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How to Create an Aerial Panorama from Google Earth Peter Murphy (one of the leading lights in the panoramic world) sent us a email on Monday with the thought of creating panoramas from a Digital Earth. The concept is simple - grab a series of screen shots while rotating above the earth and then stitch the images as if they were normal photographs. A day is a long time in Internet based tutorials and this is now an update of the original as a result of Gaby, a digital urban reader, writing a kmz tool to dramatically simplify the process of capturing screen shots. The whole process should take approximately 40 minutes. The first step is to go to Gabys Kmz Panorama Capture Tool and type in the Lat/Long of the location you want to capture - in our case above the Millennium Dome in London. To create panoramas it is important to rotate the camera around the nodal point of the lens in order to minimise any parallax error as the scene is captured. Previous to Gaby's tool the best way was to use the 'Flight Simulator Mode' by clicking 'Ctrl-G'. Combining this with a 'left mouse click and drag' action you can look around the scene and thus simulate a panoramic camera. You can now simply load up the kmz file which is output from your Lat/Long co-ordinates and a series of placemarks are presented in the Google Earth, each representing camera locations. Select each placemark and wait for the streaming in Google Earth to reach 100%, now use File - 'Save Image' and call your image image1.jpg. Go through this for each placemark and you should end up with 28 images, each saved in sequence - ie image 1.jpg to image 29.jpg. Once you have your numbered screengrabs you now need to stitch them, we used Stitcher from RealViz, you can download a trial version from the RealViz website. If you are a PTGui user we have created a Template to automatically stitch your images. Download the Template and follow these steps: 1) Open PTGui and click Select Source Images - Navigate to where you saved your screengrabs and select all of them. 2) A Camera Lens Dialoge will appear, simply click 'Cancel'. Your images will then load into PTGui. 3) Click File 'Apply Template' and select the location of the GoogleEarthTemplate.pts saved from above. Your images will now automatically align, you can now complete the process by selecting the 'Advanced' button in the top right hand side of PTGui and then 'Create Panorama'. Save your panorama as a Tif, we normally output at 6000x3000 pixels. Advanced users of PTGui can add their own Control Points and stitch as normal, lens parameters should be 30mm Rectilinear. To stitch the images you can also use the AutoStitch feature of RealViz to simply load in the images and automatically create a panorama. It should be noted that the curve of the earth will not stitch perfectly due to parallax error resulting from the Flight Simulator mode of Google Earth, the image left illustrates this (click for a larger version). Fixing the parallax's error is simply a case of slightly cropping off the top of the resulting panorama to give us the image as below, this applies to both PTGui and Realviz Stitcher outputs: As Google Earth doesn't include clouds we can now add them in as a new layer in photoshop. We used a panoramic image of clouds from TurboSquid, these used to be free but are now $5 each. If you don't have a cloud panorama then you can always create your own using Terragen, there is a great tutorial on how to do this here. Adding the clouds gives you the final panorama over London (click for a larger view) : Changing the projection of the resulting image allows a number of views such a hyperbolic image of London from Google Earth: Finally to create a Quicktime Virtual Reality scene from the image - so you can look around the panorama - download Pano2QTVR. The resulting QTVR can be viewed here (2.8Mb). Of note in the final scene is how the Google copyright crops up in various places in the image. This is due to each screengrab containing the Google overlay and depending on the overlaps some are automatically blended out in RealViz and some remain... update - using PTGui all copyright seems to be removed, this opens up the question on the legality of creating panoramas? Peter has used NASA's Worldwind to the same effect, see here for his panorama of the Southern Highlands (Quicktime format). If you create any panoramas using Google Earth we would love to hear from you... Panoramas submitted so far cover London, New York, Moscow, Belgium, Paris and Sydney.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-22983000
It’s been two years since rumors of mad cows in Texas sank cattle futures at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange when a woman with Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD), human mad cow disease, was admitted to an Amarillo hospital. “The rumor was started, and it’s totally unfounded, that there were cattle with BSE in Texas,” Ted McCollum, beef cattle specialist with the Amarillo office of Texas AgriLife Extension, told the press. Of course, it’s easy to see how the rumor got started that there were cattle with BSE in Texas since there were cattle with BSE in Texas. In 2005, the first “home grown” mad cow was found on a Texas ranch whose identity authorities protected. A 12-year-old beef cow used for breeding, she was sent to Champion Pet Food in Waco when she became a downer. The ranch was quarantined while authorities searched for the animal’s offspring and older animals. Now there are two “mysterious” cases of CJD in McLennan county, Texas says the Waco Tribune-Herald –”a statistical anomaly considering that only one in 1 million people worldwide is affected by the condition in any given year.” The statistical abnormality is also visible on the Texas Department of State Health Services map on its web site. There have been 144 cases of CJD in Texas since 2000 and 42 of them appear in clusters. If CJD is caused for unknown reasons (sporadic) or is familial, it would not come in clusters. It has been years since the San Francisco Chronicle reported that 11 restaurants in nine California counties served meat from the first US mad cow, imported from Canada in 2003. A subsequent audit of US slaughterhouses to win back Asian exports which were lost over the cow, found 29 more downers slipped into the food supply because some inspectors “did not believe that they had the authority” to go into their pens. But then Secretary Johanns assured the press the cattle were healthy when they arrived at the slaughterhouse but became suddenly unable to walk for one reason or another. Authorities also gave up tracing origins of the second homegrown US mad cow, born on an Alabama ranch, whose identity authorities also protected. The trail went cold after seven weeks of investigation of more than three dozen farms, said news reports. In addition to food risks, unacknowledged mad cow in US beef could also be a risk in dental implants, made from bovine and cadaver sources. And now there is also a cloud over deer and elk which get a mad cow like disease called chronic wasting disease (CWD). Like mad cow, CWD is caused by a practically indestructible protein called a prion which is not killed by cooking, alcohol, bleach, formaldehyde or radiation. State Departments of Natural Resources thought the disease was under control after directing hunters to kill “anterless” deer instead of bucks, thinning the herd. Food pantries were beginning to accept venison “donations” again after refusing them. (“It’s perfectly good meat — for someone else to eat,” the hunters seemed to be saying.) But now the disease is back with a vengeance, causing hunters to fear the other guy’s deer at the processor if not their own, until CWD tests come back, and wives to fear husbands’ bloody laundry. Prions are transmitted in carrier animals’ urine and in antler velvet says a January article on PLoS One. Worse, they are likely transmitted from mother to offspring says the article, making US authorities’ failure to find the mad cow progeny — and their progeny – more disquieting. CWD is also taking a toll on deer breeding and hunting lodges, a $4 billion a year industry despite state complaints of deer “overpopulation.” Wisconsin alone has hundreds of state sanctioned deer breeding farms. Earlier this year, a deer with CWD was found at Heartland Wildlife Ranches in Ethel, Mo., 200 miles northwest of St. Louis. Heartland is an 800-acre lodge surrounded by 8-foot fences where hunters “come from across the country to take aim at trophy animals such as whitetail deer, elk and zebra,” says the St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Think Dick Cheney. A three-day hunt for water buffalo costs $4,000. In addition to threatening Rob Brasher of Salt Lake City, whose family has owned Heartland for two decades, CWD threatens David Wood, who runs the Linn County deer farm 17 miles from Heartland and can no longer sell his “baby deer” for $4,000 to $8,000. Luckily, federal and state governments are on the mad cow and CWD case — protecting industry from consumers’ rights to know.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-22987000
The sum utility calculates and prints a 16-bit checksum for the named file and the number of 512-byte blocks in the file. It is typically used to look for bad spots, or to validate a file communicated over some transmission line. The following options are supported: Use an alternate (machine-dependent) algorithm in computing the checksum. The following operands are supported: A path name of a file. If no files are named, the standard input is used. See largefile(5) for the description of the behavior of sum when encountering files greater than or equal to 2 Gbyte ( 231 bytes). See environ(5) for descriptions of the following environment variables that affect the execution of sum: LC_CTYPE, LC_MESSAGES, and NLSPATH. See attributes(5) for descriptions of the following attributes: \|ATTRIBUTE TYPE\|\|ATTRIBUTE VALUE\| “Read error” is indistinguishable from end of file on most devices; check the block count. Portable applications should use cksum(1). sum and usr/ucb/sum (see sum(1B)) return different checksums.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-22994000
Note: Using access() to check if a user is authorized to e.g. open a file before actually doing so using open() creates a security hole, because the user might exploit the short time interval between checking and opening the file to manipulate it. Note: I/O operations may fail even when access() indicates that they would succeed, particularly for operations on network filesystems which may have permissions semantics beyond the usual POSIX permission-bit model. Although Windows supports chmod(), you can only set the file's read-only flag with it (via the S_IREAD constants or a corresponding integer value). All other bits are ignored. \|path, uid, gid)\| \|path, uid, gid)\| '..'even if they are present in the directory. Availability: Macintosh, Unix, Windows. Changed in version 2.3: On Windows NT/2k/XP and Unix, if path is a Unicode object, the result will be a list of Unicode objects. 0666(octal). The current umask value is first masked out from the mode. Availability: Macintosh, Unix. FIFOs are pipes that can be accessed like regular files. FIFOs exist until they are deleted (for example with os.unlink()). Generally, FIFOs are used as rendezvous between ``client'' and ``server'' type processes: the server opens the FIFO for reading, and the client opens it for writing. Note that mkfifo() doesn't open the FIFO -- it just creates the rendezvous point. \|filename[, mode=0600, device])\| 0777(octal). On some systems, mode is ignored. Where it is used, the current umask value is first masked out. Availability: Macintosh, Unix, Windows. 0777(octal). On some systems, mode is ignored. Where it is used, the current umask value is first masked out. Note: makedirs() will become confused if the path elements to create include os.pardir. New in version 1.5.2. Changed in version 2.3: This function now handles UNC paths correctly. pathconf_namesdictionary. For configuration variables not included in that mapping, passing an integer for name is also accepted. Availability: Macintosh, Unix. If name is a string and is not known, ValueError is raised. If a specific value for name is not supported by the host system, even if it is included in OSError is raised with errno.EINVAL for the os.path.join(os.path.dirname(path), result). Availability: Macintosh, Unix. >>> import os >>> statinfo = os.stat('somefile.txt') >>> statinfo (33188, 422511L, 769L, 1, 1032, 100, 926L, 1105022698,1105022732, 1105022732) >>> statinfo.st_size 926L >>> Changed in version 2.3: If stat_float_times returns true, the time values are floats, measuring seconds. Fractions of a second may be reported if the system supports that. On Mac OS, the times are always floats. See stat_float_times for further discussion. On some Unix systems (such as Linux), the following attributes may also be available: st_blocks (number of blocks allocated for file), st_blksize (filesystem blocksize), st_rdev (type of device if an inode device). st_flags (user defined flags for file). On other Unix systems (such as FreeBSD), the following attributes may be available (but may be only filled out if root tries to use them): st_gen (file generation number), st_birthtime (time of file creation). On Mac OS systems, the following attributes may also be available: st_rsize, st_creator, st_type. On RISCOS systems, the following attributes are also available: st_ftype (file type), st_attrs (attributes), st_obtype (object type). For backward compatibility, the return value of stat() is also accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most important (and portable) members of the stat structure, in the order st_mode, st_ino, st_dev, st_nlink, st_uid, st_gid, st_size, st_atime, st_mtime, st_ctime. More items may be added at the end by some implementations. The standard module stat defines functions and constants that are useful for extracting information from a stat structure. (On Windows, some items are filled with dummy values.) Note: The exact meaning and resolution of the st_atime, st_mtime, and st_ctime members depends on the operating system and the file system. For example, on Windows systems using the FAT or FAT32 file systems, st_mtime has 2-second resolution, and st_atime has only 1-day resolution. See your operating system documentation for details. Availability: Macintosh, Unix, Windows. Changed in version 2.2: Added access to values as attributes of the returned object. Changed in version 2.5: Added st_gen, st_birthtime. True, future calls to stat() return floats, if it is False, future calls return ints. If newvalue is omitted, return the current setting. For compatibility with older Python versions, accessing stat_result as a tuple always returns integers. Changed in version 2.5: Python now returns float values by default. Applications which do not work correctly with floating point time stamps can use this function to restore the old behaviour. The resolution of the timestamps (that is the smallest possible fraction) depends on the system. Some systems only support second resolution; on these systems, the fraction will always be zero. It is recommended that this setting is only changed at program startup time in the __main__ module; libraries should never change this setting. If an application uses a library that works incorrectly if floating point time stamps are processed, this application should turn the feature off until the library has been corrected. For backward compatibility, the return value is also accessible as a tuple whose values correspond to the attributes, in the order given above. The standard module statvfs defines constants that are useful for extracting information from a statvfs structure when accessing it as a sequence; this remains useful when writing code that needs to work with versions of Python that don't support accessing the fields as attributes. Changed in version 2.2: Added access to values as attributes of the returned object. None. If given and not None, prefix is used to provide a short prefix to the filename. Applications are responsible for properly creating and managing files created using paths returned by tempnam(); no automatic cleanup is provided. On Unix, the environment variable TMPDIR overrides dir, while on Windows the TMP is used. The specific behavior of this function depends on the C library implementation; some aspects are underspecified in system documentation. Warning: Use of tempnam() is vulnerable to symlink attacks; consider using tmpfile() (section 14.1.2) instead. Availability: Macintosh, Unix, Windows. None, then the file's access and modified times are set to the current time. Otherwise, times must be a 2-tuple of numbers, of the form (atime, mtime)which is used to set the access and modified times, respectively. Whether a directory can be given for path depends on whether the operating system implements directories as files (for example, Windows does not). Note that the exact times you set here may not be returned by a subsequent stat() call, depending on the resolution with which your operating system records access and modification times; see stat(). Changed in version 2.0: Added support for Nonefor times. Availability: Macintosh, Unix, Windows. (dirpath, dirnames, filenames). dirpath is a string, the path to the directory. dirnames is a list of the names of the subdirectories in dirpath '..'). filenames is a list of the names of the non-directory files in dirpath. Note that the names in the lists contain no path components. To get a full path (which begins with top) to a file or directory in If optional argument topdown is true or not specified, the triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any of its subdirectories (directories are generated top down). If topdown is false, the triple for a directory is generated after the triples for all of its subdirectories (directories are generated bottom up). When topdown is true, the caller can modify the dirnames list in-place (perhaps using del or slice assignment), and walk() will only recurse into the subdirectories whose names remain in dirnames; this can be used to prune the search, impose a specific order of visiting, or even to inform walk() about directories the caller creates or renames before it resumes walk() again. Modifying dirnames when topdown is false is ineffective, because in bottom-up mode the directories in dirnames are generated before dirpath itself is generated. By default errors from the os.listdir() call are ignored. If optional argument onerror is specified, it should be a function; it will be called with one argument, an OSError instance. It can report the error to continue with the walk, or raise the exception to abort the walk. Note that the filename is available as the filename attribute of the exception object. os.path.islink(path), and invoke walk(path)on each directly. This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory files in each directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn't look under any CVS subdirectory: import os from os.path import join, getsize for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/email'): print root, "consumes", print sum(getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files), print "bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files" if 'CVS' in dirs: dirs.remove('CVS') # don't visit CVS directories In the next example, walking the tree bottom up is essential: rmdir() doesn't allow deleting a directory before the directory is empty: # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in 'top', # assuming there are no symbolic links. # CAUTION: This is dangerous! For example, if top == '/', it # could delete all your disk files. import os for root, dirs, files in os.walk(top, topdown=False): for name in files: os.remove(os.path.join(root, name)) for name in dirs: os.rmdir(os.path.join(root, name)) New in version 2.3. See About this document... for information on suggesting changes.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-22997000
(Acute Bronchitis; Lower Respiratory Tract Infection) \|Bronchi of Lungs\| \|Copyright © Nucleus Medical Media, Inc.\| - Acute bronchitis—This is a sudden onset of symptoms. It only lasts a short time and lung function is fully recovered. - Chronic bronchitis—This is a serious, long-term condition. It causes blockage and damage of the lungs. It is often the result of many years of cigarette smoking. - Viral or bacterial infections - Irritation from smoke Breathing in certain irritants (usually in a work setting) such as: - Vegetable dusts - Increased sputum production - Trouble breathing to treat pain and fever - Note: Aspirin is not recommended for children or teens with a current or recent viral infection. This is because of the risk of Reye's syndrome. Ask your doctor which other medicines are safe for your child. Expectorants or cough suppressants - There are some concerns about the safety of over-the-counter cough and cold products in children. The FDA recommends that these products not be used in children less than 2 years old. The FDA also supports not using them in children less than 4 years old. - Albuterol to help open airways if there are signs of breathing difficulty - Herbs and supplements—Pelargonium sidoides extract may help resolve symptoms in patients with acute bronchitis - Increased fluid intake - Cool mist humidifier—to ease breathing - Avoid contact with people who have respiratory viral or bacterial infections. - Stop smoking or never start. - Avoid passive smoke. - Avoid exposure to irritants in the air. American Academy of Family Physicians Family Doctor http://familydoctor.org American Lung Association http://www.lung.org The Canadian Lung Association http://www.lung.ca The College of Family Physicians of Canada http://www.cfpc.ca Acute bronchitis. American Academy of Family Physicians Family Doctor website. Available at: http://familydoctor.org/familydoctor/en/diseases-conditions/acute-bronchitis.html. Updated February 2010. Accessed March 29, 2013. Acute bronchitis. EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at: http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed/what.php. Updated February 8, 2013. Accessed March 29, 2013. Know when antibiotics work: Bronchitis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/bronchitis.html. Updated May 1, 2012. Accessed March 29, 2013. Smith S, Fahey T, et al. Antibiotics for acute bronchitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;CD000245. Nonprescription cough and cold medicine use in children. Medwatch: 2007 Safety Alerts for Drugs, Biologics, Medical Devices, and Dietary Supplements. US Food and Drug Administration website. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm152691.htm. Accessed: March 29, 2013. 1/4/2011 DynaMed's Systematic Literature Surveillance http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed/what.php: Timmer A, Gunther J, Rucker G, Motschall E, Antes G, Kern WV. Pelargonium sidoides extract for acute respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;(3):CD006323. - Reviewer: Brian Randall, MD - Review Date: 02/2013 - - Update Date: 03/29/2013 -	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-22998000
Dragons are creatures with nearly unlimited life spans. They can survive for long periods of time, and no one has found a dragon that has died of old age. Adolescence is usually marked by the growth of a hatchling’s wings, although not all breeds of dragons grow wings and some breeds have other traits that indicate the beginning of maturation. Once they hit adolescence, hatchlings change quickly, maturing to their full forms in only 2 years. Dragons don’t communicate with each other verbally, but they will growl to scare off predators and frighten prey. Young dragons will emit an extremely high-pitched squeal when they are frightened. To communicate, they use telepathy with each other and to speak to other creatures. Pygmy dragons are the smallest breed of true dragons, being the size of a small cat. They are often found around concentrated populations of dragons, relying on their larger brethren to ward away potential predators and to leave generous scraps. As such, the majority of a pygmy’s diet is scavenged, though they do hunt songbirds and small mammals when the pickings are slim. Due to their tiny size, pygmies do not breed with other varieties of dragons, but select mates within their breed.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23002000
The concept of disability has changed significantly through history. At one point, disability was seen as the result of sin, either by the person with the disability or his or her parents. Disability was associated with guilt and shame, and people with disabilities were hidden away. Merriam-Websterís definition of disability: limitation in the ability to pursue an occupation because of a physical or mental impairment; lack of legal qualification to do something; or a disqualification, restriction or disadvantage. Most of the time, we apply these definitions to a person who ďhasĒ a disability. What if it is society that has the disability, not the individual? With the advent of modern medicine, a medical understanding of disability developed. In a medical model of disability, the person with a disability is seen as having an illness, which presumably should be cured. The person with a disability, as someone who is sick or diseased, is excused from normal life and responsibilities such as working, family obligations and household maintenance. The approach of the Social Security Administration supports the idea of disability as something that excludes one from a normal life. To fit the administrationís definition of disability, a person must be able to prove that he or she is incapable of gainful employment. The inference is that by having a disability, one remains outside mainstream society. Yet there is another way to view disability. This view considers disability as a normal part of life. After all, most of us will have a disability, whether temporary or permanent, at some time in our life. As many people with disabilities will attest, their disabilities are integral to what makes them who they are. It isnít the disability that needs to be changed. The physical and attitudinal barriers people with disabilities face are what need to change. For example, people who are unable to walk may still be able to move around as much as anyone with the use of wheelchairs and other assistive technology. The inability to use their limbs may be less of a limitation than heavy doors that donít open automatically or stairs that keep them from a building. Similarly, culture and environment can dictate whether something is a disability. In a culture where healers and shamans regularly interact with a spirit world, hearing voices isnít a disability. Only in societies where reading is essential to daily functioning is a learning disability recognized. In our society, a vision impairment that necessitates wearing glasses isnít considered a disability, but a mobility impairment that requires a person to use a walker is. Disability is defined by context. It follows, then, that what makes something a disability is external to the individual. If we presumed that people with disabilities were able to live full and enriching lives, participate fully in their communities and have adult responsibilities, couldnít we make it so by removing the societal barriers that we create? When we view disability as a natural part of life, our entire approach to disabilities has to change. Tara Kiene is the director of case management with Community Connections Inc.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23006000
16 Jun 2008: Report The Limits of Climate Modeling As the public seeks answers about the future impacts of climate change, some climatologists are growing increasingly uneasy about the localized predictions they are being asked to make. Now that the world largely accepts our climate is changing, and that humans are to blame, we all want to know what the future holds for our own backyard. How bad will it get? Flood or drought? Feast or famine? Super-hurricane or Mediterranean balm? The statisticians and climatologists who brought us the big picture are now under huge pressure to get local. But they are growing increasingly concerned about whether their existing models and computers are up to the job. They organized a summit in Reading, England, in May to discuss their concerns. As Brian Hoskins of Reading University, one of the British government’s top climate advisers, put it: “We’ve worked out the global scale. But that’s the easy problem. We don’t yet understand the smaller scale. The pressure is on for answers, and we can’t wait around for decades.” Already, policymakers are starting to take at face value model predictions of — to take a few examples — warming of 18 degrees Fahrenheit (7.8 degrees Celsius) or more in Alaska, and super-droughts in the southwestern United States, but little warming at all in central states. But is the task doable? Some climate modelers say that even with the extraordinary supercomputing power now available, the answer is no. That, by being lured into offering local forecasts for decades ahead, they are setting themselves up for a fall that could undermine the credibility of the climate models. Lenny Smith, an American statistician now working on climate modeling at the London School of Economics in the United Kingdom, is fearful. “Our models are being over-interpreted and misinterpreted,” he says. “They are getting better; I don't want to trash them. But policy-makers think we know much more than we actually know. We need to drop the pretense that they are nearly perfect.” There are two areas of concern. First, how accurate are the global models at mimicking atmospheric processes? And second, are they capable of zooming in on particular areas to give reliable pictures of the future where you live? Nobody much doubts that greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide accumulating in the atmosphere will cause warming. It would be a contradiction of 200 years of physics if they did not. But exactly how much warming will occur — and how it will be distributed across the globe and impact other climatic features like rainfall — depends on feedbacks in the climate system, the oceans, and the natural carbon cycle. The influence of some of these feedbacks is much less clear. One big issue is the influence of clouds. The models are pretty hopeless at predicting future cloud cover. And we can’t even be sure whether, overall, extra clouds would warm or cool the planet. (Clouds may cool us in the day, but will usually keep us warm at night.) In the language of Donald Rumsfeld, we would call this problem a “known unknown.” And there may also be “unknown unknowns.” For instance, a paper in Earth and Planetary Science Letters in March reported finding fossilized ferns in central Siberia that suggest that in the late Cretaceous era, temperatures there were like modern-day Florida. Yet current climate models predict that the area should have had average temperatures around zero Celsius. The British climate modeler involved in the study, Paul Valdes of Bristol University, says this snapshot from the era of the dinosaurs could mean that “the internal physics of our climate models are wrong.” That the models may also be drastically underestimating likely warming in the 21st century. This uncertainty at the heart of the models seems surprising when the predictions of most global climate models seem to be in agreement. For more than a decade they have estimated that a doubling of carbon dioxide in the air will warm the world by between 1.5 and 4.5 degrees Celsius. Some experts think the consensus of the models is bogus. “The modelers tend to tweak them to align them. The process is very incestuous,” one leading British analyst on uncertainty in models told me. Another, Jerry Ravetz, fellow at Oxford University’s James Martin Institute for Science and Civilisation, says: “The modelers are trained to be very myopic, and not to understand the uncertainty within their models. They become very skilled at solving the little problems and ignoring the big ones.” These are serious charges. But the custodians of the big models say this is really a communications problem between them and the outside world. Gavin Schmidt of NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies, which runs one of the world’s top climate models, says modelers themselves have a “tacit knowledge” of the uncertainties inherent in their work. But this knowledge rarely surfaces in public discussions, resulting in “an aura of exactitude that can be misleading.” Steve Rayner, director of the James Martin Institute, says, “What climate models do well is give a broad picture. What they are absolutely lousy at is giving specific forecasts for particular places or times.” And yet that is what modelers are increasingly doing. At a meeting at Cambridge University in Britain last summer, Larry Smith singled out for criticism the British government's Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, which runs another of the world’s premier climate models. He accuses the Centre of making detailed climate projections for regions of Britain, when global climate models disagree strongly about how climate change will affect the islands. James Murphy, Hadley’s head of climate prediction, says: “I find it far-fetched that a planner is going to rush off with a climate scientist’s probability distribution and make an erroneous decision because they assumed they could trust some percentile of the distribution to its second decimal point.” But some say the Hadley Centre invites just such a response in some of its leaflets. One of its reports, “New Science for Managing Climate Risks,” distributed to policymakers at the Bali climate conference last December, included “climate model predictions” forecasting that by 2030 the River Orinoco’s flow will have declined by 18.7 percent, the Zambezi by 34.9 percent, and the Amazon by 13.4 percent. Many in the modeling community are growing wary of such spurious certainty. Last year, a panel on climate modeling assembled by the UN’s World Climate Research Program under the chairmanship of Jagadish Shukla of the George Mason University at Calverton, Maryland, concluded that current models “have serious limitations in simulating regional features, for example rainfall, mid-latitude storms, organized tropical convection, ocean mixing, and ecosystem dynamics.” Regional projections, the panel said, “are sufficiently uncertain to compromise the goal of providing society with reliable predictions of regional climate change.” Many of the predictions were “laughable,” according to the panel. Concern is greatest about predicting climate in the tropics, including hurricane formation. This seriously undermines the credence that can be placed on a headline-grabbing prediction in May that the future might see fewer Atlantic hurricanes (albeit sometimes more intense). This might not matter too much if politicians and policymakers had a healthily skeptical view of climate models. But most do not, a meeting of modelers held in Oxford heard in February. Policymakers often hide behind models and modelers, using them to claim scientific probity for their actions. One speaker likened modern climate modelers to the ancient oracles. “They are part of the tradition of goats’ entrails and tea leaves. They are a way of objectifying advice, cloaking sensible ideas in a false aura of scientific certainty.” We saw that when European governments at the recent Bali climate conference cited the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as reporting that keeping carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere below 450 parts per million would prevent warming above 2 degrees Celsius. And that that was a “safe” level of warming. Neither statement is in any IPCC reports, and its scientists have repeatedly stated that what might be regarded as a safe degree of warming is ultimately a political and not a scientific question. None of this should be taken to suggest either that climate models are not valuable tools, or that they are exaggerating the significance of man-made climate change. In fact, they may well inadvertently be under-estimating the pace of change. Most models suggest that climate change in the coming decades will be gradual — a smooth line on a graph. But our growing knowledge of the history of natural climate change suggests that change often happens in sudden leaps. For instance, there was a huge step-change in the world’s climate 4,200 years ago. Catastrophic droughts simultaneously shattered human societies across the Middle East, India, China, and the interior of North America. “Models have great difficulty in predicting such sudden events, and in explaining them,” says Euan Nisbet of Royal Holloway, the University of London. “But geology tells us that catastrophe has happened in the past, and is likely to happen again.” As Pasky Pascual of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency put it at the Oxford meeting: “All models are wrong; some are wronger.” But they are our best handle on likely climate change in the coming decades. Acting on the findings of Shukla’s panel, modelers from around the world met at the summit in Reading in May to “prepare a blueprint to launch a revolution in climate prediction.” They said that to meet the demands for reliable local forecasts they needed more than a thousand times more computing power than they currently have, and called for the establishment of a new billion-dollar global climate modeling center, a “Manhattan Project for climate,” to deliver the goods. POSTED ON 16 Jun 2008 IN Biodiversity Climate Science & Technology Asia Europe North America	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23011000
and German Socialism Written by: Hanna C. Sanchez Rosa Luxemburg was the youngest daughter of a middle class family in Poland. Although she learned about politics from her father who often read from the newspaper and discussed politics with his family, her commitment to socialism emerged only from herself. Originally from Poland, Rosa greatly influenced the Socialist movement in Germany through her writings, ideals, and actions. Her views of a revolutionary party differed from the classic Leninist beliefs and she is often referred to as the democratic alternative to the authoritarian party. However, Rosa was not an advocate of democracy; rather, she saw democracy as a stepping stone on the path to her socialist revolution. She is the best known revolutionary theorist to actually experience a western revolution, even though the German revolution of 1918-19 ultimately failed. Rosa was an orthodox Marxist and believed the revolution would occur by the working class taking and exercising political power. Furthermore, the workers would have to be educated and possess class-consciousness in order to execute successfully a revolution, and this education would result from their experiences with the government. According to Rosa, the revolution would occur as a series of events in which the forces of capitalism gradually weakened as the workers gained power. Rosa also disagreed with revisionists such as Bernstein in that she felt reforms would serve to educate the proletariat, which in turn would lead to the revolution. She initially became involved with movements in high school in Warsaw, and continued her involvement in the Polish Social movement after she graduated. Her work was so extensive that in 1889, she heard that the Russian authorities that controlled most of Poland might arrest her. As a result, Rosa decided to leave the country and was smuggled across the border by a Catholic priest. She went to Zurich, Switzerland, which was the center for many eastern European émigrés. At the university in Zurich, Rosa earned her degree of Doctor of Law in 1897 and wrote a thesis on the industrial development of Poland. Her educational background in history and political economics served as the foundation for work after her schooling. While in Zurich, Rosa became even more involved in the socialist movement. With Leo Jogiches, who became her lover, she co-founded the Polish Social Democratic Party (SDKP). Although the SDKP was not very successful during the 1890s, Rosa became well known throughout the international socialist movement. Members of the nationalistic Polish Socialist Party criticized Rosa for her position that Socialist parties were not interested in Poland’s struggle for independence, and this attracted much attention to her. In 1898, she married Gustav Lubeck and moved to Berlin. Her marriage was not one of love, as her relationship with Jogiches continued. Rosa’s primary goal was to gain German citizenship through the marriage in order to prevent her deportation as an undesirable alien. In Germany, she became involved with the German Socialist Party (SPD) mainly as an expert on Polish affairs. She was particularly valuable to the SPD since it aimed to establish itself in Polish areas under German control. From the start of her work with the SPD, Rosa made it clear that she did not want to be limited in her work and she maintained a position in the mainstream of German socialist politics. Rosa achieved a prominent position in the SPD and was widely published. Her main argument during the period of 1899 to 1904 was the necessity of a connection between the daily activity of the trade union movement and the Socialist party and the long-term aim of revolution. However, she had no concrete plans on how to accomplish this. Furthermore, she did not have specific suggestions on how to speed up the path to a revolution nor did she know what form the revolution would take. The Russian Revolution of 1905 led Rosa to believe that it would radicalize the socialist movement all over Europe and not just in Russia. In her explanations of the Russian Revolution, she mentioned for the first time that bloodshed would be encountered in the revolution. Although she was excited by the Russian Revolution, she was also frustrated by the fact that it was taking place just east of Poland while she was in Germany. Despite her work as a link between Russian and western European socialists, she would have preferred to be in the middle of the revolution that was already taking place. In March 1906, Rosa was arrested along with Jogiches. Her health worsened while in prison, and her state helped persuade the government to release her on a bail of 3000 rubles. After her release, she received permission to leave Germany and in August went to Finland, stopping by St. Petersburg where she visited Trotsky and Parvus. In Finland, Rosa visited Lenin and wrote The Mass Strike, in which she interpreted the 1905 Russian revolution and demonstrated how the lessons of the events were applicable to all of Europe. Unfortunately, her writings did not have its intended effect since it was presented at a time when most Socialists were no longer willing to discuss a revolution. Rosa returned to Germany in 1906 and was disappointed to discover that there was little enthusiasm over the Russian Revolution. The party congress in 1906 stated that while there may have been possibilities for a revolution, they no longer were present. Furthermore, she found herself increasingly alone in her opinions in the party. Although the SPD agreed with her that the revolution was not likely to be just one big event, it would not go along with her belief that the revolution would be a series of events. As a result of the 1905 Revolution, she had refined her beliefs of the revolution. She felt that the economic structure around her was becoming increasingly contradictory and more serious strikes would break out because of the economic situation. These strikes would be countered by governmental opposition and repression, which would educate the workers politically. This would lead to the gradual politicization of the entire strike movement, although the workers’ strategy would still be to economically paralyze the whole country. Although the government would subdue each strike, each strike would reemerge stronger and more determined than the previous one. The series of mass strikes would ultimately undermine the capitalist order as well as educate the proletariat of the course that history was taking. However, most socialist parties disagreed with Rosa’s view of the revolution and the role of mass strikes. They believed that the voters would bring them political power and the trade union movement would provide some economic power. Rosa’s appeal and popularity reached a pinnacle at the start of 1914. She went on trial for a statement she made the previous year in which she renounced fighting against the French and was subsequently sentenced to one year in prison. Not only did she gain attention through this episode, but Rosa also came to represent the SPD persecuted by the government. The First World War broke out while she was in prison, and she was surprised by it. The brutality of the war horrified her and she worked with some groups to end the war, even though she did help pass a resolution for those who wanted to use the war to further the revolution. She spent most of WWI in prison and accomplished a great deal of work. Among her writings, Rosa referred to the Russian Revolution as the mightiest event of the World War, but felt that its ultimate effects depended on what western nations afterwards. She criticized the lack of political freedom in the Russian Revolution and the German socialists who would have to incite their own revolution in order for the one in Russia to be effective and prolonged. Rosa acknowledged the possibility of the failure of the revolution and further believed that failure would be better if success would be accomplished with the compromise of principles. Her own group, the Spartacist League, was almost insignificant in the German Revolution of 1918. The revolution took place in Berlin on November 9, the day that Rosa was released from prison. In January 1919, the Independent Socialists, Communists, and other radicals joined to protest against the government. However, it became apparent that the government would not fall and all groups except the Communists consequently separated themselves from the protest. Rosa led the Spartacist League with Karl Liebknecht and together they became the leaders of the Spartacist Rebellion. They were later arrested after a resistance to the government was suppressed. Rosa was interrogated, beaten, shot, and then thrown into the Landwehr Canal in Berlin. Rosa became a martyr of socialism as a result of her death at the hands of the government. Even while some of her works were criticized, she was still remembered by both the Socialists and Communists. Bradley, Michael E. “Rosa Luxemburg’s Theory of the Growth of the Capitalist Economy.” Social Science Quarterly. Vol. 52 (2), 1971. Pgs. 318-330. Reynolds, David B. “Rediscovering Western Marxism’s Heritage: Rosa Luxemburg and the Role of the Party.” Research and Society. Vol. 3, 1990. Pgs. 1-34. Richards, Michael D. “Rosa Luxemburg- Heroine of the Left.” History Today. Vol. 22 (2), 1972. Pgs. 103-110. Weitz, Eric D. “’Rosa Luxemburg Belongs to Us!’ German Communism and the Luxemburg Legacy.” Central European History. Vol. 27 (1), 1994. Pgs. 27-64.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23017000
Lawrenceville, Georgia (CNN) -- You might recognize prominent primatologist Frans de Waal from lectures he has given about his research on primate behavior, which have been popularized on YouTube. His face is familiar to chimpanzees, too; some chimps that he knew as babies still recognize him even after decades apart, he said. "Chimpanzees have the advantage that you cannot ask them questions, so you have to watch (their) behavior to see what they do," says de Waal, director of Emory University's Living Links Center, in his Dutch-accented voice that is both gentle and authoritative. He adds, with dry humor: "With humans, you can ask questions and you get all sorts of answers I don't trust, so I prefer to work with chimpanzees for that reason." Living Links is part of the oldest and largest primate center in the United States: The Yerkes National Primate Research Center, a secluded grassy area in suburban Atlanta where humans work in office trailers and other animals play in open-air compounds. De Waal, who has been at the center for more than 20 years, has made a career out of finding links between primate and human behavior, particularly in the areas of morality and empathy. You might think of "morality" as special for humans, but there are elements of it that are found in the animal kingdom, says de Waal -- namely, fairness and reciprocity. His latest study, published this week in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, suggests that chimpanzees may show some of the same sensibility about fairness that humans do. The popular belief that the natural world is based on competition is a simplification, de Waal says. The strength of one's immune system, and the ability to find food, are also crucial. And many animals survive by cooperating. "The struggle for life is not necessarily literally a struggle," he said. "Humans are a highly cooperative species, and we can see in our close relatives where that comes from." Mammals such as wolves, orcas and elephants need their groups to survive, and empathy and cooperation are survival mechanisms. De Waal discusses these mechanisms in his 2009 book "The Age of Empathy: Nature's Lessons for a Kinder Society." "We think that empathy evolved to take care of others that you need to take care of, especially, of course, between mother and offspring, which is universal in all the mammals," de Waal said. What it means to be fair De Waal isn't sure that his monkeys have what a philosopher would call a "concept of justice" in an intellectual sense. But the emotional reactions researchers have observed indicates that there is, at a more basic level, a sense of justice among them. Among the questions he investigates: If an animal gets more than another, is there is a feeling that this is somehow unjust? And if one shares food with another, is there an expectation of returning the favor? In a 2008 study, de Waal and colleagues put two capuchin monkeys side by side and gave them a simple task to complete: Giving a rock to the experimenter. They were given cucumbers as a reward for executing the task, and the monkeys obliged. But if one of the monkeys was given grapes, something interesting happened: As observed in a popular video that de Waal showed in his TED talk, after receiving the first piece of cucumber, the capuchin monkey gives the experimenter a rock as expected. But upon seeing that the other monkey has grapes, the capuchin monkey throws the next piece of cucumber that it is given back at the researcher. Like children, the monkeys feel they "need to get the same thing as somebody else," de Waal said. Based on experiments such as these, de Waal came to believe that the sense of fairness observed in monkeys is egocentric. The capuchin monkeys were upset, selfishly, when they didn't get the grapes that their neighbors received. De Waal believed this model of fairness would apply to chimpanzees also. Chimpanzees are so closely related to us that they share 99% of their DNA with humans. But the new study, which compares chimpanzees to young children, makes de Waal rethink that view. "Now with this experiment, we are thinking that they have a higher level, where they worry about reward division in general," he said, "and it's now unclear how they differ from humans." The new study: A human sense of fairness? In the new study, de Waal and colleagues had chimpanzees and, separately, young children, play an "ultimatum game." This is "the gold standard of fairness for humans" because it has been played all over the world, by people in different cultures, to show that, universally, humans appear to have a sense of fairness. The basic structure of an ultimatum game is that there are rewards that can be divided between two individuals. One proposes how to divide them and the other accepts or rejects this offer. If the receiver rejects, no rewards are given out. Human trials have shown that people usually propose a generous division of the goodies, such as half and half or 60% and 40%, de Waal said. In the version used in the new experiment, six adult chimpanzees and 20 human children, between ages 2 and 7, participated. The setup was such that a token could be traded for equal rewards for both partners, and a token that would give more goodies to the partner who made the choice. In some trials, one partner proposes a reward division to the other via a token, and the receiver must accept the token in order for both parties to get rewards. In others, the partner's acceptance is not required. The researchers found that chimpanzees and children both tended to make decisions about splitting rewards similarly to adult humans. In the situation where the responder could accept or reject the division of rewards, both chimpanzees and children tended to split the rewards with their partners. But when the partner was not given the opportunity to reject the proposal, chimps and kids tended to choose the selfish arrangement -- a token that favored the chooser. So, does this mean that chimpanzees show the same sense of fairness as humans? Keith Jensen of the University of Manchester, who has conducted similar experiments in the past, isn't so sure. His results did not show that chimpanzees have a sense of fairness. Jensen is concerned about the results of this new study because it's not clear that the responders knew that they could reject offers. None of the participants, human or chimp, ever rejected the offers of their partners. "The fact that responders never rejected nonzero offers suggests that they were not sensitive to unfairness but were only motivated by getting food for themselves, regardless of the intentions of the proposers or the consequences for them," he said in an e-mail. But de Waal said that responders did display negative reactions in response to some offers. Chimps would spit water and the children would say something like "You're getting more than me" in response to a selfish offer. "That indicates that they know what's going on," he said. Jensen also criticized the design of the experiment because participants were primarily interacting with the researchers, not each other. Although one chimp had to pass a token to the other, this could be just a necessary step to get food, not a sign of agreement with the offer, he said. But de Waal stands by the study. There are very few studies of this nature on chimpanzees compared to in humans, and more research should be done to explore the nature of the sense of fairness of human relatives. The secret lives of primates There's still a lot that humans don't know about their close relatives. De Waal has made some fascinating inroads, however, including a study showing that chimpanzees can look at the behind of another chimpanzee and match it to the corresponding face, provided it's a chimp they know. This shows that the chimps have "whole-body knowledge," a concept that has not been rigorously tested in humans, he said. The research won him a 2012 Ig Nobel prize, honoring research that is both humorous and thought-provoking, shared with Jennifer Pokorny. And he has also studied yawn contagion, the phenomenon of one person yawning in response to another person's yawn. Those who are sensitive to yawns tend to be more empathetic people, and friends and family members yawn more with each other than with strangers. This has also been shown in chimpanzees, who will yawn if another chimp they know yawns too. But de Waal isn't sure, for instance, why three females were patrolling their compound when CNN visited in October. Males, though, have a clear purpose in patrolling: In the wild, they do it to protect their territory, de Waal said. Perhaps, he postulates, the females are mimicking the males. Chimp males compete with each other regularly, but also come together to repair their relationships, de Waal said. This pattern of behavior is seen in human families and in the workplace -- these cycles of one-upmanship and reconciliation. "There are many animals who are very good at cooperation, and I'm personally not convinced that we humans are necessarily best at that, but we are very good at it, that's for sure." His next book, coming out this spring, is called "The Bonobo and the Atheist: In Search of Humanism Among the Primates," which brings together evidence that there are biological roots in human fairness and addresses the role of religion in society.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23021000
\|\|This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (January 2010)\| Aldine Press was the printing office started by Aldus Manutius in 1494 in Venice, from which were issued the celebrated Aldine editions of the classics (Latin and Greek masterpieces plus a few more modern works). The Aldine Press is famous in the history of typography, among other things, for the introduction of italics. The press was the first to issue printed books in the small octavo size, similar to that of a modern paperback, and like that intended for portability and ease of reading. The press issued 127 editions during the lifetime of Aldus. The press was continued after Aldus’s death in 1515 by his wife and her father until his son Paolo (1512–1574) took over. His grandson Aldo then ran the firm until his death in 1597. Due to the firm's commercial success many pirated editions were also produced in Lyons and elsewhere. Today, antique books printed by the Aldine Press in Venice are referred to as Aldines. Initial innovations The press was started by Aldus based on his love of classics, and at first printed new copies of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek and Latin classics. He also printed dictionaries and grammars to help people interpret the books. While scholars wanting to learn Greek used to employ learned Greeks to teach them directly, the Aldine editions, edited by Greek scholars, allowed many scholars across Europe to study Greek. Historian Elizabeth Eisenstein claimed that the fall of Constantinople in 1453 had threatened the importance and survival of Greek scholarship, but publications such as those by the Aldine Press secured it. Erasmus was one of the scholars learned in Greek that the Aldine Press employed. When the press expanded to current titles, they wrote some books themselves and employed other writers, including Erasmus. As this expansion into current languages (mainly Italian and French) and current topics continued, the press took on another role and made perhaps even more important contributions. Beyond the preservation of Hellenic studies, Aldus's contributions are also respected in the development of a smaller type than others in use. His contemporaries called it Aldine Type; today we call it italics. Their logo of the anchor and dolphin is represented today in the symbols and names used by some modern publishers such as Doubleday. Selected Aldine editions - 1495–1498 Aristotle - 1499 Hypnerotomachia Poliphili - 1501 Francesco Petrarca, Le cose volgari - 1502 Dante - 1502 Herodotus - 1502 Sophocles - 1503 Florilegium diversorum epigrammatum in septem libros - 1504 and 1517 Homer - 1513 Plato - 1513 Pindar (editio princeps), Callimachus' Hymns, Dionysius Periegetes, Lycophron (editio princeps) - 1514 Institutionum grammaticarum libri quatuor - 1514 Virgil (the first of the italic type pocket octavo editions) - 1528 Baldassare Castiglione, The Book of the Courtier (first printing) One of the more substantial collections of Aldine Press books and Aldine imitations in North America is at the Harold B. Lee library on the campus of Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah. - "Hand Bookbindings". Princeton University Library. 2004. Archived from the original on 27 November 2009. Retrieved 12 January 2010. - Eisenstein, E. (1979). The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. - A Guide to Special Collections (1999) - See this link: http://net.lib.byu.edu/aldine/aldWel.html. Further reading - Renouard, A. A. (1834) Annales de l'imprimerie des Aldes, ou l'histoire des trois Manuce et de leurs éditions; 3ème édition. Paris (the standard bibliography) - Fletcher, H. G., III (1988) New Aldine Studies: documentary essays on the life and work of Aldus Manutius. San Francisco - Lowry, Martin (1984) Il mondo di Aldo Manuzio – Affari e cultura della Venezia del Rinascimento. Roma: Il Veltro, pp. 441 (Translated from: The World of Aldus Manutius: Business and Scholarship in Renaissance Venice, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1979). II edizione, con aggiornamento bibliografico, Roma 2000. - Soave, Fiammetta (1991) Bibliotheca Aldina: a collection of one hundred publications of Aldus Pius Manutius and the Aldine Press, including some valuable Aldine conterfeits [sic]. Rome: F. Soave - Davies, Martin (1995) Aldus Manutius: printer and publisher of Renaissance Venice. London: British Library - Febvre, L. & Martin, H. (2001) La nascita del libro. Roma-Bari: Laterza - Braida, L. (2003) Stampa e cultura in Europa. Roma-Bari: Laterza	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23029000
Temporal range: 0Ma Recent \|Range of Chinchilla lanigera and Chinchilla chinchilla. Chinchillas are crepuscular rodents, slightly larger and more robust than ground squirrels, native to the Andes mountains in South America. They live in colonies at high altitudes (up to 15,000 ft/4,270 m). Historically, they lived in the Andes of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru, but today colonies in the wild remain only in Peru and Chile. Along with their relatives, viscachas, they make up the family Chinchillidae. The animal (whose name literally means "little chincha") is named after the Chincha people of the Andes, who once wore its dense, velvet-like fur. By the end of the 19th century, chinchillas had become quite rare due to hunting for their ultra-soft fur. Most chinchillas currently used by the fur industry for clothing and other accessories are farm-raised. The two living species of chinchilla are Chinchilla chinchilla (formerly known as Chinchilla brevicaudata) and Chinchilla lanigera. There is little noticeable difference between the species, except C. chinchilla has a shorter tail, a thicker neck and shoulders, and shorter ears than C. lanigera. The former species is currently facing extinction; the latter, though rare, can be found in the wild. Domesticated chinchillas are thought to have come from the C. lanigera species. In their native habitats, chinchillas live in burrows or crevices in rocks. They are agile jumpers and can jump up to 6 ft (1.8 m). Predators in the wild include birds of prey, skunks, felines, snakes and canines. Chinchillas have a variety of defensive tactics, including spraying urine and releasing fur if bitten. In the wild, chinchillas have been observed eating plant leaves, fruits, seeds, and small insects. In nature, chinchillas live in social groups that resemble colonies, but are properly called herds. They can breed any time of the year. Their gestation period is 111 days, longer than most rodents. Due to this long pregnancy, chinchillas are born fully furred and with eyes open. Litters are usually small in number, predominantly two. Roles with humans The international trade in chinchilla fur goes back to the 16th century. Their fur is popular in the fur trade due to its extremely soft feel, which is caused by the sprouting of 60 hairs from each hair follicle, on average. The color is usually very even, which makes it ideal for small garments or the lining of large garments, though some large garments can be made entirely from the fur. A single, full-length coat made from chinchilla fur may require as many as 150 pelts, as chinchillas are relatively small. Their use for fur led to the extinction of one species, and put serious pressure on the other two. Though it is illegal to hunt wild chinchillas, the wild animals are now on the verge of becoming extinct because of continued illegal hunting. Domesticated chinchillas are still bred for this use. Chinchillas as pets Chinchillas require extensive exercise. Their teeth need to be worn down, as they grow continuously and can prevent them from eating if they become overgrown. Wooden sticks, pumice stone and chew toys are good options, but conifer and citrus woods (such as cedar or orange) should be avoided because of the high content of resins, oils and phenols that are toxic for chinchillas. Birch, willow, apple, manzanita or kiln-dried pine woods are all safe for chinchillas to chew. Chinchillas lack the ability to sweat; therefore, if temperatures get above 25°C (80°F), they could get overheated and may suffer from heat stroke. Chinchillas dissipate heat by routing blood to their large ears, so red ears signal overheating. Chinchillas can be found in a variety of colors. The only color found in nature is standard gray. The most common other colors are white, black velvet, beige, ebony, violet, and sapphire, and blends of these. The animals instinctively clean their fur by taking dust baths, in which they roll around in special dust made of fine pumice. In the wild, the dust is formed from fine, ground volcanic rocks. The dust gets into their fur and absorbs oil and dirt. These baths are needed a few times a week. Chinchillas do not bathe in water because the dense fur prevents air-drying, retaining moisture close to the skin, which can cause fungus growth or fur rot. A wet chinchilla must be dried immediately with towels and a no-heat hair dryer. The thick fur resists parasites, such as fleas, and reduces loose dander, making chinchillas hypoallergenic. Chinchillas eat and drink in very small amounts. In the wild, they eat and digest desert grasses, so cannot efficiently process fatty or high protein foods, or too many green plants. A high quality, hay-based pellet and a constant supply of loose timothy hay will meet all of their dietary needs. Chinchillas' very sensitive gastrointestinal tracts can be easily disrupted, so a healthy diet is important. In a mixed ration, chinchillas may avoid the healthy, high-fiber pellets in favor of items such as raisins and seeds. Fresh vegetables and fruit (with high moisture content) should be avoided, as these can cause bloat, which can be fatal. Sweets and dried fruit treats should be limited to one per day, at the very most. This can lead to diarrhea, or in the long term, diabetes. Nuts should be avoided due to their high fat content. High protein foods and alfalfa hay can cause liver problems and should be limited. In scientific research The chinchilla is often used as an animal model in researching the auditory system, because the chinchilla's range of hearing (20 Hz to 30 kHz) and cochlear size is close to that of a human, and the chinchilla cochlea is fairly easy to access. Other research fields in which chinchillas are used as an animal model include the study of Chagas disease, gastrointestinal diseases, pneumonia, and listeriosis, as well as of Yersinia and Pseudomonas infections. The first scientific study on chinchilla sounds in their social environment was conducted by Dr. Bartl DVM in Germany. - Viscacha, a rodent similar to a chinchilla - Woods, C. A. and Kilpatrick, C. W. (2005). Infraorder Hystricognathi. In: D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder (eds), Mammal Species of the World, pp. 1538–1599. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, USA. - D'elia, G. & Ojeda, R. (2008). Chinchilla chinchilla. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. Downloaded on 26 March 2011. - Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition. 2011. - "What Is A Chinchilla?". Davidson Chinchillas. Retrieved 2008-02-01. - Jiménez, Jaime E. (1996). "The extirpation and current status of wild chinchillas Chinchilla lanigera and C. Brevicaudata". Biological Conservation 77: 1. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(95)00116-6. - "Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera)". Comparative Mammalian Brain Collections. Retrieved 2008-02-01. - Chinchillas, Chinchillidae, Chinchilla lanigera, Chinchilla brevicaudata. Animal-world.com. Retrieved on 2011-12-07. - "Is a Chinchilla the pet for me?". Fantastic Chinchillas. Archived from the original on January 12, 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-01. - "The Chinchilla". Chinchilla Lexicon. 2003-05-01. Archived from the original on 2008-02-04. Retrieved 2008-02-01. - Alderton, David. Rodents of the World, 1996, page 20. ISBN 0-8160-3229-7 - Chinchillas Endangered Species Handbook. Endangeredspecieshandbook.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-07. - "Teeth". Homepage.ntlworld.com. Archived from the original on May 3, 2008. Retrieved 2009-07-30. - So what is a safe wood for our pets?. Chinchillas2home.co.uk - Heat Stroke. Chin-chillas.com. Retrieved on 2011-12-07. - Color Mutation Percentage Charts. Chinchillas.com. Retrieved on 2011-12-07. - Chinchillas: The keystone cops of rodents!. Petstation.com (1995-03-01). Retrieved on 2011-12-07. - Nutrition. Chincare.com. Retrieved on 2011-12-07. - Nutrition and Denatl Health. chincare.com - PIR: Chinchilla. Pirweb.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-07. - Bartl, Dr. vet. med. Juliana (2008). Chinchillas. Munich, Germany: GU Verlag GmbH. ISBN 978-3-8338-1165-4 \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Chinchillas\| \|Wikispecies has information related to: Chinchilla\|	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23030000
