved out” of medical illnesses by managed care companies, with the result of less care for less money. This cannot be justified by any relative lack of treatment efficacy, because recent research indicates that psychiatric treatments seem to be on a par to those of many general medical conditions. If we enter the medical system, we are often treated inadequately, even though we tend to die much younger. In Nazi Germany, we were the first to go. Even so, when the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was declared in 1948 to try to prevent such tragedies from reoccurring, we were not included in the groups needing special human rights protection.
Today, services around the world, inadequate to begin with, are diminishing further with the economic recession. At its worst, enforced psychiatric hospitalization is paradoxically used for political dissidents in some countries.
Surely, understanding the causes of emotional distress and how to categorize the varying expressions need much more study. However, even though the brain is the most difficult organ to study, we have less funding for research.
We have the continuing stigma against people who are called “crazy.” As a consequence, when those labeled with mental disorders speak up, what they say is often discounted as being part of their disorder. Complete recovery is expected less often than chronicity, which can be a self-fulfilling prophecy. Those that have recovered are often reluctant to speak out publicly to be role models.
Those who try to help people with psychological problems also become stigmatized. No wonder psychiatrists have been nicknamed “shrinks” long before there were any concerns about brain shrinkage from the illness or medications. Psychologists, social workers, and others get included too.
Unfortunately, sometimes in a society, those discriminated against will fight internally or compete against one another. So it is in the US at times, especially with gang conflicts. A psychoanalytic explanation for this phenomenon could be “identification with the aggressor.”
Now we may be seeing more and more of that in our field as the antipsychiatry movement of Scientologists seems to be expanding to former patients and their families who felt they were hurt by psychiatry. While some anger and criticism is surely warranted, the vitriol and call for the end of psychiatrists seems to border on hate speech, as described in the recent Psychiatric Times blog of Ronald Pies, MD.1
Similarly, Glen Gabbard, MD,2 recently described how such postings can hurt the reputation of a resident in training and his patient. The mother of this severely disturbed patient seemed to be approving of his treatment in the live sessions but posted very derogatory comments online. This problem was not solved to anyone’s satisfaction. This can be tragic to all those concerned and involved.
No wonder medical students seem less interested in psychiatry. They seem especially turned off by the stigma and our disdain of one another that they notice on their clerkships.
This sort of stigma has even contributed to the lack of recognition for when emotional distress, or what might otherwise be considered as a mental disorder, contributes greatly to society. Founders of our major religions, viewed out of context, could fit into this category. Untreated artists, ranging from Beethoven to Van Gogh, are others. Most recently, psychiatrist Nassir Ghaemi, MD,3 analyzed how some leaders with degrees of mania and depression do better in crisis, including Presidents Lincoln and Kennedy.
One would think that with all this range of discrimination and prejudice, some “ism” would be applied by now to those harmed. But no. The closest I could find is “ableism,” occasionally applied to people with a physical or mental disability. Since the physical disability is usually more obvious, the term is generally applied there.
Perhaps the lack of such an “ism” indicates a discrimination and prejudice even more intense or ingrained, so much so that there is not even a term to rally around. Such a term could be psychism. This is a term that is so unused that we can easily adopt it as our own. In theosophy, I found it used on rare occasions to refer to spiritual awakening. Spiritual awakening is indeed what we need, isn’t it?
Psychism, then, is much broader than the term stigma. It links the discrimination and prejudice of other social groups to that of anyone who works in the mental health care field, from patients to psychiatrists. It is so practically important because psychism tends not only to reduce the self-esteem of those involved, but also to limit the likelihood of getting necessary help and improvement. As the saying goes, “The mind is a precious thing to waste.”
1. Pies R. Moving beyond hatred of psychiatry: a brave voice speaks out. Psychiatr Times. May 24, 2012. http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/blog/pies/content/article/10168/2076107.
2. Gabbard GO. Clinical challenges in the Internet era. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169:460-463.
3. Ghaemi N. A First-Rate Madness: Uncovering the Links Between Leadership and Mental Illness. New York: Penguin Group; 2011.
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Baseline Assessment Curriculum and Target Setting for Pupils with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties
Edited by Erica Brown
Published December 22nd 2000 by David Fulton Publishers – 112 pages
This book sets out to help teachers assess pupils with profound and multiple learning difficulties, multisensory impairments and other complex needs in a relevant and meaningful way. It offers teachers structure, guidance and a holistic approach to assessment, target setting, planning, recording, attainment and pupil progress throughout his or her life at school.
Introduction to Baseline Assessment, sample record of attainment and scheme of work for Science, records of achievement and experience, a child-centred record and a language and communication recording sheet.
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From a Welsh Galileo to Somali Culture, This Is the Heritage That Shaped Wales; from the Welshman Who Observed the Moon at the Same Time as Galileo to the Family Who Were the First to Provide the Royal Navy with Steam Coal, Wales Is Awash with Lost Stories of Historical Achievement. Nowamajor Investment Will Help Uncover the Country's Lesser-Known Legends
Byline: Aled Blake reports
GALILEO GALILEI may have been more familiar with the moon than most of his contemporaries, but he had probably never heard of Carmarthenshire. So, in all likelihood, he would have been unaware that, as he gazed into the heavens, his activities were being emulated by the distinguished scholar Sir William Lower at his family home in Trefenty.
Sir William worked closely with Thomas Harriott, who, in 1609, produced the UK's first telescope - just a year after Galileo did the same.
And Wales' contribution to the embryonic space race didn't end there.
In the 1850s, Swansea's John Dillwyn Llewellyn took one of the earliest photographs of the moon from the Penllergaer Observatory - which he built for his daughter's 16th birthday.
A couple of decades later came the birth of celestial photography, by Denbigh-born Isaac Roberts - arguably the most important contribution to science by a man named Isaac since a certain Mr Newton sat underneath an apple tree.
The technique, which captured star clusters and nebulae and detailed interstellar gas clouds and galaxies, was pioneered in 1888.
With his technology, Roberts was the first person to identify the spiral shape of the Andromeda Nebula - Earth's neighbouring galaxy.
But Denbigh was not only the home to pioneering scientists such as Isaac Roberts.
From being a residence for royal princes to a refuge for a Royalist garrison during the Civil War - in fact Denbych translates as small fortress - the small market town has had a colourful history dating back before the Normans.
The town is first mentioned in records in the years following the Norman Conquest when it became a border town guarding the approach to the Hiraethog Hills and Snowdonia.
The town has a history of esteemed residents. One of many Denbigh men who were well regarded during the …
Questia, a part of Gale, Cengage Learning. www.questia.com
Publication information: Article title: From a Welsh Galileo to Somali Culture, This Is the Heritage That Shaped Wales; from the Welshman Who Observed the Moon at the Same Time as Galileo to the Family Who Were the First to Provide the Royal Navy with Steam Coal, Wales Is Awash with Lost Stories of Historical Achievement. Nowamajor Investment Will Help Uncover the Country's Lesser-Known Legends. Contributors: Not available. Newspaper title: Western Mail (Cardiff, Wales). Publication date: February 25, 2009. Page number: 18. © 2009 MGN Ltd. COPYRIGHT 2009 Gale Group.
This material is protected by copyright and, with the exception of fair use, may not be further copied, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means.
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Ramsar Study Tour to Swiss Ramsar sites, 5-6 February 2000
Alexander Belokurov reports,
On 5th and 6th of February a number of Ramsar Bureau's staff got together with our colleagues from IUCN and WWF to visit lake Neuchâtel.
Some background information from Tobias Salathé's introduction:
"The Champ-Pittet nature reserve of Pro Natura NGO, conservation education and visitor centre at the edge of the "Rive sud du lac de Neuchâtel" Ramsar Site harboring Switzerland's largest reedbed. Further eastwards, towards the eastern end of the lake, lies "Fanel and Chablais de Cudrefin" Ramsar Site, the eastern end of the long-stretched reedbed bordering the lake since its water level was artificially lowered early in the 20th century, as part of a large drainage scheme for the peatlands between Bienne, Neuchâtel and Morat lakes, turning them into agrobusiness land (sugar beets, maize and the like). The Ramsar site is a nature reserve."
Werner Müller, Director of BirdLife Switzerland (http://www.birdlife.ch/) and his colleague Möhlin Ist van Horvath were kind enough to tell us about their plans for the construction of a visiting center at La Sauge with facilities for watching migrating waders and locally breeding waterbirds, education and housing.
The weather was very nice and we stayed overnight at the Fanel guesthouse. Tobias prepared fondue from natural ingredients using his "special" recipe. After this we were unable to wake up in the morning and slept until 10:30 (everyone, that is, except Tobias). But we were still able to watch a lot of birds and mark all information boards of the Fanel reserve with Ramsar logos.
It was a wonderful weekend! And some pictures of my favorite swans (below)
Thanks to Paulette Kennedy, Mariano Gimenez-Dixon (IUCN) and Amalia Romeo (WWF) for joining us. Thanks to Denis Landenbergue (WWF) for the idea about the guesthouse. And special thanks to Tobias who initiated and organised this enjoyable tour.
We hope this tradition will continue!
Lake Neuchâtel in fog (ANY lake in fog)
Lake Neuchâtel at sunset (ANY lake at sunset?)
From left: Tobias Salathé (Ramsar), Werner Müller and Möhlin Ist van Horvath from BirdLife Suisse, Evans Okong'o and Flor Salvador Pérez of Ramsar, Mariano Gimenez-Dixon (IUCN), Amalia Romeo (WWF), all holding up pieces of paper
Early morning birdwatching enthusiasts, and others: (from left) Tobias, Flor, Amalia, Paulette, Evans
Improving Ramsar sites with the Ramsar logo, doubtless inadvertently omitted by the original signmakers: (from left) Ramsar's own Tobias Salathé, Sasha Belokurov, Flor Salvador, and Evans Okong'o.
Sasha's favorite swans: Herbert Lum (left) and Gregor Samsa (right)
-- all photos by Alexander Belokurov, except the one he's in.
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Final 7 Years
Daniel 9 states that 70 weeks are determined for Israel. 70 weeks is 490 days, 1 year 4 months 5 days. This scripture describes the destruction of Jerusalem, as well as other things. As of Daniels time, Jerusalem was not destroyed in 490 days, so 70 weeks is not really 70 weeks. The Bible states that by two or three witnesses God's Word shall be established. So with that, on the 70th week, the he whos people previously destroyed Jerusalem will confirm the covenant for "1 week" then in the midst of the week stop it. This is called the abomination of desolation. The we travel to the next witness which is Jesus in Matthew 24. He had just finished up telling his disciples that the temple will be destroyed, but then he says when you see the abomination desolation, SPOKEN OF BY DANIEL, STAND UP IN THE HOLY PLACE, then all in Judea(which is modern day West Bank) must flee, because then shall be great tribulation. Now if the temple is destroyed how can the AoD stand up in the Holy Place? that will we get to later.
Now that we know that the second half of the week there shall be great tribulation as has never been before, we can look at the scriptures describing the great tribulation to figure out whether is 3.5 days, or more. Reading Matthew 24 we find out that the great trib is the persecution of the saints. We can travel back to Daniel 7 now. verse 25 says that great words will be spoken against the most high, and the saints will be worn out for TIME, TIMES, DIVIDING OF TIME. we don't know how long that is, but there is always more than one witness. Revelation chapter 12 describes a great red dragon, whom they call the devil and satan trying to destroy a woman with a crown of 12 stars, or in other words Jerusalem, it says she flees into the wilderness for 1260 days, Matthew 24 said when ye see the abomination of desolation flee, so this matches. Revelation 13:5-6 describes this beast of the dragon previously mentioned blaspheming against God and warring with the saints for 42 months.
We got 3 scriptures that have the same description of the tribulation, so concluding that time, times, dividing of time is as well 3.5 years, we can conclude that daniels 70th week is 7 years.
Why did i say all this? well for one, some christians could be reading this. Im saying this because a major misinterpretation is that there is a 7 years tribulation, which is not true, its 3.5 years. Another reason is now im going to show a few things
-As far as Judea fleeing, Ehud Olmert, the acting prime minister of Jerusalem is standing ready to withdraw from the West Bank
-The anti-christ standing in the temple? where is the temple? In 2006 the temple society in Jerusalem finished building all the temple furniture and have started training rabbis for the sacrifices of old. They finally have a red heiffer ready for the first sacrifice whenever it happens. In late 2005 for the first time since the 5th century the San Hedrin re-emerged (the elite group of Jewish elders who put Christ to death, also of whom Paul was a part of) and had a meeting. They discussed the building of the temple. They decided, since they cannot build on the mount, then they will build it the same way Solomon built the first temple. OFFSITE. They blueprinted the temple, and it will soon be ready to move.
OH! in Revelation 11, John is asked to measure the Jerusalem, but then it says the court without the temple leave out for it is given to the gentiles for they will tread the holy city for 42 months. If there was a Jewish temple standing in Jerusalem, and the gentiles had the outter courts this would indicate a time of peace, a time when Jew and Gentile share the city on a hill. In 2000 Bill Clinton states that the sharing of the temple mount was the only way for peace in Jerusalem. Ariel Sharon created a new party called the Kadina party in which his goal was to establish the final borders of Israel, or in other words, let the palestinians have part of the Holy Land as long as we can build our temple, yada yada yada. Sharon Signed it, Abbas signed it, Bush oversaw and signed it as well, the plan called THE ROADMAP FOR PEACE.
Then Peter said unto them, Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins, and ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost.
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Network With Us
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Beth Dunning's Story
"S" Is for Poetry
Each year our first-grade students research different ocean animals; this year we decided to research seals. My students spent three weeks researching, writing, sharing, editing, and then writing again. When it was finally done, we had a class book…ONE class book. I mentioned to another teacher about all of the hard work my students had done on their book. I wanted each of them to take their research home, but I couldn’t afford to make copies for each student. She suggested having my students write an acrostic poem about seals with one of ReadWriteThink.org’s student interactives.
Because of the wide range of ability levels in my class, I began the activity in a whole-group setting before we went to the computer lab. Students wrote one word that reminded them of seals on a sticky note and then we sorted the words by the letter they began with, paying special attention to words that began with the letters s, e, a, and l. Then, we worked together to create a class acrostic poem about seals, and afterward students worked on individual acrostic poems.
We went to the computer lab to use the interactive Acrostic Poems tool. When students got to the “brainstorming” page, I brought out the list of words we had created in the classroom. Students were able to look at our original list and choose which words they wanted to use. I gave students the option to use the poem they had created earlier in the day or to create a new one using the words they had recently brainstormed. Once the poems were written, students hit the “print” button and couldn’t wait to see the finished product!
Since then, my students have also used the interactive Diamante Poems tool to create poems about sharks, turtles, armadillos, and much, much more. Thanks, ReadWriteThink.org, for making my kids want to write and write and write…. I just hope I have enough ink to keep up with them!
Grades K – 12 | Student Interactive | Writing Poetry
This online tool enables students to learn about and write acrostic poems. Elements of the writing process are also included.
Grades 3 – 12 | Game & Tool
Diamante poems are poems where the longest line comes in the middle, creating a diamond-like shape. The Diamante Poems tool helps children write these patterned poems.
Sticky Note Chart
Students used sticky notes to brainstorm about seals before writing their Acrostic Poems.
Students brainstormed words about seals and we wrote them on the seal to take with us to the computer lab.
I have been teaching for five years, four of which have been in first grade. One of my passions is bringing the world into my classroom. If I can manage to get it there, it’s in there…no matter what! I have been married for 16 years, and I have three children: two daughters and a son. I enjoy spending time with my family at the ranch, volunteering, and scrapbooking.
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What We See Can Affect Our Perception Of Pain
By manipulating the appearance of a chronically achy hand, researchers have found they could increase or decrease the pain and swelling in patients moving their symptomatic limbs. The findings “” reported in the November 25th issue of Current Biology, a Cell Press publication “” reveal a profound top-down effect of body image on body tissues, according to the researchers.
"The brain is capable of many wonderful things based on its perception of how the body is doing and the risks to which the body seems to be exposed," said G. Lorimer Moseley, who is now at the Prince of Wales Medical Research Institute in Australia. (The work was done at the University of Oxford.)
In the study, the researchers asked ten right-handed patients with chronic pain and dysfunction in one arm to watch their own arm while they performed a standardized set of ten hand movements. The participants repeated the movements under four conditions: with no visual manipulation, while looking through binoculars with no magnification, while looking through binoculars that doubled the apparent size of their arm, and while looking through inverted binoculars that reduced the apparent size of their arm.
While the patients’ pain was always worse after movement than it was before, the extent to which the pain worsened depended on what people saw. Specifically, the pain increased more when participants viewed a magnified image of their arm during the movements, and “” perhaps more surprisingly “” the pain became less when their arm was seen through inverted binoculars that minimized its size.
The degree of swelling too was less when people watched a "minified" image of their arm during movements than when they watched a magnified or normal image, the researchers reported.
They aren’t yet sure how this phenomenon works at the level of neurons. However, the researchers said, a possible philosophical explanation comes from the notion that protective responses””including the experience of pain””are activated according to the brain’s implicit perception of danger level. "If it looks bigger, it looks sorer and more swollen," Moseley said. "Therefore, the brain acts to protect it."
While he said the findings don’t mean that pain is any less real, they may lead to a new therapeutic approach for reducing pain. His team is now testing visual manipulations as an analgesic strategy for use in clinical settings.
The researchers include G. Lorimer Moseley, University of Oxford, UK, Prince of Wales Medical Research Institute, Sydney, Australia; Timothy J. Parsons, University of Oxford, UK; and Charles Spence, University of Oxford, UK.
On the Net:
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Representative Theory of Perception, also known as Indirect realism, epistemological dualism, and The veil of perception, is a philosophical concept. It states that we do not (and cannot) perceive the external world directly; instead we know only our ideas or interpretations of objects in the world.
Thus, a barrier or a veil of perception prevents first-hand knowledge of anything beyond it. The "veil" exists between the mind and the existing world.
The debate then occurs about where our ideas come from, and what this place is like. An indirect realist believes our ideas come from sense data of a real, material, external world (unlike idealists). The doctrine states that in any act of perception, the immediate (direct) object of perception is only a sense-datum that represents an external object.
Aristotle was the first to provide an in-depth description of indirect realism. In On the Soul he describes how the eye must be affected by changes in an intervening medium rather than by objects themselves. He then speculates on how these sense impressions can form our experience of seeing and reasons that an endless regress would occur unless the sense itself were self aware. He concludes by proposing that the mind is the things it thinks. He calls the images in the mind "ideas".
The way that indirect realism involves intermediate stages between objects and perceptions immediately raises a question: How well do sense-data represent external objects, properties, and events? Indirect realism creates deep epistemological problems, such as solipsism and the problem of the external world. Nonetheless, Indirect realism has been popular in the history of philosophy and has been developed by many philosophers including Bertrand Russell, Baruch Spinoza, René Descartes, and John Locke.
Representationalism is one of the key assumptions of cognitivism in psychology.
Potential results of representative realism
A problem with representationalism is that if simple data flow and information processing
is assumed then something in the brain, described as a homunculus
, must be viewing the perception. This suggests that some physical effect or phenomenon other than simple data flow and information processing
might be involved in perception. This was not an issue for the rationalist
philosophers such as Descartes, since Cartesian dualism
held that there is a supernatural "homunculus" in the form of the soul. For those who doubt dualism, explaining precisely what it is that sees the representation is problematic. But if the transfer of information into a "mind" is thought to be the only explanation of how we indeed see, then it falls afoul of the homunculus fallacy
which would suggest that either representationalism is an incomplete or invalid description of perception or some supernatural intervention or non-materialist
explanation is needed. Aristotle realised this and simply proposed that ideas themselves (representations) must be aware - in other words that there is no further transfer of sense impressions beyond ideas.
A further difficulty is that, since we only have knowledge of the representations of our perceptions, how is it possible to show that they resemble in any significant way the objects to which they are supposed to correspond? Any creature with a representation in its brain would need to interact with the objects that are represented to identify them with the representation. According to this theory, the external world is only to be inferred
, the person needing to learn about the relations between their electrochemical perceptions and the world.
A difficulty arises when attempting to explain reference
using representationalism. If I say "I see the Eiffel Tower" at a time when I am indeed looking at the Eiffel Tower, to what does the term "Eiffel Tower" refer? One might wish to say it refers to the Eiffel Tower, but since in the representational account we do not really see the tower, presumably the reference is to our sense experience
. But this would mean that when I refer to the Eiffel Tower, I am referring to my sense experience, and when you refer to the Tower, you are referring to your sense experience. Therefore when we each refer to the Eiffel Tower, we are not referring to the same thing — an apparent absurdity. The problem is similar to each of us seeing a picture of the Eiffel Tower on our own television, where we should be aware that our televisions might be different.
A representationalist would respond by pointing out that the apparent difficulty resides in the unnecessarily ambiguous use of the term "see" in the above scenario. If I say "I see the Eiffel Tower", I am referring to the process of interpreting the sense-data I am receiving from the Eiffel Tower in an act of mental representation. The term "Eiffel Tower" refers to the Eiffel Tower, and not to the mental representation of the Tower, which is the result of the act of "seeing". Thus, both of us can refer to the same object while making our own unique representations of that object.
Representative realism does, unlike naïve realism
, take into account sense data
(the way in which the object is interpreted, not simply the objective, mathematical object) - this induces the veil of perception wherein we are unsure the table we look at exists due to there being no direct objective proof of its existence. In other words, the table I'm looking at appears to have a particular shape to me, due to my angle of vision, and to have a particular colour due to the way in which the light bounces off it relative to my position, and that appearance differs from the appearance of the table as seen by the person next to me. Each of us sees not the actual table, but an appearance
of it which merely represents
an actual table out there.
The representative theory of perception states that we do not perceive the external world directly; instead we perceive our personal interpretation of an object by way of sense data. A naïve realist assumes she sees the dog upon perceiving a dog, whereas a representative realist assumes she sees a sensory representation of the dog upon perceiving a dog.
The external world is real and continues to exist unobserved. But we are only aware of it indirectly. Our perception of the external world is mediated by way of sense data such as photons and sound waves. We perceive a representation of reality (not the reality itself); this has been given many names: ideas, sense data, percept or appearance.
Thus representative realism is the idea that our perceptions are directly caused by the intrinsic qualities of objects, and based on these perceptions we can infer things about these objects.
The 17th century philosopher John Locke most prominently advocated this theory. The term he used was not "sense-datum" but "idea." "Idea" as used in the theory of perception is a technical term, meaning roughly the same thing as sense-datum, and this article does not discuss any differences in meaning that the two terms might have.
John Locke thought objects had two classes of qualities:
- Primary qualities are qualities which are 'explanatorily basic' - which is to say, they can be referred to as the explanation for other qualities or phenomena without requiring explanation themselves - and they are distinct in that our sensory experience of them resembles them in reality. (For example, one perceives an object as spherical precisely because of the way the atoms of the sphere are arranged.) Primary qualities cannot be removed by either thought or physical action, and include mass, movement, and, controversially, solidity (although later proponents of the distinction between primary and secondary qualities usually discount solidity).
