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OPINION
FERNANDEZ, Chief Judge.
All parties appeal from the trial court’s ruling that reformation is unavailable although a mutual mistake occurred and from its refusal to quiet title to real property. We agree the court erred and conclude that reformation should be granted.
Sometime prior to November 1979, William Small purchased three lots in El En-canto subdivision in Tucson from a couple named Mullin. The Mullins lived in a home that had been built on Lot 91, the largest of the three lots. The other two lots constituted part of the grounds for the home. Apparently because the home was built nearly to the edge of Lot 91, Mullin reconfigured the legal description to add to Lot 91 a 40-foot strip to the south and to remove it from the two adjoining lots, Lots 92 and 94. Small purchased the three lots from the Mullins, intending to remodel their home. He later changed his mind, demolished the house, and began building a new one. After construction began, Small once again changed his mind.
In November 1979, Small deeded the three lots to the Ashland Development Company, a corporation of which he is chairman of the board. The deed utilized the reconfigured legal descriptions created by Mullin. Ashland then began construction of three houses on the three lots, .employing the same architect whom Small had retained to build his house. The architect testified that he obtained a copy of the El Encanto subdivision plat map from a blueprint company and designed three houses with similar construction and features, utilizing the original property lines from the plat map.
In late December 1980 or early January 1981, appellees Thomas and Marcia Green saw the house being constructed on Lot 91 and began negotiations to purchase it. At the time they first saw the property, the exterior walls and roofs were completed on all three houses, the pools for Lots 91 and 92 were in place although Lot 91’s was not finished, and the brick and wood patio walls for all three were built. Small testified that the houses on Lots 92 and 94 were substantially finished- at the time. The testimony was that the architect designed the homes so that a patio wall provided privacy to each home. Between the patio walls is a 15 to 20-foot wide strip that is landscaped and has drip irrigation and lighting systems.
The Greens entered into a contract with Ashland to purchase the home on Lot 91 in March 1981. The contract was prepared by Ashland’s attorney who testified that he obtained the legal description from a title company. The description used the reconfigured description for Lot 91. The Greens’ deed was recorded the day after the purchase agreement was signed. It also shows the reconfigured legal description.
In May 1983, Ashland conveyed Lots 92 and 94 in trust to Title Insurance Company of Minnesota. The legal description for the two lots also follows Mullin’s reconfigured descriptions. Minnesota Title conveyed Lot 92 to appellant Dennis Rosen in May 1984. United Bank purchased Lot 94 at a trustee’s sale in January 1985 and conveyed it to Joseph Canchóla, subject to the outcome of this litigation, in June 1987. All the deeds utilize the reconfigured legal descriptions.
In July 1986, while Canchóla was negotiating to purchase Lot 94, he had the property surveyed in order to purchase a title insurance policy. The surveyor discovered that the legal descriptions in the deeds do not match the improvements on the properties. Included in the disputed 40-foot strip that is shown in the deed to be part of Lot 91 is half of Rosen’s living room, 30 feet of his backyard and 15 feet of his swimming pool. The strip also includes one of Can-chola’s bedrooms and a substantial portion of his patio. The surveyor testified that the homes and improvements on the properties follow the original subdivision plat lines.
After the error was discovered, United Bank and Rosen submitted quit claim deeds to the Greens, seeking to correct the problem. After the Greens refused to execute them, appellants filed suit in January 1987 for reformation of the deeds and to quiet title to the disputed area. The Greens responded with a counterclaim to quiet title in them and a cross-claim against Ashland for rescission or for damages for fraud. The case was tried to the court in October 1988, and the Greens then withdrew their fraud claim. Although the court stated that “this case cries for relief to plaintiffs,” it ruled that the relief of reformation was inappropriate because there had been no showing as to the exact boundary agreed upon by the parties. After motions for reconsideration and for new trial were filed, the court made findings of fact and conclusions of law. One of its conclusions was that there was a mutual mistake in the deed from Ashland to the Greens but that reformation is not available. At the same time, the court determined that no evidence had been offered to support the Greens’ counterclaim to quiet, title to the property in them. As a result, the court awarded judgment to the Greens on the complaint and to United Bank and Rosen on the counterclaim. The disputed property thus remains with record title in the Greens and possession in Rosen and the Canchólas. All parties have appealed.
AVAILABILITY OF REFORMATION
The trial court found that the Greens did not know where the boundary line contained in the purchase contract and deed extended and that neither knew the specific location of their south boundary. As a result, it concluded that United Bank and Rosen were actually seeking to rewrite the terms of the parties’ contract through the remedy of reformation. In an earlier minute entry, the court cited the case of McNeil v. Attaway, 87 Ariz. 103, 348 P.2d 301 (1959) for the proposition that reformation is not available when the parties have never entered into an express agreement that can be reformed. In that case, the disputed property lay in an open field with no physical features on it that could have been agreed upon to establish the disputed boundary line.
As the trial court correctly noted, the cases cited by appellants involved situations in which a distinguishing feature existed that the parties had agreed constituted the boundary line with the result that the deeds were reformed to be consistent with the agreements. Berger v. Bhend, 79 Ariz. 173, 285 P.2d 751 (1955) (fence next to irrigation ditch); Underdown v. Reche, 122 Ariz. 439, 595 P.2d 671 (App.1979) (deed included house and rectory that parties agreed were not intended to be included); Chantler v. Wood, 6 Ariz.App. 134, 430 P.2d 713 (1967) (north edge of building); Longshaw v. Corbitt, 4 Ariz.App. 408, 420 P.2d 980 (1966) (oleander hedge).
The trial court apparently focused on the Greens' testimony that they did not walk a particular line that the parties expressly agreed was the boundary line before they purchased the property. In doing so, the court ignored other evidence as to the realities of the situation.
The court made findings of fact that by the time the Greens first saw the Lot 91 house, the exterior walls of all three houses were in place, the pools on Lots 91 and 92 were dug and in place, and, most importantly, the south patio wall of Lot 91 and the north patio walls of Lots 92 and 94 were in place. The court also found that the Greens did not intend to purchase, and Ashland did not intend to sell, any parts of the structures on the properties now-occupied by Rosen and Canchóla. In fact, the Greens repeatedly admitted that they never intended to purchase any part of the patio, patio walls, or homes on the Rosen and Canchóla lots.
Moreover, both the Greens testified that they saw the property a number of times before they purchased it. The 15 to 20-foot wide area between the patio walls was
Cite as 164 Ariz. 312 (App.)
landscaped, and drip irrigation systems were installed in it. Thomas Green testified that there had been a discussion with Ashland to the effect that each owner was to be responsible for his own property in maintaining that area. Marcia Green testified in her deposition that at the time they purchased the house, she did not believe that their property included the entire area between the patio walls. The only logical conclusion from the court’s findings of fact and from the Greens’ testimony, then, is that the parties did indeed agree on a property line, one that runs approximately halfway between the patio walls and one that coincides, incidentally, with the property line shown on the original subdivision plat map.
“If there is a mutual mistake that the seller intended to sell and the buyer intended to purchase a different piece of land than that described in the deed, it forms a basis for an action in reformation.” Chantler v. Wood, supra, 6 Ariz.App. at 138, 430 P.2d at 717; accord Longshaw v. Corbitt, supra. The trial court expressly found that a mutual mistake occurred in this case but erroneously concluded that reformation was not an available remedy, thereby leaving the parties as they presently are with all three properties having clouds on their titles. This case is not like that of McNeil v. Attaway, supra, in which there were no physical features which the parties could have agreed was a boundary. Nor is it like that of McMillon v. Town of Flagstaff, 18 Ariz. 536,164 P. 318 (1917), in which the seller was denied reformation because she could not show that the mistake was mutual and because she had accepted the purchase price although she was aware of the misdescription in the deed.
“It is a fundamental principle that equity will not suffer a wrong without a remedy.” Chantler, 6 Ariz.App. at 138, 430 P.2d at 717.
If an agreement is so vague and indefinite that the court finds it impossible to gather from it the full intention of the parties, it must be held void, for the court cannot make an agreement for the parties. [Citation omitted.] Yet the law does not favor, but leans against, the
annulment of contracts on the ground of uncertainty. If the intent of the parties can be ascertained from the express terms of the contract or by fair implication, the contract should be sustained by the court.
Hoffman v. Chapman, 182 Md. 208, 211, 34 A.2d 438, 440 (1943) (emphasis added). There is no question in this case that the intent of the parties can be ascertained by fair implication. “For the rule stated in this Section [When Mistake of Both Parties as to Written Expression Justifies Reformation] to be invoked, therefore, there must have been some agreement between the parties prior to the writing. The prior agreement need not, however, be complete and certain enough to be a contract.” Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 155 comment a at 406 (1979). “ ‘A court of equity would be of little value,’ Justice Story said, ‘if it could suppress only positive frauds, and leave mutual mistakes, innocently made, to work intolerable mis-chiefs contrary to the intention of parties.’ ” Hoffman, supra, 182 Md. at 210-12, 34 A.2d at 440 quoting 1 Story, Equity Jurisprudence §§ 155, 156 (12th ed.).
Because of our determination of the case, we need not address the Greens’ cross-appeal issue.
The judgment entered in favor of the Greens on the complaint is reversed, and the case is remanded with directions to reform the deeds to Lots 91, 92, and 94. The judgment entered in favor of Rosen and United Bank on the counterclaim is affirmed. Appellants’ request for attorney’s fees is denied.
LIVERMORE, P.J., and LACAGNINA, J., concur.
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OPINION
HATHAWAY, Judge.
Petitioner Herbert E. Davis (Davis) seeks special action relief from the respondent judge’s denial of his motion to reconsider the granting of the petition to reconsider conditions of release filed by real party in interest, State of Arizona, and the order that Davis be held without bail, pending trial. For the reasons stated below, we accept jurisdiction but deny relief.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
On November 23, 1988, Davis was indicted by the Cochise County Grand Jury for an incident occurring in October in which he allegedly beat and sexually assaulted a woman with whom he had been living for a number of years and attempted to set fire to her house. The two apparently separated after the incident. The charges were dismissed without prejudice pursuant to a stipulation dated March 3, 1989.
On June 9, 1989, there was another incident involving Davis and the same victim. The state contends that Davis telephoned the victim and after she stated she did not wish to see him, he went to her home, cut the telephone line, and entered the home armed with a .38-caliber revolver. Although Davis and the state dispute what occurred that evening, it is clear that the victim and Davis had an altercation which resulted in the exchange of gunfire. Davis was arrested on charges of first-degree burglary, aggravated assault and attempted murder, and at his initial appearance on July 1, 1989, bond was set at $50,000. On July 7, 1989, Davis was indicted by the Cochise County Grand Jury for the June 1989 incident and an information was filed which revived the charges relating to the October 1988 incident. The state moved to consolidate the two cases. The trial court granted the motion on August 1, 1989, ordering that bond be set in the amount of $50,000 for both cases.
On September 8, 1989, the state filed a petition to reconsider conditions of release in which it requested that Davis be held without bond pending trial, contending that Davis posed a substantial danger to the victim and that no conditions of release could be imposed which would reasonably assure her safety. The state explained that it had recently become aware of and had received copies of offense reports relating to an incident in January 1979, during which Davis entered the home of his estranged wife at approximately 2:00 a.m., assaulted her and their four daughters while armed with a revolver, forced her to beg for her life and threatened to kill them all. He reportedly fired one shot which missed his wife and took her from the residence at gunpoint. He surrendered the gun to her and when he asked her to shoot him and she refused, he took an overdose of tranquilizers.
Davis was in custody when the state filed its petition, having been unable to post bond in the amount previously set. An expedited hearing was held on September 11, 1989, at which time the state submitted transcripts of the victim’s statements concerning both the 1988 and 1989 incidents, police reports concerning the 1989 incident, and copies of witness statements and police reports concerning the January 1979 incident. During the hearing, Davis’s attorney requested time to file responsive pleadings and leave was granted, although both sides presented legal arguments. The respondent judge took the matter under advisement. The following day Davis posted bond and left for California. It appears from the record before us that the state’s petition was granted by the court after September 11, 1989, before any responsive pleadings were filed. Although the minute entry was dated September 11, it appears to have been filed on September 18, 1989. On September 28, 1989, Davis filed a motion to reconsider the order holding him without bond on the grounds that the state’s petition was untimely and that the state failed to carry its burden of establishing by clear and convincing evidence that no conditions of release could be imposed which would reasonably protect public safety. Additionally, he complained that he had not been given the opportunity to file a response to the state’s petition. It appears that Davis returned to Arizona that day, surrendered himself to authorities and was immediately taken into custody. Davis’s motion was heard on October 13, 1989, and denied on October 18. This special action followed, accompanied by Davis’s request that this court order his release pending trial.
ISSUES
The general question raised by this special action is whether the time constraints of A.R.S. § 13-3961(C) apply where the state seeks to have a defendant held without bond, modifying previously imposed release conditions, based on information obtained after the release conditions were initially imposed. Specifically, in the case before us, did the respondent judge abuse his discretion in granting the state’s petition to reconsider release conditions and denying Davis’s motion for reconsideration of that order on the grounds that (a) the state’s petition was untimely; (b) the issue regarding Davis’s release was res judica-ta; (c) the state should have been equitably estopped from seeking the change; and (d) the state failed to sustain its burden of establishing that Davis was not bailable?
JURISDICTION
The state contends that this court has no jurisdiction to hear this matter for the reason that Davis’s claims should have been brought in the form of a writ of habeas corpus pursuant to A.R.S. §§ 13-4121, et seq. and, therefore, should have been submitted to the trial court, because the court of appeals does not have original jurisdiction of such proceedings. See A.R.S. §§ 13-4123, 12-120.21. We disagree.
The writ of habeas corpus has largely been replaced by the special action proceeding and Ariz.R.Crim.P. 32, 17 A.R.S. It has been traditionally used for collateral attacks on judgments of conviction and sentences in addition to providing expedited relief for illegal detention. We do not believe that because Davis may have been able to raise this issue in a habeas corpus proceeding he is precluded from raising it by way of special action. Clearly, the objective is to obtain expedited appellate review which the special action proceeding affords.
Because the issue raised here is not susceptible to review on appeal, Nataros v. Superior Court of Maricopa County, 113 Ariz. 498, 557 P.2d 1055 (1976), and because of the statewide importance of the application of A.R.S. § 13-3961 to similar factual circumstances, we accept jurisdiction. See Ariz. R.P. Spec. Action 1, 17B A.R.S.; University of Arizona Health Sciences Center v. Superior Court, 136 Ariz. 579, 667 P.2d 1294 (1983).
APPLICATION OP A.R.S. § 13-3961
A.R.S. § 13-3961 provides, in pertinent part, as follows:
B. A person in custody shall not be admitted to bail if the person is charged with a felony offense and the state certifies by motion and the court finds after a hearing on the matter that there is clear and convincing evidence that the person charged poses a substantial danger to another person or the community, that no condition or combination of conditions of release may be imposed which will reasonably assure the safety of the other person or the community and that the proof is evident or the presumption great that the person committed the offense for which he is charged.
C. Upon oral motion of the state the court shall order the hearing required by subsection B at or within twenty-four hours of the initial appearance unless the person subject to detention or the state moves for a continuance.
On November 2, 1982, effective November 30, 1982, the Arizona Constitution was amended and the following paragraph, which parallels and ratifies § 13-3961(B), was added to Article 2, § 22:
All persons charged with crime shall be bailable by sufficient sureties, except for:
******
3. Felony offenses if the person charged poses a substantial danger to any other person or the community, if no conditions of release which may be imposed will reasonably assure the safety of the other person or the community and if the proof is evident or the presumption is great as to the present charge.
Davis contends that the respondent judge abused his discretion in granting the state’s petition on the ground that it was not made at or within 24 hours of his initial appearance and was therefore untimely. In support of his argument that strict adherence to the time contraints of § 13-3961(C) is required, Davis cites federal cases concerning the application of the Bail Reform Act of 1984 (the Act), 18 U.S.C. § 3142. See United States v. Al-Azzawy, 768 F.2d 1141 (9th Cir.1985); United States v. O’Shaughnessy, 764 F.2d 1035 (5th Cir.1985); United States v. Payden, 759 F.2d 202 (2d Cir.1985). The Act is similar to § 13-3961 in material respects, providing, in pertinent part, that the hearing to hold a defendant without bail “shall be held immediately upon the person’s first appearance before the judicial officer unless that person, or the attorney for the Government, seeks a continuance.” 18 U.S.C. § 3142(f).
The cases cited by Davis do indeed demand strict adherence to the requirements of the Act. In fact, in United States v. O’Shaughnessy, supra, the Fifth Circuit went so far as to say that even where the government obtains information subsequent to the initial imposition of release conditions and the request for a hearing to detain indefinitely was not made at the initial appearance, the accused’s release may not be revoked, notwithstanding the fact that the government’s information establishes that the accused should be detained pending trial. As our supreme court noted in Pool v. Superior Court, 139 Ariz. 98, 108, 677 P.2d 261, 271 (1984), however, “the concept of federalism assumes the power, and duty, of independence in interpreting our own organic law. With all deference, therefore, we cannot and should not follow federal precedent blindly.” See also State v. Mauro, 159 Ariz. 186, 190, 766 P.2d 59, 63 (1988); Deer Valley Unified School District v. Superior Court of the State of Arizona, 157 Ariz 537, 541, 760 P.2d 537, 541 (1988); Feldman & Ab-ney, The Double Security of Federalism, 20 Ariz. St. L.J. 115 (1988). Because of the anomalous results it would engender, we choose not to follow federal precedent here.
We find nothing in A.R.S. § 13-3961 to suggest that where additional information regarding an accused is obtained by the state subsequent to the initial appearance and following the initial imposition of release conditions which establishes that the accused is not bailable under § 13-3961 and Article 2, § 22 of the Arizona Constitution, the state is prohibited from seeking a reconsideration of the release conditions simply because it did not request a hearing to determine whether the accused is bailable at or within 24 hours of the accused’s initial appearance. There is a duality of public policy behind § 13-3961. The first is to ensure that when the state seeks to have an accused held without bond, the accused must not be detained for an unreasonable amount of time pending the determination of whether the accused is bailable. The statute provides an expedited manner for determining the issue at the very outset of the criminal proceeding, creating a carefully limited exception to the rule that release conditions be imposed at the initial appearance. Ariz.R.Crim.P. 7.4(a), 17 A.R.S. Thus, where the accused's release is being considered for the very first time and the state believes at that time, based upon information then before it, that the accused should be held without bond, the hearing on the matter must be held at or within 24 hours of the initial appearance unless a continuance is granted based upon good cause. To further expedite the determination, the legislature provided that the state’s request for the hearing may be made orally.
The second public policy that § 13-3961 and the parallel provision of the constitution of this state were designed to serve is the protection of the public generally and, when necessary, a specific individual or individuals from a clearly dangerous defendant. We believe that the result reached by the respondent judge serves the latter policy and does not contravene the former. Davis was being held from the time of his arrest through September 12, 1989, not because he was awaiting the court’s determination of whether he was bailable but because he had not posted bond in the amount of $50,000. Were we to adopt Davis’s interpretation of § 13-3961, however, the purpose of protecting the victim and the public would clearly be thwarted. As discussed below, the evidence in this case sufficiently established that the victim’s safety could not be reasonably assured.
It strains logic to hold, as Davis urges us to do, that where the state obtains information clearly indicating that a defendant is a danger to an individual or society, the state and the court are powerless to change any release conditions previously imposed and are required to allow the accused to remain at large. We do not believe the legislature intended that the provision be used to such an end, nor do we think the language of the statute requires it. The court may review and amend release conditions at any time, and the subsequent discovery of additional information indicating that the accused is not bailable is a sufficient reason to do so. See Ariz.R. Crim.P. 7.4(c), 17 A.R.S. The fact that the rules permit an accused to seek reexamination of the conditions of release, Ariz.R. Crim.P. 7.4(b), does not mean that the court is prevented from reviewing those conditions at the request of the state.
RES JUDICATA
Davis also argues that strict adherence to the time limits imposed by § 13-3961 is necessary because of the doctrine of res judicata, relying upon In re Marshall, 38 Ariz. 424, 300 P. 1011 (1931). Aside from the fact that Marshall was decided years before the enactment of § 13-3961 and the amendment to the constitution which added grounds for holding without bail that did not previously exist, it is entirely distinguishable. In Marshall, a superior court judge reviewed the transcript of a preliminary hearing which was the basis of the justice court magistrate’s initial determination that the defendant was bailable. Because the evidence was exactly the same, the supreme court found that the superior court was bound by that determination and could not subsequently order the defendant held without bail.
In the case before us, the state did not obtain the additional information until August 29, 1989. It appears from the record that the state filed the petition as soon as it had what it believed was sufficient evidence establishing that Davis was not bailable which, unlike in Marshall, was submitted to the same judge who originally set bail. Davis claims that the state should have known about the 1979 incident, as he had been “under investigation” since 1988, suggesting that it was not, in fact, new information. There is no support in the record for this contention. Additionally, there is nothing in the record indicating that the state acted in any way in bad faith. The judge who initially ordered Davis’s release conditions was simply given the opportunity to reconsider his order based upon information not previously before him. Under the circumstances, we find Marshall to be inapplicable. Moreover, the issue of whether Davis was bailable was not fully litigated, given the fact that new information was presented. Therefore, the prior order was not res judicata.
