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In formal language theory, a grammar (when the context isn't given, often called a formal grammar for clarity) is a set of production rules for strings in a formal language. The rules describe how to form strings from the language's alphabet that are valid according to the language's syntax. A grammar does not describe the meaning of the strings or what can be done with them in whatever context—only their form. Formal language theory, the discipline which studies formal grammars and languages, is a branch of applied mathematics. Its applications are found in theoretical computer science, theoretical linguistics, formal semantics, mathematical logic, and other areas. A formal grammar is a set of rules for rewriting strings, along with a "start symbol" from which rewriting starts. Therefore, a grammar is usually thought of as a language generator. However, it can also sometimes be used as the basis for a "recognizer"—a function in computing that determines whether a given string belongs to the language or is grammatically incorrect. To describe such recognizers, formal language theory uses separate formalisms, known as automata theory. One of the interesting results of automata theory is that it is not possible to design a recognizer for certain formal languages. Parsing is the process of recognizing an utterance (a string in natural languages) by breaking it down to a set of symbols and analyzing each one against the grammar of the language. Most languages have the meanings of their utterances structured according to their syntax—a practice known as compositional semantics. As a result, the first step to describing the meaning of an utterance in language is to break it down part by part and look at its analyzed form (known as its parse tree in computer science, and as its deep structure in generative grammar). Introductory example A grammar mainly consists of a set of rules for transforming strings. (If it only consisted of these rules, it would be a semi-Thue system.) To generate a string in the language, one begins with a string consisting of only a single start symbol. The production rules are then applied in any order, until a string that contains neither the start symbol nor designated nonterminal symbols is produced. A production rule is applied to a string by replacing one occurrence of its left-hand side in the string by its right-hand side (cf. the operation of the theoretical Turing machine). The language formed by the grammar consists of all distinct strings that can be generated in this manner. Any particular sequence of production rules on the start symbol yields a distinct string in the language. If there are multiple ways of generating the same single string, the grammar is said to be ambiguous. For example, assume the alphabet consists of a and b, the start symbol is S, and we have the following production rules: then we start with S, and can choose a rule to apply to it. If we choose rule 1, we obtain the string aSb. If we then choose rule 1 again, we replace S with aSb and obtain the string aaSbb. If we now choose rule 2, we replace S with ba and obtain the string aababb, and are done. We can write this series of choices more briefly, using symbols: . The language of the grammar is then the infinite set , where is repeated times (and in particular represents the number of times production rule 1 has been applied). Formal definition The syntax of grammars - A finite set N of nonterminal symbols, none of which appear in strings formed from G. - A finite set of terminal symbols that is disjoint from N. - A finite set P of production rules, each rule of the form - where is the Kleene star operator and denotes set union. That is, each production rule maps from one string of symbols to another, where the first string (the "head") contains an arbitrary number of symbols provided at least one of them is a nonterminal. In the case that the second string (the "body") consists solely of the empty string – i.e., that it contains no symbols at all – it may be denoted with a special notation (often , e or ) in order to avoid confusion. - A distinguished symbol that is the start symbol. The semantics of grammars The operation of a grammar can be defined in terms of relations on strings: - Given a grammar , the binary relation (pronounced as "G derives in one step") on strings in is defined by: - the relation (pronounced as G derives in zero or more steps) is defined as the reflexive transitive closure of - a sentential form is a member of that can be derived in a finite number of steps from the start symbol ; that is, a sentential form is a member of . A sentential form that contains no nonterminal symbols (i.e. is a member of ) is called a sentence. - the language of , denoted as , is defined as all those sentences that can be derived in a finite number of steps from the start symbol ; that is, the set . Note that the grammar is effectively the semi-Thue system , rewriting strings in exactly the same way; the only difference is in that we distinguish specific nonterminal symbols which must be rewritten in rewrite rules, and are only interested in rewritings from the designated start symbol to strings without nonterminal symbols. For these examples, formal languages are specified using set-builder notation. Consider the grammar where , , is the start symbol, and consists of the following production rules: This grammar defines the language where denotes a string of n consecutive 's. Thus, the language is the set of strings that consist of 1 or more 's, followed by the same number of 's, followed by the same number of 's. Some examples of the derivation of strings in are: - (Note on notation: reads "String P generates string Q by means of production i", and the generated part is each time indicated in bold type.) The Chomsky hierarchy When Noam Chomsky first formalized generative grammars in 1956, he classified them into types now known as the Chomsky hierarchy. The difference between these types is that they have increasingly strict production rules and can express fewer formal languages. Two important types are context-free grammars (Type 2) and regular grammars (Type 3). The languages that can be described with such a grammar are called context-free languages and regular languages, respectively. Although much less powerful than unrestricted grammars (Type 0), which can in fact express any language that can be accepted by a Turing machine, these two restricted types of grammars are most often used because parsers for them can be efficiently implemented. For example, all regular languages can be recognized by a finite state machine, and for useful subsets of context-free grammars there are well-known algorithms to generate efficient LL parsers and LR parsers to recognize the corresponding languages those grammars generate. Context-free grammars A context-free grammar is a grammar in which the left-hand side of each production rule consists of only a single nonterminal symbol. This restriction is non-trivial; not all languages can be generated by context-free grammars. Those that can are called context-free languages. The language defined above is not a context-free language, and this can be strictly proven using the pumping lemma for context-free languages, but for example the language (at least 1 followed by the same number of 's) is context-free, as it can be defined by the grammar with , , the start symbol, and the following production rules: A context-free language can be recognized in time (see Big O notation) by an algorithm such as Earley's algorithm. That is, for every context-free language, a machine can be built that takes a string as input and determines in time whether the string is a member of the language, where is the length of the string. Deterministic context-free languages is a subset of context-free languages that can be recognized in linear time. There exist various algorithms that target either this set of languages or some subset of it. Regular grammars In regular grammars, the left hand side is again only a single nonterminal symbol, but now the right-hand side is also restricted. The right side may be the empty string, or a single terminal symbol, or a single terminal symbol followed by a nonterminal symbol, but nothing else. (Sometimes a broader definition is used: one can allow longer strings of terminals or single nonterminals without anything else, making languages easier to denote while still defining the same class of languages.) The language defined above is not regular, but the language (at least 1 followed by at least 1 , where the numbers may be different) is, as it can be defined by the grammar with , , the start symbol, and the following production rules: All languages generated by a regular grammar can be recognized in linear time by a finite state machine. Although, in practice, regular grammars are commonly expressed using regular expressions, some forms of regular expression used in practice do not strictly generate the regular languages and do not show linear recognitional performance due to those deviations. Other forms of generative grammars Many extensions and variations on Chomsky's original hierarchy of formal grammars have been developed, both by linguists and by computer scientists, usually either in order to increase their expressive power or in order to make them easier to analyze or parse. Some forms of grammars developed include: - Tree-adjoining grammars increase the expressiveness of conventional generative grammars by allowing rewrite rules to operate on parse trees instead of just strings. - Affix grammars and attribute grammars allow rewrite rules to be augmented with semantic attributes and operations, useful both for increasing grammar expressiveness and for constructing practical language translation tools. Recursive grammars A recursive grammar is a grammar which contains production rules that are recursive. For example, a grammar for a context-free language is left-recursive if there exists a non-terminal symbol A that can be put through the production rules to produce a string with A as the leftmost symbol. All types of grammars in the Chomsky hierarchy can be recursive. Analytic grammars Though there is a tremendous body of literature on parsing algorithms, most of these algorithms assume that the language to be parsed is initially described by means of a generative formal grammar, and that the goal is to transform this generative grammar into a working parser. Strictly speaking, a generative grammar does not in any way correspond to the algorithm used to parse a language, and various algorithms have different restrictions on the form of production rules that are considered well-formed. An alternative approach is to formalize the language in terms of an analytic grammar in the first place, which more directly corresponds to the structure and semantics of a parser for the language. Examples of analytic grammar formalisms include the following: - The Language Machine directly implements unrestricted analytic grammars. Substitution rules are used to transform an input to produce outputs and behaviour. The system can also produce the lm-diagram which shows what happens when the rules of an unrestricted analytic grammar are being applied. - Top-down parsing language (TDPL): a highly minimalist analytic grammar formalism developed in the early 1970s to study the behavior of top-down parsers. - Link grammars: a form of analytic grammar designed for linguistics, which derives syntactic structure by examining the positional relationships between pairs of words. - Parsing expression grammars (PEGs): a more recent generalization of TDPL designed around the practical expressiveness needs of programming language and compiler writers. See also - Chomsky, Noam (1956). "Three Models for the Description of Language". IRE Transactions on Information Theory 2 (2): 113–123. doi:10.1109/TIT.1956.1056813. - Chomsky, Noam (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton. - Ginsburg, Seymour (1975). Algebraic and automata theoretic properties of formal languages. North-Holland. pp. 8–9. ISBN 0-7204-2506-9. - Harrison, Michael A. (1978). Introduction to Formal Language Theory. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. p. 13. ISBN 0-201-02955-3. - Sentential Forms, Context-Free Grammars, David Matuszek - Grune, Dick & Jacobs, Ceriel H., Parsing Techniques – A Practical Guide, Ellis Horwood, England, 1990. - Earley, Jay, "An Efficient Context-Free Parsing Algorithm," Communications of the ACM, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 94-102, February 1970. - Knuth, Donald (July 1965). "On the Translation of Languages from Left to Right". Information and Control 8: 707 – 639. Retrieved 29 May 2011. - Joshi, Aravind K., et al., "Tree Adjunct Grammars," Journal of Computer Systems Science, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 136-163, 1975. - Koster , Cornelis H. A., "Affix Grammars," in ALGOL 68 Implementation, North Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, p. 95-109, 1971. - Knuth, Donald E., "Semantics of Context-Free Languages," Mathematical Systems Theory, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 127-145, 1968. - Knuth, Donald E., "Semantics of Context-Free Languages (correction)," Mathematical Systems Theory, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp 95-96, 1971. - Notes on Formal Language Theory and Parsing, James Power, Department of Computer Science National University of Ireland, Maynooth Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland.JPR02 - Birman, Alexander, The TMG Recognition Schema, Doctoral thesis, Princeton University, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, February 1970. - Sleator, Daniel D. & Temperly, Davy, "Parsing English with a Link Grammar," Technical Report CMU-CS-91-196, Carnegie Mellon University Computer Science, 1991. - Sleator, Daniel D. & Temperly, Davy, "Parsing English with a Link Grammar," Third International Workshop on Parsing Technologies, 1993. (Revised version of above report.) - Ford, Bryan, Packrat Parsing: a Practical Linear-Time Algorithm with Backtracking, Master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sept. 2002.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29006000
French conquest of Algeria The French conquest of Algeria took place between 1830 and 1847. Using an 1827 diplomatic slight by Hussein Dey, the ruler of the Ottoman Regency of Algiers, against its consul as a pretext, France invaded and quickly seized Algiers in 1830, and rapidly took control of other coastal communities. Amid internal political strife in France, decisions were repeatedly taken to retain control over the territory, and additional military forces were brought in over the following years to quell resistance in the interior of the country. Algerian resistance forces were divided between forces under Ahmed Bey at Constantine, primarily in the east, and nationalist forces in Kabylie and the west. Treaties with the nationalists under `Abd al-Qādir enabled the French to first focus on the elimination of the remaining Ottoman threat, achieved with the 1837 capture of Constantine. Al-Qādir continued to give stiff resistance in the west. Finally driven into Morocco in 1842 by large-scale and heavy-handed French military action, he continued to wage a guerilla war until the Moroccan government, under French diplomatic pressure following its defeat in the First Franco-Moroccan War, drove him out of Morocco. He surrendered to French forces in 1847. The conquest of Algeria was initiated in the last days of the Bourbon Restoration by Charles X as an attempt to increase his popularity amongst the French people, particularly in Paris, where many veterans of the Napoleonic Wars lived. He believed he would bolster patriotic sentiment and turn eyes away from his domestic policies by "skirmishing against the dey". The territory now known as Algeria was only partially under the Ottoman Empire's control in 1830. The dey ruled the entire Regency of Algiers, but only exercised direct control in and around Algiers, with Beyliks established in a few outlying areas, including Oran and Constantine. The remainder of the territory (including much of the interior), while nominally Ottoman, was effectively under the control of local Arab and Berber tribal leaders. The dey acted largely independently of the Ottoman Emperor, although he was supported by (or controlled by, depending on historical perspective) Turkish Janissary troops stationed in Algiers. The territory was bordered to the west by the Sultanate of Morocco and to the east by the Ottoman Regency of Tunis. The western border, nominally the Tafna River, was particularly porous since there were shared tribal connections that crossed it. The Fan Affair In 1795-1796, the French Republic had contracted to purchase wheat for the French army from two Jewish merchants in Algiers, and Charles X was apparently uninterested in paying off the Republic's debt. These merchants, who had debts to Hussein Dey, the Ottoman ruler of Algiers, claimed inability to pay those debts until France paid its debts to them. The dey had unsuccessfully negotiated with Pierre Deval, the French consul, to rectify this situation, and he suspected Deval of collaborating with the merchants against him, especially when the French government made no provisions for repaying the merchants in 1820. Deval's nephew Alexandre, the consul in Bône, further angered the dey by fortifying French storehouses in Bône and La Calle against the terms of prior agreements. After a contentious meeting in which Deval refused to provide satisfactory answers on 29 April 1827, the dey struck Deval with his fan. Charles X used this slight against his diplomatic representative to first demand an apology from the dey, and then to initiate a blockade against the port of Algiers. The blockade lasted for three years, and was primarily to the detriment of French merchants who were unable to do business with Algiers, while Barbary pirates were still able to evade the blockade. When France in 1829 sent an ambassador to the dey with a proposal for negotiations, he responded with cannon fire directed toward one of the blockading ships. The French then determined that more forceful action was required. Following the failure of the ambassador's visit, Charles appointed as Prime Minister Jules, Prince de Polignac, a hardline conservative, an act that outraged the liberal French opposition, which was then in a majority in the Chamber of Deputies. Polignac opened negotiations with Muhammad Ali of Egypt to essentially divide up North Africa. Ali, who was strongly under British influence (in spite of nominally being a vassal of the Ottomans), eventually rejected this idea. As popular opinion continued to rise against Polignac and the King, they came to the idea that a foreign policy victory such as the taking of Algiers would turn opinion in their favour again. Invasion of Algiers Admiral Duperré took command in Toulon of an armada of 600 ships and then headed for Algiers. Following a plan for the invasion of Algeria originally developed under Napoleon in 1808, General de Bourmont then landed 34,000 soldiers 27 kilometres (17 mi) west of Algiers, at Sidi Ferruch, on 14 June 1830. To face the French, the dey sent 7,000 janissaries, 19,000 troops from the beys of Constantine and Oran, and about 17,000 Kabyles. The French established a strong beachhead and pushed toward Algiers, thanks in part to superior artillery and better organization. On 19 June the French defeated the dey's army at the battle of Staouéli, and entered Algiers on 5 July after a three-week campaign. The dey accepted capitulation in exchange for his freedom and the offer to retain possession of his personal wealth. Five days later, he went into exile in Naples with his family. The Turkish Janissaries also quit the territory, leaving for Turkey. The dey's departure ended 313 years of Ottoman rule of the territory. While the French command had nominally agreed to preserve the liberties, properties, and religious freedoms of the inhabitants, French troops immediately began plundering the city, arresting and killing people for arbitrary reasons, seizing property, and desecrating religious sites. By mid-August, the last remnants of Turkish authority were summarily deported without opportunity to liquidate significant assets. One estimate indicates that more than fifty million francs of assets were diverted into private hands during the plunder. This activity had a profound effect on future relations between the French occupiers and the natives. A French commission in 1833 wrote that "we have sent to their deaths on simple suspicion and without trial people whose guilt was always doubtful ... we massacred people carrying safe conducts ... we have outdone in barbarity the barbarians". One important side effect of the expulsion of the Turks was that it created a power vacuum in significant parts of the territory, from which resistance to French occupation immediately began to arise. Hardly had the news of the capture of Algiers reached Paris than Charles X was deposed during the Three Glorious Days of July 1830, and his cousin Louis-Philippe, the "citizen king", was named to preside over a constitutional monarchy. The new government, composed of liberal opponents of the Algiers expedition, was reluctant to pursue the conquest begun by the old regime. However, the victory was enormously popular, and the new government of Louis-Philippe only withdrew a portion of the invasion force. General Bourmont, who had sent troops to occupy Bône and Oran, withdrew them from those places with the idea of returning to France to restore Charles to the throne. When it was clear that his troops were not supportive of this effort, he resigned and went into exile in Spain. Louis-Philippe replaced him with Bertrand Clauzel in September 1830. The bey of Titteri, who had participated in the battle at Staouéli, attempted to coordinate resistance against the French with the beys of Oran and Constantine, but they were unable to agree on leadership. Clauzel in November led a French column of 8,000 to Médéa, Titteri's capital, losing 200 men in skirmishes. After leaving 500 men at Blida he occupied Médéa without resistance, as the bey had retreated. After installing a supportive bey and a garrison, he returned toward Algiers. On arrival at Blida, he learned that the garrison there had been attacked by the Kabyles, and in resisting them, had killed some women and children, causing the town's population to rise against them. Clauzel decided to withdraw that garrison as the force returned to Algiers. Colonization begins Clauzel introduced a formal civil administration in Algiers, and began recruiting zouaves, or native auxiliaries to the French forces, with the goal of establishing a proper colonial presence. He and others formed a company to acquire agricultural land and to subsidize its settlement by European farmers, triggering a land rush. Clauzel recognized the farming potential of the Mitidja Plain and envisioned the production there of cotton on a large scale. During his second term as governor general (1835–36), he used his office to make private investments in land and encouraged army officers and bureaucrats in his administration to do the same. This development created a vested interest among government officials in greater French involvement in Algeria. Commercial interests with influence in the government also began to recognize the prospects for profitable land speculation in expanding the French zone of occupation. Over a ten-year period they created large agricultural tracts, built factories and businesses, and bought cheap local labor. Clauzel also attempted to extend French influence into Oran and Constantine by negotiating with the bey of Tunis to supply "local" rulers that would operate under French administration. The bey refused, seeing the obvious conflicts inherent in the idea. The French foreign ministry objected to negotiations Clauzel conducted with Morocco over the establishment of a Moroccan bey in Oran, and in early 1831 replaced him with Baron Berthezène. Berthezène was a weak administrator opposed to colonisation. His worst military failure came when he was called to support the bey at Médéa, whose support for the French and corruption had turned the population there against him. Berthezène led troops to Médéa in June 1831 to extract the bey and the French garrison. On their way back to Algiers they were continually harassed by Kabyle resistance, and driven into a panicked retreat that Berthezène failed to control. French casualties during this retreat were significant (nearly 300), and the victory fanned the flames of resistance, leading to attacks on colonial settlements. The growing colonial financial interests began insisting on a stronger hand, which Louis-Philippe provided in Duke Rovigo at the end of 1831. Rogivo regained control of Bône and Bougie (present-day Béjaïa), cities that Clauzel had taken and then lost due to resistance by the Kabyle people. He continued policies of colonisation of the land and expropriation of properties. His suppression of resistance in Algiers was brutal, with the military presence extended into its neighborhoods. He was recalled in 1833 due to the overtly violent nature of the repression, and replaced by Baron Voirol. Voirol successfully established French occupation in Oran, and another French general, Louis Alexis Desmichels, was given an independent command that gained control over Arzew and Mostaganem. On 22 June 1834, France formally annexed the occupied areas of Algeria, which had an estimated Muslim population of about two million, as a military colony. The colony was run by a military governor who had both civilian and military authority, including the power of executive decree. His authority was nominally over an area of "limited occupation" near the coast, but the realities of French colonial expansion beyond those areas ensured continued resistance from the local population. The policy of limited occupation was formally abandoned in 1840 for one of complete control. Voirol was replaced in 1834 by Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon, who became the first governor of the colony, and who was given the task of dealing with the rising threat of `Abd al-Qādir and continuing French failures to subdue Ahmed Bey, Constantine's ruler. The rise of `Abd al-Qādir The superior of a religious brotherhood, Muhyi ad Din, who had spent time in Ottoman jails for opposing the bey's rule, launched attacks against the French and their makhzen allies at Oran in 1832. In the same year, tribal elders in the territories near Mascara chose Muhyi ad Din's son, twenty-five-year-old `Abd al-Qādir, to take his place leading the jihad. Abd al-Qādir, who was recognized as Amir al-Muminin (commander of the faithful), quickly gained the support of tribes in the western territories. In 1834 he concluded a treaty with General Desmichels, who was then military commander of the province of Oran. In the treaty, which was reluctantly accepted by the French administration, France recognized Abd al-Qādir as the sovereign of territories in Oran province not under French control, and authorized Abd al-Qādir to send consuls to French-held cities. The treaty did not require Abd al-Qādir to recognize French rule, something glossed over in its French text. Abd al-Qādir used the peace provided by this treaty to widen his influence with tribes throughout western and central Algeria. While d'Erlon was apparently unaware of the danger posed by Abd al-Qādir's activities, General Camille Alphonse Trézel, then in command at Oran, did see it, and attempted to separate some of the tribes from Abd al-Qādir. When he succeeded in convincing two tribes near Oran to acknowledge French supremacy, Abd al-Qādir dispatched troops to move those tribes to the interior, away from French influence. Trézel countered by marching a column of troops out from Oran to protect the territory of those tribes on 16 June 1835. After exchanging threats, Abd al-Qādir withdrew his consul from Oran and ejected the French consul from Mascara, a de facto declaration of war. The two forces clashed in a bloody but inconclusive engagement near the Sig River. However, when the French, who were short on provisions, began withdrawing toward Arzew, al-Qādir led 20,000 men against the beleaguered column, and in the Battle of Macta routed the force, killing 500 men. The debacle led to the recall of Comte d'Erlon. General Clausel was appointed a second time to replace d'Erlon. He led an attack against Mascara in December of that year, which Abd al-Qādir, with advance warning, had evacuated. In January 1836 he occupied Tlemcen, and established a garrison there before return to Algiers to plan an attack against Constantine. Abd al-Qādir continued to harry the French at Tlemcen, so additional troops under Thomas Robert Bugeaud, a veteran of the Napoleonic Wars experienced in irregular warfare were sent from Oran to secure control up to the Tafna River and to resupply the garrison. Abd al-Qādir retreated before Bugeaud, but decided to make a stand on the banks of the Sikkak River. On July 6, 1836, Bugeaud decisively defeated al-Qādir in the Battle of Sikkak, losing less than fifty men to more than 1,000 casualties suffered by Abd al-Qādir. The battle was one of the few formal battles al-Qādir engaged in; after the loss he restricted his actions as much as possible to guerilla-style attacks. Ahmed Bey had continuously resisted any attempts by the French or others to subjugate Constantine, and continued to play a role in resistance against French rule, in part because he hoped to eventually become the next dey. Clausel and Ahmed had tangled diplomatically over Ahmed's refusal to recognize French authority over Bône, which he considered to still be Ottoman territory, and Clausel decided to move against him. In November 1836 Clausel led 8,700 men into the Constantine beylik, but was repulsed in the Battle of Constantine; the failure led to Clausel's recall. He was replaced by the Comte de Damrémont, who led an expedition that successfully captured Constantine the following year, although he was killed during the siege and replaced by Sylvain Charles, comte Valée. Al-Qādir's resistance renewed In May 1837, General Thomas Robert Bugeaud, then in command of Oran, negotiated the Treaty of Tafna with al-Qādir, in which he effectively recognized al-Qādir's control over much of the interior of what is now Algeria. Al-Qādir used the treaty to consolidate his power over tribes throughout the interior, establishing new cities far from French control. He worked to motivate the population under French control to resist by peaceful and military means. Seeking to again face the French, he laid claim under the treaty to territory that included the main route between Algiers and Constantine. When French troops contested this claim in late 1839 by marching through a mountain defile known as the Iron Gates, al-Qādir claimed a breach of the treaty, and renewed calls for jihad. Throughout 1840 he waged guerilla war against the French in the provinces of Algiers and Oran, which Valée's failures to adequately deal with led to his replacement in December 1840 by General Bugeaud. Bugeaud instituted a strategy of scorched earth, combined with fast-moving cavalry columns not unlike those used by al-Qādir to progressively take territory from al-Qādir. The troops' tactics were heavy-handed, and the population suffered significantly. Al-Qādir was eventually forced to establish a mobile headquarters that was known as a smala or zmelah. In 1843 French forces successfully raided this camp while he was away from it, capturing more than 5,000 fighters and al-Qādir's warchest. Al-Qādir was forced to retreat into Morocco, from which he had been receiving some support, especially from tribes in the border areas. When French diplomatic efforts to convince Morocco to expel al-Qādir failed, the French resorted to military means with the First Franco-Moroccan War in 1844 to compel the sultan to change his policy. Eventually hemmed between French and Moroccan troops on the border in December 1847, al-Qādir chose to surrender to the French, under terms that he be allowed to enter exile in the Middle East. The French violated these terms, holding him in France until 1852, when he was allowed to go to Damascus. - A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle ... , by Spencer C. Tucker, 2009 p. 1154 - A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle ... , by Spencer C. Tucker, 2009 p. 1167 - "Algeria, Colonial Rule". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 39. Retrieved 2007-12-19. - Abun-Nasr, Jamil, p. 249 - Abun-Nasr, p. 250 - Ruedy, p. 47 - Ruedy, p. 48 - Ruedy, p. 49 - Ruedy, p. 50 - Ruedy, p. 52 - Wagner, p. 235 - Wagner, pp. 237-239 - Wagner, p. 240 - Wagner, pp. 241-243 - Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33767-0. - Priestley, Herbert Ingram (1966). France overseas: a study of modern imperialism. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-1024-5. - Ruedy, John Douglas (2005). Modern Algeria: the origins and development of a nation (second ed.). Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21782-0. - Wagner, Moritz; Pulszky, Francis (translator) (1854). The Tricolor on the Atlas: or, Algeria and the French conquest. London: T. Nelson and Sons.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29007000
\|Look up gable in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\| A gable is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of a sloping roof. The shape of the gable and how it is detailed depends on the structural system being used (which is often related to climate and availability of materials) and aesthetic concerns. Thus the type of roof enclosing the volume dictates the shape of the gable. A gable wall or gable end more commonly refers to the entire wall, including the gable and the wall below it. A variation of the gable is a crow-stepped gable, which has a stair-step design to accomplish the sloping portion. Crow-stepped gables were used in Scotland and England as early as the seventeenth century. Examples of the crow-stepped gable can be seen at Muchalls Castle and Monboddo House, both 17th century Scottish buildings. Other early examples are found in parts of Denmark and Sweden. Gable ends of more recent buildings are often treated in the same way as the Classic pediment form. But unlike Classical structures, which operate through trabeation, the gable ends of many buildings are actually bearing-wall structures. Thus, the detailing tends to be ambiguous, misleading, and to some architects "deceitful".[why?] See: John Ruskin and The Seven Lamps of Architecture. Gable end roofs are among the worst roof designs for hurricane regions. Not only do gable roofs easily peel off in hurricane winds, but according to one hurricane survival guide book, a gable end "catches wind like a sail."[this quote needs a citation] When wind flows over a gable roof it behaves much like a wing. Lift is created on the leeward side of the roof. The flatter the roof the more likely this will happen. Steep roofs tend to cause the wind to "stall" as it goes over the roof and breaks up the effect. The addition of a "vertical fin" to low pitched roofs will also help. See also - Bell-gable – Espadaña - Crow-stepped gable - Dutch gable - Gablet roof - Hip roof - Cape Dutch architecture - Roof damage by hurricane force winds in Bermuda The Fabian Experience, September 2003, page 5, Mark Rowe, Department of Environmental Protection, Government of Bermuda \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Gables\|	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29008000
\|Part of a series on\| Terminology mining, term extraction, term recognition, or glossary extraction, is a subtask of information extraction. The goal of terminology extraction is to automatically extract relevant terms from a given corpus. In the semantic web era, a growing number of communities and networked enterprises started to access and interoperate through the internet. Modeling these communities and their information needs is important for several web applications, like topic-driven web crawlers, web services, recommender systems, etc. The development of terminology extraction is essential to the language industry. One of the first steps to model the knowledge domain of a virtual community is to collect a vocabulary of domain-relevant terms, constituting the linguistic surface manifestation of domain concepts. Several methods to automatically extract technical terms from domain-specific document warehouses have been described in the literature. Typically, approaches to automatic term extraction make use of linguistic processors (part of speech tagging, phrase chunking) to extract terminological candidates, i.e. syntactically plausible terminological noun phrases, NPs (e.g. compounds "credit card", adjective-NPs "local tourist information office", and prepositional-NPs "board of directors" - in English, the first two constructs are the most frequent). Terminological entries are then filtered from the candidate list using statistical and machine learning methods. Once filtered, because of their low ambiguity and high specificity, these terms are particularly useful for conceptualizing a knowledge domain or for supporting the creation of a domain ontology. Furthermore, terminology extraction is a very useful starting point for semantic similarity, knowledge management, human translation and machine translation, etc. See also - Computational linguistics - Natural language processing - Domain Ontology - Subject indexing - Taxanomy (general) - Text mining - Text simplification - Menczer F., Pant G. and Srinivasan P. Topic-Driven Crawlers: machine learning issues. - Fan J. and Kambhampati S. A Snapshot of Public Web Services, in ACM SIGMOD Record archive Volume 34 , Issue 1 (March 2005). - Yan Zheng Wei, Luc Moreau, Nicholas R. Jennings. A market-based approach to recommender systems, in ACM Transactions on Information Systems (TOIS), 23(3), 2005. - Bourigault D. and Jacquemin C. Term Extraction+Term Clustering: an integrated platform for computer-aided terminology, in Proc. of EACL, 1999. - Collier N., Nobata C. and Tsujii J. Automatic acquisition and classification of terminology using a tagged corpus in the molecular biology domain, Terminology, 7(2). 239-257, 2002 - K. Frantzi, S. Ananiadou and H. Mima. (2000). Automatic recognition of multi-word terms: the C-value/NC-value method. In: C. Nikolau and C. Stephanidis (Eds.) International Journal on Digital Libraries, Vol. 3, No. 2., pp. 115-130. - K. Frantzi, S. Ananiadou and J. Tsujii. (1998) The C-value/NC-value Method of Automatic Recognition of Multi-word Terms, In: ECDL '98 Proceedings of the Second European Conference on Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries, pp. 585-604. [isbn: 3-540-65101-2] - L. Kozakov, Y. Park, T. Fin, Y. Drissi, Y. Doganata, and T. Cofino. "Glossary extraction and utilization in the information search and delivery system for IBM Technical Support", IBM System Journal, Volume 43, Number 3, 2004 - Navigli R. and Velardi, P. Learning Domain Ontologies from Document Warehouses and Dedicated Web Sites. Computational Linguistics. 30 (2), MIT Press, 2004, pp. 151-179 - Y. Park, R. J. Byrd, B. Boguraev. "Automatic glossary extraction: beyond terminology identification", International Conference On Computational Linguistics, Proceedings of the 19th international conference on Computational linguistics - Taipei, Taiwan, 2002. - Sclano, F. and Velardi, P.. TermExtractor: a Web Application to Learn the Shared Terminology of Emergent Web Communities. To appear in Proc. of the 3rd International Conference on Interoperability for Enterprise Software and Applications (I-ESA 2007). Funchal (Madeira Island), Portugal, March 28–30th, 2007. - P. Velardi, R. Navigli, P. D'Amadio. Mining the Web to Create Specialized Glossaries, IEEE Intelligent Systems, 23(5), IEEE Press, 2008, pp. 18-25. - Wermter J. and Hahn U. Finding New terminology in Very large Corpora, in Proc. of K-CAP'05, October 2–5, 2005, Banff, Alberta, Canada - Wong, W., Liu, W. & Bennamoun, M. (2007) Determining Termhood for Learning Domain Ontologies using Domain Prevalence and Tendency. In: 6th Australasian Conference on Data Mining (AusDM); Gold Coast. [isbn: 978-1-920682-51-4] - Wong, W., Liu, W. & Bennamoun, M. (2007) Determining Termhood for Learning Domain Ontologies in a Probabilistic Framework. In: 6th Australasian Conference on Data Mining (AusDM); Gold Coast. [isbn: 978-1-920682-51-4] - Wong, W., Liu, W. & Bennamoun, M. (2008) Determination of Unithood and Termhood for Term Recognition. In: M. Song and Y. Wu; Handbook of Research on Text and Web Mining Technologies; IGI Global. [isbn: 978-1-59904-990-8] - TexLexAn - An open-source text summarizer and keyword extractor. - Anchovy Anchovy is a free multilingual cross-platform glossary editor and term extraction tool based on the open Glossary Markup Language (GlossML) format. - Lexterm, a free/open-source Lexical Extractor for Terminology and Translation (mono- and bilingual extraction). - Sematext Key Phrase Extractor, a package for extraction of Collocations, Statistically Improbable Phrases (SIPs), etc. by Sematext - Five Filters Term Extraction, a free software term extraction service web application - AlchemyAPI, a web-based multi-lingual keyword / terminology extraction API web application - Zemanta API, a web-based keyword extraction and disambiguation API by Zemanta - Yahoo Term Extraction API web application - Introduction to terminology management, by IBM - TerMine, a term management system by the UK's National Centre for Text Mining. web application - TermExtractor, a free terminology extraction web application - TermFinder, free online terminology extractor web application - TrM Extractor, experimental terminology extractor web application that can process English and Hungarian texts - Statistical Bilingual Terminology Extractor, online terminology extractor web application - Ngram Statistics Package, open source package for identifying collocations - Heartsome Araya Bilingual Terminology Extractor for TMX files, by Heartsome Europe - English Phrases Extractor, by the Blogscope team at the University of Toronto, extracted terms are used to search for conceptually related blogs over the web rather than for linguistic analysis purpose web application - A demo of Document Skimming and Scanning using domain-related terms extracted from news articles. The domain terms are organised into 'term clouds' for visualising key concepts in the news. - An interface for extracting domain-relevant terms from documents using the OT and TH measures. A list of documents together with their automatically extracted domain-relevant terms are available for browsing here. - Gabor Melli's info page on terminology extraction - Yahoo! Quest demo exploiting term extraction for browsing the Yahoo! Answers Q&A collection - Ultimate Research Assistant, A free online literacy tool with strong multi-lingual terminology extraction capabilities and visualizations including bar charts, mind maps, and taxonomies. Includes XML web services for term extraction, text summarization, and taxonomy generation / clustering.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29011000
\|Sir Walter Raleigh\| Portrait of Sir Walter Raleigh inscribed right: Aetatis suae 34 An(no) 1588 ("In the year 1588 of his age 34") and left: with his motto Amore et Virtute ("By Love and Virtue"). National Portrait Gallery, London, NPG 7 22 January 1552 (or 1554)\| Hayes Barton, Devonshire \|Died\|\|29 October 1618 65) \|Occupation\|\|Writer, poet, soldier, courtier, explorer\| Sir Walter Raleigh (//, //, or //; c. 1554 – 29 October 1618) was an English aristocrat, writer, poet, soldier, courtier, spy, and explorer. He is also well known for popularising tobacco in England. Raleigh was born to a Protestant family in Devon, the son of Walter Raleigh and Catherine Champernowne. Little is known of his early life, though he spent some time in Ireland, in Killua Castle, Clonmellon, County Westmeath, taking part in the suppression of rebellions and participating in the Siege of Smerwick. Later he became a landlord of property confiscated from the native Irish. He rose rapidly in the favour of Queen Elizabeth I, and was knighted in 1585. Instrumental in the English colonisation of North America, Raleigh was granted a royal patent to explore Virginia, which paved the way for future English settlements. In 1591 he secretly married Elizabeth Throckmorton, one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting, without the Queen's permission, for which he and his wife were sent to the Tower of London. After his release, they retired to his estate at Sherborne, Dorset. In 1594 Raleigh heard of a "City of Gold" in South America and sailed to find it, publishing an exaggerated account of his experiences in a book that contributed to the legend of "El Dorado". After Queen Elizabeth died in 1603 Raleigh was again imprisoned in the Tower, this time for allegedly being involved in the Main Plot against King James I, who was not favourably disposed toward him. In 1616 he was released to lead a second expedition in search of El Dorado. This was unsuccessful and men under his command ransacked a Spanish outpost. He returned to England and, to appease the Spanish, was arrested and executed in 1618. Little is known about Raleigh's birth. Some historians believe he was born on January 22, 1552, although the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography currently favours a date of 1554. He grew up in the house of Hayes Barton, a farmhouse in the village of East Budleigh, not far from Budleigh Salterton, in Devon, England. He was the youngest of five sons born to Catherine Champernowne in two successive marriages. His half brothers, John Gilbert, Humphrey Gilbert, Adrian Gilbert, and full brother Carew Raleigh were also prominent during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. Catherine Champernowne was a niece of Kat Ashley, Elizabeth's governess, who introduced the young men at court. Raleigh's family was highly Protestant in religious orientation and had a number of near-escapes during the reign of the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I of England. In the most notable of these, his father had to hide in a tower to avoid execution. As a result, during his childhood, Raleigh developed a hatred of Roman Catholicism and proved himself quick to express it after the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England came to the throne in 1558. In 1568 or 1572, Raleigh was registered as an undergraduate at Oriel College, Oxford but does not seem to have taken up residence. In 1575, he was registered at the Middle Temple. At his trial in 1603, he stated that he had never studied law. His life between these two dates is uncertain but in his History of the World he claimed to be an eye-witness at the Battle of Moncontour (3 October 1569) in France. In 1575 or 1576 Raleigh returned to England. \|This section does not cite any references or sources. (October 2012)\| Between 1579 and 1583, Raleigh took part in the suppression of the Desmond Rebellions. He was present at the siege of Smerwick. Upon the seizure and distribution of land following the attainders arising from the rebellion, Raleigh received 40,000 acres (160 km2), including the coastal walled towns of Youghal and Lismore. This made him one of the principal landowners in Munster, but he enjoyed limited success in inducing English tenants to settle on his estates. During his seventeen years as an Irish landlord, frequently being domiciled at Killua Castle, Clonmellon, county Westmeath, Raleigh made the town of Youghal his occasional home. He was mayor there from 1588 to 1589. His town mansion, Myrtle Grove, is assumed to be the setting for the story that his servant doused him with a bucket of water after seeing clouds of smoke coming from Raleigh's pipe, in the belief he had been set alight. But this story is also told of other places associated with Raleigh: the Virginia Ash inn in Henstridge near Sherborne, Sherborne Castle, and South Wraxall Manor in Wiltshire, home of Raleigh's friend, Sir Walter Long. Amongst Raleigh's acquaintances in Munster was another Englishman who had been granted land there, the poet Edmund Spenser. In the 1590s, he and Raleigh travelled together from Ireland to the court at London, where Spenser presented part of his allegorical poem, the Faerie Queene, to Elizabeth I. Raleigh's management of his Irish estates ran into difficulties, which contributed to a decline in his fortunes. In 1602, he sold the lands to Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork, who subsequently prospered under kings James I and Charles I. Following Raleigh's death, members of his family approached Boyle for compensation on the ground that Raleigh had struck an improvident bargain. The New World Raleigh's plan in 1584 for colonisation in the "Colony and Dominion of Virginia" in North America ended in failure at Roanoke Island, but paved the way for subsequent colonies. These expeditions were funded primarily by Raleigh and his friends, but never provided the steady stream of revenue necessary to maintain a colony in America. (Subsequent colonization attempts in the early 17th century were made under the joint-stock Virginia Company, which was able to raise the capital necessary to create successful colonies.) In 1587, Raleigh attempted a second expedition, again establishing a settlement on Roanoke Island. This time, a more diverse group of settlers was sent, including some entire families, under the governance of John White. After a short while in America, White returned to England to obtain more supplies for the colony. He was unable to return the following year as planned, because the Queen had ordered that all vessels remain at port for potential use against the Spanish Armada.:125–126 The threat of the Armada was only partially responsible for delaying White's return until 1590. After England's victory over the Spanish fleet in 1588, the ships were given permission to sail. Unfortunately for the colonists at Roanoke, the small fleet first made an excursion towards Cuba. They tried to capture the treasure-laden Spanish merchant ships reported to proliferate in those waters at that time. White is said to have objected to this unplanned foray, but was helpless to dissuade the crews.:125–126 They had been told by the experienced Portuguese pilot, hired by Raleigh to navigate the voyage, of enormous riches to be had. It was not until 1590, 3 years after White left, that the supply vessel arrived at the colony – only to find that all colonists had disappeared.:130–33 The only clue to their fate was the word "CROATOAN" and letters "CRO" carved into tree trunks. White had arranged with the settlers that if they should relocate, the name of their destination be carved into a tree or corner-post. This suggested the possibilities that they had relocated to Croatoan Island (now Hatteras Island). But a hurricane prevented John White from investigating the island for survivors.:130–33 Other speculation includes their having starved, or been swept away or lost at sea during the stormy weather of 1588. No further attempts at contact were recorded for some years. Whatever the fate of the settlers, the settlement is now remembered as the "Lost Colony of Roanoke Island". In December 1581, Raleigh returned to England from Ireland to despatches as his company had been disbanded. He took part in Court life and became a favourite of Queen Elizabeth I. Various colourful stories are told about him at this period, but they are likely apocryphal. In 1585 Raleigh was knighted and was appointed warden of the stannaries, that is of the mines of Cornwall and Devon, Lord Lieutenant of Cornwall, and vice-admiral of the two counties. Both in 1585 and 1586, he sat in parliament as member for Devonshire. Raleigh commissioned the shipbuilder R. Chapman, of Deptford to build a ship for him. Originally called Ark, it became Ark Raleigh, following the convention at the time by which the ship bore the name of its owner. The Crown, in the form of Queen Elizabeth I, purchased the ship from Raleigh in January 1587, for the sum of £5,000 (£900,000 as of 2013). (This took the form of a reduction in the sum Sir Walter owed the queen: he received Exchequer tallies, but no money.) As a result, the ship was renamed Ark Royal. In 1592, Raleigh was given many rewards by the Queen, including Durham House in the Strand and the estate of Sherborne, Dorset. He was appointed Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard. However, he had not been given any of the great offices of state. In the Armada year of 1588, Raleigh was appointed Vice Admiral of Devon, looking after the coastal defences and military levies. In 1591, Raleigh was secretly married to Elizabeth "Bess" Throckmorton (or Throgmorton). She was one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting, eleven years his junior, and was pregnant at the time. She gave birth to a son, believed to be named Damerei, who was given to a wet nurse at Durham House, but died in October 1592 of plague. Bess resumed her duties to the queen. The following year, the unauthorised marriage was discovered and the Queen ordered Raleigh imprisoned and Bess dismissed from court. Both were imprisoned in the Tower of London in June 1592. He was released from prison in August 1592 to divide the spoils from the captured Spanish ship Madre de Dios (Mother of God). Bess was released in December. It would be several years before Raleigh returned to favour. The couple remained devoted to each other. During Raleigh's absences, Bess proved a capable manager of the family's fortunes and reputation. They had two more sons, Walter (known as Wat) and Carew. Raleigh was elected a burgess of Mitchell, Cornwall, in the parliament of 1593. He retired to his estate at Sherborne where he built a new house, completed in 1594, known then as Sherborne Lodge. Since extended, it is now known as Sherborne (new) Castle. He made friends with the local gentry, such as Sir Ralph Horsey of Clifton Maybank and Charles Thynne of Longleat. During this period at a dinner party at Horsey's, there was a heated discussion about religion. The argument later gave rise to charges of atheism against Raleigh. He was elected to Parliament, speaking on religious and naval matters. In 1594, he came into possession of a Spanish account of a great golden city at the headwaters of the Caroní River. A year later he explored what is now Guyana and eastern Venezuela in search of Manoa, the legendary city. Once back in England, he published The Discovery of Guiana (1596) an account of his voyage which made exaggerated claims as to what had been discovered. The book can be seen as a contribution to the El Dorado legend. Although Venezuela has gold deposits, there is no evidence Raleigh found any mines. He is sometimes said to have discovered Angel Falls, but these claims are considered far-fetched. From 1600 to 1603, as Governor of the Channel Island of Jersey, Raleigh modernised its defences. This included construction of a new fort protecting the approaches to Saint Helier, Fort Isabella Bellissima, or Elizabeth Castle. Trial and imprisonment Royal favour with Queen Elizabeth had been restored by this time but his good fortune did not last. The Queen died in 1603, and Raleigh was arrested at Exeter Inn, Ashburton, Devon and imprisoned in the Tower of London on 19 July 1603. On 17 November, Raleigh was tried in the converted Great Hall of Winchester Castle for treason, due to alleged involvement in the Main Plot against King James. Raleigh conducted his defence. The chief evidence against Raleigh was the signed and sworn confession of Henry Brooke, 11th Baron Cobham. Raleigh frequently requested that Cobham be called in to testify so that he might recant, "[Let] my accuser come face to face, and be deposed. Were the case but for a small copyhold, you would have witnesses or good proof to lead the jury to a verdict; and I am here for my life!" Raleigh essentially was objecting that the evidence against him was "hearsay"; but the tribunal refused to allow Cobham to testify and be cross examined. Although hearsay was frowned upon under common law, Raleigh was tried under civil law, which allowed hearsay. King James spared his life, despite a guilty verdict. He remained imprisoned in the Tower until 1616. While there, he wrote many treatises and the first volume of The Historie of the World (published 1628) about the ancient history of Greece and Rome. His son, Carew, was conceived and born (1604) while Raleigh was imprisoned in the Tower. In 1616, Raleigh was released in order to conduct a second expedition to Venezuela in search of El Dorado. During the expedition, Raleigh's men, under the command of Lawrence Keymis, attacked the Spanish outpost of Santo Tomé de Guayana (San Tomé) on the Orinoco River. In the initial attack on the settlement, Raleigh's son, Walter, was fatally shot. On Raleigh's return to England, an outraged Count Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, successfully demanded that King James reinstate Raleigh's death sentence. Raleigh was brought to London from Plymouth, by Sir Lewis Stukeley, and passed up numerous opportunities to make an effective escape. Execution and aftermath Raleigh was beheaded in the Old Palace Yard at the Palace of Westminster on 29 October 1618. "Let us dispatch", he said to his executioner. "At this hour my ague comes upon me. I would not have my enemies think I quaked from fear." After he was allowed to see the axe that would behead him, he mused: "This is a sharp Medicine, but it is a Physician for all diseases and miseries." According to many biographers – for instance, Raleigh Trevelyan in Sir Walter Raleigh (2002) – Raleigh's final words (as he lay ready for the axe to fall) were: "Strike, man, strike!" Having been one of the people to popularise tobacco smoking in England, he left a small tobacco pouch, found in his cell shortly after his execution. Engraved upon the pouch was a Latin inscription: Comes meus fuit in illo miserrimo tempore ("It was my companion at that most miserable time"). Raleigh's head was embalmed and presented to his wife. His body was to be buried in the local church in Beddington, Surrey, the home of Lady Raleigh, but was finally laid to rest in St. Margaret's, Westminster, where his tomb may still be visited today. "The Lords", she wrote, "have given me his dead body, though they have denied me his life. God hold me in my wits." It has been said that Lady Raleigh kept her husband's head in a velvet bag until her death. After his wife's death 29 years later, Raleigh's head was returned to his tomb and interred at St. Margaret's Church. Although Raleigh's popularity had waned considerably since his Elizabethan heyday, his execution was seen by many, both at the time and since, as unnecessary and unjust. Any involvement in the Main Plot appears to have been limited to a meeting with Lord Cobham. One of the judges at his trial later said: "The justice of England has never been so degraded and injured as by the condemnation of the honourable Sir Walter Raleigh." Raleigh's poetry is written in the relatively straightforward, unornamented mode known as the plain style. C. S. Lewis considered Raleigh one of the era's "silver poets", a group of writers who resisted the Italian Renaissance influence of dense classical reference and elaborate poetic devices. In poems such as "What is Our Life" and "The Lie", Raleigh expresses a contemptus mundi (contempt of the world) attitude more characteristic of the Middle Ages than of the dawning era of humanistic optimism. But, his lesser-known long poem "The Ocean to Cynthia" combines this vein with the more elaborate conceits associated with his contemporaries Edmund Spenser and John Donne, expressing a melancholy sense of history. Raleigh wrote a poetic response to Christopher Marlowe's "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love" of 1592, entitled "The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd". Both were written in the style of traditional pastoral poetry and follow the structure of six four-line stanzas employing a rhyme scheme of AABB, with Raleigh's an almost line-for-line refutation of Marlowe's sentiments. Years later the 20th century poet William Carlos Williams would join the poetic "argument" with his "Raleigh was Right." The state capital of North Carolina and its second largest city was named Raleigh in 1792 for Sir Walter, sponsor of the Roanoke Colony. In the city a bronze statue, which has been moved around different locations within the city, was cast in honor of the city's namesake. The "Lost Colony" is commemorated at the Fort Raleigh National Historic Site on Roanoke Island, North Carolina. - Many alternative spellings of his surname exist, including Rawley, Ralegh, Ralagh and Rawleigh. "Raleigh" appears most commonly today, though he, himself, used that spelling only once, as far as is known. His most consistent preference was for "Ralegh". His full name is / /, though, in practice, //, RAL-ee or even //, RAH-lee are the usual modern pronunciations in England. - "100 great Britons - A complete list". Daily Mail. 21 August 2002. Retrieved 5 August 2012. - Nicholls, Mark; Williams, Penry (September 2004). "Ralegh, Sir Walter (1554–1618)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 20 May 2008. (subscription or UK public library membership required) - Hayes Barton, Woodbury Common. - Ronald, p. 249. - Edward Edwards, The Life of Sir Walter Ralegh. Volume I (London: Macmillan, 1868), p. 26. - Edwards, p. 33. - Markham, Jerry W. (2001). A Financial History of the United States. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. p. 22. ISBN 0-7656-0730-1. - Blacker, Irwin (1965). Hakluyt's Voyages: The Principle Navigations Voyages Traffiques & Discoveries of the English Nation. New York: The Viking Press. p. 522. - Quinn, David B. (1985-02). Set Fair for Roanoke: Voyages and Colonies, 1584-1606. UNC Press Books. ISBN 978-0-8078-4123-5. Retrieved 3 June 2011. - Fragmenta Regalia - Fuller's Worthies - J. K. Laughton and Sidney Lee, Ralegh, Sir Walter (1552?–1618), military and naval commander and author, 1896 - UK CPI inflation numbers based on data available from Lawrence H. Officer (2010) "What Were the UK Earnings and Prices Then?" MeasuringWorth. - Archaeologia, p. 151 - Sir Walter Raleigh. The Discovery of Guiana Project Gutenberg. - "Walter Raleigh – Delusions of Guiana" at The Lost World: Travel and information on the Gran Sabana, Canaima National Park, Venezuela web page. Retrieved 5 July 2008. - circumscribed legend mis-engraved as TNSIHNIA for INSIGNIA - 1 Criminal Trials 400, 400–511, 1850. - Raleigh, Walter. "The Historie of the World". Retrieved 19 November 2009. - Wolffe, Mary. "Stucley, Sir Lewis". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/26740. (subscription or UK public library membership required) - "Stucley, Lewis". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. - Trevelyan (2002) p. 552 - Gene Borio. "Tobacco Timeline: The Seventeenth Century-The Great Age of the Pipe". Tobacco.org. Retrieved October 29, 2012. - "Sir Walter Raleigh's tobacco pouch". Wallace Collection. Retrieved 1 November 2012. - Williams, Norman Lloyd. "Sir Walter Raleigh", Cassell Biographies, 1962) - Durant, Will, The Story of Civilization, vol. VII, Chap. VI, p.158 - "Full text of "Raleghana"". Archive.org. Retrieved October 29, 2012. - Lloyd, J & Mitchinson, J: "The Book of General I. - ed. Ronald Christenson, Political Trials in History: From Antiquity to the Present, p. 385-7. Transaction Publishers (1991). ISBN 978-0-88738-406-6 - Historical summary, Crawford v. Washington (page 10 of .pdf file) - "Notes for "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love"". Dr. Bruce Magee, Louisiana Tech University. Retrieved 29 October 2012. - Adamson, J.H. and Folland, H. F. Shepherd of the Ocean, 1969 - Dwyer, Jack Dorset Pioneers The History Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-7524-5346-0 - Edwards, Edward The Life of Sir Walter Ralegh. Volume I (London: Macmillan, 1868). - Fuller, Thomas Anglorum Speculum or the Worthies of England, 1684 - Lewis, C. S. English Literature in the Sixteenth Century Excluding Drama, 1954 - Naunton, Robert Fragmenta Regalia 1694, reprinted 1824. - Nicholls, Mark and Williams, Penry. ‘Ralegh, Sir Walter (1554–1618)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004. - Pemberton, Henry (Author); Carroll Smyth (Editor), Susan L. Pemberton (Contributor) Shakespeare And Sir Walter Raleigh: Including Also Several Essays Previously Published In The New Shakspeareana, Kessinger Publishing, LLC; 264 pages, 2007. ISBN 978-0548312483 - Ronald, Susan The Pirate Queen: Queen Elizabeth I, her Pirate Adventurers, and the Dawn of Empire Harper Collins Publishers, New York, 2007. ISBN 0-06-082066-7 - Stebbing, William: Sir Walter Ralegh. Oxford, 1899 Project Gutenberg eText - Trevelyan, Raleigh Sir Walter Raleigh, Henry Holt & Co. (2002). ISBN 978-0-7139-9326-4 - The Sir Walter Raleigh Collection in Wilson Library at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill \|Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Walter Raleigh\| \|Wikisource has original works written by or about: \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sir Walter Raleigh\| - Sir Walter Raleigh's Grave - Biography of Sir Walter Raleigh at Britannia.com - Biography of Sir Walter Raleigh at britishexplorers.com - Description and pictures of Hayes Barton at britishexplorers.com - Sir Walter Raleigh at the Fort Raleigh website - Quotes attributed to Sir Walter Raleigh - Story of Raleigh's last years and his beheading - Poetry by Sir Walter Raleigh, plus commentary - Searching for the Lost Colony Blog - Robert Viking O'Brien & Stephen Kent O'Brien, Discovery of Guiana essay, Yearbook of Comparative and General Literature - Tytler, Patrick Fraser (1848). Life of Sir Walter Raleigh, Founded on Authentic and Original Documents. London: T. Nelson and Sons (published 1853). Retrieved 17 August 2008 Texts by Raleigh - Works by Walter Raleigh at Project Gutenberg - Worldly Wisdom from The Historie of the World The Earl of Bedford \|Lord Warden of the Stannaries The Earl of Pembroke Sir Francis Godolphin Sir William Mohun \|Lord Lieutenant of Cornwall The Earl of Pembroke \|Vice-Admiral of Devon The Earl of Bath (North Devon) and Sir Richard Hawkins (South Devon) \|Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard Sir Thomas Erskine Sir Matthew Arundell \|Custos Rotulorum of Dorset Viscount Howard of Bindon Sir Anthony Paulet \|Governor of Jersey Sir John Peyton	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29013000