S. 3rd Street in German Village \|Added to NRHP:\|\|December 30, 1974\| German Village (Boundary Increase) \|Architectural style:\|\|No Style Listed\| \|Added to NRHP:\|\|November 28, 1980\| German Village is a historic neighborhood in Columbus, Ohio, just south of downtown. It was settled in the early-to-mid-19th century by a large number of German immigrants, who at one time comprised as much as a third of the city's entire population. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 30, 1974, becoming the largest privately funded preservation district on the list, and in 2007, was made a Preserve America Community by the White House. On November 28, 1980, its boundaries were increased and today it is one of the premier historic restorations in the world. In 1796, Congress appropriated the Refugee Lands for individuals who had supported the Colonial cause in the American Revolution. By 1802, an American Revolution veteran named John McGowan claimed 328 acres (1.33 km2), most of what would become the German Village. As German immigrants arrived, McGowan sold tracts of land to them. By 1814, a settlement had grown up, originally called "Die Alte Sud Ende" (the Old South End), and German immigrants contributed to building the first statehouse. By 1830, massive German immigration to the city had occurred. The most influential German newspaper in 1843 was Der Westbote. Many would serve in the American Civil War, thus gaining the universal respect of the local citizens. By 1865, one-third of Columbus's population was German and the community was flourishing. They built up the local neighborhood, including many businesses, such as Hessenauer Jewelers and Lazarus Department Stores, schools, and churches, such as the Ohio-historic St. Mary's Catholic Church, built in 1865 and adorned with a 197-foot (60 m) steeple in 1893. German-American George Karb became mayor of the city, twice, at the end of the 19th century and again in the early 20th century. The local schools the German immigrants constructed and managed were so superior that English-speaking residents of Columbus chose to attend them, such as one that once stood at Fulton Street east of S. Fourth Street. In 1831, the German Evangelical Lutheran Seminary secured 14 acres (57,000 m2) in the south end, founded by William Schmidt, a graduate of the University of Halle in Germany. The school would go on to become what is known today as Capital University, still under the leadership of the Lutheran Church and now located in nearby Bexley. The arts and athletics The German immigrants brought with them a vibrant athletic and artistic heritage, which was reflected in their social establishments. The Columbus Maennerchor, a singing group, was established in 1848, and as early as 1852, won a ribbon for their talent at the North American Sangerfest. In 1866, the group won the silver pokal at a festival held in Louisville. In the late 19th century, another singing group called the Columbus Liederkranz was formed by the Germans, but was forced to cease during World War I because of heavy anti-German pressure. Many of its members joined the Maennerchor, which survived. In the 1860s and 1870s the Maennerchor formed a drama division called the "Dramatischen Sektion." They would produce operas, dramas, and comedies until disbanding in the 1930s. One of their notable performances was their 1927 production of Friedrich von Schiller's Die Räuber. Another social group was the Schiller Club, founded in 1900. The Columbus Turn Verein was a social and athletic (tumbling) association that dated back to 1866, and was a main organization from which the German immigrants drew mutual support. In the late 19th century the Turners merged with the Germania Gesang Verein, which hosted a Maennerchor and a Damenchor. Another merger enlarged the Germania in the late 1920s. The Germania merged with the Kicker’s Soccer Club, which for many years was a very active part of the organization. The club also now includes a Fahrrad Verein (Bicycle Club), which goes on weekend outings to bike trails throughout Central Ohio. The club's official name is now the Germania Gesang und Sport Verein (singing and sports club). The Germania Club itself was located in a residence on Kossuth Street, but outgrew its first facility. In 1927 it purchased the present location at 543 South Front Street from the estate of Nicolaus Schlee, one of the prestigious brewmasters of the neighborhood. The society is now located in the neighborhood known as the Brewery District of Columbus, which is the northernmost section of the German Village. Over the years the Germania Club has made it its mission to retain, promote and disseminate all that is good about German culture. A major component of this mission is the practice and performance of German song. Their choruses participate and support public events throughout Ohio during the year in appreciation for the community’s support. The Germania Club will celebrate its 147th anniversary in 2013 with an Oktoberfest that will feature its choruses. In 1890, the Ohio State Buckeyesl football team played their first-ever home game in the south end, at a location just west of present-day Schiller Park between Jaeger, Ebner, and Whittier (then called Schiller) Streets. German Brewery District A prosperous industry for the German immigrants was the brewing industry. Today, the Brewery District, part of the greater German Village neighborhood, still partially resembles its notable past. During the 19th century, the area was found largely along both sides of S. Front Street from Livingston Avenue to Sycamore Street. Notable breweries during this period included the Bavarian Brewery, started in 1849 by George Schlegel, which ultimately became the Shlegel Bavarian Brewery in 1860 when Bavarian Nicholas Schlee immigrated and took over. Schlee was president of the company that eventually constructed the Great Southern Hotel downtown. Schlee also owned the Lyceum Theater and served as vice president of the Central Bank. Conrad Born opened the Capital Brewery in 1859 and was also president of the Century Discount Company. The industry flourished during the early 20th century. One of the last major brewers of the city before Prohibition was August Wagner, who immigrated from Bavaria in the late 19th century and worked as the brewmaster at the City Brewery before becoming president and general manager of the Gambrinus Brewing Company. By 1919, he had purchased all of the stock for the company to become the sole owner, and in 1938 he changed the name to August Wagner Breweries, Inc. He was known to parade around on a horse costumed as Gambrinus, the patron saint of beer. A statue of Gambrinus is located at 605 S. Front Street. Twenty-nine breweries have existed in and around the village throughout its history. Hoster Brewing Dynasty While English breweries were found originally in the city, as German immigrants moved in, their brewing techniques were universally embraced and became the dominant methods for producing beer. Louis Hoster, an immigrant from Rheinpfalz, Germany, is notably credited for this transformation when he opened the City Brewery in the 1830s. He would go on to serve on the City Council between 1846 and 1854 while establishing the city's first wollen mill in 1852. In 1864, he established the Louis Hoster & Sons Brewery, which became the Hoster Columbus Associated Breweries in 1904. He would also serve on the Board of Education and was a Unionist Democrat. Later members of Louis Hoster's brewing dynasty included his son Louis Philip Hoster, president of the Columbus Structural Steel Company, and Herman Hoster, son of Louis's son George, a graduate of Yale University, treasurer of Hoster Columbus Associated Breweries, and founder of the Columbus Envelope Company. Another son of George was Carl J. Hoster, graduate of Cornell University, who was President of the Hoster Columbus Associated Breweries as well as the Director of the Hayden Clinton National Bank and Columbus Driving Park Association, President of the U.S. Brewer's Association, 32nd degree of the Scottish Rite, and great-great uncle of former U.S. President George W. Bush. Hoster Street in the German Village stretches six blocks between Lazelle and S. Front Streets. Dr. Herman A. Hoster, Jr. Dr. Herman A. Hoster, Jr. was the son of Herman Hoster, and name-bearer of the Herman A. Hoster Research Laboratory of the Department of Medicine and the Department of Zoology at the Ohio State University. He was a graduate of Yale University and Johns Hopkins University who would suffer from Hodgkin's Disease. After learning of his illness, Dr. Hoster resigned his medical position with Yale to return home to Columbus. There he focused on research of the disease at Ohio State University. He became a professor of medicine and eventually an associate director of research at the College of Medicine, where he performed experiments on himself related to his illness, including some at Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit. He published several leading research papers, including support of radiation therapy to treat the disease. Dr. Hoster became a charter member of the Hodgkin's Disease Research Foundation in New York City, serving as the original President between 1947 and 1951. The first headquarters of the foundation was established at St. Vincent's Hospital and included as board members Dr. Robert Chambers of New York University, Dr. Antonio Rottino, vice president of St. Vincent's Hospital, Dr. Harry Rolnick of Philadelphia, and John Finn, vice president of Fordham University. The area was in serious decline throughout the first half of the 20th century, partly due to anti-German sentiment during World War I. This was sparked by the sinking of the Lusitania by Germany, in which innocent women and children lost their lives. The media used this to demonize Germany and German-Americans. The Germans claimed the ship was transporting weapons in a war zone, which the British and American governments denied. However, in 2008, millions of rounds of ammunition were found at the wreckage of the ship. During that time, the teaching of German in public schools was banned and German textbooks were burned. German street names were changed, such as Germania Street becoming the present-day Stewart Avenue, and Schiller Park was temporarily renamed Washington Park. The anti-German sentiment fueled by the media was so bad that in 1918, German books were burned on Broad Street and at the foot of the Schiller statue. German canine breeds were taken from their owners and slaughtered, including German Shepherds and Dachshunds. Despite the hatred, the Columbus German American community would produce one of America's finest heroes from the war, Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, for whom Rickenbacker International Airport in southern Columbus is named. Further decline occurred later due to the closing of the local breweries during Prohibition. After the war, the south end was zoned for manufacturing, leading to the erosion of the area's residential feel. In World War II, the streetcar tracks and wrought-iron fences were confiscated for the war effort. By the 1950s, the area had become a slum and the city decided to demolish one-third of the neighborhood. Nearing complete destruction, Frank Fetch defied the common wisdom and purchased a house on S. Wall Street, determined to rebuild the neighborhood. Fetch would create the German Village Society. In June 1960, the society hosted the first Haus und Garten Tour, which attracted visitors and the local media to eight restored homes and two gardens. Today, the tour is one of the city's most popular events. Frank Fetch Park was named after him. Concerned citizens managed to save its historic architecture from demolition in the 1960s by successfully lobbying for a local commission, the German Village Commission, to have power over external changes made to buildings, and by getting the area listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. As of 2009[update], the German Village Society has over 1,000 preservationists dedicated to maintaining the historic quality of the buildings and neighborhood and German Village is considered one of the most desirable areas to live in the city. More than 1,600 buildings have been restored since 1960 and it is credited as one of the premiere restoration districts in the world. By the 1980s, the restoration was nearly complete. Today, it is the largest privately funded historic district on the National Register of Historic Places. Residential Real Estate The area is mostly a residential neighborhood of sturdy, red-brick homes with wrought iron fences along tree-lined, brick-paved streets. The average home price is $377,450. Several homes in the neighborhood are priced at over $1 million, including a 5,200-square-foot (480 m2) home that sold in August 2007 for $1.5 million. Another home, which was purchased for $1.4 million in 2006, boasts an underground tunnel linking the main house with the garage, which also serves as an art and wine cellar. German Village has a commercial strip mainly centered along S. Third Street, with mostly locally owned restaurants — such as Katzinger's Delicatessen — and the 32-room Book Loft bookstore. The neighborhood is home to one of the world's largest producers of stained glass, the Franklin Art Glass Studios Inc., as well as several art galleries including the Archive Gallery, Hawk Galleries, Keny Gallery, Kight Studio 551, and Metroscap. Shops catering to European-imported retail include Caterina Ltd. and T. David Collection. Numerous neighborhood restaurants won 2010 ThisWeek Community Papers awards, including Skillet as the Best New Restaurant in the city, and Thurman Café for Best Burgers. Barcelona, noted for its Spanish cuisine, won for Best Patio and is a consistent Columbus Dispatch best city restaurant. Lindey's was runner-up for the same award that year and was voted one of Columbus's top 10 restaurants for 18 years straight. It has appeared previously in the New York Times, Washington Post, USA Today, and Gourmet magazine. In 2010, Max and Erma's was runner up for Best Casual Restaurant and Best Soups, Pistacia Vera runner-up for Best Desserts, and Roosters won Best Wings. German Village is the home of the first restaurant in the Max & Erma's chain. In 1972, the restaurant was opened by Barry Zacks. The name was adopted from the original tavern, started in 1958 by Max and Erma Visocnik, which the new owners converted into the popular theme restaurant. The German Village Guest House has been recognized as one of the best in the Midwest by the New York Post, The Plain Dealer, and the St. Louis Post Dispatch, and positively reviewed by the Washington Post and The Tennessean. It was rated as the "Best Columbus Hotel 2010" by City Search. In 2006, local media personality Andrea Cambern, in collaboration with the German Village Society and WBNS, narrated a 10-minute documentary short on the neighborhood, which won an Ohio Historic Preservation Office Award. Schiller Park Schiller Park, named after Friedrich von Schiller, which was once a community meeting ground for the German settlement, is now the site of recreational facilities, gardens, and an amphitheater that hosts free live performances of Shakespearean plays during the summer months courtesy of Actors Theatre of Columbus. It is bounded by Jaeger Street and City Park, Reinhard, and Deshler Avenues. It has been the area's center for festivals and neighborhood activities since the 1800s. The main entrance of the 23-acre park, along City Park Avenue, greets visitors with the Huntington Gardens, sponsored by Huntington National Bank and maintained by volunteers, and the Schiller statue. The statue was presented to the park by local residents in 1891. It is a second casting of the statue in Munich, Germany, designed and executed by Max von Widnmann and unveiled on May 9, 1863. The Columbus statue was transported free of charge across the Atlantic. The park is also home to the Umbrella Girl Fountain, dedicated to the citizens of German Village in October 1996 to replace the missing original sculpture. Preserve America Community German tradition has long reigned in the community in the form of an annual Oktoberfest festival. It originally took place in Schiller Park and has been held at various locations within the German Village neighborhood. Due to new development in the area, it now takes place at the Ohio State Fairgrounds / Ohio Expo Center. The festival was voted to be canceled in 2009, but the Schmidt (owners and operators of Schmidt's Sausage Haus) and Cox families stepped in to keep it running. A smaller Oktoberfest still goes on in the German Village itself, at the Germania Gesang und Sport Verein (Singing and Sports Club) at 543 South Front Street in the old Schlee Brewmaster's House and outdoor garden. Although German Village is an eclectic community, the area is particularly known as a Columbus "gayborhood." While no gay establishments are located within the German Village limits, several gay-friendly bars are located in the neighboring Brewery District and Merion Village. The 2010 Gay Softball World Series was held at nearby Lou Berliner park. America's Great Places In 2011, German Village was named as one of America's Great Places in the Neighborhoods category by the American Planning Association. Their description reads, "Unpretentious, renovated houses and cottages stand shoulder to shoulder. Small, meticulously maintained front yards front tree-lined streets with brick sidewalks and cultivated village planters. Small businesses and storefronts with eye-catching displays and the aroma of culinary delights draw in passing pedestrians. German Village has remained true to its mid-19th century history, architecture, and character despite periods of disinvestment, decline, and near ruin.". See also - "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 2008-04-15. - Insider's Guide To Columbus, Shawnie Kelley. Globe Pequot, 2006. ISBN 0-7627-3542-2, ISBN 978-0-7627-3542-6. p. 269. - "St. Mary Church", J. J. Prats. Historical Marker Database. 4 July 2009. Retrieved 7 September 2010. - German Village Society History Retrieved 15 sept 2012. - German Columbus, Jeffrey T. Darbee, Nancy A. Recchie. Arcadia Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0-7385-3396-3, ISBN 978-0-7385-3396-4. pp. 7, 17. - Darbee and Recchie, p. 26. - Darbee and Recchie, p. 18. - Educational history of Ohio, James Jesse Burns. Historical Pub. Co., 1905. p. 349. - "Capital University", U.S. News and World Report. 2010. Retrieved 7 September 2010. - German Columbus, Jeffrey T. Darbee, Nancy A. Recchie. Arcadia Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0-7385-3396-3, ISBN 978-0-7385-3396-4. - Darbee and Recchie, p. 19. - Darbee and Recchie, p. 21. - Darbee and Recchie, p. 24. - Darbee and Recchie, p. 25. - Darbee and Recchie, pp. 60, 68. - "Site of First Ohio State Home Football Game / The Ohio State University First Football Team 1890", William Fischer, Jr. 13 oct 2008. Retrieved 7 September 2010. - Darbee and Recchie, p. 60. - Darbee and Recchie, p. 68. - "Columbus in Historic Photographs", Columbus Metropolitan Library. Retrieved 7 September 2010. - "Brewery District", Touring Ohio. 2010. Retrieved 7 September 2010. - Darbee and Recchie, p. 27. - "THE L. HOSTER BREWING COMPANY", OhioBreweriana. Retrieved 7 September 2010. - Centennial history of Columbus and Franklin County, Ohio, Volume 2, William Alexander Taylor, S. J. Clarke Publishing Co., 1909. p. 731. - Obituary record of graduates of Yale University, Yale University, 1915. p. 897. - Centennial history of Columbus and Franklin County, Ohio, Volume 1, William Alexander Taylor, S. J. Clarke Publishing Co., 1909. pp. 608–09. - "Feature articles in Grandview ThisWeek Newspaper Weekly Moment in Time Column", The Grandview Heights Marble Cliff Historical Society. 2006–2007. Retrieved 7 September 2008. - "A Tireless Determination: Herman A. Hoster, M.D.", House Call. Medical Heritage Center of Ohio State University. Winter 2003. Retrieved 7 September 2010. - Journal of the American Medical Association, Volume 133, Number 10, March 8, 1947 (subscription required). - "Hodgkin's Disease and Other Lymphomas". Republished by the National Center for Biotechnology Information. Original December 1972. Retrieved 7 September 2010. - The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, James Terry White. University Microfilms, 1967. p. 358. - "Secret of the Lusitania: Arms find challenges Allied claims it was solely a passenger ship", Daily Mail December 20, 2008. - Darbee and Recchie, p. 13. - German Village Society, 1914-1920 Retrieved 26 July 2009. - German Village Society, 1920-1960 Retrieved 26 July 2009. - German Village Society, 1960-1990 Retrieved 26 July 2009. - German Village Society, 1960-1990 Retrieved 26 July 2009 - German Village Society, History Retrieved 26 July 2009. - German Village Society, 1990-today Retrieved 26 July 2009. - "John McCain does his own German thing", Don Frederick. Los Angeles Times. 24 July 2008. Retrieved 6 September 2010. - Kelley, p. 51. - Realtor Neighborhoods, "German Village", Realtor. Retrieved 26 July 2009. - "August Real Estate News", Columbus Homes. September 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2009. - "Beck St. Secrets", Tim Feran. Columbus Dispatch. 29 June 2008. Retrieved 28 September 2009. - Book Loft - "SHOP", German Village Society. Retrieved 6 September 2010. - "Kudos to GV Businesses!", German Village Society. 22 August 2010. Retrieved 6 September 2010. - "Barcelona Restaurant: Traditional Spanish Cuisine in Columbus", Lee Ann Mullen. Hello Columbus. 20 dec 2009. Retrieved 6 September 2010. - "Lindey's Restaurant & Bar", Ivonne Rovira. Hello Metro. 1 May 2010. Retrieved 6 September 2010. - "Our Memories". Max and Erma's. Retrieved Nov 13, 2010. - "Let’s Do the Tryst", Caitlin Barnett. Retrieved 6 September 2010. - "“Sweet rooms, and roomy suites...”, German Village Guest House. Retrieved 6 September 2010. - "German Village Society and WBNS 10TV", Ohio Historic Preservation Office. 2006. Retrieved 6 September 2010. - The Actor's Theatre - Preserve America Retrieved 26 July 2009. - Columbus Oktoberfest - Oktoberfest, Germania Gesang und Sport Verein. - Travis Hoewischer, "Why is Columbus so Gay? How the capital city of a conservative state became the GLBT mecca of the Midwest", 614 magazine, June 1, 2011. Retrieved March 20, 2013. - German Village, Columbus, Ohio, Neighborhoods, Great Places in America, American Planning Association, retrieved March 20, 2013. - Media related to German Village (Columbus, Ohio) at Wikimedia Commons - The German Village Society - Germania Gesang und Sport Verein - Columbus Oktoberfest at Ohio Fairgrounds - Oktoberfest held in German Village - "German Village's Oktoberfest in Columbus Ohio at Ohio Fairgrounds" - "Columbus' German Village Featured on the Today Show" - American Planning Association's Great Places in America - APA Great Places in America: Neighborhoods 2011	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23031000
National Trust and Savings Association \|This article does not cite any references or sources. (December 2009)\| National Trust and Savings Association, abbreviated NT&SA, is a designation used by national banks in the United States to denote their national charter. It is significantly less popular than the standard designation National Association (N.A.). Notably, it was used until 1998 by Bank of America NT&SA, the only major bank to utilize the designation. It was also construed to denote the character of a savings and loan association, with a focus on home mortgages and savings accounts. \|This finance-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23033000
\|\|This article needs additional citations for verification. (February 2010)\| Opacity is the measure of impenetrability to electromagnetic or other kinds of radiation, especially visible light. In radiative transfer, it describes the absorption and scattering of radiation in a medium, such as a plasma, dielectric, shielding material, glass, etc. An opaque object is neither transparent (allowing all light to pass through) nor translucent (allowing some light to pass through). When light strikes an interface between two substances, in general some may be reflected, some absorbed, some scattered, and the rest transmitted (also see refraction). Reflection can be diffuse, for example light reflecting off a white wall, or specular, for example light reflecting off a mirror. An opaque substance transmits no light, and therefore reflects, scatters, or absorbs all of it. Both mirrors and carbon black are opaque. Opacity depends on the frequency of the light being considered. For instance, some kinds of glass, while transparent in the visual range, are largely opaque to ultraviolet light. More extreme frequency-dependence is visible in the absorption lines of cold gases. Opacity can be quantified in many ways; for example, see the article mathematical descriptions of opacity. Quantitative definition The words "opacity" and "opaque" are often used as colloquial terms for objects or media with the properties described above. However, there is also a specific, quantitative definition of "opacity", used in astronomy, plasma physics, and other fields, given here. In this use, "opacity" is another term for the mass attenuation coefficient (or, depending on context, mass absorption coefficient, the difference is described here) at a particular frequency of electromagnetic radiation. More specifically, if a beam of light with frequency travels through a medium with opacity and mass density , both constant, then the intensity will be reduced with distance x according to the formula - x is the distance the light has traveled through the medium - is the intensity of light remaining at distance x - is the initial intensity of light, at For a given medium at a given frequency, the opacity has a numerical value that may range between 0 and infinity, with units of length2/mass. Planck and Rosseland opacity It is customary to define the average opacity, calculated using a certain weighting scheme. Planck opacity uses normalized Planck black body radiation energy density distribution as the weighting function, and averages directly. Rosseland opacity (after Svein Rosseland), on the other hand, uses a temperature derivative of Planck distribution (normalized) as the weighting function, and averages , The photon mean free path is . The Rosseland opacity is derived in the diffusion approximation to the radiative transport equation. It is valid whenever the radiation field is isotropic over distances comparable to or less than a radiation mean free path, such as in local thermal equilibrium. In practice, the mean opacity for Thomson electron scattering is: where is the hydrogen mass fraction. For nonrelativistic thermal bremsstrahlung, or free-free transitions, it is: The Rosseland mean absorption coefficient including both scattering and absorption (also called the extinction coefficient) is: See also - Absorption (electromagnetic radiation) - Mathematical descriptions of opacity - Molar absorptivity - Reflection (physics) - Scattering theory	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23034000
Public international law Public international law concerns the structure and conduct of sovereign states; analogous entities, such as the Holy See; and intergovernmental organizations. To a lesser degree, international law also may affect multinational corporations and individuals, an impact increasingly evolving beyond domestic legal interpretation and enforcement. Public international law has increased in use and importance vastly over the twentieth century, due to the increase in global trade, environmental deterioration on a worldwide scale, awareness of human rights violations, rapid and vast increases in international transportation and a boom in global communications. The field of study combines two main branches: the law of nations (jus gentium) and international agreements and conventions (jus inter gentes), which have different foundations and should not be confused. Public international law should not be confused with "private international law", which is concerned with the resolution of conflict of laws. In its most general sense, international law "consists of rules and principles of general application dealing with the conduct of states and of intergovernmental organizations and with their relations inter se, as well as with some of their relations with persons, whether natural or juridical." Beginning with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries saw the growth of the concept of the sovereign "nation-state", which consisted of a nation controlled by a centralized system of government. The concept of nationalism became increasingly important as people began to see themselves as citizens of a particular nation with a distinct national identity. Until the mid-19th century, relations between nation-states were dictated by treaty, agreements to behave in a certain way towards another state, unenforceable except by force, and not binding except as matters of honor and faithfulness. But treaties alone became increasingly toothless and wars became increasingly destructive, most markedly towards civilians, and civilized peoples decried their horrors, leading to calls for regulation of the acts of states, especially in times of war. Perhaps the first instrument of modern public international law was the Lieber Code, passed in 1863 by the Congress of the United States, to govern the conduct of US forces during the United States Civil War and considered to be the first written recitation of the rules and articles of war, adhered to by all civilized nations, the precursor of public international law. Part of the Code follows: "Military necessity, as understood by modern civilized nations, consists in the necessity of those measures which are indispensable for securing the ends of the war, and which are lawful according to the modern law and usages of war. Military necessity admits of all direct destruction of life or limb of armed enemies, and of other persons whose destruction is incidentally unavoidable in the armed contests of the war; it allows of the capturing of every armed enemy, and every enemy of importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the captor; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of the ways and channels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy; of the appropriation of whatever an enemy's country affords necessary for the subsistence and safety of the Army, and of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith either positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the war, or supposed by the modern law of war to exist. (...But...) Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another and to God. Military necessity does not admit of cruelty—that is, the infliction of suffering for the sake of suffering or for revenge, nor of maiming or wounding except in fight, nor of torture to extort confessions. It does not admit of the use of poison in any way, nor of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy; and, in general, military necessity does not include any act of hostility which makes the return to peace unnecessarily difficult." This first statement of the previously uncodified rules and articles of war led to the first prosecution for war crimes—in the case of United States prisoners of war held in cruel and depraved conditions at Andersonville, Georgia, in which the Confederate commandant of that camp was tried and hanged, the only Confederate soldier to be punished by death in the aftermath of the entire Civil War. In the years that followed, other states subscribed to limitations of their conduct, and numerous other treaties and bodies were created to regulate the conduct of states towards one another in terms of these treaties, including, but not limited to, the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 1899; the Hague and Geneva Conventions, the first of which was passed in 1907; the International Court of Justice in 1921; the Genocide Convention; and the International Criminal Court, in the late 1990s. Because international law is a relatively new area of law its development and propriety in applicable areas are often subject to dispute. International law sources Under article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, public international law has three principal sources: international treaties, custom, and general principles of law. In addition, judicial decisions and teachings may be applied as "subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law". International treaty law comprises obligations states expressly and voluntarily accept between themselves in treaties. Customary international law is derived from the consistent practice of States accompanied by opinio juris, i.e. the conviction of States that the consistent practice is required by a legal obligation. Judgments of international tribunals as well as scholarly works have traditionally been looked to as persuasive sources for custom in addition to direct evidence of state behavior. Attempts to codify customary international law picked up momentum after the Second World War with the formation of the International Law Commission (ILC), under the aegis of the United Nations. Codified customary law is made the binding interpretation of the underlying custom by agreement through treaty. For states not party to such treaties, the work of the ILC may still be accepted as custom applying to those states. General principles of law are those commonly recognized by the major legal systems of the world. Certain norms of international law achieve the binding force of peremptory norms (jus cogens) as to include all states with no permissible derogations. International treaties Where there are disputes about the exact meaning and application of national laws, it is the responsibility of the courts to decide what the law means. In international law interpretation is within the domain of the protagonists, but may also be conferred on judicial bodies such as the International Court of Justice, by the terms of the treaties or by consent of the parties. It is generally the responsibility of states to interpret the law for themselves, but the processes of diplomacy and availability of supra-national judicial organs operate routinely to provide assistance to that end. Insofar as treaties are concerned, the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties writes on the topic of interpretation that: - "A treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose." (article 31(1)) This is actually a compromise between three different theories of interpretation: - The textual approach, a restrictive interpretation, which bases itself on the "ordinary meaning" of the text; that approach assigns considerable weight to the actual text. - The subjective approach, which takes into consideration i. the idea behind the treaty, ii. treaties "in their context", and iii. what the writers intended when they wrote the text. - A third approach, which bases itself on interpretation "in the light of its object and purpose", i.e. the interpretation that best suits the goal of the treaty, also called "effective interpretation". These are general rules of interpretation; specific rules might exist in specific areas of international law. Statehood and responsibility Public international law establishes the framework and the criteria for identifying states as the principal actors in the international legal system. As the existence of a state presupposes control and jurisdiction over territory, international law deals with the acquisition of territory, state immunity and the legal responsibility of states in their conduct with each other. International law is similarly concerned with the treatment of individuals within state boundaries. There is thus a comprehensive regime dealing with group rights, the treatment of aliens, the rights of refugees, international crimes, nationality problems, and human rights generally. It further includes the important functions of the maintenance of international peace and security, arms control, the pacific settlement of disputes and the regulation of the use of force in international relations. Even when the law is not able to stop the outbreak of war, it has developed principles to govern the conduct of hostilities and the treatment of prisoners. International law is also used to govern issues relating to the global environment, the global commons such as international waters and outer space, global communications, and world trade. In theory all states are sovereign and equal. As a result of the notion of sovereignty, the value and authority of international law is dependent upon the voluntary participation of states in its formulation, observance, and enforcement. Although there may be exceptions, it is thought by many international academics that most states enter into legal commitments with other states out of enlightened self-interest rather than adherence to a body of law that is higher than their own. As D. W. Greig notes, "international law cannot exist in isolation from the political factors operating in the sphere of international relations". Traditionally, sovereign states and the Holy See were the sole subjects of international law. With the proliferation of international organizations over the last century, they have in some cases been recognized as relevant parties as well. Recent interpretations of international human rights law, international humanitarian law, and international trade law (e.g., North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Chapter 11 actions) have been inclusive of corporations, and even of certain individuals. \|This section requires expansion. (October 2012)\| National sovereignty The conflict between international law and national sovereignty is subject to vigorous debate and dispute in academia, diplomacy, and politics. Certainly, there is a growing trend toward judging a state's domestic actions in the light of international law and standards. Numerous people now view the nation-state as the primary unit of international affairs, and believe that only states may choose to voluntarily enter into commitments under international law, and that they have the right to follow their own counsel when it comes to interpretation of their commitments. Certain scholars[who?] and political leaders feel that these modern developments endanger nation states by taking power away from state governments and ceding it to international bodies such as the U.N. and the World Bank, argue that international law has evolved to a point where it exists separately from the mere consent of states, and discern a legislative and judicial process to international law that parallels such processes within domestic law. This especially occurs when states violate or deviate from the expected standards of conduct adhered to by all civilized nations. A number of states place emphasis on the principle of territorial sovereignty, thus seeing states as having free rein over their internal affairs. Other states oppose this view. One group of opponents of this point of view, including many European nations, maintain that all civilized nations have certain norms of conduct expected of them, including the prohibition of genocide, slavery and the slave trade, wars of aggression, torture, and piracy, and that violation of these universal norms represents a crime, not only against the individual victims, but against humanity as a whole. States and individuals who subscribe to this view opine that, in the case of the individual responsible for violation of international law, he "is become, like the pirate and the slave trader before him, hostis humani generis, an enemy of all mankind", and thus subject to prosecution in a fair trial before any fundamentally just tribunal, through the exercise of universal jurisdiction. Though the European democracies tend to support broad, universalistic interpretations of international law, many other democracies have differing views on international law. Several democracies, including India, Israel and the United States, take a flexible, eclectic approach, recognizing aspects of public international law such as territorial rights as universal, regarding other aspects as arising from treaty or custom, and viewing certain aspects as not being subjects of public international law at all. Democracies in the developing world, due to their past colonial histories, often insist on non-interference in their internal affairs, particularly regarding human rights standards or their peculiar institutions, but often strongly support international law at the bilateral and multilateral levels, such as in the United Nations, and especially regarding the use of force, disarmament obligations, and the terms of the UN Charter. International human rights - Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Declaration of Fundamental Rights at Work - International Labour Organization International economic law \|This section requires expansion. (October 2012)\| War and conflicts \|This section requires expansion. (October 2012)\| International criminal law \|This section requires expansion. (October 2012)\| International courts and enforcement It is probably the case that almost all nations observe almost all principles of international law and almost all of their obligations almost all the time. Since international law has no established compulsory judicial system for the settlement of disputes or a coercive penal system, it is not as straightforward as managing breaches within a domestic legal system. However, there are means by which breaches are brought to the attention of the international community and some means for resolution. For example, there are judicial or quasi-judicial tribunals in international law in certain areas such as trade and human rights. The formation of the United Nations, for example, created a means for the world community to enforce international law upon members that violate its charter through the Security Council. Since international law exists in a legal environment without an overarching "sovereign" (i.e., an external power able and willing to compel compliance with international norms), "enforcement" of international law is very different than in the domestic context. In many cases, enforcement takes on Coasian characteristics, where the norm is self-enforcing. In other cases, defection from the norm can pose a real risk, particularly if the international environment is changing. When this happens, and if enough states (or enough powerful states) continually ignore a particular aspect of international law, the norm may actually change according to concepts of customary international law. For example, prior to World War I, unrestricted submarine warfare was considered a violation of international law and ostensibly the casus belli for the United States' declaration of war against Germany. By World War II, however, the practice was so widespread that during the Nuremberg trials, the charges against German Admiral Karl Dönitz for ordering unrestricted submarine warfare were dropped, notwithstanding that the activity constituted a clear violation of the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936. Enforcement by states Apart from a state's natural inclination to uphold certain norms, the force of international law comes from the pressure that states put upon one another to behave consistently and to honor their obligations. As with any system of law, many violations of international law obligations are overlooked. If addressed, it may be through diplomacy and the consequences upon an offending state's reputation, submission to international judicial determination, arbitration, sanctions or force including war. Though violations may be common in fact, states try to avoid the appearance of having disregarded international obligations. States may also unilaterally adopt sanctions against one another such as the severance of economic or diplomatic ties, or through reciprocal action. In some cases, domestic courts may render judgment against a foreign state (the realm of private international law) for an injury, though this is a complicated area of law where international law intersects with domestic law. It is implicit in the Westphalian system of nation-states, and explicitly recognized under Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, that all states have the inherent right to individual and collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against them. Article 51 of the UN Charter guarantees the right of states to defend themselves until (and unless) the Security Council takes measures to keep the peace. Enforcement by international bodies Violations of the UN Charter by members of the United Nations may be raised by the aggrieved state in the General Assembly for debate. The General Assembly cannot make binding resolutions, only 'recommendations', but through its adoption of the "Uniting for Peace" resolution (A/RES/377 A), of 3 November 1950, the Assembly declared that it has the power to authorize the use of force, under the terms of the UN Charter, in cases of breaches of the peace or acts of aggression, provided that the Security Council, owing to the negative vote of a permanent member, fails to act to address the situation. The Assembly also declared, by its adoption of resolution 377 A, that it could call for other collective measures—such as economic and diplomatic sanctions—in situations constituting the milder "threat to the Peace". The Uniting for Peace resolution was initiated by the United States in 1950, shortly after the outbreak of the Korean War, as a means of circumventing possible future Soviet vetoes in the Security Council. The legal significance of the resolution is unclear, given that the General Assembly cannot issue binding resolutions. However, it was never argued by the "Joint Seven-Powers" that put forward the draft resolution, during the corresponding discussions, that it in any way afforded the Assembly new powers. Instead, they argued that the resolution simply declared what the Assembly's powers already were, according to the UN Charter, in the case of a dead-locked Security Council. The Soviet Union was the only permanent member of the Security Council to vote against the Charter interpretations that were made law by the Assembly's adoption of resolution 377 A. Alleged violations of the Charter can also be raised by states in the Security Council. The Security Council could subsequently pass resolutions under Chapter VI of the UN Charter to recommend the "Pacific Resolution of Disputes." Such resolutions are not binding under international law, though they usually are expressive of the Council's convictions. In rare cases, the Security Council can adopt resolutions under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, related to "threats to Peace, Breaches of the Peace and Acts of Aggression," which are legally binding under international law, and can be followed up with economic sanctions, military action, and similar uses of force through the auspices of the United Nations. It has been argued that resolutions passed outside of Chapter VII can also be binding; the legal basis for that is the Council's broad powers under Article 24(2), which states that "in discharging these duties (exercise of primary responsibility in international peace and security), it shall act in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations". The mandatory nature of such resolutions was upheld by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in its advisory opinion on Namibia. The binding nature of such resolutions can be deduced from an interpretation of their language and intent. States can also, upon mutual consent, submit disputes for arbitration by the International Court of Justice, located in The Hague, Netherlands. The judgments given by the Court in these cases are binding, although it possesses no means to enforce its rulings. The Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at the request of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations to make such a request. Some of the advisory cases brought before the court have been controversial with respect to the court's competence and jurisdiction. Often enormously complicated matters, ICJ cases (of which there have been less than 150 since the court was created from the Permanent Court of International Justice in 1945) can stretch on for years and generally involve thousands of pages of pleadings, evidence, and the world's leading specialist public international lawyers. As of June 2009, there are 15 cases pending at the ICJ. Decisions made through other means of arbitration may be binding or non-binding depending on the nature of the arbitration agreement, whereas decisions resulting from contentious cases argued before the ICJ are always binding on the involved states. Though states (or increasingly, international organizations) are usually the only ones with standing to address a violation of international law, some treaties, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights have an optional protocol that allows individuals who have had their rights violated by member states to petition the international Human Rights Committee. Investment treaties commonly and routinely provide for enforcement by individuals or investing entities. and commercial agreements of foreigners with sovereign governments may be enforced on the international plane. International legal theory International legal theory comprises a variety of theoretical and methodological approaches used to explain and analyse the content, formation and effectiveness of public international law and institutions and to suggest improvements. Some approaches center on the question of compliance: why states follow international norms in the absence of a coercitive power that ensures compliance. Other approaches focus on the problem of the formation of international rules: why states voluntarily adopt international law norms, that limit their freedom of action, in the absence of a world legislature; while other perspectives are policy oriented: they elaborate theoretical frameworks and instruments to criticize the existing norms and to make suggestions on how to improve them. Some of these approaches are based on domestic legal theory, some are interdisciplinary, and others have been developed expressly to analyse international law. Classical approaches to International legal theory are the Natural law, the Eclectic and the Legal positivism schools of thought. Natural law The natural law approach argues that international norms should be based on axiomatic truths. 16th century natural law writer, Francisco de Vitoria, a professor of theology at the University of Salamanca, examined the questions of the just war, the Spanish authority in the Americas, and the rights of the Native American peoples. Eclectic or Grotian school In 1625 Hugo Grotius argued that nations as well as persons ought to be governed by universal principle based on morality and divine justice while the relations among polities ought to be governed by the law of peoples, the jus gentium, established by the consent of the community of nations on the basis of the principle of pacta sunt servanda, that is, on the basis of the observance of commitments. On his part, Emmerich de Vattel argued instead for the equality of states as articulated by 18th century natural law and suggested that the law of nations was composed of custom and law on the one hand, and natural law on the other. During the 17th century, the basic tenets of the Grotian or eclectic school, especially the doctrines of legal equality, territorial sovereignty, and independence of states, became the fundamental principles of the European political and legal system and were enshrined in the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Legal positivism The early positivist school emphasized the importance of custom and treaties as sources of international law. 16th century Alberico Gentili used historical examples to posit that positive law (jus voluntarium) was determined by general consent. Cornelius van Bynkershoek asserted that the bases of international law were customs and treaties commonly consented to by various states, while John Jacob Moser emphasized the importance of state practice in international law. The positivism school narrowed the range of international practice that might qualify as law, favouring rationality over morality and ethics. The 1815 Congress of Vienna marked the formal recognition of the political and international legal system based on the conditions of Europe. Modern legal positivists consider international law as a unified system of rules that emanates from the states' will. International law, as it is, is an "objective" reality that needs to be distinguished from law "as it should be." Classic positivism demands rigorous tests for legal validity and it deems irrelevant all extralegal arguments. See also - Consular law - Diplomatic law - International aviation law - International criminal law - International environmental law - International human rights law - International humanitarian law - International space law - International trade law - Law of state responsibility - Rule according to higher law - United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea - Use of force continuum - Diplomatic recognition - Environmental agreements - Global administrative law - International community - International Court of Justice - International Criminal Court - International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda - International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia - International Labour Organization - International Law Commission - International legal theory - Hans Kelsen - Laws of war - Legal status of the Holy See - List of international public law topics - List of treaties - Personal jurisdiction over international defendants in the United States - Prize law - Sources of international law - Sovereign state - Territorial integrity - Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL) - United Nations - United Nations General Assembly Sixth Committee (Legal) - University for Peace - World government - History of public international law - Columbia Law School, McKeever, 2003 — Definition of International Law - Greig, D. W., International Law, 2nd edn (Butterworths: London, 1976) - Janis, M. and Noyes, J. International Law": Cases and Commentary (3rd ed.), Prosecutor v. Furundžija, Page 148 (2006) - Henkin, Louis (1968). How Nations Behave. p. 47. - United States, United Kingdom, France, Canada, Turkey, Philippines and Uruguay - United Nations General Assembly Proces Verbal session 5 on 1 November 1950 (retrieved 2008-04-13) - United Nations General Assembly Proces Verbal session 5 on 2 November 1950 (retrieved 2008-04-13) - United Nations General Assembly Proces Verbal session 5 on 2 November 1950 (retrieved 2008-04-13) - United Nations General Assembly Proces Verbal session 5 on 3 November 1950 (retrieved 2008-04-13) - Bruno Simma and Andreas L.Paulus "Symposium on method in International Law: The Responsibility of Individuals for Human Rights Abuses in Internal Conflicts: A Positivist View" 93 American Journal of International Law 302 (April, 1999) - I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law (7th edn Oxford University Press 2008) ISBN 0199260710 - Dominique Carreau, Droit international, Pedone, 10e édition, 2009 ISBN 9782233005618. - P.-M. Dupuy & Y. Kerbrat, "Droit international public" (10th ed., Paris, Dalloz, 2010) ISBN 9782247088935 - E. Lawson, and ML Bertucci, Encyclopedia of human rights (2nd edn Taylor & Francis 1996) - E. Osmanczyk, The encyclopedia of the United Nations and international relations (Taylor & Francis 1990) - M. N. Shaw, International Law (5th edn Cambridge University Press 2003) - Rafael Domingo Osle, The New Global Law (Cambridge University Press 2010) - Public International Law – Resources - A Brief Primer on International Law With cases and commentary. Nathaniel Burney, 2007. - American Society of International Law – 100 Ways International Law Shapes Our Lives - Department of Public International Law, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva - American Society of International Law – Resource Guide (Introduction) - International Law Details - International Law Observer – Blog dedicated to reports and commentary on International Law - Official United Nations website - Official UN website on International Law - Official website of the International Court of Justice - Opinio Juris – Blog on International Law and International Relations - United Nations Treaty Collection - UN – Audiovisual Library of International Law - The European Institute for International Law and International Relations - Peace Palace Library - Research Guide	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23036000
Support vector machine In machine learning, support vector machines (SVMs, also support vector networks) are supervised learning models with associated learning algorithms that analyze data and recognize patterns, used for classification and regression analysis. The basic SVM takes a set of input data and predicts, for each given input, which of two possible classes forms the output, making it a non-probabilistic binary linear classifier. Given a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that assigns new examples into one category or the other. An SVM model is a representation of the examples as points in space, mapped so that the examples of the separate categories are divided by a clear gap that is as wide as possible. New examples are then mapped into that same space and predicted to belong to a category based on which side of the gap they fall on. In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently perform non-linear classification using what is called the kernel trick, implicitly mapping their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces. Formal definition More formally, a support vector machine constructs a hyperplane or set of hyperplanes in a high- or infinite-dimensional space, which can be used for classification, regression, or other tasks. Intuitively, a good separation is achieved by the hyperplane that has the largest distance to the nearest training data point of any class (so-called functional margin), since in general the larger the margin the lower the generalization error of the classifier. Whereas the original problem may be stated in a finite dimensional space, it often happens that the sets to discriminate are not linearly separable in that space. For this reason, it was proposed that the original finite-dimensional space be mapped into a much higher-dimensional space, presumably making the separation easier in that space. To keep the computational load reasonable, the mappings used by SVM schemes are designed to ensure that dot products may be computed easily in terms of the variables in the original space, by defining them in terms of a kernel function selected to suit the problem. The hyperplanes in the higher-dimensional space are defined as the set of points whose dot product with a vector in that space is constant. The vectors defining the hyperplanes can be chosen to be linear combinations with parameters of images of feature vectors that occur in the data base. With this choice of a hyperplane, the points in the feature space that are mapped into the hyperplane are defined by the relation: Note that if becomes small as grows further away from , each element in the sum measures the degree of closeness of the test point to the corresponding data base point . In this way, the sum of kernels above can be used to measure the relative nearness of each test point to the data points originating in one or the other of the sets to be discriminated. Note the fact that the set of points mapped into any hyperplane can be quite convoluted as a result, allowing much more complex discrimination between sets which are not convex at all in the original space. Classifying data is a common task in machine learning. Suppose some given data points each belong to one of two classes, and the goal is to decide which class a new data point will be in. In the case of support vector machines, a data point is viewed as a p-dimensional vector (a list of p numbers), and we want to know whether we can separate such points with a (p − 1)-dimensional hyperplane. This is called a linear classifier. There are many hyperplanes that might classify the data. One reasonable choice as the best hyperplane is the one that represents the largest separation, or margin, between the two classes. So we choose the hyperplane so that the distance from it to the nearest data point on each side is maximized. If such a hyperplane exists, it is known as the maximum-margin hyperplane and the linear classifier it defines is known as a maximum margin classifier; or equivalently, the perceptron of optimal stability. Linear SVM Given some training data , a set of n points of the form where the yi is either 1 or −1, indicating the class to which the point belongs. Each is a p-dimensional real vector. We want to find the maximum-margin hyperplane that divides the points having from those having . Any hyperplane can be written as the set of points satisfying If the training data are linearly separable, we can select two hyperplanes in a way that they separate the data and there are no points between them, and then try to maximize their distance. The region bounded by them is called "the margin". These hyperplanes can be described by the equations By using geometry, we find the distance between these two hyperplanes is , so we want to minimize . As we also have to prevent data points from falling into the margin, we add the following constraint: for each either - of the first class - of the second. This can be rewritten as: We can put this together to get the optimization problem: Minimize (in ) subject to (for any ) Primal form The optimization problem presented in the preceding section is difficult to solve because it depends on \|\|w\|\|, the norm of w, which involves a square root. Fortunately it is possible to alter the equation by substituting \|\|w\|\| with (the factor of 1/2 being used for mathematical convenience) without changing the solution (the minimum of the original and the modified equation have the same w and b). This is a quadratic programming optimization problem. More clearly: Minimize (in ) subject to (for any ) By introducing Lagrange multipliers , the previous constrained problem can be expressed as that is we look for a saddle point. In doing so all the points which can be separated as do not matter since we must set the corresponding to zero. This problem can now be solved by standard quadratic programming techniques and programs. The "stationary" Karush–Kuhn–Tucker condition implies that the solution can be expressed as a linear combination of the training vectors Only a few will be greater than zero. The corresponding are exactly the support vectors, which lie on the margin and satisfy . From this one can derive that the support vectors also satisfy which allows one to define the offset . In practice, it is more robust to average over all support vectors: Dual form Writing the classification rule in its unconstrained dual form reveals that the maximum margin hyperplane and therefore the classification task is only a function of the support vectors, the training data that lie on the margin. Using the fact that and substituting , one can show that the dual of the SVM reduces to the following optimization problem: Maximize (in ) subject to (for any ) and to the constraint from the minimization in Here the kernel is defined by . can be computed thanks to the terms: Biased and unbiased hyperplanes For simplicity reasons, sometimes it is required that the hyperplane pass through the origin of the coordinate system. Such hyperplanes are called unbiased, whereas general hyperplanes not necessarily passing through the origin are called biased. An unbiased hyperplane can be enforced by setting in the primal optimization problem. The corresponding dual is identical to the dual given above without the equality constraint Soft margin In 1995, Corinna Cortes and Vladimir N. Vapnik suggested a modified maximum margin idea that allows for mislabeled examples. If there exists no hyperplane that can split the "yes" and "no" examples, the Soft Margin method will choose a hyperplane that splits the examples as cleanly as possible, while still maximizing the distance to the nearest cleanly split examples. The method introduces non-negative slack variables, , which measure the degree of misclassification of the data The objective function is then increased by a function which penalizes non-zero , and the optimization becomes a trade off between a large margin and a small error penalty. If the penalty function is linear, the optimization problem becomes: subject to (for any ) This constraint in (2) along with the objective of minimizing can be solved using Lagrange multipliers as done above. One has then to solve the following problem: Dual form Maximize (in ) subject to (for any ) The key advantage of a linear penalty function is that the slack variables vanish from the dual problem, with the constant C appearing only as an additional constraint on the Lagrange multipliers. For the above formulation and its huge impact in practice, Cortes and Vapnik received the 2008 ACM Paris Kanellakis Award. Nonlinear penalty functions have been used, particularly to reduce the effect of outliers on the classifier, but unless care is taken the problem becomes non-convex, and thus it is considerably more difficult to find a global solution. Nonlinear classification The original optimal hyperplane algorithm proposed by Vapnik in 1963 was a linear classifier. However, in 1992, Bernhard E. Boser, Isabelle M. Guyon and Vladimir N. Vapnik suggested a way to create nonlinear classifiers by applying the kernel trick (originally proposed by Aizerman et al.) to maximum-margin hyperplanes. The resulting algorithm is formally similar, except that every dot product is replaced by a nonlinear kernel function. This allows the algorithm to fit the maximum-margin hyperplane in a transformed feature space. The transformation may be nonlinear and the transformed space high dimensional; thus though the classifier is a hyperplane in the high-dimensional feature space, it may be nonlinear in the original input space. If the kernel used is a Gaussian radial basis function, the corresponding feature space is a Hilbert space of infinite dimensions. Maximum margin classifiers are well regularized, so the infinite dimensions do not spoil the results. Some common kernels include: - Polynomial (homogeneous): - Polynomial (inhomogeneous): - Gaussian radial basis function: , for Sometimes parametrized using - Hyperbolic tangent: , for some (not every) and The kernel is related to the transform by the equation . The value w is also in the transformed space, with Dot products with w for classification can again be computed by the kernel trick, i.e. . However, there does not in general exist a value w' such that SVMs belong to a family of generalized linear classifiers and can be interpreted as an extension of the perceptron. They can also be considered a special case of Tikhonov regularization. A special property is that they simultaneously minimize the empirical classification error and maximize the geometric margin; hence they are also known as maximum margin classifiers. A comparison of the SVM to other classifiers has been made by Meyer, Leisch and Hornik. Parameter selection The effectiveness of SVM depends on the selection of kernel, the kernel's parameters, and soft margin parameter C. A common choice is a Gaussian kernel, which has a single parameter γ. The best combination of C and γ is often selected by a grid search with exponentially growing sequences of C and γ, for example, ; . Typically, each combination of parameter choices is checked using cross validation, and the parameters with best cross-validation accuracy are picked. The final model, which is used for testing and for classifying new data, is then trained on the whole training set using the selected parameters. Potential drawbacks of the SVM are the following three aspects: - Uncalibrated class membership probabilities - The SVM is only directly applicable for two-class tasks. Therefore, algorithms that reduce the multi-class task to several binary problems have to be applied; see the multi-class SVM section. - Parameters of a solved model are difficult to interpret. Multiclass SVM Multiclass SVM aims to assign labels to instances by using support vector machines, where the labels are drawn from a finite set of several elements. - Building binary classifiers which distinguish between (i) one of the labels and the rest (one-versus-all) or (ii) between every pair of classes (one-versus-one). Classification of new instances for the one-versus-all case is done by a winner-takes-all strategy, in which the classifier with the highest output function assigns the class (it is important that the output functions be calibrated to produce comparable scores). For the one-versus-one approach, classification is done by a max-wins voting strategy, in which every classifier assigns the instance to one of the two classes, then the vote for the assigned class is increased by one vote, and finally the class with the most votes determines the instance classification. - Directed Acyclic Graph SVM (DAGSVM) - error-correcting output codes Crammer and Singer proposed a multiclass SVM method which casts the multiclass classification problem into a single optimization problem, rather than decomposing it into multiple binary classification problems. See also Lee, Lin and Wahba. Transductive support vector machines Transductive support vector machines extend SVMs in that they could also treat partially labeled data in semi-supervised learning by following the principles of transduction. Here, in addition to the training set , the learner is also given a set of test examples to be classified. Formally, a transductive support vector machine is defined by the following primal optimization problem: Minimize (in ) subject to (for any and any ) Transductive support vector machines were introduced by Vladimir N. Vapnik in 1998. Structured SVM SVMs have been generalized to structured SVMs, where the label space is structured and of possibly infinite size. A version of SVM for regression was proposed in 1996 by Vladimir N. Vapnik, Harris Drucker, Christopher J. C. Burges, Linda Kaufman and Alexander J. Smola. This method is called support vector regression (SVR). The model produced by support vector classification (as described above) depends only on a subset of the training data, because the cost function for building the model does not care about training points that lie beyond the margin. Analogously, the model produced by SVR depends only on a subset of the training data, because the cost function for building the model ignores any training data close to the model prediction (within a threshold ). Another SVM version known as least squares support vector machine (LS-SVM) has been proposed by Suykens and Vandewalle. The parameters of the maximum-margin hyperplane are derived by solving the optimization. There exist several specialized algorithms for quickly solving the QP problem that arises from SVMs, mostly relying on heuristics for breaking the problem down into smaller, more-manageable chunks. A common method is Platt's Sequential Minimal Optimization (SMO) algorithm, which breaks the problem down into 2-dimensional sub-problems that may be solved analytically, eliminating the need for a numerical optimization algorithm. Another approach is to use an interior point method that uses Newton-like iterations to find a solution of the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions of the primal and dual problems. Instead of solving a sequence of broken down problems, this approach directly solves the problem as a whole. To avoid solving a linear system involving the large kernel matrix, a low rank approximation to the matrix is often used in the kernel trick. See also - In situ adaptive tabulation - Kernel machines - Polynomial kernel - Fisher kernel - Predictive analytics - Relevance vector machine, a probabilistic sparse kernel model identical in functional form to SVM - Sequential minimal optimization - Winnow (algorithm) - Regularization perspectives on support vector machines - Cortes, Corinna; and Vapnik, Vladimir N.; "Support-Vector Networks", Machine Learning, 20, 1995. http://www.springerlink.com/content/k238jx04hm87j80g/ - *Press, William H.; Teukolsky, Saul A.; Vetterling, William T.; Flannery, B. P. (2007). "Section 16.5. Support Vector Machines". Numerical Recipes: The Art of Scientific Computing (3rd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88068-8. - ACM Website, Press release of March 17th 2009. http://www.acm.org/press-room/news-releases/awards-08-groupa - Aizerman, Mark A.; Braverman, Emmanuel M.; and Rozonoer, Lev I. (1964). "Theoretical foundations of the potential function method in pattern recognition learning". Automation and Remote Control 25: 821–837. - Boser, Bernhard E.; Guyon, Isabelle M.; and Vapnik, Vladimir N.; A training algorithm for optimal margin classifiers. In Haussler, David (editor); 5th Annual ACM Workshop on COLT, pages 144–152, Pittsburgh, PA, 1992. ACM Press - Meyer, David; Leisch, Friedrich; and Hornik, Kurt; The support vector machine under test, Neurocomputing 55(1–2): 169–186, 2003 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0925-2312(03)00431-4 - Hsu, Chih-Wei; Chang, Chih-Chung; and Lin, Chih-Jen (2003). A Practical Guide to Support Vector Classification. Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University. http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/papers/guide/guide.pdf. - Duan, Kai-Bo; and Keerthi, S. Sathiya (2005). "Which Is the Best Multiclass SVM Method? An Empirical Study". Proceedings of the Sixth International Workshop on Multiple Classifier Systems. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 3541: 278. doi:10.1007/11494683_28. ISBN 978-3-540-26306-7. - Hsu, Chih-Wei; and Lin, Chih-Jen (2002). "A Comparison of Methods for Multiclass Support Vector Machines". IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks. - Platt, John; Cristianini, N.; and Shawe-Taylor, J. (2000). "Large margin DAGs for multiclass classification". In Solla, Sara A.; Leen, Todd K.; and Müller, Klaus-Robert; eds. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. MIT Press. pp. 547–553. - Dietterich, Thomas G.; and Bakiri, Ghulum; Bakiri (1995). "Solving Multiclass Learning Problems via Error-Correcting Output Codes". Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, Vol. 2 2: 263–286. arXiv:cs/9501101. Bibcode:1995cs........1101D. Unknown parameter - Crammer, Koby; and Singer, Yoram (2001). "On the Algorithmic Implementation of Multiclass Kernel-based Vector Machines". J. of Machine Learning Research 2: 265–292. - Lee, Y.; Lin, Y.; and Wahba, G. (2001). "Multicategory Support Vector Machines". Computing Science and Statistics 33. - Lee, Y.; Lin, Y.; and Wahba, G. (2004). "Multicategory Support Vector Machines, Theory, and Application to the Classification of Microarray Data and Satellite Radiance Data". Journal of the American Statistical Association 99 (465): 67–81. doi:10.1198/016214504000000098. - Joachims, Thorsten; "Transductive Inference for Text Classification using Support Vector Machines", Proceedings of the 1999 International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML 1999), pp. 200-209. - Drucker, Harris; Burges, Christopher J. C.; Kaufman, Linda; Smola, Alexander J.; and Vapnik, Vladimir N. (1997); "Support Vector Regression Machines", in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 9, NIPS 1996, 155–161, MIT Press. - Suykens, Johan A. K.; Vandewalle, Joos P. L.; Least squares support vector machine classifiers, Neural Processing Letters, vol. 9, no. 3, Jun. 1999, pp. 293–300. - Ferris, Michael C.; and Munson, Todd S. (2002). "Interior-point methods for massive support vector machines". SIAM Journal on Optimization 13 (3): 783–804. doi:10.1137/S1052623400374379. - Burges, Christopher J. C.; A Tutorial on Support Vector Machines for Pattern Recognition, Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 2:121–167, 1998 - www.kernel-machines.org (general information and collection of research papers) - Teknomo, K. SVM tutorial using spreadsheet Visual Introduction to SVM. - www.support-vector-machines.org (Literature, Review, Software, Links related to Support Vector Machines — Academic Site) - videolectures.net (SVM-related video lectures) - Animation clip: SVM with polynomial kernel visualization - Fletcher, Tristan; A very basic SVM tutorial for complete beginners - Karatzoglou, Alexandros et al.; Support Vector Machines in R, Journal of Statistical Software April 2006, Volume 15, Issue 9. - Shogun (toolbox) contains about 20 different implementations of SVMs, written in C++ with MATLAB, Octave, Python, R, Java, Lua, Ruby and C# interffaces - libsvm libsvm is a library of SVMs which is actively patched - liblinear liblinear is a library for large linear classification including some SVMs - flssvm flssvm is a least squares svm implementation written in fortran - Shark Shark is a C++ machine learning library implementing various types of SVMs - dlib dlib is a C++ library for working with kernel methods and SVMs - SVM light is a collection of software tools for learning and classification using SVM. - Stanford University Andrew Ng Video on SVM - Theodoridis, Sergios; and Koutroumbas, Konstantinos; "Pattern Recognition", 4th Edition, Academic Press, 2009, ISBN 978-1-59749-272-0 - Cristianini, Nello; and Shawe-Taylor, John; An Introduction to Support Vector Machines and other kernel-based learning methods, Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-78019-5 ( SVM Book) - Huang, Te-Ming; Kecman, Vojislav; and Kopriva, Ivica (2006); Kernel Based Algorithms for Mining Huge Data Sets, in Supervised, Semi-supervised, and Unsupervised Learning, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 260 pp. 96 illus., Hardcover, ISBN 3-540-31681-7 - Kecman, Vojislav; Learning and Soft Computing — Support Vector Machines, Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic Systems, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2001. - Schölkopf, Bernhard; and Smola, Alexander J.; Learning with Kernels, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2002. ISBN 0-262-19475-9 - Schölkopf, Bernhard; Burges, Christopher J. C.; and Smola, Alexander J. (editors); Advances in Kernel Methods: Support Vector Learning, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1999. ISBN 0-262-19416-3. - Shawe-Taylor, John; and Cristianini, Nello; Kernel Methods for Pattern Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-521-81397-2 ( Kernel Methods Book) - Steinwart, Ingo; and Christmann, Andreas; Support Vector Machines, Springer-Verlag, New York, 2008. ISBN 978-0-387-77241-7 ( SVM Book) - Tan, Peter Jing; and Dowe, David L. (2004); MML Inference of Oblique Decision Trees, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence (LNAI) 3339, Springer-Verlag, pp1082-1088. (This paper uses minimum message length (MML) and actually incorporates probabilistic support vector machines in the leaves of decision trees.) - Vapnik, Vladimir N.; The Nature of Statistical Learning Theory, Springer-Verlag, 1995. ISBN 0-387-98780-0 - Vapnik, Vladimir N.; and Kotz, Samuel; Estimation of Dependences Based on Empirical Data, Springer, 2006. ISBN 0-387-30865-2, 510 pages [this is a reprint of Vapnik's early book describing philosophy behind SVM approach. The 2006 Appendix describes recent development]. - Fradkin, Dmitriy; and Muchnik, Ilya; Support Vector Machines for Classification in Abello, J.; and Carmode, G. (Eds); Discrete Methods in Epidemiology, DIMACS Series in Discrete Mathematics and Theoretical Computer Science, volume 70, pp. 13–20, 2006. . Succinctly describes theoretical ideas behind SVM. - Bennett, Kristin P.; and Campbell, Colin; Support Vector Machines: Hype or Hallelujah?, SIGKDD Explorations, 2, 2, 2000, 1–13. . Excellent introduction to SVMs with helpful figures. - Ivanciuc, Ovidiu; Applications of Support Vector Machines in Chemistry, in Reviews in Computational Chemistry, Volume 23, 2007, pp. 291–400. Reprint available: - Catanzaro, Bryan; Sundaram, Narayanan; and Keutzer, Kurt; Fast Support Vector Machine Training and Classification on Graphics Processors, in International Conference on Machine Learning, 2008 - Campbell, Colin; and Ying, Yiming; Learning with Support Vector Machines, 2011, Morgan and Claypool. ISBN 978-1-60845-616-1.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23038000