EQUITABLE ESTOPPEL
Davis contends that the state should be equitably estopped from seeking reconsideration of the release conditions two and one-half months after the initial conditions were imposed. Citing the elements of equitable estoppel set forth in United States v. Georgia-Pacific Co., 421 F.2d 92 (9th Cir.1970), Davis contends that the state knew the facts, that Davis had a right to believe after his bail hearing that he would be released if bond were posted, that Davis was ignorant of the fact that he could be ordered back to jail after being released, and that he relied on the facts to his detriment by moving to California and commencing work there with his brother. We find this claim to be entirely meritless.
There is nothing in the record adequately contradicting the state’s claim that it did not obtain the new information until the end of August and that it filed its petition as soon thereafter as possible. As we have already stated, Davis clearly was not prejudiced by the filing prior to his release because he would have been in custody anyway, having failed to post bond. Nor does the record support his claim that he detrimentally relied on the court’s initial release order and had no idea he could be reincar-cerated. Davis’s release status was vigorously litigated. Even if, as we assume to be the case, he did not know the court had granted the state’s petition before he posted bond and was released, his departure occurred the day after the respondent judge took the matter under advisement. Davis can hardly claim that he had no idea he could be imprisoned again.
We find no basis for applying the doctrine of equitable estoppel against the state where it appears that the state was acting in good faith and in the face of a strong public policy to protect the public and victims from a dangerous defendant.
THE EVIDENCE
Davis contends that the previously imposed release conditions were adequate to protect the public and the victim and that the state failed to demonstrate with competent evidence that no conditions of his release could protect the public. We disagree.
Davis first argues that the respondent judge abused his discretion in considering an 11-year-old police report regarding the 1979 incident. We agree with the state that Davis’s reliance upon Rule 609 of the Federal Rules of Evidence is misplaced. That rule simply provides that a conviction for a crime older than 10 years cannot be used in a judicial proceeding for purposes of impeachment. The sole purpose of the proceeding below was to determine whether Davis was bailable, and the information was used to that end, not as a means of impeaching Davis. Although § 13-3961 is silent on this issue, we believe that the hearing was a “release determination” and, accordingly, the evidence presented need not be admissible under the rules of evidence. Ariz.R.Crim.P. 7.4(d), 17 A.R.S. The evidence presented by the state was competent and sufficiently reliable.
Based upon our review of the evidence presented to the respondent judge, it appears that Davis has engaged in a series of violent acts against two women who have ended or been in the process of ending their relationship with him. The victim of the instant offenses was allegedly attacked by him at least twice, although the record reveals prior acts of violence against her. Davis appears to be a volatile, vengeful and extremely dangerous individual. Additionally, the proof is evident and the presumption great that he committed the crimes. We conclude therefore that the state demonstrated by clear and convincing evidence that Davis was not bailable under § 13-3961(B).
Finally, we reject Davis’s broad-based attack upon the proceedings below as being in violation of his due process rights. He complains that the respondent judge ruled on the state’s petition before he was permitted to respond as he was told he would be permitted to do. We find that the trial court afforded Davis more than adequate opportunity to be heard and to present evidence on his behalf. His counsel argued at the September 11, 1989 hearing and the matter was considered again at which time Davis was given the opportunity to present his position in writing and to argue it before the judge. Any error in the trial judge’s expedient ruling on the state’s petition was harmless.
Davis’s request for special action relief is denied.
ROLL, P.J., and HOWARD, J., concur.
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OPINION
FERNANDEZ, Chief Judge.
The only issue presented in this review of an industrial commission award is the administrative law judge’s (AU) refusal to issue subpoenas to permit the claimant to cross-examine all the doctors who signed a group medical report unless the claimant paid both the transcript and medical appearance expenses. We find that condition effectively denied the claimant her right of cross-examination and set the award aside.
The claimant was an assembly line worker who was injured in January 1987 when a heavy box fell on her left foot. Her claim for workers’ compensation benefits was accepted by respondents, who terminated her benefits March 21, 1988 because of the group medical report conclusion that she was stationary as of that date. The claimant protested the determination. At respondents’ request, the group report was placed in the file prior to the hearing. Claimant’s counsel timely requested that subpoenas issue for cross-examination of the authors of the report. Respondents requested subpoenas to have two of the four authors testify, and the AU ruled that only one of the doctors would be subpoenaed. At the close of the hearing, claimant’s counsel again requested that the other three members of the group be subpoenaed. The AU stated that he would not subpoena those physicians unless the claimant paid both the transcript costs and the medical appearance fees. The AU affirmed his ruling after counsel informed him that the claimant could not afford the expense involved. In his award, the AU determined that the claimant was stationary as of September 30, 1988.
On review, the claimant contends the AU abused his discretion in denying her request to subpoena all group participants unless she paid all costs associated with the appearance of those witnesses.
The Industrial Commission has wide discretion to regulate and control the witnesses who appear before it. Travelers Insurance Co. v. Industrial Commission, 18 Ariz.App. 28, 499 P.2d 759 (1972). Our courts have consistently held that claimants have a right to cross-examine group medical witnesses. Obersteiner v. Industrial Commission, 161 Ariz. 547, 779 P.2d 1286 (App.1989); Tyree v. Industrial Commission, 159 Ariz. 92, 764 P.2d 1151 (App. 1988); Scheytt v. Industrial Commission, 134 Ariz. 25, 653 P.2d 375 (App.1982); see also Jones v. Industrial Commission, 1 Ariz.App. 218, 401 P.2d 172 (1965).
In this case, the AU recognized that the claimant had a right to cross-examination, yet imposed on that right a condition that claimant pay the medical witnesses’ fees and transcript costs. Because the claimant is not working and cannot afford those expenses, the ruling in effect denied her the right to cross-examine the witnesses.
Respondents argue that the error, if any, was harmless, contending that the AU must have rejected the report because the award found that the claimant became stationary six months after the stationary date in the report. We disagree. The cases cited by respondents in support of their claim of harmless error did not deal with the abrogation of a fundamental right as was the case here. Young v. Hodgman & Mac Vicar, 42 Ariz. 370, 26 P.2d 355 (1933) (referee questioned witnesses before claimants did but claimants fully developed case); Aetna Casualty & Surety Co. v. Industrial Commission, 17 Ariz.App. 137, 495 P.2d 1344 (1972) (insurance company given notice of hearing only minutes before but continued hearing granted).
Respondents also argue that the denial of cross-examination was harmless error because the award does not mention the report. Although that is true, the award does state: “The undersigned, having fully considered the file, record and all matters hereunto appertaining____” Moreover, the fact that the award does not refer to the group medical report was the rationale offered to support the AU’s ruling in Tyree, supra, and was rejected by the court. It is clear that the right to cross-examine attaches when the Industrial Commission receives any testamentary or documentary evidence. Obersteiner, supra; Tyree, supra.
Respondents also contend that the AU’s ruling was permissible because the Industrial Commission is granted broad discretion to control witnesses. We agree that it is. Our courts, however, have repeatedly held that such discretion may not be exercised in a manner inconsistent with fundamental principles inherent in due process of law. Obersteiner, supra; Tyree, supra; Cash v. Industrial Commission, 27 Ariz. App. 526, 556 P.2d 827 (1976).
Finally, respondents contend that the right to cross-examine an opposing party’s witnesses is contingent upon the claimant first demonstrating an ability to carry her burden of proof. We find no merit to this contention.
Award set aside.
LIVERMORE, P.J., and LACAGNINA, J., concur.
|
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OPINION
CORCORAN, Justice.
We granted review to examine the applicable standard of conduct in a third-party bad faith claim against an insurer for failure to accept a reasonable settlement offer within policy limits. We have jurisdiction pursuant to Ariz. Const, art. 6, § 5(3), and A.R.S. § 12-120.24.
Facts
On August 30, 1980, Alfred B. Clear-water was killed in a traffic accident when his motorcycle collided with a car driven by Edward Francis. Francis was insured by petitioner State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Company, and carried liability coverage of $50,000.00. Annette and Alfred Clearwater, decedent’s parents, filed a wrongful death action against Francis. Pursuant to terms of the liability insurance policy, State Farm defended the claim. During the course of the litigation, State Farm refused three offers of settlement within the policy limits. Mr. Francis was not notified of these offers due to State Farm’s internal policy not to inform insureds of settlement offers less than the policy limit. The jury returned a verdict in favor of the Clearwaters for $125,000.00 and judgment was entered against Francis in that amount. State Farm paid the policy limit of $50,000.00 and Mr. Francis assigned any bad faith claims against State Farm to the Clearwaters in return for their covenant not to execute the judgment against him personally.
The Clearwaters filed this third-party bad faith action against State Farm on May 3, 1984. On July 11, 1986, the jury returned a verdict in their favor for $75,-000.00, the amount by which the wrongful death judgment exceeded policy limits. The trial court entered judgment for that amount plus attorneys’ fees of $25,237.75. State Farm timely appealed, alleging that the trial court’s refusal to give one of its requested jury instructions constituted reversible error. State Farm requested a “fairly debatable” instruction stating:
An insurance company may challenge claims which are fairly debatable and is not guilty of bad faith in so doing.
The trial court refused that instruction and instructed the jury on the tort of third-party bad faith with an “equal consideration” instruction, as follows:
In determining whether the State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Company breached its duty of good faith and fair dealing, you must consider the comparative hazards to which it exposed itself and its policyholder, Edward Francis, in rejecting offers of settlement. In doing so, you must consider:
1. The amount of financial risk to which each party is exposed in the event of a refusal to settle;
2. The strength of the injured claimants’ case on the issues of liability and damages;
3. The failure of the insurance company to inform the insured of offers of settlement; and
4. The failure of the insurance company to properly investigate the circumstances so as to ascertain the evidence against the insured.
In every insurance policy there is a duty imposed by law of good faith and fair dealing. This obligation requires an insurance company, such as the defendant, State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Company, to deal in good faith and fairly with its insured in handling a claim against its insured.
This duty of good faith and fair dealing requires the insurance company to give equal consideration to the interests of its insured as it gives its own interests.
The court of appeals found State Farm’s argument persuasive and reversed the judgment. The court held, inter alia, that the “fairly debatable” instruction applies to third-party bad faith claims, such as the present case, and if requested, is necessary to explain the second element of the “equal consideration” analysis. Clearwater v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 161 Ariz. 590, 780 P.2d 423 (App.1989). The Clear-waters sought review. We vacate that portion of the court of appeals opinion and affirm the judgment of the trial court.
Discussion
This court initially recognized a claim for bad faith refusal to settle in Farmers Ins. Exch. v. Henderson, 82 Ariz. 335, 338, 313 P.2d 404, 405-06 (1957). More recently, we allowed a first-party action in Noble v. National Am. Life Ins. Co., 128 Ariz. 188, 189, 624 P.2d 866, 867 (1981). The tort arises from a breach of the duty of good faith and fair dealing implicit in all contracts. Rawlings v. Apodaca, 151 Ariz. 149, 154, 726 P.2d 565, 570 (1986).
Bad faith actions against insurers are generally classified as either first- or third-party claims. These classifications are based on the type of insurance coverage provided by the policy in question. First-party coverage arises when the insurer contracts to pay benefits directly to the insured. Examples of first-party coverage include health and accident, life, disability, homeowner’s, fire, title, and property damage insurance. In contrast, third-party coverage arises when the insurer contracts to indemnify the insured against liability to third parties. See generally W. Shernoff, S. Gage, & H. Levine, Insurance Bad Faith Litigation § 3.01 (1989). The type of claim is not determined by the identity of the party bringing the bad faith action against the insurer. For example, a third-party action might be brought by the insured in the event that he is subjected to excess liability by reason of the insurer’s bad faith refusal to settle. In that event, the standards applicable to third-party claims would govern the action, although it was brought by the insured, rather than a third-party assignee.
This action was brought by the assignees of the insured’s third-party claim against his insurer. In third-party cases, we have held that the duty of good faith and fair dealing requires that an insurer give “equal consideration” to the interests of its insured in deciding whether to accept an offer of settlement. Henderson, 82 Ariz. at 338-39, 313 P.2d at 406. This court set out factors to be considered by the trier of fact in a third-party bad faith claim:
(1) the strength of the injured claimant’s case on the issues of liability and damages;
(2) attempts by the insurer to induce the insured to contribute to a settlement;
(3) failure of the insurer to properly investigate the circumstances so as to ascertain the evidence against the insured;
(4) the insurer’s rejection of advice of its own attorney or agent;
(5) failure of the insurer to inform the insured of a compromise offer;
(6) the amount of financial risk to which each party is exposed in the event of a refusal to settle;
(7) the fault of the insured in inducing the insurer's rejection of the compromise offer by misleading it as to the facts; and
(8) any other factors tending to establish or negate bad faith on the part of the insurer.
General Accident Fire & Life Assur. Corp. v. Little, 103 Ariz. 435, 439, 443 P.2d 690, 694 (1968), quoting Brown v. Guarantee Ins. Co., 155 Cal.App.2d 679, 689, 319 P.2d 69, 75 (1957). In our case, the trial court’s instruction on the law of third-party bad faith claims was based on the factors enumerated in Little.
State Farm’s requested “fairly debatable” instruction is based on case law involving first-party coverage, in which insureds brought actions against their own insurers alleging bad faith refusal to pay valid claims. Discussing the standard of care in first-party cases, we stated that “an insurance company may still challenge [first-party] claims which are fairly debatable. The tort of bad faith arises when the insurance company intentionally denies, fails to process or pay a claim without a reasonable basis for such action.” Noble, 128 Ariz. at 190, 624 P.2d at 868.
Both first- and third-party bad faith claims derive from the same duty — the duty of good faith and fair dealing. See Noble, 128 Ariz. at 189-90, 624 P.2d at 867-68; Trus Joist Corp. v. Safeco Ins. Co., 153 Ariz. 95, 103, 735 P.2d 125, 133 (App.1987). However, the two actions involve different factual circumstances and distinct considerations for the insurer. Because of the distinctions between first- and third-party bad faith claims, the applicable standards of conduct differ. We pause to examine the nature of each type of claim. Ordinarily, the first-party claim involves a coverage dispute between insurer and insured. There, the insurer must not thwart in bad faith the insured’s reasonable expectations under the policy. First-party claims do not involve the insurer in defending a legal action brought by a third party that could result in financial ruin of its insured. The third-party claim includes the added risk of subjecting the insured to liability in excess of the policy limits because of the insurer’s bad faith refusal to settle within those limits. The insurer takes on the additional responsibility of defending the claim, and typically has exclusive authority to accept or reject offers of settlement. See Note, Bad Faith Refusal to Pay First-Party Insurance Claims: A Growing Recognition of Extra-Contract Damages, 64 N.C.L.Rev. 1421, 1429-30 n. 2 (1986). The differences between first- and third-party coverage are so great that some jurisdictions refuse to recognize the first-party action, but allow the third-party claim. See, e.g., Spencer v. Aetna Life & Cas. Ins. Co., 227 Kan. 914, 922-26, 611 P.2d 149, 155-58 (1980); Lawton v. Great Southwest Fire Ins. Co., 118 N.H. 607, 613, 392 A.2d 576, 580-81 (1978). The Supreme Court of New Hampshire noted:
“The dilemma presented by the absolute control of trial and settlement vested in the insurer by the insurance contract and the conflicting interests of the insurer and insured” in the third-party claim requires that the insurer recognize the conflict and give due regard to the interests of the insured. Dumas v. State Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., [111 N.H. 43, 46, 274 A.2d 781, 783 (1971)]. This dilemma is lacking in the first-party claim. The insurer is not in a position to expose the insured to a judgment in excess of the policy limits through its unreasonable refusal to settle a case, nor is it in a position to otherwise injure the insured by virtue of its exclusive control over the defense of the case.
Lawton, 118 N.H. at 614, 392 A.2d at 581. Although we disagree with these courts, in that we allow a tort action for bad faith in the context of first-party coverage, we recognize the distinct interests involved in the two types of actions.
The duty to accept reasonable settlements in third-party situations and the duty not to withhold payment of first-party claims “are merely two different aspects of the same duty.” Gruenberg v. Aetna Ins. Co., 9 Cal.3d 566, 573, 510 P.2d 1032, 1037, 108 Cal.Rptr. 480, 485 (1973). However, because the risk to the insured and the responsibilities of the insurer are distinguishable in first- and third-party claims, the applicable standard of conduct is necessarily different. In a first-party situation the insurer breaches the implied duty of good faith and fair dealing if it (1) acts unreasonably towards its insured, and (2) acts knowingly or with reckless disregard as to the reasonableness of its actions. We have stated that this standard permits an insurer to challenge a claim that is “fairly debatable,” but have upheld jury instructions failing to include that particular term. Sparks v. Republic Nat’l Life Ins. Co., 132 Ariz. 529, 538, 647 P.2d 1127, 1136 (1982). The insurer breaches its duty when it fails to process or denies a claim without a reasonable basis for doing so. The requested instruction expresses the standard of reasonableness required of insurers in first-party cases. Rawlings, 151 Ariz. at 156, 726 P.2d at 572.
In third-party cases, determining whether the insurer has acted in bad faith by refusing to settle a claim brought by a third party requires “equal consideration of the comparative hazards____” Little, 103 Ariz. at 443, 443 P.2d at 698. This standard of reasonableness requires that the insurer consider various factors, one of which is the relative strength of the claim by the third party against the insured. Although the debatability of the claim may be in issue as to liability and damages, the debatability of the claim is not determinative; the insurer must also weigh other considerations, such as the financial risk to the insured in the event of a judgment in excess of the policy limits: “In determining whether an insurer has given consideration to the interests of the insured, the test is whether a prudent insurer without policy limits would have accepted the settlement offer.” Crisci v. Security Ins. Co., 66 Cal.2d 425, 429, 426 P.2d 173, 176, 58 Cal. Rptr. 13, 16 (1967)..
Thus, an insurer owes its insured the same duty of good faith and fair dealing in both first- and third-party actions. See Trus Joist. The standard for determining whether the insurer has breached its duty, however, is different in the two types of cases because of the different relationships and duties that exist between the parties. In third-party actions, the insurer exclusively controls settlement and the insured bears a disproportionate share of the risk if the insurer fails to accept a reasonable settlement offer within policy limits. The insured faces personal liability for an award exceeding policy limits, while the insurer’s potential liability remains constant at policy limits. Therefore, although the “fairly debatable” standard sufficiently protects both parties’ interests in first-party actions, it inadequately protects the insured’s interests in third-party actions.
As previously stated, in third-party bad faith actions, the trier of fact must decide whether the insurer considered the insured’s interests equally with its own interests. The trier of fact measures the extent of the insurer’s consideration of many factors, including the strength of the third party’s claim. Although the specific instruction State Farm requested is proper for a first-party action, for third-party equal consideration analysis the instruction gives undue weight to a single factor. The trial court properly instructed the jury as to the duty and standard of conduct in third-party bad faith claims for failure to accept reasonable settlement offers. We find no error in the trial court’s refusal to give State Farm’s requested “fairly debatable” instruction in this third-party action.
Conclusion
We hold that in a third-party bad faith claim based on an insurer’s refusal to accept a settlement offer within the policy limits, a “fairly debatable” instruction is improper. Such an instruction defines the standard of conduct applicable to first-party claims. The opinion of the court of appeals is vacated in part. We did not grant review of that court’s holding that a bad faith claim for punitive damages may properly be assigned. The judgment of the trial court is affirmed.
GORDON, C.J., FELDMAN, Y.C.J., and CAMERON and MOELLER, JJ., concur.
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OPINION
LIVERMORE, Presiding Judge.
The state appeals from the trial court’s granting of appellee’s motion to suppress 105 pounds of marijuana. For the reasons stated below, we affirm.
Appellee Rafael Vasquez Maldonado was charged by indictment with knowingly transporting marijuana having a weight of eight pounds or more, a class 2 felony. He moved to suppress the marijuana seized on the ground that the stopping of his vehicle was unlawful under Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968) and its progeny. The trial court granted the motion and, following dismissal of the charge, the state has appealed the suppression order.
The two border patrol agents who made the stop and the arrest on July 9, 1989, testified at the evidentiary hearing. According to agent James Splittstoesser, he and driver Barry Billeadeau were parked in a marked border patrol vehicle in the median of Interstate 10, 50 to 60 miles from the Mexican border, where they observed westbound traffic for approximately four hours. Splittstoesser noticed a 1977 Buick which he considered a “profile type of vehicle,” often used to transport undocumented aliens, as it was an older model with wide passenger and trunk space. He further noted the vehicle was clean, also part of the profile, although he admitted that a dusty car can also fit the profile. He observed Maldonado and his passenger as they drove past, noting that they were of Hispanic descent and that Maldonado was wearing a hat and western-style clothing, “common dress for a lot of the aliens we apprehend____” Additionally, he observed that the driver and passenger did not appear to be talking to each other and that they avoided eye contact with the border patrolmen. He admitted that as the vehicle passed, he only had a few seconds to observe the individuals inside. Splittstoesser testified that, simultaneously, he and Bil-leadeau looked at one another after the Buick passed and “realized that this vehicle was a good prospect, a good bet.”
The agents pulled their vehicle alongside Maldonado’s, and, according to Splittstoes-ser, he “appeared to be holding the steering wheel very tightly looking straight down the road, just very tight, rigid. And they did not appear to be talking to each other.” He stated that Maldonado’s arm was stretched straight out and that he considered the position to be unnatural, although he admitted that could just be Maldonado’s way of driving. He added that Maldonado was not exceeding and may even have been driving under the speed limit. Additionally, the car did not appear to be overloaded or riding low. The car had an Arizona license plate, but the patrolmen did not check the registration because their computers were down. Falling behind Maldonado’s car, Billeadeau turned on the lights, pulling him over. The patrolmen had stopped three or four other cars that day from their position on I — 10, claiming these vehicles also fit their profile of vehicles carrying illegal aliens, although the stops did not result in their finding any illegal aliens or contraband.