Page:Historical Lectures and Addresses.djvu/27 and remove him from his pedestal. It is often found easier to construct for him an ornamental niche and treat him with outward marks of deference. Perhaps nothing is more capricious than the selection of worthies who are supposed to have prepared the way for the Reformation. The continuous effort for the reform of ecclesiastical abuses is one of the chief features of mediæval history. The attempt was made in various ways and was supported by various arguments. The prevalence of corruption was acknowledged by all serious men; the extent of the corruption was exposed often in exaggerated language; the causes of the corruption were fearlessly attacked. It is hard to see in some cases the line which distinguishes those who are exalted as reformers from those who are passed by unnoticed. The tendency of an age as a whole is frequently misrepresented through a desire to elevate unduly some prominent figure into a prophet of the future. I pass on to consider the general bearings of the subject of ecclesiastical history. If we regard the course of events since the first appearance of Christianity as an organised system in the world, we see how large, how very large a part it has played in history. In the decline of the Roman world, Christianity was the only influence which bound society together, and afforded the only possible basis for a reorganisation of the imperial system. When the decline of population and energy within the borders of the Empire invited the settlements of the German tribes, the fortunes of those tribes depended upon their power of assimilating the principles, and	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29016000
The Wisdom of the Ancients/1 THE earliest antiquity lies buried in silence and oblivion, excepting the remains we have of it in sacred writ. This silence was succeeded by poetical fables and these, at length, by the writings we now enjoy; so that the concealed and secret learning of the ancients seems separated from the history and knowledge of the following ages by a veil, or partition-wall of fables, interposing between the things that are lost and those that remain. Many may imagine that I am here entering upon a work of fancy; or amusement, and design to use a poetical liberty, in explaining poetical fables. It is true, fables in general are composed of ductile matter, that may be drawn into great variety by a witty talent or an inventive genius, and be delivered of plausible meanings which they never contained. But this procedure has already been carried to excess; and great numbers, to procure the sanction of antiquity to their own notions and inventions, have miserably wrested and abused the fables of the ancients. Nor is this only a late or unfrequent practice, but of ancient date and common even to this day. Thus Chrysippus, like an interpreter of dreams, attributed the opinions of the Stoics to the poets of old; and the chemists, at present, more childishly apply the poetical transformations to their experiments of the furnace. And though I have well weighed and considered all this, and thoroughly seen into the levity which the mind indulges for allegories and allusions, yet I cannot but retain a high value for the ancient mythology. And, certainly, it were very injudicious to suffer the fondness and licentiousness of a few to detract from the honour of allegory and parable in general. This would be rash, and almost profane; for, since religion delights in such shadows and disguises, to abolish them were, in a manner, to prohibit all intercourse betwixt things divine and human. Upon deliberate consideration, my judgment is, that a concealed instruction and allegory was originally intended in many of the ancient fables. This opinion may, in some respect, be owing to the veneration I have for antiquity, but more to observing that some fables discover a great and evident similitude, relation, and connection with the thing they signify, as well in the structure of the fable as in the propriety of the names whereby the persons or actors are characterized; insomuch, that no one could positively deny a sense and meaning to be from the first intended, and purposely shadowed out in them. For who can hear that Fame, after the giants were destroyed, sprung up as their posthumous sister, and not apply it to the clamour of parties and the seditious rumours which commonly fly about for a time upon the quelling of insurrections? Or who can read how the giant Typhon cut out and carried away Jupiter's sinews - which Mercury afterwards stole and again restored to Jupiter - and not presently observe that this allegory denotes strong and powerful rebellions, which cut away from kings their sinews, both of money and authority; and that the way to have them restored is by lenity, affability, and prudent edicts, which soon reconcile, and as it were steal upon the affections of the subject? Or who, upon hearing that memorable expedition of the gods against the giants, when the braying of Silenus's ass greatly contributed in putting the giants to flight, does not clearly conceive that this directly points at the monstrous enterprises of rebellious subjects, which are frequently frustrated and disappointed by vain fears and empty rumours? Again, the conformity and purport of the names is frequently manifest and self-evident. Thus Metis the wife of Jupiter, plainly signifies counsel; Typhon, swelling; Pan, universality; Nemesis, revenge, &c. Nor is it a wonder, if sometimes a piece of history or other things are introduced, by way of ornament; or if the times of the action are confounded; or if part of one fable be tacked to another; or if the allegory be new turned; for all this must necessarily happen, as the fables were the inventions of men who lived in different ages and had different views; some of them being ancient, others more modern; some having an eye to natural philosophy, and others to morality or civil policy. It may pass for a farther indication of a concealed and secret meaning, that some of these fables are so absurd and idle in their narration as to show and proclaim an allegory, even afar off. A fable that carries probability with it may be supposed invented for pleasure, or in imitation of history; but those that could never be conceived or related in this way must surely have a different use. For example, what a monstrous fiction is this, that Jupiter should take Metis to wife, and as soon as he found her pregnant eat her up, whereby he also conceived, and out of his head brought forth Pallas armed. Certainly no mortal could, but for the sake of the moral it couches, invent such an absurd dream as this, so much out of the road of thought! But the argument of most weight with me is this, that many of these fables by no means appear to have been invented by the persons who relate and divulge them, whether Homer, Hesiod, or others; for if I were assured they first flowed from those later times and authors that transmit them to us, I should never expect anything singularly great or noble from such an origin. But who-ever attentively considers the thing, will find that these fables are delivered down and related by those writers, not as matters then first invented and proposed, but as things received and embraced in earlier ages. Besides, as they are differently related by writers nearly of the same ages, it is easily perceived that the relators drew from the common stock of ancient tradition, and varied but in point of embellishment, which is their own. And this principally raises my esteem of these fables, which I receive, not as the product of the age, or invention of the poets, but as sacred relics, gentle whispers, and the breath of better times, that from the traditions of more ancient nations came, at length, into the flutes and trumpets of the Greeks. But if any one shall, notwithstanding this, contend that allegories are always adventitious, or imposed upon the ancient fables, and no way native or genuinely contained in them, we might here leave him undisturbed in that gravity of judgment he affects (though we cannot help accounting it somewhat dull and phlegmatic), and if it were worth the trouble, proceed to another kind of argument. Men have proposed to answer two different and contrary ends by the use of parable; for parables serve as well to instruct or illustrate as to wrap up and envelop, so that though, for the present, we drop the concealed use, and suppose the ancient fables to be vague, undeterminate things, formed for amusement, still the other use must remain, and can never be given up. And every man, of any learning, must readily allow that this method of instructing is grave, sober, or exceedingly useful, and sometimes necessary in the sciences, as it opens an easy and familiar passage to the human understanding, in all new discoveries that are abstruse and out of the road of vulgar opinions. Hence, in the first ages, when such inventions and conclusions of the human reason as are now trite and common were new and little known, all things abounded with fables, parables, similes, comparisons and allusions, which were not intended to conceal, but to inform and teach, whilst the minds of men continued rude and unpractised in matters of subtilty and speculation, or even impatient, and in a manner uncapable of receiving such things as did not directly fall under and strike the senses. For as hieroglyphics were in use before writing, so were parables in use before arguments. And even to this day, if any man would let new light in upon the human understanding, and conquer prejudice, without raising contests, animosities, opposition, or disturbance, he must still go in the same path, and have recourse to the like method of allegory, metaphor, and allusion. To conclude, the knowledge of the early ages was either great or happy; great, if they by design made this use of trope and figure; happy, if, whilst they had other views, they afforded matter and occasion to such noble contemplations. Let either be the case, our pains, perhaps, will not be misemployed, whether we illustrate antiquity or things themselves. The like indeed has been attempted by others; but to speak ingenuously, their great and voluminous labours have almost destroyed the energy, the efficacy, and grace of the thing, whilst being unskilled in nature, and their learning no more than that of commonplace, they have applied the sense of the parables to certain general and vulgar matters, without reaching to their real purport, genuine interpretation, and fill depth. For myself, therefore, I expect to appear new in these common things, because, leaving untouched such as are sufficiently plain and open, I shall drive only at those that are either deep or rich. Chapter I THE Poets relate, that Apollo, falling in love with Cassandra, was still deluded and put off by her, yet fed with hopes, till she had got from him the gift of prophecy; and having now obtained her end, she flatly rejected his suit. Apollo, unable to recall his rash gift, yet enraged to be outwitted by a girl, annexed this penalty to it, that though she should always prophesy true, she should never be believed; whence her divinations were always slighted, even when she again and again predicted the ruin of her country. EXPLANATION. - This fable seems invented to express the insignificance of unseasonable advice. For they who are conceited, stubborn, or intractable, and listen not to the instructions of Apollo, the god of harmony, so as to learn and observe the modulations and measures of affairs, the sharps and flats of discourse, the difference between judicious and vulgar ears, and the proper times of speech and silence, let them be ever so intelligent, and ever so frank of their advice, or their counsels ever so good and just, yet all their endeavours, either of persuasion or force, are of little significance, and rather hasten the ruin of those they advise. But, at last, when the calamitous event has made the sufferers feel the effect of their neglect, they too late reverence their advisers, as deep, foreseeing, and faithful prophets. Of this we have a remarkable instance in Cato of Utica, who discovered afar off, and long foretold, the approaching ruin of his country, both in the first conspiracy, and as it was prosecuted in the civil war between Cæsar and Pompey yet did no good the while, but rather hurt the commonwealth, and hurried on its destruction, which Cicero wisely observed in these words: "Cato, indeed, judges excellently, but prejudices the state; for he speaks as in the commonwealth of Plato, and not as in the dregs of Romulus." Chapter II THE fable runs, that Juno, enraged at Jupiter's bringing forth Pallas without her assistance, incessantly solicited all the gods and goddesses, that she might produce without Jupiter: and having by violence and importunity obtained the grant, she struck the earth, and thence immediately sprung up Typhon, a huge and dreadful monster, whom she committed to the nursing of a serpent. As soon as he was grown up, this monster waged war on Jupiter, and taking him prisoner in the battle, carried him away on his shoulders, into a remote and obscure quarter: and there cutting out the sinews of his hands and feet, he bore them off, leaving Jupiter behind miserably maimed and mangled. But Mercury afterwards stole these sinews from Typhon, and restored them to Jupiter. Hence, recovering his strength, Jupiter again pursues the monster; first wounds him with a stroke of his thunder, when serpents arose from the blood of the wound: and now the monster being dismayed, and taking to flight, Jupiter next darted Mount Ætna upon him, and crushed him with the weight. EXPLANATION. - This fable seems designed to express the various fates of kings, and the turns that rebellions sometimes take, in kingdoms. For princes may be justly esteemed married to their states, as Jupiter to Juno : but it sometimes happens, that, being depraved by long wielding of the sceptre, and growing tyrannical, they would engross all to themselves; and slighting the counsel of their senators and nobles, conceive by themselves; that is, govern according to their own arbitrary will and pleasure. This inflames the people, and makes them endeavour to create and set up some head of their own. Such designs are generally set on foot by the secret motion and instigation of the peers and nobles, under whose connivance the common sort are prepared for rising: whence proceeds a swell in the state, which is appositely denoted by the nursing of Typhon. This growing posture of affairs is fed by the natural depravity, and malignant dispositions of the vulgar, which to kings is an envenomed serpent. And now the disaffected, uniting their force, at length break out into open rebellion, which, producing infinite mischiefs, both to prince and people, is represented by the horrid and multiplied deformity of Typhon, with his hundred heads, denoting the divided powers; his flaming mouths, denoting fire and devastation; his girdles of snakes, denoting sieges and destruction; his iron hands, slaughter and cruelty; his eagle's talons, rapine and plunder; his plumed body, perpetual rumours, contradictory accounts, &c. And sometimes these rebellions grow so high, that kings are obliged, as if carried on the backs of the rebels, to quit the throne, and retire to some remote and obscure part of their dominions, with the loss of their sinews, both of money and majesty. But if now they prudently bear this reverse of fortune, they may, in a short time, by the assistance of Mercury, recover their sinews again; that is, by becoming moderate and affable; reconciling the minds and affections of the people to them, by gracious speeches, and prudent proclamations, which will win over the subject cheerfully to afford new aids and supplies, and add fresh vigour to authority. But prudent and wary princes here seldom incline to try fortune by a war, yet do their utmost, by some grand exploit, to crush the reputation of the rebels: and if the attempt succeeds, the rebels, conscious of the wound received, and distrustful of their cause, first betake themselves to broken and empty threats; like the hissings of serpents; and next, when matters are grown desperate, to flight. And now, when they thus begin to shrink, it is safe and seasonable for kings to pursue them with their forces, and the whole strength of the kingdom; thus effectually quashing and suppressing them, as it were by the weight of a mountain. Chapter III IT is related that the Cyclops, for their savageness and cruelty, were by Jupiter first thrown into Tartarus, and there condemned to perpetual imprisonment: but that afterwards, Tellus persuaded Jupiter it would be for his service to release them, and employ them in forging thunderbolts. This he accordingly did; and they, with unwearied pains and diligence, hammered out his bolts, and other instruments of terror, with a frightful and continual din of the anvil. It happened long after, that Jupiter was displeased with Æsculapius, the son of Apollo, for having, by the art of medicine, restored a dead man to life: but concealing, his indignation, because the action in itself was pious and illustrious, he secretly incensed the Cyclops against him, who, without remorse, presently slew him with their thunderbolts: in revenge whereof, Apollo, with Jupiter's connivance, shot them all dead with his arrows. EXPLANATION. - This fable seems to point at the behaviour of princes, who, having cruel, bloody, and oppressive ministers, first punish and displace them; but afterwards, by the advice of Tellus, that is, some earthly-minded and ignoble person, employ them again, to serve a turn, when there is occasion for cruelty in execution, or severity in exaction: but these ministers being base in their nature, whet by their former disgrace, and well aware of what is expected from them, use double diligence in their office; till, proceeding unwarily, and over-eager to gain favour, they sometimes, from the private nods, and ambiguous orders of their prince, perform some odious or execrable action: When princes, to decline the envy themselves, and knowing they shall never want such tools at their back, drop them, and give them up to the friends and followers of the injured person; thus exposing them, as sacrifices to revenge and popular odium: whence with great applause, acclamations, and good wishes to the prince, these miscreants at last meet with their desert. Chapter IV NARCISSUS is said to have been extremely beautiful and comely, but intolerably proud and disdainful; so that, pleased with himself, and scorning the world, he led a solitary life in the woods; hunting only with a few followers, who were his professed admirers, amongst whom the nymph Echo was his constant attendant. In this method of life it was once his fate to approach a clear fountain, where he laid himself down to rest, in the noonday heat; when, beholding his image in the water, he fell into such a rapture and admiration of himself, that he could by no means be got away, but remained continually fixed and gazing, till at length he was turned into a flower, of his own name, which appears early in the spring, and is consecrated to the infernal deities, Pluto, Proserpine, and the Furies. EXPLANATION. - This fable seems to paint the behaviour and fortune of those, who, for their beauty, or other endowments, wherewith nature (without any industry of their own) has graced and adorned them, are extravagantly fond of themselves: for men of such a disposition generally affect retirement, and absence from public affairs; as a life of business must necessarily subject them to many neglects and contempts, which might disturb and ruffle their minds whence such persons commonly lead a solitary, private, and shadowy life; see little company, and those only such as highly admire and reverence them; or, like an echo, assent to all they say. And they who are depraved, and rendered still fonder of themselves by this custom, grow strangely indolent, unactive, and perfectly stupid. The Narcissus, a spring flower, is an elegant emblem of this temper, which at first flourishes, and is talked of, but when ripe, frustrates the expectation conceived of it. And that this flower should be sacred to the infernal powers, carries out the allusion still farther; because men of this humour are perfectly useless in all respects: for whatever yields no fruit, but passes, and is no more, like the way of a ship in the sea, was by the ancients consecrated to the infernal shades and powers. Chapter V THE only solemn oath, by which the gods irrevocably obliged themselves, is a well-known thing, and makes a part of many ancient fables. To this oath they did not invoke any celestial divinity, or divine attribute, but only called to witness the river Styx; which, with many meanders, surrounds the infernal court of Dis. For this form alone, and none but this, was held inviolable and obligatory: and the punishment of falsifying it, was that dreaded one of being excluded, for a certain number of years, the table of the gods. EXPLANATION. - This fable seems invented to show the nature of the compacts and confederacies of princes; which, though ever so solemnly and religiously sworn to, prove but little the more binding for it: so that oaths in this case seem used, rather for decorum, reputation, and ceremony, than for fidelity, security, and effectuating. And though these oaths were strengthened with the bonds of affinity, which are the links and ties of nature, and again, by mutual services and good offices, yet we see all this will generally give way to ambition, convenience, and the thirst of power: the rather, because it is easy for princes, under various specious pretences, to defend, disguise, and conceal their ambitious desires, and insincerity; having no judge to call them to account. There is, however, one true and proper confirmation of their faith, though no celestial divinity; but that great divinity of princes, Necessity; or, the danger of the state; and the securing of advantage. This necessity is elegantly represented by Styx, the fatal river, that can never be crossed back. And this deity it was, which Iphicrates the Athenian invoked in making a league: and because he roundly and openly avows what most others studiously conceal, it may be proper to give his own words. Observing that the Lacedæmonians were inventing and proposing a variety of securities, sanctions, and bonds of alliance, he interrupted them thus: "There may indeed, my friends, be one bond and means of security between us; and that is, for you to demonstrate you have delivered into our hands, such things as that if you had the greatest desire to hurt us you could not be able." Therefore, if the power of offending be taken away, or if by a breach of compact there be danger of destruction or diminution to the state or tribute, then it is that covenants will be ratified, and confirmed, as it were by the Stygian oath, whilst there remains an impending danger of being prohibited and excluded the banquet of the gods; by which expression the ancients denoted the rights and prerogatives, the affluence and the felicities, of empire and dominion. - ^ Varro distributes the ages of the world into three periods; viz. the unknown, the fabulous, and the historical. Of the former we have no accounts but in Scripture; for the second we must consult the ancient poets, such as Hesiod, Homer, or those who wrote still earlier, and then again come back to Ovid, who in his Metamorphoses, seems, in imitation perhaps of some ancient Greek poet, to have intended a complete collection, or a kind of continued and connected history of the fabulous age, especially with regard to changes, revolutions, or transformations.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29017000
A stock character is a fictional character that relies heavily on cultural types for its personality, manner of speech, and other characteristics. Stock characters are instantly recognizable to members of a given culture. Stock characters in the western tradition originate from the theatres of ancient Greece and Rome. Some examples of stock characters are: - The Hero - The Villain, evil personified, be it the Duke of Gloucester in William Shakespeare's Richard III or Prince John in the Robin Hood stories. - The Damsel in Distress, the young, beautiful, virginal woman who must be rescued from some cruel fate by the Hero, a la Penelope Pitstop[?]. - The Femme Fatale, La belle dame sans merci, the Black Widow, the beautiful, but evil woman who leads the hero to his doom. - The Fop: The fop is a man attempting but failing to rise into fashionable aristocratic culture. He is typically overdressed and his speech is characterized by over-use or misuse of popular phrases (often French phrases) or various forms of hypercorrection[?]. The fop is never intelligent and always talkative. Zorro hid behind the image of the Fop, Don Diego. The Scarlet Pimpernel hid behind the persona of Sir Percy Blakeney. - The Fool: The fool is a clown or joker who speaks in riddles and puns. Often, the fool is intelligent and witty and reveals key truths about the characters he fools with (Shakespeare's fools, such as the ones in Twelfth Night and King Lear, are well-known examples). - The Mad Scientist: The insane man of science, who either accidentally or intentionally "meddles with the forces of nature" and causes the trouble which the hero must correct. - The Revenger: The Revenger is a hot-blooded young man who has had a loved one (ideally a fiance) cruelly murdered and/or raped and seeks his revenge outside the law. (Laertes in Hamlet and Hamlet himself are examples of Revengers.) - The Sidekick - the Hero's helper, Sancho Panza in Don Quixote, Dr. Watson in Sherlock Holmes. The Sidekick is often a figure of fun, but is trustworthy and sometimes shows surprising resourcefulness and bravery. In whodunnits and secondary literature on detective fiction in general, the Sidekick is often referred to as the Watson -- slightly dumber than the average reader, time and again overlooking decisive clues, occasionally drawing the wrong conclusions (such as Capt. Hastings, a friend of Hercule Poirot's). - The Tart with a Heart: Outwardly tough and hard, she hides a heart of gold under her hard-bitten exterior. All Wikipedia text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29019000
Energy in Agriculture Resources Energy in Agriculture Program - Food and Fiber Processing Technologies Read about California food and fiber processing facilities participating in research, development, and demonstration projects to advance the adoption of energy and resource efficient technologies. PROCESS ENERGY VIDEOS Food Processing Video:Steam System Best Practices are used to optimize system performance. Basic management principles and maintenance proceedures are described that will enhance steam system efficiencies. - California's Food Processing Industry Energy Efficiency Initiative: Adoption of Industrial Best Practices, January 2008, CEC Publication #CEC-400-2008-006, posted: January 31, 2008. (PDF file, 35 pgs., 2.3 MB RESEARCH AND DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS - Fetzer Case Study # 1 - Heat Exchange System Improvement Saves Energy and Improves Production at a Winery. - Fetzer Case Study # 2 - Controls Upgrade at a Winery Saves Energy and Increases Equipment Life. Electricity Peak Load Reduction - Pacific Coast Producers - tomato-processing company moves facility location to upgrade equipment, increase production, improve efficiency, and be closer to where the tomatoes are grown. Pacific Coast Producers - Measurement and Verification Report, Energy Commission publication # CEC-400-2003-902, March 2003. (PDF file, 19 pages, 702 kilobytes) - Campbell Soup Company - Waste Heat Driven Turbines - Valley Fig Growers - Variable Speed Controlled Refrigeration System Benchmarking, Power Quality & Market Studies - Technology Roadmap: Energy Efficiency in California's Food Industry - The California Institute of Food and Agricultural Research formed a Food Industry Advisory Council of industry and technology experts. This group prioritized research that would help the industry meet their objectives, and developed a vision and plan for the future. Their findings, bolstered by input from public forums, are presented in this Roadmap, along with recommendations for the future. - Dynamic Characterization of Process Power Quality for the California Food Processing Industry - In-line-monitoring systems were installed to collect real time performance data from plant equipment while the food production was in process. Using this monitoring data, plant process equipment schematics and historical plant process performance data, overall process sensitivities to different power quality disturbances were defined. - California Institute of Food and Agricultural Research Survey on Energy Management in the Food Industry	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29020000
ananyo writes "Rappers making up rhymes on the fly while in a brain scanner have provided an insight into the creative process. Freestyle rapping — in which a performer improvises a song by stringing together unrehearsed lyrics — is a highly prized skill in hip hop. But instead of watching a performance in a club, Siyuan Liu and Allen Braun, neuroscientists at the U.S. National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders in Bethesda, Maryland, and their colleagues had 12 rappers freestyle in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machine. The artists also recited a set of memorized lyrics chosen by the researchers. By comparing the brain scans from rappers taken during freestyling to those taken during the rote recitation, they were able to see which areas of the brain are used during improvisation. The rappers showed lower activity in part of their frontal lobes called the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during improvisation, and increased activity in another area, called the medial prefrontal cortex. The areas that were found to be 'deactivated' are associated with regulating other brain functions. The results echo an earlier study of jazz musicians. The findings also suggest an explanation for why new music might seem to the artist to be created of its own accord. With less involvement by the lateral prefrontal regions of the brain, the performance could seem to its creator to have 'occurred outside of conscious awareness,' the authors write in the paper." Bonus points for science rhymes; for anyone who has the time.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29026000
Glue ear, grommets (ventilation tubes) and adenoids Mr James W Fairley BSc MBBS FRCS MS Consultant ENT Surgeon © 1993 - 2013 JW Fairley Last updated 11 November 2010 - What is glue ear? - The normal ear and hearing - What causes glue ear? - What are adenoids? - What are the symptoms of glue ear? - How is glue ear diagnosed? - What is the treatment? - What about alternative treatments? - What is a grommet / ventilation tube - how does it work? - How is the operation done? - What happens after the operation? - What about swimming and grommets? - Does fluid discharge from the ear? - How to treat ear infection in the presence of a grommet - How to use ear drops - How will you know if you have an ear infection with a grommet? - What happens after the grommet comes out? - How do you know when the grommet is out? - Do grommets scar the eardrum? - What are the complications of grommets? - I've heard that grommet operations are unnecessary - Further reading / links What is glue ear? Glue Ear is a build-up of fluid behind the eardrum, in the middle ear. Glue ear with fluid level behind right eardrum - The fluid may be thick and sticky, or thin and watery. - Either way it stops the ear drum and ossicles vibrating easily, so quieter sounds are not heard. - Glue ear is the commonest cause of deafness in children. - Adults can also be affected. - Other names for glue ear are middle ear effusion and chronic secretory otitis media. Glue ear is a middle ear disease, associated with poor Eustachian tube function. The outer and middle ear work like an old mechanical gramophone in reverse. They collect sound energy, and concentrate it onto the small area of the stapes footplate The normal ear and hearing The human ear is divided into three parts: - outer ear - middle ear - inner ear The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal. The outer ear funnels sound waves in air to the eardrum. Eardrum (tympanic membrane) Normal left eardrum (tympanic membrane) The eardrum is a paper-thin membrane, shaped like a miniature satellite dish, 8-10 mm diameter. The tympanic membrane forms the boundary between outer and middle ear. The eardrum vibrates when sounds arrive through the external ear canal. The vibrations are transmitted to the inner ear via three small bones (ossicles) suspended in the middle ear. Abnormally thin right eardrum damaged by glue ear and showing ossicles - malleus incus and stapes The three little bones (oss-i-culls) are - malleus (mal-ee-us) shaped like a hammer - incus (ink-us) shaped like an anvil - stapes (stay-peas) shaped like a stirrup Their job is to concentrate the sound energy, collected by the relatively large area of the eardrum, onto the tiny footplate of the stapes. The outer and middle ear work like an old mechanical gramophone in reverse. The gramophone needle picks up vibrations from the grooves in the record, passes them to a vibrating membrane, then into the large horn, and so to the outside world. The outer and middle ear collect sound from the outside world and concentrate it down to the stapes footplate. The footplate moves like a piston in the oval window, the opening of the inner ear. The inner ear has two parts, the cochlea and the vestibular labyrinth. CochleaThe cochlea is the hearing part of the inner ear. It is a biological microphone. Sound vibrations are turned into electrical signals and sent to the brain in the nerve of hearing. The vestibular labyrinth of the inner ear is concerned with balance. Disturbance of the balance organ of the inner ear can cause vertigo. The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear with the back of the nose. To hear normally, the eardrum and ossicles must be able to move easily. For this to occur, the middle ear must contain air at the same atmospheric pressure as the outer ear. Air in the middle ear comes from the back of the nose, via the Eustachian tube. The job of the Eustachian tube is to ventilate the middle ear, keeping the pressure in the middle ear the same as in the outer ear. Most middle ear diseases, including glue ear, are associated with poor Eustachian tube function. The health of the middle ear depends on the Eustachian tube working properly. What causes glue ear? Glue ear is usually caused by a problem with the Eustachian tube. Temporary glue ear (less than 3 months) - Most children get glue ear at some stage in their lives. - It often follows after a cold or ear infection. Biofilms may form in some cases. - The Eustachian tube is small and blocks easily. - It then fails to ventilate the middle ear. - Sticky secretions can't drain away, so fluid builds up in the middle ear. - Movement of the eardrum and ossicles is impaired, causing partial deafness. Most cases get better quickly after the cold resolves. A minority persist for months or years. - Occasionally glue ear is caused by flying with a cold - the Eustachian tube is unable to equalise pressure during descent - Diving with a cold is very likely to cause glue ear, or worse damage. All divers are taught not to dive with a cold. Persistent glue ear (longer than 3 months) Common reasons for persistent glue ear in children are Sometimes glue ear runs in families, though it is not strictly speaking hereditary. Less common reasons for persistent glue ear include - Cleft palate - Down's syndrome Rarely, glue ear in an adult is caused by a tumour at the back of the nose. Often, no particular cause is found. Adenoids seen through a nasal endoscope. The Eustachian tubes open either side of the adenoids at the back of the nose. Swollen adenoids interfere with the normal opening of the Eustachian tube. What are adenoids? Adenoids are cauliflower-like swellings of the immune tissue at the back of the nose. - Normal adenoids probably help fight off infections. - If they get too big, they cause blockage of the nose and Eustachian tube and cause more trouble than they are worth. - In severe cases they can cause obstruction of breathing at night. If the adenoids are very big, the tonsils are usually big too. What are the symptoms of glue ear? - Deafness of mild to moderate degree. - Hearing loss often varies from week to week, being worse after a cold. - Speech may be delayed, especially if deafness occurs early in childhood. - Unclear speech and constant shouting are common. - Later, education may be affected. - Sometimes deafness is not suspected, but the child is thought to be inattentive, slow or lazy. - Concentration may be poor. - The child often seems to be "in a world of his own". - Some sufferers get frequent earaches, usually worse at night. - Repeated ear infections, with high temperature in some cases leading to fits. - Poor balance and clumsiness may feature. - Older children and adults often complain of noises in the ears - tinnitus. How is glue ear diagnosed? Child ear examination with auriscope (ear torch) Child hearing test - pure tone audiometry in sound proofed booth. Test suitable for children from around the age four. Child hearing test - Brain Stem Electric Response under general anaesthetic in operating theatre. Test suitable for babies and children of any age. Diagnosis is based on history, examination and special investigations. - The specialist may be able to see signs of fluid behind the eardrum with the otoscope (ear torch). - This is not always possible, wax or discharge may block the view. - Some children may not be sufficiently cooperative for examination. - A tympanogram is a test carried out by the audiologist to check on how easily the eardrum moves. It takes about a minute. It is not a test of hearing ability, but a physical test on the movement of the eardrum. A flat trace on the tympanogram usually means glue ear. - An audiogram (hearing test) is carried out on children old enough to cooperate with the test. This will help assess the degree of hearing loss. - Sometimes, the only way to make the diagnosis is under general anaesthetic on the operating table. What is the treatment? The fluid frequently goes away by itself, so a policy of watchful waiting is usually advised. Around the age of 8, many children grow out of it, though this is only the average. Some will carry on having trouble into their teens. - Blowing up balloons or an Otovent® device, to try and force air up the Eustachian tube, may help but the published results are very short term and not many children will persist with this treatment. - Any exacerbating factors should be eliminated especially passive smoking. - Antibiotics and painkillers e.g. Calpol® can be used for associated ear infections. - Decongestants e.g. Sudafed® are often prescribed but have never been proven effective. - Other medical treatments including - medicines to try and thin sticky mucus - Dietary modification - cutting down on dairy products - is often advocated but again is of no proven benefit, and does carry risks in children who need their calcium Better in summer, worse in winter Glue ear can be seasonal, worse in the winter and better in the summer. - An operation may be deferred if the child is seen in the spring. - An operation is more likely to be recommended in the autumn. Persistent glue ear (longer than 3 months) - If deafness persists for longer than 3 months, an operation is usually needed. - The decision to operate is always individual, based on all the factors in that particular case. - For immediate relief, myringotomy and grommets insertion is highly effective. - Removal of the adenoids may be recommended if the adenoids are enlarged, and where glue ear recurs after initial grommet insertion. What about alternative treatments?None of the following are of any proven help: - Homeopathic medicines - Chinese / Hopie ear candles - Cranial osteopathy Although many parents have seen improvements in their child following the use of various treatments, this is almost certainly because of the natural tendency for glue ear to improve. If half the children are going to get better anyway, we would expect a 50% success rate from a treatment with no real benefit, so long as it didn't make things worse. This is known as the placebo effect. We would also expect a 50% improvement on no treatment at all. A few ENT specialists recommend the use of hearing aids for children with persistent glue ear, hoping that the fluid will eventually clear without recourse to grommets. Sometimes, if glue ear has persisted a long time, the eardrum may become permanently damaged and will not hold a grommet. In such cases, a hearing aid may be the only way of restoring hearing. What is a grommet / ventilation tube - how does it work? Shah grommet held between forefinger and thumb Shah grommet in position right eardrum - abnormally thin due to longstanding retraction prior to fitting grommet. Head of stapes visible, long process of incus partially eroded Long term Shah ventilation tube in position right ear eac = external ear canal vt = ventilation tube tm = tympanic membrane (eardrum) The long term ventilation tube is larger than the standard grommet. A grommet is a tiny plastic tube, shaped like a miniature cotton reel, about 2mm diameter. It is fitted through a small cut in the eardrum (myringotomy). The tension of the eardrum grips the grommet around its waist. The cotton-reel shape stops it falling in or out, like a shirt stud in a button hole. The grommet allows air from the outer ear directly into the middle ear. Provided the grommet remains in position and is not blocked, the hearing returns to normal almost immediately. A grommet does not drain, it ventilates - lets air in The grommet does not drain fluid out, it lets air into the middle ear. Another name for a grommet is a Ventilation Tube, sometimes abbreviated to Tube or VT. They can also be called Tympanostomy Tubes or TT's. Short term and long term grommets The standard Shah grommet is designed to stay in position for about nine months. Then the opening in the eardrum heals over, and the grommet is pushed out. Longer term ventilation tubes are sometimes fitted, which can last for several years. But long term grommets are more likely to leave a perforation which may need repair later. Grommets don't treat underlying cause of glue ear It is important to understand that a grommet does not cure the underlying cause of glue ear. Grommets do help relieve deafness and earache - for a while A grommet does provide highly effective and immediate relief of deafness and earaches. The grommet only works while it is - in the right position (in the eardrum connecting the middle ear with the outer ear canal) - able to ventilate (not blocked) A grommet / ventilation tube buys time, and allows normal education. Meanwhile the child has a chance to grow out of the underlying causes of glue ear. If adverse factors, such as passive smoking, are not dealt with, there is an increased risk that the glue ear will come back once the grommets come out. How is the operation done? Anaesthetic cream applied to hands before surgery Grommet insertion with operating microscope under general anaesthetic Grommet held with crocodile forceps and passed down funnel-like ear speculum Grommet insertion with curved needle using operating microscope Grommets insertion is normally a quick and simple day-case procedure. The operation is very delicate, and normally done under general anaesthetic (patient fully asleep). The anaesthetic is usually given by injection into a vein in the back of the hand, or by gas. To prevent the needle from hurting, a local anaesthetic cream is applied about an hour beforehand. - Further information on General Anaesthesia for children - Further information on General Anaesthesia for adults No external cut is needed. Everything is done down the natural opening of the ear canal, using a funnel shaped speculum. - A microscope provides a magnified view of the eardrum. - A small cut (myringotomy) is made in the eardrum, and the fluid in the middle ear is sucked out. The cut is like a tiny button hole in the eardrum. - Sometimes, if the glue is very thick and sticky, like treacle, a second cut is needed. The second opening allows air in to the middle ear while the glue is sucked out. Sometimes ear drops have to be pumped in to thin the glue in order to suck it out. - The grommet is fitted. It is held in position by the tension of the eardrum gripping it around the waist. The grommet's shape stops it falling in or out, like a shirt stud in a button hole. If the eardrum is badly thinned, stretched and damaged, it might not have the strength to hold a standard grommet in place. A bigger grommet (long term ventilation tube) might be used in such a case. - Some eardrops are ususally applied at the end of the procedure. If the adenoids are to be removed, this is normally done under the same anaesthetic. The adenoids are removed via the mouth. No external cut is needed. What happens after the operation? After grommet operation Children recover very rapidly from grommets insertion, and should be able to return to school after a day or two. How long before the hearing improves? The hearing normally improves immediately, but don't worry if there is still some difficulty in the first weeks as it can take time in some cases. If the glue was very thick, you may be asked to use some ear drops for a week. Earache and bleeding from the ear - There may be a very slight earache, treated easily with Calpol, or paracetamol for older children. - There may be slight bleeding from the ear in the first few days after the operation. This is normal and nothing to worry about. - The child should stay off school for 10 days and avoid contact with anyone who has a cold or other infection. - There is a small risk of heavy bleeding from the nose. - If this occurs you should telephone the hospital and/or attend your nearest Accident & Emergency department. Ear plugs held in place by neoprene headband What about swimming and grommets? No swimming for the first two weeks. - After the first out-patient visit, to check all is well, surface swimming is allowed without earplugs. - If your child wishes to dive or use water chutes, some well fitting silicone rubber earplugs such as Kapiseal® or Ear Putty® should be worn, preferably with a neoprene headband such as the Ear Band-it® to stop them from falling out. - Bath water is much worse than swimming pool water, because it contains germs from the rest of the body and irritant soap. - Bath water should not be allowed in the ears. The head should not be submerged in the bath. - For hairwashing, either use earplugs, or a piece of cotton wool dipped in Vaseline® to provide a waterproof seal. Does fluid discharge from the ear? - In the first few days after operation there may be a slight discharge or bleeding from the ear. This is normal and nothing to worry about. - After that there should be no discharge. - If the ear runs persistently, and especially if the discharge is smelly, that means an ear infection. - The infection is usually in the middle ear. The discharge comes out through the grommet. In severe cases it will not be possible to see the grommet because the discharge fills the ear canal (see photo). - Infection may be caused by dirty water in the ear, or a cold. How to treat ear infection in the presence of a grommet - The infection is best treated with antibiotic/steroid eardrops such as Sofradex® or Gentisone HC®. - The manufacturers of these drugs do not recommend using them in the presence of a perforated eardrum, because of the risk that the aminoglycoside antibiotic in the drops could cause damage to the inner ear and deafness. - Despite these reservations, most ENT specialists agree that the risk of deafness from the infection is greater than the risk of using the drops, and that these combined antibiotic steroid drops are the most reliable way of treating ear infection in the presence of a grommet. - In 2007, ENT-UK published recommendations on treating patients discharging ears in the presence of a perforated eardrum or grommet. Aminoglycoside ear drops should only be used to treat obvious infection, and for no longer than 2 weeks. Whenever possible and practical, a hearing test should be done before treatment. - Another type of antibiotic drops, containing a quinolone which is does not carry any risk of damaging the inner ear, is Ciprofloxacin. At present, this is only available in the UK as Ciloxan® eye drops, and not as a combined product with steroids. Combined quinolone and steroid ear drops such as Ciflox® are in use in other countries, and have been imported into the UK by the pharmacy at Great Ormond Street Hospital, but are still not generally available. The use of a quinolone avoids the tiny risk of damaging the ear from the aminoglycoside. Since the ENT specialists preference for quinolones over aminoglycoside ear drops was clearly expressed in a British Medical Journal editorial in 2000, it is not clear why there has been such a delay in getting this combination licensed for use in the UK. Similar delays occurred in Australia until recently. - In persistent infection and especially tube granuloma where bacteria become attached to the surface of the grommet as biofilm, causing a foreign body reaction and bleeding from surrounding eardrum, the grommet may have to be removed. How to use ear drops Correct position for putting in eardrops - Ear drops must be inserted correctly, otherwise they may not work. - Eardrops should be applied at body temperature. - To get the drops to body temperature, put the bottle in your pocket for 15 - 20 minutes before use - The patient should lie on his side with the affected ear uppermost. - Any discharge should be mopped gently away with a cotton bud. - Pull the ear gently backwards to funnel the drops into the ear canal. - You then massage the tragus (the piece of skin that sticks out just in front of the ear canal like an open trapdoor) to force the drops through the grommet into the middle ear. - It is rather like plunging a blocked sink. - The infection should clear up within a few days. - Antibiotics taken by mouth are not very good in treating ear infections where there is a grommet present. How will you know if you have an ear infection with a grommet? Is the temperature raised? - Discharge (fluid running from the ear) is the main sign of infection with a grommet. - The discharge may be any colour. Pale green, creamy yellow and orange brown are common. It may be bloody. - Sometimes it will be painful, but often there is little or no pain. - Temperature is usually normal, unlike an acute otitis media when the temperature will be raised. What happens after the grommet comes out?The grommet only helps while it is in the eardrum and open. The eardrum normally heals up and pushes the grommet out after six to twelve months. The time can taken varies from a few weeks to several years. Once the grommet has come out of the eardrum, it is no longer working. - In 2 out of 3 cases, the hearing remains normal, there is no further build-up of fluid, and the condition is cured. - If the Eustachian tube is still blocked, the glue ear can recur, and it may be necessary to operate again in 1 in 3 cases. - Of patients who have a second set of grommets, about 1 in 3 will require a third, (1 in 9 overall) of those 1 in 3 will require a fourth set (1 in 27 overall) and so on. - If the hole in the eardrum does not heal up, it may be necessary to repair it at a later date. How do you know when the grommet is out? A loose grommet lying in the ear canal, one year after it was fitted. Grommets are pushed out of the eardrum by the growth of skin around the flange. They are carried slowly outwards along the natural migration pathways of the ear canal skin. Often, you won't know. If the grommet comes out, the eardrum heals up, and the glue ear doesn't come back, there may be no symptoms at all. That is why we recommend periodic check-ups, so we can tell you what is happening. - Most patients don't notice anything when the grommet comes out. - There may be a slight pain or discomfort. - Occasionally, the grommet comes out with an ear infection, in which case there may be discharge or bleeding from the ear. When we say the grommet has come out, we mean out of the ear drum. A grommet can sit in the ear canal, having come out of the ear drum. Sometimes it can be hard to tell, even for a specialist, whether a grommet is still in the right place. Wax, layers of skin, dried discharge, or a sharp bend in the ear canal, can all prevent a proper view. - When a grommet is just sitting in the ear canal, it is not working. - It is no longer doing any good. - Mostly, it is not doing any harm either, and we just wait for it to come right out by itself. Being very small, you won't always see a grommet when it comes out. They can easily get lost in the bedding. This doesn't matter. You don't need to keep a lookout for grommets. You should, however, pay attention to any recurrence of - hearing problems - bleeding from the ear Any of these could indicate a problem needing further treatment. What happens to the grommet isn't too important. It's what happens to the ear that matters. Will the ear bleed when the grommet comes out? - Bleeding from the ear is most often caused by a tube granuloma. - It is a sign of infection. - Usually, if caught early, it can be treated successfully with ear drops. Do grommets scar the eardrum?Yes. But the scar doesn't have any noticeable effect on hearing. It is less of a problem than the scarring caused by repeated ear infections. What are the complications of grommets? Infected ventilation tube mucoid discharge with bubbles from middle ear Tube granuloma left ear. Long term ventilation tube colonised with biofilm and blocked with mucopus. Key: g = granuloma eac = external ear canal vt = ventilation tube tm = tympanic membrane (eardrum) Cholesteatoma left ear white keratin bone eroded from outer attic wall Most grommet operations are straighforward and it is unlikely anything will go wrong. But all surgical procedures have risks. Apart from the general risk of having an anaesthetic in hospital, the particular complications of grommets are - Infection. Normally shows as a discharge from the ear. Best treated with eardrops, they must be correctly applied in order to work properly. - Persistent infection tube granuloma, often with bleeding from the ear. Probably due to bacteria becoming attached to the surface of the grommet as a biofilm and causing a reaction in the surrounding eardrum. If caught early, will usually respond to treatment with eardrops. Otherwise, the grommet may have to be removed to settle this infection. - Perforated eardrum. The hole where the grommet was put does not always heal up. This may require further surgery to repair the perforated eardrum at a later stage. A grommet that stays in a long time (years) is more likely to leave a perforation. This does not necessarily mean the grommet should be removed. An eardrum which does not have very active healing will not push the grommet out. A grommet which stays in too long is probably the result, rather than the cause, of the perforation. - Cholesteatoma. A ball of skin erodes the middle ear structures. Said to be a rare complication of grommet insertion. More likely that a small cholesteatoma (which may co-exist with glue ear) is not noticed at the first operation to fit a grommet. The cholesteatoma then grows and becomes obvious later. I've heard that grommet operations are unnecessary Insertion of grommets is the commonest operation performed on children in the UK and there has been controversy over how many of these operations are really necessary. In most cases, glue ear is a temporary self-limiting condition. Although grommets give immediate improvement in hearing, it is not sensible to subject a child to surgery if they are about to get better on their own. The difficulty lies in predicting who is going to get better without surgery and who is not. No-one has a completely accurate crystal ball for this, but experience allows us to have a fair idea. Factors that make us recommend grommets are: - Length of history - the longer fluid has persisted, the less likely it is to clear up on its own. We would normally wait at least three months before deciding on grommets. - Age of the child - the younger the child, the less likely the glue ear will clear up. The normal age for "growing out of" glue ear is eight or nine. - Severity of the hearing loss - the more severe the loss of hearing, the more likely grommets will be recommended. - The time of year - glue ear tends to get better in the spring and summer, worse in the autumn and winter. If we see a child with glue ear at the end of the summer, the chances are it will get worse not better, so an operation is more likely to be needed. - Previous and family history - a child who has had glue ear before, or comes from a family where glue ear is common, is more likely to need grommets. - Observing progressive damage to the eardrum - if the eardrum appears to be sucked in and thinned, or develops a retraction pocket, surgery is more likely to be recommended to try and prevent permanent damage. Sometimes the damage will progress anyway, even if grommets are fitted and adenoids removed. - Earaches and infections - a child subject to frequent earaches and infections will get more benefit from grommets. We may monitor the condition for months, or occasionally even years, before operating. - We only operate on patients who have had a reasonable chance to get better on their own, yet show no signs of improvement. - We do not carry out any unecessary operations. - The pros and cons of surgery, and any possible alternatives, are always fully discussed before a decision is made. - That decision is made solely in the best interests of the patient, following the principle of how we would like a member of our own family treated. Further reading / links - National Deaf Children's Society - parent-friendly guide to glue ear - NHS Direct - NHS Direct information sheet on glue ear - Latest research on causes of glue ear - NICE Clinical Guideline on Surgical management of otitis media with effusion in children - issued February 2008. Detailed, technical, written for healthcare professionals. - Use and abuse of Evidence Based Medicine - Grommets, doctors and spin doctors. by JW Fairley and IDB Hore. All information and advice on this website is of a general nature and may not apply to you. There is no substitute for an individual consultation. We recommend that you see your General Practitioner if you would like to be referred.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29027000