- Secondary qualities are qualities which one's experience does not directly resemble; for example, when one sees an object as red, the sensation of seeing redness is not produced by some quality of redness in the object, but by the arrangement of atoms on the surface of the object which reflects and absorbs light in a particular way. Secondary qualities include colour, smell, and taste.
In contemporary philosophy, epistemological dualism has come under sustained attack by
philosophers like Wittgenstein
(the private language argument
) and Wilfrid Sellars
in his seminal essay "Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind."
Indirect realism is argued to be problematical because of Ryle's regress
and the apparent need for a homunculus
. These problems have led some philosophers to abandon realism
and suggest the existence of dualism
and others to propose, or suggest through emergentism
, that some form of new physics is operating in the brain such as quantum mind
, space-time theories of consciousness
- Online papers on representationalism, by various authors, compiled by David Chalmers
- Harold I. Brown, "Direct Realism, Indirect Realism, and Epistemology". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. 52, No. 2. (Jun., 1992), pp. 341-363.
- What Do We Perceive and How Do We Perceive It? (PDF file)
- Neurological explanation for paranormal experiences
- The Representationalism Web Site
- McCreery, C., "Perception and Hallucination: the Case for Continuity.” Oxford: Oxford Forum (2006). An analysis of empirical arguments for representationalism. Online PDF
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sex-and-relationships - relationships -
The psychology of relationships: Life Script
Life script is another major theoretical concept within transactional analysis. Basically, life script is the idea that we tend to have an unconscious life plan - like a story - that we make up as children about ourselves and our lives, which we tend to keep to and follow even when we are adults. In other words, life script is a personal life plan developed under parental, familial, social, cultural and religious pressure. It is mostly complete by the age of seven.
To make this process a bit more understandable, here is an example: let's call our case illustration Jane. Jane grows up as the fourth child in a family of five, her mum and dad are busy people, trying to make ends meet. Jane doesn't get a lot of attention at home, but learns to read very early on and develops a good rapport with her oldest sister reading children's books. In response to this scenario, Jane will make specific script decisions about herself, other people and the world in general around her. For example, she might decide that she really always needs to be a good girl, quiet, studious and compliant to make the most of the relationships around her. She might also decide that the way to be is to work loads, just like her parents. She might take on board a sense that the world is a place in which people struggle and that you have to work really hard to make ends meet.
These script decisions are made in response to family and cultural messages but based on the child's very limited information and reality processing skills. Such a decision becomes an emotionally laden commitment to live in a certain way (in Jane's case possibly laden with all the loyalty and love she feels for her family and parents). This "certain way" becomes an unconscious life plan or a narrative, a story that we tell ourselves about what's possible for us. This life plan is built to make sense out of the world and to protect us: for example, Jane could have perhaps complained about the lack of support in her family, but as a child might then have been excluded from her family as complaining wasn't part of the family culture. But any script can become self-limiting in adult life. It might mean we don't take up opportunities even if they are there, because they are outside our script.
Let's imagine what happens to Jane as an adult. Let's say she achieves well at work and develops her career in an outstanding way. She marries a man who is also very invested in his work and they get along fine. So far Jane has stayed within her script of "work hard", "life is a struggle", "men like my dad who do well are attractive". You could say she is doing well too. However, there are also blind spots which her script has created. She doesn't spend a lot of time socializing and she doesn't notice when people want to spend time with her. The only friend she has is someone she met at a book club. They still spend a lot of time talking about books (like she did with her sister), but actually Jane and her friend are neither emotionally open nor do they feel close to each other. Jane married a man who was more invested in his career than in spending time with her and she often feels lonely beside him. She may have broken up with an earlier boy friend, who was much more loving, because she thought he was lazy (or what the parent ego state in her head would have called lazy), because he wanted to sit around and have a good time with his friends on the weekends.
Jane may also not have been able to appreciate his warmth and kindness, because it was completely off her radar. Jane may suffer from physical pain due to overworking, like back pain or frequent infections. She would be a prime candidate for depression as she neglects her emotional and psychological well-being and gives out a lot more energy than she takes in.
To reiterate, life script is an ongoing process of a self-defining and sometimes self-limiting psychological construction of reality. As long as we stick with it, life seems to be more predictable. However, the price we pay for a sense of certainty is that we are excluding new possibilities - even the good ones. The question you might want to ask yourself now is: what might your own script look like? One way to determine this is to look at your favorite fairy tales or mythological stories.
Which story did you like best as a kid? Often children use fairy tales as a model for their own life stories or they experiment with different scenarios. For example, Jane might have liked the story of Odysseus, who endured a lot of hardship over the 10 years he needed to travel home after the Trojan war. It is a story that involves hardship, endurance, persistence, intelligence, loyalty and ultimate victory over ongoing difficulties.
You could let your mind run free and think about how you expected your life to turn out as a teenager. Some people think that they will never meet anybody (a script decision about being alone) or they expect to do well in the world or in relationships. One can see that some people's script allow for more happiness than others. We can therefore classify scripts in three different categories: winners, losers and banal scripts. A winner's script allows for the person who designed it to get what he or she wants in the end (like in the story of Odysseus, who does find his way back home). So someone might think as a child that one day they will be happily married and they fulfill this expectation in their lifetime.
Loser scripts are those that end up with the person who lives them getting what they want. In some way Jane's script might be a losing script. She might have added on as a child that she really didn't think she could keep up all the good work and that things would tend to fall to pieces despite all her hard work. If Jane lives out this script, she may get fairly seriously depressed, lose her job, and end up sitting at home on her own for the rest of her life.
A banal script is one which is built on mediocrity, nothing much is gained and nothing much lost. Jane could have also designed this sort of ending for herself: she might work quite hard for the rest of her life, but feel like she never really made it. Her husband and friends might stay emotionally distant and she might feel unfulfilled and alone.
Whatever type of script you have written for yourself as a child, even if it is a winning script, it is still a pattern of thinking and behaving in the world which restricts some of your options. The ideal, therefore, is to become script free, or be able to apply the strengths in your script consciously. For instance, Jane could keep her drive to work hard and use it to be successful, but might also learn how to be emotionally close and have fun. We talk about being script-free as being autonomous. Autonomy is behaving, thinking or feeling in direct response to here and now reality rather than reacting to things based on a script belief. Imagine, if Jane didn't have all this baggage, she might take time out for herself in response to feeling low, rather than working even harder to be able to ignore the feelings for a little while longer. Autonomy is manifested by the release or recovery of three capacities: awareness, spontaneity and intimacy.
And of course, once you know what your unconscious life plan is you can change it. You decided on it as a child, but you can now change your mind as an adult. Remember that whatever you decided about yourself and your life as a child, it was done from a very limited perspective. What seemed a generalized truth about life then might not be true for you anymore today.
The emphasis on the decision of the child in script formation is based on the premise that "what has been decided can be re-decided". Re-decision is an emotional, cognitive and behavioral process. Scripts can be changed and disbanded all together. As an adult you are free to write your own story - and have fun doing it!
If you want to find out more about how this applies to your relationship, have a look at applying scripts. Other related psychological topics are games, relational needs, life positions, and transference.
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Five great grains with promise for the future
According to the United States Department of Agriculture, grains account for more than half of the calories consumed by people in developing countries. Yet, over the last few decades, grain production has been narrowed to only a limited number of varieties – wheat, for example, has over 200,000 varieties, yet only a few genetic lines are being used. Such dependence on a limited number of crops has proven problematic, especially because of rising food prices, climate change, and health concerns.
Today, Nourishing the Planet highlights five grains which are not yet as well known, but provide promising alternatives.
Both a grain and a green, amaranth was once as fundamental to the Central and South American diet as corn and beans. Yet after the height of its cultivation during the Aztec civilization, this food has largely disappeared. Now, the non-governmental organization Alternativas y Procesos de Participación Social (Alternatives and Projects for Civil Society) has organized over 1,100 Mexican families in the effort to recover this valuable crop.
Although the plant is beautiful, with brilliantly colored flowers and large green leaves, it is also extremely hardy and able to survive in very arid conditions. Amaranth is highly nutritious, with high fiber and protein content, as well as lysine, an essential amino acid which most cereal crops lack. The plant is extremely versatile – it can be eaten as a vegetable, dried and used as a spice, or turned into a gluten-free flour. The leaves of amaranth are also edible, and possess higher levels of iron than spinach, and toasted amaranth seeds are often used to make traditional sweet foods.
The native Mexicans from over sixty farming villages working with the Alternativas cooperatives have integrated amaranth into their cropping system, and have banded together to begin producing amaranth food products. Rising levels in both production and demand for this nutritious crop are promising for both local people’s incomes and the health of people worldwide.
2. Dista Rice
In Madagascar, rice accounts for about 70 percent of the diet for small farmers, and plays an important part in religious and ritual activities. There are many different types of rice, but one variety, a pale pink grain discovered in only 2000, has become wildly popular and provides great potential for local Malagasy farmers.
The Dista rice, named after the farmer who first discovered and cultivated it, is very rich in vitamins and produces consistently high yields. Malagasy farmers have also been using System of Rice Intensification (SRI) methods to further increase their harvests. SRI, which was developed in Madagascar in the 1980s, helps farmers to grow stronger and higher-yielding crops while using less water, fertilizers and pesticides. As harvests have increased to 8-10 tons of rice per hectare (about 2.5 acres) for farmers using the SRI methods, more than 200 farmers have organized into cooperatives to sell their rice and raise money to purchase equipment.
According to Slow Food International, demand for Dista rice is now equal to that of native or imported white rice. As Malagasy farmers continue to improve their production and increase harvests, they are able to improve both their lives and their environment.
To learn more about SRI and Dista rice, see “Madagascar’s ‘Magic Rice ’- Dista Rice.”
Freekeh (also known as farik) is a type of wheat which is harvested prematurely and roasted. It is very nutritious, with high fiber and protein content, as well as rich in nutrients such as calcium and iron. Freekeh is used in a number of dishes across the Middle East, and is beginning to see an emergence in Western markets as well.
Freekeh is a specialty of the Jabal ‘Amel region of Lebanon, where the seeds have been passed down within families for generations. A combination of the area’s unique soil composition and processing methods gives the green cereal its characteristic toasted aroma. Freekeh production in Jabal ‘Amel is now being threatened however by large quantities of industrially produced freekeh from Syria and by subsidies from the Lebanese government for tobacco cultivation.
In an inspiring program, Slow Food Beirut, Oxfam Italia, and the Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity have partnered together to revive the production of freekeh in its native region, while also helping to improve the living conditions for the citizens of Jabal ‘Amel. This area was particularly hard hit during conflict in 2006. By working with the remaining local producers, this project aims to establish sustainable and successful freekeh production in the region, which can also improve the livelihoods of the local farmers.
Red fife wheat was first introduced to the country in 1842, when a farmer from Glasgow sent some seeds to his friend in Ontario. Its adaptability to extreme weather and the Canadian cold allowed it to flourish, and within twenty years, the wheat was being grown across Canada.
Over time, the popularity of the wheat diminished, as farmers shifted towards growing hybrids of the Red Fife by the 1920s.
This changed in 1988, when Sharon Rempel, an environmental activist who was working at the time to recreate the wheat crops being grown during the 1880s at The Keremos Grist Mill historical site, received a pound of Red Fife seeds from a plant breeder. After planting half of the seeds in the heritage wheat garden at The Keremos Grist Mill, the benefits of the variety quickly gained attention.
Besides being very adaptable to a wide range of growing conditions, including the arctic cold of the Canadian plains, Red Fife is very productive without requiring high inputs of chemicals, and its flour has become very popular among bakers, who value it for its high quality and strong taste, perfect for making sourdough bread. Since being reintroduced, nearly 1 million pounds of Red Fife was harvested in Canada in 2007, from that original one pound of seeds in 1988.
Although millet is only beginning to enter Western food markets, it is already a central part of diets in Africa and Asia. Finger millet, an indigenous variety which originated in the highlands of Ethiopia and Uganda and then spread to India and South Asia approximately 4,000 years ago, is one of the most widely cultivated varieties, and one of the most nutritious grains of the world’s major cereal crops.
Nearly 4.5 million tons of finger millet is produced annually, which provides important nutrients to people across East Africa and South Asia. Millet is high in starch and iron, and its proteins are easily digested.
Millet survives well in dry areas and its grain is resistant to rot and insects, making it an important crop in food security strategies of many poor farming communities. It is very labor-intensive to harvest, and policymakers have recently snubbed it as a “poor person’s crop,” leading to a decline in production. It is currently undergoing a resurgence, however, as yields in India have increased by 50 percent in the past 50 years and acreage is increasing in Nepal by 8 percent annually. In Kenya, millet sells for twice the price of sorghum and maize, and half of all cropland in Uganda is currently dedicated to millet production.
As awareness of this important crop and its nutritional value increase, farmers in other dry areas of the world may also be able to start cultivating it, holding great promise in helping to feed the world’s population.
To read more on finger millet, see “Finger Millet: A Once and Future Staple.”
Jenna Banning is a research in tern with the Nourishing the Planet project.
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Definitions of stiff:
- noun: an ordinary man
Example: "A lucky stiff"
- noun: the dead body of a human being
- adjective: not moving or operating freely
Example: "A stiff hinge"
- adjective: powerful
Example: "A stiff current"
- adjective: lacking ease in bending; not limber
Example: "A stiff neck"
- adjective: hard to overcome or surmount
Example: "A stiff hike"
- adjective: incapable of or resistant to bending
Example: "A palace guardsman stiff as a poker"
- adjective: of a collar; standing up rather than folded down
Example: "A stiff collar"
- adjective: rigidly formal
Example: "The letter was stiff and formal"
- adjective: very drunk
- adverb: extremely
Example: "Bored stiff"
- adverb: in a stiff manner
Example: "His hands lay stiffly"
- name: A surname (rare: 1 in 100000 families; popularity rank in the U.S.: #11622)
Search for stiff at other dictionaries: OneLook, Answers.com, Merriam-Webster
"Works flawlessly!": RhymeZone apps for iPhone/iPad and Android!
Help, Feedback, Customize, Android app, iPhone/iPad app
Copyright © 2013 Datamuse
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The Rhode Island College History Department requires a style of documentation that differs from both the APA and the MLA formats. Style sheets that contain all of the guidelines are available in the department and at the Writing Center, but here are a few highlights:
- If the assignment is an essay or a major report, it should have a title page containing the title, your name, the name of the course you are writing for, the date, and the name of your instructor.
- Number your pages, except page one.
- Double-space the text and only print on one side of the paper.
- Make sure that you proofread your final copy before you turn it in. It is a good idea to have someone else read it, too.
- Use footnotes. There are no concrete rules to cover the use of footnotes
in every instance. However, footnotes are required in the following cases:
- Direct quotations
- Controversial facts or opinions you derived from other sources
- Statements/paraphrases from other sources that directly support the main points in the paper
- Statistical information, charts, illustrations, graphs, maps, etc
Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of the page. If your professor permits, they may also be placed at the end of the text (making them endnotes) before your bibliography page.
When citing a source (book) for the first time, use this form:
John B. Wolf, Louis XIV (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1968), 351.
When the same source is cited consecutively, use Ibid., plus the page number if different. (Ibid. is short for ibidem, Latin, meaning "at the same place.")
Later references to this same book (following other footnotes) require only the author's name:
When citing from a magazine or a journal, this format is used:
Thomas Kelly, "Thucydides and Spartan Strategy in the Archidamian War," American Historical Review, vol. 87, No. 1 (February 1982), 25-54.
Citing from a newspaper employs this format:
British, in 1950, Helped Map Iraqui Invasion of Iran," New York Times, October 16, 1980, 17.
There are numerous variations, as well as other kinds of footnote forms
for other types of documents, and for such details you should consult a
handbook. Here are some suggestions:
- Grey, Wood, et al. Historian's Handbook. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1964.
- Strunk, William, Jr. The Elements of Style, 2nd edition (1972).
- Turabian, Kate, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Themes, and Dissertations. 4th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977.
- MLS Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. New York: Modern Language Association, 1977.
All papers should have a bibliography, unless otherwise specified. This is a list off all of the sources you used, and it should be the last page (or pages) of your paper. The sources should be listed alphabetically and not numbered.For more information, see www.dianahacker.com/resdoc.
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(No.1) Making Information Richer
As an information technology engineer, I often reflect on the importance of content. Traditionally, the most important content has been text, which is circulated mostly by printing and publishing activities. As Figure 1 shows, these activities stopped growing around 1990. When we take into account that information grows at an average of 40% annually, this abrupt change should indicate that information is moving from the printed page to some other medium. My guess is that the shift has been predominately to images.
The most precious information, of course, is art. And Chinese calligraphy is a valuable form of art for many Japanese. The most famous calligrapher is Yi Zhi Wang, who is often called The Mahatma of calligraphy (Figure 2). He lived in China in the 4th century and is still worshiped. With calligraphy, images (font style) are very important. Some valuable contents have survived as long as 1600 years.
Our Image Appliance Lab has been tasked with achieving better use of images. The Image Retrieval Engine on the Yahoo Auction site in Japan is one example of our achievements so far.
Select Your Langage
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See what questions
a doctor would ask.
Forceps: Forceps are a hand-held medical instrument with a beak used during surgery to grasp tissues for dissection and suturing. Most surgical forceps have a serrated surface tip, or teeth for firmly grasping tissue without a crushing force. Forceps may also be used for picking up objects. Forceps are commonly known as tweezers outside the medical community.
These devices are types of the medical device Forceps:
These other medical devices are related to Forceps:
Search Specialists by State and City
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Parsing XML Documents
To manipulate an XML document, XML parser is needed. The parser loads the document into the computer's memory. Once the document is loaded, its data can be manipulated using the appropriate parser.
We will soon discuss APIs and parsers for accessing XML documents using serially accesss mode (SAX) and random access mode (DOM). The specifications to ensure the validity of XML documents are DTDs and the Schemas.
DOM: Document Object Model
The XML Document Object Model (XML DOM) defines a standard way to access and manipulate XML documents using any programming language (and a parser for that language).
The DOM presents an XML document as a tree-structure (a node tree), with the elements, attributes, and text defined as nodes. DOM provides access to the information stored in your XML document as a hierarchical object model.
The DOM converts an XML document into a collection of objects in a object model in a tree structure (which can be manipulated in any way ). The textual information in XML document gets turned into a bunch of tree nodes and an user can easily traverse through any part of the object tree, any time. This makes easier to modify the data, to remove it, or even to insert a new one. This mechanism is also known as the random access protocol .
DOM is very useful when the document is small. DOM reads the entire XML structure and holds the object tree in memory, so it is much more CPU and memory intensive. The DOM is most suited for interactive applications because the entire object model is present in memory, where it can be accessed and manipulated by the user.
SAX: Simple API for XML
This API was an innovation, made on the XML-DEV mailing list through a product collaboration, rather than being a product of the W3C.
SAX (Simple API for XML) like DOM gives access to the information stored in XML documents using any programming language (and a parser for that language).
This standard API works in serial access mode to parse XML documents. This is a very fast-to-execute mechanism employed to read and write XML data comparing to its competitors. SAX tells the application, what is in the document by notifying through a stream of parsing events. Application then processes those events to act on data.
SAX is also called as an event-driven protocol, because it implements the technique to register the handler to invoke the callback methods whenever an event is generated. Event is generated when the parser encounters a new XML tag or encounters an error, or wants to tell anything else. SAX is memory-efficient to a great extend.
SAX is very useful when the document is large.
DOM reads the entire XML structure and holds the object tree in memory, so it is much more CPU and memory intensive. For that reason, the SAX API are preferred for server-side applications and data filters that do not require any memory intensive representation of the data.
If you are facing any programming issue, such as compilation errors or not able to find the code you are looking for.
Ask your questions, our development team will try to give answers to your questions.
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Issue Number: 93
‘Enlightenment,’ wrote Immanuel Kant in his 1784 essay What is Enlightenment? ‘is man’s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one’s understanding without guidance from another. This immaturity is self-imposed when its cause lies not in lack of understanding, but in lack of resolve and courage to use it without guidance from another. Sapere aude! [Dare to know!] Have the courage to use your own understanding! That is the motto of enlightenment.’
Age Of Reason An Encyclopdedia of the Age of Enlightenment by Adam Dant. An Encyclopdedia of the Age of Enlightenment by Adam Dant.
Neither Kant nor his eighteenth-century contemporaries believed that they lived in an enlightened age. By ‘enlightenment’, they meant a process: the lessening of darkness, the dawning of light. The human mind was liberating itself from traditional authority over thought and belief. ‘Nothing is required for enlightenment except freedom,’ wrote Kant, ‘and the freedom in question is the least harmful of all, namely, the freedom to use reason publicly in all matters.’
Kant and his fellow leaders of the Enlightenment were opposed to hegemonies, whether intellectual or political. ‘On all sides I hear: do not argue!’ Kant continues. ‘The officer says, “Do not argue, drill!” The taxman says, “Do not argue, pay!” The pastor says, “Do not argue, believe!”’ But, whereas the officer and the taxman serve authorities who dislike anyone questioning the political and social status quo, the pastor is a different matter: he represents the authority that dislikes any kind of questioning, and certainly not the kind that is sceptical about received wisdom.
The project that served as a flagship for enlightenment in the eighteenth century was the Encyclopédie, edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert. A compendium of knowledge, its emphatic and rationalist war on the authority of past pieties was premised on the recognition of how obstinately they stood in the way of intellectual and social progress. In taking this stance, the Encyclopédists were following the lead of Voltaire who, with his battle-cry of Ecrasez l’infâme! (‘Wipe out the infamy’, by which he meant superstition), challenged tradition with weapons of logic and satire.
‘Have courage to free yourselves,’ Diderot exhorted his fellow men in words echoed by Kant, ‘Examine the history of all peoples in all times and you will see that we humans have always been subject to one of three codes: that of nature, that of society, and that of religion, and that we have been obliged to transgress all three in succession, because they could never be in harmony.’
In essence, the Enlightenment was a call to individuals to stand up for themselves in the light of reason. That meant understanding the world through philosophy and science, especially by applying the latter beyond physics and chemistry to the social world of politics, education and morality.
The Enlightenment had its negative aspects and consequences, no doubt, but it was motivated by a real desire for the improvement of humankind’s lot and, accordingly, represents a key moment in the progress of civilisation. One of the many results of its new ambition was a shift in portraiture: in Enlightenment painting and sculpture, individuals – be they citizens, members of families or clubs – share a place once exclusively occupied by saints and princes.
In its way, this represents the first dawning of the modern democratic spirit, and it would not have been possible without the Enlightenment’s belief in the universality of the human good and the ‘Rights of Man’.