Agent Billeadeau corroborated Splitts-toesser’s testimony, emphasizing that an older model was important to him as part of the profile vehicle. He, too, stated that Maldonado and his passenger appeared nervous, noting that they refused to make eye contact with the agents. He admitted that he did stop persons who made eye contact as well.
The trial court granted the motion to suppress, noting that the facts did not “rise to the level of articulable founded suspicion such that a stop in this case was warranted” and rejecting the state’s argument that the agents had acted in “good faith” pursuant to A.R.S. § 13-3925, as they had not, in fact, made a mistake as to any of the facts. Thereafter, the state dismissed the charge without prejudice. On appeal, the state argues that the stop was lawful and that they had acted in good faith, believing that their conduct was proper, and that the evidence was seized as a result of a good faith mistake or technical violation under A.R.S. § 13-3925.
We will not disturb the trial court’s ruling on a motion to suppress evidence absent clear and manifest error. State v. Smith, 136 Ariz. 273, 665 P.2d 995 (1983). In reviewing the trial court’s decision, we view the facts and evidence presented at the evidentiary hearing in the light most favorable to sustaining the trial court. State v. Warren, 124 Ariz. 279, 603 P.2d 550 (App.1979).
First, we cannot say that the trial court’s conclusion that the agents did not have reasonable, articulable suspicion was clear and manifest error. In State v. Graciano, 134 Ariz. 35, 37, 653 P.2d 683, 685 (1982), our supreme court held that while the facts sufficient to justify an investigatory stop will vary from case to case, the stop must be based upon “particularized” or “founded” suspicion by the officer, and that the officer must state an “articulable reason” for the stop. The court relied on the test set forth in United States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411, 101 S.Ct. 690, 66 L.Ed.2d 621 (1981). The first part of the test requires that all of the circumstances be taken into consideration, such as the officer’s subjective observations which may be based upon his or her training and experience as well as objective factors such as certain operational patterns relating to the specific crime, suspicious conduct, and information from informers. “An assessment of all the circumstances, however, does not include a weighing of the officer’s ‘unparticularized suspicions’ or hunches about a suspect or situation.” Graciano, 134 Ariz. at 37, 653 P.2d at 685, quoting Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. at 27, 88 S.Ct. at 1883. As for the second part of the test, the Court required that “the above assessment raise a justifiable suspicion that the particular individual to be detained is involved in criminal activity.” Id. See also United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 109 S.Ct. 1581, 104 L.Ed.2d 1 (1989).
“[Ojfficers on roving patrol may stop vehicles only if they are aware of specific articulable facts, together with rational inferences from those facts, that reasonably warrant suspicion that the vehicles contain aliens who may be illegally in the country.” United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873, 884, 95 S.Ct. 2574, 2582, 45 L.Ed.2d 607, 618 (1975). A hunch is not enough. United States v. TorresUrena, 513 F.2d 540 (9th Cir.1975). Indeed, a stop based on the officer’s hunch and little more than the person’s race or ethnic background is illegal and unconstitutional. See Davis v. Mississippi, 394 U.S. 721, 89 S.Ct. 1394, 22 L.Ed.2d 676 (1969). The fact that the occupant of a vehicle never looked at the marked patrol car was not given any weight in United States v. Escamilla, 560 F.2d 1229 (5th Cir.1977). Additionally, in Graciano, our supreme court found that the fact that the driver of the vehicle was dark skinned and driving in the direction of the Mexico border in a vehicle desired by thieves with a license plate from a northern part of the state was not sufficient to raise a justifiable suspicion for the investigatory stop. And in United States v. Mallides, 473 F.2d 859 (9th Cir.1973), the Ninth Circuit held that where officers stopped a car based on the fact that six males appearing to be of Mexican descent were riding in a Chrysler Imperial at dusk, sitting erectly and not looking at the passing patrol car, the stop was unlawful. More recently, in United States v. Hemandez-Alvarado, 891 F.2d 1414 (9th Cir.1989), the same court found insuffi cient evidence to support a stop where 1) the car was an Oldsmobile with large trunk capacity, driven eight kilometers from the Mexican border in Nogales, 2) the driver, of Mexican descent, looked at the agent who pulled alongside him and quickly looked away, 3) all of the occupants of the vehicle were sitting rigidly with “tunnel vision” and did not appear to be speaking to one another, 4) the vehicle was purchased from Best Deal Auto, known for narcotics activity, 5) there was an antenna protruding from the trunk, and 6) the registered owner of the vehicle lived in an area of Nogales known for drug trafficking.
The evidence presented at the suppression hearing reveals that the agents had little, if any, more than was presented in Mallides or Graciano and less than was presented in Hemandez-Alvarado. There was no particularized information about Maldonado or his passenger that warranted the stop. As in Hemandez-Alvarado, although the factors observed by the officers “may allow certain inferences to be drawn, they describe too many individuals to create a reasonable suspicion that this particular defendant is engaged in criminal activity” or was an illegal alien. 891 F.2d at 1418-19. We cannot say that the trial court’s conclusion that the agents did not have sufficient grounds to justify the investigatory stop was clear error.
We also reject the state’s argument that A.R.S. § 13-3925 requires reversal of the trial court’s decision. The trial court found that the agents had stopped at least three or four other vehicles that day and, therefore, they were using the same, insufficient criteria, except that Maldonado appeared a little more rigid. The trial court concluded that the stops were made based upon hunches, “a good bet,” which is not reasonable suspicion and does not rise to the level of good faith contemplated by § 13-3925(A). . Under subparagraph B of the statute, good faith mistake may also mean “a reasonable judgmental error concerning the existence of facts which if true would be sufficient to constitute probable cause.” A.R.S. § 13-3925(C)(1). The trial court concluded that the agents saw what they saw and there were no factual mistakes which resulted in their erroneous though purportedly “good faith” judgment.
While the trial court reached the right result, it was for the wrong reason. We believe that A.R.S. § 13-3925 was intended to apply specifically to unlawful searches or seizures where the officers have acted in good faith. This issue is never reached in this case. Here, the inquiry ends with the resolution of the question whether the investigatory stop was lawful under Terry v. Ohio, supra, and its progeny. Having found that the trial court correctly concluded that it was not, we find that this provision is inapplicable.
Affirmed.
FERNANDEZ, C.J., and LACAGNINA, J., concur.
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HOLOHAN, Chief Justice.
We granted the petition for review of the Court of Appeals’ decision in this case. Elco Veterinary Supply v. Industrial Commission, 137 Ariz. 46, 668 P.2d 889 (App.1983).
The opinion of the Court of Appeals is approved and adopted as the opinion of this court.
GORDON, V.C.J., and HAYS, CAMERON and FELDMAN, JJ., concur.
|
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OPINION
HAIRE, Presiding Judge.
In this consolidated appeal and petition for review of the trial court’s denial of relief sought in a petition for post-conviction relief, petitioner-appellant (hereinafter appellant) asserts:
1. that his pleas of guilty were not knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently entered because of his mistaken belief that probation was a viable sentencing alternative; and
2. that the trial court erred in failing to grant appellant an evidentiary hearing concerning his belief that probation was a viable sentencing alternative.
The record in this case reveals that appellant’s pleas of guilty were knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently entered, and that appellant presented no colorable claim for relief which would entitle him to an eviden-tiary hearing pursuant to Rule 32.8, Rules of Criminal Procedure, 17 A.R.S. We therefore affirm the judgments and sentences and deny relief.
Appellant was charged by indictment in August 1980 with two counts of unlawful sale of a narcotic drug, a class two felony, and four counts of unlawful sale of marijuana, a class two felony. In November 1981, appellant entered a plea of guilty to one count of attempted sale of a narcotic drug, a class three felony, and one count of attempted sale of marijuana, a class three felony. The plea agreement stipulated that appellant “will be sentenced to the presumptive term of 5 years in the Arizona State Prison and will be sentenced to concurrent terms.” In exchange for appellant’s plea of guilty to the two charges, the state agreed to dismiss the remaining counts of the indictment.
At the hearing on appellant’s change of plea, appellant admitted the elements of the offenses to which he pled guilty and indicated that there had been no promises, threats or force which resulted in his plea of guilty. The following colloquy between the appellant and the court then occurred:
“Q. Have there been any promises of what type of sentence or any promise that you will get probation, other than what's stated on this plea agreement?
“A. No.
“Q. The range of penalties that this crime carries is a presumptive sentence of five years, a minimum sentence of 3.75 years, a maximum sentence of ten years. Probation is available.
The maximum fine that can be imposed is $150,000 plus a 27% surcharge.
You understand that as a term and condition of probation you could get up to one year in the Maricopa County Jail.
However the plea agreement does provide for a presumptive term of five years in the Arizona State Prison, concurrent terms.
You understand that that’s the range and that’s what you’re going to get?
“A. Yes, your Honor.”
(Emphasis added.)
In January 1982, the trial court accepted the plea agreement, entered judgments of guilt, and sentenced appellant to serve concurrent terms of five years on each of the two counts. The court also dismissed the remaining counts. Two weeks later, appellant filed a notice of appeal, r
During a hearing on appellant’s motion for release pending appeal, the following exchange occurred between the trial court, appellant, and defense counsel:
“THE COURT: You may proceed.
“THE DEFENDANT: Thank you, your Honor. First, I’d like to say that when I was in for sentencing I clammed up when — when you asked me if there was anything I had to say. My mind just went blank. There are a few things that I’d like to say in my behalf.
That in the two years since these charges occurred, that I, on my own, straightened my life up, got a job, went back to work, raised my two kids, and was doing very well. And I’m just asking for mercy on my own behalf, because I’ve tried so hard to straighten myself up.
“THE COURT: I appreciate that.
“MR. SMITH: [Defense Counsel] Your Honor, Mr. Lemieux has advised me that — in the hallway today — that he showed me a copy of the plea agreement that he did sign, and that I said that — he informed me he really didn’t fully understand the agreement, even though it calls for a stipulated five year sentence.
He apparently was somewhat confused by the language in the plea agreement, which said probation is available. When in fact it was a stipulated five years— five year sentence.
And that he entered into that plea agreement believing that the court could impose or could place him on probation, if it so chose.
Is that correct?
“THE DEFENDANT: That’s correct.”
Appellant contends that the quoted exchange indicates that he did not understand the plea agreement because he believed that probation was a viable sentencing alternative at the time he entered his plea. In April 1982, appellant filed a petition for post-conviction relief pursuant to Rule 32.1, Rules of Criminal Procedure, 17 A.R.S., seeking to withdraw his guilty plea on the same basis. He also requested that the trial court grant an evidentiary hearing pursuant to Rule 32.8. Counsel was appointed to represent appellant, and in May 1982, the trial court summarily denied the petition for post-conviction relief. Appellant then filed a motion for rehearing arguing that he had presented a colorable claim and was entitled to an evidentiary hearing. Following the state’s reply, the court denied the motion for rehearing, and appellant timely filed a petition for review.
By order of this court, the appeal in this matter was stayed pending the trial court’s disposition of the petition for post-conviction relief. The appeal was then reinstated and consolidated with the petition for review for disposition.
THE PLEA
Appellant first contends that his guilty plea was not knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently entered due to his mistaken belief that probation was a viable sentencing alternative. He contends that there are several objective bases in the record to support his position.
According to appellant, the first of these bases is the written plea agreement itself which, in the first paragraph, states, “Pro bation is available.” Paragraph 8 of the plea agreement also provides:
“The parties hereto fully and completely understand and agree that it is the court’s duty to impose sentence upon the defendant and that any sentence either stipulated to or recommended herein in paragraph two is not binding upon the court, and that the court need not accept either the stipulation or recommendation but is bound only by the limits set forth in paragraph one and the applicable statutes.”
Appellant argues that read together, these provisions left him with the impression that the stipulated five year sentence term was merely a recommendation and that the court could still impose probation. He also contends that the trial court’s statements to him at the time he entered his plea led him to believe that probation was a viable sentencing alternative. Finally, he contends that his remarks to the trial court at the hearing on his motion for release pending appeal indicate that he believed probation was available.
He concludes, therefore, that his plea is invalid because it was entered under a misapprehension of the sentencing alternatives. See State v. Geiger, 113 Ariz. 297, 552 P.2d 1191 (1976); State v. Hill, 118 Ariz. 157, 575 P.2d 356 (App.1978); State v. Davis, 115 Ariz. 153, 564 P.2d 104 (App.1977). Appellant requests this court to remand this matter to the trial court with directions to allow him to withdraw his guilty plea. The record in this matter clearly belies appellant’s contention that he was under a misapprehension that probation was a viable sentencing alternative.
First, paragraph 2 of the plea agreement specifically provided that the parties stipulate that appellant will be sentenced to the presumptive term of five years on each of the two counts in the Arizona State Prison and that the terms will run concurrently. Appellant not only indicated verbally to the trial court that he had read and understood the terms of his plea agreement, but he also initialed the box next to paragraph 2 thus indicating that he read and approved the paragraph. Further, the trial court clearly advised appellant that he would be sentenced to the presumptive term of five years in the Arizona State Prison, the sentences to run concurrently. Appellant indicated that he understood that he would receive the stipulated term.
Therefore, when the entire record is considered, there is no reasonable support for appellant’s contention that he believed that probation was a viable sentencing alternative. However, even if he honestly believed that he could receive probation when he entered his plea, that belief is an insufficient ground to render his plea involuntary. State v. Pritchett, 27 Ariz.App. 701, 558 P.2d 729 (1976). Faced with an identical claim, this court stated in Pritchett that “[a] defendant’s mistaken subjective impressions gained from discussions with his lawyer, absent substantial objective evidence showing such impressions to be reasonably justified, do not constitute sufficient grounds upon which to set aside his guilty plea.” 27 Ariz.App. at 703, 558 P.2d at 731. Without substantial objective evidence reasonably justifying appellant’s impression that probation was a viable sentencing alternative, we find that he has failed to establish that his plea was not voluntarily, knowingly and intelligently entered.
Although under the circumstances of this case, appellant’s misapprehension was not reasonable, we find that the language used in paragraph 8 of the standardized form plea agreement could be objectively misleading. Especially when considered out of context, paragraph 8 suggests that notwithstanding a stipulated sentence, the trial judge could impose any sentence falling within the statutorily mandated range, including probation.
Paragraph 7 indicates that if the court regards the stipulated sentence as inappropriate it can reject the plea, giving the state and defendant an opportunity to withdraw from the plea agreement. See Rule 17.4(e), Rules of Criminal Procedure, 17 A.R.S. Nevertheless, the plea agreement form does not clearly relate the withdrawal procedure noted m paragraph 7 to the sentencing discretion given the trial court noted in paragraph 8. Neither paragraph refers to the other. Paragraph 8, by itself, suggests that the trial court has absolute discretion to deviate from a stipulated sentence. To the contrary, that discretion is limited since the trial court must allow each party to withdraw from the plea agreement if the court finds the stipulated sentence inappropriate. We believe this limitation should appear as part of paragraph 8 to clearly delineate the extent of discretion in sentencing that the trial judge actually has. Although the comments of the trial judge at the change of plea hearing in this case clearly informed the appellant of the sentence to be imposed, we cannot presume adequate explanations will occur at all such proceedings.
EVIDENTIARY HEARING
Appellant next contends that the trial court erred in failing to conduct an evidentiary hearing pursuant to Rule 32.8, Rules of Criminal Procedure, 17 A.R.S. which states that a petitioner “shall be entitled to a hearing to determine issues of material fact.” Rule 32.6(c) provides that the trial court may summarily dispose of a petition for post-conviction relief if, upon reviewing the pleadings, “it determines that no material issue of fact or law exists which would entitle the petitioner to relief under this rule and that no purpose would be served by any further proceedings.” The comment to this rule notes that the trial court may dismiss a petition for post-conviction relief when “it finds from the pleadings and record that all of the petitioner’s claims are frivolous and that it would not be beneficial to continue the proceedings.” The comment also states that the trial court is required to hold an evidentiary hearing if it “finds any colorable claim.” “To be colorable, a claim has to have the appearance of validity, i.e., if the defendant’s allegations are taken as true, would they change the verdict?” State v. Richmond, 114 Ariz. 186, 194, 560 P.2d 41, 49 (1976), cert. denied, 433 U.S. 915, 97 S.Ct. 2988, 53 L.Ed.2d 1101 (1977). Appellant’s claim that he believed that probation was a viable sentencing alternative, even if taken as true, would not entitle him to relief because the record reveals that such a belief would not be reasonably justified. Accordingly, we find that the trial court did not err in dismissing the petition for post-conviction relief without conducting an evidentiary hearing pursuant to Rule 32.8.
For the foregoing reasons, the judgments and sentences are affirmed; review is granted and relief is denied.
EUBANK and MEYERSON, JJ., concur.
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OPINION
LIVERMORE, Presiding Judge.
On October 4, 1987, 16-year-old Brian Rosenthal sustained a broken collar bone when the bicycle on which he was riding collided with a Pima County Sheriffs Department patrol car driven by Deputy Sanford Rosenthal. The accident occurred as Brian was bicycling westbound in a bike lane on the left side of a road designated one-way eastbound. Deputy Rosenthal was beginning to enter eastbound traffic when he noticed the bicycle coming toward him. He immediately braked and came to a complete stop. Brian, who was travelling at 10-15 miles per hour, noticed that the deputy was not looking toward him, but nevertheless failed to slow down or take other precautionary measures. As the bicycle crossed in front of the patrol car, its left pedal struck the left push bar of the car’s bumper. Apparently unable to remove his feet from the bicycle’s toe clips and regain his balance, Brian fell to the pavement.
Arbitration resulted in an award to plaintiffs of $2,500. The county appealed and the case was tried before a jury which found damages of $1,000 and found Brian to be fifty percent negligent. Upon plaintiff’s motion, the trial court granted an additur of $4,000, resulting in a net award of $2,500. The county raises several issues on appeal. Because we decide in its favor on the first issue, we need not address the others.
At the outset of trial, the judge informed the jury that, as a matter of law, Brian did not violate the law by riding his bicycle the wrong way on a one-way street. By so instructing the jury, the trial court apparently agreed with appellees’ argument that, while those who ride their bicycles in roadways are generally subject to the same traffic laws as drivers of vehicles, Maxwell v. Gossett, 126 Ariz. 98, 612 P.2d 1061 (1980), those who ride in bike paths, because they are not roadways, are not. The argument both defies logic and is contrary to the express statutory language of A.R.S. §§ 28-728 and 28-811.
Section 28-728 provides that a vehicle driven upon a roadway designated and signposted for one-way traffic is to be driven only in the direction designated. Sec tion 28-811(B) provides that the regulations contained in Title 28, Chapter 6, which includes § 28-728, “in their application to bicycles shall apply when a bicycle is operated ... upon any path set aside for the exclusive use of bicycles subject to those exceptions stated in this article.” Read in conjunction, §§ 28-728 and 28-811 clearly provide that it is unlawful to ride a bicycle in a bike path against traffic on a one-way street.
Reversed.
FERNANDEZ, C.J., and LACAGNINA, J., concur.
|
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CAMERON, Justice.
We granted review of a memorandum decision of the Court of Appeals affirming the trial court’s judgment holding that though there was a breach of a covenant of a lease, the breach was not “sufficiently material” to require a forfeiture of the lease. We have jurisdiction pursuant to Art. 6, § 5, Arizona Constitution. We reverse.
We consider the following issues:
1. While a forfeiture is pending in the courts, does acceptance of rent by the lessor from the lessee in possession of the property waive the lessor’s right to claim forfeiture?
2. Did the trial court err in excluding evidence of materiality concerning the effect of the breach?
3. If there has been a breach of a material covenant in a lease, does the materiality of the breach affect the granting of a forfeiture?
The appellants, DVM Company, leased space in Metrocenter Mall to the appellees, John and Kathleen Bricker, d/b/a Basket House. The lease called for a minimum rental and a percentage of the net sales as defined in the lease. The lease set forth the items that could be sold, including “Arizona Souvenirs,” and further provided:
Tenant shall not use or permit the premises to be used for any other purpose or purposes * * * without the written consent of the landlord first had and obtained.
Article 22 further provided:
Should Tenant at any time be in default hereunder * * * and should such default or breach of performance continue for more than a reasonable time (in no event to exceed thirty (30)[) ] days after written notice from Landlord to Tenant specifying the particulars of such default or breach of performance * * * then Landlord may treat the occurrence of any one or more of the foregoing events as a breach of this Lease, and * * * it shall be, at the option of the Landlord * * *:
(a) The right of the Landlord to declare the term hereof ended and to re-enter the premises and take possession thereof and remove all persons therefrom, and Tenant shall have no further claim thereon or thereunder; * * *.
Sometime during the period of the lease, the Brickers began to sell T-shirts with imprints of movie, TV, and cartoon personalities and with imprints of popular sayings. DVM contended that such sales violated the use restrictions of the lease and sent notice to the Brickers to cease such sales. The Brickers refused, contending that the T-shirts were “Arizona Souvenirs” as allowed by the lease. DVM then brought suit in Maricopa County Superior Court, alleging a breach of lease and seeking to terminate the lease. After trial to the court without a jury, the court held that while selling T-shirts with some identification of Arizona, Phoenix, cactus or such things did not violate the use clause, the sale of T-shirts with movie, TV or cartoon personality imprints did violate the lease. However, the court also found:
3. The breach of the lease agreement for the Basket House was not sufficiently material in nature to warrant recovery and possession of the subject premises under the provisions of A.R.S. § 33-361 or the lease agreement.