Most Atlantic hurricanes start to take shape when thunderstorms along the west coast of Africa drift out over warm ocean waters that are at least 80 degrees Fahrenheit (27 degrees Celsius), where they encounter converging winds from around the equator. Warm Air, Warm Water Make Conditions Right for Hurricanes Hurricanes start when warm, moist air from the ocean surface begins to rise rapidly, where it encounters cooler air that causes the warm water vapor to condense and to form storm clouds and drops of rain. The condensation also releases latent heat, which warms the cool air above, causing it to rise and make way for more warm humid air from the ocean below. As this cycle continues, more warm moist air is drawn into the developing storm and more heat is transferred from the surface of the ocean to the atmosphere. This continuing heat exchange creates a wind pattern that spirals around a relatively calm center, or eye, like water swirling down a drain. Converging Winds Create Hurricanes Converging winds near the surface of the water collide, pushing more water vapor upward, increasing the circulation of warm air, and accelerating the speed of the wind. At the same time, strong winds blowing steadily at higher altitudes pull the rising warm air away from the storms center and send it swirling into the hurricanes classic cyclone pattern. High-pressure air at high altitudes, usually above 30,000 feet (9,000 meters), also pull heat away from the storms center and cool the rising air. As high-pressure air is drawn into the low-pressure center of the storm, the speed of the wind continues to increase. As the storm builds from thunderstorm to hurricane, it passes through three distinct stages based on wind speed: - Tropical depressionwind speeds of less than 38 miles per hour (61.15 kilometers per hour) - Tropical stormwind speeds of 39 mph to 73 mph (62.76 kph to 117.48 kph) - Hurricanewind speeds greater than 74 mph (119.09 kph) Scientists Debate Cause of Temperature Changes that Create Hurricanes While scientists agree on the mechanics of hurricane formation, and they agree that hurricanes are becoming more frequent and severe, thats where consensus ends. Some scientists believe that human activity already has contributed significantly to global warming, which is increasing air and water temperatures worldwide and making it easier for hurricanes to form and gain destructive force. Other scientists believe that the increase in severe hurricanes over the past decade is due to natural salinity and temperature changes deep in the Atlanticpart of a natural environmental cycle that shifts back and forth every 40-60 years. Frequency and Severity of Hurricanes Likely to Increase While the scientific community debates the root cause of the temperature changes that are contributing to the current increase in destructive hurricanes, three things are apparent: - Air and water temperatures are rising worldwide. - Human activities such as deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions from a wide range of industrial and agricultural processes are contributing to those temperature changes at a greater rate today than in the past. - Failure to take action now to lower atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases is likely to lead to more frequent and severe hurricanes in the future.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29028000
The ability of an aquatic organism to tolerate wide salinity variations without compromising life processes is termed euryhalinity. This capability requires physiological, biochemical and ecological adaptations. Strategies permitting euryhaline decapods to inhabit aquatic environments with variable salinities have been studied almost exclusively in adults. Although also larval stages have recently received an increasing attention, the salinity tolerance of embryonic stages has remained little known (1). Embryos, larvae and adults of the shrimp Palaemonetes argentinus tolerate a wide range of salinities (1-~25), but osmoregulatory capacities have been demonstrated only in post-embryonic developmental stages (2; 3). As in most other crustaceans, little has been known about osmoregulation during the embryonic phase. Helmholtz Research Programs > MARCOPOLI (2004-2008) > CO2-Coastal diversity - key species and food webs	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29029000
[erlang-questions] Design methodology going from Object oriented to functional programming? Tue Oct 23 04:41:26 CEST 2007 Actually, at the level you are describing, there should be no difference between FP and OOP. While OOP definitely emphasize data and relations, it is not the only paradigm that does so - and given your background you should be experienced with the relational paradigm, which has even heavier emphasis on data and relations, but is not OOP. To leverage your knowledge on relations - you can pretend sql queries are functions, i.e. select is a function, update is a function, and insert is a function. Then instead of writing insert (object) - which looks a lot like the sql query insert into table ... That's it. In the Java style OOP the head of the statement is an object, and in FP the head of the statement is a function name. But in either case you need to model the same world. An extremely crude way of thinking about FP is that it decouples the data from the function (or vice versa, that OOP couples functions and data). That means some facilities that you've taken for granted in OOP, such as inheritance, polymorphism, etc., will no longer be available. But FP have a different approaches to address these problems, and that's where the rubber meet the road. Erlang's process model is basically the Actor model - the idea of everything is an actor feels similar to everything is an object in OOP. So as others have alluded to instead of thinking in objects you can think in processes. But Actor model is independent of FP or OOP, so you would still have to get used to the FP part in Erlang. You might want to check out http://www.math.chalmers.se/~rjmh/Papers/whyfp.html <http://www.math.chalmers.se/%7Erjmh/Papers/whyfp.html>. A higher level introduction is http://www.defmacro.org/ramblings/fp.html. On 10/22/07, Alexander Lamb < > wrote: > Hello list, > I am trying to understand what is the design process (intellectual, that > is) when building a program in Erlang. > Indeed, in the object oriented world, I would start by finding what my > classes might be and the relationship between them. Gradually I would add > functions (class or instance methods) to the classes in order to provide > solid foundations on top of which I can write an application. > For example, I could have PERSON, PROFILE, ROLE, FEATURE, etc... and > decide a PROFILE is a collection of FEATURES. A PERSON can have 0 or many > ROLES. A ROLE is a PROFILE on a given area (a department for example) for a > given time. I would then add functions such as "give all the active roles > for the user" or "what features give that profile" or "does the user have a > given feature for that department". > I admit it is more complexe than that, but you get the idea. > Obviously, this doesn't seem to be the way to go with Erlang. Intuitively, > I would start making a list of all the functions which will allow me to > interract with my application. In that case I could have "give me all users > with an active role on that department", etc... Then by implementing those > high level functions I would split them into pieces by calling smaller > simpler functions. The underlying data structure will "just follow" or > "appear" naturally. > Hence: object oriented design is "data structure and relationships first, > functions second" and functional design is "functions first, data structure > Am I being over simplistic here. Are there some guidelines as to how one > can approach a problem when creating a new program? Especially programs > which deal with persistent data, not protocole analysers or socket servers! > Alexander Lamb > Founding Associate > RODANOTECH Sàrl > 4 ch. de la Tour de Champel > 1206 Geneva > Tel: 022 347 77 37 > Fax: 022 347 77 38 > erlang-questions mailing list -------------- next part -------------- An HTML attachment was scrubbed... More information about the erlang-questions	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29036000
The present perfect forms has gone to and has been to are commonly used to refer to movement. There are slight differences in these two forms when speaking in relation to the present moment. Notice the differences in the examples below. Has gone to vs. Has been to ... has/have gone to ... refers to someone who has gone to a place but has not yet returned. He's gone to the bank. He should be back soon. Where has Tom gone? ... has/have been to ... refers to a place which someone has visited sometime in his life. In other words, "has been to" refers to an experience. He's been to London many times. I've been to Disneyland twice. Do you understand the rules? Test your knowledge with this has gone vs. has been quiz. Learn more about the present perfect tense.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29039000
Brussels, 27 November 2003 Travelling with pets: Pet passports to be introduced in July 2004 The European Commission today adopted a Decision establishing a model passport which will allow pets and their owners to travel more easily within the European Union. New EU legislation(1) comes into force in July 2004 which will mean all cats, dogs and ferrets will need a passport to travel. The pet passport, a veterinary document, will provide proof that the animal has been vaccinated against rabies. This is the sole requirement for pets to travel to all Member States except Ireland, Sweden and the United Kingdom(2). The passport can also contain details of other vaccinations, including those not required by law, as well as information on the animal's medical history. David Byrne, the EU Health and Consumer Protection Commissioner said: "This is great news for pet owners like myself. A pet passport will be accepted throughout the EU as proof that a pet has received the anti-rabies vaccination. It also makes it easier for vets to learn about the pet's medical history. This is a significant step for the free movement of people and their pets and a step that was made possible by dramatic advances made in our fight against rabies. Rabies is now close to being totally eradicated from the EU". Why do pets need passports? Harmonised veterinary controls on the movement of animals between Member States for trade have been in place for some time. The same rules do not exist for pets. Member States require many different documents to prove a pet meets the veterinary conditions required for travel. Regulation 998/2003 harmonised the rules on travelling with pets to make it easier for EU citizens and their cats or dogs to enjoy the freedom of movement within the Union. From 3 July 2004 the Regulation will require cats, dogs and ferrets to have a pet passport. It will provide proof that the animal has been vaccinated against rabies. This is the sole requirement for pets to travel to all Member States except Ireland, Sweden and the United Kingdom. The pet passport will be accepted in all Member States. It can also contain details of other vaccinations and clinical examinations to give a clear picture of the animal's health status. This will facilitate veterinary checks and provide evidence of good health for a pet travelling to third countries free of rabies or where the disease is under control. What will the passport look like? The pet passport will measure 100 x 152 mm with a blue cover and the yellow stars of the European emblem. The languages used will be English and the official language of the Member State where the passport is issued. The words "European Union" and the name of the Member State will appear on the cover, along with the passport number which is the ISO code of the Member State followed by a unique number. What difference will it make? Travelling with pets will become much easier. All the different documents needed for travel into each Member State will be replaced by one veterinary document, the pet passport, which will be recognised across the EU. Visits to the vet will also become much more straightforward as the passport can instantly inform the vet about the pet's medical history. More information: IP/02/950. If you would like to receive a copy of the passport electronically, please send an e-mail to firstname.lastname@example.org, indicating the language. (1) Regulation 998/2003. (2) Pets travelling to Ireland, Sweden and the United Kingdom from the rest of the EU need to have an antibody titration test several months after the rabies vaccination to check it has been effective. The UK and Ireland also require pets to be treated for ticks and tapeworm (echinococcus) as part of the Pets Travel Scheme (PETS). Pets travelling to Sweden need to follow different procedures according to the country of origin.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29042000
A distinguished cellist, conductor and composer, Jacques Offenbach studied at the Paris Conservatoire. Offenbach worked as a cellist at the Opéra-Comique and almost immediately began a successful career as a cello virtuoso. Offenbach was appointed conductor and music director of the Théatre Français. In 1855, Offenbach established his own theatre, where his compositions were staged, always with a great success. More Offenbach sheet music download on EveryNote.com	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29043000
Block Island is located at the eastern end of Long Island Sound at 41.2° north and 71.5° west. It is composed of 7,000 acres, and is seven miles long and three miles across. The island is a part of Washington County, Rhode Island as the town of New Shoreham, located about 14 miles of the Rhode Island coast at Point Judith. The island has about 1000 year round residents, which grows to over 10000 residents and visitors during the summer months. The geography of the island is dominated by the Great Salt Pond near the center of the island, and is the location of the main harbor for the island. Block Island was created during the last ice age, when large glaciers spread across New England, carving out the landscape and depositing large piles of debris off the coast. This debris was then compacted by the glaciers, and created many of the islands to the south of New England, including Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, Long Island, and Block Island. The island was the home to the Manissean tribe, which was a part of the Narragansett tribes that lived along the coast. Dutch explorer Adriaen Block explored the island in 1614. After being shipwrecked near Manhattan a year before, Block went on to explore the Connecticut River and much of the coast of Long Island Sound. The island now bears his name. The first settlers to the island came from the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1661, and it was incorporated as a town in the colony of Rhode Island in 1672. Like many of the other small islands located off the southern coast of New England, Block Island remained isolated from the mainland. Many of the inhabitants of the island survived by fishing or farming what they could out of the rocky soil. The invention of the steam engine in the early 1800's changed the course of life on the island. Because of the efficiency of the new steam ships, it was now easy and convenient for tourists to visit the island during the warm months. A large harbor and several new hotels were built to accommodate tourists visiting from Connecticut and New York City. The invention of the automobile made tourism on the mainland easier, and the tourist industry began to decline. The island reinvented itself as a rustic fishing community. More recently, the island has witnessed a resurgence in tourism, but without the heavy bustle of the 1800's. Today, a stay on Block Island is more about relaxation than most other New England tourist spots. The seas around Block Island are notorious among sailors for the shallow shoals and frequent fog. Between 1819 and 1838, 59 ships were wrecked on or near the island. Lighthouses were soon built on the North and Southeast ends of the island in order to prevent such tragedies. Block Island North Light This lighthouse was built in 1829, composed to two lights facing opposite directions. However, this did not prevent the schooner "Warrior" from wrecking on nearby Sandy Shoals a few years later, killing 21 sailors. Shifting sand threatened the building, and a new lighthouse was built a little farther inland in 1837. Sailors still complained that the lights were too dim on the house, making it nearly useless on foggy seas. Another new lighthouse was built in 1857, and this one too was threatened by sand. Finally, the current lighthouse was built in 1869 by a contractor from Fall River, Massachusetts for $15000. The building is made out of granite with an iron tower containing a Fresnel lens, and looks much like other lighthouses along Long Island Sound. While originally lit by kerosene, the lighthouse was given a rotating electrified light in 1940. The light was automated in 1956, and eventually replaced with a steel structure located closer to the beach in 1973. After a massive restoration by the town of New Shoreham, the North Light was placed back into active service in the August 5, 1989, with it's bottom floor restored as a museum. Block Island Southeast Light This lighthouse was originally supposed to be built in 1857, but the money was diverted to reconstructing the north light instead. In 1872, local Nicholas Ball petitioned the government to build a lighthouse on the south end of the island, as many ships were in danger. Congress again gave money for construction, and The Southeast Light was completed in 1875. The lighthouse is the tallest light in New England. The lighthouse is unlike any other on the New England coast, made with a combination of Italianate and Gothic Revival architectural styles. It was built by T. H. Tynan of Staten Island. The entire structure is built of brick, with a granite foundation. A 2-story keeper's house is attached to the tower, which is capped by an iron lantern. The light was equipped with a kerosene-powered fog horn in 1906. After being destroyed by a fire, the fog signal was replaced in 1972. Because of the gradual erosion of the cliff edge near the lighthouse (at one point nearly 50 feet away from the structure), the lighthouse was moved 300 feet further inland in 1994, at a cost of $2 million. The lens for the light was replaced with another Fresnel lens from Cape Lookout Light in North Carolina, and was relit on August 24, 1994. This lighthouse is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Block Island is home to a very unique ecology. Over 40 animals and plants that are found on the island are rare or endangered species, and this has brought the attention of both state and local governments. The town of New Shoreham, as well as other local environmental organizations, have been putting forth money and resources to reserve parts of Block Island as nature reserves. One can get to Block Island by ferry from Narragansett, New London, or Riverhead, or on a New England Airlines flight out of Westerly. @@ N41.19,W71.57 @@	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29045000
Histor"ic (?), Histor"ical (?), a. [L. historicus, Gr. : cf. F. historique. See History.] Of or pertaining to history, or the record of past events; as, an historical poem; the historic page. , n. -- Historic"ity There warriors frowning in historic brass. Historical painting, that branch of painting which represents the events of history. -- Historical sense, that meaning of a passage which is deduced from the circumstances of time, place, etc., under which it was written. -- The historic sense, the capacity to conceive and represent the unity and significance of a past era or age. © Webster 1913.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29046000
For those of you who don't want to read the entire node a summary can be gleaned by reading the bold sections. Like this? Hate this? /msg Great Neb and tell me. Philip II, King of Spain Philip II succeeded his father, Charles V as King of Spain. With this title came lands in the Netherlands, Milan, Sicily, Naples and the New World. Philip was groomed for sovereignty from an early age and had extensive experience of ruling when he inherited the throne in 1556 due to his father's abdication. This was in stark opposition to his father's inexperience and youth upon his ascension. However despite this apparent advantage combined with his greatly diminished responsibility - Charles V gave the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburg lands to his brother Ferdinand of Habsburg - Philip failed to prevent the loss of the Netherlands to Calvinist rebels or to take advantage of French weakness during his reign. He did manage to annex Portugal in 1580 and he continued to expand Spanish control in the New World. Philip's biggest problem was money and he went bankrupt four times during his reign. Philip was the subject of much malignment through the Black Legend, a series of writings designed to discredit their Catholic opponents. These works are exaggerated and best and completely untrue at worst. Known as El Prudente in his native Spain he had nothing of the wild hatred of heretics that he is accused of harboring. He was a cautious, perhaps over cautious, planner and thinker who considered all things carefully before making a decision. Isabella = Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Charles I of Spain of Portugal \| of Habsburg (1503-39) \| (1500-58) \| ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ Philip II, King of Spain = (1)Maria = (2)Mary Tudor = (3)Elizabeth = (4)Anne of Habsburg \| of Portugal \| of England \| of Valois \| of Austria (1527-98) \| (1527-45) X (1516-58) \| (1545-68) \| (1549-80) \| _______________________\| \| \| \| \| \| Don Carlos \| Catalina = Charles Philibert \| of Habsburg \| of Habsburg \| of Savoy \| (1545-68) \| (1567-1597) \| (1562-1630) \| \| \| \| Isabella = Albert \| \| of Habsburg \| of Habsburg ↓ \| (1566-1633) X (1559-1621) \| \| \| \| \| \| Ferdinand Carlos Lorenzo Diego Philip III Maria of Habsburg of Habsburg of Habsburg of Habsburg of Habsburg (1571-78) (1573-75) (1575-82) (1578-1621) (1580-83) X denotes died without issue His Early Life Philip was born in Valladolid on 21 May 1527, the first son of Isabella of Portugal and Charles V. Much like his parents he was, according to the Venetian ambassador, Paolo Tiepolo , "slight of stature and round-faced with very pale blue eyes, somewhat prominent lips and pink skin". He also possessed the distinctive Habsburg chin that was large and stuck out. His early education primarily fell to Martinez Siliceo and Bartholomé de Carranze and other specialist scholars. It soon became clear that, as G Woodward puts it, "Philip was an aesthete, not an athlete". Charles intended to groom his son for kingship from an early age and at twelve Philip attended council meetings. At sixteen Philip became Regent of Spain and in his twenties he travelled to Milan, the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands and England. In 1543 he married his cousin, Maria of Portugal but she died only two years later with birth of his first son Don Carlos. During the next decade Philip continued to play a major part in ruling his father's dominions throughout Europe. In 1554 Philip married Mary Tudor, Queen of England. The marriage was purely political and Mary was ten years Philip's senior. Philip himself did not care for Mary in the slightest and could not stand to spend time with her, for her part Mary was obsessed with him. Philip and Religion For Philip the Church and his Catholic faith was the centre of his life. No decision could be made without consulting his spiritual advisers and when looking at his decisions one must bare in mind the key part that his faith played in his choices. Philip was extremely pious from an early age, inspired by his mother, Isabella of Portugal . He attended mass daily throughout his life and his great palace El Escorial was also a Jeronimite monastary. Most importantly God's omniscience meant that events were always as He desired them and could be no other way. When his advisers questioned his plans or opinions in even the most respectful way he would often fall back on an argument of God's will. Philip saw himself as God's tool on earth and he believed he had been given a mission by God. This messianic imperialism often annoyed his advisers and as the Duke of Parma remarked in 1586, "One day God will grow tired of working miracles for us" Nevertheless religion continued to be the driving force in many of Philip's decisions, "The cause of religion must take precedence over everything" - Philip II 1591. His wars against England , the Dutch rebels and the Turks all had religious motivations behind them. Despite this as G Parker "It happened that these goals [religious ones] coincided with Philip's perception of Spain's political interests, and this congruence 'between God's service and mine' no doubt played a part in his numerous decisions to go to war" Religion remained the cornerstone of Philip's policy making and often presented problems when war could no longer be sustained and a peace agreement needed to be reached. He would not compromise over religion, stating in 1566 to the Pope "I would rather lose all my lands and a hundred lives if I had them because I do not propose to be a ruler over heretics" Philip: A Bureaucrat Philip was one of the first monarchs to have to deal with the huge increase in information that occurred during the 16th century. Communications from all over his vast empire would be supplemented by a huge number of domestic issues that were now dealt with centrally under Philip's extremely centralised government. On top of this all ambassadors and Spanish contacts at foreign contacts at the European courts would send information to Philip and his government. Philip insisted on reading all of this information personally and making a decision himself. This became one of his most significant problems with governing his empire, his inability to delegate. Philip continued to use the concilliar system of his father, Charles V, to govern where possible. This consisted of a number of councils as follows: \| The King \| \| Councils \| Councils \| \| \| \| ______\|_______ ______\|______ ____\|_____ ________ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Council of \| \| Inquisition \| \| Castile \|___\| Indies \| \| State (1522) \| \| (1483) \| \| (1480) \| \| (1524) \| \|______________\| \|_____________\| \|__________\| \|________\| \| \| \| ______\|_______ ______\|______ ____\|_____ ________ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Council of \| \| Military \| \| Aragon \|___\| Italy \| \| War (1517) \| \| Orders 1495 \| \| (1481) \| \| (1555) \| \|______________\| \|_____________\| \|__________\| \|________\| \| \| \| \| \| Cruxada \| \| Portugal \| \| (1509) \| \| (1582) \| \| \| \| \| \| Finance \| \| Flanders \| \| (1523) \| \| (1588) \| Note: The dates are the foundation dates of the individual councils The Council of State was the supreme council along with the Council of War and together they governed the Empire, subordinate only to Philip. The remaining councils dealt with their own specific area as is implied by their names with the Cruxada dealing with Crusades. Additional councils could be set up to deal with specific issues, such as the Armada. Philip rarely sat in on the Council of State but did attend the Council of Castile once a week. He insisted that all councils report all their meetings to him on paper. He considered personal meetings inefficient and unproductive. The Spanish court was traditionally conducted on an aural basis and so this often irritated those at court, with Don Luis Manrique, the King's Almoner, angrily remarking, "God did not send Your Majesty and all the other Kings to spend their time on earth so that they could hide themselves away reading and writing, or even meditating or praying." This policy of micro-management meant that above all, each decision took a very long time, as Pope Pius V "Your Majesty spends so long considering your undertakings that when the moment to perform them comes the occasion has passed and the money has been spent." Or as Cardinal Granvelle "If death came from Spain, I should be immortal" Charles mortgaged the future for the sake of the present Philip's father, Charles V had ruled over a huge European Empire comprising of Spain, parts of Italy, the Netherlands and the Holy Roman Empire. He had experienced great troubles in attempting to govern such a huge area, so spread throughout Europe. As he neared the end of his reign he decided to divide his territories and his son Philip was to inherit Spain, her territories in the New World and Italy and the Netherlands. Charles left his son a number of pieces of advice including writing a "manual", often referred to as his 'Political Testament' for government that instructed Philip in the ways of ruling and contained Charles' thoughts on the most troublesome areas of his empire. As later as 1600 the Spanish ambassador in Savoy reminded his sovereign of "what His Majesty the emperor said in the instructions that he gave the later king our lord Philip II" and suggested that its strategic analysis still held good. Philip himself clearly valued these pieces of advice, as he told a councillor in 1559: "I remember a lesson that His Majesty [Charles] taught me very many years ago and things have gone well for me when I followed it and very badly when I did not" Charles' Political Testament is often considered to be an extremely shrewd summary of the political problems likely to face Philip during his reign. Here are some extracts: "Common sense and experience show that unless you watch and take the trouble to understand the actions of other states and rulers, and maintain friends and informants in all areas, it will be difficult if not impossible to live in peace, or to avoid, oppose, and remedy anything that is attempted against you and your possessions...especially since (as I have already noted) they are separated from another, and the object of envy." "Avoiding war and keeping it at bay is not always in the power of those who want it...especially of those who rule realms as great and as numerous and as far-flung as God, in His goodness, has given me and which, if He pleases, I shall leave to you. Rather this depends on the good or ill will of neighbours and other states." Both these points succinctly summarise some of the difficulties that Charles faced and that Philip was to face. While Philip was not such an obvious subject for jealousy as Charles (not possessing the Holy Roman Empire ) he was still the most powerful European monarch and on many occasions natural allies would oppose him fearing an increase in Spain's power. Both quotes emphasise the troubles of that the geographical location of Philip's territories would cause him. "The preservation, peace and grandeur of Spain depends on the affairs of Italy being well ordered" Philip was able to gain almost entire control of large parts of Italy at the beginning of his reign following his defeat of the French. This, combined with the weak divided nature of the French nation throughout the latter part of the 16th century , gave him the required well ordered affairs in Italy. This proved of some advantage when attacking the Turks and in maintaining access to his lands in the Netherlands "Your treasury will be in such a state [when you succeed me] that it will give you a lot of trouble" This was certainly an accurate appraisal, if a little obvious and he proceeded to recommend, "Attend closely to finances and learn to understand the problems involved." However, as G. Woodward points out "neither Charles nor Philip paid much attention to this aphorism" and in this perhaps lay Philip's downfall and with it the downfall of Spain. Ascension of Philip and Defeat of France On 22 October 1555 Charles V abdicated in the Netherlands and ceded his territories there to Philip II. This was followed on 16 Jan 1556 with the abdication of Charles V in Spain and Philip's ascension. Philip now ruled over the Netherlands, Spain and all Spain's territories including those in the New World. He had inherited his father's mantle of the most powerful monarch in Europe. Only one man could challenge him - Suleiman the Magnificent, Ottoman Sultan. The Ottoman Turks had been steadily encroaching on the Austrian Habsburg lands throughout his father's reign and now they were to challenge him in the Mediterranean. Philip inherited a war from Charles V that had started in 1550 and was to continue to 1578. This battle was vital to Spain as many Spaniards saw the Mediterranean as Spain's true sphere of influence. However in the 1550s Tripoli, Peñón de Vélez and Bougie fell to the Turks and Philip knew that if the coast of Africa became Turkish communications with Naples and Sicily (both Spanish territories) would be seriously threatened. Despite this threat Philip's primary concern when he came to power was France. The Valois kings of France and the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors had been enemies for decades and Philip now had to deal with this rivalry. Italy and the Netherlands had traditionally been the battle grounds for the Valois/Habsburgs conflicts. Inheriting his father's conflict in Italy Philip sent Alva at the head of a 12,000 strong army to threaten the Pope into peace. The army proved a suitably persuasive tool and while Francis, Duke of Guise suffered defeat at Civitella the Pope was forced to capitulate. Philip's clement terms for the Papacy in the subsequent peace treaty won him the support of all major states in Italy. A number of skirmishes followed in the next two years but neither Henry II of France nor Philip II could afford to continue the costly war and peace talks got underway at Câteau-Cambrésis. The talks proved successful for Philip. He had to sacrifice Calais (as King of England he had a claim to it) but he retained Savoy and all of the Italian states. To seal the treaty Philip married Elizabeth of Valois, Henry's daughter. With France now dealt with Philip was free to concentrate on the Mediterranean. In 1560 his fleet sailed out only to be defeated by the Turks and eight galleys and 10,000 men were captured. Philip busied himself assembling a large fleet and in 1564 a Spanish fleet recaptured Peñón de Vélez and in September 1565 Spanish vessels lifted the siege of Malta. Philip had established Spanish control in the Mediterranean, defeated France, won Italy and seen his great rival, Henry II of France, die in a jousting accident in 1559. Philip had passed the early test of his reign but troubles lay over the horizon. From these promising beginnings troubles began to arise for Philip. In 1568 the Moriscos, converted Muslims, revolted in Spain. The Moriscos had been increasingly discriminated against, their primary source of income, the silk trade, had gone into recession and the harvest failed in 1567. In addition the Moriscos still resented their forcible conversion in 1526 and many had not changed their ways at all, they remained a predominantly non-Christian element in Spain. The discrimination against the Moriscos culminated on 1st January 1567 with a royal decree banning Moorish literature, songs, dress and traditional customs. The war was extremely bloody and atrocities were committed on both sides. At Medena, for example, the curate was filled with gunpowder and blown up by Muslim rebels. Don John of Austria, the Spanish leader, ordered the entire population of Galera, about 2,500 men, women and children, to be put to death in February 1570. Perhaps the cruellest blow came with Philip's solution to the revolt, the deportation and resettlement of all Morsicos throughout Spain. The Moriscos were uprooted with few or none of their possessions and moved all over Spain. Although they were no longer able to rebel the policy had no success in integrating the Moriscos into Spanish society. Whilst Spain's Morisco revolt was crushed Philip's subjects in the Netherlands were making their voices heard. The nobility resented Philip's attempts to increase his control, the presence of Spanish troops and they wanted toleration for their Calvinist faith. Philip's natural sister, Margaret of Parma , was his Governor General in the Netherlands and she panicked, fearing that she was losing control. She wrote to Philip claiming that the Netherlands was in outright Calvinist rebellion, a completely exaggerated claim. Philip prepared to send an army to the Netherlands under the command of the Duke of Alva. The army arrived in the Netherlands expecting a country in a disarray and rebellion. When they arrived they found an entirely ordered and calm country. Not one to be deterred by such minor matters Alva proceeded to persecute the Dutch until a rebellion actually occurred. This rebellion would result in 78 years of conflict, broken only by the twelve year truce between 1609 and 1621. Alva remained in control of the Netherlands until 1572 when William of Orange invaded with the help of the Sea Beggars. He succeeded in taking the Northern states of Holland and Zealand and these states became the base for the Dutch/Spanish conflict. Alva was recalled in 1573 and replaced by Don Luis de Requesens y Zuniga. This has little success though and Requesens dies in 1576 having achieved little. The next Governor General, Don John of Austria, took over 6 months to arrive and it while the Spanish forces remained leaderless the Dutch signed the Pacification of Ghent. Calling a truce between the Spanish and rebel territories. The Turks returned as a threat after Philip's victories in 1564 and 65. The mounting problem prompted Pope Pius V to form a Holy League comprising of the Papacy, Venice and Spain. Philip reluctantly agreed and in October 1571 the League fleet scored an astounding victory over the Turks at Lepanto. The fleet, commanded by Don John of Austria, Philip's half brother, captured over half the Turkish ships and killed 30,000 Turks. This was the worst Naval defeat for the Turks since 1402. The defeat marked a key point in the ongoing battle for control of the Mediterranean and historians have argued that after this the Mediterranean no longer held the same level of significance for Spain. By 1578 Philip appeared to be facing a united Netherlands aided by a recovering France, a protestant England and German nobility. He had declared bankruptcy in 1575 for the third time. More importantly at the age of 51 his eldest son was only three and many Spaniard believed that his death would result in the collapse of Spain. Despite these problems Philip recovered over the next decade to annex Portugal and make significant gains in the Netherlands thanks to his new Governor General, Allesandro Farnese, Duke of Parma. Unification of the Iberian Peninsula and Religious War Sebastian I, King of Portugal disappeared whilst crusading against the Turks and he was assumed killed at Alcázarquivir in Morocco. His heir was his great-uncle Henry. Unfortunately, as G Woodward puts it Henry was a "deaf, half-blind, toothless, sixty-six-year-old cardinal who was far from well when he surprisingly married the thirteen-year-old daughter of the Duchess of Bragança;a". Henry died on 31 January 1580 and Philip had a claim to the throne through his mother, Isabella of Portugal, daughter of Manuel I. Philip acted quickly sending representatives to Portugal to win over the nobility. By June he had sufficient support to send in an army of 37,000 troops. The army swiftly dealt with Don Antonio, an illegitimate son of Henry's brother and Philip gained control of Portugal. He was recognised as King of Portugal in April 1581 and the Iberian peninsula was unified. Philip's fortunes in the Netherlands began to turn as Parma showed his military prowess by retaking a number of key towns and forcing the rebels back into their stronghold of Holland and Zealand. The unification of the Netherlands was over and the Catholic southern provinces united under Spain with Union of Arras while the Northern rebels signed the Union of Utrecht, both in 1579. The rebels were successful in enlisting help from the English who signed the Treaty of Nonsuch in 1585 pledging key support to the rebels. Despite this they were still decidedly on the defensive. William of Orange, the rebel leader, had been assassinated in 1584 by a Catholic fanatic and the rebels now remained unsure of direction and in danger of succumbing to Parma. However Philip's later insistence that Parma take a quick jaunt into France cost the Spanish valuable territory. In France Henry III was proving to be a foolhardy and incompetent King and Philip had to intervene on numerous occasions with troops to aid the Catholic League. He had been funding the Guise family and the League in their religious war for some years yet Henry's indecision and attempts to play the Huguenots and Catholics off against each other had caused further troubles. Although the situation in France distracted Philip it was not until 1589 with the assassination of Henry III that the situation became truly desperate. England's involvement in the Netherlands had forced Philip to consider strategies for launching an assault on Britain. The plans for the Enterprise of England would take two years but they culminated in one of the largest fleets ever assembled and one the most famous naval battles in history. In 1588 The Spanish Armada set sail from Lisbon and travelled along the coast of France to the English channel. A series of events (detailed in the Spanish Armada node) resulted in the resounding defeat of the Armada, an enterprise that had cost Philip 10 Million Ducats. The defeat was a blow to the prestige of Spain and of Philip but more importantly it had failed to end English aid to the Dutch rebels and as Parma was distracted by events in France the rebels were able to win back many of the towns taken by him. The damage was so great that by 1594 the rebels held all land which they could hope to lay claim to. Philip's hopes of retaining a united Netherlands under Spain had evaporated and without Parma there was no real chance of future success. In France King Henry III was assassinated in 1589 and Henry IV, a protestant, immediately claimed the throne. He had already proved his military prowess and he laid siege to Paris. He had defeated the armies of the Guise family and the Catholic League and it was clear that the fall of Paris was imminent. Philip decided that should Paris fall the Catholic cause would be lost so in 1590 he ordered Parma to leave the Netherlands and relieve Paris. Parma successfully did this and Henry IV was forced to give up his siege. However Henry IV was able to continue his successful manoeuvrings around France and he managed to take more and more cities. Philip was forced to send Parma back into France in 1592. Parma again showed his reputation as one of the best Generals in Europe was deserved as he out manoeuvred Henry's forces and relieved Rouen. Parma, however, died on his return journey to the Netherlands and Philip lost both a great General and a valued adviser. Philip is viewed differently by historians. Traditionally he has been seen as a bungler whose insistence on micro-management and bureaucracy caused huge problems for his regents, espcially with the size of his empire. However recent historians, particularly Geoffrey Parker and Henry Kamen have taken a more kindly view towards Philip's efforts. Henry Kamen believes that, "Philip was never at any time in adequate control of events, or of his kingdoms, or even of his own destiny. It follows that he cannot be held responsible for more than a small part of what eventually transpired during his reign...He was 'imprisoned with a destiny in which he himself had little hand'. He could do little more than play the dice available to him" While a kinder view of Philip than historians have so far presented is perhaps merited one must not fall into the trap of blindly following modern revisionist historians. Philip made a number of mistakes during his reign and his policy of micro management caused him and Spain a number of serious problems, not least of which were financial. In 1556 Philip did not inherit a healthy treasury but as the following table shows he left it in an even worse state for his son, Philip III. \| Estimated \| National \| Debt \| Income \| Debt \| Interest 1560 \| 3.1 \| 25.5 \| 1.6 1575 \| 5.5 \| 40.0 \| 2.7 1598 \| 9.7 \| 85.5 \| 4.6 Philip's son, Philip III, is commonly regarded as having presided over the decline of the Spanish empire. However the seeds for this decline were most definitely sown in the reign of Philip II. He lost part of the Netherlands to rebellion, his treasury was in a dire state and France, England and Germany were dominated by Protestants. Despite the improvement in communications technology the efficiency and speed of communication was not high enough for Philip's policy of central government. His decision were often slow to arrive and out of date by the time they did so yet he would not allow his Generals and regents scope to make their own judgements and decisions. My Own notes made in class Philip II - Geoffrey Woodward, Longman 1993 Philip II: A Grand Strategy - Geoffrey Parker	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29047000
Cori spezzati (kor' ee spetz ah' tee), Italian for "separated choirs," is the term used to describe a musical composition that uses spatial effects to emphasize the interplay between its various voices. Typically, this means placing two or more choirs or groups of instruments in various places around a performance space. Music that is intended to be performed cori spezatti is by nature antiphonal; in fact, some consider these two terms to be synonymous, at least when they refer to instrumental music. Cori spezzati isn't a particularly common form of music, and for obvious reasons. In order for it to work out right, it must be performed in a specific type of space; namely, one which is both big enough to accomodate the separation of the instrumental/vocal groups and acoustically suited to the kind of call and answer phrasing that characterizes antiphonal music. (If the space is too echoey, the interplay among the groups just becomes muddled. If it's just moderately echoey, though, it sounds great.) And even in concert halls which meet these specifications, there's a certain awkwardness to the idea of putting half the ensemble onstage and sending the rest up to the balcony or (as I have seen done) forsaking the stage altogether and having half the group stand in the left-hand balcony and the other half in the right-hand one. The type of performance space which is most obviously suited to cori spezzati is the cathedral; in churches, the problem of the stage is eliminated, and there are generally balconies and nooks and crannies galore in Renaissance-style basilicas. Unsurprisingly, a Renaissance basilica was the formal birthplace of cori spezzati: in the late 1500's, Giovanni Gabrieli, the music director, organist, and composer-in-residence at St. Mark's Basilica in Venice, began experimenting with the idea of separating his choirs and putting them in different places around the church. Gabrieli is considered to be the father of cori spezzati, and probably the only composer to write a serious volume of work in this style. He wrote both choral and instrumental pieces (mostly sacred, because of the nature of his job), some of which are still performed today and shouldn't be too hard to find recordings of. (I, unfortunately, do not own recordings of any of Gabrieli's music, although I heard his Sonata Octavi Toni for two brass choirs performed live, and it was gorgeous. I recommend it highly if you happen to like Renaissance/Baroque music.) This writeup was made possible by a little bit of help from www.naxos.com/composer/gabrieli.htm, and Virginia Tech's Online Music Dictionary, found at www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29048000
What does it mean? and What is it for? It is used to map a canonical name for a servlet (not an actual Servlet class that you've written) to a JSP (which happens to be a servlet). On its own it isn't quite useful. You'll often need to map the servlet to a url-pattern as: All requests now arriving at /test/* will now be serviced by the JSP. Additionally, the servlet specification also states: jsp-file element contains the full path to a JSP file within the web application beginning with a “/”. If a jsp-file is specified and the load-onstartup element is present, then the JSP should be precompiled and So, it can be used for pre-compiling servlets, in case your build process hasn't precompiled them. Do keep in mind, that precompiling JSPs this way, isn't exactly a best practice. Ideally, your build script ought to take care of such matters. Is it like code behind architecture in ASP .NET? No, if you're looking for code-behind architecture, the closest resemblance to such, is in the Managed Beans support offered by JSF.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29053000
I have taught this introductory survey course to large groups ranging from 75 to 120 students. In the classroom, I use structured class discussions to promote student engagement, assign in-class writing on weekly readings, utilize small groups to involve even the most reserved students in class activities, and bring research and media familiar to students' lives as a way of illustrating key sociological concepts. I often incorporate my own research on collegiate cultures to demonstrate both how to do research and ways that sociology intersects with their own worlds. . In this introductory course, we will explore what it means to do sociology. One of the most exciting things about sociology is that you can study anything from a sociological perspective. Therefore, this class will cover a variety of diverse issues including but not limited to race, class, gender, deviance, religion, and politics. Throughout the semester we will look at how these topics relate to current social issues. Most importantly, students will learn to apply a sociological lens to the topics that most interest them. This upper-level course is designed for between 50-75 students. The class provides the students with empirical evidence and theoretical frameworks necessary to understand the K-12 and postsecondary educational systems in the United States. The class is discussion based, and focused on honing students’ critical thinking skills. Students must complete two mini-paper assignments designed to build their writing skills. In this class we explore how external forces (like politics, financial support, and demographics of the population) shape how schools work, how internal institutional arrangements sort and channel students in different directions, what factors shape student achievement and behavior, and how schooling influences where individuals end up in society. We start with a case study of how gender, race, and class shape students’ experiences in urban schools. We then move to examination of key theories in the sociology of education, and analyze their utility for understanding today’s educational issues. The class also includes a second case study that helps us to look across and within schools as institutions. Finally, we end with a closer look at how social class, race, gender, and sexuality both organize and are organized by educational environments. This upper-level course is designed for a small group of students, up to 35. In the class, I seek to build studentsí knowledge of sociological perspectives on the family while strengthening their written and oral communication skills. The class is discussion based, and driven by student participation. I encourage critical thinking about how data on the family are collected, analyzed, and presented as "fact." Students also employ critical thinking skills in a final term paper project that is developed over the course of the semester, on a topic of their choice. We are all experts of sorts on the family: We have lived in families, observed family dynamics, and compared our own family experiences with those of others. Families have been at the center of our personal and emotional lives. This course will provide an opportunity to look at something familiar (the family) in a new way. We will focus on the family as a social institution — set of structured social arrangements for meeting certain human needs — and we will examine the larger social forces that shape those structures. We will use a comparative approach to families, emphasizing their diversity both across time and space and within present-day U.S. society — paying particular attention to how social inequality shapes family experiences. By the end of the semester, you should be able to place your own personal experience of families in a larger social, cultural, and historical context.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29054000
Citing rising Jewish intermarriage rates, the leading organization devoted to combating Tay-Sachs is urging doctors to encourage the use of more comprehensive testing methodology to identify carriers of the deadly genetic disease. The National Tay-Sachs & Allied Diseases Association issued its position statement on Tay-Sachs carrier screening in September 2009. The statement stressed the importance of using enzyme testing to discover whether individuals are Tay-Sachs carriers, rather than relying solely on DNA testing, which it warned is becoming “less sensitive” as “the Ashkenazi Jewish population becomes less homogeneous.” In the 1970s, when the first Tay-Sachs screening programs were set up, the only carrier-detection method was enzyme testing, which uses a blood sample to look for the low levels of Hexosaminidase A enzyme that suggest someone is a Tay-Sachs carrier. In recent years, however, DNA testing has enabled screening for a battery of Jewish genetic diseases all at once via a saliva or buccal sample. DNA testing geared toward Ashkenazi Jews searches for specific genetic mutations that cause Tay-Sachs and are prevalent among this population. But it does not turn up other Tay-Sachs mutations that are more prevalent among non-Jews. Rising levels of intermarriage mean that the traditional Ashkenazi mutations increasingly are not the only ones that Jews have to worry about. “As Jews have become a more mixed group, there is less and less chance that those mutations are the only ones that can be found in Jews,” said Dr. Jodi Hoffman of the Tufts Medical Center, who led the NTSAD advisory panel that recommended updating the guidelines. “Anyone who has ever had someone marry into the family who’s not Ashkenazi can have a different mutation.” When two parents are both carriers of mutations that cause Tay-Sachs, each of their children will have a 25% chance of being born with the disease. Despite common misconceptions, Tay-Sachs does not affect only Jews. One in 30 Ashkenazi Jews is a carrier, but carriers are equally common in non-Jewish French-Canadian and Cajun popultions, and Irish people also have a relatively high carrier rate. The carrier rate in the general population is about 1 in 300. According to the NTSAD statement, DNA testing first became available in the 1990s and screening for three mutations has yielded a 92% to 98% success rate in identifying carriers among people of entirely Ashkenazi descent. Intermarriage, however, is making the Jewish community more heterogeneous. “The genetic mix in our society is not as segregated as it once was, so the simple DNA test may not be effective anymore,” said NTSAD’s executive director, Susan Kahn. DNA testing for three mutations among non-Ashkenazi individuals is reported to have yielded a detection rate of only about 20%. Even when the DNA test looked for five different mutations, the success rate climbed to just 60%. Enzyme testing, which studies have shown to be 98% reliable in detecting Tay-Sachs carriers, works by measuring the Hex-A activity in serum or white-blood cells. In babies born with Tay-Sachs, the absence of Hex-A enzyme causes lipid buildup in nervous system cells, especially in the brain, which almost always leads to death by age 5. Carriers, though asymptomatic, have lower levels of Hex-A that can be detected in a blood sample. Because enzyme testing measures actual rates of Hex-A rather than looking for specific genetic mutations — which can be different in different populations — intermarriage does not compromise its reliability. The decreased level of Hex-A is analogous to a fever: It is easy and straightforward to measure, even though its underlying cause — in this case, a mutation — may be difficult to pinpoint. The NTSAD statement expressed concern about people who have had a DNA test opting out of enzyme testing. While it stated that “DNA testing is the appropriate screening modality for many other genetic disorders,” it urged medical professionals to emphasize the importance of enzyme analysis, which it recommended “as the primary testing modality for identifying carriers for Tay-Sachs disease.” The statement suggested that “DNA testing can and should be used to confirm Tay-Sachs enzyme results, to clarify indeterminate enzyme results, to identify cases of pseudodeficiency, as well as to provide molecular information for reproductive procedures and genetic counseling.” “DNA testing is nice because it can be confirmatory,” Hoffman said. “It provides added information, but enzyme testing is the gold standard.”	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29080000
The mountains and valleys of New Hampshire are rich with mineral formations. From the southwest corner of the state near Keene to the northern Canadian border near Littleton there are fascinating deposits of a variety of minerals. One of these deposits is known as the Littleton Formation which was formed during the Devonian era approximately 300,000,000 years ago. The mining of these mineral deposits has been an important part of New Hampshire history from prehistoric eras to the present. The Ruggles Mine, in Grafton N.H., is part of the Littleton Formation and has a rich mining and geological history. It is the oldest and largest mine of its kind in the United States. Minerals such as Mica, Feldspar, Beryl, and Uranium were mined at Ruggles for 175 years.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29083000
HSBC Launches $100 Million Climate Change Effort HSBC Launches $100 Million Climate Change Initiative Financial services giant HSBC has announced a five-year, $100 million partnership with four environmental organizations to respond to the threat of global climate change. Comprised of HSBC, the Climate Group, the Earthwatch Institute, the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, and the World Wildlife Fund, the HSBC Climate Partnership will build on HSBC's previous five-year, $50 million "eco-partnership," Investing in Nature, which concluded in 2006. The latest commitment by the company represents both the largest charitable donation ever made by a British company and the largest contribution ever received by each of the nonprofit partners. "By working with four of the world's most respected environmental organizations and creating a 'green taskforce' of thousands of HSBC employees worldwide, we believe we can tackle the causes and impacts of climate change," said Paul Lawrence, president and CEO of HSBC Bank USA. The partnership will work to help five of the world's major cities — Hong Kong, London, New York, Shanghai, and Mumbai — respond to the challenges of climate change; create "climate champions" worldwide to undertake field research and bring back valuable information and experience to their communities; conduct the largest-ever field experiment on the world's forests to measure carbon and the effects of climate change; and help protect some of the world's major rivers, including the Amazon, Ganges, Thames, and Yangtze, from the effects of climate change, benefiting the 450 million people who rely on them. According to Christopher Walker, U.S. director of the Climate Group, climate change increasingly is an urban issue. "High summer temperatures, storms, and rising sea levels will have more extreme impacts on city life.... [And] many of the solutions lie in cities — concentrations of capital, decision makers, opinion formers, and population," he added. "Through the HSBC Climate Partnership, we will accelerate our program in five world cities, engaging the most influential businesses and city governments to lead a 'coalition of the willing' against global warming." HSBC Announces US$100 Million Program to Combat Climate Change World-Wide. HSBC Press Release Primary Subject: Environment Location(s): China, Hong Kong, India, International, London, Mumbai, National, New York, New York City, Shanghai, United Kingdom	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29084000