The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth's atmosphere. It contains approximately 80% of the atmosphere's mass and 99% of its water vapor and aerosols. The average depth of the troposphere is approximately 17 km (11 mi) in the middle latitudes. It is deeper in the tropics, up to 20 km (12 mi), and shallower near the polar regions, at 7 km (4.3 mi) in summer, and indistinct in winter. The lowest part of the troposphere, where friction with the Earth's surface influences air flow, is the planetary boundary layer. This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km (1.2 mi) deep depending on the landform and time of day. The border between the troposphere and stratosphere, called the tropopause, is a temperature inversion. The word troposphere derives from the Greek: tropos for "change" reflecting the fact that turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere's structure and behavior. Most of the phenomena we associate with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere. Pressure and temperature structure The chemical composition of the troposphere is essentially uniform, with the notable exception of water vapor. The source of water vapor is at the surface through the processes of evaporation and transpiration. Furthermore the temperature of the troposphere decreases with height, and saturation vapor pressure decreases strongly as temperature drops, so the amount of water vapor that can exist in the atmosphere decreases strongly with height. Thus the proportion of water vapor is normally greatest near the surface and decreases with height. The pressure of the atmosphere is maximum at sea level and decreases with higher altitude. This is because the atmosphere is very nearly in hydrostatic equilibrium, so that the pressure is equal to the weight of air above a given point. The change in pressure with height, therefore can be equated to the density with this hydrostatic equation: Since temperature in principle also depends on altitude, one needs a second equation to determine the pressure as a function of height, as discussed in the next section.* The temperature of the troposphere generally decreases as altitude increases. The rate at which the temperature decreases, , is called the environmental lapse rate (ELR). The ELR is nothing more than the difference in temperature between the surface and the tropopause divided by the height. The reason for this temperature difference is the absorption of the sun's energy occurs at the ground which heats the lower levels of the atmosphere, and the radiation of heat occurs at the top of the atmosphere cooling the earth, this process maintaining the overall heat balance of the earth. As parcels of air in the atmosphere rise and fall, they also undergo changes in temperature for reasons described below. The rate of change of the temperature in the parcel may be less than or more than the ELR. When a parcel of air rises, it expands, because the pressure is lower at higher altitudes. As the air parcel expands, it pushes on the air around it, doing work; but generally it does not gain heat in exchange from its environment, because its thermal conductivity is low (such a process is called adiabatic). Since the parcel does work and gains no heat, it loses energy, and so its temperature decreases. (The reverse, of course, will be true for a sinking parcel of air.) Since the heat exchanged is related to the entropy change by , the equation governing the temperature as a function of height for a thoroughly mixed atmosphere is If the air contains water vapor, then cooling of the air can cause the water to condense, and the behavior is no longer that of an ideal gas. If the air is at the saturated vapor pressure, then the rate at which temperature drops with height is called the saturated adiabatic lapse rate. More generally, the actual rate at which the temperature drops with altitude is called the environmental lapse rate. In the troposphere, the average environmental lapse rate is a drop of about 6.5 °C for every 1 km (1,000 meters) in increased height. The environmental lapse rate (the actual rate at which temperature drops with height, ) is not usually equal to the adiabatic lapse rate (or correspondingly, ). If the upper air is warmer than predicted by the adiabatic lapse rate (), then when a parcel of air rises and expands, it will arrive at the new height at a lower temperature than its surroundings. In this case, the air parcel is denser than its surroundings, so it sinks back to its original height, and the air is stable against being lifted. If, on the contrary, the upper air is cooler than predicted by the adiabatic lapse rate, then when the air parcel rises to its new height it will have a higher temperature and a lower density than its surroundings, and will continue to accelerate upward. Temperatures decrease at middle latitudes from an average of 15°C at sea level to about -55°C at the top of the tropopause. At the poles, the troposphere is thinner and the temperature only decreases to -45°C, while at the equator the temperature at the top of the troposphere can reach -75°C. The tropopause is the boundary region between the troposphere and the stratosphere. Measuring the temperature change with height through the troposphere and the stratosphere identifies the location of the tropopause. In the troposphere, temperature decreases with altitude. In the stratosphere, however, the temperature remains constant for a while and then increases with altitude. The region of the atmosphere where the lapse rate changes from positive (in the troposphere) to negative (in the stratosphere), is defined as the tropopause. Thus, the tropopause is an inversion layer, and there is little mixing between the two layers of the atmosphere. Atmospheric flow The flow of the atmosphere generally moves in a west to east direction. This however can often become interrupted, creating a more north to south or south to north flow. These scenarios are often described in meteorology as zonal or meridional. These terms, however, tend to be used in reference to localised areas of atmosphere (at a synoptic scale). A fuller explanation of the flow of atmosphere around the Earth as a whole can be found in the three-cell model. Zonal Flow A zonal flow regime is the meteorological term meaning that the general flow pattern is west to east along the Earth's latitude lines, with weak shortwaves embedded in the flow. The use of the word "zone" refers to the flow being along the Earth's latitudinal "zones". This pattern can buckle and thus become a meridional flow. Meridional flow When the zonal flow buckles, the atmosphere can flow in a more longitudinal (or meridional) direction, and thus the term "meridional flow" arises. Meridional flow patterns feature strong, amplified troughs and ridges, with more north-south flow in the general pattern than west-to-east flow. Three-cell model The three cells model attempts to describe the actual flow of the Earth's atmosphere as a whole. It divides the Earth into the tropical (Hadley cell), mid latitude (Ferrel cell), and polar (polar cell) regions, dealing with energy flow and global circulation. Its fundamental principle is that of balance - the energy that the Earth absorbs from the sun each year is equal to that which it loses back into space, but this however is not a balance precisely maintained in each latitude due to the varying strength of the sun in each "cell" resulting from the tilt of the Earth's axis in relation to its orbit. It demonstrates that a pattern emerges to mirror that of the ocean - the tropics do not continue to get warmer because the atmosphere transports warm air poleward and cold air equatorward, the effect of which appears to be that of heat and moisture distribution around the planet. Synoptic scale observations and concepts Forcing is a term used by meteorologists to describe the situation where a change or an event in one part of the atmosphere causes a strengthening change in another part of the atmosphere. It is usually used to describe connections between upper, middle or lower levels (such as upper-level divergence causing lower level convergence in cyclone formation), but can sometimes also be used to describe such connections over distance rather than height alone. In some respects, tele-connections could be considered a type of forcing. Divergence and Convergence An area of convergence is one in which the total mass of air is increasing with time, resulting in an increase in pressure at locations below the convergence level (recall that atmospheric pressure is just the total weight of air above a given point). Divergence is the opposite of convergence - an area where the total mass of air is decreasing with time, resulting in falling pressure in regions below the area of divergence. Where divergence is occurring in the upper atmosphere, there will be air coming in to try to balance the net loss of mass (this is called the principle of mass conservation), and there is a resulting upward motion (positive vertical velocity). Another way to state this is to say that regions of upper air divergence are conducive to lower level convergence, cyclone formation, and positive vertical velocity. Therefore, identifying regions of upper air divergence is an important step in forecasting the formation of a surface low pressure area. - "ISS022-E-062672 caption". NASA. Retrieved 21 September 2012. - McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology. (1984). Troposhere. "It contains about four-fifths of the mass of the whole atmosphere." - Danielson, Levin, and Abrams, Meteorology, McGraw Hill, 2003 - Landau and Lifshitz, Fluid Mechanics, Pergamon, 1979 - Landau and Lifshitz, Statistical Physics Part 1, Pergamon, 1980 - Kittel and Kroemer, Thermal Physics, Freeman, 1980; chapter 6, problem 11 - "American Meteorological Society Glossary - Zonal Flow". Allen Press Inc. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-10-03. - "American Meteorological Society Glossary - Meridional Flow". Allen Press Inc. June 2000. Retrieved 2006-10-03. - "Meteorology - MSN Encarta, "Energy Flow and Global Circulation"". Encarta.Msn.com. Archived from the original on 2009-10-31. Retrieved 2006-10-13. \|Look up troposphere in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\| - Composition of the Atmosphere, from the University of Tennessee Physics dept. - Chemical Reactions in the Atmosphere - http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571037_3/Meteorology.html#s12 (Archived 2009-10-31)	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23040000
Case study is often defined in different ways, reflecting evolving practice. What is important then is to define the concept for yourself, and explain to your audience how you are using the term. - A research approach in which one or few instances of a phenomenon are studied in depth (Given, 2008). - An empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used. (Yin, 1984) Case study involves a detailed in depth analysis of an organisation, person, a group, an event, allowing an understanding of complex phenomena, such as organisations. A case study generally involves looking at a single case (which already exists), an object of study which is easily identified and separated (a bounded system) from other similar objects e.g. an organization, a place, an illness in one patient. Case study is a useful methodology for focussing on relationships connecting everyday practices in natural settings, placing attention on a local situation (Stake, 2006). The case study is useful to investigate an issue in depth and ‘provide an explanation that can cope with the complexity and subtlety of real of life situation’ (Denscombe, 2010, p55). Research questions revolve around ‘How?’ or ‘Why?’ and may be explanatory, exploratory or descriptive in nature (Yin, 2003). Case study can be used to develop theory. Yin (2003, p 1) notes that a case study is a way to ‘contribute to our knowledge of individual, group, organisational, social, political and related phenomena’ Case study can be used to test theory : what is it supposed to do and does it do that? Case studies can be used to trace a process, developing an understanding and then test it (Bennett, Andrew) Data collection Case studies generally use a combination of data collection methods. Multiple case studies In multiple cases, research single cases are meaningful in relation to the other cases cited. Multiple case study research needs to use cases that are similar in some ways. The cases become "members of a group or examples of a phenomenon" (Stake, 2006, p. 6). This allows examination of what is similar and dissimilar about the cases. The researcher is looking for patterns and uniqueness, particulars and generalisations in the cases developed. References and resources Denscombe,Martyn (2010)(4th ed). The good research guide for small scale social research projects. Maidenhead: Open University Pres McGraw Hill Dufour, S. & Foutin, V., ‘Annotated bibliography of case study method’, Current Sociology vol.40/1, 1992, pp.166-181. Fidel, R. (1984). ‘The Case Study Method: A Case Study’, Library and Information Science Research vol.6/3, pp.273-288. Garson, G.D. (2008). Case Studies, available from http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/cases.htm Gerring, J. (2007). Case Study Research: Principles and Practices, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Gilbertson, D. W. & Stone, R. J. (1985) (2nd ed). Human resources management: cases and readings. Sydney : McGraw-Hill, 1985. Giving, L. M. (2008) (ed.), The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods, Los Angeles: Sage. Hossain, Dewan Mahboob (2009). 'Case Study Research' Social Science Research Network http://ssrn.com/abstract=1444863 Marshall, C. & Rossman, G.B. (2006) (4th ed). Designing qualitative research, Thousand Oaks: Sage. Merriam S. (1998). Qualitative research and case study application in education. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Ragin, C.C. & Becker, H.S. (1992), What is a Case? Exploring the foundations of social enquiry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Sadler, D. Royce (1985). ‘Evaluation, Policy Analysis and Multiple Case Studies: Aspects of focus and sampling’, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, vol.7/2, pp.143-149. Simons (2009). Case study research in practice. London: Sage Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Stake, R.E. (2006), Multiple Case Study Analysis, New York & London: The Guildford Press. Soy, Susan K. (1997). The case study as a research method. Available from http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~ssoy/usesusers/l391d1b.htm Stoecker, R., ‘Evaluating and rethinking the case study’, The Sociological Review vol.39, no.1, February 1991, pp.88-112. Yin, R.K. (1989). ‘Case study research design and method’. Applied Social Research Methods Series 5. Newbury Park: Sage Young, Raymond (2010). Case study research http://ise.canberra.edu.au/raymond/?s=case+study Zach, L. (2006), ‘Using multiple case studies design to investigate the information-seeking behaviour of arts administrators’, Library Trends vol.55/1, pp.4-21. See also - Topic:Business case studies - Portal:Social entrepreneurship/Case Studies/more - Wikiversity:Case studies - CisLunarFreighter/Scripts and case studies - Case studies in patent litigation - Portal:Social entrepreneurship/Case Studies - Evidence-based medicine/Case studies - Case study: Blended design and openness - Case study in psychology	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23042000
What are the rules for splitting words at the end of a line? In printed texts, especially those with narrow columns, it's necessary from time to time to divide the last word in the line, and put some of it on the line below. The computer's automatic word-breaking system can execute this, but sometimes the output is 'wrong': tran + scend or trans + cend, des + pite or de + spite, the + rapist or ther + apist and go on and on. Yet dictionaries are far from unanimous about word-breaking. That being said, I wonder if there are any 'rules' or guidelines that can be helpful in word-breaking actions.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23045000
- Common names: Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat, Queensland Hairy-nosed Wombat, Yaminon - Scientific name: Lasiorhinus krefftii - National conservation status: Endangered (likely to become extinct if threats continue) - Size: 35 cm high, 1 m long - Weight: up to 35 kg (Females slightly heavier than males) The Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat is a marsupial with a backward facing pouch. The curious name comes from its distinctive muzzle which is covered with short brown hairs. It is strong and heavily built, with short, powerful legs and strong claws that are used to dig burrows or search for suitable plants to eat. Its fur is soft, silky, and mainly brown, mottled with grey, fawn and black. It has a broad head, and the ears are long and slightly pointed with tufts of white hair on the edges. Like most marsupials, the Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat is active at night, usually at dawn or dusk. Although mostly solitary, wombats often share burrows. Each burrow has several entrances and contains moist air which stays at a constant temperature throughout the year. The Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat eats native and introduced grasses and stays close to one of its many burrows. The wombat's teeth never stop growing, allowing it to grind its food even when old. The Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat gives birth to one young during the wet season (November - April). The young stay in the mothers pouch for eight to nine months. They leave their mother at about 15 months. The Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat once occurred near Deniliquin (New South Wales), on the Moonie River near St George (southern Queensland) and at Epping Forest near Clermont (central Queensland). Fossil records from New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland show that they lived over a larger area, but probably not in high numbers. The last known colony of Northern Hairy-nosed Wombats is now restricted to 300 ha in Epping Forest National Park in central Queensland. The Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat occurs along an ancient water course in the park where the soil is sandy and dry. Their feeding areas contain native grasses, scattered eucalypts and acacias, and patches of scrub. The wombats live in groups of large burrows usually located near trees. Habitat loss and change, drought and competition with cattle, sheep and rabbits for food have contributed to the decline of the Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat. Epping Forest National Park is now fenced to keep out cattle and sheep and will be fenced during 2002 to exclude dingoes which killed 10 northern hairy-nosed wombats during 2000-01. Introduced buffel grass, planted in the area for cattle feed, outcompetes the native grasses and forces the wombats to travel further to find the native species they prefer to eat. The small population of Northern Hairy-nosed Wombats that remains is susceptible to predation, fire and inbreeding. Epping Forest National Park was established in 1971 to protect the habitat of the Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat. Access into the Park is restricted to researchers and park managers. The park is protected from wildfires by fire breaks and patch burning of small areas. After the removal of cattle in 1982, wombat numbers increased from 35 to about 70 in 1989. Numbers remained steady during a major drought which spanned the first half of the 1990's. After several good years of rainfall, the population has increased to 110. Programs to control buffel grass and improve the supply of native grasses are helping the wombats to move into other suitable habitats in the park. Management of Epping Forest National Park and ongoing research on the ecology of the Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat also contribute to the long term conservation of this species. As well, a captive breeding program on the Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat is currently under way. If this proves successful, it is hoped the techniques developed can be applied to the captive breeding of Northern Hairy-nosed Wombats. There are three species of wombat in Australia. The Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat is the largest. The other two are: Common Wombat (Vombatus ursinis) The Common Wombat occurs in southeastern Australia. It has coarser hair, a smaller tail and shorter, more rounded ears than the Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat. It is nocturnal during the summer, but in winter it often comes out of its burrow during the day. Common Wombats breed at any time of the year. They live to 15 years in the wild, and up to 20 years in captivity. Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat (Lasiorhinus latifrons) This species occurs in parts of southern South Australia, southeastern Western Australia and western Victoria. It is the smallest of the three wombats in Australia has red-brown fur and a shorter face. The Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat breeds from late September through to December. - Flannery T (1990) Australia's Vanishing Mammals. R D Press, Sydney. - Strahan R (1995) The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals. Angus and Robertson. Queensland Government Department of Environment and Resource Management PO Box 15155 CITY EAST QLD 4002 Phone: 1300 130 372 You can also find out more information about Australia's threatened species by calling the Department of the Environment and Heritage's Community Information Unit on free call 1800 803 772 Northern hairy-nosed wombat, Lasiorhinus krefftii (QLD Department of Environment and Resource Management) Links to another web site Opens a pop-up window	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23046000
Apple is known for supporting educational uses of its technologies. On Apple Learning Interchange Community, for instance, teachers can find news and share lesson plans and ideas on different subjects. Of course, Apple also supports the use of their mobile devices for learning, and here is their official website dedicated to just that: showcase different ways the iPhone/iPod Touch can be used to support Education. “iPod touch and iPhone are perfect for on-the-go learning. But don’t let their small size fool you. These devices put thousands of apps and countless possibilities in your pocket.” Also noteworthy is their website showcasing educational uses of the iPad. This website highlights features and uses such as: - Web-ready apps (Safari, Mail, Maps) - Multimedia access (music, videos, websites) - Management apps (Calendar, Notes) - iWork for document creation/editing (Pages, Keynote, Numbers) - Accessibility-readiness (screen reader built in) - iTunesU (academic content readily available on iTunes) The iPad being somewhat cost-effective, more portable, and “closed” (not allowing as much student tampering and access to inappropriate content) can be some of the good reasons to adopt the device in educational settings. “Your school day gets more productive — and more fun — when you can page through websites, write an email, flick through photos, or watch a movie with just the touch of a finger.”	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23047000
We need another and a wiser and perhaps a more mystical concept of wild animals. Remote from universal nature, and living by complicated artifice, man in civilization surveys the creatures through the glass of his knowledge and sees thereby a feather magnified and the whole image in distortion. We patronize them for their incompleteness, for their tragic fate for having taken a form so far below ourselves. And therein we err, greatly err. For the animal shall not be measured by man. In a world older and more complete than ours they move finished and complete, gifted with extensions of the senses we have lost or never attained, living by voices we shall never hear. They are not brethren, they are not underlings; they are other nations, caught with ourselves in the net of life and time, fellow prisoners of the splendour and the travail of the earth. -Henry Beston, The Outermost House, as cited by Karsten Heuer in Being Caribou: Five Months on Foot with an Arctic Herd, p. 10 In the “complicated artifice” of immured, urban life, I often experience the living world of the animals, plants and minerals in the tundras, deserts, mountains, rivers, lakes, forests, caves and oceans like a ghost-appendage, like a part of me that I can’t shake the awareness of, though I live in a fast-moving, technologically driven human ‘nation’ that has severed itself from these other nations both in habitat and in consciousness. The influential philosophical writings of the ancient Greeks, particularly of Aristotle, conveyed down to us through innumerable refracted lenses in the post-classical tradition the notion that human beings are superior to the animal kingdom as a result of their unique possession of ‘logos’, or the capacity to reason. Aristotle took this analogy even further, to suggest that just as domestic animals’ benefit’ from their domination by human beings, so do women and slaves ‘benefit’ by being ruled by free men. Aristotle’s writings supplied the European and early American slave-traders and slave-owners of the 17th-19th centuries with canonical arguments for racialized, chattel slavery. What comes of the persistent human belief in separation? Our human history is littered with exemplum upon exemplum of the tragic consequences of this belief. Mindfulness practices provide an antidote. They help us to reestablish connections with each other and with other nations. They help us to really feel and grieve expressions of separation, to have compassion for them, and to heal the rifts through loving kindness and equanimity. They help us to attune to the earth with new or regained senses.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23057000
(1882 - 1971) Igor Stravinsky short biography Universally regarded as one of the most important modern composer, Igor Stravinsky spent his earlier years in Russia. There Stravinsky studied composition and orchestration with Rimsky-Korsakov. Stravinsky’s first major success was in Paris with compositions commissioned by the impresario Sergei Diaghilev. It was Diaghilev for whom Stravinsky later wrote a number of ballet scores. In 1939 Stravinsky moved to the United States. In the post-war time Stravinsky abandoned a style of neo-classicism and began composing in the twelve-note Schoenberg’s technique. A versatile composer, Stravinsky has made great contribution to many modern styles. At the invitation of the Russian government, Stravinsky visited Moscow and Leningrad conducting his own compositions. More Stravinsky sheet music download on EveryNote.com Stravinsky Piano sheet music download on EveryNote.com Stravinsky Violin sheet music download on EveryNote.com Stravinsky Clarinet sheet music download on EveryNote.com Stravinsky Orchestral parts sheet music download on EveryNote.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23061000
Treating Hirschsprung's disease requires surgery to remove the affected bowel and then join the healthy bowel segments. There are three different approaches, each with a high rate of success. The choice depends on the overall health of the child and the training and experience of the surgeon Sometimes a single surgical procedure is recommended to remove the aganglionic segment , then bring the healthy bowel down into the rectum , and join it to the rectal wall : this is called a "pull-through . If an infant is too small or a child is critically ill, a temporary colostomy may be necessary prior to the pull-through. In a colostomy, the colon is brought out to the surface of the abdomen so that stool contents can be discharged into a special bag for disposal Subsequent to the colostomy, the pull-through surgery can be planned. The colostomy opening can then closed at the time of the pull-through, or, in some cases, at a third operation after it is clear that the pull-through is working. For most children with Hirschsprung's disease, there are no long-term complications after successful surgery. A significant minority of children, though, are troubled with persistent constipation ), or persistent enterocolitis Personal Note: Being affected with this disease, and not having had the surgery due to incorrect early diagnosis, I am inspired to say that living with this problem without surgery is very difficult. You may experince humiliation due to inability to control bowel movments, severe pain when having bowel movments, and constant illness due to the inability to remove toxins from the body. Please do not allow a child to grow up with this disease.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23062000
Eat and Be Young But we’d like to add this simple thought: What you eat can make you old. Last month we explained how age equals inflammation and why inflammation could play a role in many degenerative processes, including diabetes, arthritis, heart disease, high blood pressure and cancer. (See the April 17 issue of the Shepherd for details.) Reducing inflammation may be able to slow down the aging process. And, even more important, it’s something you can do every day, very simply, just by eating the right foods. Here’s how it works: The internal pH (level of acid) of the body is a critical factor in producing inflammation. The body is designed to function properly when the internal environment is neutral, with the exception of the stomach’s acidity. When your body becomes too acidic, it tries to come into balance by retaining water and taking calcium and other minerals from your bones. Over time, these processes may lead to inflammation and osteoporosis. Your cells, tissues and organs may prematurely break down. And some studies have shown that tumor cells, bacteria and viruses will grow at explosive rates when placed in an acidic bath. One culprit is your diet. The typical American consumes a wide variety of food and substances that create acidity within the body, such as pharmaceutical medicine, soda, processed foods, additives and preservatives. Fortunately, reducing your acidity is pretty easy. Try these tips: Eat fresh fruits and vegetables, preferably raw. Processing foods kills the enzymes they contain when they’re fresh, which forces the body to use its own limited reserves to digest what you eat. Plus, additives and preservatives create acidity, contributing to the aging process. Consume Omega-3 fatty acids, primarily from fish oil, flaxseed or hemp oil. Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency has been called the scurvy of our time, with an estimated 90% of Americans lacking in this vital nutrient. Eat the right kind of processed foods. Nearly every culture in history has relied on lacto-fermentation in food processing, which keeps the food alive. Traditional foods like pickles, tempeh, sauerkraut, kimchi, soy sauce and miso retain critical nutrients and help to slow down the aging process. Check out your pH balance. A simple way to check your own internal environment is to purchase a simple pH strip from a health food store and begin monitoring one of the most important factors in premature aging. You can start changing your life today. Don’t dig your grave with your fork. Ty Wade, D.C., has a private practice in Saukville. David Wade manages an assisted living home in Sheboygan County. They can be contacted at firstname.lastname@example.org.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23066000
\|Cat neutering practices in the UK and swine flu \|Cats and avian flu foetus infection in cats - the dangers to cats cat rescue - helpful information from Canada Despite neutering being one of the most common veterinary procedures, questions remain about what constitutes best practice, and when is the ideal time to neuter. These were the focus of attention at a meeting of The Cat Group, held in London last September, to which representatives from the UK veterinary schools,and a number of other veterinary experts, were invited. This article presents a summary of the discussions. At the beginning of November 2009, a sick 13-year old cat in Iowa, USA was diagnosed with the H1N1 ‘swine flu’ influenza virus. He had become lethargic, lost his appetite and had respiratory distress and diarrhoea. He was treated with antibiotics and fluids and recovered. This is the first report that cats can become infected with the swine flu virus. It is very likely that the cat caught the virus from humans. Two of the three people who lived with the cat had flu-like symptoms before the cat became ill. Although H1N1 has not been confirmed as the cause of their illness, there is strong circumstantial evidence that they were the source of the infection and the virus was transmitted from them to the cat rather than the other way round, as the cat did not go outdoors. There appears to be a small risk of animals catching the current swine flu virus from humans. Pigs, turkeys and pet ferrets have been diagnosed with the virus. Previously cats have died from eating birds infected with the earlier avian flu H5N1 virus. However, there is no evidence yet that influenza viruses spread between cats or from cats to humans. To reduce the risk of pet cats becoming infected from people with flu, the same precautions should be taken that apply to preventing human-to-human spread of the virus. Close contact with cats should be avoided, particularly face to face contact. Coughs and sneezes should be contained in paper tissues which should then be discarded hygienically. Hands should be washed very carefully before handling pets. Cats in households in which people have symptoms of flu should be monitored carefully. If cats show signs of illness, owners should seek advice immediately from their veterinary surgeon. further information, visit the websites below: Protection Agency http://www.hpa.org.uk for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairshttp://www.defra.gov.uk have been identified as one of the species which can become infected with the H5N1 avian flu virus. Natural infection almost certainly occurs when cats eat infected birds, and fatal infections in cats have been recorded in Germany and Austria. In laboratory studies cats have been infected experimentally and have transmitted the virus to other cats with which they were in contact. Recent research, the results of which have yet to be confirmed, indicates that in parts of south-east Asia, where poultry have been infected with the virus, up to 20 per cent of cats have antibodies, suggesting that many more cats become infected than become ill. This raises the concern that cats might be a vehicle in which the virus can become more addapted to mammals, and therefore spread readily to man. However, there has been no evidence to date that cats have been responsible for transmitting the virus to humans. The simple and most effective way of avoiding cats being infected is to keep them indoors, especially if they are known to wander and are in an area where infected birds are known to be present. When cases of H5N! infection occur in poultry in the UK, owners within the 3 km protection zone should consider keeping their cats indoors as recommended by DEFRA: a precautionary approach we recommend that if you live within 3km of a premises where avian influenza is confirmed (the protection zone) pet owners should aim to keep their cats indoors and exercise their dogs on a lead. This is for the protection of your animals and is not for public health purposes. In all other areas you should continue as normal and your pets are not at risk.' here for DEFRA's advice on avian flu and cats a recent report form the European Commission Standing Committee on the Food Chain and Animal Health says: knowledge indicates that no H5N1 infection has ever occurred in humans due to animals other than domestic poultry. Current knowledge suggests that the disease in carnivores such as cats is a “cul de sac” of the infection that has not lead to an increase in the risk posed by this virus for animal or public health. areas where H5N1 has been confirmed in wild birds: - sick or dead cats and dogs that may have had contacts with infected birds or their carcasses should undergo veterinary inspection or post-mortem examination. When felt necessary by the veterinarian and in accordance with the instructions given by the veterinary authorities, further testing should be carried out; - contacts between domestic carnivores, particularly cats, and wild birds should be prevented, i.e. cats should be kept indoors and dogs should be kept on a leash or otherwise restrained, and kept under control by the owner; - where stray cats or dogs are found dead they should not be touched and the veterinary authorities should be informed, so that post-mortem examination and further testing can be performed' Cat Group urges pet owners not to panic and abandon or rehome their cats because of fears of infection with bird flu. This highly pathogenic virus first appeared in chickens in Hong Kong in 1997 and spread to people, with six deaths being recorded. In 2003 there were two further human deaths associated with infection by the same subtype of virus in southern China. Throughout 2004, H5N1 viruses spread throughout Southeast Asia resulting in the deaths, or slaughter of millions of chickens and over 30 people. To date, 167 human cases have been reported. The human infections were acquired directly from infected birds and fortunately the virus does not appear to spread between people. However, a major threat from this new virus is that suddenly it might change and cause epidemics in people. This might occur if the virus mutated in chickens or recombined with existing human influenza viruses already in people or pigs, to produce novel viruses that could then spread readily from person to person, causing widespread disease. The World Health Organisation is closely monitoring the situation for the appearance of any such variant viruses in people. Other concerns are that the H5N1 virus has been found to cause fatal disease in domestic cats, as well as in tigers and leopards in captivity, through the consumption of infected poultry meat; and the virus can spread between cats. Therefore there is a theoretical possibility that cats may be involved in natural history of these viruses, serving as a vehicle for the spread of the virus to other species, particularly man. Most authorities consider this outcome to be unlikely since previously reported disease in cats caused by avian influenza viruses have not been associated with widespread infection, or fatalities in cats. The first recorded natural, fatal infection of cats with an avian influenza virus was in Korea in 1942, but the subtype of that virus is not known. Since then there have been anecdotal accounts of natural feline infections in Thailand in 2004 and the transmission of a current H5N1 isolate from chickens to cats, and between cats, has been reported recently. It is considered even more unlikely that cats could act as a ‘mixing vessel' to generate recombinant influenza viruses, as might occur in people or pigs. Therefore, the risk that cats might pose should be kept in perspective. Kuiken T, et al (2004) Avian H5N1 influenza in cats. Science 306 :241 Keawcharoen J, et al (2004) Avian influenza H5N1 in tigers and leopards. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10, 2189-2191 cats bring avian flu into a household? We have two indoor-outdoor cats which occasionally catch rats or birds and, of course, bring them into the house. It doesn't take much to imagine one's cat catching and bringing into the house an infected, ill migratory bird. How concerned should pet owners be? And what is a reasonable course of action under such circumstances? advice from an eminent virologist and supported by DEFRA, the British government department for the environment, food and rural affairs are that cats are susceptible to the current H5N1 strains of avian flu virus, as are garden birds. Consequently, there is a theoretical risk that cats could introduce the virus into a household through predation, and that people could be infected from the bird, or the cat. The risk must be considered remote. However, in areas where bird flu has been identified it is recommended that cats are kept indoors for their own protection. also see DEFRA's guidance on the handling and disposing of dead garden and wild birds websites are also a useful source of information: Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD) Veterinary Association (BVA) Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) Tritrichomonas foetus is a microscopic single-celled flagellated protozoan parasite that has traditionally been identified as a cause of reproductive disease in cattle (infertility, abortion and endometritis). It has been found all over the world, but the widespread use of artificial insemination in breeding cattle has led to the virtual elimination of this organism from the cattle population in many countries including the UK and much of Europe. There have been a number of recent studies, mostly form the USA, that have demonstrated that T foetus may also be an important cause of diarrhoea in cats. It can infect and colonises the large intestine, and can cause prolonged and intractable diarrhoea. Studies have shown that this parasite mainly causes colitis (large bowel diarrhoea) with increased frequency of defaecation, semi-formed to liquid faeces, and sometimes fresh blood or mucus in the faeces. With severe diarrhoea the anus may become inflamed and painful, and in some cases the cats may develop faecal incontinence. Although cats of all ages can be affected with diarrhoea, it is most commonly seen in young cats and kittens, the majority being under 12 months of age. Most of the affected cats have come from rescue shelters and pedigree breeding colonies. Abdominal ultrasound examination may show corrugation of the large bowel and local lymphadenopathy. Colonic biopsies from affected cats typically show mild to severe inflammatory changes with infiltration of lymphocytes and plasma cells – a pattern commonly seen with other infectious agents and with inflammatory bowel disease. However, the parasites may be seen in close association with the mucosa. Although the diarrhoea may be persistent and severe, most affected cats are otherwise well, and show no significant weight loss. Infection is most commonly seen in colonies of cats and multicat households, where the organism is presumably spread between cats by close and direct contact. There has been no evidence of spread from other species, or spread via food or water. In one study, 31% of cats at a cat show in the USA were identified as being infected with this organism, suggesting that this may be an important, common, and previously unrecognised cause of diarrhoea in cats. Although most information on T foetus infection has come from studies of cats in the USA, we have identified several cases of infection in cats in the UK (mostly in young pedigree cats, and all from multicat households generally with more than one cat being affected), and it has also been identified in cats from Germany, Italy, Spain and Norway. In the UK, up to 30% of faecal samples from cats with diarrhoea are currently being found to be infected; with young pedigree cats (particularly Siamese and Bengal) being significantly more likely to be infected. The evidence therefore suggests that T foetus is probably quite widespread in cat populations, and infection is most likely where there is a high density of cats sharing the same environment. While T foetus is known to be a significant cause of reproductive disease in cattle (infertility, abortion and endometritis), its role in causing reproductive disease in cats is still unclear. There is one report of a cat from Norway that came from a T foetus-infected household and developed pyometra (which was found to contain T foetus organisms). The cat may have been predisposed to the infection by having received six weeks of oral contraceptive (medroxyprogesterone acetate). It has also been suggested that tom cats may be able to harbour the infection in their prepuce. Assessment of the cats faeces for the presence of T foetus can be made using a number of different methods (see below for more details); (i) looking for moving parasites in fresh faecal smears (ii) using a specific culture system or (iii) by detection of T foetus DNA using PCR. The different methods have differing sensitivities: in one study direct smears were positive in 5/36 cases, culture in 20/36, and PCR in 34/36 cases; so the PCR is by far the most sensitive test, but even this can be hampered by intermitted shedding of the parasite. Diagnosis of T foetus infection is usually straightforward. The organism exists in the intestine as small, motile trophozoites, and these can be detected under the microscope. For optimum results, fresh faeces should be examined, and if any mucus has been passed with the faeces this is the most likely place to find the organisms. Smears of faeces/mucus diluted with some saline can be made on a microscope slide. A cover slip can be pressed over the smear and then the slide can be examined under x200 and x400 magnification. In most clinically affected cats, large numbers of the small motile organisms can be seen – they appear a little bit like microscopic tadpoles with very short tails (!), and have an undulating membrane that runs over the length of the body. Their movement is described as ‘jerky, forward motion’. Examination of multiple smears and multiple faecal samples will improve the detection of the organism. Rectal swabs can also be examined for the organism – a cotton swab can be inserted into the anus and rotated over the colonic mucosa – this is then withdrawn and a smear made on a microscope slide which is again diluted with saline and examined as above. The organism needs to be distinguished from Giardia, another protozoan parasite, but with Giardia infection the trophozoites tend to be far fewer in number, they are binucleate with a concave ventral ‘sucker’, and do not exhibit the same forward motion as T foetus. If a cat has received recent antibiotic therapy, this can suppress the number of T foetus trophozoites shed, and can make the diagnosis more difficult. In such cases, more sensitive diagnostic techniques may be preferable. Two other diagnostic tests are available which are both more sensitive and specific for this organism. Firstly, the organism can be cultured from faecal samples using a system developed for diagnosis in cattle. The ‘In Pouchtm TF’ test (BioMed Diagnostics, Oregon, USA) uses a liquid culture system in a sterile plastic pouch. The pouch can be inoculated with 0.05g of faeces (about half the size of a small pea). The pouches are incubated at room temperature and can be examined microscopically for the motile organisms every two days for 12 days. This test is more sensitive than direct examination of faeces and helpful for detecting infections where direct smears are negative. Giardia, and other similar organisms will not grow in this specific culture medium. In the UK, this system was available from Capital Diagnostics in Edinburgh (0131 535 3145) but its high prevalence of false negatives (due to the parasite dieing in the cold UK postal system) means that it is not recommended as the PCR is far more sensitive. The most sensitive and specific test is a PCR (polymerase chain reaction) test – a sophisticated test that can detect the presence of the genetic material of the organism. This is an extremely sensitive test that is available in the UK and US from a number of laboratories (please see below). Current information suggests the long-term prognosis for infected cats is good, and that they will eventually overcome the infection. However, this is a slow process – in one study of infected cats, resolution of the diarrhoea took an average of nine months, with occasional cats having diarrhoea persisting for more than two years, and rarely for life. It appears that most infected cats continue to shed low levels of the organism in their faeces for many months after the resolution of the diarrhoea. Most studies on treatment of T. foetus infection in cats have been unrewarding. The organism is resistant to most traditionally used anti-protozoal drugs such as fenbendazole and metronidazole. The use of a variety of different antimicrobial drugs has been reported to improve faecal consistency during therapy of infected cats, possibly because of interaction between T. foetus and the bacteria normally present in the intestine. However, such antibiotic use is not recommended as it may ultimately prolong the shedding of the organism, and does not resolve the underlying problem. A recent study by Dr Jody Gookin at the North Carolina State University (who has performed most of the work on this infection in cats) identified that ronidazole and tinadazole (antibiotics similar but not the same as metronidazole) may have efficacy against T. foetus infection in cats (JVIM, 2006;20:536; Am J Vet Res, 2007; 68:1085). From limited studies ronidazole appears to be more effective than tinadazole. Ronidazole appears to be relatively safe, although a small number of patients have developed neurological signs e.g. twitching and seizures, which have resolved on stopping the drug. (The neurological signs are similar to those seen in some kittens, or cats with liver disease, when they are given standard or high doses of metronidazole). However, ronidazole is not licensed for use in cats; it should only be used with caution and with informed, signed, owner consent. Initial studies suggested that a dose of 30-50mg/kg once to twice daily for two weeks is capable of both resolving clinical signs and potentially eradicating the T. foetus. However, keeping to the lower end of the dose is advisable (30mg/kg), as is giving it only once daily, and reducing it even further for young kittens or cats with hepatopathy; (10mg/kg once daily for two weeks). To ensure that each kitten receives the correct dose, and so reduce the risk of side effects, it is also important to weigh the kittens prior to ordering the reformulated capsules. The bitterness of the powder means that it must be placed in capsules prior to administration. Ronidazole (10% powder preparation) is commonly used to treat trichomoniasis in birds (e.g. pigeons). However, it is not available in this form in the UK, and the consistency of the 10% formulation is difficult to guarantee. Therefore, we have gained permission from the Veterinary Medicines Directorate (VMD) to use 100% pure chemical grade ronidazole to treat T. foetus infected cats. This is the form that is now used in the USA. In the UK it can be obtained upon receipt of a signed named-animal prescription as capsules from Nova Laboratories, Tel: 0116 223 0099; Fax: 0116 223 0120: email: email@example.com. While the VMD have agreed to our use of this chemical in these cats, they strongly recommend that detailed records are maintained and that no cat is treated without first obtaining informed, signed, owner consent. In addition, we should compile data on all potential adverse effects: send case information on any potential adverse effects to Danielle.Gunn-Moore@ed.ac.uk. Care should be exercised in the use of ronidazole, as there are very few studies of its use in cats, and long-term studies in other species have suggested some potential toxicity concerns. (In many countries its use in food-producing animals has been banned to minimise human exposure). Careful handling of the drug is therefore advised. It should never be given to pregnant queens (or queens about to be put to stud): it is very teratogenic and may result in a number of different and severe defects. Anyone handling ronidazole should wear gloves (especially if they are a woman of reproductive age). Since the diarrhoea usually resolves over time, and is often more of an inconvenience than being associated with significant adverse effects in affected cats, it may not be necessary or advisable to treat all affected cats with ronidazole. Using a simple highly digestible diet or a high fibre diet may result in improved faecal consistency, and this may be sufficient to control the clinical signs in some cats. Although not proven, it is thought that T. foetus may be able to infect humans; as a precaution people in contact with infected cats are advised to take basic hygiene precautions to avoid ingesting the parasite. These precautions will also help to prevent the spread of the infection to other cats, and prevent humans from being infected with other infections that the cat may carry. Suitable hygiene precautions include: - Washing hands thoroughly after handling cat faeces - Washing hands thoroughly after cleaning cat litter trays, whether the cat has diarrhoea or not - Cat scratches or bites should always be washed immediately with soap and water. Seek medical attention as soon as possible if signs of infection appear, such as redness, pain or swelling. - Persons with a weakened immune system should not handle their cat’s faeces or litter box, they are advised to wash their hands after handling their cats, and they are advised not to keep cats that have persistent diarrhoea. If their cat develop diarrhoea it should be fully investigated and if found to be infected with Tritrichomonas foetus it should be treated with ronidazole and then re-tested, or (at least temporarily) re-homed until the infection has resolved. For further information on T. foetus infection in cats: www.fabcats.org. For veterinary surgeons seeking further discussion, contact Danièlle Gunn-Moore: Email: Danielle.Gunn-Moore@ed.ac.uk. Tel: 44 (0)131 650 7650 Fax: 44 (0)131 650 7652. In the UK this is available from Capital Diagnostics, SAC Veterinary Science Division, Bush Estate, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0QE: Tel. 0131 535 3145). Alternatively, a real-time quantitative PCR (QPCR) assay is now available, which incorporates an internal amplification control so that false negative results are avoided. The assay is performed on a small volume of faeces (2-5ml) at a cost of £29 (+VAT); further details on the test and submission forms can be found on http://www.langfordvets.co.uk/lab_pcrnews.htm or by contacting Langford Veterinary Services Diagnostic Laboratories at the University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Bristol, BS40 5DU. Tel: +44 (0)117 928 9412 Fax: +44 (0)117 928 9613 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org. In the US samples can be submitted to the College of Veterinary Medicine, North Caroline State University (USA) for this test – information on this is available at: www.cvm.ncsu.edu/mbs/gookin_jody.htm. Thanks to Dr Andy Sparkes, Ellie Mardell and Kirsty Wood who were involved with the initial preparation of this paper. Dahlgren SS, Gjerde B, Pettersen HY (2007) First record of natural Tritrichomonas foetus infection of the feline uterus. Journal of Small Animal Practice 48:654-657 Foster DM, Gookin JL, Poore MF, Stebbins ME, Levy MG (2004) Outcome of cats with diarrhoea and Tritrichomonas foetus infection. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 225:888-892 Gookin JL, Breitschwerdt EB, Levy MG, Gager RB (1999) Diarrhoea associated with trichomoniasis in cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 215:1450-1454 Gookin JL, Birkenheuer AJ, Breitschwerdt EB, Levy MG (2002) Single-tube nested PCR for detection of Tritrichomonas foetus in feline faeces. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 40:4126-4130 Gookin JL, Copple CN, Papich MG, Poore MW, Stauffer SH, Birkenheuer AJ, Twedt DC, Levy M (2006) Efficacy of ronidazole for treatment of feline Tritrichomonas foetus infection. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 20: 536-543 Gookin JL, Foster DM, Poore MF, Stebbins ME, Levy MG (2003b) Use of a commercially available culture system for diagnosis of Tritrichomonas foetus infection in cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 222:1376-1379 Gookin JL, Levy MG, Law JM, Papich MG, Poore MF, Breitschwerdt EB (2001) Experimental infection of cats with Tritrichomonas foetus. American Journal of Veterinary Research 62:1690-1697 Gookin JL, Stebbins ME, Adams E, Burlone K, Fulton M, Hochel R, Talaat M, Poore M, Levy MG (2003a) Prevalence and risk of T foetus infection in cattery cats (Abstract). Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 17:380 Gookin JL, Stebbins ME, Hunt E, Bulone K, Fulton M, Hochel R, Talaat M, Poore M, Levy MG (2004) Prevalence and risk factors for feline Tritrichomonas foetus and Giardia infection. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 42:2707-2710 Gookin JL, Stauffer SH, Coccaro MR, Poore MF, Levy MG, Papich MG (2007) Efficacy of tinidazole for treatment of cats experimentally infected with Tritrichomonas foetus. Am J Vet Res 68(10):1085-8. Gunn-Moore, DA, McCann, TM, Reed, N, Simpson, KE, Tennant, B. (2007) Prevalence of Tritrichomonas foetus infection in cats with diarrhoea in the UK. JFMS 9: 214-218 Gunn-Moore DA, Tennant B. (2007) Tritrichomonas foetus in cats in the UK. Vet Rec. 160(24): 850-851 Kather EJ, Marks SL, Kass PH. (2007) Determination of the in vitro susceptibility of feline tritrichomonas foetus to 5 antimicrobial agents. J Vet Intern Med.;21(5):966-70) Levy MG, Gookin JL, Poore M, Birkenheuer AJ, Dykstra MJ, Litaker RW (2003) Tritrichomonas foetus and not Pentatrichomonas hominis is the etiologic agent of feline trichomonal diarrhoea. Journal of Parasitology 89:99-104 Mardell EJ, Sparkes AH. (2006) Chronic diarrhoea associated with Tritrichomanas foetus infection in a British cat. Veterinary Record 158,765-766 Romatowski J (2000) Pentatrichomonas hominis infection in four kittens. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 216:1270-1272 Rosado TW, Specht A, Marks SL. (2007) Neurotoxicosis in 4 cats receiving ronidazole. J Vet Intern Med 21(2):328-31 SAC (SAC Veterinary Services) Monthly Report (2007); available online www.sac.ac.uk/consultancy/veterinary/publications/monthlyreports/2007 : Veterinary Record 161(16): 544-546 Figure 1: Rectal smears can be made using cotton swabs rolled over the rectal wall. Smears can be made on glass slides, and material obtained should be diluted with saline to prevent desiccation. Figure 2: Typical appearance of a large number of T foetus organisms in a faecal smear under x400 magnification. When examined, the organisms can be seen to be highly motile. Figure 3: Appearance of an individual T foetus organism stained with Lugol's iodine. Three anterior flagellae can be seen, and an undulating membrane runs the length of the body. information is published on the Feline Advisory Bureau website and can be accessed via the link below: There has been a great deal of news in the press recently about cats being poisoned by antifreeze, both maliciously and accidentally. A spate of publicised incidents was reported in the Somerset area, but then seemed quickly to spread to other areas of the country. As with any such event, it is difficult to determine whether the spread of cases was due to copycat poisonings, or simply because the increased publicity increased reporting of more suspected incidents. One hopes the latter. Nevertheless, antifreeze products can pose a serious threat to companion animals. Antifreeze is reportedly very sweet to taste and presumably palatable, and poisonings in dogs are quite common. Cats are at great risk as the fatal dose for ethylene glycol based antifreezes in cats is about 1.5ml per kg bodyweight, so cats only need to consume about five to six ml – a couple of good licks – to be in immediate and life-threatening trouble. For successful management, intervention must be extremely fast as glycols are readily and rapidly absorbed, with the kidney function becoming rapidly impaired. There are cases of fatality occurring within hours of ingestion. One of the antidotes available for such poisonings is not tolerated by cats at all, so the only therapy left is giving ethanol (alcohol), so it is very difficult to treat. There are suggestions that the poisonings could be accidental with the cat drinking from a water feature which has had antifreeze added to stop it freezing up over winter. However, most of these poisonings seem to have happened before the bad weather and only water features without fish or pond life could be treated in this way, as alcohols and glycols permeate fish membranes easily and will affect them. Between 2003 and 2007, the Veterinary Poisons Information Service (VPIS) documented 108 antifreeze-related enquiries in cats and 100 in dogs overall – so about 20 cases per annum. 46 of the feline cases and 35 of the canine cases were followed up. Of these, 30 of the feline cases were known to have fatal outcomes (65.2%) compared with eight known fatal outcomes in dogs (22.9%). Higher mortality rates have been reported in other published studies from elsewhere. It is sad to report that 2008 was a particularly bad year. Up to the end of October, 93 cases had been reported to VPIS ( London ) – 56 in cats and 37 in dogs. Usually the number of reports rises in the months for October to March, so these numbers are worryingly elevated. Case outcome data is not available for all these cases yet – but 12 deaths have been reported in cats from 16 returned case follow-up questionnaires (75% mortality therefore). The message for cat lovers is to make sure that there is no spillage of antifreeze in garages or sheds or under the car. The fastidious clean cat will groom it off feet if it is walked through. Collectively, we must ensure that the message gets out that these chemicals are very dangerous for pets and the Cat Group, along with VPIS, will be raising the issue in the press in the future. The SPCA in British Columbia , Canada , has produced a helpful manual and DVD for those working in rescue situations, called Catsense™ - the Emotional Life of Cats. The Catsense™ manual is a complete guide to putting in place a system for good welfare of cats in a shelter environment. It includes information on housing, behaviour, checklists for stress, and planning to put in place good evidence-based welfare practices. The DVD explains the emotional states experienced by cats in shelters and shows examples of cats displaying anxiety, fear, frustration and depression. A two hour training DVD, presented by Nadine Gourkow, advises on intervention strategies and procedures to improve welfare for cats. More information about these training aids, and a clever ‘hide, perch and go’ box can be found on www.spca.bc.ca/hideperchgo	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23068000