The trial court awarded DVM attorney’s fees, but refused to terminate the lease. The Court of Appeals affirmed, and we granted DVM’s petition for review of the decision of the Court of Appeals.
ACCEPTANCE OF THE RENTAL PAYMENTS
During the time the matter was disputed and being litigated, the Brickers continued to make the required lease payments. The Brickers claim that by accepting rental payments during the pendency of this court proceeding, DVM waived its right to claim forfeiture. We do not agree. Normally, acceptance of rental payments results in waiver of a claim of breach. Butterfield v. Duquesne Mining Co., 66 Ariz. 29, 32, 182 P.2d 102, 103 (1947). However, “[w]hen a tenant continues in possession pending a determination of an action brought by the landlord to enforce a forfeiture, the tenant is still under an obligation to pay rent and acceptance of these payments does not constitute a waiver of the breach.” Fogel v. Hogan, 496 P.2d 322, 324 (Colo.App.1972). See also Wecht v. Anderson, 84 Nev. 500, 444 P.2d 501, 505 (1968). As long as a tenant is in possession of the property, the landlord should not be forced, pending determination of the matter, to refuse rental payments by a tenant in possession. We hold that under this specific fact situation, accepting rental payments during the pendency of this action does not result in a waiver of a claim to forfeiture.
EVIDENCE OF MATERIALITY
At trial DVM attempted to offer testimony concerning the materiality of the use restriction.
Q [By DVM’s attorney Mr. Murphy] MR. PEDERSON, ARE YOU CONCERNED ABOUT THE SALES BEYOND THE USE CLAUSE ALLOWED BY THE LEASE AS FAR AS OTHER TENANTS ARE CONCERNED?
MR. MAXWELL: OBJECTION, YOUR HONOR, THAT’S BEYOND THE [SCOPE] OF THE PLEADING, NOT RELEVANT.
THE COURT: WHAT WOULD THE RELEVANCE BE, COUNSEL, AS TO THE WITNESSES—
MR. MURPHY: WELL, YOUR HONOR, I INTEND OR WOULD LIKE TO SHOW THAT THE SALES BY THE DEFENDANTS ARE CAUSING A PROBLEM WITH OTHER TENANTS IN THE SHOPPING CENTER AND HOW THE OTHER TENANTS’ SALES HAVE BEEN IN FACT AFFECTED BY THIS ALLEGED BREACH OF THE LEASE BY EXPANDING THE USE CLAUSE.
THE COURT: WELL, THE OBJECTION SUSTAINED AT THIS POINT.
DVM claims that the trial court erred in not admitting evidence that went towards the materiality of the breach. We agree. Evidence of the effect of the breach upon other tenants’ sales is important in showing the extent of the damages DVM would suffer if the breach was allowed to continue. DVM, as landlord, receives a percentage of the net sales from all or most of the tenants. By limiting different stores to specific items of sale, DVM attempts to obtain the maximum return from each lease. The sale of T-shirts is but one example. Assuming there is a market for a certain number of T-shirts in the shopping center on a particular day, if one shop sold T-shirts and another shop sold something else, then the net sales would presumably be higher than if both shops devoted the same amount of time, space and energy to selling T-shirts. Also, in inducing other tenants to lease space in the shopping center, the landlord may promise that they will be the exclusive sellers of certain items. This provision in the lease, then, is important to the landlord, and we believe DVM should have been allowed to show what effect the breach would have, not only on the net sales in the shopping center, but on the business of competing shops. We might be persuaded that evidence of materiality of the effect of the breach was properly excluded were it not for the fact that the trial judge based his ultimate decision, at least in part, on the conclusion that the “breach * * * was not sufficiently material in nature to warrant * * * possession of the * * * premises.”
The Brickers claim, however, that the issue was not the materiality of the use restriction in the lease, but the materiality of the breach. The Brickers’ position would be persuasive only if, as the Brickers contend, the sale of T-shirts of movie stars and comic phrases were in fact “Arizona Souvenirs,” within the terms of the lease. Under this interpretation, anything the Brickers sold in Arizona would be an “Arizona Souvenir.” We do not read the provisions of the lease in this manner. The T-shirts sold were not “Arizona Souvenirs” and their sale constituted a breach of the lease. It was error to exclude the evidence offered by DVM as to the materiality of the effect of the breach.
FORFEITURE OF THE LEASE BASED ON BREACH
There is another reason we believe the trial court erred. The Brickers claim and the trial court held that though the sale of the offending T-shirts was a breach of the use restrictions, the breach was not sufficiently material to warrant termination of the lease. Under our statute, materiality of the breach is not an issue.
A.R.S. § 33-361 provides, “When a tenant * * * violates any provision of the lease, the landlord * * * may re-enter and take possession * * There is no requirement that the breach be material. A.R.S. § 33-1368(A), which applies to residential leases, provides that the landlord may re-enter upon a “material noncompliance” by the tenant of a lease provision. Had the legislature intended to hold commercial lessees and residential lessees to the same standard, it would have expressly so indicated.
While we might ignore a trivial breach, see Bolon v. Pennington, 6 Ariz.App. 308, 309-10, 432 P.2d 274, 275-76 (1967), if “[the lessee] violates any of the covenants of the lease, and it is provided that such a violation shall cause a forfeiture of his lease, the courts will enforce such a forfeiture.” Karam & Sons Mercantile Co. v. Serrano, 51 Ariz. 397, 407, 77 P.2d 447, 451 (1938). DVM notified the Brickers of the breach of the lease, and the tenants refused to cease selling the T-shirts. DVM had a statutory right to terminate the lease upon breach by the Brickers. Thompson v. Harris, 9 Ariz.App. 341, 346, 452 P.2d 122, 127 (1969).
The decisions of the trial court and the Court of Appeals are reversed, and the matter is remanded to the trial court with directions to enter judgment for DVM, including possession of the premises, and for such other relief, consistent with this opinion.
HOLOHAN, C.J., GORDON, V.C.J., and HAYS and FELDMAN, JJ., concur.
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OPINION
HATHAWAY, Judge.
The question raised on this appeal is whether appellees, who undertook improvement of their property by hiring private contractors and sold the property within 24 months of completion, are speculative builders under the City of Tucson Business Privilege Tax Ordinance, §§ 19-39.1(2), (3), (6), and (7), and therefore subject to the city’s two percent business privilege tax under the contracting classification. We hold that they are under the plain language of the ordinance.
On cross-motions for summary judgment submitted on the pleadings, exhibits and memoranda of counsel, the trial court ruled against the city and entered judgment for appellees in the sum of $28,959.58 plus interest, the assessed amount that had been paid under protest.
The appeal is submitted on stipulated facts which disclose that appellees, a limited partnership, purchased a parcel of real property in May of 1978. They contracted with Lawrence Hickey and Sons, Inc. to build a shopping center and with Magnum Construction Company to build a Winchell’s Donut House on the property. The shopping center was completed and an occupancy permit was issued by the city in June of 1979. The shopping center was sold approximately one year later. The city assessed appellees on the gross proceeds of the sale, less specified deductions.
Appellees paid the assessments under protest, contending they were not owner-builders within Tucson Code § 19-39.1(3), nor speculative builders under Tucson Code § 19-39.1(6), nor prime contractors. They also challenged the assessment as an imposition of a double tax on prime contracting. The ordinance has been amended since we dealt with it in Lincoln Property Company v. City of Tucson, 131 Ariz. 473, 641 P.2d 1317 (1982). Excerpts from the applicable sections of the Tucson Code will be repeated in our discussion which follows, but to facilitate an overview of the situation, we here set forth pertinent portions of the Tucson Code:
“Sec. 19-39.1(1). Contracting. ‘Contracting’ means engaging in business as a contractor.
Sec. 19-39.1(2). Contractor. ‘Contractor’ is synonymous with the term ‘builder’ and means a person, firm, partnership, corporation, association or other organization, or a combination of any of them, who undertakes to, or submits a bid to, or does himself or by or through others, construct, alter, repair, add to, subtract from, improve, move, wreck or demolish any building, highway, road, railroad, excavation or other structure, project, development or improvement, or to do any part thereof, including the erection of scaffolding or other structure or works in connection therewith, and includes subcontractors, specialty contractors and developers. For all purposes of taxation or deductions, this definition shall govern without regard to whether or not the contractor is acting in fulfillment of a contract.
Sec. 19-39.1(3). Owner-builder. ‘Owner-builder’ means a person who owns or leases real property within the city, and who acts as a contractor, either himself or through others, in constructing any improvement upon the real property, which real property as improved is held by such person for his use or for rental purposes. Sec. 19-39.1(6). Speculative builder. ‘Speculative builder’ means an owner-builder, as defined in § 19-39.1(3), who sells the completed project within twenty-four (24) months after its completion date.
Sec. 19-83(7). Owner-builders shall not be liable for the tax imposed in § 39-83(1) with respect to improvements constructed for their own use, or for rental purposes, and they shall be considered as retail purchasers of materials purchased and incorporated into such improvements; provided, however, that an owner-builder who sells such improvement at any time within twenty-four (24) months after the improvement is substantially completed, meaning legally suitable for the use or occupancy intended, become speculative builders and shall be taxed as primate contractors. The following tax credits will be allowed those owner-builders taxed as prime contractors:
(a) Taxes paid by the previous prime contractors with respect to the improvements.
(b) Amounts of taxes paid previously by the owner-builder in relation to purchases of materials incorporated into the improvements.”
To restate the question we must determine on appeal: Are owners, who undertake improvement of their property by hiring prime contractors to do the actual construction and who then sell the property within 24 months of the completion date, subject to the tax imposed on owner-builders who become speculative builders? In our approach to the question, we will bear in mind that tax enactments relating to the same subject should be read together and construed as a whole. Arizona Department of Revenue v. Maricopa County, 120 Ariz. 533, 587 P.2d 252 (1978). If the ordinances are ambiguous, they will be liberally construed in favor of the taxpayer and strictly construed against the taxing authority. Department of Revenue v. Southern Union Gas Company, 119 Ariz. 512, 582 P.2d 158 (1978).
The parties agree that the property was sold within 24 months. The issue centers on whether appellees, having entered into construction contracts with licensed prime contractors, are subject to taxation as speculative builders. Appellees argue that § 19-83(7) does not state that any “owner” who sells property within 24 months after an improvement has been built becomes a “speculative builder,” liable for tax payments but only “owner-builders.” Thus, they argue, two classifications of owners are created under the Tucson City Code, “mere owners” who are not subject to the tax and “owner-builders.” Although the code does not specify a category of “mere owners,” we have no problem with appel-lees’ extrapolating the classification from the code for purposes of analysis. Appel-lees contend that they are “mere owners” and do not fit into Tucson City Code § 19-39.1(3), which defines “owner-builder” as:
“... [A] person who owns or leases real property within the city, and who acts as a contractor, either himself or through others, in constructing any improvement upon the real property, which real property as improved is held by such person for his use or for rental purposes.”
Appellees contend they are placed outside the scope of “owner-builder” by the element requiring that the owner “act[s] as a contractor, either himself or through others.” Tucson City Code § 19-39.1(2) defines “contractor” as:
“Contractor. ‘Contractor’ is synonymous with the term ‘builder’ and means a person, firm, partnership, corporation, association or other organization, or a combination of any of them, who undertakes to, or submits a bid to, or does himself or by or through others, construct, alter, repair, add to, subtract from, improve, move, erect or demolish any building, highway, road, railroad, excavation or other structure, project, development or improvement, or to do any part thereof, including the erection of scaffolding or other structure or works in connection therewith, and includes subcontractors, specialty contractors, and developers. For all purposes of taxation or deductions, this definition shall govern without regard to whether or not the contractor is acting in fulfillment of a contract.” (Emphasis added)
Appellees admit that they “undertook” to construct the shopping center and constructed it “by or through others.” They maintain that this terminology cannot be isolated and must be read in connection with the other ordinances pertaining to the assessment of a tax on the business of prime contracting. In particular, they note that Tucson City Code § 19-39.1(3) in defining an “owner-builder” repeats the “either himself or through others” language found in § 19-39.1(2). Appellees contend that the definition by its very existence contemplates that there is a class of property owners who can improve the property they own, but who will not be acting as a contractor in doing so. Otherwise, they argue, the “who acts as a contractor” portion becomes meaningless, and if “owner-builders were intended to encompass all owners who caused their property to be improved,” then the definition should say so.
We have been unable to follow appellees’ argument to a conclusion favoring them. They appear to box themselves in when they acknowledge the city’s position to be that the “undertakes” and “by or through others” language included in the definition of a “contractor" in § 19-39.1(2) requires an interpretation defining “owner-builder” to include every owner who improves his property, and not just those who “act as contractors” in doing so. They concede:
“[T]he only way that an owner of property can ever construct an improvement on that property is either ‘by himself or by or through others.’ There is no possible way known to appellees that improvements can be constructed on property without human participation of some sort and, thus, in every case, an owner of property who constructs an improvement on that property will have done so either ‘by himself’ or ‘by or through others.’ ”
Appellees oppose the interpretation “taken as literally” as urged by the city, contending that it renders superfluous the language restricting “owner-builders” to owners who “act as contractors.” Thus, it appears that appellees have come full circle and simply disagree with the wording of the ordinance. We are convinced, however, that the clear net effect of the language of the governing sections requires the result contended for by the city. See Pace v. Hanson, 6 Ariz.App. 88, 430 P.2d 434 (1967). The intended broad sweep of the term “contractor” is confirmed in the last sentence of § 19-39.1(2):
“For all purposes of taxation or deductions, this definition shall govern without regard to whether or not the contractor is acting in fulfillment of a contract.”
It is easy enough to criticize the terminology of an ordinance. If its meaning is clear, and we find that it is, it should be given effect. State v. Superior Court for Maricopa County, 113 Ariz. 248, 550 P.2d 626 (1976); State Tax Commission v. Ranchers Exploration and Development Company, 22 Ariz.App. 480, 528 P.2d 866 (1975).
Appellees’ concern that a homeowner might become subjected to the tax should he be transferred and of necessity sell his newly-constructed home within the 24 month period is allayed through § 19-39(1), which exempts casual activities:
“Business includes all activities or acts, personal or corporate, engaged in or caused to be engaged in, with the object of gain, benefit, or advantage, either directly or indirectly, but not casual activities or sales, and includes the acts or activities described and enumerated in Section 19-91.” (Emphasis added).
Cf., State Tax Commission v. Howard P. Foley Co., 13 Ariz.App. 85, 89, 474 P.2d 444, 448 (1970), where one transaction through a joint venture was held taxable because it was found not to be a casual activity.
The judgment is reversed with directions that judgment be entered for appellant.
HOWARD, C.J., and BIRDSALL, J., concur.
|
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OPINION
KLEINSCHMIDT, Judge.
This case arises out of Mountain States Telephone & Telegraph Company’s request for a rate change for the service area which encompasses Tucson. The change was disallowed by the Arizona Corporation Commission and Mountain Bell appealed to the superior court pursuant to A.R.S. § 40-254. The trial court granted summary judgment for Mountain Bell, from which the corporation commission appeals.
The commission claims that it is precluded from allowing the increase in rates for telephone service based on a schedule that allows an automatic rate increase when the number of telephones in the exchange increases beyond 200,000 without first holding a rate hearing. It rests its case upon the opinion of this court in Scates v. Arizona Corporation Commission, 118 Ariz. 531, 578 P.2d 612 (App.1978).
The facts are undisputed. In 1975 the commission conducted a rate hearing regarding the tariffs charged by Mountain Bell. The hearing lasted for 28 days. The commission considered Mountain Bell’s rates and charges, rate base and rate of return. Thereafter, Mountain Bell was permitted to file revised tariffs with the commission.
Among other things the tariffs subsequently filed with the commission by Mountain Bell defined six “Exchange Rate Groups.” The groups were determined by the number of telephone terminals served by the central offices of the exchanges. These revised tariffs also established charges for each rate group.
The method adopted permitted an automatic rate group reclassification allowing higher rates for those exchanges from which more phones can be reached without making a toll call. The rate changes were to be triggered when the number of telephones stabilized at over a given number. The rationale for this is that phone service increases in value as the number of toll free calls that can be made from a particular telephone increases. The corporation commission adopted the idea of automatic rate increases to ameliorate the effect of upgrading the rates for expanded exchanges at the same time a general rate increase was granted, a situation that had resulted in a particularly large rate increase. This order was incorporated into the revised tariffs filed by Mountain Bell and accepted by the commission.
When these revised tariffs became effective, the Tucson exchange was classified in Rate Group V and the services were billed accordingly. In October of 1979, Mountain Bell advised the commission that the size of the Tucson exchange had been steadily increasing. Mountain Bell submitted a revision to its Local Exchange Tariff reclassifying the Tucson exchange from Rate Group V to Rate Group VI, reflecting that the number of telephones in that exchange had stabilized at over 200,000.
PROCEDURAL HISTORY AND THE TRIAL COURT’S ORDER
When Mountain Bell filed a proposed tariff revision with the commission in October, 1979, the commission, citing Scates, denied the proposed revision on the ground that it was without authority to allow the increase absent an interim or permanent rate hearing. In January, 1980, Mountain Bell filed an application for rehearing and it was denied by operation of law when the commission failed to take action on it.
The telephone company next appealed to the superior court from the commission’s decision. Thereafter, the commission issued an order returnable before the commission directing Mountain Bell to show cause why its decision should not be affirmed. There is almost nothing in the record regarding that hearing. The order by the commission which emanated from it shows that the evidence produced at that hearing reflected that the rate reclassification would result in an annual increase in the company’s revenue of $2.4 million. No evidence was introduced to show how that increase would affect the rate of return Mountain Bell was then receiving.
The superior court granted Mountain Bell’s motion for summary judgment and denied the commission’s cross-motion. It concluded that the company was not seeking a rate increase of the type that was the subject of Scates because the company was providing increased, and therefore more valuable, service. It reasoned that since the increasingly more valuable service was mandated, it was no different than exacting a charge for putting more phones in a house. The trial court observed that the graduated schedule that is automatically triggered when service improves beyond certain pre-set points is a “kind of non-traditional or non-enunciated but generally accepted automatic adjustment understanding.” It concluded that Scates does not apply to the precise fact situation that this case presents and suggested that if the revenue growth from the automatic adjustment is beyond that which reflects a fair rate of return, the commission has the right to call for a full or partial hearing. Finally, the trial court concluded that the commission’s denial of the increase on the grounds that Scates forbade the increase without first having a hearing as a matter of law constituted a denial of due process of law.
The minute order reflects the care that the trial judge took in arriving at his conclusions. We can agree with many of the points made in that order but we disagree with the trial court’s ultimate conclusion.
THE NECESSITY FOR A HEARING
We begin our analysis by stating our conclusion. Rate increases based upon a schedule that allows for automatic changes that turn upon an increase in the value of the services provided may not be given ef- feet unless the commission determines, after hearing, that such increase is just and reasonable. That determination must be based upon a consideration of whether the company is receiving a fair rate of return on its investment which in turn requires a consideration of the “fair value” of the company’s property. We cannot assay, on this record, what such a hearing must entail.
We find two faults with the trial court’s ruling:
First: It places the burden on the corporation commission to call for a hearing if it believes the increase in revenue would affect the fair rate of return the company receives. We believe the Ariz. Const, art. XV, § 14 and Scates require a hearing.
Second: We cannot say, on this record, that the hearing pursuant to the commission’s order to show cause was a denial of due process. We simply do not know what went on in that hearing.
The body of law dealing with the commission’s duty to set rates based on a fair rate of return on a utility company’s investment is set forth in detail in Scates. We will not repeat it except to state that it is predicated on succeeding interpretations of the Ariz. Const, art. XV, §§ 3, 14, and the statutes which were enacted to carry out those provisions.
We do agree with Mountain Bell and the trial court that Scates does not deal with the precise fact situation presented here. We must decide whether a revenue increase automatically triggered by a pre-set increase in the value of services is a rate increase within the meaning of A.R.S. § 40-250. We think that it is.
It is undisputed that the change will result in a substantial increase in the company’s revenue. The argument that the change is no different than the increased revenue the company enjoys from the installation of additional telephones is an imperfect one. The benefit to the subscriber derived from his ability to reach more telephones without making a toll call seems less tangible and may be less susceptible of measurement than is the benefit conferred by something like the installation of a telephone requested by a customer who knows precisely what he is getting and precisely what it will cost at the time he orders it. Presumably, it is also easier to measure the cost of increasing a service like the addition of one telephone against the increased revenue from providing such a service than it is to measure the cost to the company of providing a larger exchange against the increased revenue derived from the auto matic increase in rates when the number of phones increases beyond a given point.
Seates recognizes two exceptions to the rule that rate increases must be preceded by a hearing to determine the impact of such on the fair rate of return. One of these is the interim rate increase which allows the utility, on an emergency basis, to charge a higher rate between the time there has been a determination that an existing rate is confiscatory and the time a new rate is established. The other is the automatic adjustment clause, a device that allows a rate “to adjust automatically, either up or down in relation to fluctuations in certain, narrowly defined, operating expenses.” 118 Ariz. at 535, 578 P.2d at 616.
Neither of these exceptions fits the situation presented by this case. This is not an emergency situation, and there has been no determination that a failure to impose the increased rate is confiscatory. There has been no suggestion that a bond be posted guaranteeing a refund in the event the increased rate is unjustified. The increase is unlike an automatic adjustment clause because it is not tied to fluctuations in cost and there is no reason to think, at least on this record, that the new rate will not increase the company’s net revenue.