France, officially the French Republic is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, just behind that of the United States. Over the past 500 years France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands. France has its main ideals expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The French Republic is defined as indivisible, secular, democratic and social by its constitution. France is one of the world's most developed countries, it possesses the world's fifth largest economy measured by GDP, the ninth-largest economy measured by purchasing power parity and is Europe's second largest economy by nominal GDP. France is the wealthiest nation in Europe – and the fourth wealthiest in the world – in aggregate household wealth. France enjoys a high standard of living as well as a high public education level, and has also one of the world's longest life expectancies. France has been listed as the world's "best overall health care" provider by the World Health Organization. It is the most visited country in the world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually. France has the world's fourth largest nominal military budget, the third largest military in NATO and EU's largest army. France also possesses the third largest nuclear weapons stockpile in the world – with around 300 active warheads as of 25 May 2010 – and the world's second largest diplomatic corps. France is a founding member of the United Nations, one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, and the Latin Union. It is also a founding and leading member state of the European Union and the largest EU state by area. In 2011, France was listed 20th on the Human Development Index and 24th on the Corruption Perceptions Index. Mont Saint-Michel is a rocky tidal island and a commune in Normandy, France. It is located approximately one kilometre off the country's north-western coast, at the mouth of the Couesnon River near Avranches. The population of the island is 41, as of 2006. The island has been a strategic point holding fortifications since ancient times, and since the 8th century AD it became the seat of the Saint-Michel monastery, from which it draws the name. The Mont-Saint-Michel and its bay are part of the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. More than 3,000,000 people visit it each year. Mont-Saint-Michel was used in the 6th and 7th centuries as an Armorican stronghold of Romano-Breton culture and power, until it was ransacked by the Franks, thus ending the trans-channel culture that had stood since the departure of the Romans in AD 460. Before the construction of the first monastic establishment in the 8th century, the island was called "monte tombe". According to legend, the Archangel Michael appeared to St. Aubert, bishop of Avranches, in 708 and instructed him to build a church on the rocky islet. Aubert repeatedly ignored the angel's instruction, until Michael burned a hole in the bishop's skull with his finger. The mount gained strategic significance in 933 when William "Long Sword", William I, Duke of Normandy, annexed the Cotentin Peninsula, definitively placing the mount in Normandy. It is depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry which commemorates the 1066 Norman conquest of England. Harold, Earl of Wessex is pictured on the tapestry rescuing two Norman knights from the quicksand in the tidal flats during a battle with Conan II, Duke of Brittany. Norman Ducal patronage financed the spectacular Norman architecture of the abbey in subsequent centuries. In 1067, the monastery of Mont-Saint-Michel gave its support to duke William of Normandy in his claim to the throne of England. It was rewarded with properties and grounds on the English side of the Channel, including a small island off the southwestern coast of Cornwall which was modeled after the Mount and became a Norman priory named St Michael's Mount of Penzance. During the Hundred Years' War, the English made repeated assaults on the island, but were unable to seize it due to the abbey's improved fortifications. Les Michelettes – two wrought-iron bombards left by the English in their failed 1423–24 siege of Mont-Saint-Michel – are still displayed near the outer defense wall. When Louis XI of France founded the Order of Saint Michael in 1469, he intended that the abbey church of Mont Saint-Michel be the chapel for the Order, but because of its great distance from Paris, his intention could never be realized. The wealth and influence of the abbey extended to many daughter foundations, including St Michael's Mount in Cornwall. However, its popularity and prestige as a centre of pilgrimage waned with the Reformation, and by the time of the French Revolution there were scarcely any monks in residence. The abbey was closed and converted into a prison, initially to hold clerical opponents of the republican régime. High-profile political prisoners followed, but by 1836, influential figures – including Victor Hugo – had launched a campaign to restore what was seen as a national architectural treasure. The prison was finally closed in 1863, and the mount was declared a historic monument in 1874. The Mont-Saint-Michel and its bay were added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites in 1979, and it was listed with criteria such as cultural, historical, and architectural significance, as well as human-created and natural beauty. photo by lucky edited by mobydick74 Added by CHL	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29088000
National Ocean Sciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometer Facility, Department of Geology and Geophysics, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Data Center Description The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's National Ocean Sciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility (NOSAMS) was established in 1989 to process and analyze a large number of small volume seawater samples (>13,700) collected as part of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE). An ongoing commitment to automation and high-precision 14C AMS measurements has allowed NOSAMS to successfully meet the goals of the WOCE program while providing over 17,000 AMS radiocarbon results (carbon dating ) to non-WOCE investigators from a wide variety of carbon-bearing materials. All of the formal WOCE program samples have been analyzed as of the spring of 2002, and all Pacific and Indian Ocean data have been released to the WOCE Hydrographic Office. The Atlantic Ocean dataset is expected to be released by the summer of 2002. AMS analyses are reported with a routine precision of below 4 per mil (thousand) on samples with a 14C content of more than 70 % of that of a modern sample. NOSAMS accepts samples from all qualified research laboratories and charges fees that vary according to the difficulty of analysis and the nature of the project. Samples from federally supported research programs receive the lowest rates. Overall, the objective of this facility is to support research in all studies of global change.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29101000
1. A flexible bag designed to be inflated with hot air or with a gas, such as helium, that is lighter than the surrounding air, causing it to rise and float in the atmosphere. Such a bag with ... sufficient capacity to lift and transport a suspended gondola or other load. Such a bag shaped like a figure or object when inflated; an inflatable. [Source: The American Heritage? Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright ? 2000 by Houghton Mifflin	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29102000
Step 2 is difficult. Chapter 5 of "The Book of GENESIS" ("the BoG"), which was assigned as reading for this lecture, gives some useful information for answering the two questions. This chapter (Segev, 2005) is also very mathematical, and it is easy to get lost in the equations and forget what they are used for. I wanted you to read it in order to get an overview of the theory of passive propagation in dendrites. Now, I'll list what I think is important for you to remember. There are three things that can be measured experimentally and are related to the parameters that we need for a model: - The attentuation of voltage with distance, and the "space constant" or - The membrane time constant. - The input resistance of the cell, measured at the soma. This slide gives a summary of the electrical properties of a uniform section of passive dendrite having length l and diameter d. The conducting cytoplasm inside the neuron, the insulating neural membrane, and the liquid (similar to salt water) surrounding the neuron form a cable with a capacitance Cm. The inner conductor, the cytoplasm, is a poorer conductor than the copper wire used in an undersea cable, and it has an resistance along the length of the cable Ra, the "axial resistance". The membrane in not a perfect insulator due to the ion-conducting channels that pass through it. It is convenient to make a distinction between the "passive channels" that do not vary in conductance, and the "active channels" that have conductances varying with voltage, calcium concentration, or synaptic input. The passive channels account for the membrane resistance Rm and the associated leakage current Ileak. The active channels are represented by the various variable conductances that are labeled as Gk in the neural compartment diagram and the differential equation for Vm that we described in the previous section on compartments.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29105000
\|http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/ A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine®\| The official name of this gene is “ethylmalonic encephalopathy 1.” ETHE1 is the gene's official symbol. The ETHE1 gene is also known by other names, listed below. The ETHE1 gene provides instructions for making an enzyme that is involved in energy production. This enzyme is active throughout the body in mitochondria (the energy-producing centers in cells), where it may form part of a larger protein complex. Little is known about the enzyme's function in mitochondria. More than 20 different mutations in the ETHE1 gene have been identified in people with ethylmalonic encephalopathy. Most of these mutations lead to the production of an abnormally short, nonfunctional version of the ETHE1 enzyme or prevent cells from making any of this enzyme. These genetic changes impair the body's ability to produce energy in mitochondria. Additionally, a lack of the ETHE1 enzyme allows potentially toxic compounds, including ethylmalonic acid and lactic acid, to build up in the body. Excess amounts of these compounds can be detected in urine. It is unclear how a loss of the ETHE1 enzyme leads to the progressive features of ethylmalonic encephalopathy. Researchers suggest that a buildup of toxic compounds in the brain could be responsible for the neurologic signs and symptoms. Changes in the blood vessels or in blood flow could also contribute to nervous system damage, leading to the characteristic features of the disorder. Cytogenetic Location: 19q13.31 Molecular Location on chromosome 19: base pairs 44,010,870 to 44,031,395 The ETHE1 gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 19 at position 13.31. More precisely, the ETHE1 gene is located from base pair 44,010,870 to base pair 44,031,395 on chromosome 19. See How do geneticists indicate the location of a gene? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/howgeneswork/genelocation) in the Handbook. You and your healthcare professional may find the following resources about ETHE1 helpful. You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for genetics professionals and researchers. See How are genetic conditions and genes named? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mutationsanddisorders/naming) in the Handbook. clone ; encephalopathy ; enzyme ; gene ; hepatoma ; hydrolase ; lactic acid ; mitochondria ; nervous system ; neurologic ; protein ; toxic You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference Glossary (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/glossary). The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified healthcare professional. See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/consult/findingprofessional) in the Handbook.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29111000
GIS at NCI Introduction to GIS at NCI Geospatial tools are used at NCI for a variety of applications, including: - The identification and display of the geographic patterns of cancer incidence and mortality rates in the US and their change over time, - The creation of complex databases for the study of cancer screening, diagnosis and survival at the community level, - Environmental exposure assessment through satellite imagery, - Spatial statistical models to estimate cancer incidence, prevalence and survival for every US state, - Communication of local cancer information to the public and public health professionals through interactive web-based tools, - The identification of health disparities at the local level through the comparison of cancer outcomes across demographic subgroups, and - Development of new methods of displaying geospatial data for clear communication to the public and for examination of complex multivariate data by researchers. - The Epidemiology and Genomics Research Program (EGRP) and the Surveillance Research Program (SRP) support grant research to use GIS in cancer research and the development of methodologies to accomplish this research. EGRP also funded the development and maintenance of a geographic information system for breast cancer studies on Long Island (LI GIS). The LI GIS is available to researchers and can be used to study other types of cancer and conditions as well. - Statistical Methodology and Applications Branch (SMAB) The Statistical Methodology and Applications Branch (SMAB) contributes to GIS research by developing statistical methods for the analysis, display, and web-based communication of georeferenced cancer data. - Surveillance Systems Branch (SSB) The Surveillance Systems Branch (SSB) oversees the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program, an integrated, comprehensive, multiple population-based reporting system of cancer registries covering 26% of the U.S. population. Cancer incidence information is provided at the state, county and census tract level. Investigators in SEER's Rapid Response Surveillance Studies (RRSS) are exploring and applying GIS technology in several areas. - The Epidemiology and Biostatistics Program (EBP) EBP has a long history of publishing the NCI cancer atlases. - The Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch (OEEB) OEEB has an active research program in using satellite imagery to estimate the potential exposure to cancer-causing environmental agents by individuals living in agricultural areas.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29112000
How to use GIS? 1. Mapping Where Things Are Mapping where things are lets you find places that have the features you are looking for and to see where to take action. 1. Find a feature—People use maps to see where or what an individual feature is. 2. Finding patterns—By looking at the distribution of features on the map instead of just an individual feature, you can see patterns 2. Mapping Quantities People map quantities, such as where the most and least are, to find places that meet their criteria and take action, or to see the relationships between places. This gives an additional level of information beyond simply mapping the locations 3. Mapping Densities While you can see concentrations by simply mapping the locations of features, in areas with many features it may be difficult to see which areas have a higher concentration than others. A density map lets you measure the number of features using a uniform areal unit, such as acres or square miles, so you can clearly see the distribution. 4. Finding What's Inside Use GIS to monitor what is happening and to take specific action by mapping what is inside a specific area. For example, you would monitor infection disease spreading in a certain district to find out the pattern of the cases distribution —if so, the proper action should be taken. 5. Finding What's Nearby Find out what is occurring within a set distance of a feature by mapping what is nearby. For example, you may need to notify all residents within 500 feet of a proposed 6. Mapping Change Map the change in an area to anticipate future conditions, decide on a course of action, or to evaluate the results of an action or policy. By mapping where and how things move over a period of time, you can gain insight into how they behave. For example, public health professionals may need to track the spreading of a certain disease over a period of time.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29113000
You can get the [x y z] vector of each as follows: r = 6371000 + alt x = rcos(lat)cos(lon) y = rcos(lat)sin(lon) z = r*sin(lat) Then subtract the vectors from each other. Make sure your lat and lon are expressed in radians. Note that I have assumed a spherical model of the earth, which will yield very good answers in proportional terms — less than 0.3% worst case, based on a scratch-of-the-head "calculation", and much, much less for points that are within a few degrees of each other. If you need an answer that's good down to the meter regardless of the distance, you will need to use an ellipsoidal model, such as WGS 84 (thanks to @whuber for pointing this out). In that case, you can replace 6371000 with the equatorial radius, 6378137, and multiply z by (1 – 1/298.257223563).	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29114000
Most people still think of Web sites such as Google as places to go. Wrong. That's the old media model. In reality, every click is a command for some computer somewhere in the world. (...) Indeed, CEO Eric Schmidt says that Google essentially is a huge, distributed supercomputer "doing all sorts of things over a fiber-optic network that eventually are services available to end-users." Before long, Googling will mean not just searching for something, but getting ALMOST anything done online. The New York Times estimated last year that the Googleplex and its server farms contain 450,000 servers. "The rate at which the Google computing system has grown is as remarkable as its size. In March 2001, when the company was serving about 70 million Web pages daily, it had 8,000 computers, according to a Microsoft researcher granted anonymity to talk about a detailed tour he was given at one of Google's Silicon Valley computing centers. By 2003 the number had grown to 100,000."	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29120000
Social Issues in Sport Title: Social Issues in Sport Author: Woods, Ronald B. Publisher: Human Kinetics Call No.: GV706.5 .W655 2007 From the Publisher: Sport is all around us. Yet few of us look critically at how it affects our lives—and even fewer look at how we as a society affect sport. Social Issues in Sport is an outstanding introduction to the multifaceted roles of sport and physical activity in society and the perfect tool for examining sport from a critical perspective. The text’s engaging writing style, full-color format, and sound learning tools make it accessible and effective at getting students involved in and excited about the material. A full array of instructor resources make this book a highly functional and enjoyable way for instructors to introduce this subject to their students. While the book is solidly grounded in research, it does not dwell on theory. Social Issues in Sport is written to whet the appetite of students in sport management and sport studies for a deeper look at the issues, contradictions, and confusion that characterize our love–hate affair with sport. In Social Issues in Sport, students will find heavy emphasis on areas that other texts often overlook—including the role of coaches, importance of lifetime sport and fitness, sport in education, and sport for special populations such as the physically and mentally challenged and the elderly. As a result, students gain a complete view of what constitutes sport and physical activity and a firm grasp of the sociocultural considerations vital to their understanding of sport. Students are encouraged to see the sport world not only with their eyes wide open to the problems but also with an optimistic, encouraging view of its future. Author Ronald Woods draws on a lifetime in sport as a participant, observer, fan, teacher, coach, administrator, and critic. His wide-lens view of sport helps students make sense of the world of sport and physical activity and, more important, apply it to their own personal and professional lives. Woods’ easy-to-comprehend distinction between sport for recreational participation, high performance, and spectating illuminates for students the profound differences in how sport can be viewed and challenges their thinking about their own roles as participants and spectators. Woods’ diverse background in sports gives him a unique perspective and allows him to write with a style and clarity that students will appreciate. This full-color book is organized into four parts that reflect the presence of sports around us. Part I sets the stage for studying sport in society. Part II examines the scope and effect of sport on society. Part III explores sport as an institution and how it functions within other institutions such as schools, colleges, and the Olympic movement. Part IVfocuses on the interaction between our society’s culture and sports. In 19 chapters, the book enthusiastically invites students to explore many issues, such as how a participant, spectator, coach, and administrator may have differing views of sports; how to distinguish between different levels of play, games, and sport when assessing the role of sport; and what trends to expect in the future and how to be part of a positive development of sporting structures. Social Issues in Sports contains the following features that encourage learning: -An engaging writing style, rich with examples and pedagogical aids, gets students excited about and invested in the sporting world around them. -Interesting sidebars include up-close profiles of significant people and organizations (In the Arena With), examples of how sport is viewed in the public (Pop Culture), and insights from those who study the subject extensively (Expert’s View). -Activity Time-Outs, nicely integrated with the text, invite readers to recognize and assess the sociocultural issues that sport raises and apply the book’s concepts to their own lives. -An instructor guide, test package, and presentation package provide instructors with tools and assignment ideas to ensure that students remain engaged. Social Issues in Sport is an engaging, in-depth, and inspiring resource that will help students understand the value of sport and its limitations and equip them to make choices about the role sports will play in their lives. About the Author: Ron Woods,Ph.D is a performance coach at the Human Performance Institute in Orlando,Florida and an adjunct professor at the University of Tampa and the University of South Florida. Ron formerly worked for the United States Tennis Association for twenty years as director of player development and community tennis. Formerly, a professor at West Chester University of Pennsylvania in exercise science and coach of men’s tennis. He has been honored by the International Tennis Hall of Fame, national coach of the year for United States Professional Tennis Association and was inducted into the athletic Hall of Fame at both East Stroudsburg University and West Chester University.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29123000
Bisphenol A, or BPA, is a chemical compound used in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. BPA has been in use for over 50 years, and is often used to make plastics hard and shatter-resistant. It's also used to coat metal items like the inside of food cans, bottle caps and canned drinks. You can find BPA in plastic baby bottles, sports equipment, compact discs, water bottles, medical equipment, dental sealants, eyeglass lenses, electronic devices, paints, and countless other consumer products. Even cash register receipts can be coated with BPA. Health Effects of Bisphenol A BPA has come under increased scrutiny in recent years for its possible connection to birth defects and reproductive problems. Studies have shown that BPA mimics the hormone estrogen, and it might be linked to problems like lower sperm counts, hormonal changes, enlarged prostate glands, brain and behavioral abnormalities, early onset of puberty, obesity and a host of other health problems. (It shares many of these problems with another plastic additive, phthalates.) It's unclear at what levels BPA will health problems, or if BPA studies in animals can be applied to humans. People can be exposed to BPA through many sources, though food and drink account for most exposures. The recycling symbol "7" indicates a polycarbonate plastic containing BPA. Metal cans, however, will usually not indicate whether they contain a BPA lining or not. If you're concerned about exposure to BPA, follow these simple suggestions from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences: - Don’t microwave polycarbonate plastic food containers. (Look for the recycling symbol #7 on the bottom.) - Reduce your use of canned foods. - When possible, opt for glass, porcelain or stainless steel containers, particularly for hot food or liquids. - Use baby bottles and toys that are BPA-free.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29128000
Born Giovanni Antonio Canale in Venice in October 1697, Canaletto, the son of theatrical scenery painter Bernardo Canale, was one of the world's most influential and prolific artists(having some 900 paintings attributed to him), and remains one of the most popular. Canaletto, with his brother Christoforo, initially followed his father into theatrical painting, including work in Rome in 1719, where he was introduced to Gian Paolo Pannini's paintings of Roman city scenes. These proved to be a great influence on him. By 1723, Canaletto's output was dominated by accurate, almost photographic views (known as Vedute Esatte) of Venice featuring a startlingly convincing use of perspective. While the Paninni influence is clear, Canaletto took things to another level, as in the magical use of light in The Stonemason's Yard. Many of Canaletto's early works were painted 'on-site'. This differed from the usual practice of drawing sketches and then later completing them in the studio1, though later in his career, a large workload compelled him to utilise the latter method. Success at a Venetian public exhibition brought his work to the attention of patrons such as the merchant Stefano Conti and the Imperial Ambassador to Venice, whose commissions were invaluable to Canaletto at the start of his career - partly because of the money but, more importantly, because they introduced his work to the English. Thanks to painting during the peak of the Grand Tour2, Canaletto was in the right place at the right time. When young English gentlemen travelled the world (ostensibly to broaden their minds) they wanted some souvenirs to take home. As this was a long time before the instant camera, the only way to get a picture was to commission someone to paint one, and Canaletto's predominantly literal style meant that he was perfect for this type of work. It is thought that he received his first commission of this type from Owen McSwiney3, who also steered him in a direction more tailored to the Grand Tourists' requirements. Through McSwiney, and later Joseph Smith4, much of Canaletto's work found its way into English collections5, leading to huge demand and the acquisition of an enviable reputation. He eventually had to employ assistants (including his nephew and probably his father) to help him keep up with the workload. One criticism of Canaletto is that much of his work is not his own but his assistants' completion6 of his sketches, many of which he is thought to have created with the aid of a camera obscura. Canaletto was certainly not alone in employing studio assistants; the quantity of work commissioned from the popular artists of the time would have been impossible for them to complete single-handed. The tourist industry throughout Europe was hit hard by the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession, causing Canaletto's primary source of commissions to dry up. So he went off on a little tour of his own, eventually ending up in London in 1746. While there, Smith introduced him to, among others, the Duke of Richmond, who commissioned some of Canaletto's best works from this time. Many of his English works were vanity pieces, including several paintings of the aristocracy's country homes. Some of his London paintings, such as the stunning Ranelagh, Interior of the Rotunda, can be seen in London's National Gallery. But, even though these were impressive, his style had become formulaic and the glory years were gone. Canaletto returned to Venice in 1755 where he stagnated, although he finally gained recognition from the Venetian Academy of Fine Arts (The Accademia Veneziana di Pittura e Scultura), who elected him a member in 1763. Canaletto died in poverty on 10 April, 1768, leaving a huge body of work and a fascinating pictorial record of 18th-Century Venice. Some more of examples Canaletto's work include Venice: The Grand Canal with S Simeone Piccolo and The Doge's Palace, both from The National Gallery in London, and many other paintings.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29133000
\|Version 5 (modified by simonmar, 3 years ago)\| The Garbage Collector GC algorithms supported: - Copying GC - Parallel GC? - Marking? (for compaction or sweeping) - Sweeping? (for mark-region GC) The GC is designed to be flexible, supporting lots of ways to tune its behaviour. Here's an overview of the techniques we use: - Generational GC, with a runtime-selectable number of generations (+RTS -G<n> -RTS, where n >= 1). Currently it is a traditional generational collector where each collection collects a particular generation and all younger generations. Generalizing this such that any subset of generations can be collected is a possible future extension. - The heap grows on demand. This is straightforwardly implemented by basing the whole storage manager on a block allocator. - Aging: objects can be aged within a generation, to avoid premature promotion. See Commentary/Rts/Storage/GC/Aging. - The heap collection policy is runtime-tunable. You select how large a generation gets before it is collected using the +RTS -F<n> -RTS option, where <n> is a factor of the generation's size the last time it was collected. The default value is 2, that is a generation is allowed to double in size before being collected. GC data structures The main data structure is generation, which contains: - a pointer to a list of blocks - a pointer to a list of blocks containing large objects - a list of threads in this generation - the "remembered set", a list of blocks containing pointers to objects in this generation that point to objects in younger generations and various other administrative fields (see includes/rts/storage/GC.h for the details). Generations are kept in the array generations, indexed by the generation number. A nursery is a list of blocks into which the mutator allocates new (small) objects. For resaons of locality, we want to re-use the list of blocks for the nursery after each GC, so we keep the nursery blocks rather than freeing and re-allocating a new nursery after GC. The struct nursery contains only two fields - the list of blocks in this nursery - the number of blocks in the above list In the threaded RTS, there is one nursery per Capability, as each Capability allocates independently into its own allocation area. Nurseries are therefore stored in an array nurseries, indexed by Capability number. The blocks of the nursery notionally logically to generation 0, although they are not kept on the list generations.blocks. The reason is that we want to keep the actual nursery blocks separate from any blocks containing live data in generation 0. Generation 0 may contain live data for two reasons: - objects live in the nursery are not promoted to generation 1 immediately, instead they are aged, first being copied to generation 0, and then being promoted to generation 1 in the next GC cycle if they are still alive. - If there is only one generation (generation 0), then live objects in generation 0 are retained in generation 0 after a GC.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29135000
The History of Kool-Aid Remember that TV ad? Well, Kool-Aid got its start right here in Hastings, Nebraska. This internationally known soft drink mix, now owned by Kraft Foods, actually started out as a liquid concentrate called Fruit Smack, invented by Edwin Perkins. Edwin Perkins was always fascinated by chemistry and enjoyed inventing things. When his family moved to southwest Nebraska around 1900, a young Perkins experimented with home made concoctions in his mother’s kitchen. His father opened a General Store in Hendley, Nebraska, and it was in that store where Edwin became entranced with a new dessert mix introduced by a childhood friend (and future wife) Kitty Shoemaker. The popular powdered dessert came in six delicious flavors and was called Jell-O. Edwin convinced his father to carry the dessert line in his store. It was at this same time Edwin sent away for a kit called “How to Become a Manufacturer.” During the following years, Perkins graduated from high school, published a weekly newspaper, did job printing, served as postmaster and set up a mail order business called “Perkins Products Co.” to market the numerous products he had invented. In 1918, Perkins married his childhood sweetheart, Kitty, and developed a remedy to kick the tobacco habit called Nix-O-Tine. By 1920, the demand for this and other products was so great, Perkins and his wife moved to Hastings, which had better rail service for shipping purposes. Another product that was proving to be popular was a concentrated drink mix called Fruit Smack. Fruit Smack, like Jell-O, came in six delicious flavors. The four-ounce bottle made enough for a family to enjoy at an affordable price. However, shipping the bottles proved to be costly and breakage was also a problem. In 1927, Perkins developed a method of removing the liquid from Fruit Smack so the remaining powder could be re-packaged in envelopes (which Perkins designed and printed) under a new name to be called Kool-Ade. (He later changed the spelling to Kool-Aid.) The product, which sold for 10¢ a packet, was first sold to wholesale grocery, candy and other suitable markets by mail order in six flavors; strawberry, cherry, lemon-lime, grape, orange and raspberry. In 1929, Kool-Aid was distributed nation-wide to grocery stores by food brokers. It was a family project to package and ship the popular soft drink mix around the country. By 1931, the demand for Kool-Aid was so strong, other items were dropped so Perkins could concentrate solely on Kool-Aid. He moved the entire production to Chicago for more efficient distribution, to be closer to supplies and to be able to expand even further if necessary. During the Great Depression, Perkins cut the price in half to just 5¢ a packet, a “luxury” most families could afford. Young entrepreneurs sprung up across the country setting up Kool-Aid stands. While most of the profits were consumed by the youngsters, it was something most children enjoyed. Perkins introduced off-shoots of Kool-Aid, including pie fillings and ice cream mixes. These products never really took off with the public. During World War II, fruit acid and dextrose rationing prevented any expansion. After the war, the demand for Kool-Aid was so great that Perkins had to expand the factory and by 1950, some 300 production workers produced nearly 1 million packets of Kool-Aid each day! In 1953, Perkins announced to his staff that he was selling Kool-Aid to General Foods. Within a year, the popular Smiling Face Pitcher was introduced in print advertisements. Root Beer and Lemonade flavors were added to the original six flavors in 1955 and pre-sweetened Kool-Aid was developed in 1964 and redeveloped in 1970. Kraft Foods eventually acquired General Foods and became the new owners of Kool-Aid. They refined the Kool-Aid pitcher into Kool-Aid Man and introduced new Kool-Pumps and Kool Bursts to the market. Kool-Aid continues to be a popular product with roots in Hastings. It is the official soft drink of Nebraska! Edwin and Kitty Perkins never forgot their Nebraska ties and returned home often. The Perkins Foundation has been instrumental in many projects in and around Hastings, including gifts to Hastings College, Mary Lanning Memorial Hospital, Good Samaritan Retirement Village and the Hastings Museum. Edwin passed away in 1961 and Kitty followed 16 years later. Both are buried in Hastings. The Hastings Museum houses an impressive Kool-Aid collection as part of the Kool-Aid: Discover the Dream exhibit, including the original Kool-Aid Man costume worn in the television commercials.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29140000
New way of collecting samples is easier on growers, too Hay growers can get a better idea of how fertile their alfalfa fields are if they have plants tested rather than soil. That's especially important considering the skyrocketing costs of fertilizer and the high value of hay, says Steve Orloff, Siskiyou County, CA, farm advisor. “If you soil sample, you can measure how much of that nutrient is in the soil,” he says. “But by testing the plant itself, you're measuring what the plant actually took up.” Before planting a field of alfalfa, soil test to learn what nutrients may be deficient. “After that I would switch to plant-tissue testing,” Orloff recommends. “Growers should tissue test once a year until they have their fertility programs established; then test every other year.” It's also good for diagnosing problem areas in a field to determine if the cause is nutrient-related by sampling good and poor growth areas and comparing the results, he says. The plant-nutrient-measuring method is just catching on in the forage industry — in Orloff's northern California region, at least. Growers of higher-value crops have used the method for years, and Orloff and his University of California-Davis colleagues have been pushing hay growers to use it in recent years. While soil tests determine the amount of phosphorus and potassium in soil, they do a poor job measuring sulfur levels, he says. Tissue tests, however, can tell how much of all three nutrients — as well as boron and molybdenum — were used by plants. “The main drawback with plant-tissue testing is that you obviously don't want to test weedy fields because their nutrient concentrations would be different. You also don't want the field to be stressed; if it's stressed from water or insect damage, it could skew the results,” he says. Other detriments: the time and effort needed to cut and prepare representative plant tissue samples. “The California method has been to go through the field and collect 40-60 stems. Then you have to divide those stems into thirds and different components are analyzed for different values. It involves walking through a field before it's cut. One of the last things a grower wants to do is run out ahead of a swather and take a sample.” But Orloff and colleagues believe they have an easier way of gathering tissue samples. “Growers now are taking core samples from bales for forage-quality analysis. A lot of the dairy industry will demand that before they buy a grower's hay, and people are putting a lot of care into collecting good samples for forage-quality analysis. So the thought was, why not use that same sample for nutrient analysis?” He tested the core-sampling method the past two years on 39 grower fields. “It looks like it will work,” he says. “I think it's far more convenient — you can just sample a stack and get a more representative sample from the field. If you're collecting 40-60 stems walking a field and bending over each time, your tendency is to cut a plant and get a whole bunch of stems off it because you're tired of bending over.” Bales should be cored for tissue-test samples at first cutting in cooler-season areas where first cuttings yield well. In longer-season areas, bale cores should be taken from second or third cutting for tissue testing. The 20 cores currently recommended as an accurate sample for forage analysis are adequate for tissue testing as well, says Orloff. Accuracy-wise, it's hard to determine whether a bale-core sample is better than a plant sample. “That's what we're keying in on now, but so far the relationship looks pretty good. “It's been amazing to see the variability in different grower fields; it goes from very deficient all the way up to very high for each nutrient. With one grower who took tissue samples, the lab actually called him because his values were so high. He was able to go several years without applying sulfur.” Orloff worries that many growers have a fertilizer routine and figure it will continue to work because it has in the past. “But some nutrients could be accumulating or, on the flip side, you may not be putting on enough nutrients,” he says. In his trials, the farm advisor compared soil samples, whole-plant samples and core samples and sampled at different growth stages. “One of the concerns is, with ordinary plant-tissue testing in most states, it's recommended to take a sample at one-tenth bloom. A lot of growers now, especially if they're selling to the dairy market, are cutting earlier — usually in bud stage. The nutrient concentration at bud stage is different than it would be at one-tenth bloom, so we've done trials sampling at different time periods to see how values need to be adjusted if alfalfa is cut earlier.” It costs more to tissue test — possibly double the cost of a soil sample. But with high fertilizer and hay prices expected, and the improved accuracy, tissue testing is worth it, Orloff says. Growers who want to tissue-test fields should talk with their labs to see if they offer what's needed. Results will then need to be evaluated with the help of the local extension educator or lab personnel, who can help growers find values to compare. “We plan to have values for cored samples later this year that will be based on our results and values established for whole tops,” he says.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29142000
Before the days of integration, African-American students in Hazard attended one of two schools, the Liberty School or a local boarding school. These institutions were often underfunded and utilized hand-me-down books and supplies, yet out of this many of the students have gone on to achieve success in life, and think fondly of their time at Liberty. Dozens of former students from Liberty School came out to remember their school, their experiences, and their classmates during a reunion on Saturday. Every two years the former students get together at the Liberty School monument on Liberty Street. The monument itself was designed by one of the former students, James “JC” Collins, who said that it means a lot to him to return and reunite with with other former students. The Liberty Street school was built as part of the Work Progress Administration in 1936. The administration was created by President Franklin Roosevelt to put Americans back to work after the Great Depression, and would be responsible for building much of the American infrastructure, including highways, bridges and even schools. The school was open until 1963, but the integration of the schools started a year earlier. Collins said that along with consolidating schools in the name of integration, it also gave the students of Liberty School a chance at better facilities and opportunities. “Really, we didn’t have the facilities that we should have had,” said Collins. “We had some great sport teams — basketball, football, baseball — we had it in spite of not having the facilities.” Students at Liberty School also had only a few teachers working from kindergarten through twelfth grade. Paulette Roberts said that she remembers getting used books from Hazard High School, and was so fed up that they weren’t receiving new books that she and her sister threw the old books out of a window in the building. From these humble beginnings, many of these students learned valuable lesions of relying on each other, working hard and consequences of their actions. Many of these students left the school and went on to become doctors, judges, lawyers and business owners. The school was made up of a lower level for elementary kids and a upper floor for high school. While many of the communities around Perry County had African-American elementaries, there was only one public high school. “We drew kids from as far away as Red Fox,” noted Kenneth Combs, the president of the Liberty School Alumni Association. These students were given a bus voucher of up to $15 a week to get back and forth to school on public buses. The school was strict and administrators believed in corporal punishment. Many of the students reminisced about being paddled by their teachers, but also how it made them stronger. Some even said that teachers would show up at their homes to make sure parents were aware of their mistakes. While these rough days in education are now gone, the lasting memory of the influence of the Liberty School can be felt. Many of the students left the area, making their homes across the United States. Hazard Independent Schools board member Dennis Smith attended Saturday’s reunion as a representative to show the board’s support for the school’s alumni. “It is important to share the great memories that you have had here,” said Smith. As a way of honoring the memory of the school and its students, people in attendance released balloons for those that have passed away since the last reunion. The former Liberty Dragons that were in attendance ended the ceremony, honoring the school by singing the school song. The last line sums up how many of these students feel about their school: “Dear old Liberty High School, I’m in love with you.”	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29143000
Keeping an Eye on Your Bones Many of us start to think about osteoporosis as we approach our senior years. After all, that's when bone loss occurs, right? Wrong. Doctors tend to treat patients with osteoporosis in their 60s, 70s, and older -- but bone loss begins much earlier. Our bone mass peaks around age 20. Bone loss can begin once peak bone mass is reached. Those at high risk are more likely to lose bone mass early. When bone loss goes unchecked for years, the result is fractures -- often of the hip, spine, wrist, or leg bones. Menopause speeds the process. That's why 80 percent of the more than 10 million Americans with osteoporosis are women past menopause. In the first few years after menopause, bone loss accelerates; after that, it continues, but at a slower rate. Osteoporosis can strike men, too, but usually at a later age because they start with more bone. One in four men over 50 will end up with a fracture related to osteoporosis. To learn who needs help, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force urges routine osteoporosis screening for all healthy women 65 and older. High-risk women should seek screening at age 60 or as advised by your doctor. The best screening method is a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan. Medicare covers this non-invasive test for women 65 and older once every two years if they have certain risk factors for osteoporosis or are taking medicine to treat osteoporosis. Several medications have been approved to treat osteoporosis, including calcitonin, bisphosphonates such as alendronate and risedronate, parathyroid hormone, and selective estrogen-receptor modulators such as raloxifene. According to the Task Force, each of these treatments has potential benefits and harms. Prevention includes getting enough calcium and vitamin D. Weight-bearing exercise helps, too. Who's at high risk? Women older than 65 White or Asian women Women with small bones Women who are sedentary People with a family history of osteoporosis Adults who are very thin People who break bones after age 45 because of "low trauma," such as a fall while standing Long-term corticosteroid users People who drink alcohol to excess People with overactive thyroids People with an inadequate intake of calcium and protein People taking certain medications, such as phenytoin, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, antacids containing aluminum, cancer treatments, and thyroid hormone Your calcium needs The National Academy of Sciences and the National Osteoporosis Foundation recommend: Age: Birth to 6 months Daily calcium need: 210 mg Age: 6 months to 1 year Daily calcium need: 270 Age: 1 to 3 Daily calcium need: 500 mg Age: 4 to 8 Daily calcium need: 800 mg Age: 9 to 18 Daily calcium need: 1,300 mg Age: 19 to 49 Daily calcium need: 1,000 mg Age: 50 and older Daily calcium need: 1,200 mg	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29144000
Join for Just $16 A Year - Discounts on travel and everyday savings - Subscription to AARP The Magazine - Free membership for your spouse or partner Vulvovaginitis, vulvitis, and vaginitis are general terms that refer to the inflammation of the vagina and/or vulva (the external genital organs of a woman).These conditions can be caused by bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections. Also, vulvovaginitis can be caused by low estrogen levels (called "atrophic vaginitis") or any type of allergic or irritation response from things such as spermicidal products, condoms, soaps, and bubble bath. In general, vulvovaginitis causes vaginal discharge, irritation, and itching. One of the most common reasons why women visit their doctor is because of a change in vaginal discharge. It is completely normal for a woman to have a vaginal discharge, the amount and consistency of which varies during the course of the menstrual cycle. Each of the three most common types of vulvovaginitis will be described separately. Bacterial vaginosis is the most common cause of vaginitis during the childbearing years. Forty percent to 50% of vaginitis cases are caused by bacterial vaginosis. The occurrence of bacterial vaginosis is difficult to determine but studies have proposed that 10% to 41% of Bacterial vaginosis is not caused by a particular organism but is a change in the balance of normal vaginal bacteria. Ninety percent of the bacteria found in a healthy vagina belong to the Lactobacillus family. For unknown reasons, there is a shift in the bacterial population that results in overgrowth of other bacteria. Patients suffering from bacterial vaginosis have very high numbers of bacteria such as Gardnerella vaginalis, Mycoplasmahominis, Bacteroides species, and Mobiluncus species. These bacteria can be found at numbers 100 to 1000 times greater than found in the healthy vagina. In contrast, Lactobacillus bacteria are in very low numbers or completely absent from the vagina of women with bacterial vaginosis. Author Info: Belinda Rowland PhD, The Gale Group Inc., Gale, Detroit, Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine, 2002This feature is for informational purposes only and should not be used to replace the care and information received from your healthcare provider. Please consult a healthcare professional with any health concerns you may have. Enter your symptoms in our Symptom Checker to find out possible causes of your symptoms. Go. Enter any list of prescription drugs and see how they interact with each other and with other substances. Go. Enter its color and shape information, and this tool helps you identify it. Go. Find information on drug interactions, side effects, and more. Go. Member access to health and insurance products and services at AARPhealthcare.com. Members can get an instant quote with AARP® Dental Insurance administered by Delta Dental Insurance Company. Members can save on eyewear with AARP® Vision Discounts provided by EyeMed. Caregiving can be a lonely journey, but AARP offers resources that can help.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29146000
A Splendrous Lotus with Four Superb Petals For over 200 years, Western scholars have struggled to understand Hinduism, a faith whose followers seemed (to outsiders) to arbitrarily worship any one of a dozen Gods as the Supreme, a religion vastly diverse in its beliefs, practices and ways of worship. Some Indologists labeled the Hinduism they encountered polytheistic; others even coined new terms, like henotheism, to describe this baffling array of spiritual traditions. Few, however, have realized, and fewer still have written, that India's Sanatana Dharma, or "eternal faith, " known today as Hinduism and comprising nearly a billion followers, is a family of religions with four principal denominations Saivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Smartism. This single perception is essential for understanding Hinduisim and explaining it accurately to others. Contrary to prevailing misconceptions, Hindus all worship a one Supreme Being, though by different names. For Vaishnavites, Lord Vishnu is God. For Saivites, God is Siva. For Shaktas, Goddess Shakti is supreme. For Smartas, liberal Hindus, the choice of Deity is left to the devotee. Each has a multitude of guru lineages, religious leaders, priesthoods, sacred literature, monastic communities, schools, pilgrimage centers and tens of thousands of temples. They possess a wealth of art and architecture, philosophy and scholarship. These four sects hold such divergent beliefs that each is a complete and independent religion. Yet, they share a vast heritage of culture and belief karma, dharma, reincarnation, all-pervasive Divinity, temple worship, sacraments, manifold Deities, the guru-shishya tradition and the Vedas as scriptural authority. In this eight-page Insight, drawn from Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami's Dancing with Siva, we offer a synopsis of these four denominations, followed by a point-by-point comparison. Each of Hinduism's philosophies, schools and lineages shares a common purpose: to further the soul's unfoldment to its divine destiny. Nowhere is this process better represented than in the growth of the renowned lotus, which, seeking the sun, arises from the mud to become a magnificent flower. Its blossom is a promise of purity and perfection. Saivite Hindus worship the Supreme God as Siva, the Compassionate One. Saivites esteem self discipline and philosophy and follow a satguru. They worship in the temple and practice yoga, striving to be one with Siva within. Shaktas worship the Supreme as the Divine Mother, Shakti or Devi. She has many forms. Some are gentle, some are fierce. Shaktas use chants, real magic, holy diagrams, yoga and rituals to call forth cosmic forces and awaken the great kundalini power within the spine. Vaishnavites worship the Supreme as Lord Vishnu and His incarnations, especially Krishna and Rama. Vaishnavites are mainly dualistic. They are deeply devotional. Their religion is rich in saints, temples and scriptures. Smartas worship the Supreme in one of six forms: Ganesha, Siva, Sakti, Vishnu, Surya and Skanda. Because they accept all the major Hindu Gods, they are known as liberal or nonsectarian. They follow a philosophical, meditative path, emphasizing man's oneness with God through understanding. What Is the Deeply Mystical Saiva Sect? Saivism is the world's oldest religion. Worshiping God Siva, the compassionate One, it stresses potent disciplines, high philosophy, the guru's centrality and bhakti-raja-siddha yoga leading to oneness with Siva within. Aum. Seated on Nandi, his bull mount, the perfect devotee, Lord Siva holds japa beads and the trident, symbol of love-wisdom-action, and offers blessings of protection and fearlessness. Mount Kailas, His sacred Himalayan abode, represents the pinnacle of consciousness. Saivism is ancient, truly ageless, for it has no beginning. It is the precursor of the many-faceted religion now termed Hinduism. Scholars trace the roots of Siva worship back more than 8,000 years to the advanced Indus Valley civilization. But sacred writings tell us there never was a time when Saivism did not exist. Modern history records six main schools: Saiva Siddhanta, Pashupatism, Kashmir Saivism, Vira Saivism, Siddha Siddhanta and Siva Advaita. Saivism's grandeur and beauty are found in a practical culture, an enlightened view of man's place in the universe and a profound system of temple mysticism and siddha yoga. It provides knowledge of man's evolution from God and back to God, of the soul's unfoldment and awakening guided by enlightened sages. Like all the sects, its majority are devout families, headed by hundreds of orders of swamis and sadhus who follow the fiery, world-renouncing path to moksha. The Vedas state, "By knowing Siva, the Auspicious One who is hidden in all things, exceedingly fine, like film arising from clarified butter, the One embracer of the universe by realizing God, one is released from all fetters." Aum Namah Sivaya. What Is the Magic and Power Of Shaktism? Shaktism reveres the Supreme as the Divine Mother, Shakti or Devi, in Her many forms, both gentle and fierce. Shaktas use mantra, tantra, yantra, yoga and puja to invoke cosmic forces and awaken the kundalini power. Aum. Shakti, depicted in Her green form, radiates beauty, energy, compassion and protection for followers. Wearing the tilaka of the Shakta sect on Her forehead, She blesses devotees, who shower rosewater, hold an umbrella and prostrate at Her feet. While worship of the divine mother extends beyond the pale of history, Shakta Hinduism arose as an organized sect in India around the fifth century. Today it has four expressions devotional, folk-shamanic, yogic and universalist all invoking the fierce power of Kali or Durga, or the benign grace of Parvati or Ambika. Shakta devotionalists use puja rites, especially to the Shri Chakra yantra, to establish intimacy with the Goddess. Shamanic Shaktism employs magic, trance mediumship, firewalking and animal sacrifice for healing, fertility, prophecy and power. Shakta yogis seek to awaken the sleeping Goddess Kundalini and unite her with Siva in the sahasrara chakra. Shakta universalists follow the reformed Vedantic tradition exemplified by Sri Ramakrishna. "Left-hand " tantric rites transcend traditional ethical codes. Shaktism is chiefly advaitic, defining the soul's destiny as complete identity with the Unmanifest, Siva. Central scriptures are the Vedas, Shakta Agamas and Puranas. The Devi Gita extols, "We bow down to the universal soul of all. Above and below and in all four directions, Mother of the universe, we bow." Aum Chandikayai Namah. What Is the Devotional Vaishnava Sect? Vaishnavism is an ancient Hindu sect centering on the worship of Lord Vishnu and His incarnations, especially Krishna and Rama. Largely dualistic, profoundly devotional, it is rich in saints, temples and scriptures. Aum. Vishnu is the infinite ocean from which the world emerges. He stands on waves, surrounded by the many-headed Seshanaga, who represents agelessness and is regarded as an extension of divine energy and an incarnation of Balarama, Lord Krishna's brother. The worship of Vishnu, meaning "pervader, " dates back to Vedic times. The Pancharatra and Bhagavata sects were popular prior to 300 bce. Today's five Vaishnava schools emerged in the middle ages, founded by Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka, Vallabha and Chaitanya. Vaishnavism stresses prapatti, single-pointed surrender to Vishnu, or His ten or more incarnations, called avataras. Japa is a key devotional sadhana, as is ecstatic chanting and dancing, called kirtana. Temple worship and festivals are elaborately observed. Philosophically, Vaishnavism ranges from Madhva's pure dualism to Ramanuja's qualified nondualism to Vallabha's nearly monistic vision. God and soul are everlastingly distinct. The soul's destiny, through God's grace, is to eternally worship and enjoy Him. While generally nonascetic, advocating bhakti as the highest path, Vaishnavism has a strong monastic community. Central scriptures are the Vedas, Vaishnava Agamas, Itihasas and Puranas. The Bhagavad Gita states, "On those who meditate on Me and worship with undivided heart, I confer attainment of what they have not, and preserve what they have." Aum Namo Narayanaya. What Is the Universalistic Smarta Sect? Smartism is an ancient brahminical tradition reformed by Shankara in the ninth century. Worshiping six forms of God, this liberal Hindu path is monistic, nonsectarian, meditative and philosophical. Aum. Adi Sankara lived from 788 to 820 ce, a mere 32 years, yet he gave Hinduism a new liberal denomination Smartism. Here, wearing sacred marks, he holds his writings and is flanked by the six Deities of the Smarta altar: Surya the Sun, Siva, Shakti, Vishnu, Kumaran and Ganesha. Smarta means a follower of classical smriti, particularly the Dharma Shastras, Puranas and Itihasas. Smartas revere the Vedas and honor the Agamas. Today this faith is synonymous with the teachings of Adi Shankara, the monk-philosopher known as shanmata sthapanacharya, "founder of the six-sect system." He campaigned India-wide to consolidate the Hindu faiths of his time under the banner of Advaita Vedanta. To unify the worship, he popularized the ancient Smarta five-Deity altar Ganapati, Surya, Vishnu, Siva and Shakti and added Kumara. From these, devotees may choose their "preferred Deity, " or Ishta Devata. Each God is but a reflection of the one Saguna Brahman. Shankara organized hundreds of monasteries into a ten-order, dashanami system, which now has five pontifical centers. He wrote profuse commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita. Sankara proclaimed, "It is the one Reality which appears to our ignorance as a manifold universe of names and forms and changes. Like the gold of which many ornaments are made, it remains in itself unchanged. Such is Brahman, and That art Thou." Aum Namah Sivaya. Comparing the Four Major Denominations As just seen, the spectrum of Hindu religiousness is found within four major sects or denominations: Saivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Smartism. Among these four streams, there are certainly more similarities than differences. All four believe in karma and reincarnation and in a Supreme Being who is both form and pervades form, who creates, sustains and destroys the universe only to create it again in unending cycles. They strongly declare the validity and importance of temple worship, in the three worlds of existence and the myriad Gods and devas residing in them. They concur that there is no intrinsic evil, that the cosmos is created out of God and is permeated by Him. They each believe in maya (though their definitions differ somewhat), and in the liberation of the soul from rebirth, called moksha, as the goal of human existence. They believe in dharma and in ahimsa, noninjury, and in the need for a satguru to lead the soul toward Self Realization. They wear the sacred marks, tilaka, on their foreheads as sacred symbols, though each wears a distinct mark. Finally, they prefer cremation of the body upon death, believing that the soul will inhabit another body in the next life. While Hinduism has many sacred scriptures, all sects ascribe the highest authority to the Vedas and Agamas, though their Agamas differ somewhat. Here, now, is a brief comparison of these four denominations. On the Personal God/Goddess Saivism: Personal God and temple Deity is Siva, neither male nor female. Lords Ganesha and Karttikeya are also worshiped. Shaktism: Personal Goddess and temple Deity is Shri Devi or Shakti, female, worshiped as Rajarajeshvari, Parvati, Lakshmi, Sarasvati, Kali, Amman, etc. the Divine Mother. Vaishnavism: Personal God and temple Deity is Vishnu, male. His incarnations as Rama and Krishna are also worshiped, as well as His divine consort, Radharani. Smartism: Personal God and temple Deity is Ishvara, male or female, worshiped as Vishnu, Siva, Shakti, Ganesha and Surya or any Deity of devotee's choice, e.g., Kumara or Krishna. On the Nature of Shakti Saivism: Shakti is God Siva's inseparable power and manifest will, energy or mind. Shaktism: Shakti is an active, immanent Being, separate from a quiescent and remote Siva. Vaishnavism: No special importance is given to Shakti. However, there are parallels wherein the divine consorts are conceived as the inseparable powers of Vishnu and His incarnations: e.g., Krishna's Radharani and Rama's Sita. Smartism: Shakti is a divine form of Ishvara. It is God's manifesting power. On the Nature of Personal God Saivism: God Siva is pure love and compassion, immanent and transcendent, pleased by our purity and sadhana. Shaktism: The Goddess Shakti is both compassionate and terrifying, pleasing and wrathful, assuaged by sacrifice and submission. Vaishnavism: God Vishnu is loving and beautiful, the object of man's devotion, pleased by our service and surrender. Smartism: Ishvara appears as a human-like Deity according to devotees' loving worship, which is sometimes considered a rudimentary self-purifying practice. On the Doctrine of Avatara Saivism: There are no divine earthly incarnations of the Supreme Being. Shaktism: The Divine Mother does incarnate in this world. Vaishnavism: Vishnu has ten or more incarnations. Smartism: All Deities may assume earthly incarnations. On the Soul and God Saivism: God Siva is one with the soul. The soul must realize this advaitic (monistic) Truth by God Siva's grace. Shaktism: The Divine Mother, Shakti, is mediatrix, bestowing advaitic moksha on those who worship Her. Vaishnavism: God and soul are eternally distinct. Through Lord Vishnu's grace, the soul's destiny is to worship and enjoy God. Smartism: Ishvara and man are in reality Absolute Brahman. Within maya, the soul and Ishvara appear as two. Jnana (wisdom) dispels the illusion. Saivism: With bhakti as a base, emphasis is placed on sadhana, tapas (austerity) and yoga. Ascetic. Shaktism: Emphasis is on bhakti and tantra, sometimes occult, practices. Ascetic-occult. Vaishnavism: Emphasis is on supreme bhakti or surrender, called prapatti. Generally devotional and nonascetic. Smartism: Preparatory sadhanas are bhakti, karma, raja yoga. The highest path is through knowledge, leading to jnana. Saivism: Vedas, Saiva Agamas and Saiva Puranas. Shaktism: Vedas, Shakta Agamas (Tantras) and Puranas. Vaishnavism: Vedas, Vaishnava Agamas, Puranas and the Itihasas (Ramayana and Mahabharata, especially the Bhagavad Gita). Smartism: Vedas, Agamas and classical smriti Puranas, Itihasas, especially the Bhagavad Gita, etc. Regions of Influence Saivism: Geographically widespread, strongest in South and North India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Shaktism: Geographically widespread, most prominent in Northeast India, especially Bengal and Assam. Vaishnavism: Geographically widespread, especially strong throughout India, North and South. Smartism: Geographically widespread, most prominent in North and South India. Paths of Attainment Saivism: The path for Saivites is divided into four progressive stages of belief and practice called charya, kriya, yoga and jnana. The soul evolves through karma and reincarnation from the instinctive-intellectual sphere into virtuous and moral living, then into temple worship and devotion, followed by internalized worship, or yoga, and its meditative disciplines. Union with God Siva comes through the grace of the satguru and culminates in the soul's maturity in the state of jnana, or wisdom. Saivism values both bhakti and yoga, devotional and contemplative sadhanas, or disciplines. Shaktism: The spiritual practices in Shaktism are similar to those in Saivism, though there is more emphasis in Saktism on God's Power as opposed to Being, on mantras and yantras, and on embracing apparent opposites: male-female, absolute-relative, pleasure-pain, cause-effect, mind-body. Certain sects within Shaktism undertake "left-hand " tantric rites, consciously using the world of form to transmute and eventually transcend that world. The "left-hand " approach is somewhat occult in nature; it is considered a path for the few, not the many. The "right-hand " path is more conservative in nature. Vaishnavism: Most Vaishnavites believe that religion is the performance of bhakti sadhanas, devotional disciplines, and that man can communicate with and receive the grace of the Gods and Goddesses through the darshan (sight) of their icons. The paths of karma yoga and jnana yoga lead to bhakti yoga. Among the foremost practices of Vaishnavites is chanting the holy names of the Avataras, Vishnu's incarnations, especially Rama and Krishna. Through total self-surrender, prapatti, to Vishnu, to Krishna or to His beloved consort Radharani, liberation from samsara (the cycle of reincarnation) is attained. Smartism: Smartas, the most eclectic of Hindus, believe that moksha is achieved through jnana yoga alone defined as an intellectual and meditative but non-kundalini-yoga path. Jnana yoga's progressive stages are scriptural study (shravana), reflection (manana) and sustained meditation (dhyana). Guided by a realized guru and avowed to the unreality of the world, the initiate meditates on himself as Brahman, Absolute Reality, to break through the illusion of maya. Devotees may also choose from three other non-successive paths to cultivate devotion, accrue good karma and purify the mind. These are bhakti yoga, karma yoga and raja yoga, which certain Smartas teach can also bring enlightenment. The comments are owned by the author. We aren't responsible for their content.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29154000