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Российская Федерация Rossiyskaya Federatsiya Russian Federation
It has been over 300 years since Peter the Great decided to "open" Russia to the West. Since then, Russia has become much closer to western civilization, perhaps even a part of it. It has been enriched by western culture in many ways and yet has preserved its distinct Eurasian character. Russia has had a troubled history, but continues to stand proudly and boasts many splendors for foreign visitors to behold. Onion-shaped domes inherited from the Byzantine Empire, castles built to fend off the Mongol hordes, streets constructed by Soviet planners--every corner has a rich and fascinating history. Remember it then, Imagine it now.
Moscow is the cradle of Russian nation and is sometimes called "the heart of Russia." In 13th century, its dukes had unified Russian lands to fend of the Mongols and ever since, Moscow had occupied a prominent role in Russian politics, economics, culture and national identity. Moscow unique heritage, its immense size and wealth, its vibrant cultural life make it one of the world's capitals and one of the world's most exciting travel destinations.
Russia could be cold, but not always. You would be surprised to learn that Russian southern cities are located on the same latitude as Nice. The three largest southern cities of Russia are Sochi, Volgograd and Rostov-on-Don. Sochi, which is located on the banks of Black Sea next to gorgeous mountain slopes is famous for its summer resorts and for being selected as the site for 2014 Winter Olympics. Volgograd (former Stalingrad), located on the banks of Volga River, is famous for the Battle of Stalingrad - a turning point in the World War II. Rostov, also located on the banks of Volga, is famous for being the capital of Russian Cossacks.
So remote and desolated (only one inhabitant per square mile), so beautiful and pristine, Siberia is one of the world's most untouched places. Siberia is huge - 2/3 of Russia's territory. In the east, on Kamchatka, you will find chains of volcanoes and geysers. In south, you will find Lake Baikal - world's largest. Siberia is roughly two times bigger than United States. Explore the unexplored, leave civilization behind to discover lands beyond the horizons.
If Moscow is "Russia's heart," St. Petersburg is its soul. St. Petersburg is relatively young, it was established just 300 years ago. Rapid growth of Russian commerce necessitated access to seas, but powerful neighbors sought to prevent emergence of a new naval power. Russia's young tsar Peter the Great who aspired to transform Russia into a world-class European power waged the Seven Year War with Sweden in a result of which he gained a small swampy stretch of land in the Gulf of Finland. There, he laid the foundation for a city named after him and for his empire.
Russian composer Tchaikovsky composed the world's most famous works of ballet— Swan Lake, The Nutcrackers and Sleeping Beauty. During the early 20th century, Russian dancers Anna Pavlova and Vaslav Nijinsky rose to fame and impresario Serguey Daighilev and his Ballets Russes` travel abroad undoubtedly influenced dance worldwide and during the 20th century famous star after another, including Plisetskaya, Nureyev and Baryshnikov. The Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow and the Kirov in Saint Petersburg remain famous throughout the world.
Russian literature is considered to be among the most influential and developed in the world, contributing much of the world's most famous literary works. Russia's literary history dates back to the 10th century and by the early 19th century a native tradition had emerged, producing some of the greatest writers of all time. This period began with Alexander Pushkin, considered to be the founder of modern Russian literature and often described as the "Russian Shakespeare Amongst Russia's most renowned poets and writers of the 19th century are Chekhov, Lermontov, Tolstoy, Gogol, Turgenevm Dostoevsky, Goncharov, Saltykov, Pisemsky and Leskov made lasting contributions to Russian prose. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky in particular were titanic figures to the point that many literary critics have described one or the other as the greatest novelist ever.
The State Museum of Ceramics in Kuskovo, 10km (6 miles) from the center of Moscow, has a fascinating collection of Russian china, porcelain and glass. Arkhangelskoye Estate, a museum housed in a palace 16km (10 miles) from Moscow, exhibits European paintings and sculptures, but the main attraction is the grounds which are laid out in the French style. Zhostovo, 30km (19 miles) from Moscow, is a center renowned for its lacquered trays, and Fedoskino, 35km (22 miles) from Moscow, produces lacquer miniatures, brooches and other handicrafts. Located near the town of Tula, 160km (100 miles) from the capital, Yasnaya Polyana is historically significant as the author Leo Tolstoy's estate. The author of War and Peace and Anna Karenina is buried here and his house, surrounded by landscaped parkland, is now a museum open to the public. Tchaikovsky's home at Klin, 90km (56 miles) from Moscow, and Boris Pasternak's home at Peredelkino (30 minutes' drive from the capital), are also museums.
Tver, situated 160km (100 miles) from Moscow on the Upper Volga, is where Catherine II built a palace in order to take a rest en route from Moscow to St Petersburg. The Putyevoi Dvorets (Route Palace) was built by Kazakov in 1763-75. The palace overlooks the river, a convenient location for the tsarina to disembark. The town is also notable for its star-shaped square.
The Golden Ring
Several ancient towns of great historical, architectural and spiritual significance make up the 'Golden Ring', extending northeast from Moscow. They are a rich collection of kremlins (citadels), monasteries, cathedrals and fortresses. All are within easy reach of the capital. Since many were founded on river banks, a cruise is a pleasant way of discovering the region. Modern boats plying the Volga afford comfortable accommodation. As some major sites such as Vladimir and Suzdal are not located near the Volga, a minibus tour with hotel accommodation is a better option for visitors whose primary interest is the region's architectural heritage.
This small town, formerly known as Zagorsk, is situated on two rivers and is the center of the handmade toy industry; the Toy Museum has a collection beginning in the Bronze Age. The Trinity Monastery of St Sergius dates from the Middle Ages and is a major pilgrimage center. Its Cathedral of the Dormition has wonderful blue domes decorated with gold stars. The museum contains examples of Russian ecclesiastical art and crafts.
In nearby Sofrin, the Icon Workshops produce ecclesiastical ware. Also near Sergiyev Posad, the literary and artistic museum of Abramtsevo houses paintings by Repin, Serov and Vrubel. The museum is surrounded by parkland and birch woods. Ornate traditional Russian huts are dotted around the estate.
Founded in the ninth century, this town has a beautiful Kremlin and Cathedral of the Dormition. The town overlooks the shores of the Nero Lake, and is surrounded by ancient monasteries.
Neighbouring Yaroslavl lies on the banks of the Volga, and contains a host of ancient churches, most notably the Transfiguration of the Saviour Cathedral, built in the early 16th century.
This town stands at the confluence of the Volga and the River Kostroma. It is a renowned cheese-making center. Its most outstanding building is the Ipatievski Monastery-Fortress. Built during the first half of the 14th century, it became the Romanovs' residence three centuries later. The open-air museum features a collection of traditional Russian buildings, including wooden churches, log cabins and windmills brought from all over the Russian Federation.
East of Moscow is Suzdal, perhaps the most important town in the Golden Ring. It boasts 50 well-preserved examples of ancient architecture contained within a relatively small area, providing a wonderfully coherent vision of its past. Historically it was a political and religious center, and is now a major tourist attraction. The wives of tsars and boyars were exiled to the Blessed Virgin Convent.
Less than 32km (20 miles) away is Vladimir, which played a prominent part in the rise of the Russian state. The city's two magnificent cathedrals date from the 12th century. Another notable monument is the Golden Gate, a unique example of old Russian engineering skills. The nearby village of Bogolyubovo features a 12th-century fortress and Church of the Protecting Veil.
Another beautiful town on the banks of the Volga, this is notable for its Kremlin and the Chambers of Prince Dmitry. Prince Dmitry, son and heir of Ivan the Terrible drowned here, after accidentally being dropped in a river by his nurse.
The Federation's second-largest city, 715km (444 miles) northwest of Moscow, is known both as a cultural center and for its elegant buildings. The city is spread over 42 islands in the delta of the River Neva. In comparison to Moscow, which tended to be more Eastern in character, St Petersburg has always retained a European flavor and was intended as a 'Window to the West'. It was built by Peter the Great in 1703 and remained the capital for 200 years of Tsarist Russia. Known as Petrograd after the civil war, and Leningrad during the Soviet period, the city reverted to its original name in 1991 by popular demand. Wide boulevards, tranquil canals, bridges and some of the best examples of tsarist architecture gave rise to the epithet the 'Venice of the North'. Although badly damaged in World War II, much of it is now reconstructed. In June and July the city has the famous 'White Nights', when darkness recedes to a brief twilight and the city is imbued with an unusual aura. Many of the most interesting sites, especially those on the left bank of the River Neva, can be explored on foot. The Palace Square and the Winter Palace are among the most popular attractions for followers of Russian history. Troops fired on demonstrators there in 1905 and the Palace witnessed the capitulation of the provisional government, allowing the Bolsheviks to take the country into eight decades of Communist rule. The Hermitage houses the vast private collection of the tsars. The Museum of the History of the City gives a comprehensive picture of St Petersburg's history. While exploring the city the visitor will inevitably see the Alexandrovskaya Column. St Isaac's Cathedral is one of the biggest dome buildings of the world and, like the Kazansky Cathedral, houses a museum. Also worth a visit is the St Peter and Paul Fortress, a former prison that is now a popular museum. Members of the Romanov Dynasty are buried in the Cathedral of the same name. The gorgeously decorated Yusupov Mansion was built for the Romanovs. Its rooms are sumptuousy decorated in mid-19th-century style. The mansion's concert hall is now a venue for recitals, theatrical productions, opera and ballet. A waxwork exhibition commemorates Rasputin, who died in the building. The grand Nevsky Prospekt, dominated by the spire of the Admiralty Building, is one of the city's main thoroughfares and is lined by opulent buildings. These include the Kazan Cathedral and the Church of the Resurrection. The collection at the Russian Museum covers nearly 1000 years of Russian art history. Nevsky Prospect crosses the Fontanka River at Anichkov Bridge, and continues to Palace Square. Further sights are the Cathedral of St Nicholas (Russian Baroque), still a working church; the Alexander Nevsky Monastery, the main religious center in St Petersburg; and the Museums of Ethnography and Russian Art. The homes of Dostoyevsky, Pushkin, Anna Akhmatova and Rimsky-Korsakov serve as museums dedicated to their former occupants. The cruiser Aurora is berthed on the Neva. A blank shot was fired from her bow to give a signal to start the assault on the Winter Palace in 1917. Lenin also announced the victory of the Revolution from here.
The Summer Palaces
The following palaces beyond the outskirts of St Petersburg are collectively known as the Summer Palaces. Petrodvorets is a former summer palace of Tsar Peter the Great and is known for its beautiful cascades and fountains. It is located 34km (21 miles) from St Petersburg on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland. The tsar designed the initial plans himself, and he appointed European and Russian architects to realise his grand project, which was intended to rival Versailles. Oranienbaum was built as the summer residence of Alexander Menshikov, Peter the Great's associate. From here, Alexander oversaw the construction of the Kronstadt naval fortress on the nearby Kotlin Island. Thankfully, the palace and its parkland escaped damage during World War II. Its Chinese and Sliding Hill Pavilions are exceptionally beautiful. The Grand Catherine Palace at Tsarskoye Selo was built for Peter the Great's wife. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron designed some of the interiors, although a greater number by Bartholomeo Rastrelli survive. Pushkin spent his formative years in the town. Cameron also designed the subtle buildings at nearby Pavlovsk, which were intended to complement the parkland's beauty. The park itself, designed by the Italian Gonzago, is one of the finest landscaped parks in Europe. The estate was originally part of Tsarskoye Selo, but Catherine II gave it to her son Paul. Although she commissioned Cameron to design the estate, Paul, whose relationship with his mother was strained, decided to redecorate the palace.
Vast and often turbulent, Lake Ladoga is linked to St Petersburg by the River Neva. Valaam is the most significant of the islands in the lake's northern archipelago because of its ancient monastery. Its golden domes suddenly rise from the mist that frequently shrouds visiting cruise ships. The founding religious community frequently suffered Swedish and Viking attacks during the Middle Ages. The present buildings date from the late 18th century. As well as being an important pilgrimage center, the monastery was a noted center for innovations in crafts and agriculture. Its missionaries brought Orthodox Christianity to the shores of Alaska. A religious community was re-established on the island in 1989, and restoration of the monastery is already under way. Despite years of neglect, Valaam still retains a mysterious air.
South of St Petersburg, Novgorod was founded over 1100 years ago and was one of the most important towns of ancient Russia. Novgorod was the founding city of Rus, the nucleus of modern Russia, although Kiev later became the capital. Picturesquely located on the banks of the River Volkhov, the city is a treasure trove of ancient architecture, with 39 cathedrals and churches. Within the walls of the Kremlin, St Sophia's Cathedral (mid-11th century) is the oldest stone structure in the Russian Federation.
Bounded by Finland and the White Sea, Karelia's landscape is a patchwork of lakes, marshes and forests, whose canopies shade abundant mushrooms and berries. The region's capital, Petrozavodsk, is a staging post for a variety of holiday activities in the region. The small island of Kizhi within Lake Onega is easily accessible by hydrofoil from here. The island was an early pagan center. Its surviving heritage features the 22-domed 18th-century Church of the Transfiguration, whose wooden structure was built without a single nail. The open-air museum is a collection of Russian and Karel wooden buildings from the 14th to 19th centuries. The region is ideal for adventure holidays on the Shuya, Suna and Vama-Vodla rivers. Tranquil waters offering spectacular views of the countryside are suddenly interrupted by rapids cascading over glacial boulders. The white waters may be negotiated by kayak or cataraft. The Suna River is excellent for fishing. The Kivach Waterfall along its path is especially beautiful. Karel pies called kalitkas may be sampled in the local hamlets, often no more than a cluster of sturdy wooden cottages. A real sauna followed by a plunge into a river or lake is an ideal way to unwind at the end of an adventure-packed day.
Almost due north of St Petersburg, this is the largest city within the Arctic Circle. This important port on the shores of Kola Bay is warmed by the waters of the Gulf Stream and is free of ice throughout the year. It was built with British assistance during World War I. The Northern Lights are seen here in November and December and the Sports Festival of the Peoples of the North is held in March.
The largest city in the White Sea area, Arkhangelsk was only opened to tourists in 1990. Before the founding of St Petersburg it was the first and only seaport in Russia. From here, visitors may travel to the nearby village of Mali Kareli to view Russian white stone and wooden architecture.
The tract of land sandwiched between Lithuania and Poland on the Baltic shoreline is an annexe of the Russian Federation. Its principal town is now called Kaliningrad, although it was known as Königsberg when it was the center of German East Prussia. The area was ceded to the erstwhile Soviet Union following World War II. The territory's future prosperity depends on the Government's plans to give it special economic status. Architectural remnants which survived the war mark the city's German heritage, such as the Cathedral. The philosopher Immanuel Kant, the town's most famous son, is buried near here, and his memory is honored by the Kant Museum. The Amber Museum, housed in a restored German fortress tower, celebrates this local precious stone. The town has many attractive parks and gardens, as well as a zoo. Nearby, Svetlogorsk is a verdant coastal spa resort which has lost none of its charm. The Kursche Spit is a beautiful sand peninsula extending nearly 100km (63 miles) along the coast, and is a rich habitat for plants and animals.
Once an Armenian town, its low buildings still show Armenian influences. Especially interesting is the Cathedral of the Resurrection. There are several parks, four theaters, an orchestra, a race-course and a beach. Rostov is the gateway to the Caucasus.
A popular resort with a subtropical climate and a famous health spa, it is situated on the Black Sea's eastern coast beneath the dramatic Caucasus Mountains. An observation tower on Mt Bolshoi Akhun, 23km (14 miles) from the town, provides a spectacular view of the town, almost all of the Caucasian Riviera and the surrounding mountains. There is a large Riviera Park with many tourist facilities and a Botanical Garden, founded during the last century, with beautiful, interesting trees and shrubs from all over the world. Boat and hovercraft trips on the Black Sea are available from the town's port.
For those who want a resort-based holiday, this new holiday center lying to the north of Sochi is ideal. Overlooking the Black Sea, it is beautifully located amongst thickly wooded hills and subtropical greenery. Nearby is the Dagomys State Tea Farm where visitors can sample the fragrant Krasnodar tea accompanied by the delicious local pastries, jams, fruits and nuts whilst enjoying the spectacular mountain scenery.
The mighty Volga provides an additional road into the Russian Federation. Traveling by river from Kazan to Rostov-on-Don makes a pleasant tour.
The cultural centre of the Tartars, this city boasts a Kremlin dating from the 16th century which, with its towers and churches, is fascinating to visit. The Tartar State Museum and the 18th-century mosque are also of interest.
Lenin's birthplace; his parents' house situated here used to be a popular museum.
A major space centre, the city was founded in the 16th century around a fortress surveying the Volga and Samara rivers. The Old Town is notable for its fine turn-of-the-century buildings. The Volga shoreline and the nature reserves of the Zhiguli Hills are accessible from Samara.
Formerly Stalingrad, the Victory Museum celebrates the victory over the Nazis, and the whole city is a monument to the year-long battle that took place there. Tours to the battlefields are available. The town stands at the confluence of the Volga and Don rivers. Boat trips and fishing tours taking in both rivers are possible. Visits to outlying Cossack and Volga-German villages provide a glimpse of the region's history.
The Urals, Siberia & the Far East
The birthplace of former Russian President Boris Yeltsin. The city is also historically important as the last resting place of the Romanov royal family, murdered during the Bolshevik revolution.
Covering an area of over 12,800,000 sq km (4,000,000 sq miles), Siberia contains unimaginably vast stretches of marshy forest (taiga). This 'sleeping land', the literal translation of its name, possesses a million lakes, 53,000 rivers and an enormous wealth of natural resources. Although the temperature in winter falls well below freezing point, the weather in summer can be very warm. Tourism is less developed than elsewhere in the Russian Federation and some parts are still not accessible. However, much of the region has been opened up, including Sakhalin Island and the Chukchi Peninsula just across the Bering Strait from Alaska. The taiga is within easy reach of many of the region's cities. Air-hopping is one way of discovering the wilderness. A famous alternative is the Trans-Siberian Railway, the longest continuous railway in the world, a journey which is one of the greatest travel adventures. The line cuts through an area bigger than Western Europe, crossing a landscape which includes arctic wastes, tundra and steppe. The most scenic part of the journey is between Irkutsk and Khabarovsk.
Irkutsk is over 300 years old and owes much of its development to its location on the tradeways to Mongolia and China. At the end of the last century, the city began to take on the aspect of a 'boom town' when trade in gold, fur and diamonds suddenly created new wealth. It was to Irkutsk that many 19th-century revolutionaries, such as the Decembrists, were exiled. The University of Irkutsk was the first establishment of higher education in eastern Siberia. Today, as in former times, this important Siberian city is one of the world's biggest suppliers of fur. The town lies on the banks of the Angara, the only outflowing river from Lake Baikal.
The lake is accessible from Irkutsk by hydrofoil during the summer. Statistics about Baikal are astounding; with a depth of 1637m (5371ft) it is the world's deepest lake. Its surface area equals that of Belgium and The Netherlands put together. It is 25 million years old, and it would take three months to walk around its 2000km (1243 mile) shoreline. The purity of its water is maintained by millions of tiny crayfish, providing a habitat for a wide variety of fish, including sturgeon, loach, grayling and omul (a type of salmon), one of many species unique to Baikal. Its shores are a feeding ground for wildfowl and the occasional bear. Freshwater seal colonies are found around the Ushkan Islands in the center of the lake. Olkhon Island is the site of primitive rock drawings and a unique necropolis of an ancient Siberian tribe whose members are thought to have been ancestors of indigenous North Americans. The local climate is often harsh; the surface of the entire lake often freezes over in winter (trains were moved across the ice during the Russo-Japanese war). The sarma wind can sink boats and rip the roofs off buildings. While the human race now dominates the lake, it remains to be seen whether it will be a responsible custodian of the region's flora and fauna.
Many of the inhabitants of the Buryat Republic are Buddhists. Dozens of picturesque temples (datsans) sprang up round Lake Baikal after Empress Elizabeth, Peter the Great's daughter, recognized the Buddhist religion in the Russian Federation. Although most datsans were destroyed during the 1930s, many of their treasures were preserved in the Russian Orthodox church in Ulaan Ude, the capital. The Sandalwood Buddha, on display in the town's Exhibition Hall, is said to have been made with the Buddha himself sitting as a model.
Founded as a garrison town, Yakutsk is capital of the vast Sakha (Yakutia) Autonomous Republic. Today it is a major scientific center for permafrost research. The republic's landscapes range from Alpine meadows to moss-covered tundra, with sandy deserts close to the Arctic zone. This is pioneer country, complete with gold-mining settlements.
The largest industrial center of eastern Siberia and an important transport junction is located on the Amur. The town (founded in 1858) was named after the scientist Khabarov. The red brick houses in the center have curious roofs shaped like pine needles, and are intermingled with the constructivist architecture of the 1930s. Worth a visit is the regional museum, which offers an insight into the different cultures of the Amur people.
A military and naval port, Vladivostok was opened to foreign visitors in 1990. As a gateway to the Pacific and the East, the town has enormous commercial potential. It is within easy reach of the Ussuriysk taiga, a unique habitat for plants of the pre-glacial period, as well as tigers, leopard, bison, boar and bears.
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Materials enable the ideas of scientists to meet the needs of engineers. Research into the relationships between the atomic structure of materials and their physical and mechanical properties, both in the United States and elsewhere, is leading to exciting new alloys and compounds that can be designed to exhibit a wide range of useful properties. For this reason a number of federal agencies, including the Department of Energy, Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and advisory bodies, such as the Office of Science and Technology Policy and the National Research Council, have identified materials as a critical technology vital to our nation's national security and economic competitiveness.
The Integrated Materials Research Laboratory (IMRL) enables Sandia to develop new and superior materials that meet government and industrial needs. This 140,000 square foot building houses most of the advanced materials research and development functions at Sandia. The facility integrates research from the atomic scale, through the development of electronic devices, to full scale mechanical components. The experimental work is augmented by advanced computer modeling and simulation techniques, another area of Sandia's expertise.
A wide variety of types of materials will be investigated: advanced metallic alloys, semiconductors for electronic and photonic applications, high temperature superconductors, ceramics, metals with properties tailored for improved resistance to friction, wear, corrosion and erosion, etc., and laser, optical and dielectric materials.
The IMRL has been built outside of Sandia's secure area to facilitate technical cooperation with researchers from industry and universities. The new four story building has permitted Sandia to bring together some 250 materials researchers previously scattered about the campus. It also includes space for postdoctoral researchers and guests from other organizations, facilitating the collaborative generation of new ideas, and the subsequent transfer of novel pre-competitive technologies to practice.
The IMRL is strategically located with our microelectronics development, compound semiconductor research and robotics manufacturing science and engineering laboratories. This drives the integration of materials research with advanced microelectronic component development creating a set of leading edge facilities in what may be termed an integrated microsystems technology park.
We have developed a variety of solution chemistry routes to ceramic powders in order to control such important powder properties as particle size, agglomerate structure, dopant levels, and impurities. The ability to control powder properties is important because the microstructural and electrical properties of ceramics are strongly influenced by the nature of the powder used in their fabrication. This solution processing approach is illustrated above for the Sandia-developed process to prepare high field ZnO varistor materials. This patented process has been successfully transferred to industry and has been qualified as a material source for varistor Lightning Arrestor Connector granules and other weapons components.