As we have already observed, we are not able to define, from this record, how extensive the rate hearing must be or what form the evidence must take. Seates, by dicta, leaves room for something less than a full or permanent rate hearing of the most complex type. There is absolutely nothing in the record to guide us on this point but we strongly suspect that, given the experience and expertise of counsel, the company and the commission, a meaningful review can be conducted efficiently.
Mountain Bell argues that if the rate increase for the Tucson exchange is not allowed that the different rates prevailing in Tucson and Phoenix, both of which exchanges now have over 200,000 telephones, will constitute an impermissible discrimination between similarly situated telephone customers. This, it says, will amount to a violation of art. 15, § 12 of the Arizona Constitution, which prohibits discriminatory charges, and of A.R.S. § 40-334(A), which forbids a public service corporation from giving preferences. This may be correct but it does not inexorably mandate the increase the company seeks. Since the commission has not denied the increase any opinion of ours on the point would be an advisory one. We think it best not to venture into this area on this abbreviated record, especially since the briefs of both parties discuss the point in a cursory manner.
Finally, we do not wish to be understood to reject the principle of graduated rates based on the value of service provided. Presumably the varying rates adopted when the commission decided to allow automatic rate increases based on an increase in the service provided were in turn based upon a consideration of a fair rate of return. In a perfectly static economy the full rate hearing held in 1975 would suffice. The economy, of course, is not static. We simply hold that the increase triggered by a determination that value of telephone service has increased at any given point when the phones in an exchange exceed a certain number cannot be fully automatic.
The order granting summary judgment in favor of Mountain States Telephone and Telegraph Company is reversed.
It is further ordered remanding this cause to the superior court with direction to enter summary judgment for the Arizona Corporation Commission. The telephone company may thereupon apply to the commission for rate increase and the commission may proceed to hear the matter.
CORCORAN and CONTRERAS, JJ., concur.
. § 40-250. Hearing on rate or other change in operations by public service corporation; establishment of rates or other practices by order of commission
A. No public service corporation shall raise any rate, fare, toll, rental or charge, or alter any classification, contract, practice, rule or regulation to result in any increase thereof, except upon a showing before the commission and a finding by the commission that an increase is justified. The showing before the commission by a public service corporation with gross operating revenues of less than twenty-five thousand dollars, including the requested rate relief, may be made with or without a hearing as determined by order of the commission.
B. When there is filed with the commission any schedule stating an individual or joint rate, fare, toll, rental, charge, classification, contract, practice, rule or regulation not increasing or resulting in an increase, the commission may, without answer or other pleadings by the interested corporation, but upon reasonable notice, conduct a hearing concerning the propriety of the rate, fare, toll, rental, charge, classification, contract, practice, rule or regulation, and pending the hearing and the decision thereon, it shall not go into effect. The period of suspension thereof shall not extend one hundred twenty days beyond the time when it would otherwise go into effect, unless the commission extends the period of suspension for a further period not exceeding six months.
C. On the hearing the commission shall by order establish the rates, fare, tolls, rentals, charges, classifications, contracts, practices, rules or regulations proposed, in whole or in part, or establish others in lieu thereof, which it finds just and reasonable, and which, if not suspended shall, on the expiration of thirty days from the time of filing the order, or in such lesser time as the commission grants, become effective and be established, subject to the power of the commission to alter or modify the order.
. In Seates the company was prepared to offer summary data, based upon prior submissions to the commission, showing the effect of the proposed increase on its rate of return. It was the commission’s rejection of the offer that this court condemned.
|
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OPINION
HATHAWAY, Judge.
This case arises from a divorce decree filed in Illinois in April 1978, dissolving the marriage of Bruce and Roseann Knox. The decree provided, inter alia, for unallocated maintenance payments of $1,000 per month by the appellee to the appellant. The parties subsequently moved from Illinois, the appellee going to California and the appellant and children coming to Arizona. In May 1982, the appellant registered the divorce decree in Arizona pursuant to the Uniform Enforcement of Foreign Judgments Act, A.R.S. § 12-1702. Appellee was duly notified of the registration.
Beginning in June 1982, Roseann Knox caused the issuance of several writs of garnishment with affidavits alleging support payment arrearages originally in the amount of $7,400 and increasing finally to $11,400. Mr. Knox’s attorney unsuccessfully moved to quash the writs. One garnishee, Bankers Life Insurance Company of Nebraska, Phoenix office, identified $3,281.50 as net income belonging to appel-lee and agreed to withhold 50 per cent, or $1,641.75, thereof. Judgment against the garnishee was issued on September 3, 1982, for $1,641.75. Appellant subsequently moved for an order to show cause why appellee should not be held in contempt for failure to meet his support obligations. Mr. Knox’s counsel objected to the order to show cause and moved to quash service of process based on lack of in personam jurisdiction. The court granted appellee’s motion and Mrs. Knox appealed. We affirm.
The sole issue raised by this appeal is whether defendant’s appearance through counsel to quash a writ of garnishment is sufficient to satisfy the minimum contacts requirements of in personam jurisdiction. Under the facts of this case, we hold that it is not.
To establish in personam jurisdiction over a non-resident, it must be shown that the non-resident’s conduct and connection with the forum state are such that he can reasonably anticipate being subjected to suit there. Kulko v. Superior Court, 436 U.S. 84, 98 S.Ct. 1690, 56 L.Ed.2d 132 (1978); Northern Propane Gas Company v. Kipps, 127 Ariz. 522, 622 P.2d 469 (1980). The connection must be some act by the defendant which affords him business privileges and legal protection under the laws of the forum state. The act must be more than a mere fortuitous occurrence. World-Wide Volkswagen Corporation v. Woodson, 444 U.S. 286, 100 S.Ct. 559, 62 L.Ed.2d 490 (1980). The analysis must ultimately focus on the relationship between the defendant, the forum and the litigation. Shaffer v. Heitner, 433 U.S. 186, 97 S.Ct. 2569, 53 L.Ed.2d 683 (1977).
It is submitted by the appellee and not contested in the record that Mr. Knox owns no property in Arizona, has never lived here and does no business here. The income owed to him by Banker’s Life Insurance Company apparently arose from work performed elsewhere. Mrs. Knox’s fortuitous choice to relocate in Arizona is insufficient by itself to establish any jurisdiction over appellee. See Kulko v. Superior Court, supra.
Appellant contends that Mr. Knox’s appearance via counsel to quash the writs of garnishment was a general appearance during which he availed himself of the judicial machinery and laws of Arizona. Without making specific jurisdictional objections, the argument goes, appellee subjects himself to the jurisdiction of our courts for purposes of determining the existence and collection of the outstanding balance allegedly still unpaid. In this case, $9,759.25 is the amount of allegedly unpaid unallocated maintenance outstanding after accounting for the $1,640.75 attached by the garnishment order. (Appellee does not appeal the garnishment order or contest the writs here.)
The appellant would have us consider the garnishment proceeding and the underlying action for support payments as one and the same. In that event, appellee’s failure to raise his in personam jurisdiction defense at the garnishment hearing would preclude his use of that defense in the subsequent show cause action. Rule 12(h), (i) subdiv. 1, Rules of Civil Procedure, 16 A.R.S. However, garnishment proceedings have been held to be independent of the underlying claim, Davis v. Chilson, 48 Ariz. 366, 62 P.2d 127 (1936); San Fernando Motors, Inc. v. Fowler, 17 Ariz.App. 357, 498 P.2d 169 (1972), and therefore an appearance to defend against a garnishment is not an appearance for purposes of adjudicating the main action. State ex rel. Weber v. Cordes, 87 Wis. 373, 58 N.W. 771 (1894); Beaupre v. Keefe, 79 Wis. 436, 48 N.W. 596 (1891); see Davis v. Chilson, supra. Appellee’s appearance to quash the garnishment in this case being separate and distinct from the underlying cause of action, his failure to present his jurisdictional defensé initially does not foreclose presentation thereof in the subsequent show cause action. See Dudley v. Peterson, 42 Ariz. 282, 25 P.2d 276 (1933); cf. Miller v. Kearnes, 45 Ariz. 548, 46 P.2d 638 (1935) (attachment defendant who appears in attachment proceeding obligated only to raise those defenses that could have been a defense to the attachment).
Appellant’s citation of General Electric Company v. Marvel Rare Metals Company, 287 U.S. 430, 53 S.Ct. 202, 77 L.Ed. 408 (1932), is inapposite. In that case, the plaintiff objected to the court’s jurisdiction over it regarding the issues raised in defendant’s counterclaim. However, the plaintiff had already availed himself of the court’s protection by filing the complaint. Appellee’s attempt to protect his income from garnishment in the instant case is not analogous. In Austin v. State ex rel. Herman, 10 Ariz.App. 474, 459 P.2d 753 (1969), the court found that the defendants, by personally appearing at a show cause hearing and calling witnesses on their behalf, had recognized the case as being in court and sought affirmative relief. This was held to be a general appearance sufficient to satisfy in personam jurisdiction requirements. Appellee in the present case, however, has sought no affirmative relief. Rather, he appeared solely to protect his income. He has made no appearance personally with reference to the underlying action.
Affirmed.
HOWARD, C.J., and BIRDSALL, J., concur.
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OPINION
BROOKS, Judge.
The defendant brings this appeal from his conviction of one count of molestation of a child, a class two felony, following a trial by jury. He raises four issues for our consideration: (1) Whether the trial court abused its discretion in denying motions to strike the entire jury panel and the defendant’s motions to strike two prospective jurors for cause; (2) Whether the trial court erred in reconsidering its previous ruling on defendant’s motion in limine to preclude the admission of defendant’s prior convictions, and in allowing the admission of one prior conviction for impeachment purposes; (3) Whether the trial court erred in allowing the state to amend the information to allege prior convictions for the purpose of enhancing punishment; (4) Whether the trial court erred in refusing to give defendant’s requested instructions on sexual abuse and contributing to the delinquency of a minor as lesser included offenses. We affirm.
FACTS
The facts of this case involve an incident which occurred August 20, 1980, when the defendant allegedly touched the genitals of the then four year old female victim. The evidence introduced at trial revealed that the victim went to the home of the mother of defendant on August 20, 1980. Apparently the mother of the defendant was an elderly lady, and the children in the neighborhood went to her home frequently to visit. On the morning of August 20, 1980, the victim, her eight year old sister, and another young girl visited the home of Mrs. Davis. The defendant was there and was watching television with the young girls when a commercial for the movie “10” came on. The little girls began to giggle at the sight of the skimpily clad actress in the commercial, and the defendant asked them if they would like to see some “nasty” pictures which he could bring over from another apartment. Two of the girls responded in the negative, but the victim initially responded “yes”, and then quickly changed her response to “no”. Sometime that morning, the two older girls left the home of defendant’s mother, but the victim remained and at approximately noon, she called her mother to ask permission to stay and have pancakes with Mrs. Davis and the defendant. The victim’s mother granted her permission to stay, and at approximately 2:00 p.m., the victim returned home, according to her mother, unusually calm and wide-eyed, telling her mother that the defendant had told her a secret she was not supposed to tell. The mother persuaded the child to tell her what had happened.
The victim told her mother that she was alone in the kitchen with the defendant when he asked her to get his underwear. He removed his jeans in front of her in the kitchen, and then put on his underwear. He lifted the victim onto the kitchen counter and used both hands to touch her vagina. In the victim’s words, “he opened where I went to the bathroom.” After that, he told her not to tell anyone, and she returned home.
By information filed September 8, 1980, the defendant was charged with the crime of molestation of child. On February 25, 1981, the state filed an addendum to the information alleging a prior conviction. The defendant filed a motion to strike the addendum on the grounds that it was untimely filed. The trial court denied the motion on March 25, 1981. Also prior to trial, the defendant filed a motion in limine requesting the court to preclude the state from impeaching the defendant with the prior convictions. The motion was argued prior to the first trial in this cause, and the court granted defendant’s motion. A mistrial was declared at the conclusion of the first trial because the jury was unable to reach a verdict. The case was set for a new trial before another jury.
On the day the second trial was to begin, the state requested the court to reconsider its previous ruling precluding the use of defendant’s prior convictions for impeachment purposes. Following argument, the trial court determined that the probative value of the admission of at least one prior conviction outweighed its prejudicial effect and thus granted the state’s motion to allow impeachment of the defendant with a 1980 conviction for theft but precluded impeachment with a 1975 conviction for burglary.
During the selection of the jury, nine jurors were stricken for cause by the trial court. The court struck some of the jurors due to scheduling conflicts and others because of their stated inability to be fair and impartial. During voir dire, one of the prospective jurors, Mr. Timewell, told the court that he was related to an attorney who was or had been a prosecutor, and that he, Mr. Timewell, personally had strong feelings about the type of crime with which the defendant was charged in this case. During a recess, Mr. Timewell approached the defense counsel and the prosecutor and indicated that he wanted to talk to them about a matter which was not brought up during voir dire. Following the recess the court, at the request of defense counsel, held an in chambers conference with Mr. Timewell where both counsel were allowed to question him. The defendant moved to strike Timewell from the jury for cause, and the trial court denied the motion. Subsequently, the defendant used a preemptory challenge to strike Mr. Timewell.
Another member of the jury venire, Ms. Dorn, told the court during voir dire that she had been married to a deputy county attorney for 13 years, and because of what she had learned about trial “techniques” she did not believe she could be a fair and impartial juror. The trial court dismissed Dorn for cause.
Venireman Grammer, a minister, told the court that during his 21 years of being a pastor, he had dealt with a number of cases involving child molesting, and concluded that he would not be a fair and impartial juror. The court excused Grammer for cause. Venireman Bartel expressed a similar reservation to that of Grammer, and the court excused him for cause also.
At one point during voir dire, the court made the following statement with regard to Dorn’s and Grammer’s comments:
Now, Ladies and Gentlemen, Miss Dorn made some statements. I don’t quite know what she intended by them, but I do want to see if any of you happen to feel the same way that Miss Dorn felt about the court system. And I am not sure just exactly which way she felt. But if you have any strong feelings for or against the court system, for or against our system of justice, for or against prosecutors or defense attorneys, I would like to hear from you at this point.
One person responded to the question indicating that “sometimes I am for the county attorneys and sometimes I am for the public defender.... I see both sides.” The trial court pointed out that this was a good trait for a juror to have. The trial judge was apparently concerned that the comments by the prospective jurors Timewell, Dorn, and Grammer might have prejudiced the entire panel and he proceeded to question the jury as follows:
One of the concerns that I have quite candidly — and it is something that we were just discussing — is whether that any of you feel that your own opinions have been tainted or colored by some of the comments that some of your other potential fellow jurors have made.
Mr. Grammer in the back row, who was excused previously, apparently is a pastor and has some very strong feelings — so strong in fact about this kind of offense that he felt he could not sit as a fair and impartial juror. The question before you is whether any of you think that because of those kinds of comments that he made and some of our other potential jurors have made that you can no longer decide this case based exclusively on the evidence that you hear in the court room. If so, please be candid and honest enough to tell me.
In response to the court’s comment, a potential juror, Ms. Dorris, indicated that she believed the comments of the other jurors had so affected her as to make her unable to sit as a fair juror and she was excused for cause.
Another venireman, Feusahrens, a police assistant, was questioned in voir dire concerning his employment. He stated that he attended four weeks at the police academy, had been a civilian employee of the Phoenix Police Department for seven years, and spends 40 hours per week writing police departmental reports. He also indicated that he would not tend to believe the child of a police officer (the victim in this case) any more readily than he would believe the testimony of an ordinary citizen.
The defendant moved to strike the entire jury panel on the grounds that they had been prejudiced by the remarks of Time-well, Dorn, Bartel and Grammer. The motion was denied. The defendant also moved to strike jurors Timewell and Feusahrens for cause, and those motions were denied.
SELECTION OF THE JURY
Failure to Strike the Panel
For his first issue on appeal, the defendant contends that the trial court erred in denying his motion to strike the jury panel, because the exchanges between the court and the veniremen Timewell, Dorn, Bartel and Grammer fatally prejudiced the entire panel. In order to properly address the merits of defendant’s contention, it is necessary to specifically set out those portions of the record.
The first comments which the defendant alleges tainted the jury occurred while the trial court was questioning Timewell, who had indicated that he knew a prosecutor, that the prosecutor was related to him, and that they socialized frequently. The court then questioned Timewell as follows:
THE COURT: Do you think that because you know that person you would be prejudiced in favor of the prosecution and likely to be more sympathetic to that side of the case?
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: For the prosecution and against the defendant, right?
THE COURT: Yes.
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: Possibly. I don’t know.
THE COURT: Well, let me put the question to you in a different way. Do you think if you were selected as a juror in this case that you could reach a verdict based exclusively on the evidence that you hear in the—
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: Well, it might be doubtful. I don’t know. If all circumstances — the type of case that its on, I might be prejudiced anyhow since I have a younger daughter.
THE COURT: Okay.
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: Just an off the cuff.
The court continued questioning Timewell about his relationship with a prosecutor, and concluded the exchange as follows:
THE OCURT [sic]: Are you telling me that you could not decide this case based exclusively on what you hear in the courtroom, the evidence that comes from the witness chair right here?
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: Well, according to what we’re supposed to do, that’s what we’re supposed to do.
THE COURT: That’s right. And I want to know if you can do it.
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: Yes, I could.
THE COURT: You think you could?
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: Probably.
The court ceased questioning Timewell at this point. However, another exchange between the court and Timewell occurred when the court questioned the jury concerning whether they had ever been in a situation where a crime such as the one with which the defendant in this case was charged had been committed. Timewell responded as follows:
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: I have got my own, you know — well like I say, I have got a daughter. And I feel very strongly, you know, against that happening.
THE COURT: Well, I suspect that—
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: I mean if there was — of course—
THE COURT: The question is not whether you would be offended if one of your own children had this sort of thing happen to them. The question is — this is for all of you — whether you can decide this case based exclusively on what you hear in the courtroom without imagining what it would be like if this happened to your own children?
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: That would be the easy part.
The hard part is if I gave a decision that ended up — you know, finding out information afterwards — because I know in some cases some things are not brought up.
THE COURT: You won’t. That won’t happen.
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: Because I would hate to give a decision and say innocent or — well, particularly of innocence and then find out the guy was really guilty.
THE COURT: Well I don’t think you need to worry about that.
The question again is whether you can decide the ease based on what you hear from the witness stand when witnesses testify. And if you think you can do that, that’s what I want to hear. If you don’t think you can do it, I want to hear that too.
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: Well, the whole point is, like I said, sometimes things are not brought out that should be brought out.
THE COURT: Okay we’ve talked about that. Everything that—
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: I know I’m getting around the question and I am not answering you.
THE COURT: Everything that is admissible will be admitted here in Court. And you will be asked to decide this case based on the evidence that you have.
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: The previous information about that particular person will be admitted?
THE COURT: I am in no position to answer that question at this point.
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: I know in some cases previous offenses and so forth are not allowed in a court case, and this to me is a situation that shows a pattern. Which in turn if the court cases are not allowed, then, it would give me a very bad feeling if I had let somebody off who did not deserve to be off.
THE COURT: Well there are some specific rules of evidence that handle that kind of problem, and it is fortunately not something that you have to worry about. I have a whole book of rules that I have to apply to answer questions like that. And you should be thankful you don’t have to worry about it.
You would — if you are on the jury you will hear what you are entitled to hear in the case and the decision will be mine.
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: Okay.
THE COURT: Fortunately or unfortunately.
Defendant asserts that the court’s responses to Timewell tended to confirm for the jury that the defendant might have an undisclosed criminal record which would show a pattern of child molesting.
Defendant also complains that the comments of Ms. Dorn fatally infected the jury. Dorn indicated that she had been married to a county attorney for 13 years and that she would have a lot of prejudice “for the court system after having been around and seeing the different techniques, et cetera, that are used.” The court did not excuse Dorn at that point, but questioned the jury further concerning whether they had law enforcement experience or whether they had friends or relatives who had law enforcement experience. The court asked whether any of the jurors believed they could not keep an open mind because of such employment history. Ms. Dorn raised her hand at that point and the following exchange occurred:
THE COURT: All right. You do not think that you could evaluate the testimony only after you had heard it?
MS. DORN: That’s right.
THE COURT: All right. You have some predispositions in favor of law enforcement officials?
MS. DORN: And I think I would be looking at the techniques involved, et cet-era, as opposed to the case itself.
THE COURT: Okay. Thank you for your candor. I am going to excuse you.
The defendant contends on appeal that both Dorn and Timewell had relationships with attorneys which resulted in their having special knowledge of court proceedings. The defendant contends that Dorn’s special knowledge intimated to the jury that there are “techniques” which are unknown to the average juror. The defendant also asserts because Dorn indicated before the jury that she was prejudiced in favor of the prosecution, she implied to the jury that these “techniques” are used on behalf of the defense and that the implication prejudiced the jury against the defendant.
The defendant asserts that the prejudicial impact of Dorn’s and Timewell’s comments was aggravated by the comment of Venireman Grammer. He stated:
Another thing I would like to express is that after 21 years of pastoral work and counseling with these kind of cases I don’t think I could be very open minded. I have had quite a number of these cases throughout the years in the church that I have had to counsel with the parents. And really I am — I am just not open-minded on this to be real honest with you.
The court excused Grammer.
The next exchange which defendant contends added to the prejudicial effect of the previous exchanges occurred between the court and venireman Bartel as follows:
VENIREMÁN BARTEL: Your Honor, you asked the question of all of us how we feel about this case regarding the child molestor or alleged child molestor. Is it premature to respond to that question at this point in time?
THE COURT: I would be happy to hear your response to that. It must be of some concern to you.
VENIREMAN BARTEL: It is and always has been. And as I talked to my wife last night, I said, “I hope I don’t draw a case where there is children involved,” and sure enough it was.