Note to Students, Parents and Teachers: This Educational Insight is Hinduism Today magazine's response to the controversy in California over the way Hinduism is taught in public-school history books. It is a 16-page lesson on Hindu history, beliefs and practices for sixth graders written from the Hindu point of view. It is historically sound and acceptable in content and tone to the various denominations of the Hindu community. The problem with every existing textbook for this grade level is that Hinduism is presented negatively, incompletely and inaccurately. This lesson is patterned after a typical chapter on the other faiths in these same books. It deliberately does not follow the specific California standards for presenting the Hindu religion because we believe them to be deeply flawed and contrary to the State's own general rule that teaching material must: 1) be historically accurate, 2) "instill in each child a sense of pride in his or her heritage" and 3) avoid "adverse reflection" on a religion. It is our intent that this lesson will serve as a model for US textbooks, providing an authentic depiction of the eminent history and traditions of the faith while giving 10-year-old Hindu students justifiable pride in their religion. In most states teachers are allowed to supplement the textbooks with additional material. This lesson may be offered as a more accurate basis for the classroom study of the origins and development of Hinduism in ancient India. Hinduism Today's Teaching Standards: At the beginning of each of these chapters sections, we present our outline for Hinduism in 6th grade history books. It is intended to replace existing lists of required topics, such as those found in the California Standards. 1. Explain the similarities between Indus-Sarasvati civilization and later Hindu culture. 2. Discuss why the Aryan Invasion theory has been disputed by many scholars. 3. Discuss the social and political system and advancement of science and culture. 4. Explain the development of religion in India between 1000 bce and 500 ce. What You Will Learn... 1. Many Hindu religious practices are seen in the archeological remains of the Indus-Sarasvati civilization. 2. The sacred texts of Hinduism are in the Sanskrit language and were originally memorized but unwritten. 3. Ancient Indian art and science were highly developed. The Big Idea: Hinduism developed over thousands of years in India. Key Terms: Indus and Sarasvati rivers; Vedas; Sanskrit If YOU lived then... Your house is built on a wide, waterless riverbed. Your father tells you it was once the giant Sarasvati River, five kilometers across. There is not enough rain to provide for the family's crops and cattle. Travelers tell of another great river, the Ganga, hundreds of miles away. Your father and other villagers decide they must move. How would you feel about the long journey? Building Background India's known history begins with the Indus-Sarasvati civilization, 5,500 years ago. We know from archeology that this culture shows many features of later Hindu practice. Understanding Ancient Indian History The early cities of India developed along the Indus and Sarasvati rivers starting around 3500 bce. They are called the Indus-Sarasvati civilization or, sometimes, the Harappan culture. It was the largest and most advanced civilization in the ancient world. But the mighty Sarasvati River dried up, and what was once a fertile area became a desert. The people of the region moved to other parts of India and beyond. By 2000 bce the civilization had entered a period of decline. The Religion of the Indus-Sarasvati People A great many artifacts have been discovered from the Indus-Sarasvati cities. These include pottery, seals, statues, beads, jewelry, tools, games, such as dice, and children's toys, such as miniature carts. The flat, stone seals have pictures and writing on them. Scholars have not yet agreed on what the mysterious script on the seals means.They show deities, ceremonies, symbols, people, plants and animals. We learn from them that people at that time followed practices identical to those followed by Hindus today. One seal shows a meditating figure that scholars link to Lord Siva, while others show the lotus posture used by today's meditators. The swastika, a sacred symbol of good luck used throughout Hindu history, is common. There are statues, including a small clay figure with its hands pressed together in the traditional Hindu greeting of "namaste." A figurine of a married woman shows a red powder called sindur in the part of her hair. Hindu women today follow this same custom as a sign of their married status. The pipal tree and banyan tree are depicted often. These remain sacred to Hindus to this day. The central holy books of Hinduism are the four Vedas. Hindus regard them as spoken by God. They are in Sanskrit. The Vedas were not written down but memorized. Students might spend twelve years learning these scriptures. Some would memorize one Veda, others all four. Even today there are priests who can chant an entire Veda--as many as 10,500 verses--from memory. The relationship between the people of the Indus-Sarasvati civilization and those who composed the Vedas is not clearly understood. We know that the Rig Veda describes the Sarasvati as the "most mighty of rivers" flowing from the Himalayan mountains to the ocean. Therefore, the holy texts had to be composed well before 2000 bce--by which time the river had dried up. The Vedas describe a powerful and spiritual people, their clans, kings and emperors. Their society was complex. The economy included agriculture, industry, trade, commerce and cattle raising. The Vedas contain thousands of hymns in praise of God and the Gods. They describe a form of fire worship, yajna, around a specially-built brick fire altar. In several Indus-Sarasvati cities archeologists have unearthed what look like fire altars. The Aryan Invasion Theory Many school books present an "Aryan Invasion" of India. It is the theory that Aryan invaders came from central Asia in 1500 bce and conquered the indigenous Indus-Sarasvati civilization. It was these foreigners, the theory states, who wrote the Rig Veda in Sanskrit. The theory was proposed in the 19th century by scholars in Europe, based on language studies. In part, it tried to explain why Sanskrit is so closely related to European languages, including English. Many scholars now dispute this theory because all the evidence for it is questionable. Additionally, modern scientists have found no biological evidence, such as DNA, that people came from outside India in significant numbers since at least 6,000 bce. Many common explanations about Indian history and culture are based on the Aryan Invasion theory. Those who defend it claim that Sanskrit, the caste system and Hindu ways of worship came from outside India. If you are studying India in school, you may read about this outdated theory. As the Indus-Sarasvati culture declined, many of its people migrated to other places. They settled mostly in north and central India, especially along the Ganga River system. They interacted with tribes who had lived in those areas from ancient times. Around 1000 bce, the Tamil-speaking Dravidian people in the South had separately developed a sophisticated language and culture. Because of inadequate archeological research, we do not know a lot about this period. However, by 600 bce, India had developed a common culture from north to south and east to west. By this time the social, religious and philosophical ideas and practices central to Hinduism are fully evident. These are in continuity with the religion of the Indus-Sarasvati culture, the teachings of the Vedas, Dravidian culture and elements of the tribal religions. Hindu public worship, described in the Vedas, took place in temporary shelters built for that purpose. The earliest mention of permanent temples for the worship of God is in the Grihya Sutras, around 600 bce. A distinctive feature of India at this time was the varna or class system. Society was classified into groups with specific occupations. These groups tended to become hereditary. There were four broad classes--priests, warriors, merchants and workers (including craftsmen). The system provided order and stability to society. Later on, the varnas divided into hundreds of sub-sections called jatis (castes). Individual jatis developed a strong identity and pride in their occupation. From time to time people would move from one caste to another, or establish new ones. The evolving caste system became unfair to the people at the very bottom of the social order. Though caste is still an important factor in arranging marriages, caste discrimination is illegal in modern India. Women have always been held in high regard in India. Some of India's foremost religious and political leaders are women. Hinduism is the only major religion in which God is worshiped in female form. Life in ancient times was hard work for both men and women. The women were responsible for running the household; the men for their craft or farm, as well as security. In general, women had fewer property rights than men, but received lighter punishments for crimes and paid fewer taxes. They participated equally with their husband in religious ceremonies and festival celebrations. Some women were highly educated, and a few even composed several of the holy Vedic hymns. The period from 1000 bce through the Gupta period up to the mid-6th century ce was a time of great advancement. Hindus discovered the zero and established the counting method, including the decimal system, we use today. Their astronomers knew that the Earth orbits the Sun and calculated the length of a year with great precision. Medicine was so advanced that doctors were performing complex surgery not equaled in Europe until the 18th century. In ancient times India was one of the most advanced and wealthy nations on Earth. Since ancient times, a quarter of the world's people have lived in India. Impact Today: The disputed Aryan Invasion theory is still taught as fact in most books on India continuity: unbroken connection or line of development hereditary: passed from parents to children Timeline: Early Indian History 5000 BCE: Beginning of Indus-Sarasvati cities 2600-2000 BCE: Height of Indus-Sarasvati civilization. The city of Lothal includes large buildings and an enclosed harbor. 2000 BCE: Sarasvati River dries up. People move to North and Central India. 600 BCE: India is a unified culture at this time. Large cities flourish in the Gangetic Plains. Indian physician Sushruta develops complex methods of surgery. Tamil language flourishes in the South. First mention of temple worship appears in the Grihya Sutras. 500 BCE: Magadha Empire in the North and Pandyan Kingdom in the South flourish. Buddhism and Jainism, offshoots of Hinduism, become prominent religions. 321 BCE: Foundation of the pan-Indian Maurya Empire. Time of great advancement in science, statecraft, economy, architecture, music and art. 200 BCE: Tiruvalluvar composes Tirukural, one of India's greatest scriptures on ethics 200 CE: Hindu influence starts to spread into what is now Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. In 1200 ce, the Hindu temple called Angkor Wat is built in Cambodia. It is the world's largest religious structure. 320 CE: Gupta Empire reigns over most of India, with Tamil kingdoms in far south. This is the Golden Age of India and Hinduism, with respect and tolerance for all religions. Section 1 Assessment Reviewing Ideas, Terms and People 1. a. Explain: What happened to the Sarasvati River? b. Analyze: What customs from modern Hinduism are depicted in artifacts of the Indus-Sarasvati civilization? 2. Elaborate: What are the advantages of a hereditary occupation? What are the disadvantages? 3. a. Summarize: How are women regarded in Hindu society? b. Recall: What are some of the great scientific achievements in ancient India? 4. a. Explain: How were the Vedas preserved? b. List: What kind of information is in the Vedas? c. Explain: Why is it important that the Rig Veda mentions the Sarasvati River as a "mighty river?" 5. Analyze: What does your school history book say about the Aryan Invasion? How does this lesson differ? Section Two: Hindu Beliefs and Scriptures Hinduism Today's Teaching Standards: 5. Explain the basic Hindu beliefs regarding God, the Gods and Goddesses, dharma, karma and reincarnation. Describe basic Hindu practices. 6. Discuss the Hindu principles of nonviolence and religious tolerance. 7. Describe the Vedas and their Upanishads, Ramayana, Mahabharata (including the Bhagavad Gita) and other important Hindu scriptures. What You Will Learn... 1. Hindus believe in a one Supreme God and also many Gods and Goddesses. 2. Dharma, karma and reincarnation are central Hindu beliefs. There is a special emphasis on nonviolence. 3. Vedas are the primary Hindu scriptures. There are other important scriptures as well. The Big Idea: Hindus believe every soul will ultimately achieve God Realization. Key Terms: Sanatana Dharma, Brahman, deva, puja, karma, reincarnation, If YOU lived then... The king has passed a new law increasing the taxes on farmers. The farmers in your village have not had a good year. The harvest is smaller than usual. The new tax may mean people will go hungry. Some in the village want to attack the tax collectors. Others want to lie about the amount of harvest. Still others say a peaceful protest will cause the king to change his mind on the tax increase. How would you respond to the tax increase? Why? Building Background: From its beginnings, Hinduism has been an open-minded religion. It is a basic Hindu belief that there are many ways to approach God. Hinduism does not dictate one way as the only way. Hindus believe "Truth is one, paths are many" and that every person eventually finds spiritual salvation. Religion Permeates the Hindu's Daily Life Hindus base their way of life upon their religion. The Hindu culture comes from Hindu beliefs. The key beliefs are in a one Supreme God, subordinate Gods and Goddesses, heaven worlds, the divinity of the soul, dharma, karma, reincarnation, God Realization and liberation from rebirth. God Realization means the direct and personal experience of the Divine within oneself. The original Sanskrit name for Hinduism is Sanatana Dharma, meaning "eternal religion." Belief in God and the Gods and Goddesses Hindus believe in and worship a one Supreme God. In the scriptures, the Supreme God is called Brahman or Bhagavan, worshiped as both male and female. Brahman is all-powerful, all-knowing, all-loving and present in all things. God created everything in the universe out of Himself. This creation is not separate from Him. He guides the evolution of everything over vast spans of time. Ultimately, He absorbs the universe back into Himself. This cycle of creation, preservation and absorption repeats without end. The Supreme God is both transcendent and immanent. These are two key philosophical concepts. As transcendent, God exists beyond the physical universe. As immanent, His divine form pervades all nature and humanity. In Hinduism, the soul is called atman. God exists within each soul. The Chandogya Upanishad explains it like this: "What you see when you look into another person's eyes, that is atman, immortal, beyond fear; that is God." Hinduism has different branches with varying beliefs and practices. The four major branches are Saiva, Shakta, Vaishnava and Smarta. Saivas and Shaktas call the Supreme God Siva, though Shaktas worship the female aspect of God. Vaishnavas call Him Vishnu. Smartas may choose one of six Deities to worship as the Supreme. By whichever name or form, He is the same, one Supreme God. The Rig Veda says, "The seers call in many ways that which is One." Hindus may also worship Gods and Goddesses, called devas, such as Ganesha and Sarasvati. In Sanskrit, deva means "shining one." In some ways, these divine beings who live in the heaven worlds are like the angels and archangels in Western religions. Some Hindus consider the Gods and Goddesses as alternative forms of the Supreme God, and not as individual divine beings. Each God and Goddess has particular powers and areas of responsibility. For example, Ganesha is the Lord of Obstacles. Before beginning a new project, a Hindu may pray to Ganesha to remove any obstacles blocking his way. In the Vaishnava tradition, Lord Vishnu appears on Earth as a divine personality, or avatar, from time to time to restore morally right living. Of Vishnu's ten avatars, Lord Rama and Lord Krishna are the most important. Rama and Krishna are not separate Gods. They are two forms of the one Supreme God. In temples and shrines, the Supreme God and the Gods and Goddesses are worshiped in a ritual called puja. Puja is a ceremony in which the ringing of bells, passing of flames, chanting and presenting of flowers, incense and other offerings invoke the Divine beings, who then come to bless and help the devotees. During the puja, through holy chants, gestures and sacred ritual, highly trained priests guide the worship. The priests treat the Deity with utmost care, attending to Him as the King of kings. The purpose of the puja is to create a high religious vibration and communicate with God or a deva through the murti, or consecrated statue, that is the focus of worship. Deity is the proper English word for murti. The word idol is often used, but it is incorrect. Hindus also practice internal worship of God. Sitting quietly, they may repeat the name of God while counting on beads. Others may chant, sing or meditate upon God. In Hinduism, there are many ways to worship the Divine. Dharma, Karma and Reincarnation Dharma means righteousness, divine law, ethics, religion, duty, justice and truth. Dharma means the proper way one should live one's life. To follow dharma, one should be religious, truthful, kind, honest and generous. Dharma includes the practice of nonviolence, called ahimsa in Sanskrit. It is the ideal of not injuring others in thought, word or action. Karma, a central Hindu belief, is the law of cause and effect. It means that anything you do will eventually return to you in this or future lives. If we do something selfish or hateful, we will in time experience the same pain and suffering we caused to others. If our acts are good and kind, we will receive goodness and kindness. Reincarnation means literally to "re-enter the flesh." It is the belief that the soul, atman, is reborn in a new body, experiencing many lifetimes. The purpose of rebirth is to progressively achieve spiritual maturity and God Realization. Eventually each soul learns to live by religious principles and avoid creating negative karma. The process of reincarnation continues through many lives until the soul achieves liberation. Hinduism's Sacred Scriptures The four Vedas are the holiest scriptures for all Hindus. The Upanishads, an important part of the Vedas, explain the Hindu philosophy. The next most important scriptures, also in Sanskrit, are the Agamas. There are specific Agamas for each major tradition in Hinduism--Saiva, Shakta and Vaishnava. The Agamas explain philosophy, personal conduct, worship and temple construction. There are hundreds of other scriptural texts dealing with religious and secular law, government, social order, economics, ecology, health, architecture, science, music, astronomy and many other subjects. The Puranas are encyclopedic accounts of the forms and avatars of God, the many subordinate Gods and divine beings, creation, spiritual teachings, historical traditions, geography and culture. The Tirukural is a Tamil masterpiece on ethics and moral living. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali explore yoga and meditation. The Ramayana and Mahabharata are two sacred epic histories of India. The Ramayana is the story of Lord Rama, who is the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu, and his divine wife Sita. This 24,000-verse poem describes Prince Rama's birth, His banishment to a forest for 14 years, the abduction of Sita by the demon Ravana and Rama's victory over Ravana. The Ramayana remains immensely popular to this day in India and Southeast Asia. The Mahabharata, "Great India," is a 78,000-verse story of a massive war that took place in ancient times between the Pandavas and their cousins, the Kauravas, for the throne of a great kingdom. It also describes the nature of self and the world, karma, important family lineages of India, human loyalties, saints and sages, devotion to God and the ideals of dharma. Lord Krishna, the eighth incarnation of Lord Vishnu, is a key figure in the epic. A central episode called the Bhagavad Gita narrates Krishna's dialogue with the Pandava archer, Arjuna, on the day of the battle. It is one of the most popular and revered among Vaishnava and Smarta scriptures. Hindu sacred music, dance, drama and the arts draw heavily on the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the many Puranas. The Hindu principle of ahimsa, or nonviolence, is important today. Mahatma Gandhi, a devout Hindu, said, "Nonviolence is the greatest force at the disposal of mankind. It is mightier than the mightiest weapon of destruction devised by the ingenuity of man." By nonviolent means Gandhi largely won India's independence, using peaceful protests, boycotts, strikes and speeches. In the 1950s, Martin Luther King, Jr. studied Gandhi's methods and went to India to meet his followers. He learned how India's nonviolent movement worked and applied the same methods to fight for and win civil rights for America's black minority. Aung San Suu Kyi, a devout Buddhist, has campaigned without violence for years to win democracy for the people of her native Myanmar (Burma). In 1991 she won the Nobel Peace Prize for her peaceful struggle against the country's military dictatorship. Another example is Cesar Chavez, who won rights for California farm workers using nonviolent methods. Analysis Skill: What are the advantages of nonviolence over violence in bringing about social change? subordinate:lower in rank, less important pervade: to be present throughout encompass: to surround and hold within consecrated: made sacred through ceremony invoke: summon a Deity; appeal to secular: activities or things not related to religion Section 2 Assessment Reviewing Ideas, Terms and People 1. a. Define: What is Sanatana Dharma? b. Explain: What is a deva? c. Elaborate: What are the two key terms used by Hindus to describe the Supreme God? 2. Categorize: What are the four main branches of Hinduism? 3. a. Recall: Why do Hindus pray first to Lord Ganesha? b. Identify: What are the two most popular incarnations of Lord Vishnu? c. Explain: What is the purpose of the Hindu puja? 4. a. Explain: What is karma? b. Illustrate: What are some examples of following dharma? c. Explain: What is the purpose of reincarnation? 5. Summarize: Make a list of Hindu scriptures, starting with the Vedas. 6. Evaluate: Why do Hindus believe that there are many ways to approach the Supreme God? 7. Understanding nonviolence: Write a paragraph explaining your way to deal with the tax increase example given on page six. Do you think a nonviolent approach would succeed? Sacred Texts: An Excerpt from the Upanishads Translated by Swami Prabhavananda and Frederick Manchester The Upanishads are the part of the Vedas that teach philosophy. The word upanishad means "sitting by devotedly," as a student sits near his guru to learn. This excerpt is taken from the Kena Upanishad. It explains the nature of the Supreme God, called Brahman in Sanskrit. Try to sum up the meaning of each sentence in your own words. Once the Gods won a victory over the demons, and though they had done so only through the power of Brahman, they were exceedingly vain. They thought to themselves, "It was we who beat our enemies, and the glory is ours." Brahman saw their vanity and appeared before them as a nature spirit. But they did not recognize Him. Then the other Gods said to the God of fire, "Fire, find out for us who this mysterious nature spirit is." "Yes," said the God of fire, and approached the spirit. The spirit said to him: "Who are you?" "I am the God of fire. As a matter of fact, I am very widely known." "And what power do you wield?" "I can burn anything on Earth." "Burn this," said the spirit, placing a straw before him. The God of fire fell upon it with all his might, but could not consume it. So he ran back to the other Gods and said, "I cannot discover who this mysterious spirit is." Then said the other Gods to the God of wind: "Wind, can you find out for us who he is?" "Yes," said the God of wind, and approached the spirit. The spirit said to him: "Who are you?" "I am the God of wind. As a matter of fact, I am very widely known. I fly swiftly through the heavens." "And what power do you wield?" "I can blow away anything on Earth." "Blow this away," said the spirit, placing a straw before him. The God of wind fell upon it with all his might, but was unable to move it. So he ran back to the other Gods and said, "I cannot discover who this mysterious spirit is." Then said the other Gods to Indra, greatest of them all, "O respected one, find out for us, we pray you, who he is." "Yes," said Indra and humbly approached the spirit. But the spirit vanished, and in his place stood Goddess Uma, well adorned and of exceeding beauty. Beholding her, Indra asked: "Who was the spirit that appeared to us?" "That," answered Uma, "was Brahman. Through Him it was, not of yourselves, that you attained your victory and your glory." Thus did Indra, and the God of fire, and the God of wind, come to recognize Brahman, the Supreme God. philosophy: a theory or attitude that guides behavior vain: excessively proud consume: to destroy completely, as by fire adorned: beautifully dressed beholding: looking at something remarkable attained: won; achieved Understanding Sacred Texts 1. Analyzing: Hindus believe that the Supreme God is immanent. That means He exists everywhere in the universe, in everyone and everything. How does this belief appear in the story? 2. Comparing: What is the difference between Brahman, the Supreme God, and the other Gods introduced here--Indra, the God of fire and the God of wind? 3. One verse says that the Gods were vain. What test did the Supreme God put them through? 4. Indra took a different approach to finding out who the spirit was. Why did he succeed when the others failed? Section Three: Hinduism in Practice Hinduism Today's Teaching Standards 8. Describe the spread of Hinduism outside of India in ancient and modern times. 9. Describe the daily observances of Hindus, home and temple worship, religious teachers and the major festivals. 10. Explain how Hinduism has survived over the last 5,000 years. What You Will Learn... 1. Hinduism has spread outside of India several times. 2. Hinduism is the third largest religion in the world. 3. Hindus practice religion at home and in temples and through the many festivals. The Big Idea: Hinduism is the oldest world religion flourishing today. Key Terms: samskara, bindi, puja, swami, Kumbha Mela If YOU lived then... You are born in Fiji in 1910. Your parents were brought from India by the British to work in the sugarcane fields as indentured laborers. Now they are free of debt and own farmland. The public school is OK, but your parents want you to go to the best private school. The principal there says you must leave Hinduism and convert to his religion before you can enroll. What do you think your parents would do? Building Background: Hinduism is the only major religion from the distant past that is still vibrant today. It survived because of its tradition of home-centered worship, because of its rich teachings and many religious leaders, and because it is not merely tolerant of other religions but respects the validity of all spiritual paths. Traditions and Holy Days Hinduism is the oldest living religion in the world. There are today nearly a billion Hindus worldwide, 95 percent of whom live on the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism continues to thrive for many reasons. Its followers find answers to their deepest questions about the mysteries of life. With personal religious practices, pilgrimage to sacred shrines, temple- and home-centered worship, Hindus strive for God Realization. And through celebration of the yearly cycle of vibrant and colorful festivals, they experience great blessings and joy. There are five basic practices, pancha nitya karmas, often observed by Hindus. They are to: 1) worship daily, 2) follow dharma, 3) observe the samskaras (rites of passage), 4) celebrate the holy days and 5) go on pilgrimage to sacred places. Other practices include meditation, chanting of mantras, study of scripture, hatha yoga and other yoga techniques, and simple austerities, such as fasting. There are many samskaras, including a child's name-giving ceremony, the first feeding of solid food, the beginning of formal education and marriage. It is a common practice for Hindu women to wear a bindi, a red dot on the forehead. A similar mark, called tilaka, is worn by men at the temple or on ceremonial occasions. This forehead mark symbolizes many things, especially spiritual vision. Worship in the Home Every Hindu home has a place of worship. It may be as simple as a shelf with pictures of God or an entire room dedicated to worship. Many families have a spiritual guide or guru whose picture is displayed in the shrine. There, the family may light a lamp, ring a bell and pray daily. The most devout hold a formal morning worship ritual. They offer flowers, incense, lights and food to God while chanting sacred verses. Individual members will often go to the shrine for blessings before leaving for school or work. At other times one may sit alone in the shrine, pray and chant the names of God, read from scripture, meditate silently or sing devotional songs. Hindus prefer to live within a day's journey of a temple. The temple is a special building, revered as the home of God. The main Deity is enshrined in the temple's central sanctum. In India, there are hundreds of thousands of temples, most quite ancient. Temples in India can be enormous, covering many acres, having vast pillared hallways that can accommodate 500,000 devotees during a festival. Often one or more families of priests oversee the temple and conduct the worship over many generations. When Hindus migrate outside India, they build a temple as soon as possible. At first, community leaders themselves conduct the daily rituals. Later, professional priests are hired. There are now hundreds of Hindu temples in America. The largest are in New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Texas and California. The temple worship ceremony, or puja, is usually performed by a priest from India. During the ceremony, he worships God by chanting Sanskrit verses from the scriptures and performing arati. Arati is the waving of an oil lamp in front of the Deity while bells are rung. The priest also offers flowers, sweets and fruit. These offerings are then distributed to the devotees as a blessing from God. Hindus may visit the temple throughout the day to worship and meditate. Hinduism's Saints, Teachers and Swamis Hinduism has a rich history of saints and sages, both men and women. Their lives are educational and inspiring. They come from all castes. Some saints, such as Adi Shankara, have written detailed explanations of the Vedas and other scriptures. Other saints, such as Mirabai, Tukaram and Sambandar, taught through devotional songs. Recent saints include Sri Ramakrishna and Anandamayi Ma. Their deeply religious lives have uplifted millions of Hindus and others worldwide. There are hundreds of thousands of religious scholars and teachers, both men and women, known as pundits. Some give spellbinding discourses on sacred scriptures, including Ramayana and Mahabharata. Tens of thousands may attend such gatherings, which include storytelling, preaching, devotional singing and drama. These events often go on for days or even a month. Hinduism has millions of swamis and other holy persons. Swamis are unmarried men (and some women) who have taken up spiritual life full time. Swami means "he who knows himself." Some live in monasteries; others wander as homeless mendicants. Swamis are the religious ministers of Hinduism. Many swamis teach, others run large institutions that perform social service for their communities, and still others live alone and meditate long hours each day in their pursuit of divine enlightenment. Special among these are the holy gurus. Gu means darkness and ru means remover. So guru literally means "the one who removes darkness." These men and women are great religious teachers, some with millions of followers. Several gurus have popularized the Hindu practice of yoga by establishing training centers all over the world. No one person or institution is in charge of Hinduism. Instead, there are thousands of independent spiritual traditions, monastic orders and religious institutions. The Yearly Festival Cycle There are many religious festivals celebrated by Hindus each year. They are observed at home, in temples and public places. Most Hindu festivals are observed according to an ancient solar-lunar calendar. Several festivals honor the avatars of Lord Vishnu. For example, Ram Navami celebrates the birth of Lord Rama in March/April. Krishna Janmashtami, in July/August, celebrates the birth of Lord Krishna. Mahasivaratri takes place in February/March, when devotees fast and worship the transcendent Lord Siva all night in the temple. Diwali, or Dipavali, is the biggest festival of the year. It is dedicated to Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth, and takes place in October/November. Navaratri is the second largest festival. It lasts nine days and takes place in September/October. It is dedicated to the worship of the Goddess, Shakti. in her three forms: Durga, the Goddess of Protection; Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth, and Sarasvati, the Goddess of Knowledge. Holi, in March/April, is a highly spirited festival where everyone sprinkles each other with colored water and powders. It signifies the triumph of good over evil and marks the beginning of the winter crop harvest. Vaikasi Visakham (May/June) is sacred to Hindus, Buddhists and Sikhs. Guru Purnima is a special festival to honor one's spiritual teacher, or guru. It takes place on the full moon day in July. There are also many social festivals in India, such as Pongal. It is held in January and celebrates the incoming harvest. One special festival, the Kumbha Mela, takes place in a twelve-year cycle. Hindu saints and millions of devotees travel to certain sacred rivers at an auspicious time for worship. The 2001 Kumbha Mela was held at Prayag (modern Allahabad) in North India. It was attended by 70 million people, including 30 million on January 24 alone. This was the largest religious gathering ever held on the Earth. Hinduism is the oldest world religion. It accepts that there are many ways to worship God. It has endured for so long because the religion and culture have instilled in each Hindu a unique and strong sense of identity and community. The Rig Veda concludes, "Let there be everlasting unity and peace among all human beings." Hindu Migration Through the Centuries: Hinduism has spread outside of India in several waves. First it was adopted by cultures throughout Southeast Asia through the 12th century ce. Second, in the 19th century many Hindus moved to the various European colonies, such as South Africa, the Caribbean and Fiji. And most recently, Hindus migrated to more than 150 countries in the 20th century. The biggest Hindu festival of the year is Diwali, or Dipavali, the Festival of Lights, celebrating the victory of good over evil, light over darkness. It takes place for five days around the new moon in October/November. It also honors the return of Lord Rama to Ayodhya after 14 years in exile. Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth is invoked for prosperity, and Her presence is felt in every home. Hindus thoroughly clean the house, take a special bath and put on new clothes. Thousands of small lamps, including traditional clay oil lamps (pictured at right), are placed everywhere and fireworks signal hope for mankind. It is a national holiday in India and in many countries with large Hindu populations. Some Hindu festivals take place mostly at home, such as Raksha Bandhan, which is on the full moon in July/August. Sisters tie a rakhi, or colored thread, around the wrist of their brothers. In return, the brother gives his sister a present and promises to protect her. The rakhi can also be given to anyone chosen as an "adopted brother." Analysis Skill: How do festivals help remind people to be more kind and generous to one another? The Impact Today: There are Hindu temples in nearly every country of the world indentured: under contract to work for a certain number of years austerity: a difficult practice of self-denial and discipline meditate: think deeply about, go within yourself or seek God within mendicant: a holy person who lives by begging auspicious: a favorable time--for the Mela, as determined by the Hindu calendar Section 3 Assessment Reviewing Ideas, Terms and People 1. a. List: What are the five basic practices of Hinduism? b. Define: What does the bindi, red dot, signify? c. Explain: How do Hindus use their home shrine room? 2. List: What are the various kinds of priests and holy men and women in Hinduism? 3. a. Explain: What is the year's biggest Hindu festival? b. Define: What is the meaning of the rakhi bracelet? c. Recall: What is special about the Kumbha Mela? d. Elaborate: Why has Hinduism lasted so long? 4. List: Make a list of three columns. In the first column write the name of a major Hindu festival. In the second, put the time of year it occurs. In the third list what it celebrates. 5. Understanding Hindu practices: Why do you think Hindus want to live near a temple? Chapter One Standards Assessment Directions: Read each question and circle the letter of the best response 1. Evidence for what form of worship in the Vedas was found by archaeologists in the ruins of the Indus- 2. The Indus-Sarasvati civilization ended because: 3. The Aryan Invasion theory was based upon: 4. Which discovery was not made in ancient India? 5. Evidence of Hindu temple worship can be as early as: 6. Which of these descriptions does not apply to women in ancient India? 7. Which of these words does not describe the Hindu concept of the Supreme God? 8. Hindus believe that the devas, such as Lord Ganesha or Goddess Lakshmi, are like: 9. Which of the following is not used in nonviolent protests? 10. The Hindu scriptures include: 11. Hindus believe that every other religion: 12. How many countries do Hindus live in today? 13. The saints of Hinduism are: 14. The biggest religious event in the world is: Internet Resources: Go to http://www.hinduismtoday.com/education/ for a PDF version of this lesson with clickable links to resources. Also at the same url are additional teaching resources and letters of endorsement from academics and community leaders. To order additional copies of this educational insight, go to http://www.minimela.com/booklets/.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29155000
James E. West was an attorney active with juvenile cases in Washington DC. He was recruited in 1911 as Executive Secretary, in part because Boyce wanted the BSA based in natioanal capital to demonstrate the organization's national character. West changed his title to Chief Scout Executive. He more than any other person created a well-organized national structure that was a key to the BSA's growth and reputation. He intended to make Scouting only a temporary diversion from his legal career, but that changed with the tremendous growth of the movement. West remained Chief Scout Executive from 1911 until he retired in 1943. Scouting founder Willam D. Boyce did not get along with West. Boyce saw Scouting has his own organization. As a result of the quarel and differences of opinion, West had Boyce's name virtually deleted from BSA records. West also had problems with Ernest Thompson Seaton another founder of the Scouting movement. Both Seaton and West were strong-willed individuals. They had conflicting ideas on how Scouting should develop. Seton was deeply committed to the ethos of Scouting saw West as a city lawyer and simple administrator/ He challenged West's authority to control the young program's development. West controlled the BSA organization and power base, and forced Seton out in 1916. Seaton's writing was removed from the Boy Scout Handbook. Drspite Seaton's departure, like Boyce, these men left an indelible impression on American Scouting. West for many years resisted the creation of a Cubbing program for younger boys. James was born in Washington, D.C. (1876). His father died at about the time James was born. His mother had to be hospitalized with tuberculosis when Jimmie was still very young (1882). James was placed in the Washington City Orphan Home. After which his mother died, leaving him an orphan. James called Jummie had a rough childhood. When his mother contracted tuberculosis he was placed in the Washington City Orphan Home (1882). There was no extended family to take him in. He apparently contracted the disease from her. He may have contracted polilo as well. He was reported as a cripped boy. One leg did not develop properly and was shorter than the other. At the orphanage, because of his disability, James was given work assignments with girls--sewing and caning chairs. He turned to reading. He virtually took over the orphanage library. He decided he wanted to enter the local public school. The orphanage staff was concerned it would interfere with his chores (stoking the coal furnace and feeding chickens). He began in the 5th grade. James graduated with honors from Business High School (1895). At the highschool he edited the school newspaper, served as the football team's business manager, and occassionally taught match when the teacher was absent. Despite the lack of family support, West mamaged to go to college and graduate from law school, a major accomplishment at the time. After leaving the orphanage, he worked as a tutor and a bicycle mechanic (1896). He attended National Law School while supporting himself as the assistant to the general secretary of the YMCA. Here he developed an interest in youth work. He earned his Bachelor of Laws (1900) and Master of Laws (1901). He was admitted to the Washington, D.C. bar. The Spanish American War interupted his studies. West volunteered during the Spanish-American War and worked as a clerk. After the War he worked as a clerk in the War Office. President Theodore Roosevelt appointed him to the Board of Pension Appeals in the Department of the Interior (1902). He played an important role in creating the juvenile court system, helping to convince Congress to pass a law. Another impressive accomplishment for such a young man. West became a successful attorney in Washington DC. Perhaps because of his background, he became active with juvenile cases. West became a a Mason and joined the Knights of Pythias. He became the Sunday School superintendent for the Mount Pleasant Congregational Church. He got involved with youth work. West was willing to do the mundane organizational and administrative work that did not appeal to others. He became interesting in the Boys' Brigade. This was a predecessor to the Boy Scouts more closely tied to Christian churches. It proved to be stronger in Britain, but was organized in many British colonies and the Unitd States. He worked as finance chairman for the Boys Brigade and the secretary of the Washington Playground Association which eventually develope into the Playground Association of America. He lsubsequently served as secretary of the National Child Rescue League whoch worked to find homes for orphaned children. West was appointed as secretary of the White House Conference on Dependent Children. Here he worked for reforms in the operation of orphanages. Thus at the time the Boy Scouts were organized, West had a very impressive record of youth work. The Boy Scouts of America were fouded by William D. Boyce and others in 1911. The BSA used many of the precepts of Baden-Powell's British Scouting movement and was heavily influenced by William Seaton and Daniel Beard. Several other groups had been founded earlier and about the same time with similar approaches and goals. What was lacking in many of these efforts was an effective organizational and administrative effort needed to build a national organization. Boyce himself was a businessman and had no interest in devoting his life to actually running the Boy Scouts. James West wanted to open a private law office in Washington (1910). The early Scout operations were in the hands of John M. Alexander was serving as Managing Secretary (May to October 1910). Alexander worked under the general direction of Edgar M. Robinson, who had financed the BSA's original office. It was a one-room national office locted in New York. Neither Robinson nor Alexander wanted turn the BSA into a career. Colin H. Livingstone was the president of the BSA and began a search for a permannt Executive Secretary. Ernest Bicknell of the American Red Cross wrote to Luther Gulick, president of the Playground Association of America and recommended West for the position. West at the time was focused on his legal career, but was finally persuaded to accepted the position temporarily for 6 months until a permanent person could be found for the position (1911). West moved to New York City. Robinson returned to the the YMCA. West not only had an amazing resume, but he lived in Washington, DC. Boyce wanted the BSA based in natioanal capital to demonstrate the organization's national character. West changed his title to Chief Scout Executive. Showing the same determination that got him through law school with limited finances. He was forced to make a range of decessions, not all of them to his liking. One of the most difficult issues was race. West provided the organizational skill needed to build Scouting into the largest and most effective youth organization in the country. West remained Chief Scout Executive from 1911 until he retired in 1943--a rather long 6 months. When he retired in 1943, Dr. West was recognized throughout the country as the true architect of the Boy Scouts of America. He more than any other person created a well-organized national structure that was a key to the BSA's growth and reputation. He intended to make Scouting only a temporary diversion from his legal career, but that changed with the tremendous growth of the movement. Scouting founder Willam D. Boyce did not get along with West. Boyce saw Scouting as his own organization. He did not want to involve himself in day to day operations, but he wanted to control the organization. As a result, of the quarel and differences of opinion, West had Boyce's name virtually deleted from BSA records. West also had problems with Ernest Thompson Seaton another founder of the Scouting movement. Both Seaton and West were strong-willed individuals. They had conflicting ideas on how Scouting should develop. Seton was deeply committed to the ethos of Scouting saw West as a city lawyer and simple administrator. He challenged West's authority to control the young program's development. West controlled the BSA organization and power base, and forced Seton out in 1916. Seaton's writing was removed from the Boy Scout Handbook. Drspite Seaton's departure, like Boyce, these men left an indelible impression on American Scouting. West married Marion Speaks (June 19, 1907). The Wests had five children. James "Jimmie" Ellis West was born (December 25, 1909). Arthur was born (1912). Marion ws born (1914). Jimmie died of pneumonia while Marion was pregnant with Helen (1916) Bob was born (1917). West published occassional articles for Boys' Life as well as a mumber of books. Lone Scout of the Air (1927) was a biography of Charles Lindbergh. The Boy Scout's Book of True Adventure (G. P. Putnam's Sons: New York, 1931) was an account of 14 honorary scouts. There was a foreword By Theodore Roosevelt and biographical notes by West. The Boy Scout's Book of Honor (1931) was edited by West. He-who-sees-in-the-dark (1932) was the boys' story of Frederick Burnham, the American scout. It was written by West and Peter O. Lamb and illustrated by Baden-Powell. West's last book was Making the Most of Yourself (1941). Navigate the Historic Boys' Uniform Chronology Pages: [Return to the Main chronologies page] [The 1840s] [The 1850s] [The 1860s] [The 1870s] [The 1880s] [The 1890s] [The 1900s] [The 1910s] [The 1920s] [The 1930s] [The 1940s] [The 1950s] Navigate the Historic Boys' Uniform Web Site: [Return to the Main biography page] [Activities] [Biographies] [Chronologies] [Countries] [Essays] [Garments] [Organizations] [Religion] [Other] [Introduction] [Bibliographies] [Contributions] [FAQs] [Questions] [Unknown images] [Boys' Uniform Home] Navigate the Historic Boys' Uniform Web organization pages: [Boys' Brigade] [Camp Fire] [Hitler Youth] [National] [Pioneers] [Royal Rangers] [Scout]	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29156000
Joseph Bradley Varnum, Collection of U.S. House of Representatives About this object After serving nine terms in the House , two of them as Speaker, Joseph Varnum of Massachusetts resigned his House seat to serve as a Senator. On this date, the House passed H.R. 7, “An Act fixing the Military peace establishment of the United States,” creating a military academy for U.S. soldiers in West Point, New York. In the 5th Congress (1797–1799), Robert Harper of South Carolina proposed “a military school, and a corps constantly existing, in which officers may always be found fit to command troops.” Harper reasoned that if “an army or revenue were wanted, they could at any time be raised; but good officers and military science could not be created without much previous application, by practice, and a course of study.” Ultimately, the South Carolinian believed that such a school would help to ensure “the safety of [the] country when it is known that such a class of men exists to any considerable degree.” President Thomas Jefferson , who had long promoted the idea of creating a national university to benefit society as a whole, found the military academy proposal appealing. Jefferson encouraged his Secretary of War, Henry Dearborn, to form such a school in 1801. Introduced by Joseph Varnum of Massachusetts, a veteran of the American Revolution who assisted in suppressing Shays’ Rebellion in 1786, the West Point bill passed on a 71 to 12 vote. The Senate added amendments to the bill and passed it on March 5, 1802. The House concurred with the amendments 10 days later, and sent it to President Jefferson, who signed the bill into law on March 16, 1802.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29157000
Good Answer by Fishtoaster. The science is ancient, discovered by Archimedes. 1: Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. In other words, if you put a ball, with volume 1 litre completely under water, there is an upwards force on the ball (buoyancy or flotation) equal to the weight of 1 litre of water. (i.e. 1 kilogram-force or 9.81 Newtons) 2: (Corollary) Any floating object displaces its own weight of fluid. If we place a floating object of mass 1 kilo, it will displace exactly 1 kilo of water, or 1 litre of water. If the volume of our object is less than 1 litre, it will float. So, with a Hydrometer, it is weighted such that the submerged volume at the 1.000 reading is exactly equal to the weight of the hydrometer. If we dissolve solids into the water (sugar) that volume of water is heavier, and less of it needs to be displaced in order for the hydrometer's weight to be matched, and the Hydrometer floats higher.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29162000
Steel is one of the world’s most important engineering and construction materials, and increasingly a material of choice in commercial and residential applications. Although no one is certain when it was first used, a British inventor named Henry Bessemer is credited with creating the first technique by which steel could be mass-produced. Today, the metal is produced by adding a small amount of carbon to iron ore, and removing impurities, such as sulfur and phosphorous. Small amounts of alloying metals, such as nickel, manganese, chromium and vanadium may also be added. Facts About Steel - There are currently more than 3,500 different grades, most of which have been developed within the last few decades. The Eiffel Tower, if it were built using modern varieties of steel, would require only one-third as much steel as was used in 1889 when it was constructed. - The recent economic boom in China and India has caused a massive increase in it’s demand. - China is the world’s top producer, followed by Japan, Russia, and the United States, respectively. The physical properties of steel offer significant advantages over concrete, wood, and other building materials. Here are some of these advantages: - It is highly recyclable. In the United States, more steel is recycled than plastic, glass and aluminum combined, making it the most recycled material nationally. The reason for this is threefold: first, by virtue of its magnetic properties, steel can be easily separated from the waste stream. Second, recycling saves the steel industry an enormous amount of energy — enough to power 18 million homes for one year, according to the Steel Recycling Institute. Third, recycled steel loses none of its properties, making the recycling process simple and efficient. - It’s use saves trees. A typical 2,000-square-foot house, which requires 26,700 board feet to build, would require the use of 102 trees, according to the the Idaho Forest Products Commission. - More windows can be integrated in structures of steel construction, due to elevated mechanical properties of the metal. Windows reduce energy consumption and increase the comfort of building occupants. - Steel has the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any comparable construction material, making it among the most durable. - Steel conforms to any aesthetic. The availability of finishes, facades and other wall claddings allows builders to craft steel structures in any fashion. - There is an unlimited production capacity. Steel’s main ingredient – iron – is one of the most common metals in the earth’s crust. The United States’ structural steel industry has the capacity to produce 6 million tons of structural steel per year, which is comfortably more than what will be needed in the foreseeable future. - Steel is economical due to its enhanced quality and reduced costs owing to off-site fabrication and rapid construction. - Steel is non-combustible, which allows for lower insurance costs. Steel in Residential Construction Steel has long been a staple in commercial construction, but the material has seen recent use in residences, as well. Increasing lumber prices and a need to conserve timber products, as well as design elements such as resistance to termites, are fueling the transition to steel in the residential construction market. In addition, steel offers excellent earthquake, fire- and wind-resistance. Steel ceiling joists can span greater distances than wooden ones, allowing for a broader range of design possibilities for builders and architects. A disadvantage, however, is that steel readily conducts heat and cold, which may degrade a home’s energy efficiency. Contractors can mitigate this potential by wrapping steel framing in insulation board, as well as by placing insulation batts between the studs. Also, noise due to thermal expansion and contraction, as well as that produced by heavy rain, may cause irritation for occupants. Steel is often used in houses in the following applications: - rebar within concrete foundations; - floor joists, floor bearers and columns used to raise houses off the ground; - wall framing; and - battens, trusses and roof sheeting. FYI, steel is an excellent building material for residences as well as commercial buildings. If you are really interested in building with steel, framing with steel has obvious advantages over wood. Yet building with steel requires skills that can present challenges to the wood-frame builder or framer. The following book explains the secrets of steel framing techniques for building homes — whether pre-engineered or built by stick framing. It shows, in step-by-step instructions how to build with steel. It shows you the techniques, tools and materials — even how to estimate steel-framing costs. You’ll find instructions for designing for steel, tools and fasteners you’ll need, foundations and anchoring, installing floor joists, standing walls, rafters and rood trusses, specialty framing, stick framing and panelization, thermal considerations, nonbearing walls, attaching exterior finished, working with subcontractors, what to expect during inspections and more. Includes access to a FREE download with manhours, material, and labor prices, and an estimating program for estimating steel framing costs, along with steel framing details.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29164000
Human blood--it drives mosquitoes wild. Today Marlene Cimmons of the National Science Foundation (NSF) spotlights chemical ecologist Walter Leal, professor of entomology, University of California, Davis, on the LiveScience Web site. This interesting feature takes a behind-the-scenes look at Leal, a Brazilian-born scientist trained in three countries: Brazil, Japan and the United States. His research, partly funded by a NSF grant, has received international acclaim. Last year he was elected a Fellow of the 6000-member Entomological Society of America, a prestigious honor reserved for only 10 or fewer scientists a year. Leal, who focuses his research on how insects detect smells, is not shy about being a human subject. Or human pincushion. Cimmons wrote about how Leal "rolled up his sleeves" when he and his colleagues were looking for the substance that would lure mosquitoes into a blood meal. "And they found it--nonanal, a substance made by humans and birds that creates a powerful scent that Culex mosquitoes find irresistible." Leal also recalls the time when he was searching for beetles in Mexico and mosquitoes went after him with a vengeance. "They'll go through anything, even jeans, as long as they know there is a blood vessel on the other side," Leal told Cimmons. "They can sense the heat." Indeed, some folks just seem to attract more than their share of mosquitoes. Only the female mosquitoes bite--they need a blood meal to develop their eggs.Related links: UC Davis Researchers Identify Dominant Chemical That Attracts Mosquitoes to Humans Groundbreaking Research on DEET	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29166000