The natural objects that I propose to consider are broadly those physical objects which are studied and referred to by science and by a common sense view, informed by science, of the world. Natural objects are, philosophically speaking, individuals; they are involved as units in dynamic, causal processes. I shall draw a distinction between natural objects and the abstract objects of mathematics, in particular set theory. Natural objects encompass atoms and molecules; cells and organisms, including you and me; the objects of everyday life such as chairs and automobiles; nations, continents, ecosystems, mountain ranges, geological faults; planets, stars and galaxies. Each natural object, when regarded internally, is a dynamic system with various interacting parts and components (some of which may be natural objects in their own right); when regarded externally, a natural object acts as a unit with respect to a larger system or systems (which may again be natural objects) of which the given object forms a part or component. It is sometimes argued that objects such as atoms or galaxies are theoretical constructs, as much so as mathematical objects (or even, according to some, more so). It is true that any reference to an object rests on epistemological assumptions. The approach here will be not to belittle these important epistemological questions but to leave them aside, and accept as a working assumption the practical viewpoint of people who are dealing with the world: that natural objects exist, act, and are acted upon, independently of the observer -- although any description of them or of their actions is dependent on the describer. Scientific theories refer to natural objects as well as to abstractions of them; they also refer to and quantify over other entities, in particular, the real numbers, points in space, time, and other mathematical spaces such as vector spaces, Hilbert space, etc. -- these are abstract objects which are not necessarily abstractions of any natural objects. Thus the ontology of natural objects may be said to be more restrictive than, say, a Quinesque one. My point, however, is again not to dispute the validity of this or that ontology, but rather to describe a level of existence. No judgment will be presumed about the question of what ontological commitment should be made to abstract objects: rather, our focus of attention will be elsewhere. In the examples above and in what follows, I concentrate on physical objects. I do not mean to rule out psychic or spiritual or intellectual objects. You and I, as objects, have these aspects; French society, Indian classical music, the theory of natural selection, King Lear, King Lear, the collective unconscious may all be regarded as natural objects. Their ties to physical existence (in the sense of matter and energy) or to extensional (spatial) existence are various, and there is scope for varied theories about their ontological status; I tend to follow Nicolai Hartmann (1949) in assigning to spiritual and psychic strata "categorial dependence" on the strata of physical existence in spaces: thus these objects are tied, however indirectly, to the physical level of existence. What I have to say will apply to such objects, in so far as they are acknowledged to exist; and even to purely spiritual or psychic objects not tied to the physical level of existence at all, if they are admitted to exist. But I shall keep largely to physical and biological examples as being less problematic. This will also insulate the discussion from problems of consciousness and free will which inevitably come up but are not my concern here. Thus the natural objects to be considered here may correspond more or less to the "natural bodies" of Francis Bacon: "Toward the effecting of works, all that man can do is to put together or put asunder natural bodies." (Bacon 1620, 39) An interesting example of a natural object is a hurricane. It is an open system, exchanging matter, energy and information with its environment, and acting as a whole. It is certainly accorded the status of an individual, in everyday language and in meteorology, even to the extent of being given a proper name (such as Floyd, Mitch, Zeb or Babs). It cannot be precisely identified with any set of atoms or molecules; and any boundary in space or time that you try to draw for the hurricane will be arbitrary. Meteorologists will draw such a boundary -- say, the point in time when a tropical storm is upgraded to a hurricane -- according to conventions about energy content and wind speeds, but the passing of a boundary is merely the employment of a convenient yardstick and is not supposed to have absolute significance. Natural objects may usefully be described as systems. Von Bertalanffy (1968) defines a system as "a complex of interacting elements" (although von Bertalanffy's elements are not to be equated with elements in the set-theoretic sense, and to avoid confusion I use "components"). He goes on to study systems defined in terms of partial differential equations. Mesarovic and Takahara (1975) develop a more general, set-based concept of system. They are able to define such notions as cascading, feedback, and open systems. Natural objects can be named, or they can be defined by ostension. Often, naming and pointing will be essentially the only ways to refer unambiguously to a particular object. 2. Natural and abstract objects The words "a logic" of the title are intended to suggest the aim of depicting how we reason or infer about natural objects. Set theory, as a foundation for mathematics, is a way of doing this for abstract objects. Before examining natural objects more closely, I wish to compare them with abstract objects -- which I shall identify, for concision, with sets -- in order to bring out some properties relevant to both. Cantor (1895) introduced the concept of set as "any comprehension into a whole M of definite and separate objects m of our intuition or our thought", and the modern development of set theory has retained the spirit of Cantor's conception, in particular through the fundamental role of the Comprehension Axiom. Even in the limited form necessary to avoid the paradoxes, Comprehension formalizes the grouping together of objects with like properties into a single entity. The objects -- sets, classes -- of set theory are abstractions, the product of our mental processes ("our intuition or our thought") which impose an organization on the world we perceive. Except under a naive Platonist interpretation, sets are not required to have an autonomous existence outside the formal system that creates them: that is to say, outside the language of the observer. (The same goes for all other mathematical objects, including categories.) Thus set theory may be said to be a part of epistemology, the study of our knowledge of the world. Following a hint of Graham C. D. Griffiths (1974, 87) I wish to contrast this with ontology, the study of what things exist, independently of any observer. From a scientific perspective, objects such as atoms, molecules, organisms (including persons), stars, galaxies may be said to have an objective individual existence -- although there are borderline cases where the object's existence as a separate individual may be questionable, and the individuality of, say, a quark is of a very different nature from yours or mine. On the other hand, sets of objects, such as the set of all stars, or an arbitrary collection of, say, 100 people chosen at random, can exist as individuals only in an abstract sense (though the former example may be viewed as a natural kind). In addition, the "definite and separate" character of the elements of a set is not always found in nature where boundaries are generally ill-defined and separation may be relative and time-dependent. Natural objects interact, are born of others, and die. To bring out how natural objects in general differ from sets, let me pause to consider the nature of one particular object, myself, whose autonomy and continuity I feel so clearly (but proceeding in a different direction from Descartes). Can I precisely be identified with a set? What about the set of cells that contain my unique DNA? This set provides a good approximation to my physical extent, but there are many problems with identifying "me" with this set: I am not trying to attack set theory as such. I simply wish to note that the common mode of talking about the world leaves philosophical doubts aside and names natural objects; that the language of science is full of them (as well as of abstract objects); and that set-theoretic language does not capture the nature of natural objects, as of course it was never intended to. It therefore seems worthwhile to try and develop a theory of natural objects. As Jody Azzouni puts it (1994, 4), mathematical objects are metaphysically inert. Natural objects, by contrast, interact intensively with the rest of the world, and this interaction in fact cannot be separated from their nature. But great care will be needed because once a mathematical framework for referring to these objects has been established, the referents themselves will be mathematical objects. Rigorous separation of levels of discourse will be necessary -- but this is nothing new in logic and metamathematics. Sets are abstracted (from the Latin: drawn away) from direct physical experience. A common example frequently seen in expositions of elementary (naive) set theory illustrates the abstract nature of the set concept by explaining how a collection of disparate objects can be grouped together into a set merely by enumerating them or by specifying a common property -- no matter how incongruous and varied their natures or how widely separated they are in space and time. This kind of construction is counter-intuitive to a student who is not accustomed to thinking in terms of abstractions; the natural objects one is used to dealing with in less abstract contexts do not have these properties. Even the Pair Set Axiom does not hold, in general, for natural objects. A pair of objects is not, usually, a single object (although in special cases one will consider certain pairs as a unit; for example a married couple is an object in legal considerations). The same goes for other elementary set-theoretic constructions such as unions and intersections. The distinction between individuals and classes is relevant here. (Some philosophers talk of natural kinds; others oppose individuals to "sets".) This distinction, which goes back to Plato and Aristotle, was blurred by Cantor: his sets are both individuals and classes. Indeed, the principle of Comprehension is a formalization of the notion that a class of objects is defined, as an individual, by a common property that they share. The subsequent development of set theory reinstated the individual/class distinction in a different form with sets and proper classes; this happened as early as Cantor (1899). Different versions of modern set theory (Zermelo-Fraenkel, von Neumann-Bernays-Gödel) vary in the ontological status accorded to proper classes, as do different interpretations of the formalisms. However, the basic point here is that sets are essentially collections ("multiplicities" -- Cantor) treated as individuals. A natural object is never merely a collection; the interaction of its components is an essential part of its individuality. It is perhaps of interest to note that Ernst Zermelo, in his fundamental paper (1908) on axiomatizing set theory, seemed to be open-minded about whether all objects are sets: "Set theory is concerned with a domain B of individuals, which we shall call simply objects and among which are the sets." (Emphases in original.) For Zermelo, the membership relation is fundamental; sets are defined in terms of this relation, as objects which have elements, so that a special case is needed for the empty set. So sets are logically posterior to, not prior to, the fundamental binary relation. But unlike later authors Zermelo does not rule out the possibility that some objects are nonsets. Of course the nonsets which he had principally in mind were atoms or urelements; these have continued to play a role in set theory, but only in connection with the membership relation. Other possible relations or properties of urelements are not considered. Natural objects may be urelements -- the raw material for forming sets -- for example, the set of all hurricanes in 1999 may be used, and abstracted, in a statistical analysis. What interests me here is not the properties of natural objects qua urelements, but what other properties they may have, orthogonal as it were to their set-theoretic ones, because not expressed in terms of the membership relation. As a first approximation, let us suppose that an appropriate language for natural objects has a binary relation , analogous to the fundamental binary relation ("x is an element of y") of set theory, but stating rather "x is a component of y". This relation will have very different properties from . In fact partakes of some of the properties of natural objects: it changes through time and space. Its properties in the subatomic and the macroscopic realms diverge. But we can certainly see whether set-theoretic ideas apply to , exploring the correspondence, more than an analogy, between and . As intimated above, basic set-theoretic axioms including Comprehension and the Pair Set Axiom do not hold for natural objects under this -interpretation. There is something of a tradition of alternate set theories in which some of the standard axioms are negated. We may gain clues about reasoning with natural objects from what has been learned about reasoning with weak sets. One important line of work in this direction negates the Axiom of Foundation. This has been most successfully done by Peter Aczel (1988), building on work of Boffa (1969), Forti and Honsell (1983), Finsler, Scott, and others. Aczel's work in turn has had important applications in situation theory, theory of communicating systems, and elsewhere (e.g. Barwise 1989, Barwise and Moss 1998). Aczel has built a universe of set theory, extending and not supplanting the standard universe of set theory, that provides a useful formalism for certain ways of looking at the world (e. g. situation theory). The Axiom of Foundation was historically one of the last of the standard axioms of set theory to be added to the canon. The Axiom of Choice was introduced earlier (Choice: Zermelo 1904; well-foundedness and Foundation: Mirimanoff 1917, Skolem 1922), but its separate status was recognized from the start, and has, of course, been a central theme in 20th century set theory. Other authors have more recently examined the independence of some of the core axioms of set theory from weak base systems, thus bringing into question even these axioms that were, unlike Choice, readily accepted. For example, Boffa (1972) proved an independence result concerning the Pair Set Axiom; González (1992) showed the independence of the Union axiom in Zermelo set theory, using a permutation method; Zarach (1998) used forcing to show that Collection is not implied 3. Species and the indescribability In this and the next section I turn from a comparison with set theory to motivating influences from the sciences. Problems of behaviour of natural objects, and of the constitution of an individual, have arisen in concrete situations, and I shall attempt to draw some working principles from these lessons. An important case study in the investigation of natural objects is the work of philosophers of biology on the nature of individuals. This has arisen in large part because a set-theoretic framework has been found by many to be inadequate for the ontological status of taxonomic groups. In particular, the traditional conception, which goes back to Aristotle, of each species as a class has been questioned, first by Michael Ghiselin (1966; see also 1974, 1981, 1987), and then by many other authors (e. g. Holsinger 1984, Hull 1978, Sober 1984, Sober 1993, Griffiths 1974). They point out that to consider a species as a class, or as defined by a set of properties, is to impose on it a character that it does not have, and to miss the actual nature of species. Since Darwin we know: This has the added advantage of unifying the biological hierarchy of entities: at each level -- cell, organism, population, species, etc. -- there occur individuals that are defined, not by Comprehension in terms of their elements (this is impossible), but as dynamical, changing systems whose behaviour can be characterized internally by interactions among their components, or externally by their interactions with their environment. Indeed, one can extend this hierarchy to the physical level(s) as well (molecules, atoms, . . . stars, galaxies, . . .) with the same remarks still holding (Griffiths 1974). Ghiselin (1987, 128) goes so far as to say that treating species as individuals opens "the prospect that we can develop a single body of knowledge for the entire universe." Thus the practical pursuit of systematics in biology broadens into a picture of the universe as consisting of individuals, each individual being bounded in space and time but not (necessarily) contiguous or connected, characterized by a dynamical interplay of its components and its environment, and definable by ostension or by naming and not by Comprehension: When anyone tries to find the "defining properties" of an individual, he is wasting his time. This is equally true for Homo sapiens, tellurian life, human language, French, and Noam Chomsky. (Ghiselin 1981, 283)Another biological science, ecology, similarly encourages us to view biological systems as wholes, with components that are dynamically interdependent (e. g. Levins and Lewontin 1980). The notion of supervenience (Kim 1978) is a good candidate for formalization in any attempt to describe the articulation of the different levels of the hierarchy of natural objects. An important principle suggested by all the above discussions is the inadequacy of any (finite) language to describe any natural object fully, other than by naming or ostension. Everyday life, and the example of "me", tend to confirm this principle; and of course it is fundamental to quantum mechanics as expressed in the Uncertainty Principle and complementarity, construed (as in the Copenhagen interpretation) as precluding a complete objective description of phenomena: I shall say more on this in the next section. The principle of the indescribability of objects provides a contrast between natural objects and abstract objects: in set theory, the exact specification and construction of objects using Comprehension and the other constructive axioms is essential. A second principle is, in contrast, shared by natural and abstract objects. In fact it is suggested both by set theory and by recent work in cosmology. Cosmologists are facing more and more consciously the problem of describing everything. Set theory, among other branches of mathematical logic, has a similar ambition in that an entire universe is to be constructed -- not in this case the physical universe but the "universe of discourse" of mathematics, the aggregate of all the abstract objects studied by mathematicians. Incidentally, the habitual use of the term "universe" for the class of all sets is relatively recent. Zermelo (1908) merely spoke, as we have seen, of a "domain" of individuals; Russell and Whitehead in Principia Mathematica (1910) referred to the "universal class" V, and even Gödel in his work on V=L, which set the tone for all subsequent set theory, refers to the "universal class" and not the "universe" (Gödel 1940, 40). The principle I am proposing here is the impossibility of describing everything. In set theory, it was necessitated by the early paradoxes and is articulated in a fundamental series of theorems, including those of Löwenheim-Skolem, of Gödel, and the related result of Tarski on the undefinability of truth (these are not confined to set theory). Even before these results, it was realized that sets have a way of spilling over any circumscription that one may attempt to put on them: . . . quel que soit l'ensemble qu'on envisage (pourvu qu'il existe), des individus nouveaux surgissent, et un ensemble plus vaste apparaît nécessairement; on est bien en présence d'une extension indéfinie qui ne comporte pas d'arrêt ni borne. (Mirimanoff 1917, 48)Since Gödel's work, there has been what Akihiro Kanamori (1996, 46) calls a "cornucopia of models of set theory" (i. e. models of everything) and in fact these are a basic research tool. In cosmology, the attention of some researchers has been focussed more recently on the problem of everything. It arises acutely when the universe (defined, perhaps, as what emerged from the Big Bang) turns out not to be everything: when in order to account for the observed properties of our universe, it is found that the best explanation is a theory incorporating the existence of many universes, of which ours is just one. Several modern cosmological theories call for multiple universes, including Lee Smolin's theory of the creation and natural selection of universes (Smolin 1997). Andrei Linde's "chaotic inflation" and "eternally self-reproducing universe" (e. g. Linde 1990) also call for many, perhaps infinitely many, universes -- if by universe we mean everything that we can in principle communicate with. Smolin (1997, 14) has addressed the issues that emerge when attempting to describe everything: The problem of how to make a theory of the whole universe is thus the problem of how to construct a theory without making any reference to anything that exists, or anything that we might have imagined happened, outside of the system we are describing.A related lesson is taught by quantum theory; thus Heinz R. Pagels (1982, 103): Bohr's principle of complementarity implies that knowing everything at one time about the world -- a requirement of determinism -- is impossible because the conditions for knowing one thing necessarily exclude knowledge of others.The separation of observer and observed, in the Copenhagen interpretation, carries the same implication. The "universe" of natural objects ought to be described in such a manner that there is no possibility to interpret it in terms of an observer outside the world. As in quantum mechanics, the observer is inextricably tied to the description; but unlike classical quantum mechanics (and as in cosmology), the observer is not outside the system being studied. Interestingly, in both cosmology and set theory the intent is to construct or describe something called the universe, i. e., everything, but in both fields the practitioners have been impelled to construct many universes with different properties. Thus, belying the original meaning of "universe," one ends up with lots of them, and no particular universe is privileged. In the case of cosmology, this is the continuation of a long historical process, beginning with Copernicus, whereby the place of the human species in the cosmic scheme of things has been progressively found to be smaller, less central, and less important than previously imaginable. One way that the impossibility of describing everything has been dealt with in mathematical logic has been to restrict the language (or the logic or the axioms) used to describe and specify mathematical structures; the price has been, among other things, the lack of uniqueness of set-theoretic "model universes" which are referred to from outside rather than from within. I believe that another way to address the problem is to undermine the distinction between language and reality. By this I mean that, traditionally, there has been a sharp distinction within mathematics between the structures that mathematics describes (this is what I am referring to as "reality") and the "language" (in which I include logic and syntax) in which it describes them. But if the reality that one wishes to describe is to include everything, how can it be described in terms of a language specified in advance -- that is, "outside" the reality being described? There is an another analogy with physics here: Newtonian physics was expressed in terms of a space and time that were absolute and prior to the physical universe. Newton himself realized this and had recourse to a metaphysical notion of space and time. Leibniz also realized it and made it a central part of his criticisms of the Newtonian cosmos, proposing instead a relational view of space and time. It was part of the achievement of Einstein to remove space and time from their privileged position as the "stage" on which the events of the universe are played out, and replace them by a concept of space and time as part of the fabric of the universe, acting and acted upon by matter and energy in a dynamical system. Analogously, in "classical" logic one first specifies the language (syntax and rules of inference) and then constructs "universes" with this language as the stage-setting. A way to avoid the paradoxes and limitations to which this gives rise is a description in which the language is no longer separate from and prior to the object being described. (Barwise and Etchemendy (1987) use just such a strategy to deal with the Liar paradox, although the limitations of logic to abstract objects are not challenged. I comment further on situation semantics below.) Such descriptions would be impredicative -- physicists might call them non-local -- in that the specification of a single object would involve the whole universe or a substantial part of it: That each singular substance expresses the whole universe in its own way, and that in its concept are included all of the experiences belonging to it together with all of their circumstances and the entire sequence of exterior events. (Leibniz 1686, 308)Mach's Principle may be regarded as an expression of this in dynamics. In quantum theory, Bohr frequently noted the following corollary to, or instance of, complementarity: On the lines of objective description, it is indeed more appropriate to use the word phenomenon to refer only to observations obtained under circumstances whose description includes an account of the whole experimental arrangement. (Bohr 1961, 73)This means, in fact, since it is not clear where to draw the line that separates the "whole experimental arrangement" (and the laws governing it) from the rest of the world, that the description of a phenomenon implicitly includes the whole universe. Such impredicativity has the consequence that one cannot construct from scratch models of a universe consisting of "singular substances". This would be considered by logicians a drawback of impredicativity; but in the context of the problem of Smolin, it may be an advantage that not only are there no obvious models of the system which are describable from outside, but perhaps such models are in principle not possible. Situation semantics (Barwise and Perry 1983; Barwise 1989) is a different kind of attempt to address the problem of the impossibility of describing everything in the context of the analysis of natural language. The approach of viewing utterances and inferences as situated activities differs from the present one in that it is epistemological rather than ontological. It "shifts attention from truth preservation to information extraction and information processing" (Barwise 1989, xiv; emphases in original). Furthermore, its syntax presupposes the existence and discreteness -- the abstractness -- of objects. Ian Hacking (1972, 148), discussing Leibniz's notion of individual substance, makes an important point: Which bundles [of qualities] are substances? Only those bundles that are active, in the sense of having laws of their own. Laws provide the active principle of unity. There is a tendency in much analytic philosophy to conceive things as given, and then to speculate on what laws they enter into. On the contrary, things are in the first instance recognized by regularities. (Emphasis in original)Thus a logic of natural objects will put priority on addressing the question: what makes an individual an individual? As Hacking points out, Leibniz shares with Berkeley the view that substances are bundles of qualities; the important question, as in the quote above, is the converse. With the principle that each object (or singular substance, or thing, or individual, or phenomenon) irreducibly reflects its entire surroundings, we have come to a fusion of the first two principles mooted: the indescribability of the individual and of the universe. In combination with either of these, it implies the other. In Leibniz's case, this third principle is a consequence of the principle of reason (or of "predicate-in-notion") -- as is another principle, that no two individuals are exactly alike. The identity of indiscernibles has not received attention here but is indeed logically linked to the principles adduced above. The principle of reason does not stand up to scrutiny in the light of contemporary logic, but some of its consequences may be recast for our use. In the Novum Organum Bacon (1620, 41) criticizes Aristotelian logic thus: The syllogism is not applied to the first principles of sciences, and is applied in vain to intermediate axioms, being no match for the subtlety of nature. It commands assent therefore to the proposition, but does not take hold of the thing.A modern logic of natural objects would aim to take hold of the thing, aiming to secure sound principles for reasoning with individuals without need of Leibniz's metaphysical starting point. 1. I am grateful to John Wahlert for elucidating this example for me. Aczel, Peter (1988). Non-Well-Founded Sets, CSLI Lecture Notes 14, Stanford. Azzouni, Jody (1994). Metaphysical Myths, Mathematical Practice: The Ontology and Epistemology of the Exact Sciences, Cambridge University Press. Bacon, Francis (1620). The New Organon, ed. Fulton H. Anderson, The Library of Liberal Arts, Bobbs-Merrill, 1960. Barwise, Jon (1989). The Situation in Logic, CSLI Lecture Notes 17, Stanford. 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Forti, M. and F. Honsell (1983). Set theory with free construction principles, I, Annali Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa Classe di Scienza (4) 10, 493-522. Ghiselin, Michael T. (1966). On psychologism in the logic of taxonomic controversies, Systematic Zoology 15: 207-215. Ghiselin, Michael T. (1974). A radical solution to the species problem, Systematic Zoology 23, 536-544. Ghiselin, Michael T. (1981). Categories, life, and thinking, The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4, 269-283. Ghiselin, Michael T. (1987). Species concepts, individuality, and objectivity, Biology and Philosophy 2, 127-143. Gödel, Kurt (1940). The consistency of the axiom of choice and of the generalized continuum hypothesis with the axioms of set theory, in: Collected Works, Vol. II, ed. Solomon Feferman, Oxford University Press, 1990. González, Carlos G. (1992). The union axiom in Zermelo set theory, Z. Math. Logik Grundlagen Math.36 (4), 281-284. Griffiths, Graham C. D (1974). On the foundations of biological systematics, Acta Biotheoretica XXIII (3-4), 85-131. Hacking, Ian (1972). Individual substance, in: Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Harry G. Frankfurt, Anchor Books. Hartmann, Nicolai (1949). New Ways of Ontology, Greenwood Press, Henry Regnery Co., 1975. Translation of Neue Wege der Ontologie, W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart. Holsinger, Kent E. (1984). The nature of biological species, Philosophy of Science 51, 293-307. Hull, David L. (1978). A matter of individuality, Philosophy of Science 45, 335-360. Kanamori, Akihiro (1996). The mathematical development of set theory from Cantor to Cohen, Bull.Symbolic Logic 2 (1), 1-71. Kim, Jaegwon (1978). Supervenience and nomological incommensurables, American Philosophical Quarterly, 15 (2), 149-156. Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1686). Discourse on Metaphysivs, in Philosophical Papers and Letters, trans. Leroy E. Loemker, 2nd Ed., D. Reidel, 1969. Levins, Richard and Richard Lewontin (1980). Dialectics and reduction in ecology, Synthese 43, 47-78. Linde, Andrei (1990). Inflation and Quantum Cosmology, Academic Press. Mayr, Ernst (1976). Evolution and the Diversity of Life, Belknap Press, Harvard University Press. Mesarovic, M. D. and Yasuhiko Takahara (1975). General Systems Theory: Mathematical Foundations, Academic Press. Mirimanoff, D. (1917). Remarques sur la théorie des ensembles et les antinomies Cantoriennes, I, L'enseignement Math. 19, 209-217. Pagels, Heinz R. (1982). The Cosmic Code: Quantum Physics as the Language of Nature, Simon & Schuster, New York. Russell, Bertrand, and Alfred North Whitehead (1910). Principia Mathematica, Cambridge University Press, 1962. Skolem, Thoralf (1922). Some remarks on axiomatized set theory, translated in van Heijenoort (1967, 290-301). Smolin, Lee (1997). The Life of the Cosmos, Oxford University Press. Sober, Elliott (1984). Sets, species, and evolution: comments on Philip Kitcher's "Species", Philosophy of Science 51, 334-341. Sober, Elliott (1993). Philosophy of Biology, Westview Press. van Heijenoort, Jean (1967). From Frege to Gödel, Harvard University Press. Zarach, Andrzej M. (1998). Replacement does not imply collection, Gödel ' 96, Lecture notes in Logic 6, Springer, Berlin. Zermelo, Ernst (1904). Beweis, dass jede Menge wohlgeordnet werden kann, Math. Annalen 59, 514-516. Zermelo, Ernst (1908). Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Mengenlehre I, Math. Ann. 65, 261-281. Translation in van Heijenoort (1967, 199-215). Department of Mathematics 1 Bernard Baruch Way, New York NY 10010 Laurence Kirby's home page	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23071000
\|Foundation of Quantum Theory\| The following well-known experiments serve as a motivation for studying quantum theory. The experimental results cannot be explained using ideas from classical physics. \|1. Blackbody Radiation\|\|2. Photoelectric Effect\|\|3. Compton Effect\| It is well-known that when a body is heated it emits electromagnetic radiation. For example, if a piece of iron is heated to a few hundred degrees, it gives off e.m. radiation which is predominantly in the infra-red region. When the temperature is raised to 1000C it will begin to glow with reddish color which means that the radiation emitted by it is in the visible red region having wavelengths shorter than in the previous case. If heated further it will become white-hot and the radiation emitted is shifted towards the still shorter wave-length blue color in the visible spectrum. Thus the nature of the radiation depends on the temperature of the emitter. A heated body not only emits radiation but it also absorbs a part of radiation falling on it. If a body absorbs all the radiant energy falling on it, then its absorptive power is unity. Such a body is called a black body. An ideal blackbody is realized in practice by heating to any desired temperature a hollow enclosure (cavity) and with a very small orifice. The inner surface is coated with lamp-black. Thus radiation entering the cavity through the orifice is incident on its blackened inner surface and is partly absorbed and partly reflected. The reflected component is again incident at another point on the inner surface and gets partly absorbed and partly reflected. This process of absorption and reflection continues until the incident beam is totally absorbed by the body. The inner walls of the heated cavity also emit radiation, a part of which can come out through the orifice. This radiation has the characteristics of blackbody radiation - the spectrum of which can be analyzed by an infra-red spectrometer. Experimental results show that the blackbody radiation has a continuous spectrum (shown in the graph). The intensity of the emitted radiation El is plotted as a function of the wavelength l for different temperatures. The wavelength of the emitted radiation ranges continuously from zero to infinity. El increases with increasing temperature for all wavelengths. It has very low values for both very short and very long wavelengths and has a maximum in between at some wavelength lmax. lmax depends on the temperature of the blackbody and decreases with increasing temperature. The shift in the peak of the intensity distribution curve obeys an empirical relationship known as Wien's displacement law: lmax T = constant. The total power radiated per unit area of a blackbody can be derived from thermodynamics. This is known as Stefan-Boltzmann law which can be expressed mathematically as: E = s T4, where s = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4 is known as Stefan's constant. Note that the total power E radiated is obtained by integrating El over all wavelengths. W. Wien proposed an empirical relationship between El with l for a given temperature T: El (T) = A exp(-B/lT)/l5, where the constants A and B are chosen arbitrarily so as to fit the experimental energy distribution curves. But it was later found that the experimental data don't follow Wien's empirical relation at larger wavelengths [See Fig. below ]. Wien's theory of intensity of radiation was based only on arguments from thermodynamics not on any plausible model. Considering the radiation system as composed of a bunch of harmonic oscillators Rayleigh and Jeans derived (using thermodynamics) an expression for the emitted radiation El: El = (c/4) (8pkBT/l4). 'kB' is the Boltzman constant (kB=1.345 x 10-23 J/K). The above expression agrees well with the experimental results at long wavelengths but drastically fails at shorter wavelengths. In the limit l -> 0, El -> infinity from the expression above, but in the experiments El -> 0, as l -> 0. This serious disagreement between theory and experiment indicates the limitations of classical mechanics. Max Planck later derived an expression for the emitted radiation using quantum mechanics. He made a bold new postulate that an oscillator can have only energies which are discrete, i.e., an integral multiple of a finite quantum of energy hf where h is Planck's constant (h= 6.55 x 10-34 J.s) and f is the frequency of the oscillator. Thus the energy of the oscillator is, E = nhf, where n is an integer or zero. Planck further assumed that the change in energy of the oscillator due to emission or absorption of radiant energy can also take place by a discrete amount hf. Since radiation is emitted from the oscillators, and since according to Planck, the change in energy of the oscillators can only take discrete values, the energy carried by the emitted radiation, which is called a photon, will be hf, and that is also equal to the loss of energy of the oscillator. Again, this is also the energy gain of the oscillator when it absorbs a photon. Based on these ideas Planck derived the expression for the energy distribution of blackbody radiation: El = (c/4) (8phc/l5)(1/[exp(hc/lkBT) - 1]). Rayleigh-Jean's expression and Wien's displacement law are special cases of Planck's law of radiation. Planck's formula for the energy distribution of blackbody radiation agrees well with the experimental results, both for the long wavelengths and the short wavelengths of the energy spectrum. Please on the simulation below to see nice interactive demonstration of the physics of Blackbody radiation. Simulation on Blackbody Radiation Back to Top Planck's postulate regarding the discrete nature of the possible energy states of an oscillator marked a radical departure from the ideas of classical physics. According to the laws of classical mechanics, the energy of an oscillator can vary continuously, depending only on the amplitude of the vibrations - this is in total contrast to Planck's hypothesis of discrete energy states of an oscillator. Photoelectric effect is another classic example which can not be explained with classical physics. Einstein was awarded Nobel prize for his explanation of the physics of photoelectric effect. The basic experiment of photoelectric effect is simple. It was observed that a metal plate when exposed to ultraviolet radiation became positively charged which showed that it has lost negative charges from its surface. These negatively charged particles were later identified to be electrons (later named photoelectrons). This phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect. Please out the physics applet below which shows the effect of light on various metals. Simulation on Photoelectric effect The main results of the experiment can be summarized as follows: On exposure to the incident light, photoelectrons with all possible velocities ranging from 0 upto a maximum vm are emitted from the metal plate. When a positive potential is applied to the collector (which collects the emitted photoelectrons), a fraction of the total number emitted is collected by the collector. This fraction increases as the voltage is increased. For potentials above about +10 volts, all the electrons emitted by the light are collected by the collector which accounts for the saturation of the photoelectric current [Figs. (a) and (b) below]. On the other hand, when a negative retarding potential is applied on the collector, the lower energy electrons are unable to reach the collector so that the current gradually decreases with increasing negative potential. Finally for a potential -V0 (known as the stopping potential), the photoelectrons of all velocities upto the maximum vm are prevented from reaching the collector. At this point, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons equals the energy required to overcome the effect of the retarding potential - so we can write mvm2/2 = eV0. Conclusion from the experimental results: (1) The photoelectric current depends upon the intensity of the light used. It is independent of the wavelength of the light [See Fig. (a) above]. (2) The photoelectrons are emitted with all possible velocities from 0 upto a maximum vm which is independent of the intensity of the incident light, but depends only on its wavelength (or frequency). It is found that if f is the frequency of the light used, then the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases linearly with f [See Figs. (b) and (c) above ]. (3) Photoelectron emission is an instantaneous effect. There is no time gap between the incidence of the light and the emission of the photoelectrons. (4) The straight line graph showing the variation of the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons with the frequency f of the light intersects the abscissa at some point f0. No photoelectron emission takes place in the frequency range f<f0. This minimum frequency f0 is known as the threshold frequency. Its value depends on the nature of the emitting material [See Fig. (c) above]. Breakdown of Classical Physics: According to classical physics - (a) Light is an electromagnetic wave - the intensity of light is determined by the amplitudes of these electromagnetic oscillations. When light falls on an electron bound in an atom, it gains energy from the oscillating electric field. Larger the amplitude of oscillations, larger is the energy gained by the emitted electron - thus energy of the emitted electrons should depend on the intensity of the incident light. This is in contrast to what has been observed in experiment (point 2 above). (b) According to the electromagnetic theory, the velocity of the emitted electrons should not depend on the frequency of the incident light. Whatever may be the frequency of the incident light, the electron would be emitted if it gets sufficient time to collect the necessary energy for emission. So the photoelectric emission is not an instantaneous effect. These are in contrary to points 3 and 4 above. (c) Finally, the incident electromagnetic wave acts equally on all the electrons of the metal surface. There is no reason why only some electrons will be able to collect the necessary energy for emission from the incident waves. Given sufficient time, all electrons should be able to collect the energy necessary for emission. So there is no reason why the photoelectric current should depend upon the intensity of the incident light. However, this is again in contrary to the observed facts (point 1 above). Einstein's light quantum hypothesis and photoelectric equation: We have seen from above that the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident light. In terms of equation we have mvm2/2 = eV0 = af - W where a and W are constants. W is known as the work function of the emitting material. The constant a was determined experimentally and is found to be equal to the Planck's constant h. We can then rewrite the above equation as - mvm2/2 = eV0 = hf - W. For the special value of f = f0 = W/h, the K. E. of the emitted photoelectrons becomes zero. So there will be no photoelectron emission if f < f0. f0 is the threshold frequency. The equation, mvm2/2 = eV0 = hf - hf0 is known as the famous Einstein's photoelectric equation. Einstein used the quantum hypothesis of Planck to explain the photoelectric effect. He postulated that light is emitted from a source in the form of energy packets of the amount hf known as the light quantum or photon. This is known as Einstein's light quantum hypothesis. When a photon of energy hf falls on an electron bound inside an atom, the electron absorbs the energy hf and is emitted from the atom provided that hf is greater than the energy of binding of the electron in the atom which is equal to the work function W of the metal. The surplus of energy (hf - W) is taken away by the electron as its kinetic energy. Obviously if hf < W, i.e. f<f0, no photoelectric emission can take place. This explains the existence of the threshold frequency. Furthermore, according to Einstein's theory, larger the number of photons falling on the metal, greater is the probability of their encounter with the atomic electrons and hence greater is the photoelectric current. So the increase of photoelectric current with the increasing light intensity can be easily explained. Finally, as soon as the photon of energy hf > W falls on an electron, the latter absorbs it and is emitted instantaneously. Note that Einstein's light quantum hypothesis postulates the corpuscular nature of light in contrast to the wave nature. We will talk about this wave-particle duality later on in this course. Back to Top The discovery of Compton scattering of x-rays provides direct support that light consists of pointlike quanta of energy called photons. A schematic diagram of the apparatus used by Compton is shown in the Figure below. A graphite target was bombarded with monochromatic x-rays and the wavelength of the scattered radiation was measured with a rotating crystal spectrometer. The intensity was determined by a movable ionization chamber that generated a current proportional to the x-ray intensity. Compton measured the dependence of scattered x-ray intensity on wavelength at three different scattering angles of 45o, 90o, and 135o. The experimental intensity vs. wavelength plots observed by Compton for the above three scattering angles (See Fig. below) show two peaks, one at the wavelength l of the incident x-rays and the other at a longer wavelength l'. The functional dependence of l' on the scattering angle and l was predicted by Compton to be: l' - l = (h/mec)[ 1- cosq ] = l0 [ 1- cosq ]. The factor l0=h/mec, also known as Compton wavelength can be calculated to be equal to 0.00243 nm. The physics of Compton effect: To explain his observations Compton assumed that light consists of photons each of which carries an energy hf and a momentum hf/c (as p = E/c = hf/c). When such a photon strikes a free electron the electron gets some momentum (pe) and kinetic energy (Te) due to the collision, as a result of which the momentum and energy of the photon are reduced. Considering energy and momentum conservation (For the detail derivation please here) one can derive the change in wavelength due to Compton scattering: l' - l = (h/mec)[ 1- cosq ]. Note that the result is independent of the scattering material and depends only on the angle of scattering. The appearance of the peak at the longer wavelength in the intensity vs. wavelength curve is due to Compton scattering from the electron which may be considered free, since its energy of binding in the atom is small compared to the energy hf of the photon. The appearance of the other peak at the wavelength of the incident radiation is due to scattering from a bound electron. In this case the recoil momentum is taken up by the entire atom, which being much heavier compared to the electron, produces negligible wavelength shift. Compton effect gives conclusive evidence in support of the corpuscular character of electromagnetic radiation. Please out the simulation below which shows Compton scattering. Simulation on Compton Scattering Back to Top © Kingshuk Majumdar (2000)	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23072000
Produce hay to make a profit Whether a rancher grows hay to feed his livestock or someone else’s, the enterprise isn’t worthwhile unless it makes money. Surprisingly, many hay producers have no idea how much it costs them to produce a crop. University of Kentucky Extension hay marketing specialist Tom Keene says essentially, producers have two ways to market: as cash or as hay for their own livestock enterprise. Regardless of which path a producer takes, the hay budget must be unto itself. “There’s only one way you can know whether you’re making money: You have to go through the numbers,” Keene says. After a producer runs through the cost of producing hay, he or she needs to figure one more number: storage losses. • Hay production needs to be run as a separate business. • Know hay costs, whether selling to the cash market or your own livestock. • Set price based on production costs and local market. “The numbers get a lot worse,” Keene says. “And they get worse quick.” That’s only one of the reasons growing hay for profit is different from any other commodity. Another is that “no bale of hay is quite the same.” What that means to producers is they must decide which market their hay fits. The dairy market wants large round bales; demands a test; looks for 20% crude protein, 30% acid detergent fiber and 40% neutral detergent fiber; and measures feed performance by milk production. Dairy producers prefer alfalfa. The horse market wants small square bales, doesn’t necessarily ask for a test, and buys on sensory perception. Those who buy hay for their horses have no way to measure feed performance in their high-value animals. They like hay that smells fresh and looks green. “That hay absolutely, positively must be clean. No mold, dust, weeds, foreign matter, blister beetles,” Keene says. The beef market wants large round bales, measures performance on pounds gained and has varying quality needs. “We throw anything out at them,” Keene says. Most of the hay grown for the beef market is grown by producers for themselves. “Most of you are probably selling hay to your own operation,” Keene tells a group of cattle producers. “I hope you’re keeping track of the numbers.” Other markets include — but certainly aren’t limited to — sheep, mulch, goats, llamas, emu, zoos, nurseries, feed stores, rabbits, gerbils, medical research and, most recently, energy. Regardless of the market, Keene says, growers need to know the cost of producing the hay and the current prices in their market area so they can set a price that moves the hay and brings a profit. Current prices can be found by looking at USDA hay prices on the Web, asking neighbors and Extension agents, or even checking the sales ads. “That’s going to give you an idea of what your hay will bring in the market,” Keene says. “Only you know what it’s worth.” Once that price is set, Keene says, collect the money on delivery. “If you sell somebody a car or pickup truck and they can’t make the payments, you can go back and get that vehicle. You can’t go back and get your hay,” Keene says. “It’s gone.” PAY ATTENTION: Alabama cattle producer Eric Smith keeps track of a forage’s cost and income as though it were a row crop. This article published in the March, 2010 edition of SOUTHERN FARMER. All rights reserved. Copyright Farm Progress Cos. 2010.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23075000
Bivalves in Time and Space (BiTS): Clams as tools to understand macroevolution 2011 REU Project: This study is part of a collaborative effort (see also www.bivatol.org/BiTS/) to develop bivalves as a model clade for macroevolutionary studies. By integrating molecular, morphological and paleontological datasets, BiTS aims to test methods of molecular clock dating, ancestral state reconstruction and historical biogeography, as well as to detect spatial and temporal trends in evolution. BiTS researchers at the Field Museum concentrate on the morphological and paleontological components of the project, investigating the evolution of numerous shell and anatomical features in two of the commonest bivalve lineages - venus clams and cockles. Research methods and techniques: REU participants in the project will receive an introduction to bivalve morphology and systematics, with particular focus on shell characters - i.e., those that preserve well in fossils. They will prepare specimens, document diagnostic characters with optical and scanning electron microscopy, build and analyze phylogenetic trees, and gain experience with relevant literature research and collection management techniques. Curator/Advisors: Dr. Rüdiger Bieler, Zoology/Invertebrates, in collaboration with postdoctoral fellow Dr. André Sartori. REU Intern: KATHERINE ANDERSON Ecology and Evolutionary Biology major University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Symposium Presentation Title: Diversity of Venus clams: building an online resource for species identification Symposium Presentation Abstract: Venerids, commonly known as Venus clams, are the most diverse family of marine bivalves, with over 500 extant species. They are found on every continent except Antarctica, and many are edible, commercially collected and cultured, comprising an important food source worldwide. Despite their prevalence and economic importance, there is still no freely accessible, online catalogue available to aid in recognition of venerid species. Species identification is crucial not only for economic reasons, but also for conserving biodiversity and ensuring accuracy in scientific studies. An online catalogue consisting of individual species pages with detailed morphological descriptions and high quality photographs is being built in order to provide a resource that is both complete and available for anyone to use. Specimens from the collections of the Field Museum of Natural History were identified to species level using primary and secondary literature. Following identification, the morphology of the shell of each species was thoroughly described based on characteristics of all specimens available. Descriptions include details of overall shape and coloration, as well as features important for bivalve taxonomy, such as the morphology of the hinge teeth, lunule, escutcheon and ligament. In order to aid in identification, differences among similar species that may be commonly confused were also noted on each species page. High quality photographs of the dorsal view, external and internal views of one valve, and the hinge plates of both valves were taken of a representative specimen of each species. Species pages were published on eBivalvia, a collaborative database for information about bivalves, which shares its contents with the Encyclopedia of Life. In addition to species pages, genus pages were also created containing descriptions of characteristics shared by all species within a genus. At this time, over 100 species of venerids have been described and photographed. The species pages may become more comprehensive in the future, as information such as habitat and distribution is appended. The online catalogue not only documents the diversity of Venus clams, but also provides an accurate and accessible resource for species identification that can be utilized by researchers, students and shell collectors, as well as conservation agencies and fisheries.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23077000
Robert A. Pritzker Assistant Curator of Meteoritics and Polar Studies Philipp Heck and co-authors from the Max-Planck-Institute for Chemistry in Germany had their paper on the first isotopic analysis of sulfur-rich comet dust published in the April issue of the journal Meteoritics & Planetary Science. The dust was captured during a flyby of Comet Wild 2 by NASA’s Stardust Mission and returned to Earth. The Robert A. Pritzker Center for Meteoritics and Polar Studies is proud to announce the newest addition to the meteorite collection. The newly named meteorite Thika, recently classified as a L6 ordinary chondrite, was donated to the Center by Collections and Research Committee member Terry Boudreaux in mid-September. Field Museum researchers at the Robert A. Pritzker Center for Meteoritics and Polar Studies have received a second target foil from the Interstellar Dust Collector onboard NASA's Stardust Mission - that returned the first solid extraterrestrial material to Earth from beyond the Moon. We announce a call for abstracts for the session P15 “Laboratory Analysis of Extraterrestrial Dust Returned to Earth” at the Fall Meeting 2011 of the American Geophysical Union (AGU), December 5-9, 2011 San Francisco, California, USA. Collections & Research Committee member Terry Boudreaux donated a very unusual meteorite specimen to The Field Museum’s Robert A. Pritzker Center for Meteoritics and Polar Studies. The meteorite is named NWA 5492 after northwest Africa where it was found. Its petrology and chemical composition are very different compared to other meteorites and it cannot be classified with the existing scheme. About 470 million years ago – in a time period called Ordovician – the parent asteroid of one of the L chondrites, one of the most common meteorite types, was disrupted in a collision with another body. This event led to a subsequent bombardment of Earth with collisional debris for at least 10 million years. This finding is reported in a recent study in Earth and Planetary Science Letters by Field Museum scientists Dr. Birger Schmitz (Research Associate), Robert A. Pritzker Assistant Curator of Meteoritics and Polar Studies Dr. Philipp Heck, and an international team of coauthors. Right after the Mifflin Meteorite fell in SW Wisconsin in April 2010 the Robert A. Pritzker Assistant Curator of Meteoritics and Polar Studies Dr. Philipp R. Heck coordinated an international study to determine the time it spent in space and to calculate its size in space before it got ablated and broke apart in our atmosphere. Now, first results obtained from this study are published as extended abstracts, and were presented in more detail in March at the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference in Texas: The new results show that Mifflin was travelling through space as a small 3 feet object for about 20 Million years before it landed in Wisconsin.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23078000
On This Day - 22 May 1918 Theatre definitions: Western Front comprises the Franco-German-Belgian front and any military action in Great Britain, Switzerland, Scandinavia and Holland. Eastern Front comprises the German-Russian, Austro-Russian and Austro-Romanian fronts. Southern Front comprises the Austro-Italian and Balkan (including Bulgaro-Romanian) fronts, and Dardanelles. Asiatic and Egyptian Theatres comprises Egypt, Tripoli, the Sudan, Asia Minor (including Transcaucasia), Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Persia, Afghanistan, Turkestan, China, India, etc. Naval and Overseas Operations comprises operations on the seas (except where carried out in combination with troops on land) and in Colonial and Overseas theatres, America, etc. Political, etc. comprises political and internal events in all countries, including Notes, speeches, diplomatic, financial, economic and domestic matters. Source: Chronology of the War (1914-18, London; copyright expired) Liege and Metz railways bombed by British airmen; Mannheim again attacked. Raid attempted on Paris by about 30 German machines, but only one reaches capital. Increased artillery fighting along Piave; an attack at Capo Sile bridgehead repulsed. Allied airmen active. Naval and Overseas Operations Air-raids on Zeebrugge; a German destroyer sunk in harbour. In East Africa British engage enemy between Nanungu and Mahua; capture guns and ammunition, drive Germans westward. U.S.A. Sedition Bill passed, and �300,000,000 voted for ordnance.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23081000
<networking> (CMIS) Part of the OSI body of network standards. Network management information services are used by peer processes to exchange information and commands for the purpose of network management. CMIS defines a message set (GET, CANCEL-GET, SET, CREATE, DELETE, EVENT-REPORT and ACTION), and the structure and content of the messages such that they might be used by "open" systems. In concept, it is similar to SNMP, but more powerful (and hence more complex). Try this search on Wikipedia, OneLook, Google Nearby terms: Common LISP Object System « CommonLoops « Common Management Information Protocol « Common Management Information Services » Common Object File Format » Common Object Model » Common Object Request Broker Architecture	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23086000
Photo by Della Chen At the crux of most debates on the future of food production is one often-contentious point of comparison: the viability of organic versus conventional farming methods. On one hand, our growing populations require an affordable, nourishing, and immediately available food supply — a demand that many point to as a reason to favor conventional, higher-yield methods. On the other, organic farming advocates argue that sustainable practices will have a further-reaching, more positive impact on local economies, communities, and the future at large than conventional methods can even begin to offer. Entering the fray is writer Sam Fromartz, who recently posted a response on his blog to an essay by journalist/author Marc Gunther. Sam's piece offers an even-handed take on why number-crunching crop yields doesn't paint a broad enough picture to ultimately answer the question of organic versus conventional: "The problem with this argument is not that the yield calculations are wrong. The problem is that yield studies are inappropriate by themselves in measuring what's 'sustainable,' in determining what might 'feed the world,' and which methods actually end up using more land in a particular situation. That’s because farming does not occur in a vacuum where yield is the sole measure of success." He goes on to speak candidly explore the limitations of counting solely on yield calucations as indicators of success, specifically in regards to environmental impact and famer livelihood. He also highlights alternative methods to getting the most out of a single crop, like addressing pre- and post-harvest food waste. An illuminating read! Sign up now and get $10 when we open.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23089000
\|Did You Know?\| \|Acidic drinks such as soda, energy drinks, and water with lemon erode the surface of the tooth, called enamel, which can lead to decay. Instead of letting acid from drinks sit on your teeth, rinse your mouth with plain water.\| If eyes are the window to the soul, then a smile offers a peek at the pancreas. Just as diabetes can affect your kidneys, feet, heart, and eyes, it plays a role in your oral health, too. Research in this area is young, but studies show that the disease affects the mouth by targeting the gums, increasing decay, and slowing healing. Probably the greatest impact diabetes has on the mouth is in upping the severity of periodontal disease. This serious gum infection can destroy the tissues and bones that keep the teeth in place and may result in tooth loss. Some signs include red, swollen, and/or bleeding gums, loose or sensitive teeth, and persistent bad breath. “There is very good evidence that diabetes is a risk factor for periodontal disease, both in extent and severity,” says Ira Lamster, DDS, professor of dental medicine and dean emeritus of the College of Dental Medicine at Columbia University Medical Center. \|Good to Know\| \|Though uncontrolled diabetes can result in oral health problems, a single episode of high or low blood glucose won’t harm your teeth.\| Though gum disease is a direct result of bacteria, in the form of plaque buildup on teeth and especially below the gum line, there’s no difference between the bacteria in your mouth and those in the mouth of someone without diabetes. Instead, Lamster says, gum disease is worse in people with diabetes because of a greater inflammatory response to the bacteria. But the link between diabetes and gum disease isn’t a one-way street. “If a person has moderately advanced to advanced periodontal disease and they have diabetes, their metabolic control will be worse,” Lamster says. In fact, some research suggests early signs of gum disease may be an indicator of prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. A 2011 study in the Journal of Dental Research found that dentists could identify 73 percent of people with undiagnosed diabetes in part because of the presence of periodontal disease. That suggests routine cleanings could help screen for the disease. \|How to Floss\| \|1. With floss between two teeth, curve the floss into a C shape so it’s snug against one tooth.\| 2. Rub floss up and down against the tooth and into the space between the tooth and gum. 3. Repeat with the other tooth before moving on to the next gap between teeth. The good news is that if you treat your gum disease, you may see improvements in your glucose control. Yet, according to the American Diabetes Association’s 2012 Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes, the quality of studies on the topic is up for debate, so how much your A1C may improve is uncertain. Depending on the extent of the gum disease, a dentist may do a deep cleaning, prescribe medications, or perform surgery. Dry mouth is a common problem for people with diabetes, and though it may be a result of aging or medications, Lamster says it could be a complication of the disease. The autonomic nervous system controls salivary gland function, so problems with creating saliva are a form of diabetic neuropathy. (Note that nerve damage doesn’t cause any other problems in the mouth, not even tooth sensitivities or pain, which may be a result of gum disease, tooth decay, grinding teeth, tooth whitening, and so on.) Lacking spit may not sound like a big deal, but the condition does more than make your throat dry and lips chapped. “Saliva is one of our body’s defense systems,” says Thomas Oates, DMD, PhD, assistant dean of clinical research and vice chair of the Department of Periodontics at the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio Dental School. “It protects the gums from getting infected.” Less saliva means less protection for the teeth against acid and plaque, which leads to tooth decay. This is compounded if you eat often: “There’s a lot of research that suggests frequency of eating can be a problem,” Oates says, though he notes that there’s no research directly linking diabetes to an increased risk of cavities. Eating glucose or candy to treat lows won’t necessarily up your cavity count, but eating those foods often can. (If you’re eating frequently to treat low blood glucose, however, talk to your doctor about ways to adjust your treatment and limit the number of lows.) \|Experts recommend brushing for at least two minutes, concentrating on each individual tooth, including the surrounding gum.\| People with diabetes are more likely to have root decay, too. Receding gums, a problem that happens with age and gum disease, can expose a tooth’s root and leave an opening for decay. To stimulate the cleansing effects of saliva at times when you can’t brush or rinse your mouth with water, try chewing sugar-free gum or candy. And take healthy-mouth steps to prevent decay. For starters, get rid of plaque by brushing twice a day with a fluoride toothpaste, floss daily, and get regular teeth cleanings (usually every six months), when a dental hygienist will scrape plaque from your teeth. \|Q & A\| \|Do I have to brush each time I treat a low with glucose?\| Nope, but it’s smart to rinse your mouth with water and/or chew sugar-free gum or candy. Doing so will stimulate the saliva that protects teeth. It makes sense that if diabetes slows wound healing in foot ulcers, for instance, the same would be true for the mouth. But oral wounds typically don’t face the same problems as elsewhere in the body because the mouth has lots of blood flow and possibly because saliva helps fight infection. The same isn’t true of healing from dental surgery. For the past six years, Oates has studied the effects of dental implants in people with diabetes and has found that they have delayed healing of the bone around the implant compared with people without diabetes. Though the link between slow healing from dental surgery and diabetes is still being investigated, you can better your chances of a quick recovery by making sure your blood glucose is well controlled. In the end, you play a large role in preventing potential oral complications of diabetes, so take the time to keep your glucose in line and your mouth minty fresh.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23093000
The Aslan base their calendar and timekeeping units on the period of Kusyu (the Aslan homeworld) around Tyeyo, its star. The Aslan year is the ftahea, 212.2 eakhau (Aslan days) long. A is 319.98 standard days in length; an eakhau is 36 hours long. Each eakhau has a unique name; for convenience they are numbered from one to 212 and referred to by number. To every fifth ftahea, a 213th eakhau is added to keep the calendar in sync with Kusyu. The Aslan also divide their ftahea into three raohfokh (seasons): Aihros, Tralrea, and Ktaho. Aihros (Beginning) is the equivalent of spring: the mating season for many animals and the time when annual plant life grows from see. Tralrea (Growth) is the long season of mild weather on Kusyu; it is the growing season (although in this sense it referes to the growing of herd animals) and lasts 100 eakheau. Ktaho (Harvest) is the hunting season; it is short (only 30 eakheau) and a traditional time of Aslan hunts. The Aslan calendar began counting time when the first Tlaukhu was established. The data of 3658 corresponds to the Imperial date of 1120. An Aslan date is stated in the same format as an Imperial date. A three-digit eakhau number is followed by a hyphen and a four-digit ftahea number. For proper identification in the Imperium, the date is usually followed by the word Aslan. For example, 201-3644 Aslan is the 201st day of the 3644th year of the Aslan calender; it is equivalent to 000-0000. The planet Kusyu has only minimal axial tilt and orbital eccentricity. there is little inthe way of astronomical cause for seasons on the world, and the Aslan calendar has no seasons because there is so little in its climate to cause them.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23094000
KVM: Kernel-based Virtual Machine for Linux KVM (for Kernel-based Virtual Machine) is a full virtualization solution for Linux on x86 hardware. It consists of a loadable kernel module (kvm.ko) and a userspace component. Using KVM, one can run multiple virtual machines running unmodified Linux or Windows images. Each virtual machine has private virtualized hardware: a network card, disk, graphics adapter, etc. The kernel component of KVM is included in mainline Linux, and will appear in Linux 2.6.20. KVM is open source software. Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23100000
Air Force project could 'transform' supercomputing Recent advances in supercomputing haven’t just been about speed, but in developing more energy-efficient architectures, as the Energy Department has shown with Sequoia at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and work on Titan at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The Air Force is heading down this path too, recently awarding a contract to Wu Feng, associate professor of computer science in the College of Engineering at Virginia Tech, to speed up simulations of its unmanned micro air vehicles (MAVs). The tiny aircraft, as small as five inches, with insect-sized models expected in the future, can be used in a variety of military and hazardous conditions. Feng, a proponent of green supercomputing, plans to carry out the project with an approach to multi- and many-core parallel computing that he said will “transform supercomputing,” according to a Virginia Tech announcement. The Air Force project will make use of accelerator-based supercomputers such as HokieSpeed, which Feng designed and built in 2011 for a mere (in supercomputing terms) $1.4 million National Science Foundation grant. Virginia Tech's Wu Feng on HokieSpeed via Vimeo The approach to MAV simulations — conducted under a contract with a maximum of $6 million over five years — is a multidisciplinary effort, involving aerospace and mechanical engineers, mathematicians and computer scientists from Virginia Tech and North Carolina State University, who by combining advances in math, algorithms and engineering will develop computational fluid dynamic codes and supporting hardware and software, Virginia Tech said. Researchers expect to “achieve substantial speed-up over current simulations and provide significantly better utilization of the underlying and co-designed hardware-software of a supercomputer,” Feng said. Improving performance through parallel hardware and co-designed software is an emerging field, he said. “Furthermore, coupling hardware-software co-design with advances in algorithmic innovation offers the promise of multiplicative speed-ups,” he said. As supercomputing has gotten steadily more powerful, the amount of energy the machines draw has become a concern. That’s one reason Feng and Kirk Cameron of the Virginia Tech College of Engineering started the Green500, which ranks supercomputers, in essence, according to how much mileage they get out of the power they use. Feng’s work on efficient computing dates to when he worked at Los Alamos National Laboratory, where he built a 240-node cluster called Green Destiny (named after the sword in the movie “Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon”) that performed at 100 gigaflops while using the same power as two hair dryers, about 3.2 kilowatts, Virginia Tech said. And energy-efficient supercomputers on a large scale are catching on. Titan, if fact, which leads the Top500.org list of the world’s fastest supercomputers, is at No. 3 of the Green500’s list of most efficient.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23118000
\|Home > News & Policies > Proclamation Archives\| For Immediate Release Office of the Press Secretary April 18, 2001 National Park Week, 2001 By the President of the United States of America The United States boasts an incredible wealth of natural beauty. From rugged coastlines and thick forests to arid deserts and canyons, our diverse landscapes represent a treasured heritage of which all Americans can be proud. Our country's commitment to the conservation of its open spaces runs deep. The Nation founded Yellowstone National Park in 1872 and thereby generated renewed appreciation for the great outdoors among Americans. Our country's actions inspired other countries to follow suit by establishing their own national parks or equivalent preserves. Since the establishment of the National Park Service in 1916, our national parks have grown to occupy a special place in the hearts of the American people. As responsible stewards, we must leave them in good condition for those who follow us. By providing additional resources for their preservation and maintenance, we can prevent the deterioration in facilities and infrastructure that threatens their future well-being. National parks are a testament to the natural wonders of our mountains, valleys, rivers, and streams. They remind us to take a break from the busy pace of modern society to experience the simpler pleasures of life and provide unique opportunities for personal recreation. Whether camping in Yosemite National Park or boating along Apostle Islands National Lakeshore, people of all ages can take in spectacular scenery and enjoy a relaxing time with family and friends. The National Park Service also serves an educational purpose, honoring our heroes and preserving important historical landmarks. By visiting the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site, the immigration station on Ellis Island or many other significant sites in our national parks, Americans gain a deeper understanding of our national story and the extraordinary people and events that paved the way for our development and progress. National Park Week pays tribute to the importance of our national parks and recognizes the dedicated men and women entrusted with their care. The observance also calls attention to the need to reinvest in these national treasures by providing for their sound stewardship in the years to come. As timeless and majestic reminders of our outdoor heritage, America's national parks add immensely to our quality of life and represent a wonderful legacy that must be passed on to future generations. NOW, THEREFORE, I, GEORGE W. BUSH, President of the United States of America, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and laws of the United States of America, do hereby proclaim April 23 through April 29, 2001, as National Park Week. I encourage all Americans to visit our national parks and experience America. IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand this seventeenth day of April, in the year of our Lord two thousand one, and of the Independence of the United States of America the two hundred and twenty-fifth. GEORGE W. BUSH # # #	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23122000