I feel very uncomfortable with it. I am afraid I would be very biased and prejudiced.
THE COURT: Well, let me follow up on your statement there. In the first place in our system of justice, as you probably know, a defendant who is charged with a crime is presumed innocent until he is proven otherwise in a court of law. As Mr. Davis is here before you, he is necessarily presumed to be innocent.
Do you feel that because he has been charged with this crime that he is probably guilty of it?
VENIREMAN BARTEL: No, sir, I don’t. But I am afraid I couldn’t be too objective even with the testimonies that will come forth. I am not too sure how I would react to that situation. I would try to be open minded and honest with my own feelings, but I do have a very definite bias against this type of situation regardless of innocent or guilty.
THE COURT: I understand that.
Do you think that you could try to evaluate this case based exclusively on the evidence that you hear from the witness stand in this case?
VENIREMAN BARTEL: I would hope so. And I would have to say too at this point say yes.
THE COURT: That’s all we can ask.
VENIREMAN BARTEL: But I do have a feeling inside that bothers me about the particular situation.
Mr. Bartel was ultimately excused from the panel for cause.
The defendant contends that Timewell’s speculation about a prior record showing a “pattern”, the discussion by Dorn about “techniques” and her bias in favor of law enforcement, the comments of Grammer, and the comments of Bartel produced a cumulative effect which tainted the jury and prejudiced it against the defendant. We disagree.
Rule 18.4(a), Rules of Criminal Procedure, 17 A.R.S., provides that either party may challenge the entire jury panel on the ground that “in its selection there has been a material departure from the requirements of law.” While an accused has a constitutional right to be tried by a fair and impartial jury, he is not entitled to be tried by any one particular jury. State v. Greenawalt, 128 Ariz. 150, 624 P.2d 828 (1981). The party who challenges the jury panel has the burden of showing that the panel selection was the result of a “material departure from the requirements of law.” Id. In doing so, the party challenging the panel must show either that the jury was unlawfully empaneled or that the jurors could not be fair and impartial. Id. In this case, the defendant has the burden of showing that other jurors were prejudiced by the comments of Timewell, Dorn, Grammer, and Bartel. State v. Rose, 121 Ariz. 131, 589 P.2d 5 (1978). The extent of voir dire is left to the discretion of the trial court, and the defendant must make a clear showing that the trial court has abused its discretion before this court will overrule the trial judge’s determination. Id.
The record in this case reveals that the trial court specifically questioned the jury on two occasions during voir dire concerning any possible prejudicial impact emanating from the statements of their fellow potential jurors. The one party who responded to the trial court’s inquiry was excused for cause. In this case where the potential jurors expressed themselves often and freely during voir dire, it is important to note that no other person on the panel responded to the court’s inquiry. Defendant asks this court to indulge in an assumption, therefore, that the panel was tainted. We decline to do so. State v. Duke, 110 Ariz. 320, 518 P.2d 570 (1974). The defendant has failed to meet his burden of showing that the panel was prejudiced by the remarks of Timewell, Dorn, Grammer and Bartel.
INDIVIDUAL JURORS
The defendant moved during voir dire to strike Timewell and Feusahrens from the panel for cause. The trial court denied his motions, and he contends herein that the trial court’s ruling was in error.
We turn first to the question of Time-well’s ability to serve as a fair and impartial juror. In addition to his exchanges with the court before the jury panel, Time-well appeared before the trial judge and counsel in chambers. During this discussion, Timewell indicated that he would very strongly prefer not to serve on the jury in a child molesting case. He again asked if the jury would hear about the defendant’s prior record. After being questioned by the prosecutor, the defense attorney, and the court, Timewell assured the court that he could decide the case solely on the evidence produced in court:
THE COURT: Do you think it would be . impossible for you to base your verdict on the evidence that you hear in the courtroom?
Do you think you necessarily have to go to your own personal opinions, prejudices, and sympathies to reach a verdict?
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: Well, I can always be completely objective instead of subjective if I have to be.
THE COURT: That’s what’s being asked of you. Do you think you can do that?
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: I could be, yes.
THE COURT: That’s what’s being asked of you. Nobody is saying that it is easy. But the question is whether you can put aside your sympathies and prejudices and strong feelings and reach a verdict based upon what you hear in the courtroom.
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: Right.
THE COURT: That is the question.
VENIREMAN TIMEWELL: I could do that.
Timewell also assured defense counsel that he would work towards the goal of sitting on the case with the same intellectual hon esty that he would expect from a juror who might sit in judgment of him.
The defendant asserts, nevertheless, that despite Timewell’s assurances that he could put aside his personal distaste for a child molesting case and put aside his concern about whether the defendant had a prior record, it is obvious and should have been obvious to the trial court, that the prospective juror could not be impartial. Thus, the defendant concludes that the trial court abused its discretion in refusing -to strike Timewell for cause.
Defendant relies on State v. Rodriguez, 131 Ariz. 400, 641 P.2d 888 (App.1981), as authority for his claim that the trial court’s failure to strike Timewell constitutes reversible error. We find Rodriguez to be distinguishable from the facts of this case. In that case, where the defendant was charged with burglary, and a potential juror had recently been burglarized, the juror indicated to the trial court that she was still upset about the recent burglary and that she hoped she could make a fair decision. The dialogue with the court concluded by her stating that she would “try and be fair” but that the burglary “would still be in the back of my mind.” 131 Ariz. at 401, 641 P.2d 888. The trial court in Rodriguez refused to strike the juror for cause, and Division Two of this court reversed the trial court’s ruling finding that the juror’s answers “demonstrated that she had serious misgivings about her ability to be impartial because of her recent experiences.” 131 Ariz. at 402, 641 P.2d 888. In the instant case, although it is clear that Timewell was not pleased about sitting on a child molesting case, and was concerned about his ability to be fair, he ultimately assured the court that he could “always be completely objective instead of subjective” if he had to be. He did not indicate that he would try to be fair or that he hoped he would be fair, but that he, in fact, could and would be fair. . He indicated this not only once but several times to the court and to both counsel. Because the trial judge has the opportunity to observe, and listen to the potential jurors during voir dire examination he, the trial court, and not this court, is in the best position to determine whether a juror can render a fair and impartial verdict. The question whether to sustain or deny a challenge for cause is within the sound discretion of the trial court, and that decision will not be reversed absent a clear showing of abuse of discretion.
In this case, the trial court had the opportunity to observe Timewell’s demean- or and the tenor of his answers. The record reveals that Timewell’s answers as to his ability to be objective and decide the case based solely on the evidence were ultimately unequivocal and certain. See State v. Turrentine, 122 Ariz. 39, 592 P.2d 1305 (App.1979). We conclude, therefore, with regard to Timewell, that there is no showing that the trial court abused its discretion in denying the defendant’s motion to strike for cause.
The defendant also contends that the trial court erred in denying his motion to strike venireman Feusarhens for cause. He contends that because of Feusarhens’ employment as a police officer, and because of answers to voir dire questions, the record reveals that Feusarhens was uncertain as to whether he could be an impartial juror. The record belies the defendant’s contentions.
Feusahrens’ employment consisted primarily of talking to witnesses and victims of offenses over the phone and then completing the report. After his report was written, he rarely had further connection with the ease. Although he had appeared as a witness in trial proceedings, he was not acquainted with the police officers in this case. He stated that he would not give a police officer’s testimony added weight but that “I would have to make a decision there listening to it.” He also indicated that he would not assume that the child of a police officer was more credible than an ordinary citizen. In denying the defendant’s motion to strike Feusahrens, the trial court noted its belief that Feusahrens had been an unusually open and candid venireman. We find no abuse of discretion.
ADMISSION OF PRIOR CONVICTION FOR IMPEACHMENT
The defendant next contends that the trial court erred in reversing its decision made prior to the first trial which had granted defendant’s motion in limine excluding evidence of defendant’s 1980 theft conviction for impeachment purposes. The defendant’s argument is twofold: (1) that the record does not establish good cause for the trial court’s action reversing itself on an issue it had previously determined; and (2) that the trial court abused its discretion in admitting the prior conviction. We reject both arguments.
Rule 16.1, Rules of Criminal Procedure, 17 A.R.S., provides that all pretrial motions must be made no later than 20 days prior to the date set for trial. Rule 16.1(d) provides:
Except for good cause, or as otherwise provided by these rules, an issue previously determined by the court shall not be reconsidered.
Defendant contends that the state has failed to establish good cause for reconsideration of the admissibility of the defendant’s prior conviction. We find, however, that the comments of the trial court in reconsidering its ruling established good cause. The trial judge had presided in the earlier trial in this matter and stated as follows:
There are some new factors that have been brought to my attention that were not mentioned at the time this motion was argued previously. One of them is the recent Dixon case, and then the other is the starkness of the issue of credibility. I know that was raised earlier, prior to the first trial. But now that we have had that trial behind us the issue is a stark, cold issue of who are they to believe, the children or Mr. Davis.
After hearing the first trial in this matter, the trial court determined that the critical issue in the case was one of credibility, and that the jury was entitled to have before it any relevant evidence bearing on the credibility of the witnesses. The record thus amply reveals good cause for the trial court’s reconsideration of the motion.
The defendant contends nevertheless, that the trial court abused its discretion in admitting the prior conviction.
Rule 609(a), Rules of Evidence, 17A A.R.S., provides that convictions for felonies or for misdemeanors involving dishonesty or false statement “shall be admitted” for the purpose of attacking credibility of a witness. The trial court must determine that the probative value of admitting the evidence outweighs its prejudicial effect. The decision of whether to admit evidence of a prior conviction for impeachment purposes is left to the discretion of the trial court, and the exercise of that discretion will not be disturbed on appeal absent a clear showing of abuse of discretion. State v. McElyea, 130 Ariz. 185, 635 P.2d 170 (1981); State v. Dixon, 126 Ariz. 613, 617 P.2d 779 (App.1980).
In this case, the trial court held two hearings on the admissibility of the prior convictions. The issues were argued thoroughly and competently by the attorneys for both sides. The trial court considered the admissibility of the prior convictions carefully and with an obvious appreciation for their prejudicial effect. Ultimately, the trial court determined that only one, and not both of the defendant’s prior convictions would be admitted for impeachment purposes. This ruling obviously stems from the trial court’s effort to minimize the prejudicial effect of admitting a prior conviction. In State v. Dixon, supra, Division Two noted that where there was a direct conflict of testimony between an undercover agent and the defendant, “the jury should have before it all information which might reflect on the truthfulness of the defendant.” 126 Ariz. at 618, 617 P.2d 779. The court also noted that any felony, even one not involving dishonesty or false statement, has probative value on the issue of the credibility of the defendant. Therefore, the court concluded that the admission of the defendant’s prior conviction was not error in that case. Similarly, in this case, the sole contested issue was the credibility of the victim. Defense counsel was able to effectively cross-examine several witnesses and elicit substantial testimony to the effect that the victim had lied on various occasions to her parents, her sister and others. Under these circumstances, we believe that the jury was entitled to have before it any information which might have bearing on the defendant’s credibility also. We find no abuse of discretion in the trial court’s ruling admitting the prior conviction.
UNTIMELY ALLEGATIONS OF PRIOR CONVICTIONS
For his third issue, the defendant argues that the trial court erred in granting the state’s motion to amend the information to allege two prior convictions when the motion was filed after the 20 day time limit set forth in Rules 16.1(b) and 16.1(c). Rule 13.5(a) provides that an indictment or information may be amended by adding an allegation of one or more prior convictions within the time limits of Rule 16.1(b). The comment to Rule 13.5 provides:
Because the prosecutor is often unable to obtain a rap sheet at the time the prosecution is commenced, he is given some leeway within which to add an allegation of a previous conviction to the charge.
Rule 16.1(c) provides that all motions not made 20 days prior to trial shall be precluded unless the moving party can show that the basis therefor was not then known, and by the exercise of reasonable diligence could not then have been known, and the party raises it promptly upon learning of it. The 20-day time limit of Rule 16.1(b) means 20 days before the first trial setting. State v. Superior Court, 127 Ariz. 175, 619 P.2d 3 (1980). In this case, the last day for motions was October 7, 1980, and the state’s addendum to the information alleging the prior convictions was not filed until February 25,1981. Therefore, the defendant concludes that the trial court erred in granting the motion to allege the prior convictions. City of Tucson v. Arndt, 125 Ariz. 607, 611 P.2d 960 (App.1980).
A cursory review of City of Tucson v. Arndt would compel us to conclude that the trial court should have precluded the allegations of the prior convictions. However, we note that City of Tucson v. Arndt did not address the applicability of A.R.S. § 13-604(K). That statute provides in part as follows:
The court in its discretion may allow the allegation of a prior conviction, * * * at any time prior to trial, provided that when the allegation of a prior conviction is filed, the state must make available to the defendant a copy of any material or information obtained concerning the prior conviction. [Emphasis added]
Therefore, in this case, there is a specific statute in conflict with the provisions of Rule 13.5(a). The court in City of Tucson v. Arndt did not address the existence of the conflict. The comments to Rule 13.5(a) indicate a determination that a prosecutor must be given leeway within which to add the allegation of the prior convictions. We also note that the former code contained a similar provision allowing an allegation of a prior conviction any time prior to trial. Former A.R.S. § 13-1649. Cases construing the prior code provision indicate that the state was allowed to file an allegation of a prior conviction under the old code any time before trial. See e.g., State v. Kelley, 123 Ariz. 24, 597 P.2d 177 (1979); State v. Hadd, 127 Ariz. 270, 619 P.2d 1047 (App.1980). In other words, the statutory provision was granted precedence over the provisions of Rule 13.5. Moreover, under the former code, the defendant had to show prejudice before the reviewing court could find that the trial court abused its discretion in allowing the allegation of a prior conviction. In State v. Hadd, supra, it was held that where the defendant had notice of his prior convictions, he was not prejudiced by the state’s allegation on the eve of trial. In this case, the defendant clearly had notice of the prior conviction. They were alleged in February of 1981, and the defendant’s second trial took place in July of 1981. The defendant had ample opportunity to prepare to defend the allegations of the prior convictions. We find no error.
LESSER INCLUDED OFFENSE INSTRUCTIONS
For his last issue on appeal, the defendant argues that the trial court erred in refusing his request for instructions on sexual abuse and contributing to the delinquency of a child as lesser included offenses of child molesting. As to sexual abuse, this court recently held in State v. Cousin, 136 Ariz. 83, 664 P.2d 233 (1983) that sexual abuse pursuant to A.R.S. § 13-1404 is not a lesser included offense of child molesting. See also, State v. Aguirre, 130 Ariz. 54, 633 P.2d 1047 (App.1981).
The defendant also requested the following instruction on contributing to the delinquency of a child as a lesser included offense of child molesting:
The crime of contributing to the delinquency of a minor requires proof that the Defendant, by some act, caused, encouraged or contributed to the delinquency of a child. For purposes of this instruction, the word “delinquency” means any act which tends to debase or injure the morals, health or welfare of a child, and the word “delinquent person” mean [sic] any person under the age of 18 years who violates the law of this state, or an ordinance of a county, city or town defining crime.
In order to find Defendant guilty of contributing to the delinquency of a minor, it is necessary that you find he had some intent to harm the victim, or some knowledge that the victim would be harmed by his conduct.
The court is required to give an instruction on a lesser included offense when the offense is necessarily included, i.e., when it is both a lesser included offense and when the evidence warrants the giving of the instruction. State v. Dugan, 125 Ariz. 194, 608 P.2d 771 (1980).
Contributing to the delinquency of a minor is defined in A.R.S. § 13-3613(A). The offense under the current criminal code is identical to the offense of contributing to the delinquency of a minor under the former criminal code provision A.R.S. § 13-822(A). The offense of child molesting is defined in A.R.S. § 13-1410, and is essentially identical to the former offense of child molesting as defined in the former A.R.S. § 13-653, with the exception that the new Code adds the culpable mental state of “knowingly”. In State v. Sutton, 104 Ariz. 317, 452 P.2d 110 (1969), our Supreme Court held that contributing to the delinquency of a child is a lesser included offense of child molesting. Since the current definitions of contributing to the delinquency of a minor and child molesting are identical to the former definitions of those crimes, State v. Sutton and its progeny are still applicable.
The question remains whether in this case, the evidence supported the giving of the requested instruction. In State v. Jer-ousek, 121 Ariz. 420, 590 P.2d 1366 (1979), the Supreme Court found that the evidence did not support the giving of a lesser included offense instruction on contributing to the delinquency of a minor where “the defendant pled not guilty but presented no alternative explanation for his actions. He instead attempted to impeach the credibility of the victim and attempted to show, by cross-examining the doctor, that injury to the victim could have been caused by innocent means.” 121 Ariz. at 428, 590 P.2d 1366. The court concluded that the evidence presented a classic guilty or innocent situation, and that the lesser included offense instruction was not required. In this case, the defendant likewise presented no alternative explanation for his actions. He attempted to impeach the credibility of the victim, and he argued that the state had not proved its case.
An instruction on a lesser included offense is justified only when there is evidence upon which the jury could convict of the lesser offense and find that the state had failed to prove an element of the greater offense. State v. Brady, 105 Ariz. 190, 461 P.2d 488 (1969). The trial court need only give the lesser included offense instruction when the element that distinguishes the two charges is in dispute. State v. Yarbrough, 131 Ariz. 70, 638 P.2d 737 (App.1980). In considering the evidence, the jury could not have convicted the defendant for contributing to the delinquency of a child while finding that the state had failed to prove an element of child molestation. The state of the record before us is such that the defendant can only be guilty of the crime charged or not guilty at all. Accordingly we find that the trial court did not err in refusing the proffered instruction.
Affirmed.
JACOBSON, P.J., and CONTRERAS, J., concur.
. A.R.S. § 13-1410.
. Although the defendant chose not to testify in the second trial, defense counsel had “drawn the sting” by mentioning defendant’s 1980 theft conviction in opening statement. Thus, although the prosecutor never elicited evidence of the prior conviction, defendant’s motion in limine, made prior to trial, is sufficient to preserve the question on appeal. See State v. Ellerson, 125 Ariz. 249, 609 P.2d 64 (1980).
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GORDON, Vice Chief Justice:
In October, 1976 Stag Tobacconist, Ltd. (Stag) and DVM, Co. (DVM) entered into a commercial lease agreement pursuant to which Stag rented retail office space from DVM. The parties’ lease provided that if either party instituted “any action or proceeding against the other relating to the provisions of this Lease * * * the prevailing party in such action or proceeding shall be entitled to recover from the other party its reasonable costs, expenses and attorney’s fees.”
DVM eventually commenced a forcible entry and detainer action against Stag for a non-payment of rent. The trial court granted summary judgment in favor of Stag which the Court of Appeals affirmed on appeal.
After the Court of Appeals filed its decision Stag submitted a statement of costs and application for attorney’s fees pursuant to the terms of the lease, A.R.S. § 12-341.-01, and Ariz.R.Civ.App.P. 21(c). DVM objected to the request for attorney’s fees. The Court of Appeals sustained the objection regarding attorney’s fees but awarded Stag $80 in costs. It is from the denial of attorney’s fees that Stag now appeals. We have jurisdiction of this matter pursuant to Ariz. Const, art. 6, § 5(3) and Ariz.R.Civ.P. 23. We approve the ruling of the Court of Appeals.
We accepted review of this matter to decide the following question: May attorney’s fees be awarded to the prevailing party as part of the court’s judgment in a forcible entry and detainer action? Stag initially directs the Court’s attention to two cases in which the Court of Appeals impliedly held that attorney’s fees were recoverable. In both Thompson v. Harris, 9 Ariz. App. 341, 452 P.2d 122 (1969) and Concannon v. Yewell, 16 Ariz.App. 320, 493 P.2d 122 (1972) the trial court’s award of attorney’s fees was reversed on the ground that there was insufficient evidence to establish that the amount of fees awarded were “reasonable.” Stag argues that by considering the reasonableness of the attorney’s fees the Court of Appeals must have initially concluded that attorney’s fees were in fact allowable. Neither of the cases directly address the substantive question of whether attorney’s fees are allowable under the statutory scheme dealing with forcible entry and detainer actions. Therefore, we do not believe that they are dispositive of the issue being addressed in this case.
Forcible entry and detainer is a statutory proceeding, the object of which is to provide a summary, speedy and adequate means for obtaining possession of premises by one entitled to actual possession. Heywood v. Ziol, 91 Ariz. 309, 372 P.2d 200 (1962); Casa Grande Trust Company v. Superior Court, 8 Ariz.App. 163, 444 P.2d 521 (1968). The only issue to be determined is the right to actual possession. Phoenix-Sunflower Industries, Inc. v. Hughes, 105 Ariz. 334, 464 P.2d 617 (1970); A.R.S. § 12-1177(A). In Gangadean v. Erickson, 17 Ariz.App. 131, 495 P.2d 1338 (1972) the Court of Appeals stated:
“The court entertains serious doubts as to the propriety of awarding attorney’s fees based upon contract in a forcible entry and detainer action.
This action being purely statutory is controlled by statute both as to procedure and damages collectible therein.” (citations omitted.)