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Sure-Fire Strategies for Handling Difficult Students
- Grades: PreK–K, 1–2, 3–5, 6–8
This article was excerpted from Learning to Teach...Not Just for Beginners: The Essential Guide for All Teachers by Linda Shalaway.
Effective teachers discipline with encouragement and kind words much more often than rebukes or reprimands. The goal is to help students feel good about themselves and their behavior in the classroom.
Inevitably, though, misbehavior happens. When it does, keep the collected wisdom of experienced teachers in mind:
- Take a deep breath and try to remain calm. It's natural to be overcome with frustration, resentment, and anger. But when you are, you become less rational, and your agitation becomes contagious.
- Try to set a positive tone and model an appropriate response, even if it means you must take a few moments to compose yourself. Acknowledge that you need time to think, time to respond. "This is upsetting me, too, but I need a few minutes to think before we talk about it."
- Make sure students understand that it's their misbehavior you dislike, not them. "I like you, Jason. Right now, your behavior is unacceptable."
- Give the misbehaving student a chance to respond positively by explaining not only what he or she is doing wrong, but also what he or she can do to correct it.
- Never resort to blame or ridicule.
- Avoid win-lose conflicts. Emphasize problem-solving instead of punishment.
- Insist that students accept responsibility for their behavior.
- Try to remain courteous in the face of hostility or anger. Showing students that you care about them and their problems will help you earn their respect and establish rapport.
- Treat all students respectfully and politely. Be consistent in what you let them say and do. Be careful not to favor certain students.
- Be an attentive listener. Encourage students to talk out feelings and concerns and help them clarify their comments by restating them.
- Model the behavior you expect from your students. Are you as considerate of your students' feelings as you want them to be of others? Are you as organized and on-task as you tell them to be? Are your classroom rules clear and easy for students to follow?
- Specifically describe misbehavior and help students understand the consequences of misbehavior. Very young children may even need your explanations modeled or acted out.
- Be aware of cultural differences. For example, a student who stares at the floor while you speak to him or her would be viewed as defiant in some cultures and respectful in others.
- Discourage cliques and other antisocial behavior. Offer cooperative activities to encourage group identity.
- Teach students personal and social skills — communicating, listening, helping, and sharing, for example.
- Teach students academic survival skills, such as paying attention, following directions, asking for help when they really need it, and volunteering to answer.
- Avoid labeling students as "good" or "bad." Instead describe their behavior as "positive," "acceptable," "disruptive," or "unacceptable."
- Focus on recognizing and rewarding acceptable behavior more than punishing misbehavior.
- Ignore or minimize minor problems instead of disrupting the class. A glance, a directed question, or your proximity may be enough to stop misbehavior.
- Where reprimands are necessary, state them quickly and without disrupting the class.
- When it's necessary to speak to a student about his or her behavior, try to speak in private; this is especially true of adolescents who must "perform" for their peers. Public reprimands or lectures often trigger exaggerated, face-saving performances.
When Personalities Clash . . .
Sometimes, despite our best intentions, we find ourselves actively disliking one of the students in our charge. The student may be rude, disrespectful, disruptive, obnoxious, or otherwise annoying. It's just human nature; some personalities clash. But instead of feeling guilty about our feelings, we can take positive steps to improve them, says school psychologist and teacher Shelley Krapes. Here are some of her suggestions:
- Try to understand where the behavior is coming from. Is the student distressed by a death, divorce, new baby, learning disability, or some other overwhelming experience? Speaking to the student's parents or guardian may shed light on underlying causes and help you develop sympathy through understanding.
- Help yourself manage negative feelings by reflecting on a past situation in your life where a similar conflict occurred. Discuss the situation with a friend or by writing your thoughts in a journal. Making and understanding these connections can help you let go of some of your current hostility or resentment.
- Use positive strategies when dealing with the child. One such strategy is addressing specific behaviors with precise language that describes what needs to be done. In addition, try to seat the student near to you or a helpful student, praise the student liberally but sincerely, give the student choices to promote self-worth and feelings of control, be firm and consistent about your rules, and express displeasure with the student's behavior without criticizing the student.
- Set a goal. If the situation between you and the child has not improved after two or three months of your best effort, it may be time to recommend professional/psychological/educational testing. Some problems are very complex and beyond your control.
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|Product #: TCR2315_TQ|
Jumbo Book of Writing Lessons (Resource Book Only) eBookGrade 3|Grade 4|Grade 5
Please Note: This ebook is a digital download, NOT a physical product. After purchase, you will be provided a one time link to download ebooks to your computer. Orders paid by PayPal require up to 8 business hours to verify payment and release electronic media. For immediate downloads, payment with credit card is required.
Part One contains over 35 lessons, each one complete with a teacher guide and student pages. Topics include parts of speech, sentences, paragraphs, quotations, stories, letters, interviews, editing, and much more. Part Two, The Writer's Notebook, contains examples, forms, writing patterns, rules, and other helpful information for students.
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|Product #: REM487F|
The Five Ws 1st Grade Reading Level
Terrific for reluctant readers! Students are sure to enjoy the high-interest, factual newspaper articles featured in this book. Each article is presented in a realistic and appealing format complete with dateline and picture. Follow-up questions require the reader to respond to the úFive W'sî - who, what, when, where, and why. A great way to boost comprehension skills! Reading levels are achieved through the use of controlled vocabulary, simple sentence structure, and appropriate illustrations.
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Was The Race To The Moon Real?; June 1994; Scientific American Magazine; by Logsdon, Dupas; 8 Page(s)
Twenty-five years ago, on July 20, 1969, Neil A. Armstrong took the first footsteps on the surface of the moon. That event marked a political and technological victory for the U.S. in its cold war rivalry with the U.S.S.R. In the years that followed, the Soviet government insisted that the Soviet Union had never planned a lunar landing. Hence, it argued, the contest to send humans to the moon was a onesided exercise. The reality is otherwise; recently declassified information from that era and testimony of key participants in the Soviet space program under Khrushchev and Brezhnev prove that the moon race was indeed real.
New evidence reveals that personal rivalries, shifting political alliances and bureaucratic inefficiencies bred failure and delays within the Soviet lunar-landing program. In contrast, the American effort received consistently strong political and public support. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration and its contractor teams also benefited from a pool of skilled and highly motivated workers and managers. Despite an early Soviet lead in human space exploration, these factors, along with more generous and effective allocation of resources, enabled the U.S. to win the competition to be first to the moon.
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Displaying 1-13 of 13 links
AfricaAdapt is a bilingual (English/French) network of African researchers, policymakers, civil society organisations and local communities that encourages information sharing on climate change adaptation for Africa.
The network publishes information on its activities including workshops, innovation funding, radio programmes in local languages and news services for mobile phones. It also publishes video, audio and photo stories to present community perspectives on climate change adaptation methods. It links to key organisations and publications on adaptation in several fields including agriculture, fisheries, forestry, energy, water and health.
This site provides access to a suite of climate related observations, projections and predictions for the African continent. Of particular interest are the up-to-date seasonal predictions and the African monsoon bulletin. There is also a searchable archive of climate data and research activities detailed in French. ACMAD also offers 'on the job training' in climatology. The website is also available in French.
The AMMA programme aims to study how the West African monsoon affects meningitis and malaria epidemics. While it focuses on one weather system, the climate factors it looks at can be generalised to other environments. For example, it examines how wind, dust, rainfall, temperature and humidity, amongst others, affect mosquito density and malaria or meningitis epidemics in people. The website also offers a key resource for researchers in the form of an open-access bibliographic database containing more than 250 scientific articles.
This site provides access to reports of projects and case studies conducted as part of the international Assessments of Impacts and Adaptations to Climate Change in Multiple Regions and Sectors (AIACC) initiative. A searchable database of projects by country, region, and sector contains some of the final reports in pdf format.
The projects cover adaptation in almost all sectors, with five projects with final reports in southern Africa, one project in eastern Africa and three projects in western Africa. The site also provides accessible summaries of each project, as well as updates posted throughout the duration of the studies.
This online resource captures current articles, reports, papers and books sourced from nongovernmental organisations and development agencies such as ActionAid, SouthSouthNorth, the International Institute for Environment and Development and the World Bank. The site features short summaries and links to full papers, all of which are relevant to adaptation in sub-Saharan Africa.
The Climate Prediction Centre's African Desk aims to create a partnership between the United States' National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) and the African Meteorological Services to encourage exchange of data and train meteorologists.
The website contains weather summaries, rainfall, monsoon predictions and various short and long term weather forecasts. The African Desk also hosts two visitors at a time for training in climate change monitoring and predictions methods.
This organisation aims to encourage dialogue and the sharing of good practice by policymakers and opinion leaders on the future of agricultural growth in Africa. It covers topic areas such as climate change, land use, policy processes and science, technology and innovation. The website publishes free to access publications, lists of relevant events and fellowships, and online discussions on issues including small-scale agriculture. It also provides access to resources for policy engagement, such as policy briefs, and a regularly updated list of relevant organisations and websites.
The Guardian Environment website publishes news and commentary on environmental issues such as climate change, energy, ethical living, food and recycling.
It also provides blogs, job listings and multimedia, including audio and video podcasts. Users can comment and are encouraged to join discussions.
The website also aggregates relevant news from members of the Guardian Environment Network, which brings together the world's best environment websites including SciDev.Net, China Dialogue, Real Science and the World Resources Institute.
This non-profit organisation aims to develop sustainable ecological farming in Africa and India. ICRISAT's mission is "to help empower 600 million poor people to overcome hunger, poverty and a degraded environment in the dry tropics through better agriculture".
ICRISAT's BioPower initiative aims to ensure that bioenergy research benefits the poor. Its activities include analysing bioenergy trends and understanding their repercussions for the poor, and enabling governments to formulate pro-bioenergy policies that benefit poor people.
This site is maintained by the Kenya Meteorological Department and contains short term weather forecasts, seasonal forecasts, and agro-meteorological data. Other climatological data is available from the website upon request.
The Southern African Regional Climate Outlook Forum (SARCOF) is a regional seasonal weather outlook prediction and application process adopted by the fourteen countries of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Member States.
The site provides access to weather forecasts and climate predictions and features weather warnings, mid-season rainfall analysis and rainfall review reports to mitigate extreme climatic conditions.
These country-level reports, published by the Climate Systems and Policy research cluster at the University of Oxford, provide data on observed and projected climates in 52 countries in the developing world.
Each report contains maps, diagrams, tables and a narrative of the data, putting it in the context of the country's general climate. Files in text format with datasets containing underlying and model data can be downloaded for further use.
After the release of the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2001, UNEP and GRID Arendal published this set of 25 graphics focused on the special challenges that Africa faces due to expected long term climate change.
Three sections cover the evidence of change in Africa, the science driving these changes, and vulnerability to — and trends in — extreme events on the continent. The graphics also show the severity of climate impacts on fresh water, human health, and food in Africa.
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Print version ISSN 0001-3765
An. Acad. Bras. Ciênc. vol.84 no.3 Rio de Janeiro Sept. 2012 Epub July 10, 2012
Cássius R. SantanaI; Gabriela M. BochioI; Luiz dos AnjosII
IPrograma de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Biologia Animal e Vegetal (BAV), Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Caixa Postal 6001, 86051-990 Londrina, PR, Brasil
IIDepartamento de Biologia Animal e Vegetal, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Caixa Postal 6001, 86051-970 Londrina, PR, Brasil
We evaluated the distribution of abundance of three species of warblers in the southern portion of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (BAF): Tropical Parula (Parula pitiayumi), the Golden-Crowned Warbler (Basileuterus culicivorus) and the White-Rimmed Warbler (Basileuterus leucoblepharus). Three types of forests comprise this region of the Atlantic Forest: seasonal semi-deciduous forest (SF), mixed rain forest (MF) and dense rain forest (DF). These forest types occur at different elevations: SF ranging from 200 to 800 m, MF ranging from 800 to 1,200 m and DF ranging from sea level up to 2,000 m. We used point counts in fifteen study areas distributed in the three forest types. The White-Rimmed Warbler and the Tropical Parula had higher abundances in MF, and their abundance was positively correlated with the elevation. The Golden-Crowned Warbler did not present a significant difference in abundance among the forest types, and no correlation between abundance and elevation was found. We suggest that the difference in the occupancy of the forest strata by the Golden-Crowned Warbler is because this species is more generalist and thus less sensitive to variations in the vegetation structure among the forests types when compared to the other two warbler species.
Key words: abundance, Atlantic Forest, Basileuterus, distribution, elevation, warblers.
Nós avaliamos as distribuições de abundância em três espécies de parulídeos na porção sul da Mata Atlântica do Brasil: a Mariquita (Parula pitiayumi), o Pula-pula (Basileuterus culicivorus) e o Pula-pula-assobiador (Basileuterus leucoblepharus). Três diferentes tipos de formações florestais compõem esta região da Mata Atlântica: a floresta estacional semidecidual (FES), a floresta ombrófila mista (FOM) e a floresta ombrófila densa (FOD). Estes tipos de floresta ocupam altitudes diferentes: FES ocorre entre 200 m e 800 m, a FOM é encontrada entre 800 m e 1200 m de altitude e a FOD ocorre desde o nível do mar até 2000 m. Nós usamos pontos de escuta em 15 áreas florestais localizadas nos três tipos de floresta. O Pula-pula-assobiador e a Mariquita apresentaram maior abundância na FOM e uma correlação positiva entre abundância e altitude. Já o Pula-pula não apresentou diferença significativa de abundância entre os três tipos floresta nem correlação entre abundância e altitude. Nós sugerimos que a diferença de ocupação dos estratos de floresta por Pula-pula é resultante do fato desta espécie ser mais generalista e, portanto, menos sensível a variações na estrutura de vegetação entre os tipos de floresta quando comparada às duas outras espécies de parulídeos.
Palavras-chave: abundância, Mata Atlântica, Basileuterus, distribuição, altitude, parulídeos.
Studies on variations in bird distribution and abundance along elevational and latitudinal gra-dients are common in the ornithological literature (e.g. Terborgh 1971, 1977). Regarding the family Parulidae, we can find studies on the effects of elevation on the population distribution in North and Central America (Kepler and Parkes 1972, Morse 1979, Hutto 1985). Lanning et al. (1990) studied the distribution of the Colima Warbler (Vermivora crissalis) and observed variations in population size and habitat occupancy of another three Parulidae species in an elevational gradient between 1,700 and 3,000 m at the border between Mexico and the United States. Blake and Loiselle (2000) reported higher numbers of warbler species at lower elevations between 50 and 1,000 m in the central coast of Costa Rica.
In South America there are about 60 Parulidae species. These birds, known as warblers, can be divided into two groups (Ridgely and Tudor 1989): migrants (in North America) and residents, which are mostly Basileuterus. Little is known about the distribution of these species along elevational gradients in Brazil, although Ridgely and Tudor (1989) mention general trends in their occupation. According to these authors, the White-Rimmed Warbler and the Tropical Parula occur in mountainous areas, up to 1,600 m and 2,500 m, respectively. The Golden-Crowned Warbler presents a wide elevational distribution up to 1800 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1989).
In this study we analyzed the distribution of abundance of these three Parulidae species in three different forest ecosystems in the southern Brazilian Atlantic Forest (BAF), which occupy different elevations: mixed rain forest (MF), dense rain forest (DF) and seasonal semi-deciduous forest (SF). Variations in the abundance of these species according to elevation are expected, although they tend to co-exist in the three forest types.
This study was conducted in areas of continuous forest of the BAF in the state of Paraná, southern Brazil, covering the three forest types: MF, DF and SF. Fifteen areas were sampled. Three of these areas represent some of the larger continuous portions within their respective forest types in the Paraná state: Parque Nacional do Iguaçu (185,000 ha) in the SF, Floresta Nacional de Irati (3,500 ha) in the MF and Área de Preservação Ambiental de Guaraqueçaba (192,000 ha) in the DF. Four areas are smaller (between 656 and 1,000 ha), but also legally protected. Another five areas are not protected, but are also as well preserved as the Conservation Units (Table I). The three forest types studied differ in biotic and abiotic characteristics. In the DF, where our study areas were distributed from sea level up to 800 m (although this forest type can reach 2,000 m), annual rainfall and average temperatures are high. There is no obvious dry season and the rainfall is well distributed throughout the year. The complex canopy is composed of a great variety of plant species (around 700 species of trees are found), displaying an abundance of epiphytes and large biomass of bamboo and vine tangles (Morellato and Haddad 2000, Oliveira-Filho and Fontes 2000).
The MF, which occupies elevations ranging from 800 to 1,200 m, is dominated by a single plant species: Araucaria angustifolia, which represents more than 40% of the individual trees. This type of forest is poor in bamboo and vine tangles, but rich in epiphytes. The annual average temperatures and rainfall are lower than those found in the DF, and there is no distinct dry season (Mazza et al. 2005). The SF, ranging from 200 to 800 m in elevation, is dominated by a few plant species, of which Aspidosperma polyneuron, Tabebuia heptaphylla and Peltophorum dubium are noteworthy. This type of forest is rich in vine tangles and bamboo, but poor in epiphytes. The average annual rainfall is similar to that observed in the MF; however, the average temperature is similar to that in the DF. A distinct dry season of 160 days can be observed in this type of forest (Morellato and Haddad 2000, Oliveira-Filho and Fontes 2000).
BIRD SAMPLING METHODS
Point counts were performed to obtain the abundance data in all study areas (Blondel et al. 1970, Vielliard and Silva 1990, Bibby et al. 1992, Anjos 2007). This method was applied establishing six points along a trail at a distance of 200 m of each other. Another six points were set along another trail located at least 300 m from the first one (replicate). Thus, each sampling site considered in this study was represented by 12 sampling points distributed in two trails. The samplings on each site were conducted on consecutive days. More than one site was sampled in larger areas such as Parque Nacional do Iguaçu (where four trails of six points were sampled). The sampling occurred seasonally over a two year period, totaling 16 sampling days in almost all studied areas, or 96 sampling points at each site.
Samplings at each point were conducted in the morning, starting with the early bird activity in the day. The points were sampled in sequence, inverting the starting point at each season. Each point count was surveyed for fifteen minutes, which was also the interval between the sampling points. Thus, the sampling on each track ended 2 h 45 min after the first point. Visual and/or auditive records were considered within an estimated radius of 100 m, and each breeding pair or group was considered as one contact. A standard schematic form allowed the observer to avoid repeating records of an individual at the same point.
To determine the abundance of each species at each sampling site the Ponctual Index of Abundance (IPA) was obtained (Blondel et al. 1970, Bibby et al. 1992, Anjos 2007). This index was calculated for each species by dividing its number of contacts by the total number of points sampled in each site (Blondel et al. 1970). A non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis (H) test was applied to evaluate differences between the median values of the species' I.P.A. for the different forest types. The correlation significance between the values of I.P.A. and the elevation of the sampling sites for each species was evaluated using a Spearman Rank Correlation test (rs).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
All three species occurred in the three forest types. However, only the Golden-Crowned Warbler occurred in all sampling sites (Table I). The White-Rimmed Warbler and the Tropical Parula presented significantly higher I.P.A. medians in the MF (Kruskall-Wallis, H = 10.3, P <0.01 and H = 11.4, P <0.01, respectively). Regarding the Golden-Crowned Warbler there was no difference in median values of I.P.A. among the forest types (Kruskall-Wallis, H = 3.2, P = 0.20).
The White-Rimmed Warbler and the Tropical Parula showed significant positive correlations between abundance and altitude (rs = 0.70, P <0.01 and rs = 0.73, P <0.01, respectively) (Fig. 1). No correlation was found for the Golden-Crowned Warbler (rs = - 0.12, P = 0.65) (Fig. 1).
The data obtained suggest that elevation affects the abundance of the White-Rimmed Warbler and the Tropical Parula in the southern portion of the Atlantic Forest; both presented greater abundance at higher elevations. This result proves to be similar to that found for several warbler species of temperate Northern Hemisphere forests such as the Painted Redstart (Myioborus pictus), the Oliver Warbler (Peucedramus taeniatus), the Yellow-Rumped Warbler (Dendroica coronate), the Colima Warbler (Vermivora crissalis) and the Crescent-Chested Warbler (Vermivora superciliosa, now in the genus Parula), which increased in occurrence with the increasing elevation (Hubbard and Crossin 1974 , Morse 1979, Lanning et al. 1990). The data obtained for the southern portion of the Atlantic Forest show a more similar pattern to temperate regions than to tropical zones considering the study of Blake and Loiselle (2000) in Costa Rica, where the abundance of Parulidae was higher at lower elevations ranging from 50 m to 1,000 m.
However, it is noticeable that the Atlantic Forest is not homogeneous, and these species are actually more related to the MF, which occurs at higher elevations and latitudes. Thus, although the geographic distribution of these species comprises large portions of the Atlantic Forest in the southern and southeastern Brazil (Ridgely and Tudor 1989), biotic and abiotic characteristics of the forest types influence variations in their abundance (Anjos 2002).
Variations in abundance were not detected for the Golden-Crowned Warbler, suggesting a higher tolerance of this species to spatial variations of the environment. The reasons why the Golden-Crowned Warbler was more tolerant to variations along the BAF than the other two species are not clear. The explanation may lie in the occupation of the forest strata (Ridgely and Tudor 1989): the White-Rimmed Warbler is commonly found in dense undergrowth of rainforests, the Tropical Parula preferentially occupies the canopy of trees in the upper strata, and the Golden-Crowned Warbler is often observed in mixed flocks present in the middle and lower strata. Considering that the three species are predominantly insectivorous, the fact that the White-rimmed Warbler and the Tropical Parula are more restricted to specific strata of the forest (lower and higher, respectively) could possibly reduce their ability to seek prey in different forest types where the vegetation structure presents more variations. The Golden-Crowned Warbler, which forages in the forest middle stratum, could be more generalist than the other two species in relation to the occupancy of the arboreal strata (Mendonça-Lima et al. 2004, Chatellenaz 2008), and therefore less sensitive to changes in the vegetation structure.
Financial support for this study was obtained from Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) through the Mata Atlântica Program, and from Fundação Araucária (Curitiba). Research grants for the authors from CNPq (133549/07-0; 305593/07-2 and 201476/07-0) and from Fundação Araucária were received during the period. We thank the Instituto Ambiental do Paraná (36/07, 51/07; Curitiba) for permissions to conduct research in the Reserves, and the owners of private lands where some sites are located. We also thank K. Cockle for the valuable suggestions. F. L. Fávaro and E. V. Lopes helped during the field work.