For plug-in car and battery makers, there’s a lesson in the Obama administration’s recent decision to pull funding for research of hydrogen fuel cells for vehicles: Don’t rely too heavily on the dole for too long. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, you may recall, formed a cornerstone of what Bush administration officials envisioned as a Hydrogen Economy. These days, many policymakers and Silicon Valley entrepreneurs alike are pitching the idea of a Clean Energy Economy, in which we get around in hybrid and electric vehicles that tap renewable energy from a smart grid, rather than the long-promised hydrogen cars. As DOE chief Steven Chu explained in a briefing on the agency’s budget proposal, “We asked ourselves, ‘Is it likely in the next 10 or 15, 20 years that we will convert to a hydrogen car economy?’ The answer, we felt, was ‘no.’” Based on that conclusion, the DOE decided to cut $100 million from its hydrogen fuel cell program for 2010 and start dedicating the research initiative to “fuel cell technologies” for buildings and other applications, with funding cut down to $68 million. (Separately, the agency awarded $41.9 million last month to 12 companies working on portable fuel cells for electronics, and larger fuel cells for both backup power and vehicles.) In a DOE report earlier this year, the agency found that fuel cell costs are still too high and durability too low for the auto industry to meet the goal set out in the Energy Policy Act of 2005 of 100,000 hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicles by 2010. The U.S. fuel cell industry is taking the cut as a sign that its energy will be better spent influencing Congress than the Department of Energy. “We aren’t giving up on Dr. Chu,” U.S. Fuel Cell Council executive director Robert Rose told the New York Times Wheels blog. While the DOE has been short-staffed, he said, “Congress will look carefully at this.” But truth be told, a careful look would find an investment of some $1.2 billion over four years for development of an expensive, far-off technology and zero viable hydrogen vehicles on the market and few stations in the ground (only about 120 nationwide) to show for it, especially when it comes to hydrogen production and delivery systems — the core of any hydrogen highway. As the LA Times Up to Speed blog notes, Chu cited a lack of infrastructure as a reason to pull funding. Of course, infrastructure remains one of the big missing pieces for mass adoption of plug-in vehicles, too. So now that electric and hybrid cars have curried government favor, the clock is ticking for their developers to cut costs, demonstrate progress — and pay their own way.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23123000
1 Peter 1:1 identifies the author of the Book of 1 Peter as the apostle Peter. Date of Writing: The Book of 1 Peter was likely written between A.D. 60 and 65. Purpose of Writing: 1 Peter is a letter from Peter to the believers who had been dispersed throughout the ancient world and were under intense persecution. If anyone understood persecution, it was Peter. He was beaten, threatened, punished and jailed for preaching the Word of God. He knew what it took to endure without bitterness, without losing hope and in great faith living an obedient, victorious life. This knowledge of living hope in Jesus was the message and Christ's example was the one to follow. Key Verses: 1 Peter 1:3, "Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ! In his great mercy he has given us new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead." 1 Peter 2:9, "But you are a chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belonging to God, that you may declare the praises of him who called you out of darkness into his wonderful light." 1 Peter 2:24, "He himself bore our sins in his body on the tree, so that we might die to sins and live for righteousness; by his wounds you have been healed." 1 Peter 5:8-9, "Be self-controlled and alert. Your enemy the devil prowls around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour. Resist him, standing firm in the faith, because you know that your brothers throughout the world are undergoing the same kind of sufferings." Brief Summary: Though this time of persecution was desperate, Peter reveals that it was actually a time to rejoice. He says to count it a privilege to suffer for the sake of Christ, as their Savior suffered for them. This letter makes reference to Peter’s personal experiences with Jesus and his sermons from the book of Acts. Peter confirms Satan as the great enemy of every Christian but the assurance of Christ's future return gives the incentive of hope. Connections: Peter’s familiarity with the Old Testament law and prophets enabled him to explain various OT passages in light of the life and work of the Messiah, Jesus Christ. In 1 Peter 1:16, he quotes Leviticus 11:44: “Be holy, for I am holy.” But he prefaces it by explaining that holiness is not achieved by keeping the law, but by the grace bestowed upon all who believe in Christ (v. 13). Further, Peter explains the reference to the “cornerstone” in Isaiah 28:16 and Psalm 118:22 as Christ, who was rejected by the Jews through their disobedience and unbelief. Additional Old Testament references include the sinless Christ (1 Peter 2:22 / Isaiah 53:9) and admonitions to holy living through the power of God which yields blessings (1 Peter 3:10:12; Psalm 34:12-16; 1 Peter 5:5; Proverbs 3:34). Practical Application: The assurance of eternal life is given to all Christians. One way to identify with Christ is to share in His suffering. To us that would be to endure insults and slurs from those who call us "goodie two shoes" or "holier than thou." This is so minor compared to what Christ suffered for us on the Cross. Stand up for what you know and believe is right and rejoice when the world and Satan aim to hurt you. © Copyright 2002-2013 Got Questions Ministries.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23139000
The neem tree has been called "the village pharmacy" because its bark, leaves, sap, fruit, seeds, and twigs have so many diverse uses in the traditional medicine of India. This member of the mahogany family has been used medicinally for at least 4,000 years and is held in such esteem that Indian poets called it Sarva Roga Nivarini , meaning "the One That Can Cure All Ailments." Mohandas Gandhi encouraged scientific investigation of the neem tree as part of his program to revitalize Indian traditions, which eventually let to more than 2,000 research papers and intense commercial interest. At least 50 patents have been filed on neem and neem-based products in the United States for control of insects in food and ornamental crops. However, the Indian government and many nongovernmental organizations have united to overthrow some patents of this type, which they regard as "folk-wisdom piracy." One fear is that if neem is patented, indigenous people who already use it will lose the right to continue to do so. Another point is the fundamental question: Who owns the genetic diversity of plants? The nations where the plants come from or the transnational corporations that pay for the research into those plants? Although this area of international law is rapidly evolving, a patent on the spice turmeric has already been overturned, and neem may follow soon. At least 100 bioactive substances have been found in neem, including nimbidin, azadiracthins, and other triterpenoids and limonoids. Although the scientific evidence for all of neem's uses in healthcare remains preliminary, the intense interest in the plant will eventually lead to proper double-blind, placebo-controlled trials . (For information on why such studies are so important, see Why Does This Database Rely on Double-blind Studies? ) Because of the numerous parts of the neem tree used, and the many different ways these can be prepared, the only advice we can give at this time is to follow the directions on the label of the neem product you purchase. For all these reasons, as well as the lack of comprehensive safety investigation of neem products other than neem oil, we recommend that young children, pregnant or nursing women, or individuals with severe liver or kidney disease avoid use of neem. - Reviewer: EBSCO CAM Review Board - Review Date: 07/2012 - - Update Date: 07/25/2012 -	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23141000
Exotic pests are nothing new. The hemlock wooly adelgid, which has turned woods from green to brown from the Poconos to the Great Smoky Mountains, arrived 70 years ago on a single hemlock a Virginia landowner imported for his Japanese-style garden. But while federal agriculture officials struggle with adelgid and other established pests, emerging threats, like the citrus longhorned beetle, a wood-boring native of Asia, are presenting new headaches. So destructive is the beetle that bans on an array of popular plants grown in Europe, including cherry trees, rhododendrons, and even cut roses from the Netherlands, are under consideration by federal officials, said Faith Campbell, a senior policy representative for the conservancy. Europe is just one part of the $500 million international plant exporting business that has producers from Colombia to China sending more than three billion plants to the United States each year. Such foreign imports could be responsible for as much as 70 percent of the most damaging non-native insects and diseases afflicting American forests today, according to the study, which was conducted by the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis at the University of California, Santa Barbara.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23142000
Dr. Jane Lubchenco, a marine ecologist from Oregon State University, has been elected to many scientific honors, one of which was the presidency of the American Academy for the Advancement of Science. For her presidential address at the AAAS annual meeting, she looked straight out at the huge assembly of scientists and delivered an unapologetic, undiluted warning: “During the last few decades, humans have emerged as a new force of nature. We are modifying physical, chemical, and biological systems in new ways, at faster rates, and over larger spatial scales than ever recorded on Earth. Humans have unwittingly embarked upon a grand experiment with our planet. The outcome of this experiment is unknown, but has profound implications for all of life.” What responsibility do scientists have, she asked, both to transmit this message and to help deal with the problem? Actually scientists, and others, have been transmitting similar messages lately with clarity and urgency. Here are just a few excerpts, from a long and growing list: World Resources Institute, 1998: “Most high-quality agricultural land is already in production, and the environmental costs of converting remaining forest, grassland, and wetland habitats to cropland are well recognized. … Much of the remaining soil is less productive and more fragile. … One analysis of global soil erosion estimates that … topsoil is being lost 16 to 300 times faster than it can be replaced.” International Food Policy Research Institute, 1999: “The period since World War II has seen remarkable growth in agricultural production … in the developing world. While in many farming areas this growth has apparently been sustainable, in others it derived from two unsustainable processes: the clearing of new lands of lower productive potential or higher vulnerability, and the intensification of production by mining or destroying the soil resource base.” U.N. Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World, 1997: “Water resources constraints and water degradation are weakening one of the resource bases on which human society is built. Water shortages and pollution are causing widespread public health problems, limiting economic and agricultural development, and harming a wide range of ecosystems. They may put global food supplies in jeopardy and lead to economic stagnation in many areas of the world.” World Commission on Forests and Sustainable Development, 1999: “There has been a clear global trend toward a massive loss of forested areas. … The current trends are toward an acceleration of the loss of forested area, the loss of residual primary forests, and progressive reduction in the internal quality of residual forest stands. … Much of the forest that remains is being progressively impoverished, and all is threatened.” World Scientists’ Warning to Humanity, 1992: “Our massive tampering with the world’s interdependent web of life — coupled with the environmental damage inflicted by deforestation, species loss, and climate change — could trigger widespread adverse effects, including unpredictable collapses of critical biological systems whose interactions and dynamics we only imperfectly understand. Uncertainty over the extent of these effects cannot excuse complacency or delay in facing the threats.” Two oil industry geologists, Colin J. Campbell and Jean H. Laherrère, sobered everyone by saying in Scientific American in 1998: “Our analysis of the discovery and production of oil fields around the world suggest that within the next decade, the supply of conventional oil will be unable to keep up with demand. … Global discovery peaked in the early 1960s and has been falling steadily ever since. … There is only so much crude oil in the world, and the industry has found about 90 percent of it.” Another industry voice, Robert Shapiro, CEO of the Monsanto Corporation: “The earth can’t withstand a systematic increase of material things. If we grow by using more stuff, I’m afraid we’d better start looking for a new planet.” Economists are speaking up as well. The following statement was signed by 2000 economists, including six Nobel laureates, in 1997: “The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate. As economists, we believe that global climate change carries with it significant environmental, economic, social, and geopolitical risks, and that preventive steps are justified.” Ecological Society of America, 1991: “Environmental problems resulting from human activities have begun to threaten the sustainability of Earth’s life support systems.” The [U.K.] Royal Society and the [U.S.] National Academy of Sciences, 1992: “The future of our planet is in the balance. Sustainable development can be achieved, but only if irreversible degradation of the environment can be halted in time. The next 30 years may be crucial.” Short of yelling and screaming, which scientists are trained not to do, I don’t see how these august people could be more clear. None of their reports concludes that there is nothing to be done, that we must stupidly submit to the consequences of our overconsumption of our own resource base. They are full of constructive, common-sense, affordable, doable suggestions by which human needs could be met without destroying the planetary sources that maintain us. The scientists are doing their part. When will television start harping on major tragedies we can prevent, instead of minor ones we can only grieve over? When will politicians start thinking about, talking about, doing something about, leading toward the really important issues of the coming century? When will citizens insist that they do?	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23144000
How often have you driven somewhere, perhaps for a day out in the countryside or on your way to a holiday destination, and have passed an unsightly heap of rubbish bags, a discarded armchair or a filthy sodden mattress by the side of some secluded country B-road? These piles of refuse, whether household junk or builders materials, scrap metal or garden waste are the result of fly-tipping; the illegal dumping of waste on private ground or ground that is unlicensed to receive such waste. But it’s not just road sides that are affected by fly tipping; inner-city alleyways, waste grounds, playing fields and even scenic areas of the British countryside are being defiled by the illegal and inconsiderate actions of the fly-tippers. The adverse consequences of fly-tipping Every local authority in the UK is committed to combating fly-tipping, and research into the undesirable consequences of this practice reveals why this is necessary. The total cost to local authorities of clearing up illegally dumped waste is around £75 million each year. The Environment Agency estimates the cost of removing fly-tipped waste from agricultural land at around £50million per year. Areas that are consistently subjected to fly-tipping have seen a decline in house prices and a consequent impact on local trade. Aesthetic and economic considerations aside, the negligent dumping of waste has profound long-term implications for the natural environment and those that depend upon it. The vast majority (around three-quarters) of refuse that is fly-tipped is household waste, and much of that is food. Thanks to the indiscriminate littering habit of Britons, it’s estimated that the UK’s rat population is roughly the same as the human population. Whilst rats may be thriving, other wildlife suffers as a consequence of fly-tipping; pollutants entering natural water systems are responsible for the deaths of around 100,000 marine animals each year, and around 70,000 animals are injured or killed annually as a result of discarded rubbish. More worryingly, the potential harm that fly-tipping could cause to humans cannot be ignored. Hazardous waste such as asbestos, toxic chemicals, low-level radioactive waste, medical waste and refrigerant chemicals all pose potential dangers to the atmosphere, soil and water supply. Why are people fly-tipping? The collection and disposal of general household waste – and increasingly recyclable and garden waste – is covered by the Council Tax which pays for the weekly or fortnightly emptying of domestic rubbish bins. But larger items of waste – fridge freezers, mattresses, larger quantities of household and garden rubbish attract a fee for their removal and disposal – the so-called ‘Landfill Tax’. Although most local authorities charge relatively little for collecting larger household items and taking them to licensed waste management premises, it seems that an increasing number of people would rather expose themselves to the risk and inconvenience of loading up a car or van and driving it to some place away from their own premises to discreetly but inconsiderately dump it. Taking action against fly-tipping Fly-tipping is considered an extremely serious offence; those prosecuted can expect fines of anything up to £50,000 and the possibility of a custodial sentence of up to five years’ imprisonment. Penalties are also applicable for anyone who entrusts their waste disposal to an unlicensed waste carrier or one that disposes of waste on an unlicensed site. In 2007-2008, local authorities carried out 1,871 prosecutions against fly-tippers of which 95% resulted in successful convictions. Sadly this is only scratches the surface of the fly-tipping problem, but it’s becoming easier to report offenders either to the Environment Agency (on 0800 80 70 60) or to local authorities via telephone or email. Anyone who witnesses fly-tippers in action should not tackle them in person, but should note the time, date and location of the offence, a description of those involved, the type and amount of waste being dumped and – importantly – whether the site was in proximity to a water source such as a river or reservoir. This information should then be passed on to the Environment Agency or your local authority for further investigation. As vigilance, action and prosecutions in respect of the illegal act of fly-tipping increase, it seems bizarre that rather than finding the location of the nearest licensed refuse disposal site or paying the modest fee required for a skip or licensed rubbish disposal contractor, some people would rather risk a hefty fine or a spell behind bars for fly-tipping. John is a guest blogger from UK skip hire site skipandbin.com – helping UK consumers find the cheapest skip hire services in their area. - Manchester becomes a dumping ground as fly-tipping rates soar (menmedia.co.uk) - George Osborne warned of fly-tipping chaos as ‘skip tax’ gets messy (independent.co.uk) - A much better services for rubbish removal in New York City, New york (junkguysaustin.wordpress.com)	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23145000
African American Sites to Break Brick Walls I recently received a phone call from a lady asking when Beginning Genealogy Classes were starting up. After talking a little further to her, I realized she could be teaching the Beginning Genealogy classes. She had gotten her African American ancestors to the 1870 census, and like a lot of you, hit a brick wall. It was not beginning classes she needed, but a few suggestions where to look next and a whole lot of luck! Here are some tips (in no particular order) on trying to get beyond that 1870 census: A. While you are in the 1870 census, look for others with the same surname in the same locale you are in. These names may prove helpful in the future as they are probably related. But, when you research slave history, I have been told that the last name a lot of African Americans were given were the surname of the plantation owner. So, the person with the same last name may not necessarily be from YOUR family. And along those same lines, YOUR ancestor’s brother or sister could have a different last name depending on where they lived. B. As mentioned above, the last name, very rarely the first name, would have changed with a move from plantation to plantation. One incident I came across was this name change due to a marriage within the Rice plantation household. The daughter of Mr. Rice married into the Dunne Family in the Birmingham, Alabama area. She was given slaves to take with her when she moved. Therefore, the slave name changed from Rice to Dunne. As I did the genealogy for this family, I would find part of the family with the surname of Rice and the other Dunne. C. Do not assume your ancestor was a slave. There were free black at this time; I had a couple families in the South that were free that came from Maryland. D. Check out the Military Records. Did you know that African Americans found in all the wars beginning with the American Revolution? The trick is to find the paperwork associated with your ancestor. When researching the Civil War, do not just check out the basic Civil War links, but remember the United States Colored Troop link as well. (Compiled Service Records) E. The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands was established by the War Department on March 3, 1865. Its primary function was to supervise all relief and educational activities relating to refugees and freedmen. It assumed custody of abandoned or confiscated lands or property in the former Confederate States, Border States, District of Columbia, and Indian Territory. Sometimes, within these documents, family or previous residence, maybe even the plantation they lived on would be mentioned. (For more on this topic visit Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands F. The Freedman’s Bank is another source that might prove helpful. The Freedman’s Bank Savings and Trust Company was chartered in 1865 with the primary object to assist former slaves and African-American soldiers with their new financial responsibilities. In theory, this bank was to be a permanent financial institution for savings deposits and provide a place, safe from swindlers, to deposit money. However, mismanagement and outright fraud caused the bank to collapse in 1874 adding another tragedy to the legacy of pain endured by many African Americans. When these families went to sign up, records were made on them that sometimes included family names, descriptions, former plantation homes, war history and more. So, while it was a tragedy that this endeavor failed, the records that were developed are a gold mine to their descendants. G. Research the census records before 1870 in the area your ancestor’s lived and the surrounding counties. See if their surnames match with a white family of the same name. That family might be the family your ancestor’s were slaves at. Spend some time researching this family and see if they have any records that might prove helpful to you. Was there a marriage where a dowry was listed? If your ancestor went with this daughter, they may have been mentioned. Unfortunate and painful as it is, slaves were listed as property. Check out the property records, wills, and their business transactions; property meant money and so paperwork was usually kept. H. Do not neglect the newspapers. Tim Pinnick has written a wonderful book on Finding and Using African American Newspapers. When a slave escaped, a mention in the newspapers giving a name and description were listed in the areas where the slave lived. Directly after slavery was abolished, many African Americans put ads in the papers looking for their family and friends. Tim’s book will give you insight on how to locate these newspapers. I. While researching, keep in mind that a lot of African Americans married and went to live with the Native Americans. In some instances, the Native Americans also had slaves. Do not limit the search for just African American, errors in race are documented so look for your ancestor’s name without listing the race if a brick wall exists. J. Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database : It has over 35,000 slaving voyages that forcibly embarked over 10 million Africans for transport to the Americas between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. It offers researchers, students and the general public a chance to rediscover the reality of one of the largest forced movements of peoples in world history. K. Slave Insurance was kept on some slaves. The Slave registry gives the slave names, county, other identifying information, name of slaveholder, the county of slaveholder, and who the policy was submitted by. Kentucky, for example, lists many counties with slave names. L Lastly, but very important, pay attention to the stories that were handed down. While the stories may have been added or taken away from during the years, they may have some vital information in them to give you clues on your family. Sometimes, for Native Americans and African Americans, these family stories are the key to discovering your ancestors. Visit Genealogy@Bellaonline.com for more articles from Tina Sansone	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23146000
August 4, 2004 HONOLULU - The public should stay out of streams, coastal, and standing waters that are contaminated by storm water (usually brown or murky in color). Storm water can contain harmful micro-organisms (pathogens), from overflowing cesspools or septic tanks as well as animal feces washed into streams and storm drains. Excessive storm water can also contain sewage from overflowing manholes and overwhelmed treatment facilities or chemicals from polluted runoff from commercial and industrial facilities. The Department of Health and the counties monitor water quality and spills. Warning signs will be posted at beaches and streams if contaminants from treatment facilities reach those waters or when People should use caution if the water is brown or murky, regardless of whether warning signs are posted. On Oahu, sewage or chemical spills should be reported to the City and County at 523-4423. Questions regarding the safety of standing water, "brown water" in coastal and inland areas, or beach closures should be directed to the Department of Health Clean Water Branch on Oahu during normal business hours at 586-4309. For more information, contact: Department of Health E-Mail: dayukimura @mail.health.state.hi.us	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23153000
Editor’s note: This story is the first of a multi-part series on the French-Eversole War of Perry County. Part two will be published next week. The History Channel’s hit miniseries, “Hatfields and McCoys,” chronicled the feud between two families in West Virginia and Eastern Kentucky. That famous feud is certainly the most well-known in American history, but one of the bloodiest and most destructive took place right here in Hazard and Perry County between 1887 and 1894. According to The Days of Darkness by John Ed Pearce, and Kentucky’s Famous Feuds and Tragedies by Charles G. Mutzenburg, what was dubbed the “French-Eversole War” was apparently precipitated by a disagreement of business tactics between two Hazard business owners, but the actual fighting ran much deeper than that. Members of the Eversole family were long-time residents of Perry County, and had made their mark on the county by the time the feud errupted. A branch of the family built what is now the oldest standing structure in the county. The Eversole Cabin in Chavies was built in the late 1700s and exists today much like it did in 1800. It was the site of skirmishes during the Civil War, and remained in the family for over 80 years, until it was given to a member of the Campbell family to pay off a debt. The French family had only been in the area for a generation by the time the feud began. Coming from North Carolina originally, the patriarch, B. Fulton French, quickly established himself in the community through local commerce. In the early 1880s, the coal industry was in its infancy in the mountains across Eastern Kentucky, and the resource was not yet heavily mined. Previous to the railroad moving into Hazard in 1912, companies began buying land for little to no money since most landowners did not realize just how valuable that land would become. Once the railroad moved in and the mining industry came into its own, it became apparent that there was much money to be had in buying land, and the land owners that had already sold out had been bought off for much too low a price. French was also an attorney, though he worked with the companies to buy land for obscenely low amounts, and then took it from the owners as they began mining the coal. Joseph Eversole, a young lawyer and local merchant, reportedly saw profiting from the misfortunes of his neighbors as an egregious offense. He tried to warn landowners not to sell out for such low prices. The companies then tried to silence Eversole, pitting French against him. While their intial dislike of one another stemmed from mineral rights, the traditional story on how the feud began was that a cashier at French’s store had fallen for a female employee. One night he came back to the store and found this employee with French. The cashier was so enraged that he decided to warn Eversole that French had threatened his life. Eversole then formed and army, and so did French, and the fighting began. While this is the story that was often told in newspapers and in verbal history, it is likely not true, according to Pearce, a former Courier-Journal writer who pieced together the history of the feud through old newspaper accounts and other sources, such as local historians. All that is actually known is that in 1887, the two business competitors moved beyond disliking one another and into feuding. Hazard at the time has been described as a rough place with only 200 residents. The streets were thick with deep mud and only a few wooden plank sidewalks. It was rumored that judges would often opt out of holding trials because of the frequency of gunfights in town. As the Perry County feud began, both sides began arming themselves and their employees, and eventually even hired gunmen all before the first shots were ever fired. An Eastern Kentucky newspaper during the time, The Hazel Green Herald out of Wolfe County, reported that in the summer before the official start of the feud the two sides clashed, with Eversole’s side driving French out of Hazard. French then set up a base camp in Harlan, and both men began fortifying their homes, though Pearce noted that the latter part of this account may not be entirely accurate. The men reportedly paid fleets of bodyguards only two dollars a day. They were able to outfit themselves so cheaply due to the rough state of affairs in Hazard at the time. While the two sides had clashed on occasion, it was not until the 1887 killing of Silas Gayheart, a friend of French, that the feud truly began. French hired a Knott County native named “Bad” Tom Smith shortly after as a full-time gunman. Bad Tom became the most infamous person tied to the feud, being known for his hot temper, cool, unforgiving killing, accurate shooting and epileptic fits. He had been known in Hazard for some time for killing three men who were shooting at several of his friends. As legend has it, he was able to knock one man unconscious with a rock and take his gun, and kill the other two before any were able to get a shot off on him. After the killing of Gayheart, the Eversole group denied killing him, and based on records of the time had nothing to gain from killing him, Pearce wrote. French never believed Eversole’s denial, so the feud was on. After the shooting, Hazard citizens were on edge despite the limited actual fighting. Shots did, however, begin to ring out at night and the relatively few residents that were not involved in the feud began moving away from the town. In another instance of fighting, the French group camped on the road near Hazard and waited until a large group of Eversoles had convened for a meeting. The Frenches drove the Eversoles out of Hazard that night. Only a few days after this fight, a reporter from Cincinnati came to Hazard to cover the feud. He met up with a man that promised to take him to the people involved in the feud. Unfortunately, he was only told the French’s side since the man was affiliated with the group. The wildly exaggerated story came out several days later in the Cincinnati Enquirer. Another clash arose just days after the article came out and caused casualties on both sides of the fight. After just a few months of fighting, both sides had nearly depleted their funds and wanted to stop the battle. They both signed an official truce in 1887 that was turned in to two different judges. The peace was tense, however, and just a little over a month after the truce, both sides were at it again, and more lives would be lost.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23155000
Charles Peirce and Allan Marquand Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) was a famous American philosopher, logician, mathematician, and scientist. Peirce was an innovator in many fields, including philosophy of science, epistemology, metaphysics, mathematics, statistics, research methodology, and the design of experiments in astronomy, geophysics, and psychology, but he considered himself a logician first and foremost (he was perhaps the leading logician in the world at that time). He made major contributions to logic, but logic for him encompassed much of that which is now called epistemology and philosophy of science. He saw logic as the formal branch of semiotics, of which he is a founder. One of his striking discoveries in foundational mathematics was (in 1880) how Boolean algebra could be expressed via a single binary operation, either NAND or its dual, NOR. From 1879 till 1884 Peirce was a lecturer on the logic at the new Johns Hopkins University. Although his appointment at Hopkins was in logic, he was also busy there with research in psychology and philosophy. Peirce had a number of talented students in logic, whose work may be sampled in Studies in Logic, printed in 1883. Among this bright pupils was Allan Marquand (1853-1924), at that time Fellow in Philosophy and Ethics at Hopkins, until he graduated in 1880 as Ph.D. in Philosophy. His thesis, supervised by Peirce, was on the logic of Philodemus. Marquand returned to Princeton in 1881 to teach Latin and logic. During the 1881-82 academic year, he built a mechanical logical machine, that is interesting for us. The machine was presented in 1885 and described in the 1886 article A New Logical Machine. Allan worked within the history of logic and upon trying to improve the design and function of what were then called logical machines, at least they were so called within Peirce's circle. Marquand however decided to went further and began with improvements upon the Logical Piano of Jevon. (It is unknown, if Marquand was acquainted with the logical machine of British logician and philosopher John Venn (1834-1920). Venn speculates on the design of a logical machine, based on the machine of Jevons. He even gives schematic diagrams for the construction of such a machine for four propositions, but it is not clear whether the machine was ever built.) The logical machine of Marquand (see the nearby photo) was designed to solve problems by formal logic. Construction with size 30/20/15 cm, from the wood of a red cedar post from Princeton's oldest homestead, the machine displayed all the valid implications of a simple logical proposition by using a hotel annunciator and an arrangement of rods and levers, catgut strings and spiral springs. Initially the machine of Marquand was met with disappointing reception. Peirce tried to encourage his pupil and friend (they were so close, that Marquand was lending him money), and proposed some possible ways for improving. One of them was to use electricity. It is possible even the whole electromagnetic design of the machine to have been made by Peirce, because Marquand after 1886 wrote no more on logical machines, while Peirce wrote in 1887 an amazing article (Logical Machines) on that topic for American Journal of Psychology. The article mentioned Marquand's work in a positive way, but Peirce continued to make comments on the problem, the latest known one being in 1906. There is a circuit diagram for the electromagnetic logical machine in the Marquand's archive, made around 1890 (see the lower image). The operating core consists of 16 electromagnetic elements—electromagnet with five separate coils, an armature with air gap, and spring to maintain a position for the unenergized armature (the armatures are shown only at the upper left position of the diagram). The information is represented as states of magnetic energy in each of the 16 elements. Circuit diagram for the electromagnetic logical machine The machine is used in this general way: First the programmer "resets" the machine, using the operate switch. Then a premise is entered by depressing the appropriate programming keys. Now using the control switch and the operate switch, the result being that the machine will remember all the elements previously programmed by key entries. One can now enter a new premise with the program keys, then using the operate switch to see the result of 2 premisses entered. One can save that again, and see the result of a third premise entered, and so on. At the proper point one can stop, inspect the read-out facility, which in this case is the pointers of element armatures, and from that determine what conclusion is consistent with the premisses entered. The machine is easy expandable to any size (any number of terms), hence this seems to be a design for a general-purpose, truth-functional, logical computer. As a conclusion—the first electrical logical machine was invented in 1886 by Charles Peirce and Allan Marquand.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23167000
Although it is composed in Old English, Beowulf is nevertheless about Danes and Geats, inhabitants of South Sweden as well as modern Denmark. There are eerie parallels between this poem and a late saga, that of Grettir the Strong, who operated in Iceland and Norway. Both authors dealt with the same cultural problem: ghosts and alien species hostile to humans. The two authors presented them essentially in the same way, and they bear little resemblance to ghosts as we understand them. While the lecture will summarize all relevant information, those interested could read Beowulf in the translation by Seamus Heaney, lines 99-1686. Those with still more time might look at the following in the Saga of Grettir: chapters 32-35 and 64-66. There are two translations available, one from the University of Toronto Press and the other from Penguin.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23180000
In the applet below you see 1D realisation of white and correlated noise with equidistant step in x. Independent random points uniform distribution on interval (-1, 1) make the white noise (the blue curve). Correlated random points Vi (the red curve) are obtained by averaging of white noise in radius Rc sphere, i.e. kernel Ko is used Vi = ∑j= -Rc,Rc fi+j To get a 2D fractal noise (mountain) you take an elastic string (see Fig.1), then a random vertical displacement is applied to its middle point. The process is repeated recursively to the middle point of every new segment. The random displacement decreases m times each iteration (usually m = 2 are used). Using Fourier transformation for V(r), K(r), f(r) g(k) = ∫ g(r) eikr dr , we get for V(k) V(k) = K(k) f(k) . I.e. averaging (*) means the white noise filtration by means of a filter with bandwidth K(k). The bandwidths for the two used filters are shown in Fig.3 (for Rc = 1) KG(k) ~ exp[-(Rck)2], Ko ~ sin(Rck)/k. At last 2D correlated random landscape. To get a smooth potential 2D Gauss kernel is used Percolation in random potential landscape Drag mouse to rotate 3D image (with "shift" to zoom it). The white line (in the blue bar to the right) corresponds to the average <V> value. The yellow line corresponds to the Fermi energy εF . Drag the line by mouse to change εF . See also 3D Mountains and Hidden Surface Removal Algorithms.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23183000
New Delhi: The population of the great Indian Bustard has reduced to less than 300, making the bird twice as endangered as the tiger. The rare bird has now been put on the Critically Endangered List by the World Conservation Union. Alarm bells are ringing for the 'Son chidiya' or the great Indian Bustard. The grassland bird that was once found across the Indian subcontinent, is now on the brink of extinction. It's estimated that not even 300 of these birds are left in India, pushing the species to the critically endangered list. What is alarming is that the bird is vanishing even from the sanctuaries meant for its protection. While the Desert National Park in Rajasthan has less than 100 birds, in Bustard Sanctuary in Maharasthra the bird's population has declined from 21 to just 9. And even worse, Karera Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, Sorsan in Rajasthan and Ranibennur Sanctuary in Karnataka have lost their entire population. Scientists have blamed it on disturbances and loss of the grassland habitat. BNHS Director Asad Rahmani said, "It needs scientific management of grasslands and the government should start project Bustard now." Just recently the National Board of wildlife gave approvals for denotification of Karera sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh and reduction of the Great Indian Bustard sanctuary in Maharashtra. It is now up to the government to decide if it wants to save this neglected species from extinction.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23185000
After maintaining a steady pace for a century, lighting technology has begun to leap forward, fueled by tightening energy efficiency standards and hefty incentives for manufacturers. And despite a bit of price shock on some lighting products, co-op members-especially large commercial and industrial accounts-are working with their local, not-for-profit, consumer-owned power providers to see if emerging lighting options can curb rising costs. Congress first enacted improved energy efficiency standards for incandescent bulbs under the federal Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. But when new lightbulb rules began to take effect in 2012, they were met with confusion. Under the law, by 2014, lightbulbs using between 40-W to 100-W must consume at least 28 percent less energy than traditional incandescents, which will save Americans an estimated $6 billion to $10 billion in lighting costs annually. The measure also mandates that lightbulbs become 70 percent more efficient by 2020. In June of this year, the U.S. House passed an amendment to stop enforcement of these standards, mirroring a funding freeze for enforcement efforts adopted in late 2011. Yet even if the provision becomes law, very little will change. Congress has not repealed or adjusted existing lightbulb efficiency standards or changed the timeline for implementation. Major lighting manufacturers like General Electric, Philips, and Osram Sylvania continue working to comply with the 2007 law. As the next wave of standards kicks in, traditional 75-W incandescent lightbulbs will no longer be available as of January 1, 2013, and 40-W and 60-W versions will no longer be available as of January 1, 2014. In the race to fill the nation’s growing need for efficient lighting comes a new breed of illuminators, led by light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Incandescent bulbs create light using a thin wire (filament) inside a glass bulb-a delicate connection that can easily be broken, as frustrated homeowners can attest. In contrast, LEDs are at the forefront of solid-state lighting-small, packed electronic chip devices. Two conductive materials are placed together on a chip (a diode). Electricity passes through the diode, releasing energy in the form of light. Invented in 1960 by General Electric, the first LEDs were red-the color depends on materials placed on the diode. Yellow, green, and orange LEDs were created in the 1970s and the recipe for the color blue-the foundation for white LEDs-was unlocked in the mid-1990s. Originally used in remote controls, exit signs, digital watches, alarm clocks, and car signal lights, LEDs quickly gained momentum for large-scale lighting. By 2030, the U.S. Department of Energy estimates solid-state lighting technologies could reduce the amount of electricity used for lighting (currently 13.6 percent of the nation’s total) by half, saving up to $30 billion a year in energy costs. Electric cooperatives are supporting LED study through the Cooperative Research Network (CRN), an arm of the Arlington, Va.-based National Rural Electric Cooperative Association. Recently, CRN worked with Western Farmers Electric Cooperative, a generation and transmission cooperative based in Anadarko, Okla., and the Oklahoma State University Animal Science Department to evaluate LEDs at a farrowing operation and a dairy farm in the Sooner State. The project measured the effectiveness of LEDs in harsh environments and looked for any influence on animal behavior. T-Bar M Dairy Ranch, outside of Durant, Okla., normally uses 250-W metal halide lights in its barns. CRN exchanged those bulbs in 10 fixtures with 120-W LEDs. After six months, the dairy had cut energy use by 55 percent and boosted brightness by 30 percent. “Utility costs go up every year-that’s reality,” explains Tami Tollenaar, who manages the dairy. “To move forward in your business, you have to look for ways to be more efficient. LEDs are one of the things we can do to help us move forward.” CRN also worked with Robinson Family Farms, a 380,000-head hog operation in Holdenville, Okla. The farm already used compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) but had problems because those bulbs didn’t work well in harsh conditions. “Lighting for a swine facility is pretty important,” explains owner Rich Robinson. “We try to convince the sows it’s spring year-round to improve their eating habits.” CRN switched 25 fixtures from 26-W CFLs to 15-W LEDs. After six months, Robinson slashed his energy use by 54 percent. “I was worried because normally when you see an LED it doesn’t seem to put out as much light as a 150-watt incandescent bulb-it’s a different type of light,” Robinson admits. “But, after installing the lights, I was surprised at how well they lit up the area. I think the LEDs actually outperformed the CFLs.” “The initial cost of LEDs is significantly higher than conventional lighting,” notes Scott Williams, Western Farmers Electric commercial & industrial marketing manager. “Like all modern technology, you can expect the price to come down as the product develops. However, when you consider all the factors over the life cycle of a light, LEDs have already proved they save money.” Shedding Light on LEDs Curious to know if LEDs are right for you? Homeowners can visit www.energysavers.gov/lighting to compare LEDs to new energy-efficient incandescent bulbs and CFLs. The Touchstone Energy® Cooperatives free app, “Save Energy, Save Money” for iPhone, iPad, and Android devices, includes a lighting calculator showing the potential savings from replacing incandescent lamps with either CFLs or LEDs; learn more at www.togetherwesave.com/Energy-Saving-App-Smartphones. For more in-depth information about LEDs and other types of solid-state lighting, visit www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/ssl. Sources: U.S. Department of Energy, Cooperative Research Network, Philips, ENERGY STAR, U.S. Energy Information Administration Megan McKoy-Noe, CCC, writes on consumer and cooperative affairs for the National Rural Electric Cooperative Association, the Arlington, Va.-based service organization for the nation’s 900-plus consumer-owned, not-for-profit electric cooperatives. Rob Holt contributed to this article.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23187000
Intellectual knowledge appears to be innate and privy to the few, but in fact, access to information, development of intellectual work skills, time investment, and the maintenance of intellectual appearances are key to being perceived as an intellectual. To make education more equitable, professors must go beyond knowledge transmission and instruct students in the concrete skills of knowledge acquisition and knowledge presentation. Instruction in intellectual skills-acquisition implies the breakdown of the traditional professor-student relationship and of the academic intellectual hierarchy and professors must learn to cope with the consequences of adopting new pedagogies. If we wish to share the secrets of our professions, how do we prepare our students for such a democratic approach and at the same time maintain our professional status? The author, a professor of Spanish language and literature, presents strategies for democratizing education and demystifying intellectual work through the application of skills-based pedagogical methodologies to the teaching of literature. The implications that these strategies have for a new type of learning and the impact that they have on social stratification will also be discussed. \|Keywords:\|\|Democratizing Education, Demystifying Intellectual Work, Knowledge Acquisition Skills, Interpretative Skills, Teaching Literature, Skills Based Teaching\| Assistant Professor of Spanish, Department of Literature and Languages, Roosevelt University, Chicago, Illinois, USA There are currently no reviews of this product.Write a Review	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23196000
Polonius, a character in Shakespeare's play "Hamlet" advises his son, "Neither a lender nor a borrower be". With due respect to Polonius and his genius, credit has become a part and parcel of our life. While most of us cannot be lenders, we are bound to be borrowers because of the system we live with. Consumer credit is a scheme to receive goods and services today in lieu of the payments made in future. When you use electricity, water, or post-paid telephone services, you are using credit, as the payment for these services will be paid later. These credits are not harmful but we have to be careful about the most used consumer credit options, i.e. credit cards, buying consumer goods on credit and easy financing etc Uses and misuses of credit Credit can be a great help in times of need but it can also destroy your finances if used carelessly. Using credit has two facets; it gives you immediate benefits in terms of increased productivity, conveniences, or just simple satisfaction to vanity; it also exerts financial and psychological costs. Use the credit only when the advantages outweigh the cost. The uses of credit are humongous ranging from medical emergencies, education needs, and travel emergencies. Credit cards are usually very handy in most of these situations. There are times when shopping stores (Pantaloon, Big Bazaar) issue credit cards jointly with a bank and provide 5%-10% cash back or discount. If you are a regular visitor to these stores, you should make use of this option. The only problem with this is that you end up shopping for things you do not need. In today's world, a credit card is handy to make reservation in airlines, train, or hotels. While credit helps in many cases where it increases productivity; helps in medical emergency; or builds future growth as in higher education; its misuse can ruin the finances, make you bankrupt and dilute your creditworthiness. Just because the credit card has a bigger limit, people tend to overspend. This is best avoided alongwith taking up 0% loans on consumer goods. In addition to these habits, people have a tendency to pay just the minimum amount required. The liability becomes huge after some time. Managing your credit capacity It is important to build a good credit capacity (or rating) by judiciously using the credit options available to us. You need to consciously build a good credit score that will enable you to get higher credit in case of an emergency. Instead of driving yourselves into a situation that would require external help like that of a credit counselling agency, try to nip the evil in the bud and figure ways to manage your finances effectively. Using credit does allow you to spend more on goods and services now. But it also reduces the money you have for future needs as a part of your future income will be used to pay for the services or goods you are buying now. Taking inspiration from what Benjamin Graham said, credit has become a reality of life as certain as death and taxes. To manage our credit better, we have to follow a few ground rules. Here are a few beginners' tips that can prove useful: - Pay the credit card bills on time. No exception. - Mind your credit scores. If you feel your card details have been compromised, take it up immediately with the bank, which has issued you the card - Pay your EMI regularly. Any default will damage your credit score and hence creditworthiness. - Do not use too many credit cards. - Avoid treating credit cards as easy money. This is the money you have to pay back with high interest if you make it a habit to pay only the minimum amount due every month. - Do not buy unnecessary items just because it is available on zero credit and low EMI. Remember its money spent! - Always try to increase your down payment when you take up a loan so that your monthly liability doesn't eat into your savings. Finally, credit doesn't increase your purchasing power. It just brings future purchasing power to the present and gives you a false impression that it has increased. By BankBazaar.com - an online marketplace for your personal loan and home loan needs.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23200000
A new study shows that inheritance may be the cause for the rise in diabetes in the U.S. Scientists are studying additional forms of inheritance, besides DNA, like metabolic programming, which can occur in the womb or shortly after birth, and causes permanent changes in metabolism. Researchers in the study looked at mice with diets high in saturated fat and studied the results in the mice and their offspring. They found that a high-fat diet brought on type 2 diabetes in the adult mice. If a pregnant female mouse stayed on a high-fat diet, their offspring had a greater chance of developing diabetes, even when given a moderate-fat diet. Researchers say that these studies have only been tested on mice, so there’s no further reason as of yet to warn mothers to eat differently during pregnancy. Even mated with healthy mice, the next generation offspring could develop diabetes as well. This study was published in the September issue of the Journal of Lipid Research. Source: Journal of Lipid Research	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23217000
The Muslim Home – 40 Book by Sheikh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid Forming the household Creating an atmosphere of faith in the home Islamic Knowledge in the home Meetings at home Good manners at home Evils in the home The home inside and out Bismillaah il-Rahmaan il-Raheem In the Name of Allaah, Most Gracious, Most All praise be to Allaah, we praise Him and seek His help and forgiveness. We seek refuge with Allaah from the evil of our own selves and from our evil deeds. Whomsoever Allaah guides, no one can lead astray, and whomsoever Allaah leaves astray, no one can guide. I bear witness that there is no god but Allaah Alone, with no partner or associate, and I bear witness that Muhammad is His slave and Messenger. The home is a blessing. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): “And Allaah has made for you in your homes an abode…” [al-Nahl 16:80] Ibn Katheer (may Allaah have mercy on him) said: “Here Allaah, may He be blessed and exalted, is mentioning His complete blessing to His slaves: He has given them homes which are a peaceful abode for them, to which they retreat as a haven which covers them and gives them all kinds of What does the home represent to each one of us? Is it not the place where he eats, enjoys intimacy with his wife, sleeps and rests? Is it not the place where he can be alone and can meet with his wife and Is the home not the place that offers cover and protection to women? Allaah tells us (interpretation of the meaning): “And stay in your houses, and do not display yourselves like that of the times of ignorance…” [al-Ahzaab 33:33] If you think about those who are homeless, who live in shelters, or on the streets, or as refugees scattered in temporary camps, then you will realize the blessing of having a home. If you listen to a distressed homeless person saying, “I have nowhere to settle, no fixed place to stay. Sometimes I sleep in so and so’s house, sometimes in a café or park or on the sea-front, and I keep my clothes in my car”, then you will realize the disruption that results from not having the blessing of a home. When Allaah punished the Jews of Banu Nadeer, He took away this blessing and expelled them from their homes, as He said (interpretation of the meaning): “He it is Who drove out the disbelievers among the people of the Scripture (i.e. the Jews of the tribe of Banu al-Nadeer) from their homes at the first gathering.” Then He said: “… they destroyed their own dwellings with their own hands and the hands of the believers. Then take admonition, O you with eyes (to see).” [al-Hashr 59:2]. There are many motives for the believer to pay attention to putting his house in order. Firstly: protecting himself and his family from the Fire of Hell, and keeping them safe from the burning punishment: “O you who believe! Ward off from yourselves and your families a Fire (Hell) whose fuel is men and stones, over which are (appointed) angels stern (and) severe, who disobey not, (from executing) the Commands they receive from Allaah, but do that which they are commanded.” [al-Tahreem 66:6 – interpretation of the meaning]. Secondly: the great responsibility borne by the head of the household on the Day of Reckoning. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Allaah will ask every shepherd (or responsible person) about his flock (those for whom he was responsible), whether he took care of it or neglected it, until He asks a man about his household.” Thirdly: the home is a place to protect oneself, to keep away from evil and to keep one's own evil away from people. It is the refuge prescribed by Islam at times of fitnah (strife, tribulation). The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Blessed is the one who controls his tongue, whose house is sufficient for him, and who weeps over his mistakes.” The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “There are five things, whoever does one of them, Allaah will be with him: visiting the sick, going out for jihaad, entering upon his leader with the intention of rebuking and respecting him , or sitting in his home so that the people are safe from him and he is safe from the people.” The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “The safety of a man at times of fitnah is in his staying home.” The Muslim can see the benefit of this advice when he is residing in a foreign land where he is unable to change much of the evil around him. Then he will have a refuge which, when he enters it, will protect him from doing haraam things or looking at haraam things, and will protect his wife from wanton display and unveiling, and will protect his children from bad company. Fourthly: people usually spend most of their time at home, especially when it is very hot or very cold, when it is raining, early or late in the day, and after finishing work or school, so this time should be spent in worship and halaal pursuits, otherwise it will be spent in wrongdoing. Fifthly and most importantly, paying attention to the home is the most important means of building a Muslim society, because the society is formed of the households and families that form its building blocks. Households form neighbourhoods, and neighbourhoods form societies. If the building blocks are sound, the society will be based on the laws of Allaah, standing firm in the face of enemies and filled with goodness that evil cannot penetrate. Then Muslim homes will produce pillars of society who will reform and guide it aright, such as exemplary dai’yahs, seekers of knowledge, sincere mujaahideen, righteous wives, caring mothers and all other types of reformers. Because this subject is so important, and our homes are full of so many shortcomings and evils and examples of negligence, this begs the very important question: What are the means of reforming our homes? The following contains advice on this topic. May Allaah benefit us from it, and cause the Muslims to focus their efforts on reviving the Muslim home. All the following advice revolves around two things: achieving our interests, which is by establishing that which is right and good, and warding off evil, by removing that which can cause it or bring it into our homes. Forming the household (1) Making a good choice when choosing a wife “And marry those among you who are single (i.e., a man who has no wife and a woman who has no husband) and (also marry) the saalihoon (pious, fit and capable ones) of your (male) slaves and maid-servants (female slaves). If they be poor, Allaah will enrich them out of His Bounty. And Allaah is All-Sufficient for His creatures’ needs, All-Knowing (about the state of the people).” [al-Noor 24:32 – interpretation of the meaning]. The head of the household must select a righteous and suitable wife based on the following conditions described in various “A woman may be married for four things: her wealth, her lineage, her beauty or her religion. Choose the one who is religious, may your hands be rubbed with dust [i.e., may you prosper]!” “This world is all temporary conveniences, and the greatest joy in this life is a righteous wife.” (Reported by Muslim, “Let every one of you have a thankful heart, a remembering tongue [remembering Allaah] and a believing wife who will help him with regard to the Hereafter.” (Reported by Ahmad, 5/282, and al-Tirmidhi and Ibn Maajah from Thawbaan. Saheeh al-Jaami’, 5231). According to another report: “A righteous wife to help you with your worldly and religious affairs is the best treasure anyone could have.” (Reported by al-Bayhaqi. Saheeh al-Jaami’, 4285). “Marry one who is loving and fertile, for I will be proud before the other Prophets of your great numbers on the Day of Resurrection.” (Reported by Ahmad. Saheeh al-Irwa’, 6/195). “I advise you to marry virgins, for their wombs are more fresh, their mouths are more sweet and they are more content with little.” According to another report: “… and they are less likely to deceive.” (Reported by Ibn Maajah. Al-Silsilah al-Saheeh, 623). Just as a righteous wife is one of the four elements of happiness, so a bad wife is one of the four elements of misery, as it says in the saheeh hadeeth: “One of (the elements of) happiness is a righteous wife, who when you see her you feel pleased, and when you are away, you feel that you can trust her with regard to herself and your property. And one of (the elements of) misery is a bad wife who when you see her, you feel upset, she keeps attacking you verbally, and when you are away, you do not feel that you can trust her with regard to herself and your property.” On the other hand, it is also essential to look at the situation of the prospective husband who is proposing marriage to the Muslim woman, and to agree to his proposal in accordance with the following The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “If there comes to you one with whose religion and character you are pleased, then marry your daughter [or sister, etc.] to him, otherwise there will be fitnah and great corruption in the land.” All of the above must be achieved through asking the right questions, verifying facts, gathering information and checking sources, so that the home will not be corrupted or destroyed. The righteous man and righteous woman together will build a righteous home, because “the vegetation of a good land comes forth (easily) by the Permission of its Lord, and that which is bad, brings forth nothing but a little with difficulty…” [al-A’raaf 7:58 – interpretation of (2) Striving to guide one’s wife If one's wife is righteous, this is a blessing indeed, and this is from the Bounty of Allaah. If she is not that righteous, then it is the duty of the head of the household to strive to guide her. Any of the following scenarios may apply: A man may marry a woman who is not religious in the first place, because he himself is not religious at first, or he may have married her in the hope of guiding her, or under pressure from his relatives, for example. In these cases he must strive hard to guide her. A man must also realize from the outset that guidance comes from Allaah, and that Allaah is the One Who reforms people. One of His blessings to his slave Zakariya was, as He said (interpretation of the meaning): “… and [We] cured his wife for him…” [al-Anbiya’ 21:90]. This curing or reforming may have been physical or religious. Ibn ‘Abbaas said: “She was barren and could not have children, then she had a child.” ‘Ataa’ said: “She was harsh of tongue, and Allaah reformed her.” There are various means of guiding or reforming one’s wife, such as: Paying attention to correcting her worship of Allaah in all its aspects, as will be discussed in detail below. Striving to strengthen her eemaan, such as: encouraging her to pray at night (qiyaam al-layl) encouraging her to read Qur’aan encouraging her to memorize adhkaar and remember the appropriate times and occasions for saying them encouraging her to give charity encouraging her to read useful Islamic books encouraging her to listen to useful Islamic cassettes that can increase knowledge and strengthen eemaan – and continuing to supply her with them. choosing good, religious friends for her, with whom she can form ties of sisterhood and have good conversations and purposeful protecting her from evil and blocking off all avenues for it to reach her, by keeping her away from bad companions and bad Creating an atmosphere of faith in Making the home a place for the remembrance of Allaah The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “The likeness of a house in which Allaah is remembered and the house in which Allaah is not remembered is that of the living and the dead, We must make our homes places where Allaah is remembered in all kinds of ways, whether in our hearts, verbally, during prayer, by reading Qur’aan, by discussing Islamic issues, or by reading different kinds of Islamic books. How many Muslim homes nowadays are dead because there is no remembrance of Allaah, as mentioned in the hadeeth. What must they be like when all that is heard therein is the music of Shaytaan with instruments and singing, and backbiting, slander and gossip? What must they be like when they are filled with evil and sin, such as the haraam mixing of the sexes and wanton display between relatives who are not mahram or with neighbours who enter the home? How can the angels enter a home like this? Revive your homes with all kinds of dhikr, may Allaah have mercy on you! (4) Make your homes a qiblah What is meant is taking the home as a place of Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): “And We inspired Moosa and his brother (saying): ‘Take dwellings for your people in Egypt, and make your dwellings as places for your worship, and perform al-salaah, and give glad tidings to the believers.’” [Yoonus 10:87]. Ibn ‘Abbaas said: “They were commanded to take their dwellings as places of prayer [lit. mosques].” Ibn Katheer said: “This – and Allaah knows best – was because of the intensity of the tribulation that they were facing from Pharaoh and his people. They were commanded to pray much, as Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): ‘O you who believe! Seek help with patience and prayer…’ [al-Baqarah 2:153], and as it was reported in the hadeeth that the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), when he was distressed by something, would pray.” This explains the importance of worshipping at home, especially at times when the Muslims are in a position of weakness, as happens in some places where the Muslims cannot pray openly in front of the kuffaar. In this context we may think of the mihraab of Maryam, which was her place of worship, as Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): “… Every time Zakariya entered the mihraab to visit her, he found her supplied with sustenance…” [Aal ‘Imraan 3:37] The Sahaabah (may Allaah be pleased with them) used to be keen to pray at home – apart from the fard or obligatory prayers (which they prayed in congregation in the mosque) – and there is a moving story concerning this. Mahmood ibn al-Rabee’ al-Ansaari reported that ‘Utbaan ibn Maalik – who was one of the Companions of the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and was one of the Ansaar who had been present at Badr – came to the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and said: “I am losing my sight, and I lead my people in prayer. When it rains, the valley between me and them gets flooded and I cannot get to their mosque to lead them in prayer. O Messenger of Allaah, I would like you to come to come and pray in my house so that I can take it as a place for prayer.” The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said, “I will do that, in sha Allaah.” ‘Utbaan said: “The next day the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and Abu Bakr came in the morning. The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) asked for permission to enter, and I gave him permission. He did not sit down until he entered the house, then he said, ‘Where would you like me to pray in your house?’ I showed him a corner of the house, then the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) stood up, said Takbeer, and we stood in a row behind him, and he prayed two rak’ahs and gave the salaam at the end of the prayer.” (Reported by al-Bukhaari, al-Fath, 1/519) (5) Spiritual training for the members of the ‘Aa’ishah (may Allaah be pleased with her) said: “The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) used to pray qiyaam at night, and when he prayed witr he would say, ‘Get up and pray witr, O ‘Aa’ishah’” (Reported by Muslim, Muslim bi Sharh al-Nawawi, The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “May Allaah have mercy on a man who gets up at night and prays, then he wakes up his wife to pray, and if she refuses he throws water in her face.” (Reported by Ahmad and Abu Dawood. Saheeh al-Jaami’, 3488). Encouraging the women of one's household to give charity is another means of increasing faith. This is something very important which the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) encouraged, when he said, “O women! Give in charity, for I have seen that you form the majority of the inhabitants of Hell.” (Reported by al-Bukhaari, al-Fath, One of the new ideas is to have a box at home for donations to the poor and needy: whatever is put in the box belongs to them, because it is their vessel in the Muslim home. If the family members see an example among them fasting on al-Ayyaam al-Beed (the 13th, 14th and 15th of each Hijri month), Mondays and Thursdays, Taasoo’aa’ and ‘Aashooraa’ (the 9th and 10th of Muharram), ‘Arafaah, and frequently in Muharram and Sha’baan, this will be a motive for them to do likewise. Paying attention to adhkaar and Sunnah du’aa’s that have to do with the home Adkhaar for entering the home: Muslim reported in his Saheeh that the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “When any one of you enters his home and mentions the Name of Allaah when he enters and when he eats, the Shaytaan says: ‘You have no place to stay and nothing to eat here.’ If he enters and does not mention the name of Allaah when he enters, [the Shaytaan] says, ‘You have a place to stay.’ If he does not mention the name of Allaah when he eats, [the Shaytaan says], ‘You have a place to stay and something to eat.’” (Reported by Imaam Ahmad, al-Musnad, 3/346; Abu Dawood reported in his Sunan that the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “If a man goes out of his house and says, ‘Bismillaah, tawakkaltu ‘ala Allaah, laa hawla wa laa quwwata illaa Billaah (In the name of Allaah, I put my trust in Allaah, there is no help and no strength except in Allaah),’ it will be said to him, ‘This will take care of you, you are guided, you have what you need and you are protected.’ The Shaytaan will stay away from him, and another shaytaan will say to him, ‘What can you do with a man who is guided, provided for and protected?’” (Reported by Abu Dawood and al-Tirmidhi. Saheeh al-Jaami’, Imaam Muslim reported in his Saheeh that ‘Aa’ishah (may Allaah be pleased with her) said: “When the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) entered his house, the first thing he would do was use siwaak.” (Reported by Muslim, Kitaab al-Tahaarah, chapter 15, no. 44). Continuously reciting Soorat al-Baqarah in the house to ward off the Shaytaan There are a number of ahaadeeth concerning this, The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Do not make your houses into graves. The Shaytaan flees from a house in which Soorat al-Baqarah is recited.” (Reported by The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Recite Soorat al-Baqarah in your houses, for the Shaytaan does not enter a house in which Soorat al-Baqarah is recited.” (Reported by al-Haakim in al-Mustadrak. 1/561; Saheeh al-Jaami’, Concerning the virtues of the last two aayaat of this soorah, and the effect of reciting them in one’s house, he (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Allaah wrote a document two thousand years before He created the heavens and the earth, which is kept near the Throne, and He revealed two aayaat of it with which He concluded Soorat al-Baqarah. If they are recited in a house for three consecutive nights, the Shaytaan will not approach it.” (Reported by Imaam Ahmad in al-Musnad, 4/274, and others. Saheeh al-Jaami’, 1799). Islamic Knowledge in the home (8)Teaching the family This is an obligation which the head of the household must undertake, in obedience to the command of Allaah (interpretation of the meaning): “O you who believe! Ward off from yourselves and your families a Fire (Hell) whose fuel is men and stones…” [al-Tahreem 66:6]. This aayah is the basic principle regarding the teaching and upbringing of one's family, and enjoining them to do what is good and forbidding them to do what is evil. There follow some of the comments of the mufassireen on this aayah, in so far as it pertains to the duties of the head of the household. Qutaadah said: “He should command them to obey Allaah, and forbid them to disobey Him, and direct them in accordance with the commands of Allaah, and help them to do that.” Dahhaak and Muqaatil said: “It is the Muslim’s duty to teach his family, including relatives and female slaves, what Allaah has enjoined upon them and what He has forbidden.” ‘Ali (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: “Teach them and discipline them.” Al-Tabari (may Allaah have mercy on him) said: “We must teach our children and wives the religion and goodness, and whatever they need of good manners. If the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) used to urge the teaching of female servants, who were slaves, what do you think about your children and wives, who are free?” Al-Bukhaari (may Allaah have mercy on him) said in his Saheeh: “Chapter: a man’s teaching his female slaves and wife.” Then he quoted the hadeeth of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him): “There are three who will have two rewards: … a man who has a female slave whom he teaches good manners and teaches her well, and teaches her knowledge, and teaches her well, then he frees her and marries her: he will have two Ibn Hajar (may Allaah have mercy on him) said, commenting on this hadeeth: “The chapter heading refers specifically to female slaves, and to wives by analogy, i.e., teaching one’s free wife about her duties towards Allaah and the Sunnah of His Messenger is more clearly essential than teaching one's female slaves.” In the midst of all a man’s activities, work and other commitments, he may forget to allow himself time for teaching his wife. One solution to this is to allocate some time for the family, and even for others such as relatives, to hold a study-circle at home. He can let everyone know the time and encourage them to come regularly, so that it will be an ongoing commitment for him and for them. Something similar happened at the time of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him). Al-Bukhaari (may Allaah have mercy on him) said: “Chapter: can the women be given a day exclusively for them to seek knowledge”? and quoted the hadeeth of Abu Sa’eed al-Khudri (may Allaah be pleased with him): “The women said to the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him): ‘The men always crowd us out and we cannot reach you, so set aside a day for us when we can come to you.’ So he set aside a day when he would meet them and teach Ibn Hajar said: “A similar report was narrated by Sahl ibn Abi Saalih from Abu Hurayrah, according to which [the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him)] said: ‘Your appointment is in the house of so and so,’ and he came to them and spoke to them.’” What we learn from this is that women should be taught in their houses, and we see how keen the women of the Sahaabah were to learn. Directing teaching efforts to men alone, and not to women, is a serious shortcoming on the part of dai’yahs and heads of households. Some readers may ask, suppose we set aside a day, and tell our families about it – what should we study in these gatherings? Where do we begin? I suggest that you begin with a simple program to teach your family in general, and the women in particular, using the following The tafseer of al-‘Allaamah Ibn Sa’di, entitled Tayseer al-Kareem al-Rahmaan fi Tafseer Kalaam al-Mannaan, which is published in seven volumes and is written in an easy style; you can read it or teach somes soorahs and passages from it. – you coul discuss the ahaadeeth quoted, along with the footnotes and the lessons learned from them. You could also refer to the book Nuzhat Hasan al-Uswah bimaa thubita ‘an Allaahi wa Rasoolihi fi’l-Nuswah, by al-‘Allaamah Siddeeq Hasan Khaan. It is also important to teach women some of the ahkaam of fiqh, such as the rulings on tahaarah (purity) and menstrual and post-partum bleeding, salaah, zakaah, siyaam (fasting) and hajj, if she is able to go; some of the rulings on food and drink, clothing and adornment, the sunan al-fitrah, rulings on mahaarim (who is a mahram relative and who is not), rulings on singing and photography, and so on. Among the important sources of such information are the fatwas (rulings or edicts) of the scholars, such as the collections of fatwas by Shaykh ‘Abd al-‘Azeez ibn Baaz and Shaykh Muhammad ibn Saalih al-‘Uthaymeen, and other scholars, whether they are written fatwas or fatwas recorded on tapes. Another matter that may be included in a syllabus for teaching women and family members is reminding them of lessons or public lectures given by trustworthy scholars and seekers of knowledge which they can attend, so they can have a variety of excellent sources for learning. We should not forget either the radio programs of Idhaa’at al-Qur’aan al-Kareem; another means of teaching is reminding family members of the particular days when women can attend Islamic bookstores, and taking them there, within the guidelines of sharee’ah [i.e., proper hijaab, etc.] (9)Start building an Islamic “library” in your Another thing that will help in teaching your family and letting them develop a understanding of their religion and help them adhere to its rules, is having one’s own Islamic library at home. It does not have to be extensive; what matters is choosing good books, putting them in a place where they are readily accessible, and encouraging family members to read You could put books in a clean and tidy corner of the living room, and in a suitable place in a bedroom or guest room; this will make it easy for any member of the family to read constantly. In order to build a library properly – and Allaah loves things to be done properly – you should include references so that family members can research various matters and children can use them for their studies. You should also include books of varying levels, so that old and young, men and women can all use them. You should also have books for giving to guests, children’s friends and family visitors, but try to get books that are attractively presented, edited properly and with the sources and classification of the ahaadeeth properly given. You can make the most of Islamic bookstores and exhibitions to build a home library, after consulting and seeking advice from those who have experience in the field of books. One way in which you can help family members to find a book when they want it is to organize the books according to subject, with books of Tafseer on one shelf, books of hadeeth on another, fiqh on a third, and so on. One of the family members could also compile alphabetical or subject indexes of the library, to make it easier to look for books. Many of those who want to start a home library may ask for titles of Islamic books. Here are a few suggestions: Tafseer Ibn Sa’di by Ibn al-Qayyim by Ibn ‘Uthaymeen Lamahaat fi ‘Uloom al-Qur’aan by Muhammad al-Sabbaagh Saheeh al-Kalim al-Tayyib ‘Aml al-Muslim fi’l-Yawm wa’l-Laylah (or: Al-Saheeh al-Musnad min Adhkaar al-Yawm wa’l-Laylah) and its commentary Nuzhat al-Muttaqeen Mukhtasar Saheeh al-Bukhaari Mukhtasar Saheeh Muslim by al-Mundhiri and al-Albaani Saheeh al-Jaami’ al-Sagheer Da’eef al-Jaami’ al-Sagheer Saheeh al-Targheeb wa’l-Tarheeb Al-Sunnah wa Makaanatuhaa fi’l-Tashree’ Qawaa’id wa fawaa’id min al-Arba’een al-Nawawiyyah by Naazim Sultaan Fath al-Majeed Sharh Kitaab al-Tawheed (edited by al-Arnaa’oot) A’laam al-Sunnah al-Manshoorah by al-Hakami (ed.) Sharh al-‘Aqeedah al-Tahhaawiyyah, edited by al-Albaani The series on ‘Aqeedah by Umar Sulaymaan al-Ashqar in 8 parts by Dr. Yoosuf al-Waabil by Ibn Duwiyyaan by Ibn Qudaamah [also available in English translation] by Saalih al-Fawzaan Collections of fatwas by different scholars (‘Abd al-‘Azeez ibn Baaz, Muhammad Saalih al-‘Uthaymeen, ‘Abd-Allaah ibn Jibreen) Sifat Salaah al-Nabi (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) by Shaykh al-Albaani and Shaykh ‘Abd al-‘Azeez ibn Baaz [available in English under the title The Prophet’s Prayer Described] Mukhtasar Ahkaam al-Janaa’iz Good manners and purification of the soul: Tahdheeb Madaarij al-Saalikeen Tareeq al-Hijratayn wa Baab al-Sa’aadatayn Raafi’ al-Kalim al-Tayyib by Ibn al-Qayyim by Ibn Rajab Tahdheeb Maw’izat al-Mu’mineen Seerah and biographies by Ibn Katheer Mukhtasar al-Shamaa’il al-Muhammadiyyah by al-Tirmidhi, abridged by al-Albaani by al-Mubaarakpoori [available in English translation] Al-‘Awaasim min al-Qawaasim by Ibn al-‘Arabi, ed. by al-Khateeb and al-Istanbooli (2 vols.) by Shaykh Akram al-‘Umari [available in English under the title Madinan Society at the Time of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be Siyar A’lam al-Nubala’ Minhaj Kitaabat al-Taareekh al-Islaami by Muhammad ibn Saamil al-Salami There are many other good books on various topics, such as those by: Shaykh Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhaab Shaykh ‘Abd al-Rahmaan ibn Naasir al-Sa’di Shaykh ‘Umar Sulaymaan ibn Ashqar Shaykh Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Ismaa’eel Prof. Muhammad Muhammad Husayn Shaykh Muhammad Jameel Zayno Prof. Husayn al-‘Awayishah’s books on al-Raqaa’iq (topics to soften the heart and strengthen eemaan) by Muhammad Na’eem Yaaseen by Shaykh Muhammad Sa’eed al-Qahtaani [available in English translation] Al-Inhiraafaat al-‘Aqdiyyah fi’l-Qarnayn al-Thaani ‘Ashara wa’l-Thaalith ‘Ashara by ‘Ali ibn Bukhayt al-Zahraani Al-Muslimoon wa Zaahirat al-Hazeemah al-Nafsiyyah by ‘Abd-Allaah Al-Mar’ah bayn al-Fiqh wa’l-Qaanoon by Mustafa al-Sibaa’i Al-Usrah al-Muslimah amaam al-video wa’l-tilifiziyon by Marwaan Kijik Al-Mar’ah al-Muslimah I’daadaatuhaa wa mas’ooliyaatuhaa by Ahmad Abu Bateen Mas’ooliyat al-Abb al-Muslim fi Tarbiyat Waladihi by ‘Adnaan Baahaarith by Ahmad al-Baaraazi Wa Jaa’a Dawr al-Maajoos by ‘Abd-Allaah Muhammad al-Ghareeb Books by Shaykh Bakr Abu Zayd Abhaath al-Shaykh Mashoor There are many other useful, good books – what we have mentioned is only by way of example, and is by no means a complete list. There are also many useful pamphlets and booklets, but it would take too long to list everything. The Muslim should consult others and think hard. Whomever Allaah wishes good for, He helps him to understand His religion. (10)Home audio library Having a cassette player in every home may be used for good or for evil. How can we use it in a manner that is pleasing to One of the ways in which we can achieve this is to have a home audio library containing good Islamic tapes by scholars, fuqaha’, lecturers, khateebs and preachers. Listening to tapes of Qur’aan recitation by some Imaams, for example those recorded during Taraaweeh prayers, will have a great impact on family members, whether by impressing upon them the meanings of the Revelation, or by helping them to memorize Qur’aan because of repeated listening. It will also protect them by letting them hear Qur’aanic recitation rather than the music and singing of the Shaytaan, because it is not right for the words of al-Rahmaan (Allaah) to be mixed with the music of the Shaytaan in the heart of the believer. Tapes of fatwas may have a great effect on family members and help them to understand various rulings, which will have an impact on their daily lives. We suggest listening to tapes of fatwas given by scholars such as Shaykh ‘Abd al-‘Azeez ibn Baaz, Shaykh Muhammad Naasir al-Deen al-Albaani, Shaykh Muhammad al-‘Uthaymeen, Shaykh Saalih al-Fawzaan, and other Muslims must also pay attention to the sources from which they take fatwas, because this is the matter of religion, so look to where you take your religion from. You should take it from someone who is known to be righteous and pious, who bases his fatwas on sound ahaadeeth, who is not fanatical in his adherence to a madhhab, who follows sound evidence and adheres to a middle path without being either extreme or too lenient. Ask an expert. “… Allaah, Most Gracious: ask, then about Him of any acquainted (with such things).” [al-Furqaan 25:59 – interpretation of the meaning – Yusuf Ali’s Listening to lectures by those who are striving to raise the awareness of the ummah, establish proof and denounce evil, is very important for establishing individual personalities in the Muslim home. There are many tapes and lectures, and the Muslim needs to know the features of the sound methodology so as to distinguish sound lecturers from others and look for their tapes, which they can listen to with confidence. Among these features are: The lecturer should be a believer in the ‘aqeedah of the Saved Group, Ahl al-Sunnah wa’l-Jamaa’ah, adhering to the Sunnah and firmly rejecting bid’ah. The speaker should be moderate, neither extremist nor He should base his talks on sound ahaadeeth, and beware of weak and fabricated ahaadeeth. He should have insight into people’s situations and the realities of the ummah, and should offer the appropriate remedy for any problem, giving the people what they need. He should speak the truth as much as he can, and not utter falsehood or please the people by angering Allaah. We often find that tapes for children have a great influence on them, whether by helping them to memorize Qur’aan by listening to a young reader, or du’aa’s to be recited at various times of day and night, or Islamic manners, or nasheeds (religious “songs” with no instrumental accompaniment) with a useful message, and so on. Putting tapes in drawers in an organized fashion will make it easier to find them, and will also protect them from getting damaged or from being played with by young children. We should distribute good tapes by giving or lending them to others after listening to them. Having a recorder in the kitchen will be very useful for the lady of the house, and having a recorder in the bedroom will help a person make good use of time until the last moments of the day. (11) Inviting good and righteous people and seekers of knowledge to visit the home. “My Lord! Forgive me, and my parents, and him who enters my home as a believer, and all the believing men and women…” [Nooh 71:28 – interpretation of the meaning]. If people of faith enter your home, it will increase in light (noor), and will bring many benefits because of your conversations and discussion with them. The bearer of musk will either give you some, or you will buy from him, or you will find that he has a pleasant scent. When children, brothers and parents sit with such visitors, and women listen from behind a curtain or screen to what is said, this offers an educational experience to all. If you bring good people into your home, by doing so you keep bad people from coming in a wreaking havoc. (12) Learning the Islamic rulings with regard Praying in the house With regard to men, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “The best of prayer is a man’s prayer in his house – apart from the prescribed prayers.” (Reported by al-Bukhaari, al-Fath, no. 731). It is obligatory to pray (the five daily prayers) in the mosque, except if there is a valid excuse. The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) also said: “A man’s voluntary prayers in his house will bring more reward than his voluntary prayers at other people’s places, just as his obligatory prayers with the people are better than his obligatory prayers alone.” (Reported by Ibn Abi Shaybah. Saheeh With regard to women, the deeper inside her home her place of prayer is, the better, because the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “The best prayer for women is [that offered] in the furthest part of their houses.” (Reported by al-Tabaraani. Saheeh A man should not be led in prayer in his own home, and no one should sit in the place where the master of the house usually sits, except with his permission. The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “A man should not be led in prayer in his place of authority, and no one should sit in his place in his house, except with his permission.” (Reported by al-Tirmidhi, no. 2772). I.e., no one should go forward to lead him in prayer, even if they recite Qur’aan better than he does, in a place that he owns or where he has authority, such as a householder in his home, or an imaam in a mosque. Similarly, it is not permitted to sit in the private spot of the head of the master of the house, such as a bed or mattress, etc., except with his permission. Seeking permission to enter. “O you who believe! Enter not houses other than your own, until you have asked permission and greeted those in them, that is better for you, in order that you may remember. And if you find no one therein, still, enter not until permission has been given. And if you are asked to go back, go back, for it is purer for you. And Allaah is All-Knower of what you do.” [al-Noor 24:27-28 – interpretation of the meaning]. “… so enter houses through their proper doors…” [al-Baqarah 2:189 – interpretation of the meaning]. It is permissible to enter houses that are empty if one has some legitimate business there, such as a house prepared for guests. “There is no sin on you that you enter (without taking permission) houses uninhabited (i.e., not possessed by anybody), (when) you have any interest in them. And Allaah has knowledge of what you reveal and what you conceal.” [al-Noor 24:29 – interpretation of the meaning]. Not feeling too shy to eat in the houses of friends and relatives, and in houses of friends and relatives and others to which one has the keys, if they have no objection to that. “There is no restriction on the blind, nor any restriction on the lame, nor any restriction on the sick, nor on yourselves, if you eat from your houses, or the houses of your fathers, or the houses of your mothers, or the houses of your brothers, or the houses of your sisters, or the houses of your father’s brothers, or the houses of your father’s sisters, or the houses of your mother’s brothers, or the houses of your mother’s sisters, or (from that) whereof you hold keys, or (from the house) of a friend. No sin on you whether you eat together or apart…” Telling children and servants not to barge in to the parents’ bedroom without permission at the times when people usually sleep, i.e., before Fajr, at siesta time and after ‘Isha’, lest they see something inappropriate. If they see something accidentally at other times, this is forgivable, because they are tawwaafeen (those who go about in the house) and it is difficult to stop them. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): “O you who believe! Let your legal slaves and slave-girls, and those among you who have not come to the age of puberty ask your permission (before they come to your presence) on three occasions: before Fajr prayer, and while you put off your clothes for the noonday (rest), and after the ‘Isha prayer. (These) three times are of privacy for you; other than these times there is no sin on you or on them to move about, - attending (helping) you each other. Thus Allaah makes clear the aayaat (verses of this Qur’aan, showing proofs for the legal aspects of permission for visits, etc.) to you. And Allaah is All-Knowing, All-Wise.” [al-Noor 24:57]. It is forbidden to look into the houses of other people without their permission. The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Whoever looks into someone’s house without their permission, put his eyes out, and there is no diyah or qisaas [blood money or retaliation] in this case.” (Reported by Ahmad, al-Musnad, 2/385; Saheeh al-Jaami, 6046). A woman who has been divorced by talaaq for a first or second time [and could still go back to her husband] should not leave or be made to leave her home during the ‘iddah, and she should still be supported financially. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): “O Prophet! When you divorce women, divorce them at their ‘iddah (prescribed periods), and count (accurately) their ‘iddah (periods). And fear Allaah your Lord (O Muslims), and turn them not out of their (husband’s) homes, nor shall they (themselves) leave, except in case they are guilty of some open illegal sexual intercourse. And those are the set limits of Allaah. And whoever transgresses the set limits of Allaah, then indeed he has wronged himself. You (the one who divorces his wife) know not, it may be that Allaah will afterward bring some new thing to pass (i.e., to return her back to you, if this as the first or second divorce).” [al-Talaaq 65:1] It is permissible for a man to forsake his rebellious wife inside or outside the home, according to the interests prescribed by sharee’ah in any given case. The evidence for forsaking her inside the home is the aayah (interpretation of the meaning): “… refuse to share their beds…” [al-Nisa’ 4:34]. With regard to forsaking women outside the home, this is what happened when the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) forsook his wives, leaving them in their apartments and staying in a room outside the houses of his wives. (Reported by al-Bukhaari, Kitaab al-Talaaq, Baab fi’l-Eelaa’). One should not stay alone overnight in the house. Ibn ‘Umar (may Allaah be pleased with him) reported that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) forbade being alone and said that a man should not stay overnight alone or travel alone. (Reported by Ahmad in al-Musnad, 2/91). This is because of the feelings of loneliness etc., that come from being alone, and also because of the possibility of attacks by enemies or robbers, or the possibility of sickness. If one has a companion, he can help fight off attacks, and can help if one gets sick. (See al-Fath al-Rabbaani, 5/64). Not sleeping on the roof of a house that has no protecting wall, lest one fall. The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Whoever sleeps on the roof of a house that has no protecting wall, nobody is responsible for what happens to him.” (Reported by Abu Dawood, al-Sunan, no. 5041; Saheeh al-Jaami, 6113; its commentary is in ‘Awn al-Ma’bood, 13/384). This is because one who is asleep may roll over in his sleep, and if there is no wall he may fall off the roof and be killed. In such a case, nobody would be to blame for his death; or his negligence would cause Allaah to lift His protection from him, because he did not take the necessary precautions. The hadeeth may mean either. Pet cats do not make vessels naajis (impure) if they drink from them, or make food naajis if they eat from it. ‘Abd-Allaah ibn Abi Qutaadah reported from his father that water was put out for him to make wudoo’, and a cat came and lapped at the water. He took the water and did wudoo’ with it, and they said, “O Abu Qutaadah! The cat drank from it.” He said, I heard the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) say: ‘Cats are part of the household, and they are among those who go around in your houses.’” (Reported by Ahmad in al-Musnad, 5/309; Saheeh al-Jaami’, 3694). According to another report he said: “They [cats] are not naajis; they are among those who go around [al-tawwaafeen wa’l-tawwaafaat – refers to children, servants, etc.] in your houses.” (Reported by Ahmad in al-Musnad, 5/309; Saheeh (13) Creating opportunities for meetings to discuss family matters. “… and who (conduct) their affairs by mutual consultation…” [al-Shoora 42:38 – interpretation of the meaning]. This is a time when the family members can sit together in a suitable place to talk about issues within and without the family that affect them. This is a sign of strong ties, interaction and cooperation within the family. No doubt the man is the one whom Allaah has appointed to be in charge of his “flock’s” affairs and he is primarily responsible and is the decision maker, but giving room to others to contribute – especially when the children get older – is good training for them to learn to bear responsibility, as well as giving everyone the confidence of knowing that his or her opinion is valued when they are asked to express their points of view. Examples of this are discussions concerning going for Hajj or for ‘Umrah during Ramadaan, and other trips, travelling to visit relatives and uphold family ties, or for vacations; organizing wedding parties and ‘aqeeqahs for newborns; moving from one home to another; and charitable projects such as finding out about the poor people in one's neighbourhood so the family can offer help or send food to them. Families can also discuss problems faced by themselves or by relatives, and talk about how to solve them, and so on… It is worth pointing out here that there is another important kind of family meeting, which is holding frank discussions between parents and children. Some of the problems of adolescence can only by solved by one-on-one conversations between parents and children, where a father talks, calmly and quietly, with his son about matters that have to do with the problems of youth and the Islamic rulings pertaining to adolescence, and a mother talks to her daughter and tells her what she needs to know about Islamic rulings and helps her to solve the problems that she may face at this age. The father or mother may open the discussion with words such as “When I was your age…” This will have a great effect in making what they say acceptable to the youngster. Lack of such frank discussions will force the children to talk to bad companions, which leads to so many other evils. (14) Not showing family conflicts in front of the children. It is rare for people to live together under one roof without any arguments, but reconciliation is better and correcting oneself is a virtue. What shakes the unity of the family and harms its infrastructure is when conflicts are brought out into the open before the members of the family, who then split into two or more opposing camps, not to mention the psychological harm that is done to children, especially little ones. Think about a home where the father says to the child, “Do not speak to your mother,” and the mother says to him, “Do not speak to your father.” The child is confused and filled with turmoil, and the entire family lives in an atmosphere of hostility. We should try to avoid conflict, but if it happens, we should try to hide it. We ask Allaah to create love between our hearts. (15) Not letting into the house anyone whose commitment to Islam is not pleasing to you. The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “The likeness of a bad companion is like the one who works the bellows” (from a report narrated by Abu Dawood, 4829). According to a report narrated by al-Bukhaari, he said, “the one who works the bellows will burn your house or your clothes, or you will smell a bad odour from him.” (Reported by al-Bukhaari, al-Fath, 4/323). Indeed, he will burn your home with all kinds of corruption and evil. How often has the entry of corrupt and suspicious people into a home been the cause of enmity among the family members, or of division between husband and wife. Allaah curses the one who turns a wife against her husband, or a husband against his wife, or causes enmity between a father and his children. This is how sihr (magic, witchcraft) is brought into people’s homes, why things are sometimes stolen, and why so often morals are corrupted: it is because a person whose commitment to Islam is no good is admitted into the home. We must not let such people in, even if they are neighbours, men or women, and even if they appear to be friendly. Some people keep quiet out of embarrassment, and if they see such a person at the door, they let him in, even though they know this is one of the corrupt people. In this matter, women bear a great deal of responsibility. The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “O people, which day is most sacred? Which day is most sacred? Which day is most sacred?” They said, “The greatest day of Hajj.” Then he (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said in his Friday khutbah on that day: “Your rights over your women are that they should not allow anyone to sit on your beds whom you dislike, or allow anyone into your homes whom you dislike.” (Reported by al-Tirmidhi, 1163, and other from ‘Amr ibn al-Ahwas; Saheeh al-Jaami’, 7880). Muslim women, you should not feel upset if your husband or father does not let one of the female neighbours into the house because he sees that she is trying to cause trouble. Be smart and be strong if someone tries to make comparisons between her husband and yours, lest that pushes you to demand things from your husband that he cannot afford. It is also your obligation to advise your husband if you notice that he has close friends who are making evil appear attractive to him. § Advice to men: try to be at home as much as you can, because the guardian’s presence at home keeps things under control and enables him to supervise the upbringing of the family and to put things right by watching and following up. For some people, the basic thing is to be always outside of the home, and only if they cannot find some place to go do they come home. This is wrong. If a man is constantly going out for purposes of worship, he must still strike a balance; if he is going out for the purposes of sin and wasting time, or because he is too busy with matters of this world, he must reduce his work and business commitments, and put an end to idle meetings. And how evil are those people who neglect their families and stay in nightclubs…! We do not want to fall in with the plans of the enemies of Allaah; we can learn a lot from the following paragraph of the minutes of the French Eastern Masonic lodge held in 1923: “ For the purpose of separating the individual from his family, you must eliminate morals at their root, because people are inclined to cut off their family ties and do things that are forbidden, they prefer to chat idly in cafés rather than carry out their duties towards their families.” (16) Taking careful note of what family members are up to. Who are your children’s friends? Have you met them before? What do your children bring home from outside? Where does your daughter go, and with whom? Some parents do not know that their children have in their possession bad pictures, pornographic movies and even drugs. Some of them do not know that their daughter goes with the (female) servant to the market, then asks the servant to wait with the driver whilst she goes to her appointment or “date” with one of the shayaateen (devils), or to smoke and mess about with her bad friends. Those who neglect their children will not be let off on that terrible Day, nor will they be able to flee from the horrors of the Day of Reckoning. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Allaah will ask every shepherd (or responsible person) about his flock (those for whom he was responsible), whether he took care of it or neglected it, until He asks a man about his household.” (Hasan. Reported by al-Nisaa'i, 292, and Ibn Hibbaan from Anas; Saheeh al-Jaami’, 1775; al-Silsilat There are some important points to note here: This supervision must be subtle. There should be no terrorizing atmosphere The child must not be made to feel that he or she is not trusted. Advice and/or punishments must be measured against the ages of the children, their levels of understand and the extent of the wrongful behaviour. Beware of negative methods of checking on children and making them feel that their every move is being watched. I have been told of a person who has a computer in which he records every mistake his children make in detail. If one of his children does something wrong, he sends him a memo requesting his presence, then he opens the child’s file in the computer and tells him all his previous mistakes, as well as the current Note: we are not talking about a company here. The father is not the angel whose job it is to write down bad deeds. This father needs to read more about the principles of Islamic upbringing and education. I also know of people at the other extreme, who refuse to get involved in their children’s affairs at all, claiming that the child will not be convinced that a mistake is a mistake or a sin is a sin unless he does it and then finds out for himself that it is a mistake. This deviant idea comes from being weaned on ideas of western philosophy and notions of absolute freedom. Some of them give their child free rein, fearing that the child may start to hate them, saying “I will earn his love whatever he does.” Some of them give the child free rein as a reaction to their own over-strict upbringings, thinking that they have to do the absolute opposite with their own children. Some of them take this stupid attitude to extremes by saying, “Let our sons and daughters enjoy their youth as they wish.” Do these people not think that their children might pull on their clothes on the Day of Resurrection and say, “O my father, why did you leave me in sin?” (17) Paying attention to children at home. Teaching them to memorize Qur’aan and Islamic stories. There is nothing more beautiful than a father and his children coming together to read Qur’aan, with a simple commentary, offering rewards for memorizing passages. Young children have memorized Soorat al-Kahf from hearing it recited repeatedly by their fathers every Friday. You can teach children the basics of Islamic ‘aqeedah, for example as mentioned in the hadeeth, “Heed Allaah’s commandments and He will protect you.” You can teach children good manners and the adhkaar prescribed by Islam, for example for eating, sleeping, sneezing, greeting, asking permission to enter. There is nothing more attractive or effective for children than telling them Islamic stories, such as the story of Nooh (peace be upon him) and the Flood; the story of Ibraaheem (peace be upon him), and how he broke the idols and was thrown into the fire; the story of Moosa (peace be upon him) being saved from Pharaoh, who was drowned; the story of Yoonus (peace be upon him) in the belly of the whale; the story of Yoosuf (peace be upon him) in brief; the biography of Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), such as the beginning of his mission and his hijrah; some of the Islamic battles such as Badr and al-Khandaq; other stories from the Prophet’s life such as the story of the man and the camel which he did not feed properly but abused it by making it work too hard; stories of righteous people, such as the story of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattaab (may Allaah be pleased with him) and the woman and her hungry children in the tent; the story of the people of al-Ukhdood (the ditch); the story of the people of the garden in Soorat al-Qalam , and the three companions of the cave. There are many good stories which you can tell in a brief and simple manner, with a few comments. These are better for us and we have no need of the many stories that go against ‘aqeedah, or frightening myths that distort children’s concept of reality and make them cowardly and afraid. Beware of letting your children go out with just anybody, lest they come back home uttering bad words and behaving badly. Be selective when choosing children of relatives and neighbours to invite to come and play with your children at home. Make sure that your children’s play is both entertaining and purposeful. Give them a special playroom, or at least a cupboard for their toys, where they can keep their toys tidy. Avoid toys that go against sharee’ah, like musical instruments, or toys that have crosses or them, or games containing dice. It is also a good idea to make a corner where children can practice hobbies such as carpentry, electronics and mechanics, or play some permissible computer games. With regard to the latter, we should be alert to the fact that some computer games show the worst types of pictures of women on the screen, and other games have crosses in them; one person has even told me that there is a game that involves gambling against the computer – the player chooses one of four girls whose pictures appear on the screen to represent the other player, and if he wins, his prize is to see the worst kind of picture of the girl. Separating boys and girls in their beds or sleeping arrangements. This is one of the things that distinguish those who are committed to their religion from those who do not care. Joking and showing affection. The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) used to play with children and pat their heads; he would speak to them in a kind and gentle manner, giving the littlest one the first fruit, and even letting them ride on his back sometimes. There follow two examples of how he (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) played with al-Hasan and al-Husayn: Abu Hurayrah (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: “The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) used to stick his tongue out at Hasan ibn ‘Ali, and the child would see the redness of his tongue, and would like it and come running to him.” (Reported by Abu’l-Shaykh in Akhlaaq al-Nabi (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) wa Aadaabuhu; see al-Silsilat al-Saheehah, no. 70). Ya’laa ibn Murrah said: “We went out with the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and we were called to eat, when we saw Husayn playing in the street. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) rushed ahead of the people, holding out his arms, and the child was running hither and thither; the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) was laughing with him until he caught him, then he put one of the child’s hands under his chin and other other on top of his head, and kissed him.” (Reported by al-Bukhaari in al-Adab al-Mufrad, no. 364; Saheeh Ibn Maajah, 1/29). (18) Being strict in adhering to a schedule for meals and bedtime. Some houses are like hotels where the people who live there hardly know one another and hardly ever meet. Some children eat whenever they want and sleep whenever they want, which leads to them staying up late and wasting their time, or eating on a full stomach. This chaos leads to a weakening of family ties and a waste of time and energy, and exacerbates the lack of discipline among family members. You could excuse those who have legitimate reasons, because students, male and female, may have different times of leaving schools and universities, and those who are employed or who run stores do not have the same work schedules, but still there is nothing nicer than a family gathering together at the table and making the most of this opportunity to ask how everyone is and to discuss useful topics. The head of the household has to be strict in setting a time for everyone to be back home, and in insisting that everyone asks permission before going out, especially those who are young, whether in terms of chronological age or mental age, as it were, for whom one might have fears. (19) Re-evaluating women’s work outside the The laws of Islam complement one another. When Allaah commanded women to “…stay in your houses…” [al-Ahzaab 33:33 – interpretation of the meaning], He also decreed that men, their fathers and husbands, etc., should be obliged to spend on them. The basic principle is that women should not work outside the home unless they have to. When Moosa (peace be upon him) saw the two daughters of the righteous man keeping back their flocks and waiting to water them, he asked them: “… ‘What is the matter with you?’ They said, ‘We cannot water (our flocks) until the shepherds take (their flocks), and our father is a very old man.’” [al-Qasas 28:23 – interpretation of the meaning]. They were apologetic about the fact that they had come out to water their flocks, because the guardian [their father] was unable to do so due to old age. So they were keen to do away with the need to work outside the home as soon as the opportunity arose: “And said one of them (the two women): ‘O my father! Hire him! Verily the best of men for you to hire is the strong, the trustworthy.’” [al-Qasas 28:26 – interpretation of the meaning]. This woman made clear her desire to go back to staying at home to protect herself from the vulgarity to which she could be exposed if she worked outside the home. In modern times, when the kuffaar needed women’s labour after the two world wars, to make up for the resulting lack of men in the workforce, and there was a critical need to rebuild their economies, this coincided with the Jewish plots to “liberate” women and advocate their rights with the aim of corrupting them and consequently corrupting society as a whole. Thus the idea of women going out to work was established. In spite of the fact that the same motives were not present in our lands, and that Muslim men protect their womenfolk and spend on them, the women’s liberation movement developed in the Muslim world too, and even reached such an extent that women are sent abroad to study, then are expected to work so that these degrees will not go to waste. The Muslim societies are not in need of such a thing on such a grand scale as is the case, and one of the signs of this is the fact that there are men who are without work whilst fields are still being opened up to women. When we say “not on such a grand scale”, we mean that there is a need for women to work in some fields, such as teaching, nursing and medicine, within the conditions set out by sharee’ah, and when there is a need for them to do so. But we started by saying that there is no great need, because of the fact that we notice some women going out to work when there is no need, and sometimes they work for very low wages, because they feel that they have to go out to work even when there is no need to do so, or they work in places that are not suitable, which leads to much fitnah and trouble. One of the main differences between the Islamic view on women’s work and the secular view is that the basic principle in Islam is to “…stay in your houses…” [al-Ahzaab 33:33 – interpretation of the meaning], although women may go out when they need to – “And permission has been given to you to go out for your needs” (hadeeth). The secular principle, on the other hand, is to go out no matter what the circumstances. To be fair, we should say that there may indeed be a need for women to work, such as a woman who is the breadwinner for her family after her husband has died or her father has become too old to work, and so on. Indeed, in some societies which are not based on Islamic principles, a woman may find herself forced to work to help her husband cover the living expenses of the family. A man may not propose to a woman unless she is working, and some men may even make it a condition of the marriage contract that the wife In conclusion: a woman may work if she needs to or for some Islamic purpose, such as calling others to Allaah in the field of teaching, or to make use of her time, as some women do who do not have With regard to the negative aspects of women working outside the home, these include: § What often happens of things that are forbidden in Islam, such as mixing with men, getting to know them and being alone with them, wearing perfume for them and starting to show one's adornment to strangers (non-mahrem men), which can ultimately lead to § Not giving the husband his rights, neglecting the house, not giving the children their proper rights. (This is our basic point here). § Undermining the feeling in some women’s minds that the husband is the qawwaam (protector and maintainer). Let us take the case of a woman whose qualifications are equal to those of her husband, or even higher (although there is nothing wrong with that in and of itself), and who works and earns more than he does. Will she feel the proper need towards her husband and obey him properly, or will she feel that she is independent of him, which could rock the household on its foundations, unless Allaah wills good for her? These arguments about spending on the working wife and how much she should spend on the family may never end. § Physical exhaustion and psychological and nervous pressure which do not befit the nature of women. Having briefly discussed the pros and cons of women’s work, we conclude that we have to fear Allaah, and to weigh the matter up according to sharee’ah, and to know the circumstances in which a woman is permitted to go out to work, and when she is not. We should not be blinded by worldly gains or allow them to distract us from the truth. This advice to women is in their best interests and in the interests of the family. Husbands should also stop thinking in terms of taking revenge and should not consume their wife’s wealth unjustly. (20) Confidentiality: keeping family This includes a number of things, including: Not disclosing intimate secrets. Not disclosing marital conflicts. Not disclosing any secrets the exposing of which could cause harm to the family or to any of its members. With regard to the first matter, the evidence that this is haraam is the hadeeth: “One of the most evil of people in the sight of Allaah on the Day of Resurrection will be a man who went in unto his wife and she went in unto him, then he disclosed her secret.” (Reported by Muslim, 4/157). The meaning of going in unto one another is that he approaches her and has intercourse with her, as in the aayah (interpretation of the meaning): “… while you have gone in unto one another…” Further evidence is to be seen in the hadeeth of Asma’ bint Yazeed, who said that she was with the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), when men and women were sitting with him, and he said: “I think there are some men who talk about what they do with their wives, and that there are some women who talk about what they do with their husbands.” The people stayed silent. [Asma’] said: “Yes, by Allaah, O Messenger of Allaah, [women] do that and [men] do that!” He said, “Do not do that, for it is as if a male devil met a female devil in the street and had intercourse with her whilst the people were watching.” (Reported by Imaam Ahmad, 6/457; also reported in Aadaab al-Zafaaf by al-Albaani, p. 144). According to a report narrated by Abu Dawood, he said: “Are there men among you who when they have intercourse with their wives, they close their doors and lower their curtains and ask Allaah to conceal them?” They said, “Yes.” He said, “And then do they sit and say, ‘I did such and such, and I did such and such?’” They kept silent. Then he turned to the women and said, “Are there any among you talk [about intimate matters]?” and they kept silent. Then a young girl sat up on one of her knees and craned her neck so that the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) could see her and hear her, and said, “O Messenger of Allaah, indeed the men talk and the women talk.” He said, “Do you know what that is like? It is like a female devil meeting a male devil in the street and having intercourse with him whilst the people are watching.” (Sunan Abi Dawood, 2/627; Saheeh al-Jaami’, 7037). With regard to the second matter, which is disclosing marital arguments outside the home, in many cases this only makes matters worse. Involving outside parties in a marital conflict usually deepens the split, and it reaches a stage where the couple will only communicate via intermediaries when they should be the closest of all people to one another. This should not be resorted to except in cases where they cannot resolve matter face to face, in which case we should act in accordance with the aayah (interpretation of the meaning): “… appoint (two) arbitrators, one from his family and the other from hers; if they both wish for peace, Allaah will cause their reconciliation…” [al-Nisa’ 4:35]. With regard to the third matter, which is harming the family or one of its members – by spreading their secrets – this is not permissible, because it is covered by the words of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him): “There should be neither harming nor reciprocating harm.” (Reported by Imaam Ahmad, 1/313; al-Silsilat al-Saheehah, no. 250). An example of this was narrated in the Tafseer of the aayah (interpretation of the meaning): “Allaah sets forth an example for those who disbelieve, the wife of Nooh and the wife of Loot. They were under two of our righteous slaves, but they both betrayed their [husbands]…” [al-Tahreem 66:10]. Ibn Katheer (may Allaah have mercy on him) reported the following in his tafseer of this aayah: “The wife of Nooh used to know about his secrets, and whenever anyone believed in him, she would tell the oppressors among the people of Nooh about it. As for the wife of Loot, whenever Loot welcomed anyone as a guest, she would tell the people of the city who used to do evil things” (Tafseer Ibn Katheer, 8/198), i.e., to come and do immoral things to them. manners at home (21) Spreading kindness in the home. ‘Aa’ishah (may Allaah be pleased with her) said: “The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: ‘When Allaah – may He be glorified – wills some good towards the people of a household, He introduces kindness among them.’” (Reported by Imaam Ahmad in al-Musnad, 6/71; Saheeh al-Jaami’, 303). According to another report: “When Allaah loves the people of a household, He introduces kindness among them.” (Reported by Ibn Abi al-Dunya and others; Saheeh al-Jaami’, no. 1704). In other words, they start to be kind to one another. This is one of the means of attaining happiness in the home, for kindness is very beneficial between the spouses, and with the children, and brings results that cannot be achieved through harshness, as the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Allaah loves kindness and rewards it in such a way that He does not reward for harshness or for anything else.” (Reported by Muslim, Kitaab al-Birr wa’l-Sillah wa’l-Aadaab, no. 2592). (22) Helping one’s wife with the housework. Many men think that housework is beneath them, and some of them think that it will undermine their status and position if they help their wives with this work. The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), however, used to “sew his own clothes, mend his own shoes and do whatever other work men do in their homes.” (Reported by Imaam Ahmad in al-Musnad, 6/121; Saheeh al-Jaami’, 4927). This was said by his wife ‘Aa’ishah (may Allaah be pleased with her), when she was asked about what the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) used to do in his house; her response described what she herself had seen. According to another report, she said: “He was like any other human being: he would clean his clothes, milk his ewe and serve himself.” (Reported by Imaam Ahmad in al-Musnad, 6/256; al-Silsilat al-Saheehah, 671). She (may Allaah be pleased with her) was also asked about what the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) used to do in his house, and she said, “He used to serve his family, then when the time for prayer came, he would go out to pray.” (Reported by al-Bukhaari, al-Fath, 2/162). If we were to do likewise nowadays, we would achieve three things: We would be following the example of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) We would be helping our wives We would feel more humble, not arrogant. Some men demand food instantly from their wives, when the pot is on the stove and the baby is screaming to be fed; they do not pick up the child or wait a little while for the food. Let these ahaadeeth be a reminder and a lesson. (23) Being affectionate towards and joking with the members of the family. Showing affection towards one’s wife and children is one of the things that lead to creating an atmosphere of happiness and friendliness in the home. Thus the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) advised Jaabir to marry a virgin, saying, “Why did you not marry a virgin, so you could play with her and she could play with you, and you could make her laugh and she could make you laugh?” (The hadeeth is reported in a number of places in the Saheehayn, such as al-Bukhaari, al-Fath, 9/121). The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) also said: “Everything in which Allaah’s name is not mentioned is idleness and play, except for four things: a man playing with his wife…” (Reported by al-Nisaa'i in ‘Ushrat al-Nisa’, p. 87; also in Saheeh al-Jaami’). The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) used to treat his wife ‘Aa’ishah affectionately when doing ghusl with her, as she (may Allaah be pleased with her) said: “The Messenger of Allaah and I used to do ghusl together from one vessel, and he would pretend to take all the water so that I would say, ‘Leave some for me, leave some for me,’” – and both of them were in a state of janaabah (impurity). (Muslim bi Sharh al-Nawawi, 4/6). The ways in which the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) showed affection towards young children are too famous to need mentioning. He often used to show his affection towards Hasan and Husayn, as mentioned above. This is probably one of the reason why the children used to rejoice when he came back from travelling; they would rush to welcome him, as reported in the saheeh hadeeth: “Whenever he came back from a journey, the children of his household would be taken out to meet him.” He (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) used to hug them close to him, as ‘Abd-Allaah ibn Ja;far said: “Whenever the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) came back from a journey, we would be taken out to meet him. One day we met him, Hasan, Husayn and I. He carried one of us in front of him, and another on his back, until we entered Madeenah.” (Saheeh Muslim, 4/1885-2772; see the commentary in Tuhfat al-Ahwadhi, 8/56). Compare this with the situation in some miserable homes where there are no truthful jokes [i.e., jokes that do not involve lying], no affection and no mercy. Whoever thinks that kissing his children goes against the dignity of fatherhood should read the following hadeeth: from Abu Hurayrah (may Allaah be pleased with him) who said: “The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) kissed al-Hasan ibn ‘Ali, and al-Aqra’ ibn Haabis al-Tameemi was sitting with him. Al-Aqra’ said: ‘I have ten children and I have never kissed any one of them.’ The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) looked at him and said: ‘The one who does not show mercy will not be shown mercy.’” (24) Resisting bad manners in the home. Every member of the household is bound to have some bad characteristics, such as lying, backbiting, gossiping and so on. These bad characteristics have to be resisted and opposed. Some people think that corporal punishment is the only way to deal with such things. The following hadeeth is very educational on this topic: from ‘Aa’ishah (may Allaah be pleased with her) who said: “If the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) came to know that one of his household had told a lie, he would try to ignore him until he repented.” (See al-Musnad by Imaam Ahmad, 6/152. The text of the hadeeth is also in Saheeh al-Jaami’, no. 4675). It is clear from the hadeeth that turning away and forsaking a person by not speaking to them, rather than resorting to punishment, is effective in such circumstances, and may be more effective than physical punishment, so let parents and caregivers think about this. (25) “Hang up the whip where the members of the household can see it.” (Reported by Abu Na’eem in al-Hilyah, 7/332; al-Silsilat al-Saheehah, no. 1446). Hinting at punishment is an effective means of discipline, so the reason for hanging up a whip or stick in the house was explained in another report, where the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Hang up the whip where the members of the household can see it, for this is more effective in disciplining them.” (Reported by al-Tabaraani, 10/344-345; al-Silsilat al-Saheehah, no. 1447) Seeing the means of punishment hanging up will make those who have bad intentions refrain from indulging in bad behaviour, lest they get a taste of the punishment. It will motivate them to behave themselves and be good-mannered. Ibn al-Anbaari said: “There is nothing to suggest that it should be used for hitting, because [the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him)] did not command anyone to do that. What he meant was: keep on disciplining them.” (See Fayd al-Qadeer by al-Mannaawi, 4/325). Hitting is not the way to discipline; it is not to be resorted to, except when all other means are exhausted, or when it is needed to force someone to do obligatory acts of obedience, as Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): “… As to those women on whose part you fear ill-conduct, admonish them (first), (next), refuse to share their beds, (and last) beat them (lightly, if it is useful)…” [al-Nisa’ 4:34] – in that order. There is also the hadeeth: “Order your children to pray when they are seven years old, and hit them if they do not do so when they are ten.” (Sunan Abi Dawood, 1/334; see also Irwa’ al-Ghaleel, 1/266). As for hitting unnecessarily, this is aggression. The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) advised a woman not to marry a man because he always had his stick on his shoulder, i.e., he used to beat his wives. On the other hand, there are those who think that they should never use this method of discipline at all, following some kaafir educational theories; this is also a mistaken opinion that goes against the Evils in the home Beware of non-mahrem relatives entering upon women when their husbands are and women should sit separately during family visits. aware of the dangers of having male drivers and female servants in the house. Kick immoral people out of your houses. Beware of the dangers of TV. Beware of the evils of the telephone. have to remove everything that contains symbols of the false religions of the kuffaar or their gods and objects of worship. Removing pictures of animate beings. not allow smoking in your homes. not keep dogs in your homes. Avoid too much decoration in your homes (keep it simple). The home inside and out (37) Choosing a good location and design of No doubt the true Muslim pays attention to the choice and design of a home in ways that others do not. With regard to location, for example: The home should be close to a mosque. This has obvious advantages: the call to prayer will remind people of prayer and wake them up for it; living close to the mosque will enable men to join the congregational prayers, women to listen to the Qur’aan recitation and dhikr over the mosque’s loudspeakers, and children to join study-circles for memorization of Qur’aan, and so on. The home should not be in a building where there are immoral people, or in a compound where kuffaar live and where there is a mixed swimming pool and so on. The house should not overlook others or be overlooked; if it is, he should put up curtains and make walls and fences With regard to design and lay out, for example: He should pay attention to the matter of segregating men and women when non-mahrams come to visit, e.g. separate entrances and sitting areas. If that cannot be done, then use should be made of curtains, screens and so on. Covering windows, so that neighbours or people in the street will not be able to see who is in the house, especially at night when the lights are on. The toilets should not be sited in such a way that one faces the qiblah when using them. Choosing a spacious house with plenty of amenities. This is for a number of reasons: “Allaah loves to see the signs of His blessings on His slave.” (Hadeeth narrated by al-Tirmidhi, no. 2819. He said: This is a hasan hadeeth). “There are three elements of happiness and three elements of misery. The elements of happiness are: a righteous wife, who when you see her she pleases you, and when you are absent from her you feel that you can trust her with regard to herself and your wealth; a compliant riding-beast that helps you to keep up with your companions; and a house that is spacious and has plenty of amenities. The elements of misery are: a wife who when you see her you feel upset, she keeps attacking you verbally, and when you are absent from her you do not feel that you can trust her with regard to herself and your wealth; a stubborn riding-beast that if whip it, you get tired, and if you do not whip it, it does not help you to keep up with your companions; and a house with few amenities.” (Hadeeth narrated by al-Haakim, 3/262; Saheeh al-Jaami’, no. 3056). Paying attention to health-related matters such as ventilation, natural light and so on. These matters depend on financial ability and feasibility. (38) Choosing the neighbour before the house. This is a matter which has to be singled out for discussion because of its importance. Nowadays neighbours have more impact on one another, because houses are closer together and people live together in buildings, apartments and compounds. The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) told us of four causes of happiness, one of which is a righteous neighbour, and four causes of misery, one of which is a bad neighbour. (Reported by Abu Na’eem in al-Hilyah, 8/388; Saheeh al-Jaami’, 887). Because of the seriousness of the latter, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) used to seek refuge with Allaah from bad neighbours in his du’aa’: “Allaahumma innee a’oodhu bika min jaar al-soo’ fi daar il-muqaamah fa inna jaar al-baadiyah yatahawwil (O Allaah, I seek refuge with You from a bad neighbour in my permanent home, for the neighbour in the desert [i.e. on a journey] moves on).” He commanded the Muslims to seek refuge with Allaah from a bad neighbour in a permanent home because the neighbour in the desert will eventually move on. (Reported by al-Bukhaari in al-Adab al-Mufrad, no. 117; Saheeh al-Jaami’, There is no room here to talk about the influence a bad neighbour may have on a couple and their children, or the kinds of nuisance he can cause, or the misery of living next to him. But applying these ahaadeeth quoted above to one's own life should be sufficient for the one who is possessed of understanding. Another practical solution is that implemented by some good people who rent neighbouring homes for their families, so as to solve the neighbour problem. This may be an expensive solution, but a good neighbour (39) Paying attention to necessary repairs in the home, and making sure that the amenities are in good working order. Among the blessings of Allaah in this modern age are the “mod cons” that He has bestowed upon us, which make many things easier and save time, such as air-conditioners, fridges, washing-machines and so on. It is wise to have the best quality of appliances that one can afford, without being extravagant or putting oneself under financial strain. We should also be careful to distinguish between useful extras and extravagant additions that have no real value. Part of caring for the home includes fixing appliances and amenities that break down. Some people neglect these things, and their wives complain about homes crawling with vermin, with overflowing drains and piles of stinking garbage, filled with broken and worn out furniture. No doubt this is one of the obstacles to happiness in the home, and causes problems in the marriage and health problems. The smart person is the one who hastens to fix these things. (40) Paying attention to the family’s health and safety procedures. When any member of his family got sick, the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) would blow on them and recite al-Mi’wadhatayn (last two soorahs of the Qur’aan). (Reported by Muslim, no. 2192). When one of his family members got sick, he would call for soup, and it would be made for him, then he would tell them to drink it, and he would say, “It will strengthen the heart of the one who is grieving and cleanse (heal) the heart of the one who is sick just as any one of you wipes the dirt from her face.” (Reported by al-Tirmidhi, no. 2039; Saheeh al-Jaami’, no. 4646). One of the ways of taking safety precautions is: The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “When evening comes, keep your children inside, for the shayaateen (devils) spread out at that time. Then when an hour of the night has passed, let your children go, lock the doors and mention the name of Allaah, cover your pots and mention the name of Allaah,even if you only place a stick across the top of your vessel, and extinguish your lamps.” (Reported by al-Bukhaari, al-Fath, 10/88-89). According to a report narrated by Muslim, he (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Lock your doors, cover your vessels, extinguish your lamps and tie your knots properly [i.e., cover your jugs properly – in those days they would cover them with a piece of cloth and tie it], for the Shaytaan does not open a door that is closed, or uncover something that is covered, or untie a knot that you tie. And the mouse could set the house on fire (i.e. it could pull out the wick of the lamp and set the house on fire).” (Reported by Imaam Ahmad in al-Musnad, 3/103); Saheeh al-Jaami’, 1080). The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Do not leave fires lit in your houses when you go to sleep.” (Reported by al-Bukhaari, al-Fath, 11/85). And Allaah knows best. May Allaah bless our	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23224000