Robots game activity Bring the stack of CRC index cards you developed in lab yesterday to lecture, one for each class you hope to design in your robots program. This activity will involve elaboration of these cards, giving greater specificity to responsibilities and describing each class's attributes. Your task in class is to embellish these cards as follows: - Each card should list of member functions and instance variables of the class. (Instance variables are the private variables.) Insofar as possible, you should give the type/class of all parameters and return values of the member functions, and the types of the instance variables. - One additional card lists non-member functions (if any) along with the purpose of each. Again, give the type/class of all parameters and return values. - Number all member functions and procedures in the order you intend to code and test them. You'll put the number (1) in front of all methods and procedures you can test on their own without writing any others. Put a (2) in front of procedures you can't write until you've written procedures from (1), and so forth. - Identify with a (*) all methods which appear challenging to write. These are ones which you hope you can break up later into smaller procedures once you've thought about the robots program more.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29167000
In a previous column about the stress of working in an “open” office, I suggested that the popular practice of listening to music with earbuds or headphones not only cuts down on background noise but may also give employees a sense of control over their aural environment. But does having a constant soundtrack to your day also distract you from the task at hand? That depends on the task. Research shows that under some conditions, music actually improves our performance, while in other situations music makes it worse — sometimes dangerously so. Absorbing and remembering new information is best done with the music off, suggests a 2010 study published in Applied Cognitive Psychology. Adults aged 18 to 30 were asked to recall a series of sounds presented in a particular order. Participants’ performance suffered when music was played while they carried out the task as compared to when they completed the task in a quiet environment. Nick Perham, the British researcher who conducted the study, notes that playing music you like can lift your mood and increase your arousal — if you listen to it before getting down to work. But it serves as a distraction from cognitively demanding tasks. That finding is key to understanding another condition under which music can improve performance: when a well-practiced expert needs to achieve the relaxed focus necessary to execute a job he’s done many times before. A number of studies have found, for example, that surgeons often listen to music in the operating room and that they work more effectively when they do. A study in the Journal of the American Medical Association reported that surgeons carrying out a task in the laboratory worked more accurately when music that they liked was playing. (Music that they didn’t like was second best, and no music was least helpful of all.) (MORE: Remember More Without Trying) The doctors listening to their preferred music were also the most relaxed, as revealed by measurements of their nervous system activity. Still, surgeons might want to ask others in the operating room for their opinions on playing music: one survey of anaesthetists found that about a quarter felt that music “reduced their vigilance and impaired their communication with other staff,” and about half felt that music was distracting when they were dealing with a problem with the anesthesia. (And who would want to be the patient in that situation?) Research suggests that singing along might even heighten the distraction. A study presented earlier this month at the International Conference on Traffic and Transport Psychology, reported that singing along with music in a car may slow drivers’ responses to potential hazards. Christina Rudin-Brown, a Canadian researcher who studies the role of “human factors” in traffic snafus, asked the participants in her experiment to learn the lyrics to “I’m a Believer,” as performed by the band Smash Mouth, and “Imagine,” as performed by John Lennon. Singing these songs while operating a simulated car increased drivers’ mental workload, leading them to scan their visual field less often and to focus instead on the road right in front of them. Other iPod rules drawn from the research: Classical or instrumental music enhances mental performance more than music with lyrics. Music can make rote or routine tasks (think folding laundry or filing papers) less boring and more enjoyable. Runners who listen to music go faster. But when you need to give learning and remembering your full attention, silence is golden.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29174000
The Economic Security of Unmarried Women Today nearly half of women are unmarried--a transformational societal change from 1960 when only one-third of women were unmarried. And today virtually every woman will spend at least part of her adult life as the sole supporter of herself or her family. With so many women living on their own, it is crucial that lawmakers take seriously unmarried women's economic security needs. Unfortunately, the economic circumstances of unmarried women are troubling. They face greater economic insecurity compared to the general population or their married counterparts by almost any measure. They must confront disproportionate unemployment, poverty, and lack of health insurance, as well as other hardships. Despite being just under half of the female population, they represent 63 percent of unemployed women, 60 percent of women without health insurance, and three-quarters of women in poverty. There are many roots of these inequities. First, like all women, unmarried women face gender-based wage discrimination and segregation into lower-paying occupations, and they earn less on average than married women. Second, many unmarried women hold low-wage jobs that do not support an adequate standard of living, especially for a family or a woman living on one income. And these low-wage jobs often do not provide benefits like health insurance, sick time, or other basic necessities. Factors like race or sexual orientation too often result in additional discrimination and unequal job opportunities. Third, many unmarried women have family responsibilities-to their partners, children, parents, or extended family-but too many workplaces are not family friendly. For many unmarried women, finding quality child or elder care is difficult and may be very expensive-more even than their own income. Finally, the definition of "family" in policy is outdated, stuck in the 1950s notion of a nuclear family that excludes too many of today's nontraditional families. Many policies, particularly sharing of health insurance and retirement plans, are based on one's marital status regardless of the fact that nearly half of the population today is unmarried. The combination of these factors puts too many unmarried women in a unique but unfortunately precarious economic position. Despite the economic disparities unmarried women face, they make major contributions to the economy and their communities. Most unmarried women work outside the home, and they are more than a fifth of the nation's workers. They are a sizeable and growing consumer group, too, who are already demonstrating their economic prowess and independence by purchasing homes, representing a fifth of homebuyers in 2008. They are also heads of households and caregivers who are taking care of our elders and raising the next generation, and they are serving as the economic decision makers for enormous numbers of people-affecting all major sectors of our economy. But their potential contribution is unrealized. Fortunately, many current and proposed policies will benefit unmarried women. This report outlines an economic security agenda for unmarried women that focuses on the key areas of legislation in the 111th Congress that would benefit them, including good jobs; policies for single mothers and their children; quality, affordable health care; adequate, affordable housing; financial protection; and a secure, dignified retirement. The report is intended to serve as a resource for policymakers and advocates concerned about the economic security of unmarried women. It examines legislation under discussion, rather than ideal recommendations, and there is ample room for improvement, which will be examined in future work at the Center for American Progress and by Women's Voices. Women Vote. Still, each of the new laws and proposed policy changes described in this report has its place in an agenda to improve unmarried women's economic conditions. Together, this legislation would make significant progress. Congress doesn't need to wait to get started on this agenda, either. The top four policy proposals described in this report that are likely to move through Congress quickly and would have a significant impact on the economic security of unmarried women are: - The health care system overhaul currently pending in Congress, which would fill a major gap in public policy by greatly expanding the availability and affordability of health insurance. - A proposed reauthorization and expansion of the Child Care and Development Block Grant, which provides subsidies for child care to low-income families. - The expected reauthorization of the Workforce Investment Act, which Congress can use to focus on the workforce development needs of single women. Bills such as the Pathways Advancing Career Training Act and the Women WIN Jobs Act would target opportunities for job training and good jobs to women. - The Paycheck Fairness Act, which the Senate is expected to consider this year and the House passed in January 2009. Women continue to face gender-based pay discrimination, and this bill would strengthen legal protections against wage discrimination. Unmarried women--and our country--will be helped when public policy recognizes new ways of living, encourages and supports self- and family-sustaining employment, and ensures that all people and all families, regardless of their marital status, can achieve and maintain a good standard of living and a well-balanced life. Download the executive summary (PDF) Download the full report (PDF)	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29178000
Sixty-seven years ago today a United States Army Airforce B-29 called the Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb its makers’ quaintly named “Little Boy” on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Between 90,000 and 140,000 mostly civilians died as a result of this devastating attack. In 1962 the American Trappist monk Thomas Merton wrote a letter to the Hon. Shinzo Hamai who was the Mayor of Hiroshima. In his letter, Merton wrote, It is my conviction that the people of Hiroshima stand today as a symbol of the hopes of humanity. It is good that such a symbol should exist. The events of August 6, 1945, give you the most solemn right to be heard and respected by the whole world. But the world only pretends to respect your witness. In reality it cannot face the truth which you represent. But I wish to say on my own behalf and on behalf of my fellow monks and those who are like-minded, that I never cease to face the truth which is symbolized in the names Hiroshima, Nagasaki. (The Hidden Ground of Love, 380,381) Merton did not disclose in his letter what he believed to be the truth that the world “cannot face” that is represented by Hiroshima. Four days after the bombing of Hiroshima a second atomic bomb rained death upon Nagasaki killing an estimated 70,000 and leaving several hundred thousand others diseased and dying. The truth we do not want to see that confronts us in Hiroshima and Nagasaki is that we human beings are capable of committing cold-blooded acts of violence against predominantly civilian populations in an attempt to protect what we perceive to be our own interests. Merton went on in his letter to the Mayor of Hiroshima to write, I wish to say on my own behalf and on behalf of my fellow monks and those who are like-minded, that I never cease to face the truth which is symbolized in the names Hiroshima, Nagasaki. Each day I pray humbly and with love for the victims of the atomic bombardments which took place there. All the holy spirits of those who lost their lives then, I regard as my dear and real friends. I express my fraternal and humble love for all the citizens of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. (The Hidden Ground of Love, 381) Merton understood the deep truth to which the writer of the Letter to the Ephesians pointed when he wrote For this reason I bow my knees before the Father, from whom every family in heaven and on earth takes its name. (Ephesians 3:14,15) If “every family in heaven and on earth takes its name” from the same “Father”, then we are all connected. Every human being who has ever taken up space on this earth, is my brother or my sister. There is, according to the writer of Ephesians, only one human family. We are not separated by ethnicity, cultural barriers, or artificial national boundaries. We are all linked by our common parentage. The Japanese people who were slaughtered and maimed in Hiroshima and Nagasaki were not separate from their killers. The atomic bombs killed the brothers and sisters of those who dropped the bombs. “Little Boy” destroyed the family members of those who ordered the bombing. We who appear to have benefited from the carnage of Hiroshima bear the terrible legacy of the annihilation of hundreds of thousands of our brothers and sisters. Until we find the courage to acknowledge the monstrous fratricide for which we are guilty, we will never truly confront the violence that lies coiled in our hearts. No weapons will preserve us from the unacknowledged darkness beneath the surface of our civilized exterior. We who deny our complicity in the dark realities of the past are doomed to repeat its errors. We do well on this day to remember the horror of Hiroshima.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29182000
Selection of diamonds These diamonds are from a collection held at the Natural History Museum, London, UK. “An oblique photograph of Mount Etna looking to the southeast taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station on October 30,2002. The dark plume rising from the top of the volcano is an ash cloud. The broad white cloud streaming from areas of lower elevation is smoke produced by forest fires ignited as a hot lava flow moved through a pine forest. The ash and smoke caused air traffic to be diverted and forced the closing of roads, schools and businesses.” “Many species of insects are found in the Green River Formation including dragonflies. The wetland margins of Fossil Lake provided ideal breeding and foraging opportunities. National Park Service photo.” Mars Exploration Rover on the surface of Mars, artwork. “The first of two identical NASA rovers, Spirit, landed on Mars on 4 January 2004. The second, Opportunity, landed on the other side of the planet on 24 January 2004. The rovers are powered by solar panels (flat, across centre) and are mobile. Cameras mounted on the mast give scientists panoramic views of the Martian surface. This enables them to instruct the rovers which rocks to analyse and where to look for water. Tools on board the golf buggy-sized rovers include spectrometers for analysing rock samples, a microscope and an abrasion tool. Each rover has a 90-day mission on the surface of Mars.” Geological time: Late Jurassic, 150,8 - 148,5 Ma Found in Germany Sand, light micrograph “Sand is a loose collection of fragments of rock, shell and coral. This sand was collected from a beach in Villefranche on France’s Mediterranean coast. Magnification: x15 when printed at 10 centimetres wide.” Geological time: Late Cretaceous, 75-71 Ma Found in Mongolia Locality: Ohio, USA Atlantis, South Africa Geological time: Early Cretaceous, 130 - 125 Ma Cyanotrichite, Cu4Al2(SO4)(OH)12 . 2H2O Migmatite gneiss, SW Montana. Geological time: Late Cretaceous, 89 Ma Found in Argentina	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29188000
West Valley College R. Lopez Natural Provinces of California The first step in learning about the geology of California is learning its geography. 1) On a sketch a map of California, be able to outline the natural provinces, and name them. 2) Name at least two famous valleys in the Basin and Range province of California. 3) Why is the Basin and Range so arid? 4) What is the general geologic structure of the Sierra Nevada? 5) What was the tectonic setting of Mesozoic California and the Sierra Nevada Batholith? 6) What is the approximate thickness of sedimentary rocks beneath the central Great Valley, and what was the source of the sediments. 7) When was the largest historical earthquake in California, where did it occur, and what was its geological significance? 8) What two major factors may have played a role in the 1980 Mammoth Lakes earthquake swarm? 9) What are horst and grabens? What are normal faults? What type of stress is associated with normal faults? 10) What are range front faults? What is the significance of the Owens Valley Quake of 1872? 11) What are Pleistocene lakes? What two lines of evidence support high water stands in the basins of the Basin and Range? 12) The rocks of the Klamath province are most like those of what other province? 13) What age and type of rocks occur in the Klamath province? What are accreted terranes? What is an ophiolite? 14) What is the general age and rock type found in the Cascade Range and the Modoc Plateau, and why are the landforms in these provinces so different? 15) What is the plate tectonic setting of the Cascade Range? 16) What tectonic plate is subducting off of northern California to form the California Cascades? 17) Why is the Modoc Plateau a plateau? What are fissure eruptions? 18) What major geologic structures define the NW and SW boundaries of the Mojave Desert? 19) The Colorado Desert province is the on-land extension of what major geologic structure (see p. 392)? 20) Is the Salton Trough below sea level? What is the geologic structure of the Salton Trough? 21) What evidence do the Salton Buttes have that supports the structure implied for the question above? 22) How did the Salton Sea form? (see page 243) 23) What faults border the NE and SW boundaries of the Salton Trough? 24) Rocks of the Peninsular Range are most like what other province? This implies that the Peninsular Ranges also had a _______ tectonic setting. 25) What is the obvious, most unusual feature of the Transverse Ranges province? 26) What is a restraining bend. Is the Big Bend a restraining or releasing bend? Be able to name some of the ranges in the Transverse Ranges. 27) What major geologic structure dominates the Coast Ranges? 28) Be able to trace the general trace of the San Andreas Fault through California. 29) Where is the Carrizo Plain, and what geologic feature is it famous for (p.317)? 30) Where does the San Andreas Fault cross Highway 17?	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29191000
Isle Royale Travelog The History of Isle Royale The island of Isle Royale has had a long and varied history. The island itself came into being around 1.2 billion years ago in the Precambrian era. Continuous pounding by wind, rain, and glaciers have molded the island into its current configuration, a wilderness measuring 45 miles long by 8.5 miles wide, and covering an area of more than 850 square miles. The island lies some 40 miles north of Michigan's Upper Peninsula and 18 miles south of Ontario, Canada in the heart of Lake Superior. It is estimated that man may have arrived on the island as early as 7000b.c. White explorers, namely French, began to explore the region in the late 17th century in search of copper. They also bestowed upon the island its formal name, Isle Royale. The possible importance of the island as a source for natural resources was not overlooked in 1783 when Benjamin Franklin negotiated the Treaty of Paris, insisting that the island be included in United States territory. Although the island lies closer to the state of Minnesota, Michigan gained control of the island in 1873. Industry on the island has come in two forms, fishing and mining, both of which have had difficulty in sustaining a livelihood for settlers. While exploration had begun in the late 17th century, real attempts at taking advantage of the island's resources did not begin in earnest until the 1800's as fisherman moved into the area in search of trout and white fish. Even so, the life of commercial enterprises on the island were often short-lived due to the remote and rugged characteristics of the island. The American Fur Company began a fishing camp on Belle Isle in 1837. Within 2 years they had opened 7 camps and employed 33 people, only to close down the operation in 1841. Attempts at mining began in 1843 and continued on and off until the end of the 19th century. Minong Mine became the largest mine in the 1870's and the town was home to approximately 150 workers and their families. In 1875, Isle Royale County was established with the town of Island Mine being the county seat and the Minong settlement being a separate township. Lack of prosperity led to the decline of both the mining and fishing industries, although a small fishing enclave still remains today. Wildlife is a large part of Isle Royale and one of the main attractions for visitors and researchers. The fluctuating moose and wolf populations have been a source of research and study for years. Other species inhabiting the island include bats, fox, beaver, red squirrels, hares, American toads, several types of frogs, and the western painted turtle. Birds visible and audible on the island include the common loon, various types of geese, ducks and gulls, hawks, eagles, osprey, owls, woodpeckers, chickadees, warblers, wrens, swallows, sparrows, thrushes, and kingfishers. Additional points of interest for visitors include the trees and plants of the island. Prominent tree species include birch, aspen, spruce and fir. Wood lily, wild prickly rose, Canada dogwood, eastern columbine, wild iris, and thimbleberry are among the many flowering plants visible among the forests of the island. The island was designated a National Park on April 3, 1940 and designated an International Biosphere Reserve in 1980. Tourism remains the largest industry on the island, which serves as a destination for avid hikers, campers, and kayakers. The island includes more than 165 miles of hiking trails, two visitor centers (Rock Harbor and Windigo) and several campgrounds. DuFresne, Jim. Isle Royale National Park: Foot Trails & Water Routes. Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers, 1991. Larson, Karen. "Wild Archipelago". Cruising World. August 1994: 46. Isle Royale National Park. National Park Service. 15 October 2001 <http://www.nps.gov/isro>. Isle Royale Travelog Copyright ©2001 Alexandra Van Doren & Carol Whittaker. All rights reserved. Reproduction by any means, in part or in full, without the express permission of the authors, is strictly prohibited.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29199000
One of the most difficult genealogical tasks you may face in researching your Italian roots is in tracing the ancestry of an Italian foundling. Known in Italy as Trovatelli or Proietti, a foundling is a child abandoned at birth, for one reason or another. The most common is that the child was born out of wedlock, but others, such as; the family being to poor to care for another child, are not unheard of. These infants were usually left at a foundling home. The foundling homes were a place where Italian women could legally abandon their children, with complete anonymity (although, often times, especially in small towns, the identity of at least the mother was generally known). Sometimes children were left with tokens to indicate their parentage, in the event the mother or father should ever want to reclaim them, although, this was rare. After the child was abandoned, their birth would be registered in the Stato di Civile, under a name the mayor or other town official would give the child. These names were made up by the town official, some of the names were unique (such as one I have in my ancestry, Clemanni), others were generic names given to many foundlings, such as; Esposito (literally meaning "exposed"). After the infant's birth was registered, they were placed in the care of a woman who recently had given birth to a child (usually one that had recently lost a child). These women were called, wet nurses. The roles these women had in the child's life varied greatly. Some took the child in, simply to collect money given to them by the town to care for the child, others treated them as their own, sometimes even giving the child their own surname. Often times, family lore and myths existed about the child's parents. A common one is that the foundling was the child of a nobleman. These stories, while not always untrue, can stem from a variety of sources. One being that the mother made the claims while pregnant (to dignify to some extent something that was a social taboo at the time). Secondly being that when the child was born, he/she was given a name by the town official, that sounded "noble" (Della Luna, for instance). Whatever the case, while these stories are fun to think about, always take them with a grain of salt. Birth records for foundlings can be found in the Registri dello Stato Civile, Atti di Nascita (birth acts) of the child's town of origin, usually in Parte II. These records rarely give the parents names (as previously stated, their identity was to be kept secret if they chose it to be). If his or her parents recognized the child, these records can usually be found in the Atti Diversi (Misc. acts) for the year of the child's birth. Other records that can help you in tracing your foundling ancestor's genealogy are marriage records and baptism records. Marriage records would be found in the Registri dello Stato Civile, Atti di Matrimonio (marriage acts), whereas baptism records (battesimo) are maintained by the church where he/she was baptized, and can be hard to obtain. Again, tracing the ancestry of a foundling can be incredibly difficult, and sometimes, impossible, so to familiarize oneself with the common procedures that took place is very important. Foundling history in Italy is complex, and I couldn't begin to go through all the variables in one post. This is just an attempt to help you understand the general process. A valuable resource for further research is the book ‘Sacrificed for Honor: Italian infant abandonment and the politics of reproductive control’ by David I. Kertzer.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29201000
Affecting both men and women, “heart disease” refers to conditions that affect the function of the heart, such as coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias. Coronary artery disease is a type of heart disease that begins when plaque builds up along the walls of arteries. This buildup narrows the arteries, restricting proper blood flow. If left unchecked, heart disease increases the risk of heart attack and stroke. Whether or not you have a family history of heart disease, it’s important to understand the risk factors for the condition, which include: - Hypertension (high blood pressure) - Sedentary lifestyle - Obesity, especially excess fat in the central abdominal region - Elevated cholesterol - Diabetes mellitus (metabolic disorder resulting in elevated blood glucose) Practicing a healthy lifestyle, which includes good nutrition and exercise, is a good way to help prevent heart disease. Most people should engage in at least 30 minutes of moderate exercise most days of the week. This helps control blood pressure and weight. Talk with your primary care doctor before beginning any exercise program. As for diet and nutrition, choosing the right foods, such as fruits, vegetables and lean proteins, and avoiding excessive amounts of caffeine, sugar and salt also are good ways to prevent heart disease. Additionally, adults should have periodic preventive health exams and testing so that fasting cholesterol and glucose levels, as well as blood pressure, can be checked and treated, if necessary. While there is no one symptom that signals the onset of heart disease, there are a number of warning signs. Some of the most common include: - Chest pain or pressure - Unexplained pain in the back, chest, neck or arm - Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing - Palpitations or “fluttering” in the chest - Indigestion, heartburn – and sometimes even nausea or loss of appetite Although these symptoms can indicate heart disease, they also may be related to many other conditions. Generally, I recommend contacting your doctor if you have new or unusual symptoms to ensure you are properly evaluated. If your doctor suspects heart disease, he or she will likely refer you for further testing.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29202000
\|Digital Evidence - Science Insider Reported January 2009 WHAT IS CYBER FORENSICS? The subset of forensic science concerned with interpreting evidence contained in computers and digital media is called cyber forensics. The field is concerned with issues such as recovering lost data and revealing and decrypting data hidden on a suspect's computer. In addition to computers, cyber forensics specialists can also recover information from cellular phones, mp3 players, CDs, DVDs and more. Approximately 80 to 90 percent of legal cases today involve some sort of digital evidence. WHAT'S A FLASHER BOX? A flasher box is a device that transfers data from a cell phone to a computer, where people unfamiliar with the device in question can examine files for evidence. With one of these devices, non-experts are able to check for clues that may help them solve cases, even if they have never before seen a similar device. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., contributed to the information contained in the TV portion of this report. If you would like more information, please contact: Richard P. Mislan Purdue University, Cyber Forensics Lab West Lafayette, IN 47907-2021 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. IEEE-USA Washington, DC 20036-5104 ON THE WEB... Cyber Forensics Lab - Purdue University	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29203000
Recently I came to the conclusion middle school students need instruction on how to effectively reflect on their writing. I just got done handing back my 7th graders book reviews. My classroom is essentially paperless and they had to complete the assignment using Google Docs. As I grade papers, whether it is 7th or 8th grade, I make notes on the areas my students struggle with throughout the particular writing assignment. Throughout this assignment, students struggled with basic spelling, sentence structure, and capitalization. In addition, students struggled with one major concept with the review, which was the compare/contrast section of the review. Upon returning the student’s papers I asked the students to have me help them. I was frustrated with them not following directions. After all, I am well into the second semester and I needed them to realize their mistakes were nothing more then following simple directions. When I asked them what I can do to make them more successful…silence. Why couldn’t my students reflect on their own writing, or even their own work so I could help them grow? After discussing with a colleague who had taught English before, we both came to the conclusion middle school students don’t know how to reflect on their work. My students have writing portfolios, both physical and digital. in addition, I have given them reflection prompts for their past assignments, but in all honesty I feel confident my students are more or less going through the motions rather then thinking critically about their own writing and how they can make it better. The Common Core State Standards say very little about reflection, but it is essential for creating a more rigorous classroom and for students to evaluate their own learning. So, what can we do as middle school English teachers to help students reflect on their writing? To be honest, I don’t have any solid answers. One strategy I have adopted for my students is for them to look at a specific comment I have placed on their document. Then, they need to rewrite the comment and complete some tasks on a pre-made template I hand out to students. Below are the tasks. 1. What was your initial response to the comment by Mr. Hyler? 2. In your own words rewrite what it is that Mr.Hyler commented on. 3. Give an example of how you are going to make your writing better based on the comment by Mr. Hyler. 4. How are you going to apply what you learned from reflecting on your writing to future assignments? Be specific. I am sure there are other ways for students to reflect on their writing. I am going to continue to research this important task that is vital for developing strong writers and strong students in general.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29218000
Guest Speaker and Candlelight Memorial Planned for Holocaust Remembrance Day - Release Date: - November 1, 2012 - Matt Heidt, email@example.com HAMBURG, N.Y. – On November 8 Hilbert College will pay tribute to those who lost their lives and survived the Holocaust with a Holocaust Remembrance Day event. The Holocaust Remembrance Day has been planned by students as part of a service learning project in their Representations of the Holocaust class with professor Dr. Amy Smith. The day’s events begin at 9:30 a.m. in the West Herr Atrium with a poster display of significant people and events associated with the Holocaust including Elie Wiesel, the Kindertransport, young adult literature about the Holocaust, and others. At 9:45 a.m. in the West Herr Atrium, Dr. Herman Stone will discuss his experiences during Kristallnacht, a wave of violent anti-Jewish attacks against individuals, businesses, and religious institutions that occurred on November 9 and 10, 1938. Dr. Stone was born in Munich, Germany and is currently a member of the Speakers Bureau of the Holocaust Resource Center of Buffalo. The presentation date of November 8 was chosen because of the closeness to the anniversary of Kristallnacht. Refreshments will be provided. An exhibit featuring works of art and literature created during and in memory of the Holocaust will open at 12:30 p.m. in the lower level of the McGrath Library. The exhibit, put together by Sarah Karn, will show how the Holocaust has been represented in a variety of moving and powerful ways. The events of the day will conclude with the showing of the film, “The Boy in the Striped Pajamas,” at 3:15 p.m. in Bogel Hall, room 160. The movie portrays WWII as seen through the eyes of Bruno, an eight year-old boy and the son of a commandant at a concentration camp, who befriends a Jewish boy in the camp. A discussion about the issues and consequences that occur from the boys’ friendship will take place afterwards. Immediately following the film and discussion, a candlelight memorial honoring the millions of lives lost during the Holocaust will take place in the Quad area (rain location will be in the back foyer of Bogel Hall). Holocaust Remembrance Day events are free and open to the public. Additional information is available by contacting Jerrell Mason, student coordinator/event supervisor, at firstname.lastname@example.org, or Dr. Amy Smith at 716-649-7900, ext. 354, or email email@example.com. Hilbert College, located in suburban Hamburg, N.Y., south of Buffalo, is a private four-year college founded in 1957 in the Catholic Franciscan tradition. With nearly 1,100 students, Hilbert is a dynamic Western New York college that offers career-focused majors, including one of the top criminal justice programs in the region, and more than 50 minors and concentrations. The college’s engaging, student-centered campus community offers numerous leadership, internship and service learning opportunities from which students launch successful careers while making positive changes in their communities. Hilbert has expanded its academic offerings with the college’s first graduate programs, one a master’s in criminal justice administration and the other a master’s in public administration, and new Accelerated Degree Programs geared to adult learners.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29229000
In 1932, after Cadillac suffered from record low sales and charges of discrimination against black customers, Alfred Sloan created a committee to consider the discontinuation of the Cadillac line. At a fateful board meeting, Cadillac president Nicholas Dreystadt heard that legendary boxer Joe Louis could not go into a dealership to buy a car, because he was black, and resorted to having a white friend make the purchase for him. Dreystadt gave the GM Board of Directors a 10 minute speech in which he advocated advertising to black consumers so as to increase sales. The Board agreed to give Dreystadt 18 months to produce results. By 1934, Cadillac had regained profitability. It is significant to note that after this decision, Cadillac was the only American automobile manufacturer to remain profitable during the Great Depression. By 1940, Cadillac sales had risen 1000% compared to 1934, thus saving Cadillac from extinction.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29234000
Reading Level Test Use the five finger test to check the reading level of a book you are choosing to read by yourself: - Open the book to the middle. Choose a page that is all words with no pictures. - Read the page aloud. - Put one finger up for every word you cannot say or do not know. (Names of people and places do not count). - If you get five (5) fingers up on one page, the book is too difficult to read - If you are reading very slowly and decoding (trying to figure out) almost every word, the book is too difficult for you even if you do not have five fingers raised. There are many wonderful books in our library for your enjoyment. Please use this test or ask the librarian for help when choosing a book to read by yourself.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29235000
From MozillaZine Knowledge Base about:config is a feature of Mozilla applications which lists application settings (known as preferences) that are read from the profile files prefs.js and user.js, and from application defaults. Many of these preferences are not present in the Options or Preferences dialog. Using about:config is one of several methods of modifying preferences and adding other "hidden" ones. This article is a companion article for about:config entries where the most important about:config variables are described. Warning: Modifying preferences can, in rare circumstances, break Firefox, Thunderbird or the Mozilla Suite, or can cause strange behavior. Only do so if you know what you are doing or are following trustworthy advice. Adding modifying and resetting preferences To add a new preference, context-click (right-click) anywhere in the list of preferences. In the context menu, select New then select the type of preference you are adding. To modify an existing preference, context-click (right-click) on the preference, select Modify and type in the new value. In some cases, Toggle will be the selection offered for boolean (true-false) preferences. To reset a preference to its default value or to remove an added preference, context-click (right-click) on the preference and select Reset. If you added the entry via about:config, the preference will no longer be listed after restarting the program. (For more information about resetting preferences, see this article). You can use the "Search" bar at the top of the about:config page ("Filter" bar in older versions) to filter the preferences that you want to inspect. The search bar is case-insensitive, unlike the actual configuration variables. Some examples to filter results: Some examples of regular expressions (RegExp) to filter results	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29237000
The Mekong, a precious jewel of Southeast Asia, has become a critical battleground between hydropower dam projects and the survival of the world’s greatest freshwater fisheries. The future of this 4,880 km (3032 miles) long river may well be decided by what happens to the Xayaburi mega-dam project in Laos, the first of a cascade of 11 dam projects on the lower Mekong. Ame Trandem from the NGO International Rivers explained that, “The Mekong River is the lifeblood of Southeast Asia, feeding and employing millions of people. To move forward with the Xayaburi Dam would be reckless and irresponsible, as the dam would fatally impact the river’s ecosystem and fisheries.” In spite of repeated reports that the Xayaburi dam project had been suspended pending further scientific studies, a recent visit to the dam-site has suggested that the Lao government has not bowed to international pressure. As a World Wildlife Fund analysis recently warned, “Construction work is marching ahead at the Xayaburi dam site in northern Laos and risks making a mockery of the decision last December by Mekong countries to delay building the dam on the Mekong mainstream.” In December 2011 the four-member nations of the Mekong River Commission – Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam –agreed that no dams should be built until further scientific studies of the negative impacts on all the riparian countries had been completed. Scientists have warned that if the 11 dams are built it could bring on an ecological disaster that harms many of the 877 Mekong fish species. Furthermore, it is the uninhibited flow of the Mekong through the heart of Southeast Asia and the river’s bountiful natural resources that guarantees 65 million people’s food security. Although Cambodia and Vietnam are determined to stop the dam, everything indicates that the Thai developer Ch. Karnchang and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR) are equally determined to build it. In this context, a failure to resolve the dam issue could also trigger a major diplomatic row among the Mekong nations, undermining the credibility of the MRC and disrupting international cooperation along the region’s most important waterway. “The Xayaburi Dam will trigger an ecological crisis of tremendous proportions. We urge the Prime Ministers of Laos and Thailand to show leadership by cancelling this project,” Shalmali Guttal of Focus on the Global South, a member of the 263 coalition of NGOs from 51 nations said in a statement condemning the damn. In response to this opposition, Lao Foreign Minister, Thongloun Sisoulithmade announced during last month’s ASEAN FM summit that his country was suspending work on the Xayaburi dam until further studies on its impact could be done. Although opponents of the dam welcomed Vientiane’s announcement, they soon were disappointed. Soon after the Lao government’s announcements, a number of diplomats, MRC officials, experts, and donors visited Laos to see the site. After the visit some MRC observers then asserted that, “the project is in an advanced preparation stage with exploratory excavation in and around the river completed.” Similarly, International Rivers concluded in their own unofficial investigation of the dam-site in June, that, “the dredging and widening of river has already taken place.” Meanwhile back in Bangkok, Ch.Karnchang, the Thai developer of the US$3.8 billion project, said the dam was going ahead with no delays in the original timetable. Initial construction has evidently started, however. Has the Laotian government then reneged on its international commitments? Deputy Minister for Energy and Mines Viraphonh Viravonghas denied any violation of the MRC agreements. Instead he contended that all the construction done so far falls under the rubric of “preparatory work,” noting that the construction “does not involve permanent structures” and instead is mostly about building makeshift housing for construction workers. But fisheries experts say that long before the river is fully blocked, existing construction will disturb the riverbed enough to significantly affect fish populations and the flow of sediments downstream. Dr. Jian-hua Meng, a sustainable hydropower specialist working at the WWF, argues that, “This will be the first direct intervention in the riverbed, and will mark a milestone in the ongoing dam construction.” According to a WWF report, which was strongly critical of the Dam project, Viraphonh Viravong, Laos’s Deputy Minister of Energy and Mines, contradicted the foreign minister when he allegedly told the MRC-led delegation that the project would proceed without further reviews. Since September 2010 ongoing consultations based on the MRC regulatory framework has resulted in the Lao government trying to answer the strong objections from Cambodia and Vietnam. Unsatisfied, Vietnam has called for a 10-year moratorium on dam construction. To answer these objections Laos appointed two foreign consultants: the Swiss –based Poyry Energy and French company CNR (Compagnie Nationale du Rhone). Still, Cambodia and Vietnam remain convinced that any dam will block fish migration and reduce the flow of sediment. Both foreign consultants argue that fish ladders or fish passes can enable 85% of all fish to get past the turbines and successfully swim up or down river but this claim has not been fully tested. Indeed, many dismissed Poyry’s previous report- a compliance review of the Xayaburi Dam in 2011 regarding the consultation process with its neighbors- as lacking the necessarily scientific data. It’s also worth noting that the Finnish-based Poyry has been blacklisted by the World Bank for unrelated corruption charges that have led the CEO to resign. This calls into question its credibility. Very different advice to the Lao government came from the visiting U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, who said last month that, “I’ll be very honest with you; We made a lot of mistakes…. We’ve learned some hard lessons about what happens when you make certain infrastructure decisions, and I think that we all can contribute to helping the nations of the Mekong region avoid the mistakes that we and others made.” Washington is also concerned that if the Xayaburi dam goes ahead, China is lined up to build at least three more dams further down the Mekong thus penetrating ever deeper into the Mekong sub-region. NGOs representing people from the eight provinces in northeast Thailand are about to file legal action in the courts to force the Thai government to review the contract with the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT), the state’s electricity body. Thailand has agreed to buy 95% of all the power generated from the Xayaburi dam. The Thai government has quietly endorsed the MRC consensus that further scientific study is needed. Now NGOs are demanding that the Thai government do more and use its power to freeze the Xayaburi/EGAT contract, which in turn would pressure the Thai dam-builder Karnchang to halt the project. According to scientists the stakes are high in this ongoing battle over sustainable development. WWF’s Dr. Jian-hua Meng has warned, for instance, that “Resting the future of the Mekong on flawed analysis and gaps in critical data could have dire consequences for the livelihoods of millions of people living in the Mekong river basin. Tom Fawthrop is a Thailand-based journalist and producer. His work has appeared in The Guardian, Al-Jazeera and the New Statesman, among other publications.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29241000
You just heard you have a math test on Friday — the same day as your big history test and weekly quiz on Spanish verbs. Are they crazy? How will you get all your studying done? Don't panic. There are some secrets to good studying. These 5 study tips can help you take tests with confidence. 1. Start Studying in School Studying for tests and quizzes actually starts way before you even know you'll have a test. Good study techniques begin in the classroom as you take notes. Note-taking is a way of remembering what you were taught or what you've read about. Some keys to note-taking are to write down facts that a teacher mentions or writes on the board during class. If you miss something, ask your teacher to go over the facts with you after class. Keep your notes organized by subject and making sure they're easy to read and review. This may mean that you need to recopy some notes at home or during a free period while the class is still fresh in your mind. Unfortunately, most schools don't have classes that teach you how to take notes. When it comes to taking good notes, it can take some experimenting to figure out what works, so don't give up. When you sit down to study, think about how much time you want to devote to each topic. This will keep you from getting overwhelmed. If it's Monday, and you've got three tests on Friday, figure out how much time you need for studying between now and then. Then figure out how long each subject will take. For example, a weekly Spanish verb test probably won't be as intense as a big history test. So you won't need to set aside as much study time for the Spanish test — and if you break it up into a short amount every night, that's even better. Another study technique is called "chunking" — breaking large topics down into chunks. Let's say you have a history test on World War II. Instead of thinking about studying all of World War II (which could overwhelm even an expert), try breaking your study sessions into 2-year chunks or studying the material by specific battles. Most people can concentrate well for about 45 minutes. After that you'll probably want to take a short break. If you find yourself getting distracted and thinking about other things as you study, pull your attention back. Remind yourself that when your 45 minutes of studying are up, you can take a 15-minute break. Many teachers tell students ahead of time what the format of an exam will be. This can help you tailor how you study. For example, if you know you're going to have multiple-choice questions on World War II, you'll know to focus on studying facts and details. But if the exam will contain essay questions, you'll want to think about which topics are most likely to be covered. Then come up with several possible essay topics and use your notes, books, and other reference sources to figure out how you might answer questions on those topics. As you study, review your notes and any special information from your textbook. Read things over several times if you need to, and write down any phrases or thoughts that will help you remember main ideas or concepts. When trying to memorize dates, names, or other factual information, keep in mind that it usually takes a number of tries to remember something correctly. That's one reason why it's a good idea to start studying well in advance of a test. Use special memory triggers that the teacher may have suggested or ones that you invent yourself. In the case of math or science problems or equations, do some practice problems. Pay special attention to anything the teacher seemed to stress in class. (This is where good note-taking comes in handy!) Some people find it helps to teach what they're studying aloud to an imaginary student. Or work with a study partner and take turns teaching aloud. Another study technique is making flashcards that summarize some of the important facts or concepts. You can then use these to review for a test. It's tempting to put off studying until the last minute (also known as procrastination). Unfortunately, by the time students get to high school there's so much going on that there's usually no room for procrastination. If you're a procrastinator (and who isn't sometimes?), one of the best ways to overcome it is by staying organized. After you've written test dates and project due dates on a calendar, it's hard to ignore them. And sitting down to organize and plan your work really highlights how much time things take. Organization makes it harder to procrastinate. Sometimes people put off studying because they feel overwhelmed by the fact that they're behind on things or they just feel really disorganized. Don't let this happen to you. Keep your notes organized, stay on top of required readings, and follow the other study tips mentioned earlier to stay focused and in control. Your teachers will give you plenty of notice on important tests so you have enough time to study for the type of exam you'll be taking. But what if you're feeling overwhelmed by all the stuff you have to do? Are classes or extracurricular activities limiting your time to study properly? Ask your teachers for help prioritizing. You may need to involve the people in charge of your activities — such as your coach or music or drama teacher — in working out a solution. Don't wait until the last minute to talk to your teachers, though, or you'll just look like a procrastinator! And don't be afraid to ask for help. Teachers respect students who are thoughtful and interested in learning and doing well. Sometimes it can be useful to go over things with people who are studying for the same test: You can make sure that your notes are correct and that you understand the subject. Study groups are also helpful because you can work together to come up with ways to remember concepts and then test one another. For some people who are easily distracted, though, study groups spell disaster because they get off the topic. When you're with a bunch of friends or classmates, you may spend more time hanging out than actually studying. One way to ensure quiet and focus when studying with a group is to study in the library. You'll be forced to keep things more low-key than if you're at someone's kitchen table. In the end, it comes down to what works best for you. If you like to study alone and feel most confident doing it that way, that's great. If you think you'd like to work in a group, try it out — just be aware of the drawbacks. When you've finished studying, you should feel like you can approach the test or quiz with confidence — not necessarily that you will get 100% of the answers correct, but that you have a good understanding of the information. Most of all, don't panic if you can't remember some facts the night before the test. Even if you've spent all evening studying, the brain needs time to digest all that information. You'll be surprised by what comes back to you after sleeping.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29243000
A stye is a small bump on your top or bottom eyelid, right where your eyelashes are. It can get red, swollen, and painful. Styes form because a gland in your eye is clogged. They're too small to see, but you have lots of little glands in your eyelid. They make a special oil that mixes with your tears to keep your eyes wet even when you're not crying. Sometimes old oil, skin cells, and dead germs get into a gland and clog it up so the oil can't get out. That makes the gland get bigger and bigger. Ouch! That's when you'll feel a stye and see it, too. What You Should Do About a Stye If you think you have a stye, tell a parent or the adult who's caring for you. A stye is usually a minor problem that can be treated. A parent can call your doctor to see if you should come in for a visit. Or the doctor might just give your parent some advice over the phone. Often, a doctor will recommend a nice warm washcloth. Warmth will help unclog the gland and get the gunk to drain out. Ask a grownup to get it to the right temperature if you're not sure (you don't want to use hot water). And wring it out so it's not too drippy. Find a comfy place to relax and put the warm washcloth over your eye. Do this a few times a day. If the washcloth gets cool, you can warm it back up with warm water. Sometimes, your doctor might recommend watered-down baby soap as a gentle cleanser for your eye. You don't want to put any old soap in your eyes because it will burn! You'll need to see a doctor if your stye doesn't get better or if it gets worse. Your doctor might give you a medicated cream or other medicine to take. How to Prevent Styes? To prevent styes, don't touch your eyes. That's how germs get in there. Washing your hands regularly is a good idea, too. Some kids get styes a lot. It might have something to do with the kind of skin they have. If that sounds like you, your doctor will have ideas on how to treat and prevent them.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29244000
My 13-year-old daughter's doctor said she should learn to give herself breast exams. Is breast cancer really a threat for a teenager? - Dixie Although breast cancer in teens is extremely rare, it's a good idea for girls to learn how to perform a breast self-examination (BSE) so they can get used to how their bodies feel normally. After learning what is normal for them, teens can then recognize changes in their breasts. Doctors recommend doing a monthly BSE at the same time each month (like a few days after a girl's period ends, when breasts are less tender). Some kinds of lumps that teenage girls may feel are normal, but a doctor should check out any lump to be sure. If your daughter notices any changes or has any questions, she should talk to her doctor.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29245000
Andy's a good tennis player. Correction: Andy is a great tennis player. He loves the competition and intensity of the game and is known for his dominating serve. Recently Andy developed a sharp pain in his elbow. At first he thought nothing of it and continued his training, but the pain became unbearable. The pain was so bad he went to see his doctor, who informed him he had elbow bursitis. What Is Bursitis? From your head down to your big toes, your body has lots of differently shaped and sized joints. Many have something in common near the area of the joint — a customized fluid sac that provides cushioning for movement and pressure. These small cushions are known as bursae (a single one is called a bursa). Bursitis is the term used to describe inflammation or irritation of a bursa. Bursitis can result from a direct hit or from repetitive joint movements (like a tennis serve). If a bursa becomes irritated, either by a direct hit or from a nearby joint repeating the same movement (like a tennis serve), then bursitis can occur. People can also get bursitis when the body has to change its balance or movement to adapt to differences; for example, if a person has one leg that's longer than the other. Bursitis, especially in teens, is often likely to happen because of sports-related injuries, usually from repeated use of a particular joint or trauma from a direct hit in a contact sport. It's not only sporty types who get bursitis, though. It can sometimes be caused by other problems, such as arthritis or a bacterial infection of the bursa. Here are some of the areas in which teens most commonly get bursitis: Elbow. Because the elbow is an essential part of many activities, like throwing a ball or swinging a tennis racket, elbow bursitis is one of the most common types of bursitis in teens. Knee. Bursitis in the knee can be the result of falling directly on the knee or any activity that requires long periods of kneeling. Hip. Bursitis of the hip is often associated with running injuries. Shoulder. Bursitis of the shoulder can be the result of something as simple as an awkward fall or as complicated as a rotator cuff injury (the rotator cuff keeps the shoulder secure). Ankle. Someone who goes overboard jumping, running, or walking can get ankle bursitis. Just wearing the wrong type of shoes for a particular activity can lead to ankle bursitis. How to Detect Bursitis Bursitis can cause a number of different symptoms: Pain and sensitivity in or around a joint. This is the most common and obvious sign that a person may have bursitis. Difficulty moving the affected joint. This happens because the bursa has swollen and made it tough to move the joint properly. Reddening of the skin. The inflamed bursa may cause the skin around the joint to change color. Burning. The irritated bursa can cause the skin to sting and feel warmer than usual. In most cases, you will probably be able to treat bursitis at home. The key part of at-home treatment, as with many injuries, is rest. Besides resting the affected joint or region, to help get rid of bursitis try: Ice ice, baby. Ice should be used on the bursitis while the inflamed area is still warm to the touch. Ice can be applied several times a day for up to 20 minutes. Icing the area will also help to lessen the swelling that can occur with bursitis. The heat is on. Putting heat on the joint when it is no longer warm to the touch can reduce the pain. As with ice, don't apply heat for more than 20 minutes at a time. Elevation. Raising a joint that is swollen for any reason can help to reduce swelling. That goes for bursitis, too. If possible, elevate the affected joint so it is above the level of the heart. Under pressure. Avoid placing pressure on the joint. This will aggravate bursitis rather than help it to heal. Just like a pill. Anti-inflammatory drugs like ibuprofen may help. Bursitis is often the result of a hard impact on a joint or overworking a joint, and sometimes these injuries are unavoidable. But there are some steps you can take to avoid getting bursitis: Stay in shape. Working out regularly strengthens muscles and joints, which helps protect against bursitis. Don’t overdo it. Too much of anything can be bad, and the same goes for overworking joints. Start and stop workouts properly. One of the best ways to prevent bursitis is by working out properly. Warming up and cooling down are essential parts of working out and should never be skipped. Gradually starting and stopping your workout is less stressful for your joints and body. Stretch it out. Stretching not only helps improve flexibility but it is also useful in preventing bursitis. Mix it up. Whether you're rotating exercises while lifting weights or just taking a breather from a strenuous activity, your joints will thank you. Better padded than sorry. Use cushions on wooden or metal chairs and kneepads when kneeling on hardwood or concrete floors to help reduce the risk of developing bursitis. Also avoid putting extreme amounts of pressure or weight directly on joints. Keep it moving. Don't stay planted on your butt, knees, or other joints for long periods of time. Even if it's for a few minutes, get up and move around. If you realize that a particular activity causes you to get bursitis, stop doing it and talk to your doctor or coach about safer methods. Be on the lookout for bursitis if you participate in a sport. The best way to avoid it is by using the proper techniques and equipment. If your bursitis was caused by something like ill-fitting shoes or other equipment, replace that equipment with something that fits you better.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29247000