ANJOS L. 2002. Forest Bird Communities in the Tibagi river hydrographic basin, southern Brazil. Ecotropica 8: 6779. [ Links ]
ANJOS L. 2007. A eficiência do método de amostragem por pontos de escuta na avaliação da riqueza de aves. Rev Bras Orn 15: 239-243. [ Links ]
BIBBY C, BURGUESS ND AND HILL DA. 1992. Bird Census Techniques. British Trust for Ornithology and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. London: Academic Press. [ Links ]
BLAKE JG AND LOISELLE BA. 2000. Diversity of birds along an elevational gradient in the cordillera central, Costa Rica. Auk 117: 663-686. [ Links ]
BLONDEL J, FERRY C AND FROCHOT B. 1970. La méthode des indices ponctuels d'abundance (IPA) ou des releves d'avifaune par "stations d'écoute". Alauda 38: 55-71. [ Links ]
CHATELLENAZ ML. 2008. Ecología alimentaria de dos especies simpátricas del género Basileuterus en el Noreste de Argentina. Hornero 23: 87-93. [ Links ]
HUBBARD JP AND CROSSIN RS. 1974. Notes on northern Mexican birds. Nemouria, Occas. Pap. Delaware Mus Nat Hist 14: 1-41. [ Links ]
HUTTO RL. 1985. Seasonal changes in the habitat distribution of transient insectivorus birds in southeastern Arizona: competition mediated? Auk 102: 120-132. [ Links ]
KEPLER CB AND PARKES K. 1972. A new species of warbler (Parulidae) from Puerto Rico. Auk 89: 1-18. [ Links ]
LANNING D, MARSHALL JT AND SHIFLETT JT. 1990. Range and habitat of Colima Warbler. Wilson Bull 120: 1-13. [ Links ]
MAZZA CAS, SANTOS JE, MAZZA MCM, MATTOS PP AND RACHWAL MFG. 2005. Caracterização ambiental dos componentes estruturais da paisagem do município de Irati, Paraná. Bol Pesq Des Embrapa Florestas Colombo 25: 1-45. [ Links ]
MENDONÇA-LIMA A, HARTZ SM AND KINDEL A. 2004. Foraging behavior of the White-Browed (Basileuterus leuco-blepharus) and the Golden-Crowned (B. culicivorus) warblers in a semidecidual forest in Southern Brazil. Ornitol Neotrop 15: 5-15. [ Links ]
MORELLATO LPC AND HADDAD CFB. 2000. Introduction: The Brazilian Atlantic forest. Biotropica 32: 786792. [ Links ]
MORSE DH. 1979. Habitat use by the Blackpoll warbler. Wilson Bull 91: 234-243. [ Links ]
OLIVEIRA-FILHO AT AND FONTES MAL. 2000. Patterns of floristic differentiation among Atlantic forests in southeastern Brazil, and the influence of climate. Biotropica 32: 793-810. [ Links ]
RIDGELY RS AND TUDOR G. 1989. The Birds of South America Vol. 1: The oscine passerines. The United States: Oxford University Express, 516 p. [ Links ]
TERBORGH J. 1971. Distribution on environmental gradients: theory and a preliminary interpretation of distribution patterns in the avifauna of cordillera Vilcabamba, Peru. Ecology 52: 23-40. [ Links ]
TERBORGH J. 1977. Birds species diversity on an Andean elevation gradient. Ecology 58: 1007-1019. [ Links ]
VIELLIARD JEM AND SILVA WR. 1990. Nova metodologia de levantamento quantitativo da avifauna e primeiros resultados no interior do Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. In: IV ENCONTRO NACIONAL DE ANILHADORES DE AVES. Recife. Universidade Federal de Pernambuco PE, Brasil, p. 117-151. [ Links ]
Cássius Ricardo Santana
Manuscript received on June 2, 2010; accepted for publication on January 1, 2011
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versión impresa ISSN 0259-9422
Herv. teol. stud. v.67 n.1 Pretoria 2011
Faculty of Theology, University of Pretoria, South Africa
One of the presumptions of this article is that most of the people in the nascent 'Christian' communities were ordinary people struggling with questions of living under harsh conditions in a country that was occupied by an enemy force. Another presumption is that the history of these ordinary people from antiquity needs to be heard. The article aimed, with the help of archaeology, cultural anthropology, social history of antiquity, literature of the time as well as other disciplines, to create a social context of Jesus and his disciples. The article approached the Gospels in the New Testament from the poor, the majority of people living in the 1st century Roman Empire. It gives a brief analysis of one of the poverty texts, namely Matthew 6:2534. By means of interviews, stories of villagers in Tanzania, as well as their interpretations of the Gospel texts, have been documented. The people of Kinywang'anga serve as a test case for reading the 'do not worry' exhortation in the Matthean passage.
Reading the text with the poor
'Almost half the world over three billion people live on less than $2.50 a day' (Poverty facts and stats; Shah 2009).
'Do not worry about your life, what you will eat or what you will drink, or about your body, what you will wear' (Mt 6:25).
The New Testament was written during a time when poverty was a reality for almost everyone. Even now, after 2000 years, poverty is still present as one of the world's biggest problems. However, biblical scholarship today is done, more often than not, by those privileged with varying degrees of wealth, who do not themselves belong to any of the poorest classes of people. This fact leads to the questions: Do we understand the life of the poor enough to comprehend, for example, how they would hear the words of Jesus when he asked them not to worry about tomorrow? How did the audience, who heard this proclamation, whether in Galilee or later, elsewhere in Roman Empire, react to these words? How does a village community consisting of poor people react to these words?
Traditionally, biblical studies have concentrated on the texts. These texts were written by the literate elite and represent the view of the privileged few. Most certainly the authors of the Gospels had some education and held positions of some status in their communities, which gave them the time and the skills to be able to write these texts. The history of the early Jesus movement, that later developed into the religion called Christianity, is usually written based on these texts composed by the elite.
As a biblical scholar I, too, was taught to always keep the textual evidence at the forefront. 'Exegetes work with texts', it was said. Theories were not considered as important as the texts were. Within scholarly circles it became almost standard to analyse the texts in short pericopes, 'single units' as the smallest ones were called. This kind of working model was especially favoured in historical Jesus studies, where scholars tried to draw a believable and understandable figure of Jesus of Nazareth by ascribing these single units to Jesus or by simply leaving them out if they seemed too problematic or were clearly later than Jesus.
However, I quickly learned three important things. Firstly, there is no text without context. The single units have never been 'single units' except for the scholars working with these texts. They were not delivered as short sayings and anecdotes by anyone or to anyone. Therefore it is not possible to understand any of these sayings, anecdotes, or short stories except by reading them within their original context. Linguistic analysis of single words and their etymologies are of no value if you do not know the context. The text always belongs to a context. Besides, the results of such investigation are not very trustworthy even if one could, with convincing argumentation, present a collection of authentic words of Jesus (which is not the case).1 Nobody's message, programme or thinking can be persuasively represented just by collecting various words and anecdotes and then using them to sum up the whole:
No matter what criteria for testing the sayings are used, scholars still need to move beyond the sayings themselves to a broader context than a summary of their contents if they are to address historical questions about Jesus.
Harsh criticism of the way many Jesus scholars investigate the single sayings of Jesus is given by Richard Horsley (2008:131145), who bases his critique on the examination of the memory and the gospels as 'social memory' rather than 'containers of data'. Every text and every moment of oral proclamation and performance makes best sense within its context. Overman (1996) writes:
The whole story of Matthew is a crucial context and, in fact, an absolute necessity for understanding smaller parts or units of the Gospel. The story itself, written by the author as best we can reconstruct it, is the first place a sensible reader will look for clues and for a context that will help supply meaning to words, instruction, and stories in the Gospel. And there is little doubt that cross-cultural analogies, and stories and events from our own time, can indeed help to shed more light on the Gospel texts, their meanings, and their application.
Secondly, I learned that it is much easier to know the context of Jesus than Jesus himself. We know a great deal about the Roman Empire in 1st century Palestine. We have trustworthy information about the cultural context that Jesus and his disciples lived in. With the help of archaeology, cultural anthropology, social history of antiquity, literature of the time as well as other disciplines, we can create the social context of Jesus and his disciples. It is much more difficult to place the figure of Jesus into that context.
Thirdly, the Gospels, as we have them today, are not in their original form. Originally, they were distributed in both oral and written forms, with several different forms of each, depending on the context. The Gospels also differ from other contemporary literature because of the fact that, although authored by the elite, they do contain some traditions that have been produced by ordinary people, even poor people. This seems to me to be especially true in the Sayings Gospel Q and the Gospel of Mark and on some occasions the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Thomas. Even the theologically constructed Gospel of John contains some traditions that might have been born in rural peasant circles and the Gospel of Luke based his admittedly elite Gospel on earlier traditions found in Q and Mark. Thus, as Horsley (2008:31) writes, the Gospels 'are some of those rare historical cases of literature that represents the view from below'.
Most of the people in the nascent 'Christian' communities were ordinary people struggling with questions of living under harsh conditions in a country that was occupied by an enemy force. Their history needs to be written. Horsley (2008:2124) makes an interesting distinction between 'standard history' and 'people's history' and applies this distinction to New Testament studies. To use his terms, my study would be a 'people's history'.
In this article the focus is not on theological concepts or the rise of Christian beliefs. The focus is rather on the poor, the majority of people living in the 1st century Roman Empire. In choosing this focus I have approached the gospels from the viewpoint of the poor.
What follows is a necessarily brief analysis of one of the poverty texts that I chose for the interviews amongst people living in poverty today. A more detailed study will be forthcoming in my book on the same subject. In these interviews, I listened to the stories of the villagers as well as their interpretations of the Gospel texts and documented them on a voice recorder. Findings from this field research amongst the poor living in villages in Tanzania in the spring of 2010 will be studied further and then compared to current biblical scholarly investigations concerning the poverty texts. One example text, Matthew 6:2534, will be presented here from a contextual standpoint, that is, from the perspective of the materially poor.
The field research in Tanzanian villages
One contemporary setting to read the poverty texts within the context of poverty is Tanzania. In many places in Africa, especially in rural areas, people still live in a pre-industrial, agrarian society. In many villages, there is no electricity and virtually no motor vehicles or telephones. Some tribes still live in a gatherer society whilst some tribes are nomadic. But most of the rural people are peasants who make their living from agriculture. They have tiny fields and a small number of cattle that affords them, in normal times, a modest living for themselves and their families. Most people do not produce anything for sale and almost nobody gets a salary. Also, in recent times HIV and AIDS has struck the African continent, especially sub-Saharan Africa, more heavily than any other part of the world, making, at worst, one in every four adults HIV-positive (UNAIDS 2008).2
I chose to focus on the villages in the Iringa district in the middle of Tanzania because of my earlier contacts in the area and the support of the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Mission Society as well as Tumaini University. Their familiarity with village life in the district was very useful when arranging visits to local villages where people speak mainly Swahili and their own tribal languages, like Hehe, Bena or Kinga.3
The focus during the visits to the villages was twofold. Firstly, I wanted to become familiar with the social structure of the village. I asked the village chief or executive secretary the following kinds of questions:
How many people live in the village?
Do all villagers belong to the same tribe or kin?
What do villagers do for a living? What professions or occupations do they have?
How many villagers work outside of the village?
How and why, do villagers keep contact with neighbouring villages and towns?
What are the major problems in the village?4
In light of the issues regarding land ownership in the gospels it was especially interesting to learn that in Tanzania, the land was appropriated by the state in the 1960s. The older generation still remembers the time when the land was either owned by a tribe or by kin, or was free to anyone. Nowadays people pay rent for the land they want to cultivate. This data works not only as a necessary context for reading the poverty texts with the villagers, but offers a comparison to the hypothesis regarding the origins of Q, namely that it was supposed to have originated in the Galilean villages where loss of land was prevalent.
Secondly and most importantly, I discussed the poverty texts with the villagers. I call this discussion a 'reading' but the texts were not read from a book with leather covers, but rather performed in narrative style. In Tanzania the oral culture and narrative tradition is still alive and well. By telling the stories from memory I tended to get their first reactions, which may have been different had I simply read to them from the Bible. Some of the villagers were non-Christians, so they were not too closely acquainted with the stories beforehand. Even the Christians heard the stories differently compared to the way they heard them from pastors and evangelists or even in liturgical sermons. I had hoped to have a lively discussion of the poverty stories in the Gospels and that I most certainly did. Often the religious authorities (a pastor, an evangelist or some other religious leader) were present, but I politely asked them not to take part in the discussions, given that they are professionals and I wanted to hear the voices of ordinary people. They agreed to my request and were politely quiet, but I usually had to visit their home afterwards so that they did not feel left out. I also asked the people gathered at the meeting place to set aside their understanding of the story if they had already heard it and to listen as if they were hearing it for the first time in their lives. At each meeting, there were 2050 people present from both genders and all ages and approximately 1015 of them took part in any given discussion.
At this point, there are some things that I ask the reader to keep in mind before reading the following field report section. As a foreigner in mid-Tanzania, with a different way of life, I come from a completely different world than the one they inhabit. Some of them had never seen a White person before. I did not speak their language and had to rely on a translator, who belonged to one of their own tribes. As an outsider I was treated politely and perhaps regarded with some authority given that, in every situation, I was given the seat of honour directly beside the village chief or some other authorities. There is a big difference when an outsider arrives in a village and leads a discussion compared to someone that they know doing the same thing. I had to ask many questions in order to gain an understanding of village life; an understanding that I am sure was quite different from their own lived reality. An outsider usually sees things more from an overall viewpoint than insiders do.
Village life in Kinywang'anga
The village of Kinywang'anga was one of my first sites. I had initially chosen to perform the story of The Rich Man and Lazarus, Luke 16:1931, but after discussing with the village 'executive secretary',5 the text seemed inappropriate to village life. Even in terms of the Bible the story is located in a more urban setting. In Kinywang'anga, nobody had luxurious clothes and it would have been hard for them to imagine that there were any such people who could have eaten so well as the rich man in the story. The village was one of the poorest in the area. It consisted of approximately 1000 inhabitants who all made a living from their own little farms of generally 0.54 hectares. Almost all of them would be considered peasant farmers, which is how they saw themselves as well. There is one primary school with five teachers. Although the teachers received government pay, each also had a small farm with some cattle. In addition to the teachers there were two religious leaders in the village, one a Lutheran evangelist and the other an Anglican priest; each of them also had farms. There were no other professions amongst the inhabitants of the village and no one goes to work outside of the village.
People from three different tribes, the Hehe, Bena and Kinga, live in Kinywang'anga. These tribal names are also the names of the languages spoken in the village. There are no cars in the village. There is only one tractor and a few bicycles. Despite the lack of transportation, people make weekly visits to neighbouring villages to meet with relatives and friends and sometimes to try and find medical treatment. Health care poses serious problems as there is no transportation and the distance to the nearest health centre or hospital is extensive.
People in Kinywang'anga are totally dependent on the products of the earth. If there is no rain, there is no crop and they are in danger of starvation; the last time this happened was in 2000. Other catastrophes might destroy the crop as well. There were no barns or other store houses in the village which may have enabled them to keep surpluses to use during hard times or to sell as a way of providing additional income. However, the village grows sunflowers, which are pressed for their oil and sometimes sold to people travelling the main road that goes 3 kilometres out from the village. Two years ago a water pipe system was built for them, so now they have a place from which to fetch water. There is no electricity in the village.
The villagers live in traditional African clay houses with grass roofs and they are very poorly dressed. Many people had no shoes. However, the women were dressed in colourful textiles for the meeting with me, carrying babies tied on their backs. Approximately 50% of the population comprises children.6 According to the standards of the World Bank, the people in Kinywang'anga live in absolute poverty, that is, under $1.25 a day (The World Bank Group 2010).
Do not worry in Kinywang'anga (Mt 6:2534)
After learning all of this background information, I decided to change the Gospel passage to be performed to Matthew 6:2534, the Do Not Worry passage.7 I thought it was a very challenging story in the context of life in Kinywang'anga, where people sometimes have no food at all, clothing is meager and they have enjoyed the 'pure'8 water from the pipes for only a couple of years now. Most years they have enough food, but it is quite simple and not very nutritious. Most probably the situation in 1st century Galilee (or in any rural environment in the Roman Empire) would not have been any better, but it certainly could not have been much worse. In Kinywang'anga the context for this gospel passage is totally different compared to my own country of Finland as well as most Western countries and perhaps closer to the conditions experienced by those living in 1st century Galilean villages.
The meeting took place in an outside area in the shade. During the time of year that we met, the 'flowers of the field' were very beautiful and everything was green; the 'birds of the air' flew over us and sang (Mt 6:26, 28).
A lively discussion followed the performance of the text. The discussion was opened by an elderly man who said that, 'Maybe Jesus spoke these words, because he found that the people had very little faith. He wanted to teach them about faith'. I suppose that what the man meant by 'faith', was, trust in God's care, but I am not sure. Another man said, 'Jesus found people so keen on material things, that they forgot the spiritual things and God. They were concerned about food, clothes and other things, but not God'. A woman said that if someone came to say such words to her, she would think that this person has something dishonest in mind.
'It would be better if somebody would tell me a better way how I could manage my life in order to get things and not to say "Do not worry"'.
Another continued and said that such a person would be considered 'mentally disabled' by the villagers. The Lutheran evangelist interjected, saying that:
'Some worry is understandable, because we need many things, but one should not worry about things that are beyond one's ability to influence or control, for example weather. It is, however, good to plan your future'.
When I asked if they knew anyone who did not worry about tomorrow, they strongly denied knowing such a person. The same elderly man who started the discussion, said: 'Jesus knew the people and their problems and needs, so he wanted to give them a change, a new perspective, a new way of thinking'. I asked, what would happen, if they stopped worrying about daily food and drink and clothing and just trusted in God? Someone said that then life would be very bad. Another said that it is a matter of faith. If the people believed what Jesus said and stopped working they would have thought everything comes automatically, without human involvement, if they just believed. A young woman with a baby said:
'The speech of Jesus must have divided the people in two groups: others had faith and thought that "this is true, why worry", whilst the others thought "this is not possible". Faith is the main topic of Jesus' speech'.
One man said that if you trust God, you will have everything you need.
In further discussion over sodas, we found a solution together for this problematic text. If a person is worried, they soon become depressed and are not a joy to their friends and relatives. It is therefore better not to worry too much about worldly things that you cannot do anything about, but instead to rejoice with family and friends for all the good we have.
Most of the scholarly commentators of the Do Not Worry text do not discuss it in the context of the poor, although some features in the saying refer to this issue.9 For example, Jesus speaks of the grass of the field that is thrown into an oven. The poor often used grass as a fuel in the oven to cook bread, because wood was so scarce (Malina & Rohrbaugh 2003:51). Also, the figure of Gentiles as 'striving for all these things' is understandable in a context where Gentiles usually represent the rich who have better and easier lifestyles than local villagers.10
It is important to note that the religious and cultural memory of the people in Kinywang'anga is not identical with the social memory of the 1st century Galilean villagers. Key terms in the passage such as 'heavenly Father', 'Solomon in all his splendor', 'Gentiles', 'strive first for his kingdom and his righteousness', would have resonated with 1st century Jewish listeners differently from the Tanzanian poor, who would be without an important context for understanding the passage.
In Kinywang'anga it became clear to me that the Do Not Worry passage makes no sense at all in a village where people are living in ongoing poverty. The villagers tried to find a spiritual message in the saying, maybe because it was not reasonable to live a careless life, as Jesus seemed to be advising. They interpreted the saying in the light of the Kingdom of God (v. 33), which they seemed to have understood within a spiritual context.
But what about people who have already lost the basic necessities that were needed for living: the sources of food and drink (field, cattle), access to water supply (such as a well) and the possibility of making or purchasing adequate clothing? In Kinywang'anga I met one person who fit this description; he was a young man behaving strangely, dressed even more poorly than the villagers and seemingly suffering from one or more severe illness. According to the locals he was mentally ill.
During the spring of 2010 I also visited the Palestinian territories in the West Bank. Although I did not read this particular passage with the Palestinians, I discussed the Kingdom of God with them. As Muslims their understanding was also spiritual, but compared to the people in Kinywang'anga, their understanding was much more concrete. The Kingdom of God for them was 'doing God's will' and therefore not only a spiritual entity. Quite the contrary, the Palestinians, who suffered from injustice by the Israelites, understood the Kingdom of God as a movement of oppressed people who have God as their shelter when they do God's will. The Kingdom of God was equivalent to the intifada.
William R. Herzog II (2010) has written:
In the hierarchy of rural life, then, there are two thresholds at which peasants may lose their previous status, and it is at these moments that they will resist their decline most fiercely.
(Herzog II 2010:5152)
Quoting James C. Scott (1976), he concludes that:
When threatened with the loss of their land and the security of their village, they will form movements and perhaps even rebel. The same is true when peasants reach the second, more desperate threshold, 'when the subsistence guarantees within dependency collapse', and the relative stability of tenancy gives way to the perilous life of a day laborer.
(James C. Scott 1976:3940)
This had obviously not happened in Kinywang'anga, where most people still had the security offered by village life and their small farms. In the Palestinian territories, in contrast, the people had suffered from injustice and loss of land. The life of many Palestinians had become very difficult. In that context it is much easier to imagine how they would react to the exhortation 'Do Not Worry'. Especially young men would eagerly join any movement resisting the unjust oppressor. They could stop worrying about the questions of daily life and strive for the movement that they believed brings justice, peace and welfare.11
The context of do not worry in the gospels
In the Gospels we can find three groups where Jesus' words on not worrying about daily life could have been understood and maybe even hailed as good news. The first one is the group of landless peasants, who had quite recently lost all their property to some rich landowners, probably absentee landlords, as a result of debts they were not able to pay. Such people would have quickly fallen under the sustenance level and their future was either to become slaves, beggars, criminals, bandits or some other social outcast. These are just the kind of people who might form movements for resistance.
If the group believed that their plight triggered an eschatological turn in the immediate future, some kind of a collapse of the normal system of social stratification leading to the possibility of shared goods, they could have heard the words of Jesus as a proclamation of power. However, in the literal context of Matthew's gospel there are no clear indications that the words should be understood this way. The Do Not Worry passage is a part of the Sermon on the Mount and although the Gospel of Matthew also contains an apocalypse later in chapter 24, it would be a stretch to read the chapter 6 passage in light of this. Rather, the verbal context of Matthew leads one to think about one's relation to property rather than to the end times. Preceding Mattew 6:2534 the evangelist talks about almsgiving (6:14), prayer, including central petitions concerning daily living (6:515), fasting (6:1618),12 storing property or treasures (6:1921), envy, or the evil eye (6:2223)13 and the impossibility of serving both God and Mammon (6:24). In chapter 7, the themes change from property to one's relationships with other people.
Therefore, it seems to me that, at least in its Matthean context, Jesus' words would not have made sense as an eschatological proclamation. In the context of Q this might have been possible, but the sequence of Q (its different phases and the social context of Q) are still debated so much that it is not possible to enter into that discussion in this article.