Quant blogger Half Sigma and GNXP's Jason Malloy are quoted in a New York Times article by Amy Harmon entitled "In DNA Era, New Worries About Prejudice" about what's happening now that "genetic information is slipping out of the laboratory and into everyday life, carrying with it the inescapable message that people of different races have different DNA." In case you are wondering, this article isn't written by Nicholas Wade, who I imagine has been put on heavy sedation by the NYT editors ever since the Watson Show Trial. When scientists first decoded the human genome in 2000, they were quick to portray it as proof of humankind’s remarkable similarity. The DNA of any two people, they emphasized, is at least 99 percent identical. But new research is exploring the remaining fraction to explain differences between people of different continental origins. Scientists, for instance, have recently identified small changes in DNA that account for the pale skin of Europeans, the tendency of Asians to sweat less and West Africans’ resistance to certain diseases. At the same time, genetic information is slipping out of the laboratory and into everyday life, carrying with it the inescapable message that people of different races have different DNA. Ancestry tests tell customers what percentage of their genes are from Asia, Europe, Africa and the Americas. The heart-disease drug BiDil is marketed exclusively to African-Americans, who seem genetically predisposed to respond to it. Jews are offered prenatal tests for genetic disorders rarely found in other ethnic groups. Such developments are providing some of the first tangible benefits of the genetic revolution. Yet some social critics fear they may also be giving long-discredited racial prejudices a new potency. The notion that race is more than skin deep, they fear, could undermine principles of equal treatment and opportunity that have relied on the presumption that we are all fundamentally equal. “We are living through an era of the ascendance of biology, and we have to be very careful,” said Henry Louis Gates Jr., director of the W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African American Research at Harvard University. “We will all be walking a fine line between using biology and allowing it to be abused.” Certain superficial traits like skin pigmentation have long been presumed to be genetic. But the ability to pinpoint their DNA source makes the link between genes and race more palpable. And on mainstream blogs, in college classrooms and among the growing community of ancestry test-takers, it is prompting the question of whether more profound differences may also be attributed to DNA. Nonscientists are already beginning to stitch together highly speculative conclusions about the historically charged subject of race and intelligence from the new biological data. Last month, a blogger in Manhattan described a recently published study that linked several snippets of DNA to high I.Q. An online genetic database used by medical researchers, he told readers, showed that two of the snippets were found more often in Europeans and Asians than in Africans. No matter that the link between I.Q. and those particular bits of DNA was unconfirmed, or that other high I.Q. snippets are more common in Africans, or that hundreds or thousands of others may also affect intelligence, or that their combined influence might be dwarfed by environmental factors. Just the existence of such genetic differences between races, proclaimed the author of the Half Sigma blog, a 40-year-old software developer, means “the egalitarian theory,” that all races are equal, “is proven false.” Though few of the bits of human genetic code that vary between individuals have yet to be tied to physical or behavioral traits, scientists have found that roughly 10 percent of them are more common in certain continental groups and can be used to distinguish people of different races. They say that studying the differences, which arose during the tens of thousands of years that human populations evolved on separate continents after their ancestors dispersed from humanity’s birthplace in East Africa, is crucial to mapping the genetic basis for disease. But many geneticists, wary of fueling discrimination and worried that speaking openly about race could endanger support for their research, are loath to discuss the social implications of their findings. Still, some acknowledge that as their data and methods are extended to nonmedical traits, the field is at what one leading researcher recently called “a very delicate time, and a dangerous time.” “There are clear differences between people of different continental ancestries,” said Marcus W. Feldman, a professor of biological sciences at Stanford University. “It’s not there yet for things like I.Q., but I can see it coming. And it has the potential to spark a new era of racism if we do not start explaining it better.” Dr. Feldman said any finding on intelligence was likely to be exceedingly hard to pin down. But given that some may emerge, he said he wanted to create “ready response teams” of geneticists to put such socially fraught discoveries in perspective. The authority that DNA has earned through its use in freeing falsely convicted inmates, preventing disease and reconstructing family ties leads people to wrongly elevate genetics over other explanations for differences between groups. “I’ve spent the last 10 years of my life researching how much genetic variability there is between populations,” said Dr. David Altshuler, director of the Program in Medical and Population Genetics at the Broad Institute in Cambridge, Mass. “But living in America, it is so clear that the economic and social and educational differences have so much more influence than genes. People just somehow fixate on genetics, even if the influence is very small.” But on the Half Sigma blog and elsewhere, the conversation is already flashing forward to what might happen if genetically encoded racial differences in socially desirable — or undesirable — traits are identified. “If I were to believe the ‘facts’ in this post, what should I do?” one reader responded on Half Sigma. “Should I advocate discrimination against blacks because they are less smart? Should I not hire them to my company because odds are I could find a smarter white person? Stop trying to prove that one group of people are genetically inferior to your group. Just stop.” Renata McGriff, 52, a health care consultant who had been encouraging black clients to volunteer genetic information to scientists, said she and other African-Americans have lately been discussing “opting out of genetic research until it’s clear we’re not going to use science to validate prejudices.” “I don’t want the children in my family to be born thinking they are less than someone else based on their DNA,” added Ms. McGriff, of Manhattan. Such discussions are among thousands that followed the geneticist James D. Watson’s assertion last month that Africans are innately less intelligent than other races. Dr. Watson, a Nobel Prize winner, subsequently apologized and quit his post at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on Long Island. But the incident has added to uneasiness about whether society is prepared to handle the consequences of science that may eventually reveal appreciable differences between races in the genes that influence socially important traits. New genetic information, some liberal critics say, could become the latest rallying point for a conservative political camp that objects to social policies like affirmative action, as happened with “The Bell Curve,” the controversial 1994 book that examined the relationship between race and I.Q. Yet even some self-described liberals argue that accepting that there may be genetic differences between races is important in preparing to address them politically. “Let’s say the genetic data says we’ll have to spend two times as much for every black child to close the achievement gap,” said Jason Malloy, 28, an artist in Madison, Wis., who wrote a defense of Dr. Watson for the widely read science blog Gene Expression. Society, he said, would need to consider how individuals “can be given educational and occupational opportunities that work best for their unique talents and limitations.” Others hope that the genetic data may overturn preconceived notions of racial superiority by, for example, showing that Africans are innately more intelligent than other groups. But either way, the increased outpouring of conversation on the normally taboo subject of race and genetics has prompted some to suggest that innate differences should be accepted but, at some level, ignored. “Regardless of any such genetic variation, it is our moral duty to treat all as equal before God and before the law,” Perry Clark, 44, wrote on a New York Times blog. It is not necessary, argued Dr. Clark, a retired neonatologist in Leawood, Kan., who is white, to maintain the pretense that inborn racial differences do not exist. “When was the last time a nonblack sprinter won the Olympic 100 meters?” he asked. “To say that such differences aren’t real,” Dr. Clark later said in an interview, “is to stick your head in the sand and go blah blah blah blah blah until the band marches by.”	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23226000
\|Subject\|\|Crown Gall Disease\| Severity varies greatly with factors such as locations of the galls, cultivars, cultural practices, and, most important, the influence of climate. The galls are typically found on roots and crowns, and sometimes on canes and stems. The disease is more common and the symptoms more severe in cold climates. Latent infections of the bacterium are common in grapevines and many sources of planting stock harbor the bacteria. In California, the long term effects of crown gall are difficult to assess or predict, especially where winters are mild. Even in vineyards where infection incidence is low, crown gall has the potential to cause problems when vines are grafted or budded with new scion varieties. Other types of mechanical injury can also trigger the formation of galls. Tom Burr, Cornell University Video Link: Adobe Presenter (formerly Macromedia Breeze) modules provide on-demand viewing of previously recorded PowerPoint presentations with streaming video and audio on the Web. They feature high-quality still images with synchronized audio and video; automatic playback or manual navigation; and a keyword search of slide text and notes. As Flash movies they are platform independent, but they do require Flash Player 6 or higher, which is currently installed on most computers. These modules were produced by UC Davis IET Mediaworks. The speaker and presentation may be viewed in video on the following links: “STRATEGIES FOR CONTROLLING CROWN GALL IN NURSERY STOCK” - Dr. Tom Burr, Professor of Plant Pathology, Cornell University. Presented on June 20, 2006 at the Grapevine Clean Plant Workshop hosted by UC Davis Extension. Video Link: Silverlight is a powerful development tool for creating engaging, interactive user experiences for Web and mobile applications. Silverlight is a free plug-in, powered by the .NET framework and compatible with multiple browsers, devices and operating systems, bringing a new level of interactivity wherever the Web works. The speaker and presentation may be viewed in video on the following link: "Biology of crown gall disease and its management of grape nurseries and vineyards" - Dr. Tom Burr, Professor of Plant Pathology, Cornell University. Presented on October 11, 2012 at the 17th Congress of the International Council for the Study of Virus and Virus-like Diseases of the Grapevine (ICVG) hosted by UC Davis Foundation Plant Services. Bini, F., Kuczmog, A., Putnoky, P., Otten, L., Bazzi, C., Burr, T. and Szegedi, E. 2008. Novel pathogen-specific primers for the detection of Agrobacterium vitis and Agrobacterium tumefaciens (PDF) Vitis 47(3). Burr, T. 2004. Grape crown gall biology and strategies for control (PDF). Foundation Plant Services Grape Program Newsletter, Fall 2004: 16-18. Martinson, T. and Burr, T. 2012. How Close are We to Crown Gall-Free Nursery Stock? (pdf). Research Focus 2012-1, Cornell University Viticulture and Enology Program, 6pp. Schroth, M. 1992. Crown Gall. Pages 94-96 in: Grape Pest Management, 2nd edition. University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 3343, Oakland, CA.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23229000
I wanted to describe that 「えっと」 was similar to "Ummm" in English when someone is trying to think about what they are going to say, but I wasn't even sure if that was correct. Is that just a generalization? What does 「えっと」actually come from? Can it be considered to be a word or phrase? えっと is just a sound. Yes, it is like "umm" in English and it is used when you're thinking of what to say, hesitating, or otherwise trying to fill the silence with something before you speak. As Dono mentioned, you can find えっと's general form in the dictionary, so it can be considered a word. There is some discussion of this on the internet here, but this discussion also boils down to it just being a sound. えっと as just a sound is a satisfactory answer to me in terms of etymology. I'm not sure if the と in it is related at all to the quotation particle と, but I have to wonder if anyone is sure. Basically your description of えっと as "umm" is fine, and the dictionaries define it as something that you say to think before saying something else. えっと is related to 言えないと, which is no longer said. Over time,it's just become something we say to fill the silence when thinking, like "anno". In the Edo Times you would hear people say 言えないと, which would have sounded like, "yunaito" back then. Think of how 行かないと means "I have to go."	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23232000
Introduction / History China is a land of great diversity in geography, climate, languages, and ethnic groups. It is home to approximately 180 distinct groups, including the 12,000 Mahei who live in Yunnan Province of southern China. They are generally included with the Hani, one of China's 55 national minorities, although some scholars think they may be related to the Akha, who live in the same area. Their origin is not known, but legends say that their nomadic ancestors gradually migrated south from a far away northern plain. Since their language is of the Tibeto-Burmese group, some believe that they originated in Tibet. Where are they located? The Mahei live near the Myanmar border in an area that is characterized by forested mountains, abundant rainfall, and rich soil. Their farmers are noted for building tiered terraces along steep mountain slopes. Their small farming villages usually consist of 30 to 40 homes. Centuries of isolation in the high mountain terrain have left the Mahei socially and economically backward. What are their lives like? The family unit is considered to be very important among the Mahei. Some aspects of family life, however, differ from region to region. For instance, monogamy (one husband, one wife) is the rule in some areas, while having multiple spouses is common in others. "Family order" is both patriarchal (male dominated) and patrilineal, meaning that a male child becomes part of the father's lineage, while a female will become part of her husband's lineage. Male children are given names that are connected with their father's name, but females are not. The Mahei are well known for their sincere hospitality. When a guest enters a Mahei home, he is offered wine and strong tea. If he declines the drinks, the family will be highly offended; if he drinks them, the host will generously serve him with the finest he has to offer. The Mahei celebrate several major festivals each year, the most notable being the New Year festival. This seven day event is celebrated at harvest time, during the tenth month. At noon on New Year's Day, an announcer throws three balls of blackened rice behind him to bid farewell to the old year. He then greets the new year by tossing three balls of white rice in front of him. Next, he pushes the ropes of a special swing and all of the people, regardless of sex or age, begin swinging. (They believe that this will ward off disaster and ensure a prosperous year.) That evening, the villagers stand around a bonfire eating, drinking, singing, and dancing. At midnight, the announcer cuts down the frame of the swing to signify the end of the festival and the beginning of a new work year. During times of celebration, the Mahei wear attractive tribal costumes of hand-woven cotton dyed blue or black. The men wear distinctive jackets and turbans, while the women wear collarless blouses and special caps. What are their beliefs? Traditionally, Mahei beliefs were a combination of animism (belief that non-human objects have spirits), polytheism (belief in many gods), and ancestor worship (praying to the dead for blessings and guidance). Trees in the "holy hills" were believed to be their guardian spirits. Today, most still adhere to similar beliefs, however, approximately 28% are Buddhist. They are very superstitious and view certain events, such as the birth of twins or handicapped children, as unlucky. These children are killed, their parents banished, and their homes and possessions burned. They believe in the existence of many ruling spirits, such as spirits that rule over heaven and earth, spirits that protect their villages, and evil spirits that bring diseases. The Mahei have three major religious leaders: the zuima (a male elder who directs all religious activities), the beima (males who perform magic and exorcisms), and nima (fortune tellers and medicine men). What are their needs? Since China's government strictly forbids Christianity, there are currently no missions agencies working among the Mahei. The Bible has not yet been translated into their language and there are no Christian broadcasts in their area. Intercession and missions activity are necessary for these people to hear the Gospel. Prayer Points Pray that God will reveal Himself to the Mahei through dreams and visions. Pray that God will give the Mahei believers boldness to share Christ with their own people. Ask God to speed the completion of evangelistic materials into the Mahei language. Pray that the doors of China will soon open to missionaries. Ask God to strengthen, encourage, and protect the small number of Mahei Christians. Pray that God will raise up qualified linguists to translate the Bible into the Mahei language. Ask the Lord to raise up strong local churches among the Mahei. * Pray for translation of the Bible to begin in this people group's primary language. * Pray for the availability of the Jesus Film in the primary language of this people. * Pray for Gospel messages to become available in audio format for this people group.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23235000
Koreans have a long tradition of drinking teas and tisanes for health, enjoyment and rituals. Even today, drinking tea is something many Koreans do every day, whether at home or at one of the country’s many elegant teahouses. Tea was first introduced to the Korean peninsula during sixth or seventh centuries, and was probably brought to Korea by Buddhist monks. Written records show that kings and queens during the Silla period used tea as part of their religious and ceremonial offerings. By the Goryeo dynasty, tea had become very important in Korea and was strongly connected with Buddhism. Monks cultivated tea plants at their temples, and drank tea to help concentrate during their mediations. It was also an important part of many rituals, and even the charyeceremony many Koreans perform nowadays on Chuseok and Seollal was originally an offering of tea instead of food and alcohol. During this period, tea was so important that people wrote poems and books about it, and much of the Goryeo period’s celebrated pottery was intended as tea vessels. During the Joseon period, tea culture began to decline in Korea, partially because of the official suppression of Buddhism. Still, many scholars, like the great Dasan (Jeong Yak-yeong), were interested in tea and studied how to make and drink it. The Joseon court had its own tea rituals, as well, both for daily tea drinking and special occasions. Korean tea culture experienced a revival during the 20th century, and is once again an important part of people’s daily lives. There are several active tea plantations around the country, with some of the most famous being in Boseong in Jeolla Province, Halla Mountain on Jeju Island, and the areas around Jiri Mountain. There are also some people who gather wild tea leaves for an exceptionally delicate and delicious tea. In addition to true teas, which come from the leaves of the tea plant, Koreans also drink a wide variety of tisanes. These brews are made with other medicinal herbs, roots and berries for delicious and healthy drinks. Some of the most popular are made from quince, ginger, green plums, jujubes, citron or ginseng. In addition to tea leaves, other plants also popular for brewing, such as mugwort, lotus, bamboo and persimmon leaves. Other popular traditional “teas” are complex brews made with different combinations of medicinal herbs for strong and bracing brews with an edge of bitterness, which have an excellent reputation for helping people feel stronger and more alert or even help relieve the symptoms of the common cold. During the summers, many Koreans also turn to chilled traditional drinks to take the edge of the summer heat. Sikhye is made from rice and has a delicate, sweet flavor that is exceptionally refreshing, while sujeonggwa has a rich sweet and spicy taste that comes from dried persimmons, cinnamon and ginger. Another popular trend is to make iced versions of popular drinks that are usually served hot. Adding a little ice to a glass of citron, or yuja, tea is a great way to cool off, and even traditional green teas take on a modern edge when served chilled. Author: Jennifer Flinn Source: The Korea Blog	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23243000
Around the Nation Wed November 2, 2011 Climate Change Has Calif. Vintners Rethinking Grapes Prime California wine country areas like the Napa Valley could soon be facing rising temperatures, according to climate change studies. So some wineries are thinking of switching to grapes that are better suited to a warmer climate. But when vineyards have staked their reputations on certain wines, adapting to climate change is a tough sell. The specific type of grape, or varietal, is how most of us think about wine. At one recent meeting of the San Francisco Wine Lovers Group, for instance, members listed pinot noirs, sauvignon blancs or cabernets among their favorite kinds of wine. All are well-known varieties grown in the California region. "That's the big problem," says Andy Walker, a grape breeder at the University of California, Davis. "We've spent the last 100 years emphasizing varieties, and we've really marketed those names very effectively." The university's test vineyard grows hundreds of different wine grapes from around the world. The vast majority are unknown to consumers because most wineries focus on only a handful of French grapes that prefer cool climates. Extreme heat can be the enemy of good wine; it destroys acidity, and changes color and aromatics, Walker explains. Resistance To Grape Breeding According to a recent study from Stanford University, about 2 degrees of warming could reduce California's premium wine-growing land by 30 to 50 percent. That could happen as soon as 2040. Water supply is also expected to be an issue. "I think the interesting thing for me as a breeder is to take advantage of this and say, OK, let's actually re-adapt varieties to California," Walker says. But Walker says grape breeding is frowned upon in the industry. Most vines are grown from a branch that's taken off an existing plant. "This essentially means that grapes have not really been having sex very much," says Sean Myles, a geneticist at the Nova Scotia Agricultural College. Myles says breeding is big business for other crops like corn, but wine grapes miss that opportunity to develop adaptability. "That means that we're not allowing the genetic material to be shuffled anymore. That genetic material is now standing still in time," he says. You could cross-breed today's varieties to make them more heat tolerant or drought resistant. But Walker says there's a big problem with that: Once you breed your pinot noir with something else, you can't call it pinot noir anymore. "The last decision is the hardest," Walker says. "Can we market this variety?" Hurdles On The Marketing Side Walker says there are wine grapes from Italy and Spain that would do well in a warmer California. "We could produce Barbera instead, or Negroamaro or Nero d'Avola from southern Italy, and we'd be far better ahead," he says. Nick Dokoozlian, a vice president at E&J Gallo Winery, the largest family-owned winery in the U.S., says in most cases the company is responding to a consumer demand for a certain cultivar. The company has been testing new wine varieties and has found some promising grapes, Dokoozlian says. But the problem is that they can't necessarily sell those varieties. "Consumers aren't aware of them. Really, the hurdles on the marketing side are much, much more significant," he explains. Since vines can produce for up to 30 years, Dokoozlian says switching varieties is a major financial gamble. "The wine business is an extremely capital intensive business. The financial risk of planting the wrong variety in the wrong place is pretty significant," he says. Still, given the temperature and water supply changes projected for California, Dokoozlian sees the market shifting — eventually. Andy Walker says it's up to the industry to make it happen. "I don't think it's the consumer that's going to make the shift. They have to be directed," Walker says. And that means it could be some time before we see world-class Nero d'Avola from California on store shelves.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23244000
Podcasts & RSS Feeds Thu September 22, 2011 Falling Satellite To Return Tomorrow We know a little bit more about the fate of that falling weather satellite, the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite, which is close to its fiery end. NASA now predicts the UARS will plunge into Earth's lower atmosphere "sometime during the afternoon of Sept. 23, Eastern Daylight Time". Although most of the UARS will burn up during the descent, several heavy chunks of metal could survive. As you can imagine, there's been considerable interest in whose roof could be at risk. NASA said previously the North and South Poles won't get debris. Today the agency included North America in the safety zone, because "the satellite will not be passing over North America during that time period (of reentry)." That leaves one of the five other continents or the five sevenths of the planet covered by water to welcome back any leftovers. NASA says the risk to public safety is extremely small. If you'd like a closer look at the UARS, see this amazing video captured a week ago by Thierry Legault of France. He theorizes the UARS is tumbling, perhaps because of a collision with space debris a few years ago.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23245000
Chapter 5: "Conduct Yourselves Honorably Among the Gentiles" (1 Peter 2:12), Acculturation and Assimilation in 1 Peter Seland read this paper in Edinburgh in 1998, and so it is the second essay of the book taken in chronological order. I personally found this chapter the most interesting and helpful of all. In this chapter, Torrey addresses the question of the degree to which the author of 1 Peter intends for the audience to be assimilated to its non-Christian environment. His thesis is three fold (148). First, he does not believe the terms acculturation and assimilation have been used thus far to great advantage in analyzing the social strategies of 1 Peter. Secondly, those studies that have used these terms in relation to 1 Peter have not tapped into the extensive use of them in the social sciences. Finally, he argues that they apply to the Christians of 1 Peter as "first generation Christians ... still in a process of being socialized into the Christian world view." Torrey suggests they are in somewhat of a "liminal" situation as newly converted Christians. As such, he sets out to review key literature on 1 Peter in relation to its social situation, to dip into relevant social scientific research on acculturation and assimilation, and then apply these findings to 1 Peter. Seland's review of relevant New Testament research leads him to three key players, namely, David Balch, John Elliott, and John Barclay. Balch's work focused primarily on the household codes of 1 Peter, and his basic thesis is that "such codes were used in a apologetic and legitimating way in Graeco-Roman sources" (150). Balch--at least in his earlier work--characterizes such a purpose as assimilation. The audience of 1 Peter is being told to integrate themselves into society. Elliott disagrees. The fact that the letter calls for Christians to separate from the world, as well as its missionary emphases, indicate for him that the Petrine house codes are discouraging assimilation for the purpose of avoiding suffering. Seland's critique of both is that neither use the terms assimilation and accommodation with the precision of the social sciences. Barclay, on the other hand, is more precise in his terms, although his well known work, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora does not address 1 Peter. Barclay distinguishes three terms. First, Barclay uses the word assimilation in reference to the category of social interaction and the adoption of social practices from one's environment. Acculturation then is used in relation to broader cultural features like the use of the same language. Finally, accommodation has to do with the degree to which acculturation takes place, the level of separateness that either is or is not maintained. In the end, Seland does not find this typology very helpful. He does not find Barclay's distinction between assimilation and acculturation very clear. Further, Barclay's nomenclature does not mesh well with the social scientific use of these terms. And so Seland embarks next on an exploration of recent research in the social sciences on acculturation and assimilation (156-66). His first stop is B. S. Heisler, whose work analyzes the history of research on this topic in three stages. She dubs research up until the late 60's the "classical period." In this period, the process of assimilation was viewed as a one way process ending in complete assimilation. Heisler dubs the second period the "modern" period, beginning in the seventies. In this period research focused more on conflict, particularly long term conflict, and less on equilibrium. The third period is the "post-modern period," of recent origin (which given the date of this article would be the 1990's). Here we find the expectation of multicultural societies and ethnic pluralisms (158). Seland mentions several other sources from which one might construct a model of acculturation/assimilation appropriate for 1 Peter. These include the fields of social psychology and communication research. Finally, he draws definitions of acculturation and assimilation from the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (160). acculturation: "those changes set in motion by the coming together of societies with different cultural traditions." Seland finds this statement in the article even more helpful: "Acculturation comprehends those phenomena which results [sic] when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups." assimilation: "a process in which persons of diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds come to interact, free of these constraints, in the life of the larger society." After all this background, Seland ultimately turns to Milton Gordon's 1964 model (from the so called classical period of such research) with a few caveats. The main caveat is a warning that Gordon was wrongly "deterministic" in his sense of inevitability to the process of assimilation. Adjustment of two groups to each other is not the only option. Gordon's model breaks down several different categories of assimilation: 1. cultural or behavioral assimilation (=acculturation)--fitting in with the host culture in a most basic way (presumably things like learning the language, getting the appropriate documents, etc...) 2. structural assimilation--participating in the clubs, institutions, etc. in large numbers. Gordon believed that once structural assimilation had taken place, all the forms of assimilation below would inevitably follow. 3. marital assimilation (intermarriage) 4. identificational assimilation (identity by way of host society) 5. attitude receptional assimilation (no prejudice toward immigrants) 6. behavior receptional assimilation (no discrimination toward immigrants) 7. civic assimilation (absence of power conflict) John Berry, in 1980, built on Gordon's categories by posing two questions: 1) does the immigrant group wish to maintain its distinct cultural identity and 2) does the immigrant group wish good relationships with the host culture (163-164)? The result are four basic relationships to the broader culture: 1. If the immigrant group does not want to maintain a distinct identity and does want good relationships with the host culture, the result is assimilation. 2. If the immigrant group does want to maintain a distinct identity yet also wants good relationships with the host culture, the result is integration. 3. If the immigrant group does want to maintain a distinct identity yet does not want good relationships with the host culture, the result is separation. 4. Finally, if the immigrant group does not want to maintain a distinct identity and at the same time does not care about good relationships with the host culture, the result is marginalization. The final part of the chapter then takes all of the preceding processing of social scientific theory and attempts to use it in relation to 1 Peter. Here we arrive at one of Seland's contributions to the Balch/Elliott debate. The question is not really one of assimilation to Greco-Roman culture, as this is the cultural background of the likely Gentile audience (169-170). The question is that of the assimilation of the audience "to the (still developing) Christian system of cult, beliefs, ethos and symbols" (168). So in relation to the host culture, the question is best put as, "How much did he, by his letter, intend his readers to retain of that culture?" (173). First, Seland argues that they are first generation Christians, "still in need of further acculturation/assimilation into the Christian system" (169). He is surely more correct than not in the light of statements such as we find in 1 Peter 1:14 and 4:3. However, we remember how large an area 1 Peter addresses and are careful not to presume an audience of any monolithic kind. They are primarily Gentile, and it is early enough in the Christian movement for the author to presume that the majority converted from paganism. They are in a precarious social location. Here Torrey mentions briefly what he discusses more thoroughly in chapter 2. John Elliott is once again his requisite dialog partner. On the one hand, he agrees with Elliott that the phrase "aliens and exiles" in 1 Peter 2:11 does not refer to exile from heaven, as if the audience is on a heavenly pilgrimage (171). Yet he also finds unconvincing Elliott's sense that they were strangers to these regions even before they converted. We will discuss this thesis in the next post as we review chapter 2. I am also unconvinced of Elliott's thesis and remain puzzled that commentators like Paul Achtemeier and Scot McKnight have followed Elliott on this issue. At the same time, I'm still struggling with Seland's signature idea that this language in 1 Peter evokes connotations of proselyte language (more when we come to chapter 2). Seland is spot on when it comes to the audience being "proselytes" to Christian Judaism. But I'm having trouble seeing that the specific terms "aliens and exiles" carried those overtones. Indeed, I don't think it is safe at all to assume that the audience, especially in such a vast area, are relatively new converts. ***coming articles The rest of the section then explores where 1 Peter might fit in relation to John Berry's four categories. Seland immediately dismisses out of hand the options of marginalization and separation. The author wishes the audience to maintain good relationships with the host society. To address the question of integration versus assimilation, he switches back to Gordon's more detailed delineation of the process of assimilation (173-87). The first stage is acculturation or cultural assimilation in matters such as language. They are to live honorably among the Gentiles (2:12) while following a "new code of honor and shame" (176). Seland thus considers their level of acculturation to be high with some significant modifications. He does not, however, consider their assimilation to be high in any of Gordon's other categories. The strong sense of harassment and conflict evoked in 1 Peter 2-3 do not reflect that of high assimilation between Christians and their environment structurally, and certainly not in terms of attitude or behavioral reception, let alone civic assimilation. It is assumed that some women will be married to non-believers, but it is unlikely the author would encourage such if it were possible to avoid. And while the audience is not encouraged to withdraw from its societal relations, it is clear that its self-indentification departs quite dramatically from its host environment. The conclusion, which ironically Seland himself never mentions explicitly, is that the audience would best be typified by "integration" in Berry's typology. more to come...	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23248000
Maybe you've seen them before: blue or purple squiggles on grown-ups' legs that look like lines on a roadmap. And maybe you thought, "What the heck are those?" Well, they're veins. But wait a second — why don't you have them? And why do they look different from the veins on the inside of your wrist or elbow? That's because those grown-up veins are varicose (say: vair-uh-kose) veins. Blood Vessel Basics What is a varicose vein, anyway? It's a vein that has become stretched and swollen with blood. To understand how that happens, let's learn a bit about what veins do. You have veins and arteries running through your whole body. They are tiny tubes that carry blood to and from every part of your body, from your nose down to your toes. The flow of blood starts with the pumping action of your heart. When your heart beats, it pumps your blood and moves it through all those little tubes. The arteries carry the blood from your heart out to your body, and the veins carry the blood from your body back to your heart. The blood going out to your body in the arteries is full of oxygen, which makes the blood bright red. But the blood coming back from your body in the veins is darker because your body parts have used up the oxygen in the blood. That's why veins look purple or blue. What Causes Varicose Veins? It's a lot of work to move all that blood. To do their job, veins are full of valves that help keep the blood flowing in the right direction. Valves are like tiny doors that close after the blood has passed through to keep blood moving along and to make sure it doesn't flow backward. As people get older, though, the valves might not work as well. When that happens, some blood can stay in a vein instead of moving forward like it should. This makes the vein swell up, and that swollen vein is a varicose vein. The veins often show up on the legs, ankles, and feet because those body parts are farthest from the heart. Gravity pulls blood down into your legs and feet when you're standing up or sitting down. So the veins have to work extra hard to get that blood back up to the heart, and some of those veins can wear out over time. Varicose veins look twisted and purple or blue, and they're raised, which means they look like they're sitting on top of the skin. They can be tender and painful, especially after sitting or standing still for a long time. People who have varicose veins might also have achy legs that feel heavy. Varicose veins are more common in women, and people are more likely to get them as they get older. These veins can be genetic (say: juh-neh-tik). That means that if your mom or your sister has them, you might get them. Things that put pressure on your legs and feet — like being overweight or standing for a long time every day without exercise — can also cause varicose veins. Sometimes women who are pregnant get them, too. If someone you know has varicose veins, it's really no big deal. They're usually pretty harmless. But people who have problems like pain with their varicose veins will sometimes see a doctor to have them removed. To get rid of varicose veins, some of the things doctors can do is zap them with light from a special laser or use something called sclerotherapy (say: skler-oh-thair-uh-pee). In sclerotherapy, the doctor injects fluid into the vein that makes it shrivel up. Both of these treatments are pretty common. Luckily, there are things you can do now so you're less likely to have varicose veins when you're older. First, get your blood moving with regular exercise. Keeping your body fit helps keep your veins fit, too! Also, don't put a lot of pressure on your legs and feet by standing or sitting for too long without moving around. Help keep your blood flowing and your body will love you for it!	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23253000
Constipation is not having a bowel movement as often as you usually do, or having a tough time going because the stool is hard and dry. It's a very common problem, and usually happens because a person's diet doesn't include enough fluids and fiber. Constipation usually isn't a cause for concern — it's preventable and most cases can be resolved with healthy eating and exercise habits. After you chew and swallow food, it heads to your stomach. From there, it's on to the small intestine, then the large intestine (or bowels), and finally out of the body through the rectum and anus. As food moves through your digestive system, your body soaks up water and nutrients it needs from the food. What's left over comes out as stool. Normal stool is usually soft and easy to pass, and it generally shouldn't be too difficult to have a bowel movement. But sometimes the bowels just don't move like they should. A person is considered constipated when he or she has had fewer than three bowel movements in a week; when the stools are hard, dry, and unusually large; or when it's hard for the person to have a bowel movement. Unhealthy diet. Most of the time, constipation is due to a diet that doesn't include enough water and fiber, both of which help your bowels move properly. People who eat a lot of fast food may find they're constipated more often. This is because fast food is full of fats (burgers, fries, milkshakes) and processed sugars (candy, cookies, sugary soft drinks). A healthier diet that includes high-fiber foods like fruits, vegetables, and whole grains can keep your stool from getting hard and dry. Stress. People can get constipated when they're anxious about something, like a life change or a problem at home. Research has shown that stress can affect how the digestive system functions and can cause constipation, as well as other conditions, like diarrhea. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Some people have a condition called irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), which can act through stress or by eating certain "trigger" foods, which usually are fatty or spicy. A person with IBS may have either constipation or diarrhea, as well as stomach pain and gas. Ignoring the natural urge. Avoiding going to the bathroom, even when you really have the urge to go, can cause constipation. When you ignore the urge to go, it can be harder to go later on. Certain medications. Sometimes, medications like antidepressants and those used to treat iron deficiencies can lead to constipation. In rare cases, constipation is a sign of other medical illnesses, so keep your doctor informed if you continue to have problems, or if the constipation lasts for 2 to 3 weeks. Different people have different bathroom habits, so someone who doesn't have a bowel movement every day isn't necessarily constipated. One person might go three times a day, while another might go once every 3 days. The real sign of whether you're constipated is if you're going less than you normally do. A person with constipation might: feel full or bloated feel pain making a bowel movement have to strain to make a bowel movement notice a little blood on the toilet paper Dealing With Constipation To prevent and treat constipation: Drink more fluids. Drinking enough water and other liquids helps keep stools soft so they can move more easily through the intestines. When you don't drink enough, the stool can get hard and dry, and you might get stopped up. Eat more fiber. Foods that are high in fiber, like fruits, vegetables, and whole-grain bread, can help prevent constipation. Fiber can't be digested, so it helps clean out the intestines by moving the bowels along, while a diet full of fatty, sugary, or starchy foods can slow the bowels down. Try getting more fiber in your diet by eating apples, oatmeal, oranges, bananas, baked potatoes, and popcorn. Make sure you get enough exercise. Physical activity helps move food through your digestive system and nudges the bowels into action, so be sure to get plenty of exercise. It can be as simple as playing catch, cycling, or shooting a few hoops. Develop a regular meal schedule. Since eating is a natural stimulant for the bowels, regular meals may help you develop routine bowel habits. If necessary, schedule breakfast a little earlier to give yourself a chance for a relaxed visit to the bathroom before school. Get into the habit of going. Maybe you don't want to use the bathroom at school, or maybe you just don't want to stop what you're doing right then. But if you make a habit of ignoring your body's signals that it's time to go, it can be tougher to go later on. Some medical conditions — like diabetes, lupus, or problems with the thyroid gland — also can cause constipation. If you're worried that your constipation is a sign of something else, talk to your parents and your doctor.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23255000
"Simultaneously mitigating near-term climate change and improving human health and food security." Well, yes. What's new for Science doesn't have to be new for klimazwiebel authors and readers. But finally, good to hear that other people,too, seem to give up their 2-degree goals and become more pragmatic and realistic! Here the abstract: Tropospheric ozone and black carbon (BC) contribute to both degraded air quality and global warming. We considered ~400 emission control measures to reduce these pollutants by using current technology and experience. We identified 14 measures targeting methane and BC emissions that reduce projected global mean warming ~0.5°C by 2050. This strategy avoids 0.7 to 4.7 million annual premature deaths from outdoor air pollution and increases annual crop yields by 30 to 135 million metric tons due to ozone reductions in 2030 and beyond. Benefits of methane emissions reductions are valued at $700 to $5000 per metric ton, which is well above typical marginal abatement costs (less than $250). The selected controls target different sources and influence climate on shorter time scales than those of carbon dioxide–reduction measures. Implementing both substantially reduces the risks of crossing the 2°C threshold.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23259000
Pub. date: 2010 \| Online Pub. Date: May 06, 2010 \| DOI: 10.4135/9781412958660 \| Print ISBN: 9781412958653 \| Online ISBN: 9781412958660\| Publisher:SAGE Publications, Inc.About this encyclopedia Property is a general term for things such as land or other material resources and goods, the relations between people and those things, the relations between people with respect to those things, or the system of rules that governs these relations. Every society with an interest in avoiding conflict between people over things requires such a system; without it, a civilized common life is impossible. We may distinguish three ideal types of systems that could be used to organize property in a society. Under the first type of system, property is held in common, and all members of the society are free to use it as they choose without spoiling it for others. Under the second type of system, property is held collectively, and society collectively determines its use. Under the third type of system, property is held privately, and those who hold it are free to use it In ...	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23261000
A panel of experts discuss what works in developing School, Family & Community Partnerships. Tell us about your most effective strategy or useful resource. Share tips, insights, and special stories about successful School, Family & Community Partnerships at your site. School districts continually reexamine how families and communities can support students' academic success. Even in the best schools it is hard to create and sustain family programs that focus on achievement for all students. Answer These Questions: - How do family and community activities contribute to high academic standards and expectations for all students? - How do teachers build relationships with families and the community to offer each child the strongest foundation for learning? - Do you find there are many family and community activities, but no sense of a cohesive plan? - What are the goals and expected outcomes for the activities of each school, family, and community partnership? Who else should be involved? Click "View All Responses" to browse through the questions that have been answered by the Center for Youth Development and Policy Research at the Academy for Educational Development. To find questions and answers about a specific topic, click "View All Responses" and then use the search tool that appears at the top of the list. VIEW ALL RESPONSES	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23263000
Fri September 7, 2012 The 7 Coolest Presidents In American History Originally published on Fri September 7, 2012 2:34 pm When former President Bill Clinton referred to present President Barack Obama at the Democratic National Convention as "cool on the outside," Clinton was underscoring the notion that Obama is, well, cool. Obama was elected, much has been made of his coolitude. He listens to an iPod. He slow jams the news with late-night comic Jimmy Fallon. He wears shades, drinks beer, taps into social media and sings Al Green now and then. The New Yorker referred to Obama as Mr. Cool. Which got us to thinking — and asking historians — who are the seven coolest presidents in American history? 1) Bill Clinton. After all, it takes a cool guy to know a cool guy. "Obviously Bill Clinton," says Julian Zelizer, a presidential historian at Princeton University. During the 1992 election, Clinton explored new ways to reach voters, like appearing on MTV and playing the saxophone on a late night talk show. Clinton's popularity, Zelizer says, "even in the middle of impeachment, demonstrated a kind of admiration many had for his personal style." 2) John F. Kennedy. The smoothie from Massachusetts "was certainly cool in terms of charisma and demeanor," Zelizer says. The stark contrast between Kennedy and Richard Nixon in the 1960 debates "might have set the standard for what it meant to be cool." 3) Theodore Roosevelt. Though Teddy was "not cool by modern standards," Zelizer says, "clearly the curiosity many Americans had for him as a person — famously with the Teddy bear — signaled that TR was a man of his times." 4) Ronald Reagan. The actor-turned-politician "attracted scads of young voters in the 1980 and 1984 elections," says Gleaves Whitney, director of the Hauenstein Center for Presidential Studies at Grand Valley State University in Allendale, Mich. Reagan "was a rock star when he went to Moscow at the end of his presidency. Young Russians definitely thought him cool." So did many Americans. 5) Thomas Jefferson. The polymath from Virginia "was cool in the early days of the new republic," Whitney says. "He broke with the aristocratic formalities of his predecessors, George Washington and John Adams, and introduced the revolutionary republican greeting from France — the hand shake — to welcome guests to Monticello and the White House. Quite hip in his day, he was a renowned musician and elegant dancer with whom women fell in love." Cool, of course, can have more than one definition, according to Julia Azari, an assistant political science professor at Marquette University. On one hand, presidential cool can refer to a president's ability to charm others, defy convention and appear hip — exemplified by Clinton's saxophone playing and Kennedy's movie-grade glamour. But it also can refer to a president's unflappable and seemingly detached manner. In presidential politics, Azari says, the two definitions are often at odds. The first definition "sets the president up as a celebrity, but also speaks to the intimacy of his connection with not only the people but also popular, 'low' culture." The second definition, she says, "positions the president as above the fray, impervious to petty political criticism. This is a key quality to cultivate during times when presidents have to make difficult political decisions." 6) Franklin D. Roosevelt. Using the second definition, Azari says, "I would add FDR to the list. He told critics he 'welcomed their hatred.' " He was "unflappable and in control, calm in a crisis." 7) George W. Bush. Using the first definition, "I'd add George W. Bush," Azari says. "Everyone wanted to have a beer with him. Too bad he doesn't drink." That likability quality seemed to serve Bush well politically, she adds, "at least in the short term." On a closing note, Azari says, "I think a few presidents have suffered from a seeming lack of cool — in the sense of both hipness and unflappability: Herbert Hoover, Richard Nixon and Jimmy Carter."	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23269000
This is the first of several talks St. Francis has with Philothea about humility. In this first conversation, he tries to move her away from aspiring to superficial (worldly) virtues. PHILOTHEA: St. Francis. I just don’t understand humility. What does that mean? Does it mean to hate myself? To be a doormat? Does it mean to…to what? ST. FRANCIS: “Borrow…empty vessels not a few,” said Eliseus to the poor widow, “and pour oil into them” (4 Kings 4), and before we can receive the grace of God into our hearts they must be thoroughly empty of all self-glory [vainglory]. ST. FRANCIS: The kestrel has a peculiar property of frightening away birds of prey with its looks and cries, for which reason the dove seeks it beyond all other birds, and lives fearlessly in its neighborhood; and so humility repulses Satan and preserves in us the gifts and graces of the Holy Spirit. For this reason all the Saints, and especially the King of Saints and His Mother, ever honored and cherished this virtue above all others. PHILOTHEA: I don’t get it. What does vainglory mean? How is it different from humility? ST. FRANCIS: We call vainglory that which we seek for ourselves, either for that which is not in us, or being in us, is not our own, or being in us and our own, is not worthy to be glorified in. PHILOTHEA: Let me think a minute about what you just said…so that would be things such as… ST. FRANCIS: Noble birth, the favor bestowed by great men, [and] popular esteem are not in ourselves; they either come from our forefathers or from the opinion of others. PHILOTHEA: So our name or because an opinion from another makes us sound good to others, that does not mean much, or something like that??? ST. FRANCIS: Some are proud and conceited because they have a fine horse, a plume in their hat, or are magnificently attired, but who cannot perceive the absurdity of this, since if anyone has reason to be proud it is surely the horse, the ostrich, or the tailor! And how very contemptible it is to rest our hope of esteem in a horse, a feather, or a garment! PHILOTHEA: True. It’s the same as having a car, a hairstyle, or name-brand clothes. Surely, it was not me who made any of those, or, even if I did, I cannot make those things be accepted as “cool.” Things should not define me. Mmmmm… ST. FRANCIS: Another thinks of his well-trimmed beard and mustache, or his well-curled hair, his delicate hands, or of his accomplishments in dancing, music, and so on, but is it not very contemptible to try to enhance his worth or his reputation through such frivolous and foolish things? PHILOTHEA: I get it. I know the type of people you are talking about. They used to be called fops or dandies, but they are called something else today. ST. FRANCIS: Others who have acquired a little science demand the respect and honor of the world on that account, as if all must needs come to learn of them and bow before them. Such men we call pendants [those who present their knowledge in an ostentatious, dogmatic, or dull manner, often placing excessive emphasis on trivial details and formal rules]. PHILOTHEA: They tell others that all people need only learn from their studies and ask them to bow before them as if they knew everything? Oh, my gosh. I never thought of people making science into its own dogmatic formulation of rules with its own high priests, but I guess it can happen to people in any discipline, and you know what? That actually makes a lot of sense! Everybody only has a piece of knowledge, so if a person of science, literature, politics, prayer, psychology, religion, art, or anything claims they know everything, then persuades others to follow them with certain exacting behaviors, bowing to worldly mannerisms…anyone who is this extreme is a pendant! It doesn’t matter if they believe in God or not. If they claim to know more than every other person in the world with their one piece of knowledge, if they claim that they own all the rights to human progress because they think their one piece of a whole will lead the way, then they have succumbed to pedantry. Sadly, I think anybody who falls into this pedantry works to persuade themselves and others to give up on God by calling all believers ignorant fools and hypocrites. Or if they are believers themselves, they believe they are better than all others who call themselves religious. They are creating their own dogma based on one piece of knowledge. Is it because they are really worried about the honors part, or the opinion of others? Are they going with the fads of the day? Are they so worried about being accepted that they have to say they don’t believe or twist what they do believe because they want to be considered intelligent? Are they so worried about fitting in that they make up a new way to pray, to learn, to teach, to be in order to be accepted by those who really don’t believe? Are they compromising their integrity just to fit in? It is really silly if you think about it because all of the knowledge that they claim to have (and they might or might not have a piece) they make that one small piece become the entire scheme of all things, the key to everything, a mountain out of a molehill, a piece as the whole instead of a part of a whole. Besides that, all these pieces were not discovered without the knowledge and work of others, many of those others were and are believers. How sad! To think that only one discipline has all the answers to all our human questions! There has to be at least as many questions as there are people on the earth, but I am sure each person has more than one question. How can one discipline possibly answer all these questions? But one discipline, one area of study, is making that claim–that they can answer that question–that they have all the answers to every human need. Talk about dogmatic! Sheesh…Apparently these extremes can happen to anybody, even in the area of science, art, or whatever. Any discipline, any piece of knowledge can become pedantry if we are not careful. Sorry, St. Francis. That was just a really thought-provoking piece of information. It really just got me thinking. Usually, people accuse religious folk of being this way, but it can happen to even those who claim no religion. I can see why people could lose their way with this. They see a piece and run with it as if it were whole. A person who really searches for the length, the breadth, the width, the depth of all things, knows that he cannot know all or prove all on his own. Anyone who makes that claim must be false, superficial, artificial. Sorry. I didn’t mean to take up your time. Go ahead. ST. FRANCIS: Others pride themselves on their personal beauty, and think that everyone is admiring them: all of them in their turn are utterly silly, foolish, and impertinent, and their glory in such empty things we call vain, absurd, and frivolous. PHILOTHEA: Yep. I know the type. So how can you tell if a person is really humble? ST. FRANCIS: You may judge of real worth as of real balm, which is tried in water, and if it sinks, and remains at the bottom, it is known to be precious and costly; and so in order to know whether a man is really wise, learned, generous, and noble, observe whether his gifts make him humble, modest and submissive. If so, they are genuine, but if they float to the surface and would fain display themselves, be sure that in proportion as they make a show, so are they less worthy. PHILOTHEA: They get puffed up, arrogant, detracting all others, proud of themselves, thinking they “know-it-all,” can do anything they want to do, make up their own rules because they have a title, beauty, or some certificate of knowledge. ST. FRANCIS: Those pearls which are formed or fed in the wind and thunder leave only a pearly shell with no substance; and so those virtues and attractive qualities which have their root and support in pride, self-sufficiency, and vanity, have but the outward show of excellence, and are without sap, marrow, and solidity. PHILOTHEA: I think you just described a person who has no integrity, no sense of fellowship, and no sense of compassion. ST. FRANCIS: Honor, rank, and dignity are like the saffron, which flourishes and increases most when it is trodden underfoot. All the value of beauty is gone when its possessor is self-conscious; to be pleasing it should be forgotten; and science becomes contemptible when it is puffed up and degenerates into pedantry. PHILOTHEA: One uppers. They do it for themselves. Not for anybody else. They claim to being do it for others, but the others have to abide by their rules that work only for the piece without regard for the whole. ST. FRANCIS: If we are punctilious about rank, title, and precedence, we both lay our claims open to investigation and contradiction, and render them vile and despicable. PHILOTHEA: Perfectionists. I’ve been there. Done that. ST. FRANCIS: For that honor which means something when willingly offered, becomes contemptible when it is sought after, demanded, or exacted. PHILOTHEA: Greedy. I have tried to take on too much sometimes, I know. ST. FRANCIS: When the peacock displays his gorgeous plumes, he lays bare also his deformities; and those flowers which are beautiful in their native soil, soon whither if we handle them. PHILOTHEA: Foolish. Running without rest. I have also been involved with a person who was very much like you describe and our relationship winded up turning into dust. He had very superficial expectations of me that I could not live up to since these things come and go so quickly, but for him, according to others, he is considered a success because he is able to compete on that superficial plane. I am actually glad I am not there anymore. I was full of anxiety. ST. FRANCIS: And as they who inhale the mandragora from afar off and for a brief space, find it very delicious, but those who inhale it near and for long become drowsy and ill: so worldly honors are acceptable to him who receives them indifferently without resting in them or seeking them eagerly, but they become very dangerous and hurtful to him who clings to and takes delight in them. PHILOTHEA: I guess I should feel sorry for him, then. I am getting the sense that humility is a lot more beautiful than vainglory. ST. FRANCIS: The desire and pursuit of [authentic] virtue tend to render us virtuous, but the desire and pursuit of honors tend to make us odious and despicable. A really great mind will not waste itself on such empty goods as rank, honor, and form. It has higher pursuits, and leaves these for the weak and vain. He who can procure pearls will not be satisfied with shells, and those who aim at virtue do not trouble themselves about honors. PHILOTHEA: So in pursuing virtue, I can learn humility, which to me has a lot more depth. ST. FRANCIS: Of course each man may enter into, and remain in his own sphere, without lack of humility, so long as he does it with indifference, and without effort. PHILOTHEA : So, it’s okay to accept beauty, honors, titles within the context of your job or whatever, but do so with indifference for these external things so that the primary goal of seeking virtue and God is not lost. Science and all those other things are good but just need to be kept in balance. ST. FRANCIS: Just as vessels coming from Peru laden with gold and silver bring also a number of monkeys and parrots which cost nothing, and add but little to their freight, so those who aspire to be virtuous, may well accept their rightful rank and honors, but always without bestowing much care or thought to them, and without being involved in cares, vexations, disputes, and anxieties in consequence. ST. FRANCIS: I am not alluding here to those invested with public dignities, nor to special and important occasions, in which everyone is bound to maintain a fitting dignity with prudence and discretion, combined with charity and courtesy. PHILOTHEA: That’s good to know. It would be really rude to not uphold dignity. So the other extreme would be to hate those superficial things so much that they become the focus of your life, so then you lose humility just as in the other extreme of loving them too much. These outer things are accessories, so to concentrate on them by hating them too much or by loving them too much is imbalanced. They should be accepted and let go of like water going in and out of the hand, but the balm of virtue, that is something that lasts, and therefore is so much more worthy of our attention. Thanks St. Francis. St. Francis will cover internal humility in the next conversation. Look for the next conversation between St. Francis and Philothea, coming soon… **from An Introduction to the Devout Life by St. Francis de Sales (Tan Classics, 2010). AND from the translation printed by Eremetical Press (2009, 400th Anniversary Edition) to help with the more difficult sentence structures and vocabulary. AND the Macmillan Dictionary for Students.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23274000
Representing the Race tells the story of an enduring paradox of American race relations, through the prism of a collective biography of African American lawyers who worked in the era of segregation. Practicing the law and seeking justice for diverse clients, they confronted a tension between their racial identity as black men and women and their professional identity as lawyers. Both blacks and whites demanded that these attorneys stand apart from their racial community as members of the legal fraternity. Yet, at the same time, they were expected to be “authentic”—that is, in sympathy with the black masses. This conundrum, as Kenneth W. Mack shows, continues to reverberate through American politics today.And the endorsements: Mack reorients what we thought we knew about famous figures such as Thurgood Marshall, who rose to prominence by convincing local blacks and prominent whites that he was—as nearly as possible—one of them. But he also introduces a little-known cast of characters to the American racial narrative. These include Loren Miller, the biracial Los Angeles lawyer who, after learning in college that he was black, became a Marxist critic of his fellow black attorneys and ultimately a leading civil rights advocate; and Pauli Murray, a black woman who seemed neither black nor white, neither man nor woman, who helped invent sex discrimination as a category of law. The stories of these lawyers pose the unsettling question: what, ultimately, does it mean to “represent” a minority group in the give-and-take of American law and politics? Representing the Race is a wonderful excavation of the first era of civil rights lawyering, the product of prodigious research and a keen eye for revealing detail.Ken discusses the book here. --Randall L. Kennedy, author of The Persistence of the Color Line: Racial Politics and the Obama Presidency Ken Mack brings to this monumental work not only a profound understanding of law, biography, history and racial relations but also an engaging narrative style that brings each of his subjects dynamically alive. It is a truly wonderful book. --Doris Kearns Goodwin, author of Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln A stunning reinterpretation of civil rights history for a twenty-first century audience, bringing to vivid life both famous and forgotten historical lawyers. Anyone who wishes to understand race relations in our modern era, including the racial politics that surrounds our first African American president, should read this book. Ken Mack has written a rare book that forces us to reconsider the long history of civil rights. He offers an extraordinary account of a generation of attorneys who fought against Jim Crow and for professional recognition when the odds were against them. This is a masterwork. --Thomas J. Sugrue, author of Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North Although civil rights lawyers occupy a central place in our nation's history, the nuances of their own position with regard to race, class, and professional stature bear closer examination. In this compelling new book, Mack recreates their individual and collective struggles and the triumphs that defined an era. --Henry Louis Gates, Jr., W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African American Research, Harvard University	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23283000
If you have been reading our blog for a while, you will know that we like to use mirrors a lot in our classrooms- no, not for us!- but for our students. We love how it is a cute and easy way to teach the kids about having confidence and a high self- esteem. (Check out our Whoooo's a Good Looking Kid post for more ideas and printables for using mirrors to build self esteem.) Since this is the time for celebrating LOVE, I decided to teach this lesson right around Valentine's Day. How often do you hear students talk about how much they LOVE their family, friends, toys, pets, school, sports, or of course, you- their teacher??? All the time, right??? While I love to hear my students profess their love of everything, I especially like to hear them talk about how much LOVE they have for themself! This does not happen as much as I would like- especially when students get older and are much more aware of peer pressure and pressure from our society. This is one of my favorite lessons to teach because it integrates reading, writing, a whole lot of self -reflection, an art project, and some very important LIFE LESSONS!!! :) I began the lesson by passing out a mini mirror to every student in the class. You can purchase some at the Dollar store, ask your students to bring them to school, or even check your science supply rooms- you never know where you might find them! I then called the students to sit in a circle on the carpet and asked them to look in the mirror and share what they saw and how they feel. Yes, there was giggling, whispering....so I went first. "On the outside, I see my blue eyes and feel happy because I like them. On the inside, I see how I am a compassionate person and I care about my students." The boys and girls followed my example and shared their own thoughts about what they see on the outside from looking at their reflection in the mirror and also who they are in the inside (what the mirror does not reflect!) We continued by sharing the positive "inside and outside" qualities that we notice about each other- showed some love to each other. I then read a few of my favorite picture books and had the students reflect on the "top ten things I love about myself!" We then learned about the different adjectives that could be used to describe our personality (postive ones of course!) and create a cute, little art project that we turned into a bulletin board. Check out some of the pictures that I took from our lessons: I used to teach this lesson earlier in the school year, but I wanted to wait for the "love" theme of February to inspire the lessons this year. (***TPT customers- This was a file that we revised from our TPT store. If you already purchased the file titled, Awesome Adjectives that Describe Me!, then please redown the revised file!!!) If you are interested in this file, click on the image below to buy the file from TPT (it is $3.50): This file is also sold in our Show Your Students the Love February unit, also on TpT, for $8.00. Speaking of all this love....the first two readers who leave a nice comment will get our Valentine's unit for free! :) Please don't forget your email address! Enjoy your weekend!	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23285000