Id. at 134-35, 495 P.2d at 1341-42. Furthermore, A.R.S. § 12-1178 limits the scope of recovery in forcible entry and detainer actions to “restitution of the premises and for costs and, at plaintiff’s option, for all rent found to be due and unpaid at the date of judgment.” It is a generally accepted rule that attorney’s fees are not recoverable unless they are expressly provided for either by statute or contract. Taylor v. Southern Pac. Transp. Co., 130 Ariz. 516, 637 P.2d 726 (1981). At the time of the trial there were no statutory provisions allowing a party to recover attorney’s fees as part of a judgment in a forcible entry and detainer action. Although the parties’ lease in the instant case provides for attorney’s fees, the court’s authority is limited by the special character of forcible entry and de-tainer actions and by A.R.S. §§ 12-1177 and 12-1178 and therefore such proceedings cannot be expanded by the lease. Allowing the issue of attorney’s fees to be interjected into forcible entry and detainer actions would detract from the summary nature of those actions. We find, therefore, that the Court of Appeals properly denied Stag’s request for attorney’s fees. To the extent that the Court of Appeal’s recent decision in Magna Investment & Development Corp. v. Brooks Fashion Stores, Inc., 137 Ariz. 247, 669 P.2d 1024 (1983), holds to the contrary, it is overruled.
We note that although Stag’s request for attorney’s fees is not permissible as part of the forcible entry and detainer action, this decision does not preclude Stag from bringing a separate suit for attorney’s fees based upon the contract provisions in the law. The disposition of this matter by the Court of Appeals is approved.
HOLOHAN, C.J., and HAYS, CAMERON and FELDMAN, JJ., concur.
. We note that the Arizona Legislature has recently amended A.R.S. § 33-1315(A)(2) making a prevailing party in a forcible entry and detainer action eligible to be awarded attorney’s fees pursuant to A.R.S. § 12-341.01 regardless of whether the rental agreement provides for such an award. Therefore, this decision is only applicable to those matters brought prior to the effective date of the statutory amendment.
. The term “costs” means such costs as are usually recovered in civil actions and does not include attorney’s fees. Coury Bros. Ranches, Inc. v. Ellsworth, 103 Ariz. 515, 446 P.2d 458 (1968).
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OPINION
JACOBSON, Presiding Judge.
The sole issue in this review of an Industrial Commission award is whether the administrative law judge used the proper period to establish the average monthly wage of an injured claimant whose salary was based in part on sales commissions.
. In April 1979, the claimant-employee, James Shaff, began work for the petitioner employer, Elco Veterinary Supply, as a warehouseman, route salesman, truck driver, and deliveryman. He hurt his back on the job on November 15, 1979, but continued working until January 30, 1980, when the back pain became disabling.
The claimant was paid a salary of $800 per month plus commissions. The commissions varied each month depending upon his sales success. The following chart shows the claimant’s monthly commissions:
DATE COMMISSIONS
05/15/79 $ 47.49
06/15/79 135.51
07/15/79 79.04
08/15/79 54.92
09/14/79 70.94
10/15/79 99.81
11/15/79 153.09
12/15/79 198.99
01/15/80 267.24
The petitioner carrier issued a notice of claim status establishing a $882.03 average monthly wage for the claimant. This was calculated by using the claimant’s total earnings from the date he began employment until the date of injury. The Industrial Commission thereafter independently established the same average monthly wage. See A.R.S. § 23-1061(F). The claimant protested, and hearings were held.
At the scheduled hearing, only the claimant appeared. He testified that his ability to earn commissions was progressive. As he learned to perform his job more efficiently, he earned higher commissions. For this reason, he disagreed that an average of his total earnings before the injury accurately reflected his earning capacity. The administrative law judge issued an award establishing a $1,067.24 average monthly wage. This was based on the claimant’s actual earnings between December 15, 1979 and January 15, 1980, the last period for which he received commissions. In the decision upon review, the administrative law judge amended the average monthly wage determination, by establishing a $953.09 average monthly wage based on the claimant’s actual earnings the month before the injury, October 15, 1979 to November 15, 1979. This special action followed to challenge this average monthly wage determination.
On appeal, the petitioners first argue that the administrative law judge was required to use an expanded wage base in this case. They rely on cases such as Powell v. Industrial Commission, 104 Ariz. 257, 451 P.2d 37 (1969); Pettis v. Industrial Commission, 91 Ariz. 298, 372 P.2d 72 (1962); Steward v. Industrial Commission, 69 Ariz. 159, 211 P.2d 217 (1949), which interpret A.R.S. § 23-1041(D) to apply only if the claimant worked less than 30 days for the employer before injury. They acknowledge, however, contrary authority. See, e.g., Kurtz v. Matich, 96 Ariz. 41, 391 P.2d 594 (1964).
We recently commented on these confusing interpretations of A.R.S. § 23-1041(D) in Davis v. Industrial Commission, 134 Ariz. 293, 655 P.2d 1345 (1982). We noted that some cases have interpreted A.R.S. § 23-1041(D) to apply only to a claimant who has worked for less than one month. However, Davis rejected this approach and test because of its inconsistency with the statute’s history and the plain meaning of its terms. Under the Davis test, the wages earned during the 30 days preceding the injury are the presumptive average monthly wage, but the administrative law judge has broad discretion to use an expanded wage base when the presumptive wage base does not realistically reflect earning capacity. Because we believe this is the correct test, we reject the petitioners’ first argument which would apply A.R.S. § 23-1041(D) only to the employee who has worked less than 30 days.
The petitioners next argue that the administrative law judge had the discretion to use an expanded wage base in this case. The claimant answers by arguing that this discretion applies only if the employment is seasonal. He also argues that his variable commissions are analogous to routine wage increases, which he contends would normally be reflected in an increased average monthly wage.
We reject both of the claimant’s arguments. Seasonal employment is but one justification for using an expanded wage base. See Davis v. Industrial Commission, supra. Other justifications include, but are not limited to, intermittent employment and inflated wages received during the month before the injury. Id. Furthermore, the claimant’s variable commissions are not analogous to a routine hourly wage increase. The hourly wage increase is fixed, whereas the commissions received are variable. We therefore agree with petitioners that the administrative law judge had discretion in this case to use an expanded wage base.
The petitioners lastly argue that the administrative law judge did not properly exercise his discretion in using the expanded wage base in this case because the respondent employee had earned his highest commission in the month prior to the injury, and therefore the 30 day period utilized does not realistically reflect the claimant’s true earning capacity. We disagree. The evidence that the claimant’s sales ability was progressive would support the inference that his earnings the month before the injury realistically reflected his earning capacity at the time of his injury. Because we must affirm an award supported by any reasonable evidence, see, e.g., Salt River Project v. Industrial Commission, 128 Ariz. 541, 627 P.2d 692 (1981), we must affirm this award.
In this context, the petitioners also argue that the administrative law judge erroneously allowed evidence and considered the claimant’s commissions earned after the industrial injury. We agree that wages earned after the industrial injury cannot be considered as part of the wage base for calculating the average monthly wage. See Davis v. Industrial Commission, supra. However, evidence of the commissions earned after the injury were relevant here in determining whether the claimant’s sales ability was progressive, and whether the 30 day period prior to injury realistically reflected his earning capacity at the time of injury. See, e.g., Reader v. General Motors Corporation, 107 Ariz. 149, 483 P.2d 1388 (1971). The post-injury commissions were relevant to these issues.
For the foregoing reasons, the award is affirmed.
BROOKS and OGG, JJ., concur.
. Section 1041(D) defines the term “monthly wage” to mean the average wage paid to the claimant during and over the month in which the employee is killed or injured.
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OPINION
EUBANK, Judge.
This appeal by Chastain Builders, Inc. (Chastain) is from a summary judgment in favor of the State of Arizona Department of Revenue (State) which reversed a decision of the Arizona State Board of Tax Appeals (Board) in Chastain’s favor. The Board’s decision rejected the State’s deficiency assessment against Chastain for $42,-633.95, which was based on an audit of Chastain for the period of October 1, 1970 through December 31,1975. The deficiency assessment resulted from disallowing certain deductions claimed by Chastain for payments made to concerns holding both contractor’s and sales tax licenses.
The only material issue on appeal is whether summary judgment was properly granted the State as a matter of law.
The facts are not in dispute. Chastain is an Arizona corporation engaged in the contracting business. Its primary activity consists of building and selling residential homes. Based upon the State’s regulation A.C.R.R. R15-5-216(G)(l), Chastain deducted from its gross income amounts paid to “subcontractors” who were licensed as a contractor and who also held a Transaction Privilege Tax license. Rule R15-5-216(G)(1) reads:
G. Other deductions. Other deductions from gross proceeds or gross income allowed to a contractor are:
1. Amounts paid to a subcontractor who is duly licensed as a contractor and also holds a transaction privilege tax license ....
It is undisputed that these “subcontractors” performed no construction labor for Chas-tain but only sold construction materials to Chastain, which were, in turn, used in its contracting business. Thus, at the time of the audit and before this court, Chastain contends that the regulation should be enforced according to its terms and that the deficiency assessment be reversed.
The State justifies the deficiency assessment on the basis of the statutes and rules. It argues that during the audit period A.R.S. § 42-1310 provided, in part:
The tax imposed by subsection A of [A.R.S.] § 42-1309 shall be levied and collected at the following rates:
* * * * * *
2. At an amount equal to one per cent of the gross proceeds of sales of gross income from the business upon every person engaging or continuing within this state in the following businesses: ******
(i) Contracting, but payments paid by the contractor for labor employed in construction, improvements or repairs shall not be subject to such tax. (Emphasis added) (this version of subsection (i) was repealed by Laws of 1978, Ch. 97, § 2).
The State further notes that the words “contracting,” “contractor,” and “subcontractor” are specifically defined in A.R.S. § 42-1301 as follows:
2. “Contracting” means engaging in business as a contractor.
3. “Contractor” is synonymous with the term “builder” and means a person, firm, partnership, corporation, association or other organization, or a combination of any of them, who undertakes to or offers to undertake to, or purports to have the capacity to undertake to, or submits a bid to, or does himself or by or through others, construct, alter, repair, add to, subtract from, improve, move, wreck or demolish any building, highway, road, railroad, excavation or other structure, project, development or improvement, or to do any part thereof, including the erection of scaffolding or other structure or works in connection therewith, and includes subcontractors and specialty contractors. For all purposes of taxation or deduction, this definition shall govern without regard to whether or not the contractor is acting in fulfillment of a contract. (Emphasis added).
Finally, in addition to A.C.R.R. R15-5-216(GX1), supra, relied on by Chastain, the State contends that subsections (A) and (H) must also be considered. Subsection (A) repeats the definition of “contractor” and “subcontractor” contained in A.R.S. § 42-1301, supra, and subsection (H) states:
H. Other costs not deductible. Examples of certain costs not deductible by contractors from gross income or gross proceeds of sales are-cost of land, materi-a Is used in contracts, public liability and property damage insurance, amounts paid to trucking concerns for hauling of dirt or materials. (Emphasis added).
Thus, the State contends that Chastain could only deduct from its gross income its cost for labor employed in its construction, and since the suppliers of materials did not furnish Chastain labor, the suppliers were not within the definition of a “subcontractor” for the purpose of an A.C.R.R. R15-5-216(G)(1), supra, deduction. We agree with the State.
In interpreting statutes, we must look to the intent of the legislature. In this process, tax statutes relating to the same subject should be read together and construed as a whole. Arizona Department of Revenue v. Maricopa County, 120 Ariz. 533, 587 P.2d 252 (1978). Further, the various provisions of our tax statutes are to be read together and ordinarily construed as a whole. Accordingly, if there were a definition of general application set forth in one provision, it would be given weight as indicating the appropriate definition of the same word or phrase in another provision. Arizona State Tax Commission v. Staggs Realty Corp., 85 Ariz. 294, 297-98, 337 P.2d 281, 284 (1959). Finally, a party claiming a tax exemption must come clearly within the exemption provisions, since such tax exemptions are strictly construed. J.H. Welsh & Son Construction Co. v. Arizona State Tax Commission, 4 Ariz.App. 398, 420 P.2d 970 (1966) , approved 102 Ariz. 443, 432 P.2d 455 (1967) .
First, we note that the legal issue involved herein is one of first impression. We have not been referred to any case authority by either party involving the precise exemption question.
Turning to the law, in our opinion the legislative intent is clearly expressed in the above cited statutes. When A.R.S. § 42-1301 was amended in 1960 to add the definitions of contracting and contractor to the section, the title of Senate Bill No. 116 read:
Relating To Taxation; providing a definition of Contracting and Contractor for the purposes of taxation and exemption under the Transaction Privilege and Use Taxes, and amending sections 42-1301 and 42-1401, Arizona Revised Statutes.
Laws of 1960, Ch. 21, § 1. The definitions of contracting and contractor, set out above, included the legislative purpose indicated in the title by stating: “For all purposes of taxation or deduction, this definition shall govern without regard to whether or not the contractor is acting in fulfillment of a contract.” Since the definition of contractor specifically includes a “subcontractor,” the same definition applies in order to determine who is a subcontractor for “taxation or deduction” purposes.
Chastain does not argue that the suppliers of materials are “subcontractors” within the definition of A.R.S. § 42-1301, supra, but only that by virtue of A.C.R.R. R15-5-216(G)(l), supra, it was duly licensed as a contractor and also held a transaction privilege tax and was exempted by the rule. This is not enough. In order for an R15-5216(GX1) deduction to apply, the subcontractor must come withip the definition of contractor in A.R.S. § 42-1301 and must be providing labor to Chastain’s projects. Former A.R.S. § 42-1310(2)(i), supra. The sale of materials only to the contractor does not qualify for the deduction by definition.
Our conclusion is supported by our prior opinion in Dennis Development Co. v. Department of Revenue, 122 Ariz. 465, 595 P.2d 1010 (App.1979). There we reversed the trial court for including within the contractor’s tax base proceeds from the sale of real property because such sales were not included within the definition of “contractor” set out in A.R.S. § 42-1301(5). Our conclusion is further supported by Ebasco Services, Inc. v. Arizona Tax Commission, 105 Ariz. 94, 459 P.2d 719 (1969), where our Supreme Court held, in part, that- “[t]he proper measure of the tax imposed on the privilege of doing business as a contractor within this state has been established by the legislature to be the GROSS RECEIPTS from that business. Giving a reasonable and ordinary construction of that term, we hold that owner supplied equipment [to the contractor] is not a gross receipt [of the contractor] for Transaction Privilege and Education Excise taxation.” 105 Ariz. at 98, 459 P.2d at 723. This conclusion was reached by the court applying a strict construction of the definition of gross receipts as defined by A.R.S. § 42-1301. Finally, our conclusion is supported by our opinion in Knoell Brothers Construction, Inc. v. State, Department of Revenue, 132 Ariz. 169, 644 P.2d 905 (App.1982). There, relying on the definitions of “contractor” and “gross income” contained in A.R.S. § 42— 1301, we said:
Although the Dennis case [122 Ariz. 465, 595 P.2d 1010] was interpreting A.R.S. § 42-1310(2)(i) before it was repealed (effective January 1, 1979), the reasoning has application here. The sale of land is not part of the business of contracting as defined under A.R.S. § 42-1301(4). This conclusion is further supported by the definition of “gross income” as set forth in A.R.S. § 42-1301(7), which provides:
7. “Gross income” means the gross receipts of a taxpayer derived from trade, business, commerce or sales and the value proceeding or accruing from the sale of tangible personal property, or service, or both, and without any deduction on account of losses. (Emphasis added).
It would therefore appear that if a contractor generates income from contracting activities, as those activities are defined in A.R.S. § 42-1301(4), then such income is properly included in the contractor’s tax base. Conversely, if monies come to the contractor from sources other than his taxable contracting business activities, they do not constitute gross income for the purpose of calculating the “in lieu of labor” deduction under A.R.S. § 42-1310(2)(i).
132 Ariz. at 171, 644 P.2d at 907.
In our opinion A.C.R.R. R15-5— 216(G)(1), supra, relating to “amounts paid to a subcontractor” means a subcontractor engaged in contracting as defined in A.R.S. § 42-1301, supra, and in A.C.R.R. R15-5-216(A). Thus, under the facts here, Chas-tain’s suppliers of construction materials were not subcontractors for the purpose of a deduction under the statutes and rules. Therefore, the deficiency assessment by the State against Chastain was lawful.
Chastain also contends that the trial court erred in admitting an alleged “longstanding practice” regarding its practice to treat the transactions involved herein as resale transactions rather than transactions between contractors and subcontractors. This issue need not be addressed. Assuming for purposes of argument that the court erred, it arrived at the correct legal result.
The summary judgment was properly granted to the State as a matter of law, hence it is affirmed.
HAIRE, P.J., and MEYERSON, J., concur.
. The issues are defined in the opening brief as:
1) Did the court err in considering the alleged “longstanding practice” first referred to in oral argument on cross motions for summary judgment in conducting the “evidentia-ry hearing” in connection therewith and admitting the parole evidence with reference thereto; and 2) is appellant taxpayer entitled to deduct the payments in the amount of $2,219,583.29 to licensed subcontractors holding transaction privilege tax licenses from its gross income when such subcontrac-
tors provided only materials under their contracts?
. Now A.C.R.R. R15-5-626.
. The assessment also included taxes levied by the Education Excise Tax (Article 1.1 of Title 42, A.R.S.), and the Special Excise Tax for Education (Article 1.2 of Title 42, A.R.S.). Those taxes, however, both refer back to A.R.S. § 42-1310.
. This definition is essentially the same as A.R.S. § 32-1101 prior to amendment in 1977.
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OPINION
HOWARD, Chief Judge.
This is an appeal in a divorce case. Appellant-husband contends that the trial court erred in (1) awarding spousal maintenance to appellee-wife; (2) awarding the wife her attorney’s fees; (3) establishing the method of payment of the wife’s interest in retirement and stock fund, and (4) inequitably dividing the community property. We affirm.
The record shows that at the time of the divorce the parties had been married for 30 years. They had five children, all but one are adults. The husband, a medical doctor at the Thomas-Davis Clinic in Tucson, was 54 years of age and the wife was 56. She is a college graduate with a degree in sociology and psychology. She worked two years as a welfare case worker and then married appellant. She worked again as a case worker and file clerk while her husband went to medical school. In 1956 she quit working to have their first child and she had not worked since then, except for the last four years when she earned approximately $2,000 per year taking Japanese students on a tour. As of late, the wife’s health has not been too good. In 1976 she had a stroke which temporarily paralyzed her. She is no longer paralyzed but does still experience some impairment of motor functions when fatigued and her handwriting becomes illegible.
Their living standard, while not sumptuous, was befitting the husband’s position and salary. They lived in a four-bedroom house with a three-car garage and swimming pool on two and one-half acres of land in the Catalina Foothills area of Tucson. The three-car garage contained three automobiles. The husband made $68,286 less federal and state income taxes during the year preceding the divorce and his net monthly income at the time of the divorce was $3,315.
The major community assets were the equity in the house, which had an estimated value of $129,000 and a retirement plan and a stock plan, which the trial court valued at $108,383 and $4,000 respectively.
The trial court ordered that the home be sold and the proceeds split equally. It also made an equal split of the stock and retirement plans but, pursuant to stipulation of the parties, gave the husband a credit against the amount due the wife. The sum of $46,004 was then ordered to be paid by the husband to the wife within 24 months and the court awarded the plans to the husband as his sole and separate property.
The court, recognizing that there was a disparity between the value of the community property awarded to the wife, $131,- 316.50, and the award to the husband, $112,-853.50, stated in the judgment:
“The Court has taken into consideration the evidence with respect to the inequitable division of the community personal property (furniture and personal effects) by adopting the more conservative values for the profit sharing and stock redemption plan of the Thomas-Davis Clinic.”
The trial court, in awarding the wife spousal maintenance in the sum of $1,000 per month stated:
“The Court further notes that under the testimony there is a substantial disparity in the earning capacity of the parties: the Petitioner’s earning capacity being $60,000.00 plus; the Respondent’s earning capacity being $7,500.00 to $10,-000.00 per year. The Court has taken into consideration all of the factors set forth in A.R.S. § 25-319(B) and all of the testimony concerning the needs of the various parties. The Court believes that failure to award spousal maintenance under the circumstances of this case would be inequitable since it would be holding that the Petitioner-Husband may continue to accumulate toward his retirement and live on his present income, but the Respondent-Wife must use her retirement nest egg to live on supplemented by whatever modest income she may be able to generate. After a marriage of this duration such a holding would be clearly inequitable.”
The trial court also awarded the wife her attorney’s fees in the sum of $5,775, payable $1,755 by the husband to the wife’s attorney forthwith and the balance payable out of the gross proceeds of the sale of the community home.
A.R.S. § 25-319(A) deals with spousal maintenance. It states:
“In a proceeding for dissolution of marriage ... the court may grant a maintenance order for either spouse only if it finds that the spouse seeking maintenance:
(1) Lacks sufficient property, including property apportioned to such spouse, to provide for his or her reasonable needs; and
(2) Is unable to support himself or herself through appropriate employment .. . or lacks earning ability in the labor market adequate to support himself or herself.”
The husband contends that the trial court erred in granting spousal maintenance because (1) it never made the finding required under the above statute; (2) the wife is or can be self-supporting, and (3) the trial court used improper considerations in awarding the spousal maintenance and failed to take into account the property awarded to the wife. We do not agree.
The statute does not require that the court make any specific “findings.” The word “finds” as used above is simply a synonym for “determines” or “decides.” See People v. Murphy, 35 Cal.App.3d 905, 111 Cal.Rptr. 295, 309 (1973) and cf. Justice v. City of Casa Grande, 116 Ariz. 66, 567 P.2d 1195 (App.1977).
The issue then is whether the evidence supports an award of spousal maintenance in view of the statutory prerequisites. The husband contends that the evidence does not support such a showing since the property apportioned would provide for her reasonable needs and because the court found that she had an earning capacity of $7,500 to $10,000 per year. The husband further contends that the court’s “nest egg” theory enunciated in the judgment does not fall within the factors which the court should consider in deciding the maintenance issue.