The second possible group for whom Jesus' Do Not Worry saying would have been understandable was in a group made up of 'itinerant charismatic preachers'. The earliest followers of Jesus were supposedly people living in Galilean villages where Jesus' proclamation of the Kingdom of God was welcomed and understood as a liberating action that would soon free them from subjugation to the Roman Empire. Heavy taxation, wars, punishments and other consequences of the occupation were a tremendous burden on the peasant population. The message of the Kingdom of God was spread from village to village by Jesus' disciples, who had left their earlier lives (whether voluntarily or under pressure) and lived solely on the support of villagers who accepted the movement's message. These are the people that were sent to proclaim the Kingdom of God without carrying a purse, a bag or sandals (Lk 10:112).14
Itinerant, wandering charismatic preachers did not need to work for their living. They did not have to worry about their living in the same way that peasants who were dependent on their crops did. They adopted a lifestyle, which made them free from worries concerning agricultural production. Therefore, they were like the birds in the sky. They trusted the benevolence of the people in the villages that they visited, some of whom might have been their relatives or friends (the most popular reason for going to nearby villages and towns for Tanzanian villagers is to visit relatives and friends). However, this interpretation also fits much better in the rural context of Q and not so well into the more urban context of the Gospel of Matthew.15 Also, Matthew places the Q material concerning the itinerant preachers elsewhere in the Gospel, not in the Sermon on the Mount.
It is still important to know that Matthew, when including material from Q into his Gospel, took these texts as a larger entity of texts dealing with property and poverty and placed them in Jesus' longest speech in chapters 57.
The third group of people for whom the Do Not Worry saying makes sense can be found in the immediate context of the speech. The geographical context was naturally the city where the Gospel of Matthew was written. The majority of modern scholars locate the gospel geographically to Syria16 and suggest that it was written in Antioch, the third largest city of the Roman Empire at the time (e.g. Meier 1982:2227; Luz 1985:7374; Stambauch & Balch 1986:145; Stark 1996:147162; Brown 1997:21213; Carter 2008:21).17
Andries van Aarde (2007) writes:
The Matthean Jesus' exposure of the power of the Roman Empire (and that of the Temple authorities) does not mean that Gentiles are excluded from God's inclusive basileia or that the marginalized now included were only Israelite peasants. The 'lost sheep of the house of Israel' pertain to both Israelites and non-Israelites and include people such as:
- the economically poor who are without family support (such as those referred to in Mt 19:21),
- the socially homeless (such as a 'partriarchless' woman divorced by her husband in Mt 19:9 and the children without parents mentioned in Mt 19:1315),
- and ethnic outcasts (such as the Canaanite mother in Mt 15:2128 and the Roman centurion in Mt 8:513 and Mt 27:54).
Seen from the perspective of Israel as a covenantal family, the above group were marginalized and those were the kind of people who could be among the crowds that followed Jesus 'from Galilee and the Decapolis and Jerusalem and Judea and from across the Jordan' (Mt 4:23). They were those who were granted God's goodness because of God's righteousness, the 'last who became the first' (Mt 20:115).
(Van Aarde 2007:423)
In light of understanding the Gospel of Matthew as proclaiming the Kingdom of God, not only as anti-Roman, but also inclusive of the marginalised people, both Israelites and non-Israelites, the Do Not Worry saying makes sense in its Matthean context and becomes more understandable from the viewpoint of the poor. The poor in the Gospel of Matthew were not ordinary Israelite peasants living in small farms, but people with no family support and no home and even from different ethnic origins. According to Matthew, they formed the audience of the Sermon on the Mount (4:2325). Jesus says to them that they should first strive for the kingdom of God and his righteousness. When these outcasts are accepted as true members of the family-like community of Jesus' followers, they do not have to worry about their future, because they will be the 'last who became the first'. The community will take care of their material needs.
Choosing Kinywang'anga as a test case for reading the Do Not Worry exhortation was challenging: I did not have any idea how the poor peasant farmers in the village would comprehend the passage. I must say that it was first a disappointment that they did not seem to understand it any better than I did. The saying made no sense in their context. However, the test case study helped me to see that most probably it was as difficult to understand in 1st century Galilean villages as in an African village nearly 2000 years later. The poor who first heard these words were not poor peasants still working in their tiny fields and worrying about daily sustenance. However, if these kind of people lose their security as a result of oppression (that is 'persecution' in the New Testament), as has happened in the West Bank, the exhortation becomes empowering for them in uniting them for struggle for their own rights.
With the example of Kinywang'anga I wanted to show the usefulness to biblical scholarship, to say nothing of the necessity, of getting to know people living in poverty and to understand their living conditions. Of course, Tanzania is not 1st century Palestine. It is, however, much closer to it than the Western world where most scholarly work on the Bible is done. For me my visits to the African villages gave me new insights into the Bible and helped me to understand how large the cultural gap is between our world and the New Testament World of the poor. Did I gain a better understanding of the poverty texts? No, quite the contrary. Unfortunately, it is not possible to present more examples here, but it is my hope that the one presented in this article makes it clear how hard it is to understand the words of Jesus or the evangelists, not to speak of applying those words to our own modern lives.
Brown, R.E., 1997, An introduction to the New Testament, Doubleday, New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Auckland. (The Anchor Bible Reference Library). [ Links ]
Carter, W., 2008, Matthew, storyteller, interpreter, evangelist, rev. edn., second printing, Hendrickson, Peabody, Massachusetts. [ Links ]
Funk, R.W., Hoover, R.W. & the Jesus Seminar, 1993, The five gospels: What did Jesus really say? The search for the authentic words of Jesus, MacMillan, New York. [ Links ]
Hanson, K.C. & Oakman, D.E., 2008, Palestine in the time of Jesus: Social structures and social conflicts, 2nd edn., Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ]
Herzog, W., 2010, 'Why peasants responded to Jesus', in R.A. Horsley (ed.), Christian Origins. A people's history of Christianity 1, pp. 47-70, Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ]
Hoffmann, P., 1972, Studien zur Theologie der Logienquelle, Neutestamentliche Abhandlungen, Neue Folge 8., Verlag Aschendorff, Münster. [ Links ]
Horsley, R.A., 2008, Jesus in context: Power, people & performance, Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ]
Kloppenborg Verbin, J.S., 2000, Excavating Q: The history and setting of the Sayings Gospel, Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ]
Luz, U., 1985, Das Evangelium nach Matthäus 1 (Mt 17). Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament. Band I/1., Benziger Verlag, Zürich, Einsiedeln, Köln; Neukirchener Verlag des Erziehungsvereins GmbH, Neukirchen-Vluyn. [ Links ]
Malina, B., 2001, The New Testament world: Insights from cultural anthropology, 3rd edn., revised and expanded, Westminster John Knox Press, Louisville, Kentucky. [ Links ]
Malina, B.J. & Rohrbaugh, R.L., 2003, Social-science commentary on the synoptic gospels, 2nd edn., Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ]
Meier, J.P., 1982, 'Antioch', in R. Brown & J.P. Meier (eds.), Antioch and Rome: New Testament cradles of Catholic Christianity, pp. 1186, Chapman, London. [ Links ]
Meier, J.P., 2001, A marginal Jew: Rethinking the historical Jesus. Volume three: Companions and competitors, The Anchor Bible reference library, Doubleday, New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Auckland. [ Links ]
Nolland, J., 2005, The gospel of Matthew: The new international Greek Testament commentary, Eerdmans Publishing co., Grand Rapids, Michigan and Paternoster Press, London. [ Links ]
Overman, J.A., 1996, Church and community in crisis: The gospel according to Matthew, The New Testament in context, Trinity Press International, Valley Forge, PA. [ Links ]
Sanders, E.P., 1985, Jesus and Judaism, SCM Press, London. [ Links ]
Sato, M., 1988, Q und Prophetie: Studien zur Gattungs- und Traditionsgeschichte d. Quelle Q., WUNT 2,29, Mohr, Tübingen. [ Links ]
Scott, J.C., 1976, The moral economy of the peasant: Rebellion and subsistence in southeast Asia, Yale University Press, New Haven. [ Links ]
Shah, A., 2009, Poverty facts and stats, viewed 05 April 2010 from http://www.globalissues.org/article/26/poverty-facts-and-stats. [ Links ]
Stambauch, J.E. & Balch, D.L., 1986, The New Testament in its social environment, Library of early Christianity, Westminster Press, Philadelphia. [ Links ]
Stark, R., 1996, The rise of christianity: A sociologist reconsiders history, Princeton University Press, New Jersey. [ Links ]
UNAIDS, 2008, 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic', viewed 05 April 2010, from http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/2008/2008_Global_report.asp. [ Links ]
Van Aarde, A.G., 2007, Jesus' mission to all of Israel emplotted in Matthew's story, Neotestamentica 41(2), 416436. [ Links ]
Van Tilborg, S., 1972, The Jewish leaders in Matthew, Brill, Leiden. [ Links ]
Pikku-kaari 20 B, 70420 Kuopio, Finland
Received: 23 Apr. 2010
Accepted: 16 Aug. 2010
Published: 07 June 2011
Note: Dr Sakari Häkkinen is participating as a research associate of Prof. Dr Andries G. van Aarde, Honorary Professor at the Faculty of Theology of the University of Pretoria, South Africa.
1.The work of the Jesus Seminar resulted in the publication of Funk, Hoover and the Jesus Seminar 1993. Not even this work, even though born from the co-operation of numerous biblical scholars, represents the final truth on what the historical Jesus once said. The debate still goes on.
2.According to the 2007 estimations of UNAIDS (a joint United Nations and World Health Organization program on HIV and AIDS) in the southern parts of Africa of the adult population (1549) 25% 28% were infected by HIV. In the Tanzanian area I visited, the estimation was the worst in the country, 15.7% of the adult population.
3.I am very grateful to Tumaini University for assigning two assistants, Rev. Aleck Mhanga and Rev. Yekonia Koko to me as well as for the use of a car during my stay in mid-Tanzania.
4.The data I acquired in the field has been tabulated, but is not presented here for practical reasons.
5.Kinywang'anga's village chief was not present. I was told that he might join us later (or perhaps he had something else to do). I did not meet him at all. Instead, the executive secretary gave me all the information I needed and I noticed that he also had some authority in the village and was considered to be one of the wealthiest men in the village with his herd of 25 cows. In my opinion, the 'executive secretary' in every Tanzanian village is the modern equivalent of the 'scribes' in Galilean villages. Both the executive secretaries and the Galilean scribes (and later rabbis) were responsible for the village archives and official documents. See Hanson and Oakman (2008:166167).
6.The office of the village chief was quite stark. It had a table and a chair, a wooden bench and a tiny shelf, that seemed to hold some papers and a huge cardboard box containing condoms!
7.The saying is originally from Q and thus is also in Luke 12:2234. Parts of the text can be found also in P. Oxy p. 655, which contains saying 36 of the Gospel of Thomas.
8.Visitors and foreigners in Tanzania are advised not to drink the water that comes out of these pipes.
9.For example, Meier (2001:517) takes for granted that Jesus is warning about the dangers of wealth, as if the people worrying about their daily life would seek wealth. This seemed not to have been the situation amongst the villagers in Kinywang'anga. Nolland (2005:305316) speaks about 'hard work to earn enough to purchase the cloth' and 'Jesus can assume that his hearers will share his aesthetic judgment that natural beauty outshines the most artful of human productions'.
10.This came to me when I was visiting the villages. As a foreigner, I was viewed by them as being 'rich'.
11.There were also some Muslims attending the discussion in Kinywang'anga, but they did not differ from the other villagers in terms of their attitude to work or worrying.
12.From a poor person's perspective, fasting is a very interesting phenomenon. If people were already poor and were enduring what amounted to forced fasting, Jesus' advice to put oil on their heads and to wash their faces must have sounded very strange indeed. The saying is more suited to an urban environment and possibly in a society whose members are not suffering from poverty.
13.The concept of the 'evil eye' referred to envy (Malina 2001:108133).
14.The synoptic sayings source Q was probably composed and used by Galilean villagers from several villages that formed a network consisting of twofold followers of Jesus: itinerant missionaries and settled disciples of Jesus (e.g. Hoffmann 1972:329333; Sato 1988:379380). For other scholars promoting the wandering (charismatic) missionaries and their localised allies (or leaders?), see Kloppenborg Verbin (2000:179184; deviating claims: 184196).
15.The gospel was most probably written for a community living in an urban environment. Urban locale may be suggested by 26 uses in the Gospel of 'city' compared to four of 'village' (Brown 1997:212).
16.Syria is added in Matthew 4:24 to Mark's description of Jesus' activity. Also, the early Jewish Gospel of the Nazarenes, which is related to Matthew, circulated in Syria. In Syria, the Jesus-believing Jews were called 'Nazoraioi', the Greek term used in Matthew 2:23 (Luz 1985:74; Brown 1997:212).
17.The main arguments for Antioch are (1) Ignatius of Antioch seems to have known and probably cited the Gospel of Matthew (the citation is not clearly from Matthew, however); (2) The Didache quotes Matthew and is located by most scholars in Antioch; (3) The first two chapters of the Fourth Ezra (later known as the Fifth Ezra) quoted from Matthew; (4) Antioch as a Greek-speaking city that had a relatively large Jewish population fits well with the conditions mentioned in the Jewish Gospel written to a mixed audience in Greek and; (5) The dominant influence that Matthew's gospel would have in subsequent Christianity suggests that it served as the Gospel of a major Christian church in an important city, such as Antioch. According to Brown (1997:213), the most persuasive evidence stems from the correspondence of the internal evidence. Brown argues quite convincingly that the gospel was addressed to a once strongly Jewish Christian church that had become increasingly Gentile in composition and J.P. Meier has shown how the history of Christianity in Antioch fits that situation. There were probably more Jews in Antioch than in any other place in Syria and their ceremonies attracted many Gentiles (Josephus, War 7.3.3). Also, Paul's mission to the Gentiles began in Antioch, but the community there seems to have later been led by more conservative Jews, as Paul lost the battle (described in Gl 2) and departed Antioch in the 50s. Overman (1996:1617) suggests a Galilean city (perhaps Capernaum or Sepphoris), followed by at least D. Harrington, A.J. Saldarini and A. Segal (who thinks both a Galilean environment and Antioch are possible). Galilee belonged formally to Syria. Tilborg (1972) suggests Alexandria, but Overman (1617) quite convincingly denies this possibility. Overman also provides other suggestions given by scholars on the location of the Gospel, but thinks them improbable. The earliest references to the Gospel according to Matthew by the Church Fathers imply a Palestinian location.
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They have worked for almost seven years in secret.
Most people did not know that the work in Ray Goehner's materials characterization department at Sandia National Laboratories was contributing important information to the FBI's investigation of letters containing bacillus anthracis, the spores that cause the disease anthrax. The spores were mailed in the fall of 2001 to several news media offices and to two U.S. senators. Five people were killed.
Sandia's work demonstrated to the FBI that the form of bacillus anthracis contained in those letters was not a weaponized form, a form of the bacteria prepared to disperse more readily. The possibility of a weaponized form was of great concern to investigators, says Joseph Michael, the principal investigator for the project. This information was crucial in ruling out state-sponsored terrorism.
In fall of 2001, the FBI considered how to best investigate the anthrax letters. The agency convened two blue ribbon exploratory panels, and Sandia's name came up during both panels for its expertise in electron and ion microscopies and microanalysis over the range of length scales from millimeters down to nanometers. The first spore material from the letters arrived at Sandia in February of 2002.
Sandia faced some uncertainty in working on this type of investigation. Researchers signed nondisclosure agreements and agreed to make themselves available to government agencies on short notice when called to give information.
Joseph Michael, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) lab owner Paul Kotula, and a team of roughly a dozen others examined more than 200 samples in those six and a half years. They received samples from the letter delivered to the New York Post, to former Sen. Tom Daschle (D-S.D.), and to Sen. Patrick Leahy (D-Vt.). The samples looked different, in part because of how the samples were prepared, which made examination initially difficult.
When bacillus anthracis spores are weaponized, the spores are coated with silica nanoparticles that look almost like lint under the microscope. The "lint" makes the particles "bouncier" and less likely to clump and fall to the ground. That makes the spores more respirable and able to do more damage, says Michael. Weaponization of the spores would be an indicator of state sponsored terrorism.
"Initially, scanning electron microscopy [SEM] conducted at another laboratory, showed high silicon and oxygen signals that led them to conclude that the spores were a weaponized form, says Kotula. "The possible misinterpretation of the SEM results arose because microanalysis in the SEM is not a surface-sensitive tool," says Kotula. "Because a spore body can be 1.5 to 2 microns wide by 1 micron long, a SEM cannot localize the elemental signal from whole spore bodies."
Using more sensitive transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Kotula and Michael's research indicated that the silica in the spore samples was not added artificially, but was incorporated as a natural part of the spore formation process. "The spores we examined," Kotula says, "lacked that fuzzy outer coating that would indicate that they'd been weaponized."
Sandia's work was the first to actually link the spore material in the New York Post, the Daschle and the Leahy letters. The elemental signatures and the locations of these signatures, while not indicating intentional weaponization, did show that the spores were indistinguishable and therefore likely came from the same source. That conclusion was corroborated a few years later by the DNA studies.
The materials characterization lab serves as a materials analysis resource for a diverse collection of projects. The lab plays an important role in stockpile surveillance, supporting Sandia's nuclear weapons mission.
Michael was recently released from his nondisclosure agreement and flown to Washington, D.C., to participate in press conferences at FBI Headquarters along with several members of research teams who'd been asked to examine other aspects of the anthrax case.
The FBI was pleased with Sandia's work, says Michael.
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Dec. 6, 1999 A team of scientists has discovered that some widely-prescribed cholesterol-lowering drugs also have impressive bone-building capabilities that may make them effective drugs for treating osteoporosis. The team's findings appear in the 3 December issue of Science.
These drugs, known as statins, represent an entirely new approach to treating osteoporosis, one which emphasizes building new bone to replace bone that has already deteriorated. Current therapies for the disease focus on stopping or slowing bone loss and stabilizing a person's existing bone mass.
"Hopefully this will stimulate drug companies to take a look at the statins that they might have on their shelves and do clinical trials on the ones that actually target bone," said Gregory Mundy of Osteoscreen, lead author of the study.
100 million people worldwide are at risk for osteoporosis, particularly postmenopausal women and a rapidly growing elderly population. In osteoporosis patients, bone loses crucial minerals such as calcium and phosphorus and becomes thin and fragile. Fractures of the hip and pain and compression in the spine are some of the most common problems associated with the disorder. Osteoporosis patients have often lost 50 to 60 percent of their bone mass in these crucial areas, so rebuilding this bone is key to their recovery, according to Mundy.
The team of scientists also included Ross Garrett, Jeannie Chan, Di Chen, Giovanni Rossini, Ming Zhao, and Gloria Gutierrez, all from Osteoscreen, as well as Stephen Harris of the Department of Medicine at the University of Texas Health Science Center and Brendan Boyce of the Department of Pathology at the University of Texas Health Science Center.
Mundy and his colleagues identified the statin group as potentially powerful agents against bone loss after an extensive, three month search of over 30,000 natural compounds. Their goal was to find small molecules that could activate the gene for a protein that promotes bone formation. Out of 30,000 possibilities, statins proved to be the only ones that specifically increased levels of the bone formation protein.
As they are conventionally prescribed, statins work by blocking the action of an enzyme in the liver that turns fatty foods into cholesterol. Studies show that statin drugs dramatically lower cholesterol levels in high cholesterol patients, reducing rates of coronary heart disease and stroke and lowering the risk of dying from these diseases. Statins such as lovastatin, simvastatin, pravastatin and others have been widely used for over ten years with little toxic side effects, marketed under names like Mevacor, Zocor, and Prevachol.
The research team first applied four different types of statins to bone taken from the skulls of mice and grown in a laboratory culture. Each of the statins increased bone growth in the cultures two to threefold by stimulating the production of osteoblasts, the specialized cells that create new bone.
"The statins build up a team of osteoblasts, but in addition to that, they bring these osteoblasts into maturity, so they can start growing bone," Mundy said. This is in contrast to most current bone loss therapies, which only increase the number of osteoblasts without encouraging the differentiation and maturity of these bone-building cells.
After this initial success, the researchers tested the effects of statins in living animals, first injecting the drugs directly into the tissue overlying the skullcaps of mice. They also administered oral doses of the statins to two groups of female rats, one group with intact ovaries and another group with the ovaries removed to mimic the effects of menopause. The mice that were directly injected showed an almost 50 percent increase in new bone formation in the skull after only five days of treatment. In the oral dose groups, the statins caused increases in new trabecular bone (the type of bone found at the ends of bones like the femur) ranging from 39 to 94 percent after approximately one month's treatment.
"It was totally amazing to us," Mundy said of the amount of bone growth, "especially the effects of it in culture and applied locally."
He noted that the less dramatic increase in bone growth for the oral dosage groups was probably due to the fact that the orally-administered statins don't make their way to the targeted bone as well as those that are directly injected. Since statins are designed to zero in on the liver, most of their effects on bone are secondary. For these statins to be really effective as agents against osteoporosis, Mundy said, they need to be the kind of statins that distribute themselves directly to bone or bone marrow.
Although the statins seem to be most effective at building new bone, the researchers could not rule out the possibility that the drugs were also inhibiting the breakdown of bone, which could make them a candidate for osteoporosis prevention as well.
A preliminary analysis that looked back at a group of elderly women taking statins to lower their cholesterol found that these women had higher bone mineral density and less fractures in their hip. However, Mundy cautioned that this retrospective analysis is not definitive, since the overall sample size was small and there were no controls on the length of treatment or the consistency of the statin doses. The real answer to how well these statins contribute to bone formation in humans will come after randomized clinical trials, he said.
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Apr. 1, 2003 After years of frustrating searches for genes that contribute to mental illness, researchers at Johns Hopkins studying families with a severe form of manic depressive illness, called psychotic bipolar disorder, may be one step closer to finding the genetic underpinnings of both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.
"Finding a gene for bipolar disorder is like finding a needle in a haystack, but by focusing our search on families with a distinctive form of the illness we were able to pinpoint a region of the genome where disease genes are likely to be found," said James Potash, M.D., assistant professor of psychiatry at Johns Hopkins and lead author of a report on the study in the April issue of the American Journal of Psychiatry.
Although genes are unlikely to tell the whole story of major psychiatric diseases, the persistent frequency of mental illness in about 1 percent of the global human population, regardless of cultural or ethnic differences, and its tendency to run in families have always pointed to a strong genetic role. "But pinning down that role is complicated by the many variations in symptoms, even within the same family," says Potash. "There are probably many different genes and environmental factors that can cause any given mental illness."
Motivated by previous suggestions that certain broad regions of the DNA sequence, especially on human chromosomes 13 and 22, may contain genes that contribute to both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, Potash and colleagues focused on those families with the psychotic form of bipolar disorder. Like bipolar disorder, psychotic bipolar disorder is characterized by see-sawing episodes of depression and mania, but it is distinctive because these mood changes often are accompanied by such psychotic symptoms as hallucinations and delusions.