INITRDSection: Linux Programmer's Manual (4) INITRDSection: Linux Programmer's Manual (4) In the first boot-up phase, the kernel starts up and mounts an initial root file-system from the contents of /dev/initrd (e.g. RAM disk initialized by the boot loader). In the second phase, additional drivers or other modules are loaded from the initial root device's contents. After loading the additional modules, a new root file system (i.e. the normal root file system) is mounted from a different device. 1. The boot loader loads the kernel program and /dev/initrd's contents into memory. 2. On kernel startup, the kernel uncompresses and copies the contents of the device /dev/initrd onto device /dev/ram0 and then frees the memory used by /dev/initrd. 3. The kernel then read-write mounts device /dev/ram0 as the initial root file system. 4. If the indicated normal root file system is also the initial root file-system (e.g. /dev/ram0 ) then the kernel skips to the last step for the usual boot sequence. 5. If the executable file /linuxrc is present in the initial root file-system, /linuxrc is executed with uid 0. (The file /linuxrc must have executable permission. The file /linuxrc can be any valid executable, including a shell script.) 6. If /linuxrc is not executed or when /linuxrc terminates, the normal root file system is mounted. (If /linuxrc exits with any file-systems mounted on the initial root file-system, then the behavior of the kernel is UNSPECIFIED. See the NOTES section for the current kernel behavior.) 7. If the normal root file has directory /initrd, device /dev/ram0 is moved from / to /initrd. Otherwise if directory /initrd does not exist device /dev/ram0 is unmounted. (When moved from / to /initrd, /dev/ram0 is not unmounted and therefore processes can remain running from /dev/ram0. If directory /initrd does not exist on the normal root file-system and any processes remain running from /dev/ram0 when /linuxrc exits, the behavior of the kernel is UNSPECIFIED. See the NOTES section for the current kernel behavior.) 8. The usual boot sequence (e.g. invocation of /sbin/init) is performed on the normal root file system. It is also possible for the /linuxrc executable to change the normal root device. For /linuxrc to change the normal root device, /proc must be mounted. After mounting /proc, /linuxrc changes the normal root device by writing into the proc files /proc/sys/kernel/real-root-dev, /proc/sys/kernel/nfs-root-name, and /proc/sys/kernel/nfs-root-addrs. For a physical root device, the root device is changed by having /linuxrc write the new root file system device number into /proc/sys/kernel/real-root-dev. For a NFS root file system, the root device is changed by having /linuxrc write the NFS setting into files /proc/sys/kernel/nfs-root-name and /proc/sys/kernel/nfs-root-addrs and then writing 0xff (e.g. the pseudo-NFS-device number) into file /proc/sys/kernel/real-root-dev. For example, the following shell command line would change the normal root device to /dev/hdb1: echo 0x365 >/proc/sys/kernel/real-root-devFor a NFS example, the following shell command lines would change the normal root device to the NFS directory /var/nfsroot on a local networked NFS server with IP number 184.108.40.206 for a system with IP number 220.127.116.11 and named 'idefix': echo /var/nfsroot >/proc/sys/kernel/nfs-root-name echo 18.104.22.168:22.214.171.124::255.255.255.0:idefix \ >/proc/sys/kernel/nfs-root-addrs echo 255 >/proc/sys/kernel/real-root-dev A possible system installation scenario is as follows: 1. The loader program boots from floppy or other media with a minimal kernel (e.g. support for /dev/ram, /dev/initrd, and the ext2 file-system) and loads /dev/initrd with a gzipped version of the initial file-system. 2. The executable /linuxrc determines what is needed to (1) mount the normal root file-system (i.e. device type, device drivers, file system) and (2) the distribution media (e.g. CD-ROM, network, tape, ...). This can be done by asking the user, by auto-probing, or by using a hybrid approach. 3. The executable /linuxrc loads the necessary modules from the initial root file-system. 4. The executable /linuxrc creates and populates the root file system. (At this stage the normal root file system does not have to be a completed system yet.) 5. The executable /linuxrc sets /proc/sys/kernel/real-root-dev, unmount /proc, the normal root file system and any other file systems it has mounted, and then terminates. 6. The kernel then mounts the normal root file system. 7. Now that the file system is accessible and intact, the boot loader can be installed. 8. The boot loader is configured to load into /dev/initrd a file system with the set of modules that was used to bring up the system. (e.g. Device /dev/ram0 can be modified, then unmounted, and finally, the image is written from /dev/ram0 to a file.) 9. The system is now bootable and additional installation tasks can be performed. The key role of /dev/initrd in the above is to re-use the configuration data during normal system operation without requiring initial kernel selection, a large generic kernel or, recompiling the kernel. A second scenario is for installations where Linux runs on systems with different hardware configurations in a single administrative network. In such cases, it may be desirable to use only a small set of kernels (ideally only one) and to keep the system-specific part of configuration information as small as possible. In this case, create a common file with all needed modules. Then, only the the /linuxrc file or a file executed by /linuxrc would be different. A third scenario is more convenient recovery disks. Because information like the location of the root file-system partition is not needed at boot time, the system loaded from /dev/initrd can use a dialog and/or auto-detection followed by a possible sanity check. Last but not least, Linux distributions on CD-ROM may use initrd for easy installation from the CD-ROM. The distribution can use LOADLIN to directly load /dev/initrd from CD-ROM without the need of any floppies. The distribution could also use a LILO boot floppy and then bootstrap a bigger ram disk via /dev/initrd from the CD-ROM. mknod -m 400 /dev/initrd b 1 250 chown root:disk /dev/initrdAlso, support for both "RAM disk" and "Initial RAM disk" (e.g. CONFIG_BLK_DEV_RAM=y and CONFIG_BLK_DEV_INITRD=y ) support must be compiled directly into the Linux kernel to use /dev/initrd. When using /dev/initrd, the RAM disk driver cannot be loaded as a module. 2. With the current kernel, if directory /initrd does not exist, then /dev/ram0 will NOT be fully unmounted if /dev/ram0 is used by any process or has any file-system mounted on it. If /dev/ram0 is NOT fully unmounted, then /dev/ram0 will remain in memory.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23293000
Liver disease is the only major cause of death that, despite all the money and science mankind invested in it, is still increasing from year to year. In fact, twice as much people die of liver disease today than twenty years ago. If liver disease is so important why don’t we hear more about it? Because liver disease is a silent killer – it can be damaged to the point of disturbing your entire metabolism before anything shows up on standard liver tests and serious symptoms only appear when the disease is already in advanced stages. The liver plays a key role in preventing and generating various diseases, like obesity, hypertension, diabetes, toxic and metabolic diseases… If you take care of your liver you can not only prevent but even reverse these conditions, but if you don’t pay attention to your liver it will be hard to control them. This is a step-by-step guide in reversing liver disease. Here is what you will learn: - Why you should care about your liver - What are the causes of liver damage - How healing your liver can help you lose weight - How to know if your liver is damaged - A liver detox - Cure liver disease - Step-by-Step: what to do next	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23298000
French songwriter Georges Moustaki wrote Milord, the most popular song for Edith Piaf. Milord is a polite way to address traveling Englishmen in France, especially in Brittany and Normandy. Edith piaf is considered as the greatest French singer. Her tragic life added to her legend as she started singing in the streets of Paris in the 30s and got discovered in 1935 by Louis Leplee, the owner of a Parisian nightclub. Nicknamed “môme Piaf” (little sparrow) as she was a very small woman, Edith Piaf became very popular not only in France, but also in the world. Her tragic car accident in the 50s resulted in a lifelong addiction to morphine, one year after her true love boxer Marcel Cerdan had died in a tragic accident. She died of cancer in 1963 and was buried in Père Lachaise Cemeteray in Paris. « La Vie en Rose, » « Hymne à L’Amour, » « Les Trois Cloches, » and « Non, Je Ne Regrette Rien » are her most famous songs. After the Second World War (la deuxième guerre mondiale) the Japanese were very fond of the French writers and the French culture that was considered as very elitist. The Japanese were really interested in French existentialism, structuralism and post-modernism (existentialisme, structuralisme et post-modernisme) and the golden age of their love for the French lasted until the 70s. Their favorite writers were Albert Camus who wrote L’étranger, Jean-Paul Sartre and Saint-Exupéry (Le petit prince) and their favorite singers were Piaf, Montand, Aznavour, Brel, M.Mathieu…. Their interest in the French culture and the Press was also the result of the anti-Americanism of the Japanese society and the French community. By the 80s, France remained the symbol of luxury products (produits de luxe) and the best cuisine in the world, but the lack of patience of its governments was an obstacle to the investments in Japan by the French companies, even if the opening of the French high-speed train (TGV) was a blow to the Japanese Shinkansen high speed train.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23309000
Commercial tracking software often secretly records where users go on the Internet. If businesses don't set their own clear, simple privacy standards, government may need to step in with a 'do not track' option. The ease and speed with which people can share information over the Internet is perhaps the marvel of this era. The way they live and work is changing rapidly, posing new opportunities and new hazards. One area undergoing massive change is personal privacy. Fluid exchanges of information mean that more knowledge about people’s lives can be shared than they realize or desire. Facebook and Google are two Web giants that have recently faced criticism for playing fast and loose with information about their users. A significant number of apps – small software applications that users download onto their iPhones or other smart phones – have been shown to be surreptitiously collecting information on their users, such as the person’s location or their list of contacts. Meanwhile, the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia say they will curtail the use of BlackBerry phones for the opposite reason – their texts and e-mails are encrypted and difficult to intercept and decipher. The UAE claims this privacy feature is a threat to its national security. The development of computerized data banks – such as those storing credit-card information, medical records, or store “loyalty card” buying habits – continues to erode personal privacy. Page 1 of 4	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23310000
Financial statements are the backbone of a complete financial report. In fact, a financial report is not complete if the three primary financial statements are not included. but a financial report is much more than just those statements. A financial report requires disclosures. This term refers to additional information provided in a financial report. Therefore, any comprehensive and ethical financial report must include not only the primary financial statements, but disclosures as well. The chief executive of a business (usually the CEO in a publicly held corporation) has the primary responsibility to make sure that the financial statements have been prepared according to generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) and the financial report provides adequate disclosures. He or she works with the chief financial officer or controller of the business to make sure that the financial report meets the standard of adequate disclosures. Some common methods of disclosures include: –Footnotes that provide information about the basic figures. Nearly all financial statements require footnotes to provide additional information for several of the account balances in the financial statements. –Supplementary financial schedules and tables that provide more details than can be included in the body of the financial statements. –Other information may be required if the business is a public corporation subject to federal regulations regarding financial reporting to its stockholders. Other information is voluntary and not strictly required legally or according to GAAP. Some disclosures are required by various governing boards and agencies. These include: –The financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) has designated many standards. Its dictate regarding disclosure of the effects of stock options is one such standard. –The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) mandates disclosure of a broad range of information for publicly held companies. –International businesses have to abide by disclosure standards adopted by the International Accounting Standards Board. There are wide varieties of business opportunities that allow you work at home. In fact a work at home business is not a new concept. There are number of old home based businesses, like a child day care, candle making, catering and much more. However the advent of internet improves the home based business options. You can consider starting a home based business if you really have passion for it. You need to have the ability to work hard, dedication and effort would provide you reward once your home business is up and running. Though work at home business requires hard work, you can also enjoy the freedom and fun of working at home. You can also spend splenty of time with your family. Before starting a work at home business, plan well what type of home based business would suit you. Remember what seems perfect for your neighbor or friend may not suit you. Starting work at home business is not an easy task. You need to consider whether there are any risks in that business. You need to consider whether the business requires huge investment. You also need to seek the help of a mentor who can guide you well to get sure success in home based business. Some essentials for starting a work at home business: Once you have decided to start a home based business, you need to organize it properly so that unnecessary delays can be avoided. The following things are essential for home business success: 1. A phone with unlimited long distance calling option, caller Id, Voice mail, call forwarding and anonymous call rejection. 2. You must have a calendar. You can also use a online calendar like Google, outlook or yahoo calendar. 3. Computer software tools, high speed internet connection, flash player, Adobe reader and Java script etc are also important. You can use email software like outlook or outlook express for business email. 4. A good filing system is extremely important so that you can do work most efficiently. Organize business mails, faxes, training materials etc in separate folders. 5. You can use Instant messenger service which allows you to communicate with your online contacts and getting your questions answered since your phone line needs to be opened for incoming calls from prospects. 6. You can use any room in your home for business purposes. But organize the room well so that you can work peacefully. These simple steps can help you start home business and run it successfully.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23322000
That the field of medicine and health care includes significant and ongoing changes is a concept readily apparent to all. Such change requires its practitioners to be aware of new diseases, new treatments and modifications of practice required in contemporary medicine. Physicians in Minnesota are required to attend 75 hours of "classroom-type education" every three years to maintain their license to practice; similar requirements exist in other professional fields. Last Friday, I attended an excellent conference presented by the staffs of the University of Minnesota Medical School, the Minnesota Department of Health, and the Mayo Clinic titled "Emerging Infections."About 270 physicians, nurses, laboratory professionals, and public health staff spent the day being advised about the "emerging" (and ongoing) infections pertinent to our environment. As expected, the very serious outbreak of fungal meningitis related to the injection of contaminated steroid medication was thoroughly discussed. Diseases due to contaminated infant formulae, the spread of tick-borne diseases, and the significant epidemic of West Nile Virus infection were reviewed. However, the increasing importance of a relatively new disease, Hepatitis C, was a noteworthy subject of discussion. The viral diseases affecting the liver causing hepatitis (inflammation) and serious life-threatening conditions have an alphabetical spectrum. Hepatitis A is the disease associated with food-borne illness, contaminated water supplies, and travel. Hepatitis B is usually associated with perinatal transmission, blood transfusions, intravenous drug use, and sharing of body fluids, often resulting in serious acute and chronic illness. Hepatitis C was "discovered" in 1989 following the examination of patients with hepatitis uncharacteristic of Hepatitis A or B, and thus called "Non-A, non-B hepatitis." The disease occurs only in humans and chimpanzees and is found throughout the world, mainly in South America, East Africa and China. One hundred and seventy million people are affected; about 4 million people carry the disease in the U.S. More than 150,000 patients are affected each year here at a cost of treatment of a billion dollars per year. Unfortunately, there is no preventive therapy (vaccine) for Hepatitis C. Patients at high risk for Hepatitis C include persons with intravenous drug use, cocaine snorting, tattoos, multiple sexual partners, and children with infected mothers. Only 5-50 percent of infected patients know they are infected since they may have no symptoms. Persons who are at risk and who should be tested (screened) for infection with Hepatitis C include intravenous drug users, those persons who had a blood transfusion before 1991, men who have sex with men, and persons who have a tattoo! This year public health authorities have recommended that all persons born between 1945 and 1965 be screened for Hepatitis C. The "baby boomers" may have been exposed to conditions conducive to infection with Hepatitis C. Much like the "silent" epidemic of undiagnosed and untreated high blood pressure, the epidemic of Hepatitis C must be recognized and treated. Generalized routine screening and behavioral changes are part of the solutions for these serious public health challenges.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23325000
Step 4: Complete the evaluation plan. Why should you evaluate professional development? Your evaluation should address two basic questions: Did the activity, including all of the components, take place as planned? Did the activity achieve the intended outcomes for teachers and for students? Answers to the first question will tell you whether the plan you are developing now was implemented and, if not, where and why implementation fell short. This information can help avoid problems in the future. Answers to the second question will help you learn about the extent to which the activity resulted in the intended changes in teacher knowledge, skills, and performance and in the intended improvements in student learning. These evaluation results can also help pinpoint areas where additional professional development and support may be necessary. In addition, because professional development is a critical component of school improvement, evaluation results can help determine if these efforts are on track or if mid-course corrections are necessary. Planning Tip 11: Evaluations that focus solely on participant satisfaction and ratings of quality have limited value in assessing the impact of professional development on participants’ knowledge, skills, and performance or the impact on student learning. Planning Tip 12: Consider seeking help from an evaluator. Planning Tip 13: Consider using products and artifacts from learning activities and follow up as evaluation data. Planning Tip 14: Elements of your evaluation plan that focus on outcomes for teachers and for students should explicitly reflect your assumptions about the pace and sequence of change. (NEXT PAGE) (PREVIOUS PAGE)	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23329000
THE QUALITY OF MERCY William Shakespeare (1564-1616) of Stratford-upon-Avon is England's, and the world's, most noted playwright. Shakespeare lived during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth l (1558-1603) and King James l (1603-1625), who commissioned the Authorized King James Version of the Holy Bible, published in 1611. William was born to John and Mary Shakespeare, one of eight children. The only record available is his baptism at Holy Trinity Church on April 26, 1564. It is evident from his plays that he was moved by his studies of Greek and Latin classics. He married Anne Hathaway at age eighteen, and they had three children, Susanna, and the twins Hamnet and Judith. The death of his only son Hamnet at age eleven was devastating for Shakespeare, and proved a powerful influence on his Tragedy Hamlet. Shakespeare's popularity rests on his perceptive understanding of human nature. The 36 plays published in the First Folio are generally divided into Tragedies, such as Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Julius Caesar, and Antony and Cleopatra; Comedies, as The Merchant of Venice, A Midsummer's Night Dream, Love's Labour Lost, As You Like It, All's Well That Ends Well, Much Ado about Nothing, and the Taming of the Shrew; the Comedies known as Romances such as The Winter's Tale and one of his last plays The Tempest, one of the themes being the painful necessity of a father letting his daughter go; and Histories, such as King Henry V, King Richard the Second, the Life and Death of King John, All Is True (on Henry VIII), and King Henry IV, noted for the comical character Falstaff. He is also noted for his 154 Sonnets, A Lover's Complaint, and other poems. This beautiful piece on mercy is from The Merchant of Venice, first performed in 1596 and published in 1600, when Portia speaks to Shylock in Act IV, Scene I. The Quality of Mercy The quality of mercy is not strained. It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the place beneath. It is twice blest: It blesseth him that gives and him that takes. Tis mightiest in the mightiest; it becomes The throned monarch better than his crown. His scepter shows the force of temporal power, The attribute to awe and majesty, Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings. But mercy is above this sceptered sway; It is enthroned in the hearts of kings; It is an attribute of God himself; And earthly power doth then show like God's When mercy seasons justice.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23331000
See also the Browse High School Calculus Stars indicate particularly interesting answers or good places to begin browsing. Selected answers to common questions: Maximizing the volume of a box. Maximizing the volume of a cylinder. Volume of a tank. What is a derivative? - Deriving Simpson's Rule [06/07/1998] Can you show me a derivation of Simpson's Rule? - Deriving the Area of a Sphere [10/21/2003] I know the area of a sphere is 4phi(r^2), but I'm wondering how to derive that formula. I know it should be done in cylindrical coordinates, and I'm thinking that the arc of a circle is defined as rd(theta) and it's multiplied with rd(phi) to get (r^2)d(theta)d(phi). Could you please help explain this? - Deriving the Gamma Function [12/15/2000] How can you prove that sqrt(pi)/2 = (1/2)!, and what is a fractional factorial like that equal to? - Deriving the Integral for the Surface Area of a Sphere [06/28/2001] I need to find the cost per square foot of steel that makes up a tank, so I need a way to derive the surface area of part of a sphere with a given - Deriving the Quotient Rule [9/5/1995] How do I prove this derivation: (f/g)' = fg'-fg'/g^2 ? - Deriving Trig Functions; Taylor Series [05/01/2001] How would I find, from first principles - no tables, no calculator - for example, 32 degrees? If I use a formula, how is it derived? - Descartes' Method for Tangents [09/02/1998] Can you help me find the equation of the tangent of y^2 = 2x using - Design a More Efficient Soda Can [4/23/1995] The problem is to design a more efficient soda can that holds the regular 12 oz. of liquid. The can needs to have the least possible surface area. - Determining Tangent to an Ellipse, Minimizing Area [02/20/1998] Find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse that forms, with the coordinate axes, the triangle of smallest possible area. - Determining the Length of a Coil of Ribbon [08/31/2001] How will calculus give me the same answer I found with algebra and - Determining Whether a Function is Continuous [06/10/2000] How can you tell whether or not a function is continuous? - Differentiability, Intervals, Inflection Points of Piecewise Function [05/13/1998] For what values of k and p will the function be continuous and differentiable? On what interval will it be increasing? Find all points - Differential Equations and Flow Rate [02/14/1999] A solution containing 3 lb/gal of dye flows into a 100 gal tank at 5 - Differential Notation [04/16/2009] Why is the second derivative written as d^2y/dx^2? - Differentials [09/18/1998] What is the difference between finding the derivatives of a function (dy/dx), and finding its differentials (dy,dx)? - Differentiate Twice [11/14/1997] If y = xsin(3x) prove that y''+9y = 6cos(3x), where y'' is its second - Differentiating [01/14/1998] Please help me differentiate (y^2) * cos (1/y) = 2x + 2y. - Differentiating and Integrating the Formula for Area of Circle [05/11/1998] The formula for a circle's circumference is the derivative of the formula for its area. What is the significance of this? - Differentiating a Polynomial [04/25/1999] Differentiate with respect to x: f(x) = x^8 + 3x^5 + (3-5x)^4. - Differentiating the Ceiling Function [10/16/2000] How do I find dD/dp for an equation involving the ceiling function? How do I minimize D as a function of P? - Differentiating the Rate of Decay [3/14/1996] A lump of radioactive subtance is disintegrating at time 't' days after it was first observed to have mass 10 grams and: (dm/dt) = -km (where k is a positive constant). Find the time, in days, for the substance to reduce to 1 gram in mass, given that its half life is 8 days. - Differentiating Under the Integral Sign [01/11/2001] Can you give me an example of the integration method called "differentiating under the integral sign"? - Differentiating y with Respect to ... y? [11/05/2010] A student familiar with differentiation struggles to take the derivative of a function with respect to the self-same variable. Doctor Ali puts the student back on track with a - Differentiating y = x^x [11/3/1994] Please could you differentiate y=X^X (that's X to the power of X)? - Differentiation Problem [11/15/1997] A light shines from the top of a pole 50 ft. high. A ball is dropped from the same height at a point 30 ft. away from the light... - Distance From a Point to a Plane [03/31/1998] Can you show me the proof of the formula for the distance between a point and a plane? - Distance to the Sun [04/16/1999] Find the distance from Earth to the sun when t = 90 days... - Does f Have a Local Extrema at x = 0? [07/10/2003] f(x) = (x^3)/6 + (x^2)/2 + cosx - 1. Does f have a local extremum at x - Domain, Asymptotes, Intercepts of a Function [04/01/2003] What is the domain of this function? What asymptotes does it have? What are the x and y intercepts? Etc... - Domain/Range of a Function [01/22/1997] How do you find the domain and range of the function f(x) = 2x^2-3x+1? (Both with and without calculus.) - Dominant Terms [03/25/1998] What are dominant terms, and how do you obtain their values? - Donkey Grazing Half a Field [08/08/1997] A donkey is attached by a rope to a point on the perimeter of a circular field. How long should the rope be so that the donkey can graze exactly half the field? - Double Integration in Polar Coordinates [03/27/2003] Evaluate double integral x-y/x2+y2 over x2+y2 equal to or less - e as a Series and a Limit [03/30/1998] Why does e = 1 + 1/2! + 1/3! + 1/4! + ... and lim (1 + 1/n) ^ n, as n -- - An Easy Definition of Calculus [9/4/1995] What is calculus? - e^(e^x) = 2 [01/28/2002] I have been trying to solve e^(e^x) = 2. Help! - An Ellipse Or A Circle? - Parametric Equations [12/05/1998] Is this parametric equation elliptical or a circle?... And how do I compute the slopes at points 0, pi/4, pi/2, 3pi/2,and 2pi? - An Elliptic Integral [01/05/2003] - Epsilon/Delta Definition of Limits [08/26/1999] Can you explain how to use the epsilon/delta definition of limits? - Epsilon-Delta Proofs [09/28/2004] An explanation of the thinking behind two epsilon-delta proofs, one from a calculus textbook and one from an answer in our archives.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23338000
Length of metal strips produced by a machine are normally distributed with mean length of 150 cm and a standard deviation of 10 cm. Find the probability that the length of a randomly selected strip is i/ Shorter than 165 cm? ii/ Longer than 170 cm? iii/ Between 145 cm and 155 cm?	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23340000
The nurse shortage and the doctor shortage have caused an evolution in the medical profession. Many states now permit nurse practitioners to function independently of physicians. They are permitted to practice on their own. The decline in primary care MD’s has caused the increase in nurse practitioners in underserved areas. Today’s medical students are opting to specialize at a greater rate. There are higher profits in specialties such as dermatology, oncology and other specialties than in the traditional fields such as family practice or pediatrics. With this shortage of primary care physicians, nurses have taken the reigns and become the primary care givers in many areas. Nurse practitioners are permitted to prescribe medications, order tests and perform other tasks that have been designated to physicians in the past. They are also expected to consult with a health care provider if the patient’s condition is beyond their personal expertise. Many have private practices in rural communities. Nurse practitioners have at least a Masters degree. It is projected that in time, they will be required to hold a doctorate before being accepted into a nurse practitioner program. They have also followed the path of many physicians and have chosen to specialize in a specific area of medicine. Some are practicing women’s health, psychology, pediatrics or other areas of the field. Nurse practitioners receive lower fees than medical doctors. Insurance companies will reimburse between sixty and eighty-five percent of the doctors fee for exactly the same care. Rarely will they receive one hundred percent reimbursement. This however, does not stop the trend to further education and receive the degree of NP. They serve their purpose in many different areas. Patients often prefer the NP because they are not as rushed as doctors and have the time to give the attention that used to be given in the general practitioners office. With the medical field specializing in many shortages, it should be obvious that the NP is serving a need that doctors may not be able to fulfill in their areas.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23345000
Welcome to MedLibrary.org. For best results, we recommend beginning with the navigation links at the top of the page, which can guide you through our collection of over 14,000 medication labels and package inserts. For additional information on other topics which are not covered by our database of medications, just enter your topic in the search box below: He co-founded the Centre de documentation juive contemporaine, established to collate documentation relating to the persecution of Jews during World War II. He also assisted Edgar Faure at the Nuremberg Trial. Poliakov went on to serve as director of research at the National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) from 1954 until 1971. According to historian Jos Sanchez, Poliakov was the first scholar to critically assess the disposition of Pope Pius XII toward various issues connected to the Holocaust. In November 1950, Poliakov wrote "The Vatican and the 'Jewish Question' - The Record of the Hitler Period-And After," in the influential Jewish journal Commentary. While this article was the first to consider the attitude of the papacy during World War II and the Holocaust, it was not until 1963, when German playwright Rolf Hochhuth published his play Der Stellvertreter that discussion of Poliakov's initial investigations in this area took on worldwide significance. - L'étoile jaune - La situation des Juifs en France sous l'Occupation - Les législations nazie et vichyssoise (Editions Grancher, October 1999 - three texts: a book of 1949, an article in Historia magazine in 1968 and a text of 1980) ISBN 2-7339-0642-9 [Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK] - Harvest of Hate: The Nazi Program for the Destruction of Jews in Europe 1956 - The History of Anti-Semitism: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews (orig. 1955; this tr. 1966; repr. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003) ISBN 0-8122-1863-9 [Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK] - The History of Anti-Semitism: From Mohammed to the Marranos (orig. 1961; tr. 1973; repr. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003) ISBN 0-8122-1864-7 [Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK], ISBN 0-8122-3767-6 [Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK] - The History of Anti-Semitism: From Voltaire to Wagner (orig. 1968; tr. 1975; repr. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003) [preview at Google Books ISBN 0-8122-1865-5 [Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK] - The History of Anti-Semitism: Suicidal Europe. 1870-1933 (orig. 1977; tr. 1984; repr. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003) [preview at Google Books ISBN 0-8122-3769-2 [Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK] - The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalistic Ideas In Europe (Barnes & Noble Books (1996)) ISBN 0-7607-0034-6 [Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK] - Jews Under the Italian Occupation (coauthored with Jacques Sabille) (Howard Fertig; 1st American ed edition (December, 1983)) ISBN 0-86527-344-8 [Amazon-US \| Amazon-UK] - «Moscou, troisième Rome» Moscow, The third Rome - «L`Auberge des musiciens» (memoir) - «L`envers du Destin» (autobiography) - "De l'antisionisme à l'antisémitisme" (1969) - Kirkup, James (11 December 1997). "Obituary: Leon Poliakov". The Independent. Retrieved 5 May 2011.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23349000
An enterocutaneous fistula is an abnormal connection between the intestines and the skin. Intestinal or stomach contents can leak through this connection. The contents may leak into another part of the body or outside of the body. Most enterocutaneous fistulas develop as a complication of bowel surgery. Other causes include: Factors that may increase your chance of enterocutaneous fistula include: - History of radiation - Poor nutrition If you have any of these symptoms, do not assume it is due to a fistula. These symptoms may be caused by other conditions. Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done. You may be referred to a colon and rectal surgeon. Images may be taken of your bodily structures. This can be done with: A fistula may be able to heal on its own over 2-8 weeks. Talk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for you. Treatment options include the following: Nutritional support may be needed while the fistula is healing: - You may need to drink and eat high energy food for a while. - Nutrition may need to be delivered through a tube connected to your stomach or intestine. - If your bowels needs to rest, nutrition may be given through your vein. - Antibiotics may be prescribed to help prevent or control infection. - A drain may be attached to your wound to collect leakage from the fistula. - If the fistulas do not heal, then part of the intestine may need to be removed. - Reviewer: Marcin Chwistek, MD - Review Date: 03/2013 - - Update Date: 00/31/2013 -	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23350000
Previously known as manic-depressive disease, bipolar disorder is a relatively common mental health condition manifested in its classic form by alternating periods of mania—extreme high energy—and deep depression. In the "up" or manic phase, people may sleep little, talk fast, develop grand and unworkable plans, and sometimes behave bizarrely—for example, giving away all their money overnight. In the "down" phase, they may contemplate suicide. In many people with this disorder, the "down" phase predominates, and for that reason, the diagnosis may be missed. Other, more subtle versions of the condition also exist. Bipolar disorder is dangerous unless treated, leading to a high rate of suicide and injury. The mineral has been shown to dramatically improve symptoms of mania and reduce the rate of suicide. Various antiseizure medications also appear to help against mania. Proposed Natural Treatments for Bipolar Disorder : There are no natural treatments that can substitute for medications in the treatment of bipolar disorder. However, some might help enhance the effectiveness of standard treatment. study, 30 people with bipolar disorder took either capsules or placebo for 4 months, in addition to their regular medications. Those taking fish oil had longer symptom-free periods than those taking placebo. The researchers used five different standardized tests to measure symptoms, examining levels of depression, mania, and overall progress. The people taking fish oil proved emotionally healthier than those taking placebo on all but one of these tests. Another study found that ethyl-EPA (a modified form of a constituent of fish oil) was helpful along with standard treatment for the depressed phase of bipolar disorder. However, ethyl-EPA does not appear to offer benefits for rapid cycling bipolar disorder. Researchers pooling the results of 10 randomized trials involving 329 patients found that omega-3 fatty acids (found in fish oil) improved depressive symptoms in patient with either bipolar disorder or major depression compared to placebo. In a subsequent systematic review, researchers pooled the results of 5 trials involving 291 patients with bipolar disorder only and found that those in the omega-3 group experienced a modest improvement in their symptoms of depression (but not of mania) compared to placebo. The same researchers who conducted the fish oil study have also experimented with for bipolar disorder. Flaxseed oil contains alpha-linoleic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid related to the fatty acids in fish oil. In the researchers' informal observations of 22 people with bipolar disorder, all but four appeared to benefit from flaxseed oil. However, lacking a double-blind study, these results can't be taken as meaningful. When a double-blind study is finally performed, flaxseed oil may turn out not to be helpful at all. One somewhat questionable study reported that an herbal combination utilized in traditional Chinese medicine ("Free and Easy Wanderer") may augment the effectiveness of carbamazepine treatment for bipolar disorder. Very weak evidence suggests possible benefits with Inositol may also reduce psoriasis symptoms caused by lithium. (However, caution is advised with inositol. See Herbs and Supplements to Use Only With Caution A special form of called rTMS, has shown some promise for bipolar disorder. Interestingly, use of an anion generator (an air ionizer that produces negative ions) has shown promise for mitigating the symptoms of acute mania. Various supplements may help reduce side-effects of antiseizure drugs. For more information, see the articles on Despite promising preliminary indications, a double-blind study failed to find that enhances the effect of the drug Lithium is sometimes sold as a mineral supplement for treating bipolar disorder. However, this proposed use is based on a misunderstanding. When lithium is used medically as treatment for bipolar disorder, it is taken at doses far above any possible nutritional need. No researcher has seriously suggested that lithium causes bipolar symptoms, and low doses of lithium are unlikely to have any effect at all. Herbs and Supplements to Use Only With Caution Antidepressant drugs may cause manic episodes in people with bipolar disorder. For this reason, herbs and supplements with antidepressant properties might also be risky. Case reports suggest that 16,17,18St. John's Wort can indeed trigger manic episodes. , while not normally considered to have antidepressant properties, has reportedly triggered episodes of mania in two people not previously known to have bipolar disorder. product has also been associated with an episode of mania. is often sold in the form of chromium picolinate. Picolinate can alter levels of neurotransmitters. This has led to concern among some experts that chromium picolinate might be harmful to people with bipolar disorder. It has been suggested that the drug lithium works, in part, by reducing the body's level of For this reason, it might be advisable for people with bipolar disorder to avoid using supplements that contain vanadium. Finally, numerous herbs and supplements may interact adversely with drugs used to prevent or treat bipolar disorder. For example, people who use should avoid herbal diuretics. For more information on this potential risk, see the appropriate individual drug articles in the	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23351000
Hybrid vehicles keep getting bigger: first there were tiny experimental cars, then hybrid SUVs began to appear on the road. And now some of Delta’s next-generation Boeing 737 aircraft (like the one pictured above) will be equipped with Wheeltug hybrid motors for taxiing on the ground. These motors will improve efficiency and safety while planes maneuver around the tarmac, reducing fuel use and maintenance requirements. A substantial amount of a typical airliner’s fuel usage and engine wear occurs while the plane is still on the ground. Its jet engines are used to propel it to and from runways, and it requires towing vehicles for precise positioning at the gate. Using the Wheeltug system, however, an aircraft can propel itself forward or backward via a pair of Chorus Meshcon electric motors that drive the front wheels. Electric power comes from the plane’s existing auxiliary power unit, which is a much smaller gas-powered unit and requires much less fuel than the primary engines. The Wheeltug system requires no modifications to the airframe aside from additional wiring, and the joystick steering control doesn’t interfere with existing cockpit designs. The manufacturer estimates that a Wheeltug-equipped 737 aircraft could save nearly 100,000 gallons of fuel per year, while avoiding the safety and maintenance concerns of jet engine use on the ground. And as airports become busier and more crowded, the system could speed turn-around times by eliminating the need for tug vehicles to position planes at their gates. (Via Wheeltug PLC)	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23358000
"U. S. Picks Estrella for Base: 1200-Acre Tract To Be Site For Marine Corps Air Field" So read a headline in the 27 August 1942 Paso Robles Press when the government negotiated proceedings to acquire 1,249 acres of land in the Estrella area, some six miles northeast of the city, for a planned Marine Corps Air Station. Four months previous, government civil engineers were surveying the selected lands without explaining the reason to owners. Rumors were rampant, but none of them was correct. Finally, when Pacific Gas & Electric Company signed a contract to provide service by the end of the year, it became known that a Navy airfield, to be known as Naval Auxilary Air Station, Paso Robles, was in the works, to be built on properties owned by A M Boyer, Otto Kuehl, George Matthew, John Moore, the Padian Estate, William Radloff, Tillie Schlecker, and Lillie Tuley. A contract was awarded to Doudell Construction Company of San Jose, and within four hours of its signing, men and machinery were on their way to the site. On 3 September, 2,000 construction workers moved in to work two shifts to complete the first stage of the project by 8 April 1943. The new airfield then had two 4,700' runways laid out in a "V," with fuel facilities, but no hangars or maintenance buildings. A housing, administration, and storage facility was also completed across the road south of the runways, with 43 buildings and underground utilities. That same day the Navy, favoring tstations in the San Joaquin Valley, handed everything over to the Army Air Forces, who named it Estrella Army Air Field and placed it under the jurisdiction of the Santa Maria Army Air Field, to be used to train pilots in night flying. Initial staff consisted of two officers, Lieutenants Raymond J Goetting and Edgar J McCullough, and 28 enlisted men. By Christmas 1943, some 1,550 military personnel were stationed at Estrella and the Navy auxiliary airfield southeast of Paso Robles, Sherwood Field. These troops participated in large regional military maneuvers early in 1944. An interesting occasion was later related by Lieutenant McCullogh, who told of the time when two Bell P-59s landed at Estrella AAF. Those were America's first military jets, and at the time were cloaked in secrecy, but everybody wanted to see the new airplanes that flew without propellers. McCullogh walked towards one of them, but was ordered by one of the pilots to keep away. He then identified himself as the base's provost marshal (which he wasn't), and not only got to see the planes up close, but was also told that they were being used in experimental training to combat the German V-2 rockets that were creating havoc in England. The next day, a local farmer mentioned to him that a couple of planes had come over his field so low and fast that they blew his hay off the stacks. The airfield was inactivated on 15 October 1944, and on 27 November base commander Capt Roger F Powell announced that the facility might be turned over to the county. County officials considered the proposal and, in mid-December, the board of supervisors endorsed a feasibility study, finally agreeing to accept the property. However, it wasn't until 29 August 1947, that the War Assets Administration transferred the specific 966.8 acres and its attendant structures and improvements with a quitclaim deed to the County of San Luis Obispo, with the stipulation that it be used as a public airport. A second quitclaim deed to the State on 5 August 1948 added another 90.04 acres, where the buildings would be used for a boys' school. Then in 1973, the county, in an effort to rid its rolls of excess property, sold the air base to the City of Paso Robles for $1.00, and the Estrella Army Air Force Base officially became the town's municipal airport.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23368000
\|We seem to form our picture of reality based on a pattern matching algorithm. It doesn't really matter if you consider that a function of neurology or as a deeper metaphysical principle, the result it about the same. If "enough" pieces of a reality are assembled and they are recognizable and familiar to us, we assume that the remaining details are probably also in place and that we're dealing with a "real" reality. It is perfectly possible to fool people into accepting a scenario as reality that really isn't, if you put enough familiar elements into place. Most candid camera episodes are built on that kind of principle. An environment is set up so that it looks like you've been hired for a new job, and there's a real office and other employees and everything. And then a surprise element is thrown in, like the arrival of a stripping telegram, or the need to handle some impossible problem, like your desk falling apart. And the "employee" accepts it as real, because everything else looked right. Or how about experiments that were done where a comedian managed to get up in front of a medical convention and give a speech in complete giberish without anybody noticing. Because he looked right, and sounded right, and even though the attendees where highly educated M.D.s they were also used to not having to understand all the details of what everybody was saying, and they were used to displaying a certain respect towards their peers. The Emperor's New Clothes. We're all trying to act normal, unwilling to admit we don't understand everything. Conversely, we can also create an invisible reality, if it is constructed of elements that are so unfamiliar and unexpected that we just can't see it. A stage magician is usually quite adept at that. You don't see what he's really doing because you're not attuned to the patterns he's using. It is said that when Captain Cook's ship first approached the island of Tahiti in the South Pacific, the inhabitants could literally not see it coming. Even when Cook and his crew got out and pointed out their ship to the Tahitians, and explained how they arrived, the natives couldn't see the ship at first. Because it was totally unfamiliar and they didn't have any belief that included the possibility that somebody could arrive from the ocean in a large sailing vessel. In our modern society we tend to walk around believing that we're very rational and observant and we've got a pretty good grip on what is reality. Science tends to create that picture. But yet, science, however useful it is, is just a systematic way of agreeing on what a certain reality is, and how to get predictable results with it, and it tends to stay within the boundaries of those codified agreements, often ignoring anything that doesn't fit. Science only very cautiously and gradually will expand that area. If you master these principles, and you have sufficient resources at your disposal, it is entirely possible to both create fake realities that large numbers of people will accept as the truth, as well as to create realities that are invisible to the general population. Think for example of a black project that has access to sufficiently advanced principles and technologies that have been kept out of the public knowledge, out of scientific text books, and out out of the educational system. Say, teleportation or time travel. You don't even have to worry much about leaks, because they will pretty much be self-healing. If somebody puts out a story about secret time travel experiments, it is very easy to ridicule them, and you don't even have to do it yourself, as there will be plenty of respectable scientists and good citizens who'll stand up and say that it of course is impossible and complete nonsense. Somebody could even write a book with all the details and you could pick it up in the UFO section of your local bookstore, but it wouldn't sink into the public awareness as anything real. You can keep very big things very secret if you just make sure that enough of the components and participants are far enough removed from what is normal and expected, and the facts are generally so hard to get to, and so hard to piece together, that the whole thing becomes invisible to most people. Single secrets hidden by known people can fairly easily be discovered. But complex secrets, put together from many individually incredible elements, those are much harder to bring to the light. Conversely, you can make fake stories appear very real and accepted if you just make sure that you provide enough components of normal reality. Like, pictures, sound, stories, information, and lots of it, and repetitive delivery of it. And that the people presenting it look like the right kind of people to do so. Reporters, scientists, government officials, etc. I'm not really even talking about conspiracy theory particularly. A bigger view than that. Conspiracies are usually imagined as something the known and accepted players are doing when you aren't looking. Like, does George Bush and Tom Brokaw and Kenneth Lay and everybody else you see on the news have secret meetings where they plan out how they'll fool everybody? Well, maybe they do, but that's probably not where it is really at. Whatever specific things they do will quite likely come to light sooner or later and would be too hard to hide. What matters is not what they did, but what reality we end up accepting, and which realities we'll ignore. The real secret stuff would probably be going on in places you don't even know to look at, and would be done by people you've never heard of. And the people you are looking at on the news are quite likely thinking they're just doing the best they can with what's available to them. Because they probably live in a manufactured reality as well. [ Patterns \| 2003-10-22 05:15 \| \| PermaLink ] More >	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23369000
Experts from across the board joined together recently to discuss the effects that oil and natural gas drilling will have in Columbiana and Mahoning counties, the state, and even the nation. The experts, representing Youngstown State University, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Ohio Environmental Council, and Ohio Oil and Gas Energy Education Program, spoke during a seminar at the university. The purpose of the seminar was to generate more understanding about the drilling process and topics covered included its history-which dates back to the early 1900s, whether injection wells are related to earthquakes, whether enough water is available to continue the hydraulic fracturing process, and how the process affects the environment and economy. University Professor Dr. Jeffrey Dick, who specializes in engineering geology, hydrogeology, geophysics, and petroleum geology, said drilling has only recently "skyrocketed" over the last two years. He said there have been more than 270,000 natural gas and crude oil wells drilled in Ohio, and of those, 64,000 are currently active. In what he called the Eastern Ohio Utica Fairway, there are 367 wells permitted and 137 wells already drilled. Of those, 33 are producing and 30 are still in the drilling stage. Columbiana County is included in that fairway, and according to the Ohio Department of Natural Resources (ODNR), one well is currently producing in Knox Township. Dick said the big issue isn't necessarily hydraulic fracturing, but what will become of the brine once the fracking is completed. Fracking is a process used in drilling in which water, sand and other fluids are injected into the shale to extract the oil and gas stored there. The force of the injection causes the rock to break up, or fracture, releasing the oil and gas. Dick said that due to the extent of wells being drilled the state is looking at "billions of gallons of brine and throwback" - the fluids left over as a result of fracking a natural gas well. The fluids are treated as wastewater and stored in injection wells, which have gained considerable attention from those who believe the wells have been linked to earthquakes, including those that occurred in Youngstown in late 2011. He said there are approximately 190 injection wells in the state and doesn't believe the well in Youngstown caused the local earthquakes but did play a role in triggering them. The underground disposal well owned by Northstar Disposal Services was shut down by the ODNR shortly after two earthquakes happened within 24 hours. The 4.0 earthquake was the 11th to occur there since March of 2011, and the shut down was requested so officials could analyze data and see if a link existed. "You shut off a well and the earthquakes stop, you gotta think" there could be a link, Dick said. He pointed out that Ohio receives billions of gallons of brine and flowback from Pennsylvania and West Virginia. The states have bans on the wastewater recycling or disposal, despite having operational class 2 injection wells. "Ohio has been a no risk dumping ground for a lot of stuff, including demolition and debris," Trent Dougherty, director of legal affairs for the Ohio Environmental Council, said. Dick said that, in his opinion, class 2 injection disposal will be more difficult in the future. He said technology already exists for brine treatment facilities but the money is lacking. With regard to fracking, he said there have been no cases in which the process was found to have caused water contamination. Surface spills, however, could cause contamination. "Several fluids are dangerous and you are looking at potential spills. Spills are major environmental issues. A spill is going to happen," he said. Senate Bill 315 enacted by Gov. John Kasich this summer allowed for more safeguards for the disposal of the fluids, he noted. Rhonda Reda, executive director of the state's oil and gas energy education program, said the Utica Shale play in Ohio is bigger than that found in Saudi Arabia. By 2015, the program expects output sales of oil and gas to be at nearly $23 billion. Most of the activity will occur in 2014 and 2015, and royalties paid on oil and gas are expected to reach $1.6 billion in 2015. "We are drilling smarter and we are drilling better wells," she said. She cautioned that the state, and the nation, should not rely solely on one energy source, however. In 2009, the world used 100 quadrillion British thermal units of energy. By 2030, that is expected to jump to 124 quadrillion, she said. She explained that a "large chunk" of the energy being used can be traced back to technology such as laptops, iPads, and other items. "All these things require energy and our energy consumption is absolutely enormous," she said. The state is currently the fourth largest energy consumer in the nation, she added. University Professor Michael Costarell, who specializes in civil and mechanical engineering and is a certified energy manager, said that although alternatives exist, or are in the preliminary stages, people continue to use what is convenient. He explained that a 40-minute drive in a car would take longer in a solar-powered vehicle that needs to be charged after every so many miles. He said that it would take 18 hours of charge time for a natural gas car to reach the same distance as a car on eight gallons of fuel. Dougherty said there should be less dependence on fossil fuels. As for how much water is being used in the drilling process, Dick said that six million gallons were used by oil and gas exploration company Chesapeake Energy on one well in Carroll County. Three-hundred tons of sand were also used with the water in the fracking process on that well. Although water use is significant, Dick doesn't believe water sources will run dry as a result of the drilling. Dougherty said that although there are risks to drilling, he didn't necessarily want to see it stopped. "Our hope is we get more enforcement dollars to make sure this is done correctly," he said. The seminar was hosted by the Ohio Newspaper Association and Youngstown Vindicator.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23379000
Exhibition Features 36 Accidental Mummies They were miners, fathers, soldiers, farmers and children. They are revered by their descendents and have been visited by millions. They are rare, shocking…and completely accidental. Now, for the first time ever, they are coming to the United States in an all-new touring exhibition, The Accidental Mummies of Guanajuato. The Accidental Mummies of Guanajuato is a 10,000 square-foot exhibition that will debut at the Detroit Science Center in October 2009 before touring six other U.S. destinations from 2010-2012. Featuring 36 accidental mummies on loan from the Museo de las Momias de Guanajuato, the exhibition combines science, history and cultural anthropology to immerse the visitor in the world of a Mexican city over 100 years ago where deceased residents naturally mummified in their crypts. This will be the very first time these mummies have been seen outside of Mexico “Death has been part of the culture of Mexico, and in particular of Guanajuato for centuries. Our Mummy Museum represents our way of acknowledging the every day citizens that once walked our streets, whose bodies have transcended generations because of a natural process,” said Dr. Eduardo Romero Hicks, Mayor of the city of Guanajuato, Mexico. “This presentation for the first time in the U.S. provides the opportunity for these mummies to tell their story, to show the way they lived, and in some instances the way they died. In this global world that we live in, we want to make sure that their story is heard beyond our borders.” “These mummies have attracted millions of visitors to Guanajuato and it is an honor to bring them to the United States,” said Kevin Prihod, President & CEO of the Detroit Science Center. “This exhibition will present a unique look into Mexican culture, forensic science and the very lives of these amazing mummies. It is an experience not to be missed.” Only 1 in 100 bodies buried in Guanajuato experiences this rare and mysterious process of natural mummification. Unlike bodies that were “artificially” mummified through an embalming and wrapping process, accidental mummies form only in certain climates and conditions. Local legend held that the bodies in Guanajuato became mummified because the area’s water is rich in minerals and sulfur. However researchers believe that the hot weather warmed the crypts and dried out the bodies. The Guanajuato collection is believed to be the largest group of mummies anywhere in the Western Hemisphere. Visitors to the exhibition will meet some of these accidental mummies, learn about life in their thriving community, discover the modern-day forensic technology that helps scientists analyze them, and explore a culture that reveres and celebrates them. Each mummy will tell his or her own story, with facial reconstructions completed by a forensic artist to give insight into their lives. “Through full-body CT scans at Oakwood Imaging Center (Dearborn, Mich.), along with recent x-rays and endoscopic examinations conducted by mummy experts Jerry Conlogue and Ronald Beckett of Quinnipiac University, we are making new and exciting discoveries about the mummies featured in the exhibition. We look forward to sharing our findings with our visitors,” said Vivian Henoch, Medical Science Content Developer for the exhibition. The Accidental Mummies of Guanajuato is a highly educational exhibition, meeting multiple objectives found in the National Science Education Standards for grades 5-12. A complete educational guide including classroom activities, historical fun facts, a glossary and more will be available to school groups visiting the exhibition. The Accidental Mummies of Guanajuato is produced by Eekstein’s Workshop, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of the Detroit Science Center that creates captivating, durable, engaging exhibits and displays for museum and corporate clients, in association with Accidental Mummies Touring Company LLC.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23380000
Building Database Projects by Using SQL Server Management Studio A database script project is an organized set of scripts, connection information, and templates that are all associated with a database or one part of a database. Microsoft SQL Server provides the SQL Server Management Studio for administering and designing SQL Server databases within the context of a script project. SQL Server Management Studio includes designers, editors, guides and wizards to assist users in developing, deploying and maintaining databases. SQL Server Management Studio is a suite of administrative tools for managing the components belonging to SQL Server. This integrated environment allows users to perform a variety of tasks, such as backing up data, editing queries, and automating common functions within a single interface. SQL Server Management Studio includes the following tools: Code Editor is a rich script editor for writing and editing scripts. The Code Editor replaces the Query Analyzer included in previous releases of SQL Server. SQL Server Management Studio provides four versions of the Code Editor; the SQL Query Editor, MDX Query Editor, XML Query Editor, and SQL Server Compact 3.5 SP2 Query Editor. Object Explorer for locating, modifying, scripting or running objects belonging to instances of SQL Server. Template Explorer for locating and scripting templates. Solution Explorer for organizing and storing related scripts as parts of a project. Properties Window for displaying the current properties of selected objects. SQL Server Management Studio supports efficient work processes by providing: Disconnected access. You can write and edit scripts without connecting to an instance of SQL Server. Scripting from any dialog box. You can create a script from any dialog box so that you can read, modify, store and reuse the scripts after you create them. Nonmodal dialog boxes. When you access a UI dialog box you can browse other resources in SQL Server Management Studio without closing the dialog box. Solution Explorer is a utility to store and reopen database solutions. Solutions organize related script projects and files. Script projects store SQL Server script files, SQL templates, connection information and other miscellaneous files. When a script is saved in a script project, users are able to: Maintain version control on scripts. Store results options with a script. Organize related scripts in a single script project. Save connection information with scripts. Solution Explorer is a tool for developers who are creating and reusing scripts that are related to the same project. If a similar task is required later, you can use group of scripts that were stored in a project. If you have created applications by using Microsoft Visual Studio, you will find Solution Explorer very familiar. A solution consists of one or more script projects. A project consists of one or more scripts or connections. A project may also include nonscript files.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23385000
Rose Marie Pinon was a 19-year-old, well-educated, middle class girl when she married the 35-year-old Louis in 1814. In September 1817 she joined her husband on the Uranie disguised as a man until they left port. She was the first woman to complete an account of the three-year circumnavigation in a ‘series of intimate letters which took the form of a diary’. Rose recorded life aboard ship, observations of the people and places they visited, scientific work of the expedition, relationships between men and women, and the work of artist Jacques Arago. She had a keen eye for detail and created vivid descriptions of the strange and exotic places they visited. Rose and her ‘diary’ survived the dangers of the voyage and the shipwreck in the Falkland Islands. Her life was tragically cut short when she died of cholera in 1834, aged 38 years, after nursing Louis through the same illness. It was not until 1927 that an account of her journey appeared in a French publication of her letters, with the first English translation in 1962.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23389000
The Thick-tailed Gecko, Underwoodisaurus milii, can be recognised by its large head and colour pattern of dark background with numerous yellowish spots. The original tail is narrow at the base, then broadens and tapers over its length. It has a snout vent length of around 100 mm. Photographer: Peter Robertson / Source: Wildlife Profiles Pty. Ltd. Distribution and habitat The Thick-tailed Gecko is widespread across the northwest of the state southwards to the Castlemaine area. It often lives in holes in the ground, although is also common in rocky outcrops in north central Victoria, where it hides under rocks. A terrestrial species, its diet mainly consists of small invertebrates. Females of this species lay 2 eggs per clutch. Cogger, H. 2000. Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Reed Books. Wilson, S. & Swan, G. 2003. Reptiles of Australia. Princeton University Press.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23390000
English form of a common biblical name (meaning ‘who is like God?’ in Hebrew) borne by one of the archangels, the protector of the ancient Hebrews, who is also regarded as a saint of the Catholic Church. In the Middle Ages, Michael was regarded as captain of the heavenly host (see Revelation 12:7–9), symbol of the Church Militant, and patron of soldiers. He was often depicted bearing a flaming sword. The name is also borne by a Persian prince and ally of Belshazzar mentioned in the Book of Daniel. Since the early 1900s it has been one of the most enduringly popular boys' names in the English-speaking world. See also Michal.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23400000
'Bed-Of-Nails' Breast Implant Deters Cancer Cells One in eight women in the United States will develop breast cancer. Of those, many will undergo surgery to remove the tumor and will require some kind of breast reconstruction afterward, often involving implants. Cancer is an elusive target, though, and malignant cells return for as many as one-fifth of women originally diagnosed. But a new type of implant developed by researchers at Brown University may be able to deter breast cancer cell regrowth. Made from a common federally approved polymer, the implant is the first to be modified at the nanoscale in a way that causes a reduction in the blood-vessel architecture that breast cancer tumors depend upon, while also attracting healthy cells into breast tissue. Thomas Webster and graduate student Lijuan Zhang conducted this study. They published their results in the journal Nanotechnology. Zhang and Webster created an implant with a "bed-of-nails" surface at the nanoscale that deters cancer cells from dwelling and thriving. This is the first such implant, say the Brown investigators, with modifications at the nanoscale that cause a reduction in the blood-vessel architecture on which breast cancer tumors depend. Equally as important, the nanoscale features on the implant's surface are hospitable to healthy cells, which means that the implant would not impede healing after surgery. Webster and members of his lab have been modifying various implant surfaces to promote the regeneration of bone, cartilage, skin, and other cells. In this work, he and Zhang sought to reshape an implant that could be used in breast reconstruction surgery that would not only attract healthy cells but also repel any lingering breast-cancer cells. The duo created a cast on a glass plate using 23-nanometer-diameter polystyrene beads and polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), a biodegradable polymer approved by the FDA and used widely in clinical settings, such as stitches. The result is an implant whose surface was covered with adjoining, 23-nanometer-high pimples. The pair also created PLGA implant surfaces with 300-nanometer and 400-nanometer peaks for comparison. In lab tests after one day, the 23-nanometer-peak surfaces showed a 15-percent decrease in the production of a protein (VEGF) upon which endothelial breast-cancer cells depend, compared to an implant surface with no surface modification. The 23-nanometer surface showed greater reduction in VEGF concentration when compared to the 300-nanometer and 400-nanometer-modified implants as well. While it is unclear why the 23-nanoneter surface appears to work best at deterring breast-cancer cells, Webster thinks it may have to do something with the stiffness of malignant breast cells. When they come into contact with the bumpy surface, they are unable to fully wrap themselves around the rounded contours, depriving them of the ability to ingest the life-sustaining nutrients that permeate the surface. He likened the peak-covered surface to a bed-of-nails to cancer cells. The researchers hypothesize that even smaller surface peaks would work better at repelling cancer cells. Somewhat to their surprise, Webster and Zhang found that that the 23-nanometer semispherical surface yielded 15 percent more healthy endothelial breast cells compared to normal surface after one day of lab tests. This work is detailed in a paper titled, "Poly-lactic-glycolic acid surface nanotopographies selectively decrease breast adenocarcinoma cell functions." An abstract of this paper is available at the journal's website.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23401000
Published on March 5, 2013 by Amy Moccasin, skin shoe worn by indigenous people of North America, excepting the sandal wearers of the Southwest area. There were two general types of moccasins, the hard-soled, which was used in the Eastern woodlands and the Southeast cultural areas, and the soft-soled, used in the Plains area. The hard-soled moccasin was made by sewing, with sinew thread, a rawhide sole to a leather upper piece; the soft-soled moccasin was one piece of soft leather with a seam at the instep and the heel. Boot or legging moccasins (sometimes reaching the hip) were worn from Alaska to Arizona and New Mexico, but they were generally part of the woman’s costume. The moccasins of certain tribes were distinctive, and sometimes a moccasin track could indicate the tribe of the wearer. Moccasins were usually symbolically decorated with porcupine quills and, after the coming of the Europeans, with glass beads. Special moccasins were used for ceremonies such as the Iroquois adoption service, which required that a recruit put on Iroquois moccasins to indicate that he would follow Iroquois ways. native art, native american jewelry, native american rings, turquoise crafts, student loans, debt financing, native american astrology, native horoscopes, student debt, Indian Genealogy Records, family tree, native heritage, native jobs, native study, native students, native american university, grant, native ancestry, dna test	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-23407000

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