To write a cool attention grabbing narrative essay needs the right spices, just like cooking a curry masala. The first thing about writing narrative essay is creative imagination. You need to be creative and different. Think out of the box and let loose your imagination. See it through like a movie plot before you write down on your paper. Read The Question Carefully In SPM public examination, the question for narrative type of essay either starts with " Write a story beginning with: " or " Write a story ending with: ". In the year 2010 it was "Beginning", so there is a big chance this year 2011 it would be "Ending". For example, if the question says "Write a story beginning with: It had been raining all day", then you start your essay with the given phrase.The same goes for question which has "Ending with", you write the phrase at the ending of your essay. I prefer the "Beginning" type because it gives you more freedom to create your plot. Draft Your Plot For narrative essay use the [PLOT] technique instead of using the [Intro-Body-Conclusion] technique. Draft your plot carefully. Put in some twists and turns in your story. Have an element of surprise. Keep your readers glued to their seat. Build your story scene by scene like in a movie. Give a big impact in your climax scene and let the audience make the conclusion....that would surely cause them to have some sleepless nights itching to know the end......(surprise--surprise) Use Adjectives, Adverbs, Verbs, Idioms, Contrast, Flashback, Imagery etc to tell your story. This technique will help readers to have a vivid picture in their mind. Every character or scene you tell can come alive to the readers and help them flow along with the story. Grammar And Punctuation Take care of your grammar, make sure to use the correct English Grammar when writing your essay. A strong grammar will help you to relate your story to your readers. Readers need to know what you are telling them. This is only impossible if you are able to use proper grammar and punctuation. Use your tenses properly when dealing with story telling. A story can start in the PRESENT TENSE flashback into the PAST TENSE and zoom into the FUTURE TENSE. There are also the PRESENT PERFECT AND PAST PERFECT tenses which you might need to use. Creativity And Imagination Be creative and arrange your story line carefully. Imagine that you are a director directing a movie. As a director you have a responsibilty to make sure your movie is a Box Office Hit. The same goes with your story, make sure it is one of a kind story, totally different from the rest of your friends essays. Sorry to say this but most of the essays are stale and does not have the extra edge which screams for attention. HOW TO WRITE IT....? You can use the 7P Essay Structure Tehnique to write a story. - First Paragraph - Exposition (Beginning of your story) - 40-50 words - Second,Third and Forth Paragraph - Events - 40-50 words - Fifth Paragraph - Climax - 40-50 words - Sixth Paragraph - Anti-Climax - 40-50 words - Seventh Paragraph - Ending - 40-50 words * Focus on one event / incident for every paragraph * Don't write two or three events / incidences in one paragraph * Try not to use the phrase "In conclusion" when you end your story. * Make sure your Essay is more than 350 words, roughly 350-400 words * Marks will be deducted if your essay is less than 350 words. Narrative - Beginning Narrative - Ending *Narrative - Tips (1)	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29253000
John Thurtell—“The Elstree Murder” John Thurtell’s case was considered sensational at the time. It also made history in two significant ways and therefore forms a valuable part of the chronology of capital punishment in Britain. Thurtell was born on December 21st 1794, son of the then Mayor of Norwich. He seems to have been a fairly wealthy young man and was a gambler. He had a grudge against a fellow gambler, solicitor William Weare, whom he accused of having cheated him of £300 in a game of cards and to whom he now owed, by the standards of the day, this vast sum. A waxwork was made of Thurtell after execution and is shown here. Thurtell invited Weare to spend a weekend gambling with him and some friends at a cottage owned by fellow gambler William Probert at Radlett in Hertfordshire and they travelled up from London together in Thurtell’s gig on October 24th 1823. As they neared the cottage Thurtell confronted Weare over his behaviour, outside the Wagon and Horses Inn, in Watling Street, Radlett. He drew a pistol and fired its single shot at Weare’s face, the bullet glancing off his cheekbone as the gun had misfired. As shooting had not worked Thurtell set about the now dazed Weare with a penknife and cut his throat. He also rammed the muzzle of the gun into Weare’s scull with maximum force, leaving blood, hair and tissue in the barrel. William Probert and another friend, Joseph Hunt, an actor, helped Thurtell dispose of Weare’s body. Initially they put it into a pond in the garden of Probert’s cottage but later, under cover of darkness moved it to and threw it into another pond in Elstree, hence why the newspapers dubbed this the “The Elstree Murder”. A labourer found the bloody knife and pistol by the cottage and took them to the authorities and a murder investigation began. As the owner of the cottage, Probert was the first to be questioned and realising his predicament turned King’s Evidence against Weare. He also implicated Hunt who was soon arrested and led the police to the body. Thurtell and Hunt were taken into custody and came up for trial at the January sitting of the Hertford Assizes before Mr. Justice Park. Thurtell was charged with the murder of Weare and Hunt with being an accessory to it. It was virtually impossible for them to get a fair trial for two reasons. Firstly their guilt was seen as self evident by both the press and the public, to the extent that the judge remarked that if “these statements of evidence before trial which corrupt the purity of the administration of justice in its source are not checked, I tremble for the fate of our country.” The newspapers had shown great interest in Thurtell’s case and every detail was lapped up by an eager public. Secondly this was to be the last trial in England conducted under the old 16th century principals in which the accused has to defend himself against the prosecution, being allowed only to make a speech after the evidence against them had been heard and not being allowed to cross examine the prosecution witnesses. This was hardly conducive to a fair trial and neither man was represented by counsel. Thurtell made a lengthy and somewhat rambling address to the court in which he tried to shift the blame for the killing to Probert. He referred to his Christian upbringing and also made references, apparently, to Voltaire and Saint Paul, all of which failed to impress either the judge or the jury. A witness for Thurtell said, “I always thought him (Thurtell) a respectable man.” Being asked by the judge what he meant by this he replied, “He kept a gig.” Not surprisingly this was not in itself enough to save him and it took the jury just twenty minutes to find both accused guilty. Mr. Justice Park then sentenced them to death and ordered that Thurtell’s body be anatomised after execution, as was the norm at that time for murderers. Hunt’s sentence was commuted to transportation for life and he was duly shipped to Australia’s Botany Bay where he was to live on for very many years. Thurtell was returned to Hertford prison to await execution. It is noteworthy that even being an accessory to murder carried the death penalty in the 1820’s. The new gallows. Hangings at Hertford were not a frequent event even then. The previous one having occurred in August 1822 when Charles Lee was executed there for burglary. It was thus decided that a new gallows incorporating a proper drop should be built for Thurtell. This design did away with the need for ladders and carts to get the prisoner suspended and was copied for several other prisons round the country, becoming effectively the standard pattern of its day. A very similar one was used at York Castle from the mid 1820’s. Construction began before the trial, so certain was everybody of the outcome! Mr. Nicholson, the Under Sheriff of Hertfordshire supervised the work and the gallows consisted of a “temporary platform with a falling leaf (single trap door) supported by bolts which could be withdrawn in an instant” so launching the criminal into eternity, as was the contemporary expression. The substantial cross beam was supported by two equally substantial uprights, about 8 feet high. The enclosure beneath the beam consisted of boards 7 feet high and dovetailed into each other so that there were no gaps (through which the body could be viewed). It was 30 feet long and 15 feet deep with a short flight of steps up to the platform at the back leading directly from the prison door. The whole gallows was painted black and presented “a very gloomy appearance”. The walls of the platform rose approximately 2 feet above the platform so the bulk of the prisoner’s body was hidden from view after the drop. The outer enclosure was for the javelin men who stood guard at hangings to prevent escape or rescue attempts. James Foxen, the hangman, arrived from London on the Thursday and made the usual preparations. Thurtell dressed for the occasion and was described as being “elegantly attired in a brown great coat with a black velvet collar, light breeches and gaiters, and a fashionable waistcoat with gilt buttons”. A little before 12 noon on Friday the 9th of January 1824 Foxen pinioned Thurtell’s hands in front of him with handcuffs (unusual) and he was then led from his cell to the accompaniment of the tolling prison bell and the prison chaplain reading the burial service. A few moments earlier he had confessed his guilt to the chaplain. He mounted the five steps slowly but steadily and positioned himself on the trap. Here Foxen removed his cravat and loosened his collar. When Thurtell had finished praying Foxen drew the white cotton cap over his head and placed the noose around his neck. the Governor of Hertford Gaol and the Chief Warder both shook hands with him, before Foxen adjusted the noose. Wilson said “Good bye Mr. Thurtell, may God Almighty bless you” to which Thurtell replied “God bless you, Mr. Wilson, God bless you.” At two minutes past midday, on the signal from Mr. Nicholson, the Under Sheriff, Foxen drew the bolts and Thurtell dropped into box like the trap with a crash. It was reported that his neck broke “with a sound like a pistol shot” but this is most unlikely as he would certainly not have been given sufficient length of drop for this to occur. It is probable that the reporter who made the statement got confused by the sound of the falling trap doors. However by the standards of the day Thurtell died easily and was not seen to struggle. After hanging the customary hour his body was taken down and sent to London for dissection in Surgeon’s Hall in accordance with his sentence. A wax work of him was made and exhibited in Madame Tussauards. The new gallows had been designed to be quickly dismantled and was taken back into the prison after the execution. It was judged to be a success and considerably speeded up the process. It was to be used for a further 14 hangings up to 1838, including two double executions for burglary later in 1824 and a treble hanging in 1838, when three men were executed for murder. After that there were no more public hangings in Hertfordshire and it was to be 1876 before the next execution occurred—out of the public gaze and utilising Marwood’s “long drop” method. The concept of carrying out hangings at midday was quite common at this time as it allowed more time for the public to assemble to watch the proceedings. William Probert, although escaping prosecution over Weare’s murder, was to be convicted horse stealing the following year and he was hanged by Foxen on the 20th of June 1825 outside Newgate with three other men. Web page made on 22 January 2006; last edited on	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29256000
The Red Hills, also known as the Gyp or Gypsum Hills, are located mostly in Clark, Comanche, and Barber counties in southern and central Kansas. These hills gather their name from the red tint they have. The red color comes from oxidated iron within the soil. The area is also known for its large gypsum deposits. Rainfall amounts are low in this region, so there are few trees and the air is dry. The flat top hills in the area are more reminiscent of the mesas and buttes in Arizona and New Mexico. The elevation here disputes Kansas' reputation as “flat.” Mount Nebo is 2,441 feet (744 meters), Mount Jesus is 2,340 feet (710 meters), and Mount Lookout is 2,320 feet (710 meters). Entry: Red Hills Author: Kristina Gaylord Date Created: July 2011 Date Modified: May 2012 The author of this article is solely responsible for its content.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29259000
Fri February 1, 2013 Dung Beetles Use Cosmic GPS to Find Their Way Originally published on Fri February 1, 2013 12:03 pm IRA FLATOW, HOST: Now for a surprising find from the insect world. The dung beetle, that insect known for sculpting little balls of animal feces that they roll around and later feast on. Well, it turns out that these beetles have a built-in cosmic GPS that helps them navigate around. Dung beetles use light - listen to this - use light from the Milky Way to orient themselves at night. It's all in a paper published earlier this month in the journal Current Biology. My next guest is here to tell us more about how dung beetles see the starry - how do they see the starry night, a starry sky? Eric Warrant is a co-author of the dung beetle study in Current Biology, professor of functional zoology at Lund University in Lund, Sweden. Welcome to the program. ERIC WARRANT: Thank you very much. It's nice to be here. FLATOW: So dung beetles use the starry night, they use the Milky Way to navigate around? WARRANT: They do indeed. Yes. It's a surprising finding, but they do indeed. Yeah. We discovered it almost by chance, really, because we were studying their mechanisms of navigating with regards to the moon, which is slightly more visible and obvious stimulus during the night sky. But we discovered on most parts of the month when the moon came up extremely late after midnight, particularly that until midnight, we suddenly discovered that the beetles were still able to navigate even without the moon. So we were quite puzzled by this, a bit alarmed actually at first because we were worried that our previous work was wrong. But then after further contemplation, we sort of realized that, well, maybe they were using the stars. And it turned out to be the case. FLATOW: They can actually see the Milky Way at night time? WARRANT: They can, yes. They probably don't see that many individual stars because their eyes really aren't sensitive enough to discern many more than probably the 10 or so brightest stars. But they can actually see the very dim stripe of light, which is - which makes up the Milky Way, especially in the Southern Hemisphere. It's very, very obvious actually compared to the Northern Hemisphere. And it's this broad and rather dim stripe of light which they're able to detect and to orient with respect to. FLATOW: How do you craft an experiment to discover this? WARRANT: Yes. Well, the first clue we got was that we covered their heads with little tiny cardboard hats, which we cut out of black card and then taped onto the back of their bodies so that they - the view of the night sky was removed. And when we did that, they were no longer able to orient. And the way they normally orient is that they roll balls of dung in straight lines directly away from the dung pad. They have to do this because if they don't do this, they end up rolling back into the dung pad. And there's a lot of beetles there, all competing for this very valuable resource, and it's very likely that they get their dung ball stolen after quite a fight often. So they must get away from the dung pad in a straight line. That's the quickest and the most efficient way of leaving the dung pad, and so it's critically important for them that they do this. And so the stripe of light in the sky helps them to do this. They can actually orient with respect to it and orient in straight line away. FLATOW: So what happens when it's a cloudy night and they can't see the sky? They just don't go out that night? WARRANT: No, they do but they roll in circles. So it's actually a very dangerous night indeed for dung beetles. WARRANT: But thankfully, in South Africa where we were working, cloudy nights are not all that common. FLATOW: Wow. And so they must have developed this over the millennia, this ability to do this? WARRANT: Well, we're not absolutely sure when and how and for how long it's evolved. But certainly, I daresay, it been around for a while because, as I say, it's a very important behavior that they have. Everything that they live for really has to do with dung. So - and the dung ball is incredibly important to them because they have to find a mate and lay their eggs in this ball. So it's a very valuable thing, this ball. So rolling away from the dung pile in a straight line with the help of the moon and - if it's present - and with the Milky Way if the moon isn't present seems to be something that probably has evolved some time ago. And they're probably not the only animals that are able to see it either. FLATOW: Yeah. That was my next question. They must think - there must be other animals that do this too. WARRANT: It's very likely. We - this is the first animal that we know of that's able to orient with respect to the Milky Way. But it's very likely that there are others. There are many night-flying moths and grasshoppers and locusts, for instance, that migrate considerable distances at night. And it might be the case that they, too, can use the Milky Way under a dark night. FLATOW: Wow. Starry, starry night has a whole new meaning now. WARRANT: Indeed it does. FLATOW: All right. Eric Warrant, thank you very much for taking time to be with us. WARRANT: A pleasure. FLATOW: Good luck. WARRANT: Thank you very much for having me. Thank you. Bye bye. FLATOW: You're welcome. Eric Warrant is professor of zoology in the Department of Biology at Lund University in Lund, Sweden. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29263000
A Spring Reminder – What Do Weather Warnings Mean and What Should You Do? Spring will be here before you know it, and along with it the best chance for severe weather this year.The period of March, April, and May is the time of year where we see the most severe thunderstorms and tornadoes around our part of the country. The peak is from early April thru mid May. As we get into late May we begin to settle into a summertime pattern, which rapidly decreases the chances for tornadoes, but still leaves the chances for severe thunderstorms. There are several kinds of watches and warnings which are issued by the National Weather Service. Severe Thunderstorm Watch: This means conditions are favorable for Severe Thunderstorms to develop. A storm becomes severe if its winds are at least 50 miles per hour. These storms often contain hail of various sizes, with frequent deadly lighting. You should watch the skies and listen to your radio for any possible warnings. Severe Thunderstorm Warning: This is broadcast when the National Weather Service detects a thunderstorm on radar that fits the description of a severe thunderstorm. If a severe thunderstorm warning has been issued for your area, then weather conditions can be expected to deteriorate rapidly. You should take cover in a sturdy structure and ride out the storm. This will hopefully keep you out of situations where hail pummels your vehicle and blinding rains may make driving difficult. Tornado Watch: A Tornado Watch simply means that conditions are favorable for Severe Thunderstorms to develop which could very likely spawn tornadoes. A watch is usually issued hours before bad weather may develop. You should monitor radio stations are other venues to keep up with the weather in case Severe Storms and tornadoes develop and watch the skies for darkening clouds. Tornado Warning: A Tornado Warning means that a possible tornado has been detected on radar or has been seen by the public. The National Weather Service will then issue a Tornado Warning for the county or counties that will be imminently affected by this storm and possible tornado. If a Tornado Warning is issued for your area, you should immediately seek shelter in a sturdy structure. Be prepared to get to a reinforced part of the building away from outer walls and windows. Do not try and outrun a tornado in your vehicle and do not stay in a mobile home. If caught in the path of one of these storms, get out of the vehicle or mobile home and lie flat in a ditch if possible. Flash Flood Watch: This means conditions are favorable for heavy rains that may cause flash flooding. Simply monitor radio or other sources in the event that heavy rains begin that could lead to floods. Flash Flood Warning: A flash flood warning is issued when heavy rains and thunderstorms are detected on radar that have the potential to drop heavy enough rain to cause flooding of streams, underpasses, and the like. If a flash flood warning is issued by the weather service, you should get to higher ground if possible if you are in a flood-prone zone. Delay travel until the storm subsides and the waters recede. Do not try and drive through a flooded roadway or underpass. It is likely that you will misjudge the depth of the water. It only takes a few inches of water sometimes to sweep your vehicle off the roadway. The best idea during the Spring Severe Weather Months is to keep up with the day to day forecasts and take the watches and warnings seriously. Keep your radio on and listen for updates and take the proper actions when warnings are issued. It is probably a good idea to invest in a N.O.A.A. weather radio to keep handy at night that can alert you while you are sleeping to an immediate threat. It is never a bad idea to stock up on batteries for radios in case the worst happens and you lose power, then you will still be in touch with what is going on in the area. Bottled water, flashlights,food supplies and toiletries could be essentials if we ever experience a bad tornado.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29264000
At a Glance Why Get Tested? To give your health care provider important information about the current status of your kidneys as well as electrolyte and acid/base balance and level of blood glucose When to Get Tested? As part of a routine health exam; when you are hospitalized, in the emergency room A blood sample drawn from a vein in your arm Test Preparation Needed? You may need to fast for 10-12 hours prior to sample collection; follow any instructions you are given. The Test Sample What is being tested? The Basic Metabolic Panel (BMP) is a frequently ordered panel of 8 tests that gives a health care provider important information about the current status of a person's kidneys, blood glucose level, and electrolyte and acid/base balance. Abnormal results, and especially combinations of abnormal results, can indicate a problem that needs to be addressed. The BMP includes the following tests: - Glucose - Energy source for the body; a steady supply must be available for use, and a relatively constant level of glucose must be maintained in the blood. - Calcium - One of the most important minerals in the body; essential for the proper functioning of muscles, nerves, and the heart and is required in blood clotting and in the formation of bones - Sodium - Vital to normal body processes, including nerve and muscle function - Potassium - Vital to cell metabolism and muscle function - CO2 (carbon dioxide, bicarbonate) - Helps to maintain the body's acid-base balance (pH) - Chloride - Helps to regulate the amount of fluid in the body and maintain the acid-base balance - BUN (blood urea nitrogen) - Waste product filtered out of the blood by the kidneys; conditions that affect the kidney have the potential to affect the amount of urea in the blood - Creatinine – Waste product produced in the muscles; filtered out of the blood by the kidneys so blood levels are a good indication of how well the kidneys are working How is the sample collected for testing? A blood sample is obtained by inserting a needle into a vein in the arm. NOTE: If undergoing medical tests makes you or someone you care for anxious, embarrassed, or even difficult to manage, you might consider reading one or more of the following articles: Coping with Test Pain, Discomfort, and Anxiety, Tips on Blood Testing, Tips to Help Children through Their Medical Tests, and Tips to Help the Elderly through Their Medical Tests. Another article, Follow That Sample, provides a glimpse at the collection and processing of a blood sample and throat culture. Is any test preparation needed to ensure the quality of the sample? You may be instructed to fast (nothing but water) for 10 to 12 hours prior to the blood draw. Depending on the reason for ordering the BMP, it may be drawn after fasting or on a random basis. Ask a Laboratory Scientist Form temporarily unavailable Due to a dramatic increase in the number of questions submitted to the volunteer laboratory scientists who respond to our users, we have had to limit the number of questions that can be submitted each day. Unfortunately, we have reached that limit today and are unable to accept your inquiry now. We understand that your questions are vital to your health and peace of mind, and recommend instead that you speak with your doctor or another healthcare professional. We apologize for this inconvenience. This was not an easy step for us to take, as the volunteers on the response team are dedicated to the work they do and are often inspired by the help they can provide. We are actively seeking to expand our capability so that we can again accept and answer all user questions. We will accept and respond to the same limited number of questions tomorrow, but expect to resume the service, 24/7, as soon as possible. NOTE: This article is based on research that utilizes the sources cited here as well as the collective experience of the Lab Tests Online Editorial Review Board. This article is periodically reviewed by the Editorial Board and may be updated as a result of the review. Any new sources cited will be added to the list and distinguished from the original sources used. Sources Used in Current Review MedlinePlus Medical Encylopedia. Basic metabolic panel. Available online at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003462.htm. Accessed August 2012. Sources Used in Previous Reviews Thomas, Clayton L., Editor (1997). Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary. F.A. Davis Company, Philadelphia, PA [18th Edition]. Pagana, Kathleen D. & Pagana, Timothy J. (2001). Mosby's Diagnostic and Laboratory Test Reference 5th Edition: Mosby, Inc., Saint Louis, MO. Henry's Clinical Diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods. 21st ed. McPherson R, Pincus M, eds. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier: 2007, P. 147. Quest Diagnostics. Chemistry Screen, Patient Health Library. Previously available online at http://www.questdiagnostics.com/kbase/topic/medtest/tu6207/descrip.htm through http://www.questdiagnostics.com. Accessed February 2009.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29265000
De minimis is a Latin expression that means “The law does not concern itself with trifles”. The law will not resolve petty or unimportant disputes. Courts have held that trifling may include minor legal violations and would fall under the category of non-actionable items and thereby it would serve as a good ground for defence. There have been many instances when the courts have dismissed the copyright infringement cases based on the principle of De minimis that the alleged infringer’s use of the copyrighted work is too insignificant. The violation of the law may not be considered as a sufficient cause of action if the effect is too small to be of much consequence. It is important to remember that a patent application should consist of only one invention. However, a person may file a group of inventions which are claimed in one patent application, but the inventions so linked should form a single inventive concept. The application for patent shall be filed at the patent office along with the respective forms. The forms include form1, form2, form 3, form 5 and form 26. According to the Indian Patent Act, a patent application may be filed by any of following persons including true and first inventor, assignee of the true and first inventor or the legal representative of the true and first inventor. 1. True and first inventor of the invention may apply for the patent. The person who invents a new product or a process has the right to file a patent application. True and first inventor means the person who is the first to invent and also the first in filing the patent application. Thus, a person who first invents a product or a process and also, first files the patent application is the true and first inventor. According to the Indian Patent Act, the following are the inventions that are not patentable. a. Frivolous inventions or inventions that are against the laws of nature are not patentable. For example an invention comprising machines that have 120% efficiency is against the natural laws and hence, non-patentable. b. Any use of an invention that is against the public order or public morality or which endangers human or plant or animal life or health is non-patentable. For example an invention of a gambling machine is not patentable. Another example would include an invention of a weapon that may cause mass destruction. In simple terms invention means an act of inventing either a product or a process for producing the product. Technically, invention is defined as a new product or process involving an inventive step and capable of industrial application. For an invention to be patentable, the invention has to be novel, inventive and should involve an industrial application.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29274000
Posted by Denis Borris on November 11, 2002 at 15:37:10: In Reply to: insect word problem posted by Sheila on November 10, 2002 at 17:46:30: : Help, please. I have a word problem concerning insect larvae survival. Soon after they hatch, they must search for food. The survival rate depends on many things and environmental temperature is one of them. For a certain speces of insect, a model of the number of larvae N(T) that survive the searching period is given by N(T) = -0.6T^2 + 32.1T - 350 where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius. I have to answer the following questions: : a. At what temperature will the maximum number of larvae survive and round my answer to the nearest degree. : b. What is the maximum number of surviving larvae and round my answer to the nearest whole number. : c. Find the x-intercepts to the nearest whole number, for the graph of this function. : d. Write a sentence that describes the meaning of the x-intercept in the context of this problem. : I am totally clueless as to how to work this in order to answer these questions. Any help would be appreciated. Post a Followup	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29279000
Climate & Weather Resources - General Resources, Auroras, Climatic Changes & Global Warming, Cyclones, Droughts, El Niño, Floods, Frost, Ice, Snow, Hurricanes, Meteorology, Natural Disasters, Rainbow, Space Weather, Storms, Temperature, Tides, Tornadoes, Typhoons, Wind Chill (UCF access only) - Provides files for Monthly Climatic Data for the World, Storm Data, Local Climatological Data, Climatological Data, Hourly Precipitation Data, and Heating & Cooling Degree Day Data. Select the Free access by certain agencies and individuals link to obtain the full reports. - To retrieve Local Climatological Data, you need to know the correct The Florida stations are: \|DAB - Daytona Beach Regional Airport \|\|KYW - Key West International Airport \|\|TLH - Tallahassee Municipal Airport \|FMY - Fort Myers \|\|MIA - Miami International Airport \|\|TPA - Tampa International Airport \|GNV - Gainesville Municipal Airport \|\|MCO - Orlando International Airport \|\|VRB - Vero Beach Municipal Airport \|JAX - Jacksonville International Airport \|\|PNS - Pensacola Regional Airport \|\|PBI - West Palm Beach International Airport - The UCF Library has paper or microfiche copies of some earlier issues of these publications in the US Documents Collection, including: - Climatological Data - Florida [US DOCS C55.214/8:] - Local Climatological Data - Orlando [US DOCS C55.217:] Climatic Data and Weather Observations Historic Data for Florida Stations Fires and Storms in Florida Water Resources of Florida - Orlando Subdistrict (USGS) - Weather America [REF QC983.W385 1996] provides key climatological data, with rankings, for over 4,000 places in the United States based on observations from 1965-1994. - Weather of U.S. Cities [REF QC983.W393 1996] provides a guide to the recent weather histories of 268 key cities and weather observation stations in the United States and its island territories. - Engineering Weather Data [REF TH7015.K54 2001] is intended to be a comprehensive, single weather data resource including all data commonly used for building systems design and energy analysis for 375 United States, Canadian and worldwide cities. Includes BIN data, degree days, ventilation energy consumption, humidification water consumption, heat recovery savings, economizer savings, and ASHRAE design conditions. "The time period of coverage ranges from the 1830s through the 1970s with most data from the period prior to 1960. Each series typically includes observations for a number of meteorological and other geophysical parameters." "covers research related to analysis and prediction of observed and modeled circulations of the atmosphere, including technique development, data assimilation, model validation, and relevant case studies. This includes papers on numerical techniques and data assimilation techniques that apply to the atmosphere and/or ocean environment." Looking for something else? Ask for assistance at the UCF Library's Reference Desk. Prepared by: Rich Gause, Government URL of this page: http://library.ucf.edu/govdocs/climate/ Last updated October 13, 2011 9:27:08 AM	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29280000
Today we have a guest article from Ann Joy Perez. Thank you for your submission, Ann Joy. Mindanao Bob With at least two thousand years of history, the Banaue Rice Terraces have been dug on the mountain slopes by Filipino ancestors. The natural wonder had been gradually destroyed by man’s carelessness and greed and the strong typhoons which visited the country last year. Now the government is bound to restore the majestic stair of rice paddies kissing the sky. In this article, we will discuss reasons why this move is just necessary. 1. It is one of the Unesco World Heritage’s sites listed in 1995. Neglecting it would be a waste for its great beauty can conquer and conserve a harmonious relationship between the environment and mankind. As a primitive agriculture engineering feat that made it to the list of the UNESCO World Heritage, reviving it is a must. Else, it would be a shame to the world, lying lifeless. 2. It is used as a means of livelihood. The Banaue Rice Terraces is not named with “rice” for nothing. Besides being a natural wonder, it is used by several Benguet local residents for planting crops (usually rice). The terraces are gifted withrich soil to plant rice. The Ifugaos are experts in agricultural and irrigation systems. They divert water from the rivers and streams to channel through bamboo pipes and dikes and avoid soil erosion by ensuring that the right amount and no excess of water will be flown to the terraces. As such, the vast land helps our farmers of the Cordillera region as well as our economy by exporting of rice in other countries. 3. It can be used to promote tourism in the Philippines. The Banaue Rice Terraces are considered as one of the most prominent tourist attractions in the country, as they are thought to be completed with only minimal materials and bare hands.In addition, the indigenous people of Ifugao carved these mountains and formed them into giant stairways that are believed to connect the globe end to end. Many are intrigued by this, tempting local and foreign tourists alike to visit the spot and enjoy sight-seeing with the beautiful scenery that the terraces offer.If it remains unrecovered through the years, its magnificence might just fade away and forgotten. 4. It reflects our native culture. The Banaue rice terraces exhibit the Ifugao farmers’ diligence, creativity and determination as they were built and contoured scrupulously by our native ancestors. To date, the farmers in the region are still planting rice without the use of farming machineries (e.g. mechanical thresher, rice mill and other facilities) to mechanize their operations; that’s why the price of their harvested crops are more expensive than the regular ones sold in the market. Here, their bold efforts in everyday agricultural work and maintenance mirror our culture of hard work. 5. It has been bequeath to us by our ancestors. We should only preserve and give further important to what our ancestors had worked hard for. Restoring the rice terraces is showing respect both to them, to their region, to the country and above all, to Mother Nature. An ancient natural monument, it would be an understatement to say that the Rice Terraces are a wonderful masterpiece to behold. They are more than mere sights but truly a land that can help boost our tourism and our economy by increasing the production of our upland rice exportations. Therefore, we should give importance and take care of the gift from our ancestors because as they were crafted by passion and beauty, and their structure is so amazing that we can boast it to other countries. Ann Joy Perez is an alumna from Arellano University Philippines, a former Marketing Assistant and a 25 year old, single. She is into almost all types of Music especially love songs. She also love playing basketball, video games,watching entertainment and films.watching news tv and reading news paper is one of her favorite hobby and also she loves to eat. Bob Martin is the Publisher & Editor in Chief of the Live in the Philippines Web Magazine. Bob is an Internet Entrepreneur who is based in Davao. Bob is an American who has lived permanently in Mindanao since May 2000. Here in Mindanao, Bob has resided in General Santos City, and now in Davao City. Bob is the owner of this website and many others.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29293000
A murder case with all the elements of melodrama—including seduction and betrayal, political intrigue, honor, and greed—the Kentucky Tragedy of 1825 riveted the attention of the nation. For decades afterward, its themes resonated in American writing. With unprecedented objectivity, Dickson Bruce recounts the events of the case and offers an innovative analysis of the poems, novels, dramas, and commentary it inspired. He uncovers an intricate connection between public fascination with the Kentucky Tragedy and changing ideas about gender roles, social identity, human motivation, and freedom in the years leading up to the Civil War. Bruce provides a masterly narration of the Tragedy. Around 1819, Colonel Solomon P. Sharp, one of Kentucky's leading politicians, allegedly seduced Ann Cooke, who subsequently delivered a stillborn child she claimed was fathered by Sharp. During the summer of 1825, rumors of the scandal circulated, incensing both Cooke and her husband, Jereboam Beauchamp, who decided, with the support of his wife, that honor compelled him to kill Sharp. He did so, admitted to the act, and was tried, found guilty, and sentenced to die. On the morning of the execution, the couple attempted suicide by stabbing in Beauchamp's jail cell. Cooke died, but Beauchamp was merely wounded and met his date with the hangman later that day. The lurid story appeared widely in the popular press and captured the imaginations of many antebellum writers, including William Gilmore Simms and Edgar Allan Poe. Bruce reveals that the Kentucky Tragedy elicited more literary works than did any other episode of the period. By exploring the transformation of the Tragedy into literature, he illuminates the shifting social, political, and intellectual forces that revolutionized American life in this era. Found an Error? Tell us about it.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29300000
creating a forum Blackboard allows instructors to set up multiple, threaded, asynchronous discussions from the Control Panel, or from any Content Area. The Discussion Board is broken down into forums: Each forum represents a particular broad subject of discussion, week of class, or group of users. Forums are further broken down into threads: Each thread is a collection of messages constituting a conversation about a more particular subject. For example, a forum about the United States Constitution may contain a thread about the pursuit of happiness, another thread about the First Amendment, and a third about current proposed Constitutional amendments. Create a Discussion Forum - Click on Control Panel > Course Tools > Discussion Board to see all of your discussion boards; click on the discussion board where you want to add a forum. - Click on the Create Forum button. - Fill in the forum title and description. - Decide on availability of the forum and choose forum settings. If Allow post tagging is enabled, instructors can create and apply text labels, after they have collected thread messages, to allow for grouping of message independent of thread or thread status. Other Discussion Board users can read, filter, and search messages using the tags, but cannot create new ones. Note: If you are using tagging and you notice it's taking a long time for Discussion Board pages to load, turn tagging off. If you use tagging at the beginning of a term, and then turn it off during times of heavy forum usage, you can re-enable tagging later in the term, which will restore all previous tag data. If Allow members to rate posts is enabled, students can rate each others' posts on a five point scale. The overall rating shown is an average of all rates given. If Allow members to subscribe to threads is enabled, a student can click on the thread to subscribe to, then click the Subscribe button. This provides an e-mail alert whenever the thread is updated or replied to; if you select "include body of post in the email" under "Subscribe," students will also see the content of posts in their e-mail alert. Students can unsubscribe in the same way, but the button will be labeled Unsubscribe. If Allow members to subscribe to forum is enabled, then you and your students will see a Subscribe button at the top of the page when you enter your discussion forum. Note that if you choose "Allow members to subscribe to threads," students will have to subscribe to each individual thread. 5. Click Submit. Note: You can also link to the Discussion Board page, link to a specific Discussion Board forum, or create a new Discussion Board forum from any Content Area using the Add Interactive Tool menu. To add a Discussion Board to a Content Area: - Select the Content Area you wish to add a Discussion Board to from the main menu. Click the Add Interactive Tool button and select Discussion Board. - You can create a link to the general Discussion Board within this Content Area; create a link to a specific forum within the Discussion Board; or, create an entirely new forum for the Discussion Board. In order to create a link to a forum that has been created in this manner, you must select the Add Interactive Tool button again from the Content Area, and then select one of the first two linking options. Instructors can enable private Discussion Boards for groups. Instructors can see statistics of each student’s participation by going to the Performance Dashboard in the Control Panel. Click Evaluation> Performance Dashboard to display information for a particular student.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29301000
Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP) is a powerful technique of chemical characterization capable of simultaneously measuring up to 50 different trace elements, sometimes at concentrations as low as several parts per billion. The ICP-MS functions by passing small amounts of material into a plasma, a super-heated gas, which ionizes the sample material. The plasma itself operates at around 8000 degrees C, a temperature greater than the surface of the sun. This ionized sample is then sent through a series of powerful magnets called a mass spectrometer, which separates sample ions on the basis of their mass/charge ratio. These ions are then measured by a detector to establish sample composition. Sample can be introduced into the ICP-MS either as a vaporized solid, or as a liquid. One such method is Laser Ablation, in which a pulsed laser is used to remove small amounts of sample material, which is then swept into the plasma via a Helium carrier gas. Alternatively, samples can be dissolved in solution and sent into the plasma in liquid form. Depending on sample composition, this may involve dissolving the sample in strong acids, assited by high heat and pressure produced by bombarding the sample with microwaves. Our Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) Laboratory operates around a high sensitivity Varian quadrupole ICP-MS and a New Wave UP213 laser ablation system for solid sample introduction. Additionally, the ICP-MS laboratory houses a Milestone microwave digestion system for sample dissolution and liquid sample introduction. The EAF ICP-MS laboratory. The Varian ICP-MS is connected to our adaptable chamber UP266 laser ablation system, with a ceramic vessel from the north coast of Papua New Guinea positioned for analysis. Laser Ablation is particularly valuable due to its ability to target specific components of samples. For ceramics, it is possible to target paste, paints, temper, slips, and glazes separately. In one study performed by museum scientists, the glazes on Chinese Blue and White porcelains and Celadon wares were analyzed chemically by LA-ICP-MS. This study demonstrated that the majority of such ceramics found at archaeological sites in western India and eastern Africa were produced by Chinese kilns, and were not imitation wares produced at Middle Eastern or southeast Asian kilns. Other projects have studied production and exchange of ceramics from Belgian Neolithic sites, proto-historical and historical archaeological sites in the Phillippines, Chinese Neolithic sites, ceramics on the northern coast of Papua New Guinea, and archaeological ceramics from throughout the central Andes. Likewise, LA-ICP-MS can be used to analyze metal and corrosion products separately on metal artifacts, eliminating problems that have plagued bulk characterization studies of archaeological metals. LA-ICP-MS is also highly useful for rapidly characterzing obsidian and artificial glasses. The EAF has large ongoing projects applying LA-ICP-MS to characterize glass beads traded in the Indian Ocean, and obsidian from archaeological sites in the western Pacific, Andes, and Belize. The EAF also houses a modified adaptable chamber New Wave UP266 laser ablation system developed in collaboration with Dr. Richard Cox at the University of Quebec at Chicoutimi, Canada. This adaptable chamber laser ablation system is the first of its kind applied in a museum setting, having only been employed in experimental industrial systems previously. As such, it equips the Field Museum with unique, virtually non-destructive, high precision, multi-element analysis for large objects that cannot be destructively subsampled, such as complete ceramic vessels. Ongoing projects using the adaptable chamber to analyze collections objects include analysis of glass objects from the Sumerian city of Kish, and analysis of ceramics from the western Pacific.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29309000
Four-year-old John Kaykay is a serious and quiet boy—“my thoughtful one,” his dad calls him. When the official greeters at the front door of the McClure early-childhood center in Tulsa welcome him with their clipboards and electric cheer—“Good morning, John! How are you today?”—he just slowly nods his small chin in their direction. When he gets to Christie Housley’s large, sunny classroom, he focuses intensely on signing in, writing the four letters of his name with a crayon as his dad crouches behind him. When he’s asked the question of the day—“Do you like music?”—he pauses for a minute before putting his magnetic nameplate in the “no” section. John’s third day of pre-kindergarten will be filled with more questions. Since yesterday was the 20th and tomorrow is the 22nd, what day is today? Can he pick out the card with the number 21 written on it? If the colors go pink, blue, pink, blue, what comes next in the pattern? How many of his friends are in school today? Can he think of a word that rhymes with dog? Historically, Americans have operated on the assumption that kids will just somehow pick up such essentials along the way to “real” school. But, with concerns mounting over rising dropout rates and grim earning prospects for poorly educated Americans, the matter of when and under what circumstances we begin to teach children is of growing importance. Guided by research that shows that most of the wiring for future academic accomplishment happens in the first five years of life, education experts have been exploring how to get our children off to a better, and earlier, start. Many point to France and some of the Scandinavian countries, where almost all three- and four-year-olds participate in good, public preschool. But the United States has several stalwarts of early education, too. Even with budgetary challenges, Georgia, Arkansas, and West Virginia have all managed to create high-quality pre-kindergarten programs with strong enrollment over the past few years. But it is John Kaykay’s home state, Oklahoma, that offers the single best example of how preschool can work when it’s done well—of how it can elevate its students’ learning, expand the horizons of the educational system, and enhance the entire community. Despite growing evidence of the benefits of early education, nationwide only 28 percent of four-year-olds are enrolled in public pre-K. Among three-year-olds, a paltry 4 percent are enrolled in a public educational program. The numbers could decrease even more as pre-K falls victim to recessionary belt-tightening. States have already cut $90 million from education for three- and four-year-olds over the past two years. Eleven states provide no program at all. Oklahoma has bucked the national trend. Seventy-four percent of four-year-olds—more than in any other state—are in high-quality pre-K. Virtually every parent who wants a spot can get one, whether in a public school or in a partner organization, such as Tulsa’s Community Action Project, which runs John Kaykay’s pre-K classroom. The effort has been so thorough and so widely embraced that, in effect, public school in Oklahoma begins at age four. Even among the states that do well by their preschoolers, Oklahoma is exceptional. On paper, nine states have universal pre--kindergarten, meaning that all four-year-olds are theoretically eligible. But in most of those states, there isn’t nearly enough funding for everyone to enroll. That’s the case in New York, where fewer than half of four-year-olds participate in the “universal” program. Other states do a superb job with enrollment but a poor job of providing the education. Florida, for instance, has the highest percentage of four-year-olds in pre-K programs—76 percent, slightly more than Oklahoma, according to the most recent “State of Preschool” report by the National Institute for Early Education Research. But because Florida doesn’t require its teachers to have a college degree in early education—and because the state spends so little on each child—just $2,422 per child per year, $5,000 less than in Oklahoma—the quality of the program is low. Oklahoma’s pre-K teachers don’t make the piddling wages that prevail in much of the rest of the country. They’re paid the same as elementary and high-school teachers. Christie Housley, along with all other pre-K teachers in Oklahoma, has not only a bachelor’s degree but also certification in early-childhood education—so she knows how young kids typically learn to read, she can recognize the disabilities that tend to emerge at this age, and she understands the best ways to handle behavior problems. State law also mandates that pre-K teachers not have more than 20 students in their classroom and that they have an aide. In fact, only six children were present the August morning I was in Housley’s classroom, which allowed her to focus on them individually. John, who was sitting quietly, drew praise for listening carefully to instructions—important feedback for a child who might get no attention at all in a larger class. A little girl who had pigtails and raised her hand at every opportunity was rewarded with a relatively tough question: “What is the opposite of inside?” When one girl strained to remember what day it was, Housley helped by leading the class in a round of their days-of-the-week song. A boy named Justice demanded a different kind of attention—and Housley was able to give that, too. While his peers were sitting together and learning about the calendar, Justice remained outside the circle playing with blocks and singing loudly. When Housley invited him to join the others, he stayed where he was and increased the volume of his song. Teaching the basic skills of how to participate in a group is one of the biggest tasks of pre-K—and it’s hard to do in big classes. When the rest of the children moved on to washing their hands before snack time, Housley sat next to his block tower and talked with him. “Can you hear what the rest of us are saying when you’re over here by yourself?” she asked gently. The lesson is part of a bigger one that they’ll all learn and relearn this year: how to be a productive, contributing member of a community. Justice, who eventually joined the circle, seemed to be on his way to getting it. While Oklahoma has a model statewide pre-K system, the city of Tulsa illustrates the public-private partnerships that can grow within that model. The state’s second-largest city, in the foothills of the Ozark Mountains, Tulsa has great economic extremes. Some 84 percent of children in Tulsa public schools qualify for free or reduced lunch, meaning they live in households that earn no more than $42,643 for a family of four. But there is also great wealth here, much of it from the local energy industry. Because Oklahoma’s law enables private organizations to provide pre-K, a good deal of that wealth has been leveraged to bolster the public system. Tulsa’s Community Action Project (CAP), which has created and runs McClure as well as 13 other early-education facilities, is a sort of turbo-charged Head Start provider. With an annual budget of more than $52 million, it has married private money—primarily from local oilman and philanthropist George Kaiser—with state and federal funds to serve young children. Because state funding covers the four-year-olds, CAP can devote much of its budget to children three and under. One-third of Tulsa’s qualifying three-year-olds are now in public preschool; the Union School District, which has gone the furthest in enrolling younger students, is on course to serve all three-year-olds within the next year. Plenty of kids in Tulsa may still be behind the curve on their first day of school, but here that first day often comes at age three rather than four or five. The result is that Tulsa has become a sort of Sweden of the Ozarks—a magnet for the country’s best early-education providers and researchers and a place where preschool is a routine part of growing up. It’s a haven for both children and their parents. CAP works hard to engage adults who may have been alienated by schools in the past. To encourage parents to interact with the schools, the organization consciously decided not to provide busing. The schools’ daily schedules and yearly calendars are synced with nearby public elementary schools, with which some also share land and playgrounds, a setup that allows parents to drop off their preschoolers and scoot next door to drop off older siblings. In the same CAP buildings—which are carefully designed not to feel institutional—they can also take parenting classes, get career training, and receive financial services. Though CAP is by mission an anti-poverty organization and serves only students who qualify for free and reduced lunch, its classrooms “don’t look like they’re for poor people,” as one mother remarked upon entering the pine cone–festooned space in which her four-year-old would be learning. Draped with natural-hued fabrics and brightened with “uplighting,” which radiates from standing lamps and is thought to be more calming than old-style fluorescent bulbs overhead, the room looks more like a spread from a Pottery Barn catalog than a traditional classroom. When you look out from its picture windows to the sprawling playground where the students are climbing and digging during outdoor playtime, and then beyond to the garden plots the kids will plant and harvest throughout the year, you can’t help wanting this for all young Americans. The students who go to pre-K tend to emerge from the year recognizably ahead of their peers. Studies have shown it, and teachers know it. Laura Hamilton, who teaches kindergarten at Northwoods, an elementary school in Sand Springs, Oklahoma, says she easily picked out the 8 kids in her class of 25 this year who hadn’t gone to pre-K. “They’re the ones who don’t know how to line up. They’re not used to sharing, and they’re not used to drawing or writing,” she says, fishing out four of her new kindergarteners’ drawings. Three show recognizable scenes—a family of stick figures, a house with two girls in front, and a house with a sky in the background. The fourth, drawn by a child who didn’t attend pre-K, is of seemingly random scribbles. “It’s usually these kids that have to stay back and repeat kindergarten,” Hamilton says, pointing to the scribbles. How did Oklahoma—a poor state, and one of the “reddest” in the country—become a preschooling pioneer? It wouldn’t have happened if ardent children’s advocates hadn’t been in the right positions at the right times. Ramona Paul, who retired last year as the state’s assistant superintendent of public education, was the first to get pre-K rolling in 1980. “I still remember, it was one o’clock on a Thursday,” says Paul, a commanding, white-haired woman who worked in the state Department of Education for more than two decades. “My boss walked into my office and said, ‘Ramona, what would you like to see for four-year-old children? You just write the model, and I’ll get it funded.’” Paul had taken part in a four-year-old program herself as a young child (“It was called nursery school back in those days,” she says), had gone on to teach preschool and college courses in child development, and was present at the Rose Garden Ceremony when President Lyndon Johnson unveiled Head Start. The first big government early-education effort, Head Start was launched in 1965 as part of the War on Poverty. The aim was to address the achievement gap. As with public schooling more broadly, public pre-K was initially seen as an alternative for economically disadvantaged children who couldn’t afford private or church schools. In Oklahoma, which ranks 20th in child poverty, there have always been a lot of those children. The model Paul designed reflected both her experience and the state’s demographics. She knew to include high standards for teacher education and pay. She was clear that she wanted the program to be available to all children—not just poor children, who made up the majority of the small number of public preschoolers in the country at the time. “Why would we want to educate just a certain group of children?” she asks. Paul’s pilot program was launched that same year. But it was only a half-day, and its small budget limited it to certain parts of the state. It wasn’t until 1998 that a legislator named Joe Eddins quietly pushed through a law that supplied the funding to expand Paul’s vision into a mostly full-day program that would be offered throughout the state. Eddins, too, was well suited to advancing early education. A Democratic legislator who had worked as a rancher and high-school biology teacher, he had spent his first few years in the legislature learning about early education—and becoming convinced that school failure was sending a growing number of Oklahoma’s kids down a life path of poverty and underperformance. Eddins’s allies included not just child--development experts and education policymakers but also a handful of business leaders who had come to see early education as the state’s economic salvation. Getting young Oklahomans into school earlier was not only in the kids’ best interest, they argued; it was important for businesses, which were facing a dwindling pool of potential workers and customers. Eddins had first waded into the education issue to fix what seemed a discrete problem: Many school districts, especially in rural areas, were enrolling four-year-olds in kindergarten. Because the state’s population was shrinking, these schools were facing declining numbers of students—and thus declining school budgets. Putting four-year-olds in kindergarten sometimes allowed the districts to bring in enough money to keep their schools open because they were receiving funds based on the number of children in school. But the four-year-olds were in classes designed to teach them at a kindergarten level, and they were lost. Eddins was creative—some say stealthy—in winning support for universal pre-K. He presented the legislation as an amendment to the school law merely designed to fix the four-year-old problem. His bill did do that. But it also created a statewide four-year-old program that surpassed any other in the country. Among the changes it heralded was the ability of school districts to partner with outside entities on pre-K so the programs could be housed in a variety of settings, including tribal programs, churches, and assisted-living facilities. That shift paved the way for a massive partnership between the public schools and Head Start providers, such as CAP, a move that might have raised red flags for some Republicans—had they known about it. Eddins was able to gloss over this groundbreaking aspect of his bill in large part because he was trusted and well liked; few of his fellow legislators felt the need to actually read the legislation. Instead, he summarized it. When he did, he chose his