The concept for the new study is that of two slightly overlapping circles, explains Potash. In one circle are all of the genes that contribute to schizophrenia. The other circle has all of the genes that contribute to bipolar disorder, while the intersection of the two circles contains genes that are common to both diseases as well as for psychotic bipolar disorder.
The researchers carefully evaluated and took blood samples from 65 patients with bipolar disorder and from their extended families. They extracted blood cell DNA and scanned it with DNA probes, looking for matching sequences that are more likely to appear in those with mental illness than in those without it. By noting where these markers lay on chromosomes, the researchers were able to narrow in on where the genes were located.
Out of 65 bipolar disorder families studied, the 10 families in which 3 or more members had psychotic bipolar disorder showed strong genetic "linkage" to specific regions on chromosomes 13 and 22. These results differed significantly from those for all 65 families, which showed little or no linkage evidence in these two regions.
"These results confirmed our expectation that genes for the psychotic form of bipolar disorder are likely to be found in the same regions that show linkage to both bipolar disorder as a whole and to schizophrenia," says Potash.
One important implication of the study is that these "overlap genes" may contribute to brain abnormalities that are shared by bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, and could help explain why the same anti-psychotic medications are effective treatments for both diseases, says Potash.
Authors on the report are Potash, Dean MacKinnon, Sylvia Simpson, Francis McMahon, J. Raymond DePaulo, Melvin McInnis, Peter Zandi, Virginia Willour, Tsuo-H. Lan, Yuqing Huo, Dimitrios Avramopoulos, Yin Shugart.
The study was funded by the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression, the Stanley Medical Research Institute, the Dana Foundation, the Alexander Wilson Schweizer Fund, the Affective Disorders Fund and the George Browne Laboratory Fund.
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Jan. 25, 2006 Researchers have found stronger evidence for a link between a parasite in cat faeces and undercooked meat and an increased risk of schizophrenia.
Research published in Procedings of the Royal Society B, shows how the invasion or replication of the parasite Toxoplasma gondii in rats may be inhibited by using anti-psychotic or mood stabilising drugs.
The researchers tested anti-psychotic and mood stabilising medications used for the treatment of schizophrenia on rats infected with T. gondii and found they were as, or more, effective at preventing behaviourial alterations as anti-T. gondii drugs. This led them to believe that T. gondii may have a role in the development of some cases of schizophrenia.
Dr Joanne Webster from Imperial College London, and lead researcher said: "Although we are certainly not saying that exposure to this parasite does definitely lead to the development of schizophrenia, this and previous studies do show there may be a link in a few individuals, providing new clues for how we treat toxoplasmosis and schizophrenia."
Previous epidemiological and neuropathological studies have indicated some cases of schizophrenia may be associated with environmental factors, such as exposure to the parasite T. gondii. At the same time several of the medications used to treat schizophrenia have been shown to posess anti-parasitic and in particular anti-T.gondii properties. This led the authors to suspect that the anti-psychotic activity of these medications may be due in part to their inhibition of these parasites.
When the rats were given Haloperidol, an anti-psychotic, and Valporic acid, a mood stabiliser, the behavioural symptoms of T.gondii were reduced. They found the drugs were able to limit the 'suicidal feline' attraction by which the rats became less aware of the dangers of cats.
Dr Joanne Webster added: "By showing that drugs used to treat schizophrenia affect the parasite T. gondii, this does provide further evidence for its role in the development of some cases schizophrenia. It may be that anti-psychotic drugs work partly by parasite inhibition, and this could lead to new medicine and treatment combinations."
The researchers have already begun human clinical trials using anti-T. gondii treatments as adjunct therapies for schizophrenia with researchers at Johns Hopkins University.
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Jan. 28, 2009 The risk of radiation-induced breast cancer may outweigh the benefits of mammography in women under the age of 30 who carry a mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2, according to a mathematical modeling study.
The general recommendation for women who carry a mutation in BRCA1/2 is to start getting annual mammograms as early as 25 to 30 years of age. However, it is not clear whether the risk of radiation-induced breast cancer would limit the benefit of early mammography.
To estimate the impact of early mammograms on overall breast cancer risk, Amy Berrington de Gonzalez, D.Phil., of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health in Baltimore, and colleagues modeled excess breast cancer mortality following five annual mammograms starting at various ages.
The model indicated that women who underwent five mammograms between the ages of 24 and 29 would have an additional 26 breast cancers per 10,000 women due to the radiation. Between the ages of 30 and 34 they would have an excess of 20 additional cancers, and between 35 and 39 an additional 13 cancers. To outweigh these risks, mammography screening would have to reduce breast cancer mortality by 51 percent for women between the ages of 24 and 29, by 12 percent for those between 30 and 34, and by 4 percent for those between 30 and 34. The investigators conclude that if their assumptions are correct and mammograms reduce breast cancer mortality by 15-25 percent, which is consistent with empirical data, then there there would be no benefit for mammograms in women under the age of 30 and a marginal benefit for women between the ages of 30 and 34.
"In the absence of direct empiric data, our estimates can be used by those involved in the decision-making process for BRCA mutation carriers to assess whether the benefits from early mammographic screening are likely to outweigh the radiation risks," the authors conclude.
This research was published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute January 27, 2009.
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Nov. 2, 2009 Individuals who consume a diet high in sodium or artificially sweetened drinks are more likely to experience a decline in kidney function, according to two papers being presented at the American Society of Nephrology's annual meeting in San Diego, California.
Julie Lin MD, MPH, FASN and Gary Curhan, MD, ScD, FASN of Brigham and Women's Hospital studied more than 3,000 women participating in the Nurses' Health Study to identify the impact of sodium and sweetened drinks on kidney function.
"There are currently limited data on the role of diet in kidney disease," said Dr. Lin. "While more study is needed, our research suggests that higher sodium and artificially sweetened soda intake are associated with greater rate of decline in kidney function."
The first study, "Associations of Diet with Kidney Function Decline," examined the influence of individual dietary nutrients on kidney function decline over 11 years in more than 3,000 women participants of the Nurses' Health Study. The authors found that "in women with well-preserved kidney function, higher dietary sodium intake was associated with greater kidney function decline, which is consistent with experimental animal data that high sodium intake promotes progressive kidney decline."
The second study, also conducted by Dr. Lin and Dr. Curhan, "Associations of Sweetened Beverages with Kidney Function Decline," examined the influence of sugar-sweetened and artificially sweetened beverages on kidney function decline in the same group of Nurses' Health Study participants. An analysis of the nationally representative NHANES III participants had previously reported an association between sugar-sweetened soda and urinary protein, but data on kidney function change was not available. This investigation reported "a significant two-fold increased odds, between two or more servings per day of artificially sweetened soda and faster kidney function decline; no relation between sugar-sweetened beverages and kidney function decline was noted" said Dr. Lin. This association persisted even after the study authors accounted for age, caloric intake, obesity, high blood pressure, diabetes, cigarette smoking, physical activity, and cardiovascular disease. The mechanisms for kidney decline in the setting of high intake of artificial sweetenters have not been previously studied and deserve further investigation.
The study participants were older Caucasian women and the authors note that the findings may not be directly applicable to men or people of other ethnicities.
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Oct. 18, 2010 An enzyme that keeps intestinal bacteria out of the bloodstream may also play an important role in maintaining the normal microbial population of the gastrointestinal system. Since the loss of beneficial bacteria that usually results from antibiotic therapy can sometimes lead to serious health problems, a treatment that maintains microbial levels could have significant benefits.
"Our mouse studies confirmed that giving this enzyme by mouth keeps the gut healthy, in terms of the microbes that usually live there," says Richard Hodin, MD, of the Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) Department of Surgery, senior author of the report in the November issue of the journal Gut. "This could prevent infection with dangerous bacteria like Salmonella and C. difficile, which can occur when the normal bacterial population becomes depleted, and may lead to development of a supplement to maintain intestinal health whenever someone takes an antibiotic."
Virtually all higher animals maintain a population of microbes -- primarily bacteria -- in their digestive tracts. These organisms are not only harmless, they also benefit their host by helping with digestion, and their presence prevents the more pathogenic bacteria that may be present from proliferating. Because antibiotics kill all non-resistant bacteria, including those residing in the intestines, the usual balance of beneficial versus harmful microbes is destroyed, leading to problems ranging from diarrhea to infections with dangerous antibiotic-resistant organisms.
A 2008 study by members of Hodin's team that investigated why intestinal bacteria and their toxins do not pass into the bloodstream found that intestinal alkaline phosphatase (IAP), an enzyme produced by the intestinal lining, blocks the activity of a toxic molecule found on many pathogenic bacteria. Because that study and findings by other groups showed that IAP acts against several bacterial toxins, the MGH researchers looked at whether the enzyme directly interacted with intestinal bacteria.
Studies of mice lacking the gene for IAP revealed that the animals had reduced levels of all intestinal bacteria and practically none of the common beneficial strains of E. coli. In fact, the most common E. coli strain would not grow if introduced into these knockout mice. But when the animals received oral doses of IAP, beneficial E. coli proliferated quickly after other microbial species were killed by antibiotics. Experiments with normal mice infected with an antibiotic-resistant Salmonella strain showed that IAP treatment significantly reduced Salmonella levels in the animals' feces. Although only 20 percent of animals not treated with IAP survived, 70 percent of those receiving the enzyme were alive 7 days later.
"We believe that IAP rapidly restores E. coli and other beneficial bacteria after antibiotic treatment and that the higher numbers of these bacteria prevent colonization by Salmonella or other pathogens by competing for nutrients and attachment sites," says Mahdu Malo, PhD, MBBS, of MGH Surgery, corresponding and first author of the Gut paper. "We need to test this approach in larger animals before planning a human clinical trial, but this approach has the potential of solving a common, often serious health problem."
Malo is an assistant professor of Surgery, and Hodin, a professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School. Additional co-authors of the Gut report are Sayeda Nasrin Alam, Golam Mosafa, Nur Mohammad, Kathryn Chen, Angela Moss, Sundaram Ramasamy, Adnan Faruqui, Sarah Hodin, Premoda Malo, Farzad Ebrahimi and Brishti Biswas, MGH Surgery; Skye Zeller, Paul Johnson and Elizabeth Hohmann, MGH Infectious Disease; Shaw Warren, MGH Pediatrics; Sonoko Narisawa and Jose Luis Millan, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute; Jeffrey Kaplan, New Jersey Dental School; and Christopher Kitts, California Polytechnic State University. The study was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
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- M. S. Malo, S. N. Alam, G. Mostafa, S. J. Zeller, P. V. Johnson, N. Mohammad, K. T. Chen, A. K. Moss, S. Ramasamy, A. Faruqui, S. Hodin, P. S. Malo, F. Ebrahimi, B. Biswas, S. Narisawa, J. L. Millan, H. S. Warren, J. B. Kaplan, C. L. Kitts, E. L. Hohmann, R. A. Hodin. Intestinal alkaline phosphatase preserves the normal homeostasis of gut microbiota. Gut, 2010; 59 (11): 1476 DOI: 10.1136/gut.2010.211706
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Aug. 11, 2011 Scientists have found a potential new mechanism to stimulate the body's own ability to fight cancer using Baculillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) -- the germ commonly used to inoculate against tuberculosis (TB).
The findings are published online in the British Journal of Cancer on August 10, 2011.
The researchers, Dr Wai Liu and Professor Angus Dalgleish from St George's, University of London, say this new data suggests a mechanism by which vaccines could enhance the anti-cancer activity of currently available therapies. However, they warn that this is an early-stage study and that there is much more research to be done before patients will benefit.
In laboratory-based experiments conducted with human tumour cells outside of the body, the researchers showed that a small amount of BCG can instruct white blood cells to produce chemicals called cytokines. These make tumour cells more likely to be detected by the body's immune system.
"Cancerous cells are known to camouflage themselves as healthy cells. This means our blood cells responsible for immunity aren't able to recognise the cancerous cells as being a problem and so the disease is able to continue to spread," explains lead researcher Dr Wai Liu. "This study found that a small quantity of BCG -- similar to the amount that is administered in a TB inoculation -- can help the immune system recognise the cancer cells as 'foreign'. The immune system can then attack these cells in the same way it would any other infection."
The cytokines produced as a consequence of the BCG jab set off a chain of events that begins with the hijacking of the tumour and forcing it to switch off its camouflage. This renders it visible to the body's immune system, and so the white blood cells responsible for destroying 'foreign' cells now have targets to attack.
The researchers tested the BCG injection on human cells from lung, breast, colon, pancreatic and skin cancer. Their research showed that in three of the cancer types -- lung, breast and colon -- the restoration of their visibility to immune cells was increased. Within the limits of the laboratory-based study, those cancer cells with reduced camouflage were then successfully targeted by white cells responsible for killing cancer cells.
Scientific knowledge around using drugs to stimulate the body's natural defences against cancer is becoming more prominent. The researchers believe that these findings provide more evidence that, in the future, this treatment method may provide further options for patients that could be used in combination with existing cancer drug treatment.
"Using the body's own immune system is a relatively new way of thinking in the development of cancer treatments, and scientists are still building up a knowledge base about it. If successful, this method of treatment could be used in combination with existing cancer drugs. It could potentially see patients taking less medication, having fewer and less severe side effects and recovering quicker," says Dr Liu.
"This research is at an early stage of investigation, and so far has analysed the reaction of human blood outside of the body, so more work is needed before these findings can be used in practice. The next stage will be to develop a compound suitable for clinical trials," he concludes.
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- W M Liu, D W Fowler, A M Gravett, P Smith, A G Dalgleish. Supernatants from lymphocytes stimulated with Bacillus Calmette-Guerin can modify the antigenicity of tumours and stimulate allogeneic T-cell responses. British Journal of Cancer, 2011; DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2011.306
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Aug. 20, 2012 Botany is plagued by the same problem as the rest of science and society: our ability to generate data quickly and cheaply is surpassing our ability to access and analyze it. In this age of big data, scientists facing too much information rely on computers to search large data sets for patterns that are beyond the capability of humans to recognize -- but computers can only interpret data based on the strict set of rules in their programming.
New tools called ontologies provide the rules computers need to transform information into knowledge, by attaching meaning to data, thereby making those data retrievable by computers and more understandable to human beings. Ontology, from the Greek word for the study of being or existence, traditionally falls within the purview of philosophy, but the term is now used by computer and information scientists to describe a strategy for representing knowledge in a consistent fashion. An ontology in this contemporary sense is a description of the types of entities within a given domain and the relationships among them.
A new article in this month's American Journal of Botany by Ramona Walls (New York Botanical Garden) and colleagues describes how scientists build ontologies such as the Plant Ontology (PO) and how these tools can transform plant science by facilitating new ways of gathering and exploring data.
When data from many divergent sources, such as data about some specific plant organ, are associated or "tagged" with particular terms from a single ontology or set of interrelated ontologies, the data become easier to find, and computers can use the logical relationships in the ontologies to correctly combine the information from the different databases. Moreover, computers can also use ontologies to aggregate data associated with the different subclasses or parts of entities.
For example, suppose a researcher is searching online for all examples of gene expression in a leaf. Any botanist performing this search would include experiments that described gene expression in petioles and midribs or in a frond. However, a search engine would not know that it needs to include these terms in its search -- unless it was told that a frond is a type of leaf, and that every petiole and every midrib are parts of some leaf. It is this information that ontologies provide.
The article in the American Journal of Botany by Walls and colleagues describes what ontologies are, why they are relevant to plant science, and some of the basic principles of ontology development. It includes an overview of the ontologies that are relevant to botany, with a more detailed description of the PO and the challenges of building an ontology that covers all green plants. The article also describes four keys areas of plant science that could benefit from the use of ontologies: (1) comparative genetics, genomics, phenomics, and development; (2) taxonomy and systematics; (3) semantic applications; and (4) education. Although most of the examples in this article are drawn from plant science, the principles could apply to any group of organisms, and the article should be of interest to zoologists as well.
As genomic and phenomic data become available for more species, many different research groups are embarking on the annotation of their data and images with ontology terms. At the same time, cross-species queries are becoming more common, causing more researchers in plant science to turn to ontologies. Ontology developers are working with the scientists who generate data to make sure ontologies accurately reflect current science, and with database developers and publishers to find ways to make it easier for scientist to associate their data with ontologies.
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- R. L. Walls, B. Athreya, L. Cooper, J. Elser, M. A. Gandolfo, P. Jaiswal, C. J. Mungall, J. Preece, S. Rensing, B. Smith, D. W. Stevenson. Ontologies as integrative tools for plant science. American Journal of Botany, 2012; 99 (8): 1263 DOI: 10.3732/ajb.1200222
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In 1901 Wieland received his doctorate at the University of Munich while studying under Johannes Thiele. In 1904 he completed his habilitation, then continued to teach at the university and starting in 1907 was a consultant for Boehringer-Ingelheim. In 1914 he became associate professor for special topics in organic chemistry, and director of the Organic Division of the State Laboratory in Munich. From 1917 to 1918 Wieland worked in the service of the (KWI) Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Elektrochemistry in Dahlem then led by Fritz Haber as an alternative to regular military service. There he was involved in weapons resarch for instance finding new synthetic routes for mustard gas. He is also credited with the first synthesis of Adamsite.
From 1913 to 1921, he was Professor at the Technical University of Munich. He then moved to the University of Freiburg as successor of Ludwig Gattermann (he also assumed responsibility for Gattermanns infamous cookbook). In Freiburg he started working on toad poisons and bile acids. In association with Boehringer-Ingelheim he worked on synthetic alkaloids such as morphine and strychnine
In 1925 Wieland succeeded Richard Willstätter as Chemistry Professor at the University of Munich.
In 1941, Wieland isolated the toxin alpha-amanitin, the principal active agent of one of the world's most poisonous mushrooms Amanita phalloides.
Wieland tried successfully to protect people, especially Jewish students, who were "racially burdened" after the Nuremberg Laws. Students who were expelled because they were "racially burdened" could stay in Heinrich Wieland's group as chemists or as "Gäste des Geheimrats" (guests of the privy councillor). After collecting money for Kurt Huber's widow Clara Huber, Hans Conrad Leipelt, a student of Wieland, was sentenced to death.
Heinrichs father, Theodor Wieland (1846 - 1928) was a pharmacist with a doctorate in chemistry. He owned a gold and silver refinery in Pforzheim . Heinrich Wieland was a cousin of Helene Boehringer, the wife of Albert Boehringer, who was the founder of Boehringer-Ingelheim. From 1915 to the end of 1920, he was advisor at Boehringer-Ingelheim and during this time he established the first scientific department of the company.
Eva Wieland, Heinrich Wieland's daughter, was married to Feodor Lynen on 14 May 1937.
Heinrich Wieland Prize
Since 1964, the Heinrich Wieland Prize has been awarded annually to promote research on chemistry, biochemistry, physiology and clinical medicine of lipids and related substances. The prize is among the most treasured international science awards and has a successful history of over 40 years. To date it has been presented to 58 scientists. The Heinrich Wieland Prize is sponsored by Boehringer Ingelheim and awarded by an independent Board of Trustees.
1. ^ P. Karrer (1958). "Heinrich Wieland. 1877-1957". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 4 (2): 340-352.
2. ^ Bernhard Witkop (1993). "Remembering Heinrich Wieland (1877-1957) portrait of an organic chemist and founder of modern biochemistry". Medicinal Research Reviews 12 (3): 195 - 274. doi:10.1002/med.2610120303.
3. ^ a b Interconnections and Independence: Heinrich Wieland (1877–1957) and His Era Elisabeth Vaupel Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 9154 –9179 doi:10.1002/anie.200702255
HASLEWOOD, G A (1957), "Prof. H. O. Weiland.", Nature 180 (4584): 462-3, 1957 Sep 7, PMID:13464859
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/"
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Apr 2, 2009 | 1
Stargazers take note: Today marks the beginning of a four-day celestial celebration called 100 Hours of Astronomy, part of the International Astronomical Union's International Year of Astronomy (IYA2009). The IYA2009 marks the 400th anniversary of Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei turning his telescopes to the skies and beginning a new era of astronomical observation.
A kickoff event at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia today showcased one of Galileo's surviving telescopes. According to the institute, this marks the first time one of the two remaining instruments has left Italy.
An international "star party" is scheduled to take place during which telescopes will be made available to the public at different sites around the globe. Many are amateur telescopes set up in parks or on sidewalks; the 100 Hours of Astronomy Web site has details on many of the planned activities. Most star parties are scheduled to take place on Saturday, but some are planned for other times, such as one beginning this evening in New York City, where Columbia University will set up telescopes in Harlem's Powell Plaza for viewing the moon and Saturn.
Deadline: Jun 30 2013
Reward: $1,000,000 USD
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Deadline: Jul 30 2013
Reward: $100,000 USD
The Seeker desires a method for producing pseudoephedrine products in such a way that it will be extremely difficult for clandestine che
Save 66% off the cover price and get a free gift!
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The Tribotz is three robots in one!Avoider mode - In this mode, on-board sensors help Tribotz to avoid obstacles. Sound Operating - Sounds dictate the direction of movement in this mode, as Tribotz changes direction in response to sound impulses. Line Tracer mode - On-board sensors enable the robot to follow a line drawn by a felt tipped pen.
The Tribot Robot kit teaches the fundamentals of sensor technology and shows you how it all fits together. Using only basic hand tools (cutting pliers, long nose pliers, and small phillips screwdriver) you can assemble this robot kit for a fun learning experience.
Tribotz can operate in 3 different modes:
Have fun building your own robot and learn about electronics at the same time! By the time you put it all together and watch Tribotz's movements and responses, you’ll feel like an engineer!
Power Source: One 9V and two AA batteries Power Consumption: Minimum current is 5mA (with motor on standby. Maximum current is 120mA (while operating motor). Power Voltage: DC 3V Height: 4.4 inches Length: 5.8 inches Width: 6 inches
Recommended for ages 8+.
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Climate change has already pushed the nation's wildlife into crisis, according to a report released Wednesday from the National Wildlife Federation (NWF), and further catastrophe, including widespread extinction, can only be curbed with swift action to curb the carbon pollution that has the planet sweltering.
Entitled Wildlife in a Warming World: Confronting the Climate Crisis, the report looks at 8 regions across the U.S. where "the underlying climatic conditions to which species have been accustomed for thousands of years," the report explains, have been upturned by human-caused climate change.
“Some of America’s most iconic species—from moose to sandhill cranes to sea turtles – are seeing their homes transformed by rapid climate change,” stated Dr. Amanda Staudt, climate scientist at the National Wildlife Federation.
Feb 15, 2013 Living on Earth: STARVING POLAR BEARS Polar Bears have long been the poster species for the problem of climate change. But a new paper in Conservation Letters argues that supplemental feeding may be necessary to prevent polar bear populations from going extinct. Polar bear expert Andrew Derocher from the University of Alberta joins Host Steve Curwood to discuss how we can save the largest bear on the planet.http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.html?programID=13-P13-00007&segmentID=2
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Sometimes having your period can be a pain - literally. Most
girls have to deal with PMS, cramps, or headaches around the time
of their periods. These problems are usually normal and nothing to
worry about. Here are the facts on which period problems are common
and normal - and which ones might indicate there's something
else going on.