words carefully. “I didn’t explain that we’d have this huge collaboration with Head Start,” Eddins says. “I emphasized the part that said you could contract with private providers. Republicans have always loved that.” Eddins’s bill also dodged several potential problems. It kept pre-K voluntary for parents, thus inoculating it from the criticism of social conservatives who believed that mothers should be home with their kids. By building its cost into the larger public-school funding formula, rather than funding early education separately in the state budget, it also protected pre-K from fiscal conservatives who might object to it as part of a “nanny state.” This seemingly small detail may be the key difference separating Oklahoma from other states, such as Arizona and Illinois, where pre-K funding was slashed during the recent recession. Indeed, in Oklahoma, pre-K is essentially just another grade—as unlikely to be singled out as 5th or 11th. “In so many other states, you have huge fights over whether pre-K funding should be cut,” says Lisa Guernsey, director of the Early Education Initiative at the New America Foundation. “It’s forever seen as an extra line at the bottom of the spreadsheet.” Although Eddins’s law also made pre-K voluntary, “people started camping out that first night before we started enrolling,” says Cathy Burden, the superintendent of Union Public Schools in Tulsa. That was in 1998, when Union enrolled less than half of its four-year-olds and pre-K was only half-day. Today, about 75 percent of the district’s four-year-olds are enrolled, all are in school for full days, and demand continues to grow. “If anyone tried to get rid of pre-K now,” Burden says, “they’d get run out of town.” No doubt, part of pre-K’s appeal is that it’s a safe—and free—place for children to be while their parents work. Child care can cost more than $500 per week. But for most parents, the educational value of pre-K is at least as important as the financial benefit. “I wanted my son to learn,” explains Maria Mauricio, who lives in the low-income Tulsa neighborhood of Kendall-Whittier. Her four-year-old son, Gabriel, attends pre-K through Educare, another local Head Start provider. A stay-at-home mom of five, Mauricio could have kept Gabriel with her during the day. When she was growing up in Mexico, Mauricio went to school only through seventh grade, stopping so she could help her grandmother support the family by picking peanuts. She wanted more for her son, who, by the age of two, wasn’t speaking either English or Spanish understandably, partly because of hearing problems. Mauricio felt confident that starting school early would give Gabriel the best shot at success. There are mountains of data to confirm Mauricio’s hunch. Economically disadvantaged children who take part in a high-quality pre-K program go on to do better academically. They’re less likely to need special education, less likely to repeat a grade, and more likely to graduate from high school. Perhaps more important are the other ways they fare better: Attending pre-K lowers their chances of becoming pregnant as a teen, abusing or neglecting their own children when they become parents, and winding up incarcerated or dependent on public benefits as an adult. The most dramatic illustration of these gains comes out of the Perry preschool in Ypsilanti, Michigan. Started in the early 1960s as an effort to improve the academic performance of low-income students, the Perry program enrolled three- and four-year-olds who performed poorly on tests and had low IQ scores. The early results were impressive. Those who went through the half-day Perry program had higher IQs when the program ended at age 5. The longer-term benefits were even more stunning. At age 14, there were moderate to large differences between the test scores of Perry preschool kids and those who didn’t go through the program. At 27, they drank and smoked less. At 40, they were less likely to have been arrested and far outearned their peers. A cost-benefit analysis of Perry provided incontrovertible evidence of the money that could be saved in the long term by working with such young kids. By the time the Perry preschoolers reached age 27, every public dollar spent on their early education yielded a savings of $7.16. But compelling as the Perry study was, it was based on only 58 preschool students, and all were poor and African American. Another well-studied preschool, the Carolina Abecedarian Project in North Carolina, had similarly impressive results but was also small and exclusively for poor children. As the idea of universal pre-K began to grow around the country, its opponents homed in on the fact that the most clear-cut benefits had been for poor kids. Since there hadn’t been large-scale studies of the long-term benefits of pre-K on middle-class kids, they argued, it wasn’t worth educating all four-year-olds in tight budgetary times. As governor of Massachusetts, Mitt Romney used this logic when he vetoed a 2006 bill unanimously approved by the legislature that would have set up a statewide pre-K program. In 2002, Bill Gormley, a Georgetown University professor, saw Oklahoma’s program as an opportunity to study the impact of early education on all kids. Because pre-K in Oklahoma cost around $7,500 per child—more than the national average but still far less than the intensive Abecedarian and Perry programs—he could measure the benefits of a four-year-old program with a more acceptable price tag. Because Oklahoma’s pre-K was not just high-quality but also delivered on a massive scale, he could address the question of whether it could do more than level the playing field for poor kids. The Tulsa Public School District, the largest in the state, offered an ideal place to get results from the statewide experiment. While there’s plenty of poverty in Tulsa, more than 15 percent of students are middle-class. Unlike most of the kids previously studied, Tulsa’s population is multiracial, with almost equal numbers of white, African American, and Hispanic kids, as well as a slightly smaller group of Native Americans. Oklahoma law also requires that all children be evaluated when they enter kindergarten, so Gormley was able to use those results to compare kids who had attended pre-K with those who hadn’t. The gains he found in 2002-2003 were among the biggest ever documented for a universal pre-K program. By the time they started kindergarten, pre-K kids were nine months ahead of their peers with the skills necessary for reading, like recognizing letters and being able to tell stories. They were seven months ahead in pre-writing, including the ability to hold a pencil, and five months ahead in counting and other pre-math skills. The four-year-olds who had been through CAP’s Head Start, as opposed to the regular state pre-K program in Tulsa public schools, were equally ahead in math, though not quite as dramatically ahead when it came to early literacy. (This is likely because Head Start, in addition to its academic goals, has a broader mission, including improving children’s health, establishing their sense of responsibility to society, and increasing their self-worth.) The most impressive part was that the gains were throughout this entire population. Though the poorest kids were helped the most, all of Tulsa’s kids got a boost from pre-K. The case for universal pre-K ought to be closed. In Oklahoma, it is. Even as enthusiasm for the Tea Party has swept the state, the program has gained in popularity. Oklahomans on both sides of the aisle take pride in being recognized as a national leader in early education. Many rural school administrators regard the program as a lifeline because it helped them keep schools open even as the number of children in their districts diminished. Regardless of their political stripe, most working parents here embrace pre-K as a superior alternative to day care. Ironically, the rest of the country remains more conflicted about pre-K than rural, conservative Oklahoma. Though President Barack Obama has acknowledged universal pre-K as among the worthiest of public expenditures—he pledged funding for it back in the 2008 campaign and continues to sing its praises—he has done little to expand it in his first four years. This September, his administration established the Center on Enhancing Early Learning Outcomes and is contributing $1.4 million of federal funds per year to help it provide states with technical assistance on their pre-K programs. The president also used stimulus money to significantly expand Head Start and Early Head Start, the federal programs that serve low-income kids from birth through age four. But these programs are within the Administration for Children and Families, which focuses on social and economic well-being, rather than in the education system. Most pre-K advocates want Obama to fight harder to include early education within the Department of Education and leverage federal funds to encourage more state spending on pre-K programs. It’s not clear, though, that he’d succeed even if he did. Many Republicans oppose such an expansion—and some call for shutting down the Education Department altogether. “They want as little federal involvement in education as possible,” says Steven Barnett, director of the National Institute for Early Education Research. The bigger problem, though, may be convincing lawmakers in both parties to take the long view of pre-K. “People always want me to tell them how quickly it’s going to pay off, because if we’re not going to save enough money in the first five years, then they don’t want to pay for it,” Barnett says. “But the big payoff is when kids are older, when they have a job, are making money, are not in jail.” Even Oklahoma’s big, well-studied program hasn’t been around long enough to document the full extent of the bang for the bucks invested. Gormley’s research team at Georgetown recently published a paper using data from Tulsa to estimate that pre-K participation could boost a child’s future annual earnings enormously—by an average of $30,548 for low-income kids and an average of $24,610 for middle-class children. But that’s just a projection. Oklahoma’s universal pre-K is only in its 15th year. It’ll be two decades or so before John Kaykay and his classmates reach the point where they can be expected to assume financial responsibility and make their mark on the world. If the rest of the country waits that long to learn from Oklahoma’s early-education model, another generation will be lost. You need to be logged in to comment. (If there's one thing we know about comment trolls, it's that they're lazy)	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29311000
UCIL identified two Uranium blocks named Killung and Rangam in West Khasi hills district of Meghalaya, with total reserves of 9.22 million tones with rated capacity of 0.375 MTPA. The project has acquired 351 ha of land for the establishment of mines, processing plant, DCDA plant (for H2SO4 plant), township and other facilities. Both mining blocks will produce 9.22 million tones of Uranium ore and 62 million tones of waste materials (overburden) in 24 years. The Killung block is divided into Killung A and Killung B and Rangam block will mine separately as a single block. The executive summary is silent on whether all blocks will be operated simultaneously or will operate in stages. However, it seems that both blocks will be mined simultaneously because there are wide various in uranium percentage in the ores of Killung A and Killung B and Rangam. Location wise project is very sensitive because project is located in hilly terrain and receives very high rainfall. Further, project site is an important watershed of various tributaries and rivers. Therefore, estimation of silt load and erosion potential of an area is crucial, however the executive summary has failed to address this significant issue. Executive summary is silent on quantity and quality of tailing wastes, the report states that tailing waste will be stored initially in tailing pond adjacent to plant and disposed off in mined out area along with overburden. This will commenced from the fifth year. According to the executive summary, processing plant and tailing ponds are located in the watershed of Mawkhan River, which is a tributary of Wah Phodthra River. Hence a potential risk of surface water contamination is high. Moreover, executive summary is competently silent on the impacts of project on the watershed and also failed to highlight the safeguard strategies. The executive summary is also silent on quality, quantity and mode of disposal of wastewater from the process plant. Executive summary has failed to provide information on the land use pattern of acquired land and landuse pattern in buffer zone such as forest cover, agricultural land, wasteland etc. The proposed uranium ore handling and its management seem very poor. The crusher will crush ore at the mine pit; crushed ore will be transported continuously to the processing plant by the dumper after covering a distance of 5.5 km. Further, the crushed ore is proposed to store in open at the processing plant. Hence, high radiation risk could be anticipated through air borne particles. Further, multiple handling of ore, coupled with dumper transportation and open storage would likely to increase the risk of air and water contamination. The background level of gamma radiation at the proposed site is comparatively higher with respect to global average 0.9mSv.y-1. According to the executive summary, the radon level around the proposed site was 60 to 91 Bqm-3 and in the village area it ranges from 6.7 to 23.8 Bqm-3, which is comparatively less with respect to prescribed range (workplace range 600 to 1500 Bqm-3, dwelling range 200 to 600 Bqm-3) given by ICRP. The hilly terrain coupled with high rainfall clearly indicates that entire area is highly vulnerable to pollution. It can be anticipated that both silt and radioactive substances would contaminate the exiting rivers in the area once the mines and plant begins to operate at full rated capacity. It could be anticipated that background concentration of radioactive substances would likely to increase in future because of site sensitivity and poor proposed solid waste management (mine i.e. overburden, ore processing plant i.e. tailing waste). The natural river would be worst impacted by overburden and tailing pond because tailing pond and ore processing plant is proposed in the watershed of the river. The executive summary states that the background concentration of uranium in surface water is low but failed to provide the background concentration level. The report has referred AMD data on the background concentration, which was conducted during 1990 –1998. As per AMD data, background level of Uranium was in the range of< 0.1 to 1.1 mg. m-3 and radium-226 in the range 15 to 115 Bqm-3. The executive summary is silent on flora and fauna status in the study area and failed to provide information on biodiversity such as presence of scheduled listed species, forest cover area and forest density. According to forest department, fauna in West Khasi district is characterize by the presence of elephants, apes, monkeys, deer, sambar, tigers, wild boars, bears, leopards. It clearly shows that schedule I listed animals exist in the region but executive summary failed to provide any information on flora and fauna characteristic in the study areas. Executive summary is silent on the overburden management; the report states that around 39 ha of land are earmarked for the initial dumping of overburden materials. It seems that at the initial stage of mining, external dumping will be undertaken. If this is the scenario, then high siltation risk, increase of radioactive contaminants in the surface water could be anticipated. The risk probability would be of high magnitude because mine lease areas provides water to Umshopphnew and Wahphodthra rivers, both these rivers finally drains in Kynshi River. The report also states that mine will generate 2.5 million tones of overburden per year but failed to provide basic information like commencement of backfilling and mine reclamation. The plant will also generate large quantity of solid waste from the process, DCDA plant, ETP plant. But no information is available on the characteristic, quantity and mode of solid wastes disposal.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29312000
Governador Valadares is a Brazilian city in the state of Minas Gerais. In 2006, its population was 260,405 inhabitants.It is an economical center of the middle Valley of the Rio Doce, making a significant influence on the east and northeast of Minas Gerais and local authorities of the state of the Espírito Santo . Governador Valadares sits on the bank of the Rio Doce, 324 km from Belo The main watercourse through the municipality is the Doce River ("Rio Doce" in Portuguese) whose basin (of 83,500 square kilometers) is composed of 222 municipalities. Nowadays its waters are very polluted, with little vegetation on its banks and depleted fish stocks. Valadares is also a statistical micro-region including 25 municipalities: Alpercata, Campanário, Capitão Andrade, Coroaci, Divino das Laranjeiras, Engenheiro Caldas, Fernandes Tourinho, Frei Inocêncio, Galiléia, Governador Valadares, Itambacuri, Itanhomi, Jampruca, Marilac, Mathias Lobato, Nacip Raydan, Nova Módica, Pescador, São Geraldo da Piedade, São Geraldo do Baixio, São José da Safira, São José do Divino, Sobrália, Tumiritinga, and Virgolândia. Its population (2006) was estimated by the IBGE to be 407,815 inhabitants in a total area of 11, The area around Governador Valadares was explored in colonial first expedition to reach the Doce River was in 1573, leaving from Seguro in Bahia. Only in the beginning of the nineteenth century was its colonization begun when in 1808 the Portuguese government created military divisions in the In 1823, the D. Manoel barracks was established, on the left bank of the Doce, exactly at the point at which the river begins to be partially navigable as far as the sea. By the end of the nineteenth century, Dom Manuel the main river port on the Doce, being a meeting place for muleteers and canoes that took products to the coast. Only after the beginning of the twentieth century was the occupation of the territory accelerated, with the construction of the Vitória-Minas railway in 1902. In 1925 the first electric plant was installed to serve the residences of the town. It was powered by steam. Throughout its history Governador Valdares has had several - 1734 - Arraial de Porto de Dom Manuel - 1808 - Porto das Canoas - 1888 - Santo Antônio da Figueira - 1889 – Distrito De Santo Antônio do Bonsucesso - 1923 - Figueira In 1937 the municipality of Figueira do Rio Doce was established, which then changed its name to Governador Valadares, who was the governor at the time. Production and the intense trade in precious stones is the reason the "Brazil Gem Show" takes place in the local authority every year: an event that consists of the commerce of precious stones with Brazilians and foreign visitors Governador Valadares is the biggest city and commercial center of the Eastern region of the state of Minas Gerais, having several cities in his area of influence, such as Teófilo Otoni and Caratinga. At present, Governador Valadares is growing in industrial development, due to its strategic position, human resources and international reputation. It is a trade and industrial center. Sawmills and food-processing plants are in the city, and mica are mined in the area. Governador Valadares is one of the most famous gem-trading centres in Brazil. Gem minerals . The Golconda mine, one of the oldest in the city, attracts the curiosity of tourists and stone collectors from all over the world. The city is served by the railroad Vitória-Minas, of the CVRD and by the highway Rio-Bahia (BR 116). It is also connected with the capital of the state by the BR 381. The city is on the Belo Horizonte–Vitória railway and on the Rio de Janeiro–Salvador highway.Distances from major centers: The local airport is a category 3 airport, with a paved runway 1,400 meters long. There are regular flights to Belo Paulo, Rio de Seguro, Salvador, and Vitória. The city hosts of one of the stages of the Brazilian Championship of Hang gliding being that the competitors get off the Ibituruna's Peak, where it is possible to catch sight of the whole region of the Valley of the Rio Doce which bed is on the feet of the peak, and also it hosts several international championships of hang gliding, which takes the local authority to be known like "The World-wide Capital of the Hang gliding". It is also the city where the greatest soccer player Pedro Paulo was born.The city is known internationally for the World Paragliding that has been held at Ibituruna Peak (1123 meters). - Annual average: 32.6 °C [90.7 °F] - Annual maximum average: 40.7 °C [105.3 °F] - Annual minimum average: 18.3 °C [65 °F] Average annual rainfall index: 1,350 mm Governador Valadares is twinned the following cities:	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29317000
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How do I work out at what angle to cut the end of the - Determining Cone's Original Dimensions from a Slice [05/18/1999] Given the inside and outside arc lengths and the thickness of a truncated cone, find the inner and outer radii and the angle. - Determining Length of Material Remaining on a Roll [11/24/2003] Is there a mathematical formula to determine the length of material on a roll, given the outside diameter of the core, the outside diameter of the whole roll, and the thickness of the material (determined by a - Earth's Curvature [01/27/1997] How do you figure out the degree of curvature of the earth's surface? - Ellipse Geometry [08/09/1998] I wish to draw a line departing at a given angle from the long axis of an ellipse and bisecting the perimeter of the ellipse at right angles to the tangent at that point... - Elliptical Orbits in the Solar System [05/22/2005] I want to have my students draw a scale model of the solar system that shows the orbits of the planets. Assuming I have the apogee and perigee of each planet's orbit about the sun, they need to construct 9 ellipses with some degree of accuracy. What's the best way to go about - Equation for an Arch [09/09/1997] I am trying to draw an arch that will go in the ceiling of a building. The arch will be at a maximum height of 28 inches... - Fabric Left on a Roll [03/15/2001] I am going to write a program for my TI-83+ to calculate how many feet of material are left on a roll. - Filling a Garden with Topsoil [2/5/1996] I have a garden that is 10' x 10' (100 square feet). I want to add 6" of topsoil to my garden. Topsoil is sold by the cubic yard. How many cubic yards of topsoil will I need for my project? - Filling Cylindrical Holes [05/18/1999] What volume of cement, in cubic yards, will fill 42 holes that have a 9" diameter and are 4' deep? - Finding a Plane Shape for a Truncated Cone [05/10/2000] What is the best way to cut a flat two-dimensional piece of sheet metal into a three-dimensional truncated cone? - Finding Miles Per Hour [03/06/2002] If a wheel is making 64.2 revolutions per minute, how many miles per hour is it going? - Finding the Angle of Solar Collectors on a Sloped Roof [08/30/2008] I have solar collectors on my roof. They are mounted so that the base of each panel runs up the slope of the roof, and the panels themselves are mounted at an angle. I'd like to know how to determine the various angles created by this situation. - Finding the Area of an Irregular Shape [01/03/2007] I need the area of a parcel of land with 5 sides. I know the lengths of the sides and the angles at the corners, but am not sure how to calculate the area. - Finding the Axes of an Ellipse from a Known Cone [01/26/2001] I'm trying to solve a specific situation regarding lighting when viewed as an oblique circular cone... - Finding the Center of a Disk [12/13/2002] I need to find the center of a solid disk to bore a hole. - Finding the Circumference of a Circle Using Its Shadow [1/26/1996] I am attempting to find the circumference of a large sphere that is hanging 25 feet in the air. - Finding the Length of Carpet Left on a Roll [09/25/2008] If I can see the end of a roll of carpet I can figure out the approximate square yardage by taking the inside circumference, the outside circumference and the number of total layers left, then calculating each layer. Is there a formula I can apply to calculate the result directly? - Finding the Radial Separation of a CD Track Spiral [10/04/2000] On audio CDs a track of pits spirals outward from a radius of 25 mm to a radius of 58 mm. How can I calculate the radial separation of the pits? - Finding the Radius of a Pipe [1/28/1996] A pipe has become bent and is no longer round. In order for me to correct the problem, I must build a brace to go around the pipe and true it up. However, until I can determine the radius of the pipe, a brace cannot be - Finding the Volume of a Horizontal Tank [2/13/1996] What is the formula for finding the volume of a horizontal cylinder? - Find the Diagonal of a Rectangle [07/26/1997] We use a tape measure to square different things on the job site by measuring opposite corners... - Fitting a Picture to a Frame [11/14/1996] I have a picture frame that needs to have twice as much border on the side of the picture as on the top. If the photo is half the area of the frame, how wide should the borders be? - Flattening the Frustum of a Cone [10/15/2000] We are building a desk the front of which forms a section of a cone. We know the radius and chord length at the top and the floor. How do we generate a flat layout of this section? - Foil Wrapped Around a Spindle [12/17/1997] I have a problem in an engineering work environment. I need to know the length of foil (L) needed to generate the external diameter... - Formula for Laying Out an Arc [09/27/2002] I need a formula for laying out an arc using a known radius and distance from the chord to the arc at 90 degrees. - Gas in a Cylindrical Tank with Hemispheric Caps [02/09/2010] Doctor Jeremiah uses calculus to calculate how much gas a large pill- shaped tank holds. - Geometry Unit on Quilting [07/16/1997] Do you have any information/units/lessons/curriculum ideas on quilting in - Given Octagon Diameter, Find Side Length [04/09/2003] If you have the diameter of an octagon, what formula gives you the length of the sides? - Hole in a Sphere [12/30/1996] When you bore a 6 inch cylindrical hole through the center of a sphere, what is the volume of the remaining solid? - Horizontal Gas Tank Content Formula [01/17/1999] Can you help me find a formula to measure the volume of gas left in a horizontal gas tank given the height of the gas and the dimensions of the - How Many Liters of Water Does a Pool Hold? [12/4/1995] A pool's surface forms a rectangle 25 meters long by 15 meters wide. The pool is 2 meters deep at the shallow end and the depth increases at the constant rate to four meters at the other end. How many liters of water will the pool hold? - How Much Carpet is Left? [03/27/1999] We use rolled carpet in our business and would like to know how much is left on a roll given the remaining diameter... - How Much Material on a Spool? [05/02/2007] A reel of flat blade has an outer diameter of 1016 mm and an inner diameter of 508 mm. The blade thickness is 20 mm. Could you tell me the length of the blade and show me the formula for working it out?	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29322000
Is there no possible way that it has a final digit? He even proved a stronger result, Yes, Loiville 1882 (I believe).not algebraic? It was not proven geometrical. It was proven based on an integration that produces as a result.Geometrically, if we were drawing a circle, the ends must touch? (Even at the very small value level?) Here's my little conjecture (since I don't know how to prove it and excel says it doesn't work, but after 200 terms I don't know how accurate excel can be) This shows that the closer you get to infinity, the more decimal places will be in pi, but what if you reach infinity (which you obviously can't do)? You would get infinite decimal places, and it would equal pi... Does this mean that the ends of a circle do not touch at all? (Apart from at infinity) How can you calculate that in excel?? The best I can get for calculating pi is doing the sum of about 100000 inverse squares! If Pi has infinite decimal places then it must never be closed circle as there must be a space somewhere on the circle that is infinitely small and can not be filled. What I'm thinking is usually hard to understand so think of it like this... Pretend your drawing a circle with an incredibly fine pencil and your drawing of the circle is literally perfect. The diameter of the circle is 1cm so the circumference is Pi. You start at a point and draw 3cm. The circle is not yet complete as there is 0.14159..cm left so you draw 0.1cm but there's still 0.0415926...cm left to draw! You get closer and closer but since pi has infinite decimal places (that aren't all 0s) you will never reach the starting point of the circle! I hope thats easy enough to follow! It's clear what you mean, but mathematically there's no problem and practically, there's no difference with other numbers. Take a diameter of 1/pi, then you have to draw the circle with circumference 1. You have your fine pencil and you start drawing, already at 0.9, then 0.95, then 0.9997, then... Stopping at exactly 1, isn't fysically/practially "easier" than stopping at pi. The circle is closed, because pi is what it is, it's not 3.14 and not 3.141592653, but pi. My mistake was assuming pi would be drawn from a meaurable point of view when really "it is what it is". So in theory - no problem. Pi has its value and thats the value in the ratio from diameter to circumference. However, on paper it can be a problem as if you draw a perfect closed circle (ie. no errors in drawing it whatsoever) there will always be an infinitesimally small gap! Why still the gap? The paper doesn't know about real numbers, nor about our concept of 'meters'. The only problem which we practically encounter is our inability to draw so perfectly. For us, it's not harder/easier to draw a perfect 3-4-5 (5² = 3²+4²) right triangle, than to draw a 1,1,sqrt(2) (sqrt(2)² = 1²+2²) right triangle, although this last one has a side which has an irrational number as length! A number is said to be constructable when we can using Euclidean toys (striaghtedge and compass) construct . This is an algebra question but the important fact about the set of all constructable numbers is that . Meaning the it contains all rational numbers. Thus, what you need to show is that you cannot constuct and hence show it is irrational (note, not transcendental! this does not show this). The problem with this approach is that these concepts was purposely created to simplify construcability problems but we are going backwards meaning from this approach making more difficult.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29325000
News tagged with immune Related topics: immune system Immunity is a biological term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. Immunity involves both specific and non-specific components. The non-specific components act either as barriers or as eliminators of wide range of pathogens irrespective of antigenic specificity. Other components of the immune system adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and are able to generate pathogen-specific immunity. Adaptive immunity is often sub-divided into two major types depending on how the immunity was introduced. Naturally acquired immunity occurs through contact with a disease causing agent, when the contact was not deliberate, whereas artificially acquired immunity develops only through deliberate actions such as vaccination. Both naturally and artificially acquired immunity can be further subdivided depending on whether immunity is induced in the host or passively transferred from a immune host. Passive immunity is acquired through transfer of antibodies or activated T-cells from an immune host, and is short lived, usually lasts only a few months, whereas active immunity is induced in the host itself by antigen, and lasts much longer, sometimes life-long. The diagram below summarizes these divisions of immunity. This text uses material from Wikipedia and is available under the GNU Free Documentation License. Human breastmilk responds quickly to protect the child when there is an infection in mothers or babies, according to new international research led by The University of Western Australia. Immunology 20 hours ago \| 5 / 5 (1) \| 0 (Medical Xpress)—Scientists at Emory Vaccine Center have shown that an immune regulatory molecule called IL-21 is needed for long-lasting antibody responses in mice against viral infections. Immunology 20 hours ago \| 5 / 5 (1) \| 0 \| More than half of patients diagnosed with Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL) are now surviving the disease thanks to improved diagnosis and treatment, according to a new report1 from Cancer Research UK. Cancer 20 hours ago \| 5 / 5 (1) \| 0	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29335000
"Frederick, Maryland-Civil War Crossroads" Frederick by GentleSpirit Frederick Travel Guide: 72 reviews and 148 photos For a long time, Frederick was a distant suburb of the Washington DC Metro area. Gradually, a few major industries set up shop near the city and things have changed. Prices tend to be somewhat cheaper in Frederick County(compared to Montgomery County and Fairfax County), so a lot of people have come out this way seeking better value in housing. As you drive out to Frederick from the nearer-in suburbs you will notice more green spaces, more farms. You are getting farther from the big city. Frederick is the seat of Frederick County, with a 2010 population of about 65,000 (seems small). Frederick is at the junction of several major highways and is reasonably well located in north-west Maryland. It is 46 miles (74 km) west from Baltimore (Maryland) 49 miles (79 km) north and west of Washington DC. Frederick itself dates back to colonial times, being settled by German immigrants around 1745. Later came the Irish, until which time German was the main language spoken in the town. Because of its location, Frederick (city) was a crossroads during the Civil War. Three significant Civil War battlefields are within 50 miles of city limits. Frederick also served as major hospital center during the Civil War. Frederick County had two major Civil War battles. One was the 1862 Battle of South Mountain and the 1864 Battle of Monocacy. Being on the Mason Dixon line, Frederick was taken over and re-conquered several times. Not too far away you will find the Antietam National Battlefield, the site of the bloodiest single battle in the Civil War. Also fairly close by is Gettysburg (Penn.). - Pros:artsy, nice old town, antique shopping - Cons:not very good public transport connections - In a nutshell:Great for Civil War history North of Frederick you can see the 38 mile Catoctin Mountain National Scenic Byway. This was established as a scenic... more travel advice I have to say that Frederick County did a great job with this center. Located in a remodelled warehouse, they put... more travel advice GentleSpirit's Related Pages Frederick Travel Guide Member Travel Pages - "Frederick: Old-town America" - "Frederick, MD" - "frederick maryland" - "Frederick, Maryland-Civil War Crossroads" - "Civil War Town" - See All... - Things to Do in Frederick - Transportation in Frederick - Nightlife in Frederick - Restaurants in Frederick - Shopping in Frederick - Warnings and Dangers in Frederick - See All... Badges & Stats in Frederick - 7 Reviews - 0 Photos - 0 Forum posts - 0 Comments - See All Stats - See All Badges (20) Have you been to Frederick?Share Your Travels Latest Activity in Frederick Top 10 Pages - Washington D.C. Intro, 69 reviews, 142 photos, 1 travelogue - Paris Intro, 48 reviews, 75 photos - Prague Intro, 46 reviews, 63 photos, 2 travelogues - Córdoba Intro, 45 reviews, 58 photos - Krakow Intro, 34 reviews, 54 photos, 1 travelogue - Top 5 Page for this destination Arlington Intro, 29 reviews, 59 photos - Budapest Intro, 27 reviews, 48 photos, 2 travelogues - Buenos Aires Intro, 32 reviews, 36 photos - Top 5 Page for this destination Olomouc Intro, 30 reviews, 32 photos - Top 5 Page for this destination Cape Breton Island Intro, 16 reviews, 38 photos FriendsSee All Friends (35) Latest Frederick hotel reviews - Holiday Inn Frederick Fort Detrick - 47 Reviews & Opinions Latest: May 16, 2013	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29338000
Large circular ear ornaments were popular personal adornments of prominent ancient Peruvian lords and a symbol of their status and wealth. The weight of the frontal, which could reach widths of more than four inches, was counterbalanced by a long tubular shaft that went through the distended hole in the earlobe. Particularly impressive are those earflares with colorful mosaics. On this pair, bird-headed (or masked) winged runners, worked in turquoise, sodalite, and spondylus shell, hold bags in their outstretched hands. Their eyes and beaks are sheathed in gold. They may be depictions of mythological messengers.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29344000
Claude Lorrain (Claude Gellée) (French, 1604/5?–1682) Pen and brown ink, brown wash over black chalk, heightened with white 11 13/16 x 17 1/2 in. (30 x 44.4 cm) Purchase, The Annenberg Foundation Gift, 1997 (1997.156) This magnificent compositional study, which came to light in the late 1980s, stands out in Claude's graphic oeuvre for its high degree of finish and detail. The biblical subject is set in an invented landscape animated by a diffuse naturalistic light. It was presumably made as a presentation drawing for François Bosquet, bishop of Montpellier, who had commissioned from the artist a pendant to his Sermon on the Mount (Frick Collection, New York). The resulting painting, considered by Claude to be his most beautiful, was later largely destroyed by fire (a fragment survives at Holkham Hall, England). Claude here depicts the Old Testament story of Queen Esther, who went to the king's palace to implore mercy for her condemned people. As uninvited appearances before the king were forbidden under penalty of death, Esther collapsed in fear as she neared his throne, a scene commonly depicted by Baroque artists. By choosing instead the moment of Esther's approach to the palace, which is not described in the biblical text, Claude has shifted the focus from the clemency of the king to Esther's act of bravery when its outcome was still unclear.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29345000
Today’s interest in northern Ontario’s Ring of Fire is similar in some ways. Again there’s a frenzy over mineral riches in a remote area of Canada. And, as in the great gold rush of yore, it’s largely over one mineral – in this case, chromite. But that’s where the similarities more or less end. For one thing, the word “rush” seems out-of-place in today’s regulated mining sector. Anyone who wants to start mining at a particular site has regulatory hurdles to overcome and communities to consult. Getting from the idea of a mine to an actual mine is a challenging, years-long process. Still, there are many companies willing to endure that process in order to tap into the apparently great mineral wealth beneath the Ring of Fire’s surface of wetlands, rocks and trees. There are, after all, riches below the surface and considerable profits to be made. The RingThe Ring of Fire is a crescent-shaped area approximately 500 kilometres northeast of Thunder Bay, in the James Bay lowlands north of the Albany River. The Attawapiskat River runs through some of it. Predominantly muskeg, the Ring is more than 5,100 sq. km of land hitherto untouched by industry. Wildlife in the region includes some species at risk – black terns, bald eagles, wolverines and woodland caribou among them. Muskeg, birds and furry mammals aren’t what make the area so intriguing to miners, of course. The big attraction in this case is chromite, a dark iron chromium oxide that’s valued for its resistance to high temperatures. Chromite is a key ingredient in the stainless steel that our pots and pans are made of. It’s also commonly used for protective coating of automobile parts. There is at present no chromite mine in North America. The sizable chromite deposits are vestiges of geological events that occurred 2.7 billion years ago. Magma containing chromium rose from the Earth’s mantle and dissolved iron-rich rock in the crust. The result was crystallized chromite. The same thing, more or less, happened in many places on our planet, but for some reason it left especially rich deposits of chromite in the Ring of Fire. Early in the current century, De Beers Canada (which operates the Victor Diamond Mine to the east) found significant copper and zinc deposits there. Subsequent exploration uncovered chromite deposits that rival those at any location in South Africa, the world’s leading producer. Other minerals were also found, including nickel, gold and platinum-group metals. Because it was a somewhat ring-shaped “hot” exploration region, and (some say) because a key player was a Johnny Cash fan, it was dubbed the Ring of Fire. The Ontario government said in May 2012 that Ohio-based Cliffs Natural Resources is expected to spend more than $3 billion on getting chromite out of the Ring and to market. That sum includes $1.85 billion for a processing facility in Sudbury. “This is very, very important, not only for Sudbury but for the entire province,” then-Minister of Northern Development and Mines Rick Bartolucci said at a news conference in the nickel city. Other companies are also keen on getting a piece of the Ring. Toronto-headquartered Noront Resources is focused on developing its Eagle’s Nest nickel-copper-PGM project in the area, as well as a high-grade chromite deposit dubbed Blackbird. Bold Ventures, also out of Toronto, has reached an agreement with KWG Resources under which Bold will operate exploration at Koper Lake and KWG will fund the exploration. Dozens of other companies have staked thousands of claims. But the odyssey from exploration to mining won’t be smooth sailing. Environmentalists, politicians and aboriginal groups have all expressed concern over mining companies’ Ring ambitions. ChallengesIndeed, opposition politicians were quick to pounce on the fact that Bartolucci’s Sudbury news conference had no First Nations representation. “If First Nations aren’t part of (development), it won’t be happening,” Norm Miller, MPP for Parry Sound-Muskoka, told the Toronto Star. “You could also ask why was the federal government not part of (the news conference). There are federal and provincial reviews. There are still a lot of challenges going forward … despite it sounding like the ground was being broken today.” Noting that the all-weather road Cliffs wants to build from the town of Nakina to its Black Thor (McFaulds Lake) project would run through sensitive wildlands, a leading conservation group said the plan lacked proper assessment of environmental impacts. “The most important decision is the location of infrastructure. Where, how much, and what? These are questions we needed Ontario to ask,” said Janet Sumner of CPAWS Wildland League. Communities in the Ring of Fire’s vicinity include Webequie and Nibinamik (Summer Beaver) First Nations to the west, Marten Falls First Nation to the south, and Neskantaga First Nation to the southwest. All are members of Matawa First Nations, and they are remote reserves lacking road access. In January 2011 Matawa named Raymond Ferris, former chief of Constance Lake First Nation, as its Ring of Fire Coordinator responsible for seeing that member communities participate in and benefit from Ring development. First Nations see mining as a provider of jobs and development in reserves with extremely high unemployment and vexing social problems that include high rates of drug addiction and youth suicide. They also recognize the social benefit of a road finally connecting them to the outside world, and for that reason Marten Falls wants the road rerouted to hook up with its 300 residents. But Matawa First Nations are also concerned about water pollution and other impacts on the area’s ecology. “We know we’re going to get some benefits once they start development,” Marten Falls Chief Eli Moonias told the Canadian Press last year. “We know that in some ways we’ll be involved as well. The issue is the environment.” Moonias said a road connection could help Marten Falls improve its drinking-water situation by enabling easier access for experts and suppliers who could help fix the reserve’s water-quality problems. Marten Falls’ drinking-water supply is in need of major repair. The Province signalled its keen interest in seeing development move forward by creating a Ring of Fire Secretariat within the Ministry of Northern Development and Mines. The federal government has designated Treasury Board President Tony Clement as its point man for progress in the area. Cliffs aims to begin production at the Black Thor deposit by late 2016 even though the company’s President and CEO, Joseph Carrabba, told analysts last October that cost pressures and other factors could push the start to 2017. “Right now, the target remains 2016 and it’s a schedule that’s got some risk of slippage,” Cliffs Senior Vice-President Bill Boor told a Sudbury Chamber of Commerce luncheon audience in early November. Factors that could delay production include environmental assessment processes and trying to reach working agreements with First Nations. Boor said discussions with First Nations are progressing but “we need to move the relationship to the point where they’re willing to work with us in this project. We’re not asking them to agree with the project. We’re asking them to work with us to figure it out. And we do need a bit of breakthrough there.” In an email to this author, Cliffs Public Affairs Representative Jennifer Mihalcin said the company must “finalize a definitive deal” with Ontario before it can begin the construction phase of its ferrochrome project. Although that deal was not yet done as of March 2013, and despite the political uncertainties associated with an impending provincial election, she reiterated the company’s expectation that Black Thor operations will “commence at the end of 2016.” In an interview with the Financial Post, Noront’s then-CEO Wes Hanson said Noront could conceivably begin commercial production at Eagle’s Nest by 2016 or 2017. He said Noront would use the road Cliffs wants built and pay for road use in proportion to how much freight it hauls down the route. He explained that Noront was planning to produce 150,000 tonnes of concentrate annually while Cliffs was planning to produce about 20 times as much. In short, there’s still much work to be done before anyone gets rich on the Ring of Fire.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29357000
This is the second homework blog posting... Did you already complete the post on Gamma Rays and Dysfunctional Families? It is due before class starts on Monday, Dec. 15 In The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds, Tillie conducts an unusual science project. She subjects three different batches of marigolds to the potentially damaging effects of gamma rays - a topic we addressed in a previous blog post. But why did the play's author, Paul Zindel, choose marigolds as the flower to use in the science experiment? Click on the following links and please read the information on marigolds at wikipedia and this information on growing marigolds. Do not concern yourself with the all the Latin terms or varieties, but focus on the specific characteristics of the flower... Then post your ideas about the use of marigolds as a symbol in the story. What makes marigolds unique? What do they need to survive? When do marigolds bloom? How might the characteristics or qualities of this particular flower be a symbol that connects to important ideas in the play? Why might have Zindel used marigolds as the flower?	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29358000
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol Prof. D.M. Sherman Lecture 1: Chemical Fundamentals, Thermodynamics, Acid-Base and Solubility Equilibria One the most important tools we have in environmental geochemistry is thermodynamics. Thisenables us to predict how chemical reactions will proceed. Using thermodynamics, we can calculate the solubilities of minerals and how reactions with minerals and gases will control the compositions of aqueous solutions.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29359000
In an 18 July 1952 letter, Martin Luther King wrote to his future wife, Coretta Scott, about his beliefs as a minister and proclaimed: ‘‘Let us continue to hope, work, and pray that in the future we will live to see a warless world, a better distribution of wealth, and a brotherhood that transcends race or color. This is the gospel that I will preach to the world’’ (Papers 6:126). As a self-described ‘‘advocator of the social gospel,’’ King’s theology was concerned ‘‘with the whole man, not only his soul but his body, not only his spiritual well-being, but his material well-being’’ (Papers 6:72; Papers 5:422). His ministry built upon the social gospel of the Protestant church at the turn of the twentieth century and his own family’s practice of preaching on the social conditions of parishioners. The early social gospel movement emerged during the rapidly industrializing American society following the Civil War. Recognizing the injustices of ‘‘triumphant capitalism,’’ some progressive ministers prescribed a large dose of ‘‘practical Christianity’’ to right these wrongs and directly address the social needs of the era (Hopkins, 121). One of the most prominent was Walter Rauschenbusch, a German-American who pastored a church in the Hell’s Kitchen district of New York in the late nineteenth century. In Christianity and the Social Crisis, Rauschenbusch traced the social gospel back to the lives of the Hebrew prophets. He stated that rather than ritualistic ceremonies, the prophets ‘‘insisted on a right life as the true worship of God’’ (Rauschenbusch, 5). This ‘‘right life’’ included the belief that ‘‘social problems are moral problems on a large scale’’ (Rauschenbusch, 6). King read Christianity and the Social Crisis at Crozer Theological Seminary and wrote that its message ‘‘left an indelible imprint on my thinking by giving me a theological basis for the social concern which had already grown up in me’’ (Papers 4:474). Social gospel proponent Henry Emerson Fosdick, popular pastor of New York’s Riverside Church during the 1930s and 1940s, was an early influence on King’s preaching. Fosdick felt that a church ‘‘that pretends to care for the souls of people but is not interested in the slums that damn them, the city government that corrupts them, the economic order that cripples them, and international relationships that, leading to peace or war, determine the spiritual destiny of innumerable souls’’ would receive divine condemnation (Fosdick, 25). He also emphasized that ‘‘the saving of society does depend on things which only high, personal religion can supply’’ (Fosdick, 38). King’s family put him on a social gospel path, one that had already been cleared by his grandfather, A. D. Williams, and father, King, Sr. Williams, who was minister of Ebenezer Baptist Church at the turn of the twentieth century, helped form the Georgia Equal Rights League in February 1906, and was a founding member of Atlanta’s branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. King, Sr., succeeded Williams at Ebenezer and, in a 1940 address to the Atlanta Missionary Baptist Association, he envisioned a ‘‘time when every minister will become a registered voter and a part of every movement for the betterment of our people’’ (Papers 1:34). In his unpublished 1973 autobiography, King, Sr., asserted that his ministry was never ‘‘solely oriented toward life and death. It has been equally concerned with the here and now, with improving man’s lot in this life. I have therefore stressed the social gospel’’ (‘‘A Black Rebel’’). Other influences on King’s social gospel included Morehouse College president and minister Benjamin Mays, who regularly spoke against segregation in Tuesday morning chapel at the college during King’s years there. He chastised both African Americans who favored a gradualist approach to civil rights and whites who did not ‘‘want democracy to function in certain areas: especially in areas that involve Negroes’’ (Mays, ‘‘Three Great Fears’’). King’s studies of Reinhold Niebuhr’s writings at Crozer and Boston University tempered his belief in the social gospel’s typical confidence in liberal theology and its reliance on human agency as a primary force for change. ‘‘While I still believed in man’s potential for good, Niebuhr made me realize his potential for evil as well,’’ King later recalled (King, Stride, 99). He also appreciated Niebuhr’s assertion that ‘‘the glaring reality of collective evil’’ was one explanation for racial hatred (King, Stride, 99). King arrived as pastor at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church still ‘‘a firm believer in what is called the ‘social gospel’’’ (Papers 6:141). King tied this faith to the nonviolent protest that characterized the Montgomery bus boycott, noting that ‘‘Christ furnished the spirit and motivation’’ for the boycott (Papers 5:423). King took to task those churches that separated the secular realities of daily life from spiritual needs. His vision of the church’s role in social concerns was based on the early church’s identity, in his mind, as an institution that shaped social mores and conditions. King believed that God would harshly judge the church’s apathy on these matters and, conversely, praise those clergy who would take public stands on issues confronting their parishioners’ everyday lives. King remained a proponent of the social gospel despite the many setbacks the civil rights movement suffered in the later 1960s. In a speech delivered the day before his death, King asserted that ‘‘somehow the preacher must have a kind of fire shut up in his bones, and whenever injustice is around he must tell it’’ (King, ‘‘I’ve Been,’’ 213). Fosdick, Hope of the World, 1933. Hopkins, Rise of the Social Gospel, 1940. Introduction, in Papers 1:1, 10, 14, 34, 38. Introduction, in Papers 6:2. King, ‘‘Accepting Responsibility for Your Actions,’’ 26 July 1953, in Papers 6:139–142. King, ‘‘I’ve Been to the Mountaintop,’’ in Call to Conscience, eds. Carson and Shepard, 2001. King, ‘‘Letter from Birmingham Jail,’’ in Why We Can’t Wait, 1964. King, ‘‘My Pilgrimage to Nonviolence,’’ 1 September 1958, in Papers 4:473–481. King, ‘‘Pilgrimage to Nonviolence,’’ 13 April 1960, in Papers 5:419–425. King, ‘‘Preaching Ministry,’’ in Papers 6:69–72. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 1958. King to Coretta Scott, 18 July 1952, in Papers 6:123–126. King. Sr., ‘‘A Black Rebel: The Autobiography of M. L. King, Sr.,’’ 1973, MLKJP-GAMK. Mays, ‘‘Three Great Fears,’’ Pittsburgh Courier, 17 April 1948. Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social Crisis, 1907.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29364000
The first scene was on the earth. Here is an important FAQ from IMDB, where it clearly states: There is no definite answer. It could very well be Earth in the early stages of life, possibly sometime after the extinction of the dinosaurs (the meteor which was responsible actually resulted in a mass extinction of nearly all life on the planet; the Engineers could have chosen Earth as it was a planet capable of supporting life, and maybe saw the creation of humanity as a way to "heal" the damage). However, there is no indication that it is specifically Earth. It could very well be another planet, as it is suggested that the Engineers created other life besides humans. Another site stated supporting it was earth: Our Theory: What we are seeing in the beginning is the creation of Earth. The giant ship (which is different from the ring-shaped one we see later in the film, weirdly) has landed on Earth to drop off the Engineer so that he can terraform the planet and make it sustainable for life. We think he drinks the black goo to break down his own structure and spread life on Earth through his own DNA, but that doesn’t really explain his surprise while he’s disintegrating (and if the Engineers do have the same DNA as us, it’s hard to say why the Engineers had to be broken down in order to create humanity) The prometheus forum also states it is earth showed in the first scene. The engineer basically killed himself by drinking that stuff, which broke down his body and allowed his DNA to be dispersed and then (as per the film) this kick started life on Earth. As far as the same landscape is concerned you can see there is are touches of "slight greenery" in the first scene, whereas when Prometheus was entering the planet, no such greenery could be seen! Also water was present in the first scene, whereas no signs of water was there before entering the cave in Prometheus. The planet was full of rocks, sands and all. No signs of life was there. This makes the two landscapes different. However filming was done on the earth only. So there can be some symmetries ;) slight greenery in starting scene greenery as well as water in the first scene	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29371000
This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. Sesame Street: Song: Hop This Way sesame street, Elmo, Rev Run, hop, song, hop this way If you're watching videos with your preschooler and would like to do so in a safe, child-friendly environment, please join us at http://www.sesamestreet.org Elmo and Rev Run sing about hopping. Sesame Street is a production of Sesame Workshop, a nonprofit educational organization which also produces Pinky Dinky Doo, The Electric Company, and other programs for children around the world.	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29375000
Bakers and Basques A Social History of Bread in Mexico Publication Year: 2012 Mexico City’s colorful panaderías (bakeries) have long been vital neighborhood institutions. They were also crucial sites where labor, subsistence, and politics collided. From the 1880s well into the twentieth century, Basque immigrants dominated the bread trade, to the detriment of small Mexican bakers. By taking us inside the panadería, into the heart of bread strikes, and through government halls, Robert Weis reveals why authorities and organized workers supported the so-called Spanish monopoly in ways that countered the promises of law and ideology. He tells the gritty story of how class struggle and the politics of food shaped the state and the market. More than a book about bread, Bakers and Basques places food and labor at the center of the upheavals in Mexican history from independence to the aftermath of the Mexican Revolution. Published by: University of New Mexico Press Download PDF (49.1 KB) Download PDF (33.8 KB) Download PDF (52.4 KB) Financial support for the research and writing of this book came from the University of California Institute for Mexico and the United States (UC MEXUS), the Reed Smith Fellowship, the UC Davis History Department, the Jarena D. Wright Scholarship, the UC Davis Hemispheric Institute on the Americas, ... Download PDF (958.8 KB) A young bakery worker, maybe ten years old, appears in a photograph from 1930. He stands in the passage that divides the retail section of the panadería (bakery) from the workroom in back. Thin and dark, he is dressed in an apron and cloth hairnet and looks at the camera somewhat timidly out of the corner of his eye, ... 1: “Zelo y desvelo”: The Bread Monopoly and Late Colonial Market Reforms Download PDF (103.6 KB) A black slave, owned by Hernán Cortés, allegedly planted Mexico’s first wheat after he found three grains at the bottom of a rice sack. A single grain yielded 180; soon, wrote the sixteenth-century chronicler Francisco López de Gómara, “there was infinite wheat.” Cortés established the Santo Domingo Mill ... 2: “A system that offends the hands of brothers”: Small Bakers and the Free Market in Independent Mexico Download PDF (133.6 KB) The leaders of independent Mexico explicitly followed the late Bourbon model of free market with limited government oversight. They continued the search for a balance between releasing the supposedly innate dynamism of competition and curbing the equally innate greed of merchants and producers. ... 3: “An uncle in America”: Chain Migration and the Spanish Monopoly Download PDF (1003.6 KB) Few Spaniards took part in the “invasion of pastry chefs” of the 1850s. But a decade later, immigrants from northern Spain, particularly the Basque province of Navarre, slowly began to arrive in Mexico City and venture into the bread trade. By the 1890s, they had become owners of most of the city’s panaderías. ... 4: “Dough Kneaded with Blood” Download PDF (1.1 MB) Gendarme No. 905 was at his downtown post near the Plazuela Aguilita around 11:30 p.m. when he heard a tremendous crash and a voice calling for help. He ran down the street and entered La Florida, the flour mill that Pedro Albaitero and José Arrache had established the year before. ... 5: “We have no bread”: Hunger, Opportunity, and War Download PDF (1.0 MB) At the high point of the revolution’s violence, in fall of 1915, Coronel Ignacio C. Enríquez, interim president of Mexico City, ordered his subaltern Pablo des Georges to take the next day’s train to San Andrés Chalchicomula, Puebla, where he was to pick up four thousand cargas (around 710 tons) ... 6: The Bakers’ Revolution Download PDF (151.5 KB) The bakers’ revolution began in 1915, when the civil war brought the worst misery on the city, five years after the initial outbreak of violence in other parts of the country. It was no accident that bakers formed their union while residents were suffering hunger. Workers, who felt the crisis disproportionately, ... 7: Unionists, Tlalchicholes, and Canasteros Download PDF (938.7 KB) The Spanish monopoly had proven itself to be an essential partner of the governments that emerged in the revolution and its aftermath. Hunger coincided with the brutal factional battles, and the government’s ability to see that people were fed became a crucial sign of political legitimacy. ... Download PDF (53.6 KB) In the mural in the Abelardo L. Rodríguez Market, chubby capitalists count money they have extracted from workers whom artificial scarcities have reduced to walking skeletons. Placed anywhere else, the mural would be a simple denunciation of inequality, an accusation that the rich profited from the hunger of the poor. ... Download PDF (216.2 KB) Download PDF (213.3 KB) Download PDF (72.9 KB) Page Count: 232 Illustrations: 5 halftones, 6 tables Publication Year: 2012	fwe2-CC-MAIN-2013-20-29377000

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