What Is PMS?
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is the term for the physical and
emotional symptoms that many girls and women get right before their
periods begin each month. If you have PMS, you might
- sore breasts
- food cravings
- depression or feeling blue
- difficulty concentrating
- difficulty handling stress
PMS is usually at its worst during the 1 to 2 weeks before a
girl's period starts, and it usually disappears when her period
Why Do Some Girls Get PMS?
Doctors have not pinpointed the exact cause of PMS, but many
believe it is linked to changing hormone levels. Following a girl's
period, the amounts of estrogen and progesterone (female hormones)
in a girl's body increase. Then about 1 week before her period
starts, levels of both of these hormones begin to fall. The
thinking is that these changing hormone levels can lead to PMS
It isn't clear why some girls develop PMS and others
don't. It's possible that those who develop PMS are simply
more sensitive to the changes in hormone levels. There are other
theories as well. For example, some believe that what you eat can
affect how you feel, especially during the couple of weeks before a
Luckily, there are several things you can do to ease PMS
symptoms. Eating a balanced diet with lots of fresh fruits and
vegetables and cutting back on processed foods like chips and
crackers can help. You might also want to reduce your salt intake
(salt can make you retain water and become more bloated) and,
believe it or not, drink more water. Say no to caffeine (it can
make you jumpy and anxious) and yes to certain vitamins: B-complex
vitamins, calcium, magnesium, and vitamin E are thought to be
helpful. Also, daily exercise and stress-relief techniques like
meditation can help some girls.
When it comes to medicine, over-the-counter pain
medicines like ibuprofen can relieve achy heads and backs. But
for really serious PMS pain, see your doctor. He or she might be
able to prescribe a different medicine or birth control pills to
help with many of your PMS symptoms.
Why Do Some Girls Get Cramps?
Lots of girls have abdominal cramps during the first few days of
their periods. Cramps are most likely caused by
-dinz), chemicals your body produces that make the muscles of the
uterus contract. The good news is that cramps usually only last a
few days. But if you're in pain, medicine like ibuprofen may
Exercise may also make you feel better, possibly because it
releases endorphins, chemicals in the body that literally make you
feel good. Soaking in a warm bath or putting a warm compress on
your stomach won't make your cramps disappear but may help your
muscles relax a little. If you have severe cramps that keep you
home from school or from doing stuff with your friends, visit your
doctor for advice.
Why Isn't My Period Regular?
It can take up to 3 years from the time a girl starts
menstruating for her body to develop a regular cycle. Even then,
what's regular varies from person to person. Girls' cycles
can range from 21 to 45 days.
Changing hormone levels might make your period short one month
(such as 2 or 3 days) and more drawn out (such as 7 days) the next.
You might skip a few months, get two periods almost right after
each other, have a really heavy period, or one so light you almost
don't notice it. (If you're sexually active and you skip a
period, though, you should visit your doctor or a women's
clinic to make sure you're not pregnant.)
can make planning for your period a real hassle. Try to keep track
of when your last period started, and guess that about 4 weeks from
that day you could be due for another. If you're worried about
wearing that cute dress and suddenly starting your period at
school, just make sure you pack protection. Carry a pad or tampon
in your backpack, and wear a pantiliner to handle the first
When it comes to periods, every girl's body has a unique
(and unpredictable) timeline for getting on track. If your period
still has not settled into a relatively predictable pattern after 3
years, or if you have four or five regular periods and then skip
your periods for a couple of months, make an appointment with your
doctor to check for possible problems.
Why Haven't I Started My Period Yet?
Everybody goes through puberty at different speeds. Some girls
begin menstruating as early as age 8 or 9; others don't get
going until they're 15 or 16. It all depends on your hormones -
and your family. Want to guess when you'll get your period? Ask
when your mom and grandmothers (from both sides of your family)
started theirs. When you start puberty is partly linked to
genetics. So although there's no guarantee that you'll
follow in their footsteps, your relatives could give you a pretty
good clue about your own period.
One thing that can delay puberty - and your period - is
excessive exercising, usually distance running, ballet, or
gymnastics, combined with a poor diet. For exercise to be
excessive, it means more than just playing soccer for a couple of
hours a few times a week or working out once in a while with an
exercise tape. To exercise so much that you delay your period, you
would have to train vigorously for several hours a day, most days
of the week, and not get enough calories, vitamins, and
Unless compulsive exercise has postponed your period,
there's nothing you can do on your own to hurry things along.
If you haven't started to menstruate by the time you're 16,
consult your doctor. He or she will probably do a pelvic exam and
take a blood test to determine the hormone levels in your body.
Then the doctor might prescribe hormones to jump-start your
Even if it seems strange to you, most of the stuff that
goes along with a girl's period is completely norma. But there
are a few conditions that can be more serious. If you suspect you
have any of these conditions, see your doctor for advice.
is the term doctors use for absence of periods. Girls who
haven't started their periods by the time they are 16 may have
primary amenorrhea, usually caused by a hormone imbalance or
There's also a condition called secondary amenorrhea, when
someone who had normal periods stops menstruating for at least 3
months. Low levels of
(GnRH), which controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle,
frequently bring on amenorrhea. Stress, anorexia, weight loss or
gain, stopping birth control pills, thyroid conditions, and ovarian
cysts are examples of things that can throw your hormones out of
whack. To get everything back on course, your doctor may use
hormone therapy. If a medical condition is affecting your monthly
cycles, then treatment of the condition will help to resolve the
problem. As mentioned earlier, lots of strenuous exercise combined
with a poor diet can also cause amenorrhea. Cutting back on
exercise and eating a balanced diet with more calories will help
correct the problem, but be sure to talk with your doctor as
-jee-uh) is the term doctors use for extremely heavy, prolonged
periods. Menorrhagia is more than just 1 or 2 days of a
heavier-than-average flow. Girls who have menorrhagia soak through
at least a pad an hour for several hours in a row or have periods
that are more than 7 days long. (Clotting during your period is not
necessarily a sign of menorrhagia, though - lots of girls, with
both heavy and light periods, pass clots when they menstruate.)
The most frequent cause of menorrhagia is an imbalance between
the amounts of estrogen and progesterone in the body. Because of
this imbalance, the
-tree-um, the lining of the uterus) keeps building up. Then when
the body gets rid of the endometrium during a period, the bleeding
is very heavy.
Many girls have hormone imbalances during puberty, so it's
not uncommon to experience menorrhagia during the teen years. Other
cases of heavy bleeding may be caused by thyroid conditions, blood
diseases, or inflammation or infections in the vagina or cervix. To
help figure out the cause of abnormal bleeding, a doctor can do a
pelvic exam, a Pap smear, and blood tests. If you do have
menorrhagia, it can be treated with hormones, medicine, or removal
of any growths in the uterus that may be the cause of excessive
Extremely Painful Periods
-uh) is the medical term for very painful periods. Primary
dysmenorrhea - painful periods that are not caused by a disease or
other condition - is more common in teens than secondary
dysmenorrhea (painful periods caused by a disease or
The culprit in primary dysmenorrhea is prostaglandin, the same
naturally occurring chemical that causes cramps. In large amounts,
prostaglandin can cause nausea, vomiting, headaches, backaches,
diarrhea, and severe cramps when you have your period. Fortunately,
these symptoms usually only last for a day or two. Doctors usually
prescribe anti-inflammatory medicines to treat primary
dysmenorrhea. As with cramps, exercise, hot water bottles, and
birth control pills might also bring some relief.
Some of the more common conditions that can cause secondary
- endometriosis, a condition in which tissue normally found
only in the uterus starts to grow outside the uterus
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
, a type of bacterial infection
or growths on the inside wall of the uterus
All of these conditions require that a doctor diagnose the
problem and then treat you appropriately.
What to Do if You Suspect a Problem
When you have questions about your period or anything else
related to your development, talk to your doctor. This is
particularly true if you notice a change in your menstrual cycle.
Though most period problems turn out to be nothing to worry about,
it's always good to be safe.
See your doctor if:
- You have not started your period by the time you are 16. This
may indicate that you have a problem that requires medical
- You stop getting your period or it becomes really irregular
after it has been regular for a while (like 6 months or more).
This can be a sign that you may have a hormone imbalance or a
problem with nutrition, which can harm your body if left
- You have very heavy or long periods, especially if you have a
short cycle and get your period frequently. In rare cases, lots
of blood loss can cause
(iron deficiency) and leave you feeling really weak and
- Your periods are really painful. You might have endometriosis
or benign growths that should be removed. Or if you're
sexually active, you might have PID.
Chances are that your painful or irregular periods are nothing
to worry about. But if there is something going on, the quicker you
get it taken care of, the sooner you'll be on your way to
feeling great again.
Elana Pearl Ben-Joseph, MD
Date reviewed: November 2007
Note: All information is for educational purposes only. For specific medical advice,
diagnoses, and treatment, consult your doctor.
© 1995-2009 The Nemours Foundation/KidsHealth. All rights reserved.
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How deep is your love for this song? Go deeper.
Humble (and Racist) Beginnings
In 1859, Bryant’s Minstrels needed to spice up their act. Their material was growing stale; audiences were tired of the same old song and dance. So the troupe owners asked one of the performers, Daniel Decatur Emmett, to put together a new “walk-around.” Walk-arounds were audience favorites, high-energy finales in which the cast members took turns trying to out-sing or dance the performer before them. Emmett accepted the assignment, and legend has it that within a day he had written “Dixie.”
The song was like many other minstrel show songs of the time. It was narrated by a Southern slave who told a tale about “Ole Missus” and her husband Will. The specifics of the tale were not important, though. In fact, if you read the lyrics today, it’s hard to understand why audiences found them so hilarious. But that’s because the humor in minstrel show songs had little to do with the words sung. Instead, audiences were entertained by the manner in which the song and dance routines were performed. In minstrel shows, white actors put on blackface by covering their faces with burnt cork and then talked, sang, and danced in a manner believed typical of African slaves.
These imitations were grotesque stereotypes, crude and racist. And “Dixie” was typical of the formula. Emmett’s narrator sang in the broken English believed typical of slaves (“Old Missus marry Will-de-weaber / Willium was a gay deceaber”), and the words suggested that slaves were fat and happy in their lives (“Dar's buck-wheat cakes an 'Ingen' batter, makes you fat or a little fatter”). Most important, the song suggested that, contrary to all the talk of reformers and abolitionists, slaves were not interested in trading slavery for freedom. Far from it, according to the song: they wished they were “in Dixie, Hooray! Hooray!”
Despite what you may think, though, Dan Emmett was no friend of slavery—his father worked on the Underground Railroad. But that did not prevent him from writing a song aimed at tickling the same racist funny bone. Nor did it prevent Northern audiences from enjoying the song. In fact, shortly after it debuted at Mechanics’ Hall in New York City, the song became a national hit. By 1860, people throughout the country were “whistlin’ Dixie.”
But almost as quickly as “Dixie” became a hit, it was surrounded by controversy. Southern secessionists, intent on withdrawing from the Union now that Abraham Lincoln had been elected president, embraced the song as an anthem. Most of the lyrics were unimportant, but one line in particular resonated with their cause: “In Dixie Land I'll take my stand to live and die in Dixie.” And so when South Carolinians met in a special convention to decide whether to withdraw from the Union, a band played “Dixie” every time a delegate voted in favor of secession. And two months later, when Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president of the Confederate States of America, the band also played “Dixie.”
By the time the Civil War had commenced, “Dixie” was the Confederacy’s unofficial anthem. One Confederate officer, Lester Pike, even wrote a new set of lyrics, transforming the song into a battle cry:
Southrons, hear your Country call you
Up, lest worse than death befall you
To arms! To arms! To arms, in Dixie
It’s easy to see why Southerners believed it was their song. After all, the song’s setting was a Southern plantation. And “Dixie” was a common nickname for the South, although it’s not exactly clear why. Some believe the label may have come from ten-dollar bank notes circulated by a New Orleans bank. Referred to as “Dix”—French for ten—they were only accepted as payment for transactions in regions close to New Orleans. In other words, “Dixie Land” was that part of the Deep South that honored these notes as tender.
Others argue, however, that Dixie became another name for the South after Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon completed their survey in 1773, establishing the border between Pennsylvania and Virginia. Since slavery was soon abolished in Pennsylvania, the Mason-Dixon Line became the border between free and slave states.
Yet others have argued that “Dixie Land” was a paradise-like plantation owned by a generous Manhattan slave-owner named “Mr. Dix” (or in some places “Mr. Dixy” or “Mr. Dixie”) in the early part of the century, before slavery became illegal in New York in 1827. Allegedly rumors circulated around that time among slaves that he was a master so kind that his own slaves refused to leave or run away. Hence “Dixie Land” grew to be known as a place of refuge and happiness for slaves somewhere in the North.
War of the Words
However it originated, folks came to associate Dixie with the South, and “Dixie Land” became known as a distinctive region that had built its economy on slave labor and that stretched from Virginia south to Florida and west to Texas. But that did not prevent Northerners from arguing that they had an equal claim on the song. After all, it had been written by a Northerner (Emmett was from Ohio) and debuted in a Northern city (New York was about as Union as it gets). Heck, even Abe Lincoln loved “Dixie;” he had used it regularly on whistle stops during his 1860 campaign. And so after Southerners adopted the song for their secession soundtrack, Northerner Francis J. Crosby answered with a set of pro-Union lyrics:
On! ye patriots to the battle
Hear Fort Moultrie's canon rattle
Then away, then away, then away to the fight!
Go meet those Southern Traitors with iron will
And should your courage falter boys
Remember Bunker Hill
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
The stars and stripes forever!
Hurrah! Hurrah! Our Union shall not sever!
In Crosby’s rendition, Northern soldiers were told that their battle against Southern rebellion was actually part of a larger war launched in 1775. Fort Moultrie was the Patriot fort outside Charleston, South Carolina, that had played such a dramatic role in the defense of the city against British invaders during the American Revolution. Now that South Carolina was the center of insurrection, Crosby urged Northern soldiers to remember these nation-founding battles—Fort Moultrie and Bunker Hill—and meet the Southern traitors with an iron will. They were fighting to preserve the Union that earlier Patriots had secured through revolution; if they adopted their forefathers’ courage, “our union shall not sever.”
In the end, the North won the musical battle as well as the military war. Shortly after announcing the surrender of Confederate general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln ordered the band to strike up “Dixie.” The song, he said, had been “fairly captured.” While some few may say Lincoln had the song played as a way to rub in his victory, and others say that he told the band to play “Dixie” because he missed hearing it himself, most historians agree that it was in fact part of a broader political plan. Once the war was over, Lincoln wanted nothing more than the successful reunion of two American peoples ravaged by war. Having the band play “Dixie” was symbolic of his desire to bring the broken pieces of their great nation back together.
Just a Little Bit of History Repeating
But all of the controversy surrounding the song did not end when Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse. Roughly a century later, “Dixie” excited a new set of arguments. This second round of debates began in the 1960s when African American students at Southern universities objected to the playing of “Dixie” at school events. The song was implicitly racist, they argued, rooted in the minstrel tradition that grotesquely mocked slaves and their degraded lives. And as the anthem of the Confederacy, the song represented the South’s attempts to retain several million African Americans in perpetual bondage.
Nonsense, answered the songs’ defenders; “Dixie” was just a harmless expression of Southern heritage. However it might have originated or been heard 100 years before, it had become nothing more than a celebration of the South, a proud and distinctive part of America. Banning “Dixie,” they said, was “political correctness” run wild, an overly sensitive reaction to an important expression of the South’s culture and history.
The argument was not restricted to college campuses. Several politicians joined the students in arguing that the song should be banned from public ceremonies, just as many countered that the song was a harmless piece of Americana. Even Supreme Court Chief Justice William Rehnquist included “Dixie” on the song list for the sing-along he hosted every year at a legal conference.
So which is it? Is the song a racist and painful expression of past sins? Or is it an important piece of American history and culture, an expression of the “Old South” that can be sung without endorsing the attitudes that may have originally lain beneath it?
The debate continues to be waged today, and some of these questions are more easily answered than others. Despite 19th-century attempts to rewrite the song’s history, “Dixie” is not exactly a positive expression of the Old South. It was not written on some Southern porch, nor did it emerge from some ancient folk melody. It was written by a Northerner and first performed in a New York theater, and many historians argue that it was intended to be an ironic parody of Southern values, a joke at the plantation owners’ expense. But clearly the South had a different idea of what the song meant. It was not only set within Southern culture, it became an anthem as the Confederacy launched its war for separation from the Union (another reason it should no longer be celebrated, some say).
There’s no denying the racist tone of the old minstrel song. With its crude portrait of slaves and cheery view of slave life, the song celebrates rather than mourns a tragic part of American history. But on the other hand, the part of the song most commonly sung today is the refrain, which, in isolation, makes a more simple statement: “I wish I was in Dixie, Hooray! Hooray!”
Old Song, New Views
On top of all the other controversy surrounding “Dixie, recent research suggests that the song may be representative of a different legacy of racism: America’s failure for centuries to acknowledge all of the contributions to American life made by African Americans. According to some historians, Daniel Emmett did not actually write the song; they claim he learned “Dixie” from members of the Snowden Family Band, a group of African American performers that lived near his family farm in Ohio. There’s plenty of evidence to suggest that Emmett knew the Snowdens; in fact, later in his career he actually performed alongside them. And the Snowden family has long maintained that their ancestors wrote the famous minstrel hit, although no claims were made to this effect during Emmett’s lifetime.
Not every music historian has embraced this theory. In fact, most argue that the evidence is more circumstantial than verifiable. Yet the possibility serves as a reminder that African Americans’ contributions to our national culture were buried for centuries. And if ultimately proven true, the Snowdens’ authorship would provide yet another, albeit ironic, example of the enormous impact African Americans made not only on American music, but also Southern identity.
It seems as though we may be in the same place as we were 150 years ago in terms of the song’s place in American society. Is “Dixie” another reminder of America’s painful past that should be mourned rather than celebrated? Or is it an important expression of Southern culture that deserves to be honored and performed?
Ultimately, it’s for you to decide. In the meantime, you might begin by asking a different set of questions. What sort of historical artifact is the song? What does it tell us about American culture and the ways in which 19th-century Americans composed and used music? What does it say about American popular entertainment and both Northern and Southern audiences? What does the song say about its composer, a Northerner and son of an abolitionist? What does it say about Abe Lincoln? And what might it say about the Snowdens and other African American families like them? To play or not to play “Dixie”—somehow that is still the question.
Next Page: Technique
Previous Page: Lyrics
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Well, "In Memory of W.B. Yeats" is about as traditional as an elegiac title can be (and this is an elegy, a poem written in memory of a deceased person). It brings to mind another uber-famous (and uber-long) elegy called In Memoriam, A.H.H., written by Tennyson about his friend who passed away.
If you've read what we have to say in our "Summary" section, you'll immediately see the irony in this move: Auden's title may be traditional, but his poem is anything but. He's shaking things up stylistically, which is perhaps why he chooses to ground us right away by directing our attention to the object of the poem, William Butler Yeats. Yeats was a poet, playwright, and important political figure in the late 19th and early 20th century. If you're interested, you can find out more about him by checking out our guides on his poetry. Here are a few:
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Brora: the industrial capital of Sutherland
A small pocket of Jurassic rocks containing coal on the east coast of Sutherland at Brora gave rise to its place in history as the industrial capital of the Highlands. Coal was mined here for 400 years. The first reference to coal in Brora occurs in a Sutherland Charter of 1529. The last pit closed in 1974. Coal powered a range of local industries including brickworks, textile making, distilleries and of course salt panning. No trace of the coal industry upon which the one-time prosperity of Brora so largely depended, now remains.
“The ancient glory of Brora...laid bare”
These words from the Inverness Advertiser in 1869 were reporting an
event in which “the sand banks along the shore have been considerably
encroached upon, and at Port Cheaniraidh (winter port), a mile to the
west of the river, the action of the sea against the banks has laid
bare a row of buildings which must have been for ages lain imbedded
in the sea… Numbers of people flock to visit this long hidden relic
of the ancient glory of Brora”. Read more about recent uncovering
of long hidden buildings and new discoveries about Brora’s former salt
pan sites in our Archaeology pages.
Local participation and events are the foundation and the strength of the Brora Saltpans Project. Find out more - and find yourself! on our Gallery pages.
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Paper recycling programme
Environmental responsibility is fundamental to Shred-it’s corporate mission and values.
Once materials have been shredded on site at a customer’s facility, they are subsequently baled and recycled into a variety of useful paper products. This process ensures that our customers’ confidential information is always disposed of in the most secure way possible, whilst helping save the environment in the process.
For every two security consoles filled with paper, one tree is saved through the recycling process. In 2008, Shred-it’s UK recycling programme saved over 630,000 trees, through the responsible recycling of 35,000 tonnes of paper.
So if recycling is part of your organisation’s environmental policy, we can help you fulfil your green commitments. At the end of each year we provide our regularly-scheduled shred clients with an Environmental Certificate indicating the number of trees saved by using Shred-it’s services.
Shred-it Trucks and Eco-Friendly Document Shredding
Shred-it uses environmentally friendly hydraulic fluids (ENVIRON MV 32) in all of our new shredding vehicles which are:
- Inherently biodegradable
- Non-toxic, non-carcinogenic, low odour
- Contain no heavy metals that contaminate ground and waste waters
- Have a longer life than vegetable-oil-based fluids which decreases consumption
Shred-it also uses “Idle Down” in our new technology as part of our eco-friendly paper shredding. All of our new technology meets EURO 5 Emission Standards and use AdBlue® technology to provide cleaner emissions.
All of our security consoles are constructed with 100% recycled-wood particle board.
Shred-it is continually developing new technologies and processes to help further reduce our emissions, fuel consumption and carbon footprint.
Interested in a greener tomorrow? Want to see how paper shredding helps save the environment? For more information on our commitment to the environment, download our Environmental Fact Sheet.
Contact Us today to find out how paper shredding can help save the environment – and stay secure in the process.
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fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-20671000
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With parallel processing, high-quality images and animations can be rendered in reasonable times. This course reviewed the basic issues involved in rendering within a parallel or distributed computing environment, presented various methods for dividing a rendering problem into subtasks and distributing them efficiently to independent processors, then reviewed the strengths and weaknesses of
multiprocessor machines and networked
render farms for graphics rendering. Case studies demonstrated practical ways of dealing with the issues involved.
Some knowledge of ray tracing, radiosity, and photon maps. No prior knowledge of parallel or distributed processing, although previous experience in
the area would be advantageous.
Basic issues involved in rendering in a parallel environment (task subdivision, load balancing, task communication, task migration, and data management), parallel rendering systems
for various task subdivision techniques in
two hardware environments (traditional
multiprocessor machine and render farm), and several successful applications of ray tracing, radiosity, and photon maps.
University of Bristol
Henrik Wann Jensen
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