Although the trial court made a statement in the judgment about the wife’s earning capacity, whether the capacity will result in any income is yet to be seen. A labor market consultant testified that the wife might be able to find work as a travel agent, if she first went to school at a cost of $2,500. The wife had been looking for work but had not been able to find anything as of the date of trial. For the past four years she had been receiving money for taking the Japanese students on a tour. The trial court was well aware of the fact that she had not yet found employment, that she was not in the best of health, and more important, that she was 56 years old. The wife stated that she needed $1,074 a month to live on and, of course, any amount that she received from her husband would be subject to state and federal taxation. What the court was really saying in its “nest egg” theory was that she did not have sufficient property apportioned to her to provide for her reasonable needs. She would have to live off both the principal and interest from the money, dissipating it to an extent that when she no longer had any earning capacity, there would be nothing left upon which she could draw.
Appellant also contends that the trial court erred in allowing the labor market analyst to testify as to how much money would be required per month to support a person at a relatively decent level. She testified that a net of $1,200 would be reasonable. It is appellant’s contention that the labor market analyst was not qualified to give evidence as an expert on this subject since no foundation was made showing any expertise. Assuming, arguendo, that appellant is correct, this was a trial before the court and since there was sufficient evidence to sustain the trial court’s awarding of the spousal maintenance it will be presumed that the court disregarded the incompetent evidence. Boston and Arizona Smelting and Reduction Co. v. Lewis, 3 Ariz. 5, 20 Pac. 310 (1889).
Appellant next contends the trial court erred in granting the wife attorney’s fees. The awarding of such fees is within the court’s discretion. Luna v. Luna, 125 Ariz. 120, 608 P.2d 57 (App.1979). The husband was not ordered to pay all of the fees as the court ordered the major share to be paid from the gross proceeds of the house sale. Since half of the house proceeds were awarded to appellee, appellant, in effect, was ordered to pay $2,000 of the last $4,000. So the question is whether the trial court erred in awarding the fees and whether the sum of $3,750 is excessive. Viewing the entire record, we are unable to say that the trial court erred in awarding appellee attorney’s fees and in the amount awarded.
The husband contends that the trial court erred in awarding appellee the $46,000 for her interest in the retirement and stock fund within 24 months. He contends that the trial court abused its discretion by awarding his wife a cash sum rather than ordering him to pay her her share of the retirement benefits as he receives them. We do not agree. The present cash value method is preferred if the pension rights can be valued accurately and if the marital estate includes sufficient equivalent property to satisfy the claim of the non-employee without undue hardship to the employee-spouse. Johnson v. Johnson, 131 Ariz. 38, 638 P.2d 705 (1981). It is obvious that the trial court deferred the payment of the sum for two years since it was of the opinion that the amount could be paid out of the husband’s share of the proceeds from the house sale. In other words, he gave the parties two years to sell the house so that the sum could be paid. The trial court did not err. Johnson v. Johnson, supra.
The husband’s last contention is that the trial court erred in its unequal division of the community property. We do not agree. The trial court is not required to divide community property exactly equally. However, it cannot, without reason, create a gross disparity or make its award arbitrarily. In the absence of sound reasons appearing in the record which justify contrary results, apportionment of community estate upon dissolution must be substantially equal. Buttram v. Buttram, 122 Ariz. 581, 596 P.2d 719 (App.1979); Tester v. Tester, 123 Ariz. 41, 597 P.2d 194 (App.1979). The husband was awarded 46 per cent of the community property and the wife was awarded 54 per cent. The trial court recognized the disparity and in its judgment noted that it had adjusted for this disparity by arriving at a very conservative value for the present value of the retirement and stock fund. Appellant also contends the trial court erred in failing to give him an additional share of the community property to reimburse him for $26,000 of his separate property which he spent for community bills during the marriage. We do not agree since there was no evidence of any agreement to reimburse. See Baum v. Baum, 120 Ariz. 140, 584 P.2d 604 (App.1978). The trial court did not abuse its discretion in dividing the community property.
Affirmed.
HATHAWAY and BIRDSALL, JJ., concur.
. For a short analysis of some of the employment problems of the older worker, see 3 Larsen, Employment Discrimination § 98.20.
|
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HAYS, Justice
This special action turns on the question of whether the trial court abused its discretion or acted arbitrarily or capriciously in denying petitioner’s motion, challenging his indictment for kidnapping and assault, under rule 12.9, Rules of Criminal Procedure, 17 A.R.S. In that motion Crimmins alleged he was denied substantial procedural rights by virtue of the prosecutor’s failure to (1) present the evidence in a fair and impartial manner, and (2) advise the grand jurors of the right of a private individual to make a citizen’s arrest. The motion was denied after a hearing on February 15, 1983, and this special action followed. We have jurisdiction under the Arizona Constitution, art. 6, § 5(1), and Rule 8, Rules of Procedure for Special Actions, 17A A.R.S. We find that the denial of that motion was an abuse of discretion, and we remand for a redetermi-nation of probable cause.
Five dáys after Crimmins’ arrest on charges of kidnapping and assault, his defense counsel wrote to the office of the Maricopa County Attorney to confirm what he understood to be the prosecutor’s oral agreement “... to allow us to meet with you regarding this case prior to the initiation of another complaint so we can answer any questions you might have and make our side of the case known.” The county attorney made no response to the letter, which also briefly related circumstances leading to the kidnapping charge. Those circumstances and their presentation as evidence raise the substantive issue in this case so we set them oiit here in some detail.
On November 17, 1982, Crimmins returned home from work in the late afternoon and discovered that his house had been burglarized. He suspected that a neighbor’s teenaged son (Blumer) might have been responsible so he proceeded to the boy’s home. Once there, he talked with the boy’s mother who told him that her son was at a neighborhood video arcade with some of his friends. Crimmins went there, and as he drove up he saw Blumer and some other juveniles in front of the place of business. Crimmins approached the group, noticing as he walked up to them that one of the boys (Val) was wearing a pair of stereo headphones similar to a pair taken from Crimmins’ home that afternoon. When Crimmins attempted to detain Val, the young man broke free and ran but Crimmins managed to retrieve the headset from him.
As Val ran off, Crimmins turned and seized another boy (Federico) who had been standing with the group that included Val. He placed Federico in his jeep and returned to the Crimmins home. Crimmins questioned Federico while both were still in the vehicle, obtaining a list of names (including Paul Val) of persons who, according to Federico, were with Blumer at his apartment on the afternoon of November 17. Crim-mins then left the jeep, directing Federico to wait there, and allegedly locked Federico in the vehicle.
Before returning to the jeep Crimmins verified the list of names by consulting with Blumer, who had by then returned home, and called the police to report a burglary with suspect in custody. He then returned to the jeep to question Federico further and made at least one more visit to Blumer’s apartment. At some point, upon returning to his jeep, Crimmins discovered that Federico had fled.
Federico made his way to a nearby supermarket where he called his parents and reported that he had been detained and questioned by Crimmins. Federico’s parents called the police and reported a kidnapping and assault. Separate police units were dispatched to Crimmins’ home for the burglary call and to the supermarket on the kidnapping report. Crimmins was arrested later that evening.
No conference ever occurred between the county attorney and Crimmins. Ultimately, the case was received by the grand jury on December 2, 1982.
The Rules of Criminal Procedure permit a challenge to the grand jury proceeding on only two grounds. 17 A.R.S. Rules of Criminal Procedure, rule 12.9. Pursuant to that rule, petitioner has asserted two denials of his substantial procedural rights as noted above. Petitioner correctly points out that an accused is entitled to due process during grand jury proceedings. State v. Emery, 131 Ariz. 493, 506, 642 P.2d 838, 851 (1982). In particular, due process here requires the use of an unbiased grand jury and a fair and impartial presentation of the evidence. Id.
Our state’s courts have recognized the historical independence of the grand jury. Marston’s, Inc. v. Strand, 114 Ariz. 260, 560 P.2d 778 (1977). The necessity of maintaining that independence arises because of the grand jury’s unique role in bringing to trial those who may be guilty and clearing the unjustly accused. The duties of fair play and impartiality imposed on those who attend and serve the grand jury are meant to ensure that the determinations made by that body are informed, objective and just.
Our reading of all the exhibits indicates that the grand jury was not adequately informed of the facts and law. The separate police investigations proceeded independently at first, but it appears from the police reports submitted as exhibits that by the time Crimmins was arrested there was some degree of awareness by all the police that they were dealing with interrelated events. It further appears from the police report of Blumer’s statement that at least some of the juveniles who spent the afternoon and early evening with Federico are the burglars who broke into Crimmins’ home.
The state’s only witness, Officer Rapp, had participated in the investigation which revealed that Federico had been in the company of the group that included the likely burglars for most of the afternoon and evening of the day when they broke into the Crimmins home. Nevertheless, his testimony before the grand jury inaccurately represented what the police knew about Federico and his possible involvement in the burglary, as this exchange illustrates:
Q. [By Mr. Nelson, Deputy County Attorney] Did your investigation reveal whether or not Arthur Federico was in any way involved in the burglary involving the Thomas Crimmins residence?
A. [By Officer Rapp, Phoenix Police Department] At this time, from interviews with other juveniles, I do not feel and do not believe that Arthur was involved in any way with the burglary.
Q. You have no evidence whatsoever to indicate he was involved?
A. None.
The witness’ first statement is not responsive to the prosecutor’s question, but is certain to give the impression of a negative answer. The second answer is, in our opinion, inaccurate. While we do not believe the record in this case settles the question of Federico’s involvement, the police reports submitted as exhibits lead us to conclude that there was some indication, however uncertain, that Federico might have been involved. Nevertheless, Officer Rapp’s testimony alone would not cause us to remand for a redetermination of probable cause.
The effect of his testimony on the minds of the grand jurors can only be fully recognized when it is understood that they considered this inaccurate version of the facts in the context of inadequate instructions on the applicable law. The county attorney did not read the citizen’s arrest statutes (A.R.S. §§ 13-3884, 13-3889 and 13-3900) to the grand jury.
It was clear, from Crimmins’ telephone call to the police, that he believed he had made a citizen’s arrest. Even if petitioner had not reported “suspects in custody,” it is obvious that Federico was detained because Crimmins suspected him of a crime. The grand jurors perceived this because one of them asked the witness about how long Federico was detained, whether a burglary actually occurred and when it took place. The answers to those questions are all material to the issues raised by a claim of citizen’s arrest. We hold that the citizen’s arrest statutes were part of the applicable law given the facts of the case, and it was the duty of the prosecutor as legal adviser to the grand jury to instruct on that law. The omission of that legal advice, considered with the inaccurate testimony, rendered the presentation of this case less than fair and impartial as is required by State v. Emery, supra.
The state has cited us to State v. Jessen, 130 Ariz. 1, 633 P.2d 410 (1981), urging that it is dispositive of Crimmins’ claims and requires that he be denied relief. We do not agree.
Jessen, indicted for first degree murder, complained that the grand jury was not instructed as to lesser-included offenses, the elements of those various crimes or potential defenses to prosecution. In addition, Jessen claimed the presentation of evidence to the grand jury was slanted in favor of the state, and that evidence of provocation by the victim and the accused’s fear of the victim were withheld from the grand jury. This court found no error in the trial court’s denial of Jessen’s motion for a new determination of probable cause.
First, we note that Jessen recognizes the principle that “[c]ourts generally do not concern themselves with the evidence underlying a grand jury indictment.” Id. at 5, 633 P.2d at 414. This rule has been variously stated in a series of cases reviewing trial courts’ determinations of motions for new findings of probable cause. Those cases clearly prohibit a trial court from considering an attack on an indictment based on the nature, weight or sufficiency of the evidence presented to the grand jury. See State v. Jacobson, 22 Ariz. App. 128, 524 P.2d 962 (1974). In this court, and in the trial court, Crimmins has made a different contention. He urges that the proceedings denied him his substantial procedural right to a fair and impartial presentation of evidence. We have reviewed the record and the transcript with that issue as our frame of reference rather than considering sufficiency.
The Jessen court found no error based on a failure to give proper instructions because admissions in the record demonstrated that proper instructions were given. Our research has disclosed one case where we examined a claim of denial of due process before the grand jury based on allegedly defective instructions given in response to a grand juror’s question. In State v. Horner, 112 Ariz. 432, 543 P.2d 118 (1975), we held that the grand jury was properly instructed because the prosecutor’s misstatement of the law was part of an unresponsive answer to a juror’s question which was itself outside the scope of the jury’s proper concern. Horner is authority for the proposition that instruction on all the relevant statutes satisfies due process. Id. at 433, 543 P.2d at 119. This distinguishes it, and Jessen, from the instant case where relevant statutes were not read to the grand jury.
Jessen, which dismissed the defendant’s contention that certain factual information was not presented to the grand jurors, does not approve withholding information. Rather, the court found that the allegedly omitted facts were presented to the grand jury. The instant case is distinguishable from Jessen because the omission of significant facts, coupled with the omission of instruction on statutes which give the omitted facts their legal significance, rendered the presentation of the case against Crimmins less than fair and impartial. Properly informed as to the facts and instructed as to the citizen’s arrest statutes, the grand jury could have decided the propriety and legal effect of Crimmins’ reliance on the right of a private individual to arrest a criminal suspect. This is a decision that should have been made by the grand jury in weighing the question of probable cause.
We believe that the grand jury’s inability to determine the case based on accurately depicted facts and the applicable law flawed its decision and entitles Crimmins to a new determination of probable cause. Petitioner was denied his right to due process and a fair and impartial presentation of the evidence by the manner in which the proceeding was conducted.
Accordingly, the requested relief is granted. Remanded for a new determination of probable cause.
HOLOHAN, C.J., GORDON, V.C.J., and CAMERON, J., concur.
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OPINION
LIVERMORE, Presiding Judge.
Taking the evidence in the light most favorable to sustaining the verdict it appears that on July 14, 1985, on the eve of trial of two cases brought by plaintiff Gus Fotinos against defendants Leslie and Joy Baker, the parties through their lawyers orally settled the cases and the trial court was so notified. Because of the settlement, the trial judge dismissed the cases. Essentially the settlement provided that in return for the dismissal the Bakers would pay Fotinos $510,000 with interest within 66 months. The debt would be secured by a collateral assignment of beneficial interest by Baker in a land trust jointly owned by him and Fotinos. Fotinos would grant Baker a one-year option on specified terms to purchase his interest in that trust. The agreement also provided that the Bakers would have to make payments to Fotinos of a specified percentage of the proceeds when sales of other land owned by them were made. The parties agreed that this settlement would be reduced to writing and the Bakers’ lawyer drafted the necessary documents. Before they were signed, however, and after the original cases had been dismissed, the Bakers took the position that no binding settlement had been reached. This action to enforce the agreement followed. On appeal from a judgment in favor of Fotinos, the Bakers contend that the evidence does not support a finding that an oral contract was formed and that the trial judge erred in his instructions.
The main thrust of the Bakers’ argument is that the oral agreement was not a binding contract because the parties contemplated that it be reduced to writing before it was enforceable. Lininger v. Sonenblick, 23 Ariz.App. 266, 532 P.2d 538 (1975). That issue, however, was submitted to the jury under appropriate instructions and was decided against the Bakers. There is evidence to support the conclusion that the parties intended to be bound by the oral agreement of their counsel. That it was later to be reduced to writing does not affect the enforceability of the contract. 1 S. Williston, Law of Contracts § 28 (3d ed. 1957).
The Bakers next contend that because the settlement involved an option to purchase the beneficial interest in a trust owning property and a security interest in another beneficial interest in that same trust, it was within the statute of frauds, A.R.S. § 44-101, that the only way to avoid the bar of the statute is through the doctrine of equitable estoppel, and that the trial judge erred in permitting a finding of such estoppel by a preponderance of the evidence rather than by requiring a finding by clear and convincing evidence. We reject this argument for the following reasons:
(1) None of the Arizona cases discussing estoppel to assert the statute of frauds has imposed the higher evi-dentiary standard. See Custis v. Valley National Bank, 92 Ariz. 202, 375 P.2d 558 (1962); Waugh v. Len-nard, 69 Ariz. 214, 211 P.2d 806 (1949); Cress v. Switzer, 61 Ariz. 405, 150 P.2d 86 (1944); Diamond v. Jac-quith, 14 Ariz. 119, 125 P. 712 (1912); Del Rio Land, Inc. v. Haumont, 118 Ariz. 1, 574 P.2d 469 (App.1977). The references to “clear and satisfactory proof” in Desert Vista Apartments, Inc. v. O’Malley Lumber Co., 103 Ariz. 23, 436 P.2d 479 (1968), and Knight v. Rice, 83 Ariz. 379, 321 P.2d 1037 (1958), estoppels arising in different contexts, do not “clearly” require a higher evidentiary standard. Even if a higher standard is required, there is in this case clear and satisfactory proof, indeed it is undisputed, that Fotinos relied to his detriment and performed his obligation under the settlement agreement by allowing dismissal of the earlier claims.
(2) In any event the severable core of this agreement, dismissal of the claims in return for $510,000, was not within the statute. Fotinos did not sue to enforce his right to a security interest in the Bakers’ beneficial interest in the trust. For that reason the statute of frauds is simply inapplicable to this case. Frantz v. Maher, 106 Ohio App. 465,155 N.E.2d 471 (1957); 2 A. Corbin, Corbin on Contracts § 315 (1950); Restatement of Contracts (Second) § 147 (1981).
(3) There being no dispute that the Bakers’ lawyer was authorized to act for them, the “settlement” documents prepared by him were a writing by the person to be charged. See Hunter, Modern Law of Contracts 1119.04[4] (1987).
It is argued finally that because Fotinos did not sign the option it was unenforceable against him because of the statute of frauds and that, consequently, there being no mutuality, he cannot enforce the Bakers’ promises against them. This is not a defense. By bringing this action by a verified complaint incorporating the option, Fotinos signed documents making the option enforceable. See 2 A. Corbin, Corbin on Contracts § 282 (1950).
The judgment is affirmed. Appellee is awarded his attorneys’ fees on appeal in an amount to be determined upon filing the statement required by Rule 21, Ariz.R.Civ. App.P., 17B A.R.S.
HATHAWAY and HOWARD, JJ., concur.
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JUDGMENT OF DISBARMENT
In accordance with the provisions of Rule 56(b)(2), Disbarment by Consent, Rules of the Supreme Court, and
Respondent BRICK P. STORTS, III having consented to disbarment as a member of the State Bar of Arizona, and the State Bar having stipulated that the judgment of disbarment should be retroactive to May 1, 1988, the date upon which respondent’s interim suspension was effective, and this Court having this date accepted the Consent to Disbarment,
IT IS ORDERED, ADJUDGED AND DECREED that BRICK P. STORTS, III be and hereby is disbarred from the practice of law in the State of Arizona, retroactive to May 1, 1988.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that pursuant to Rule 63(a), Rules of the Supreme Court of Arizona, BRICK P. STORTS, III shall notify all of his clients, within ten (10) days from the date hereof, of his inability to continue to represent them and that they should promptly retain new counsel, and shall promptly inform this Court of his compliance with this Order as provided by Rule 63(d), Rules of the Supreme Court of Arizona.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that pursuant to Rule 53(e)(3), Rules of the Supreme Court of Arizona, BRICK P. STORTS, III be and hereby is assessed the costs and expenses incurred by the State Bar of Arizona in the amount of $579.48, to be repaid to the State Bar of Arizona.
|
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OPINION
ROLL, Presiding Judge.
In an appeal from an adjudication of delinquency, the minor argues that the juvenile court erred in finding beyond a reasonable doubt that the minor engaged in an act of delinquency by throwing a water balloon at a moving vehicle. We affirm.
FACTS
Viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to sustaining the verdict, Appeal in Pinal County Juvenile Action Nos. J-1123 and J-1124, 147 Ariz. 302, 306, 709 P.2d 1361, 1365 (App.1985), the facts are as follows. The minor, who was 14 years old at the time of the incident, was with his younger brother and two neighbors, first throwing water balloons at each other, then moving to an embankment off a highway, where the children began to throw balloons at passing vehicles. The minor threw a water balloon at an approaching van occupied by two adults and two children. The driver of the van swerved out of his lane to avoid the balloon. The driver then turned around, got out of his car, apprehended the minor and his younger brother, and called the police. The juvenile testified that he anticipated that the vehicle would swerve to avoid the balloon.
PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
The minor was charged with one count of criminal damage and one count of reckless endangerment. At the conclusion of the state’s case at the adjudication hearing, a judgment of acquittal was entered on. the criminal damage count. At the conclusion of all the evidence, the minor was adjudicated delinquent on the endangerment count.
ISSUES ON APPEAL
On appeal, the minor argues that the evidence was insufficient to establish that the minor possessed the culpable mental state of recklessness required for endangerment.
DISCUSSION
In considering the minor’s argument that insufficient evidence exists, we must view the evidence in the light most favorable to sustaining the verdict. Appeal in Pinal County Juvenile Action Nos. J-1123 and J-1124, supra.
The minor was adjudicated delinquent based upon a finding that he committed the offense of endangerment in violation of A.R.S. § 13-1201. That statute provides:
§ 13-1201. Endangerment; classification
A. A person commits endangerment by recklessly endangering another person with a substantial risk of imminent death or physical injury.
B. Endangerment involving a substantial risk of imminent death is a class 6 felony. In all other cases, it is a class 1 misdemeanor.
Recklessly is defined in A.R.S. § 13-105(6)(c) as follows:
(c) “Recklessly” means, with respect to a result or to a circumstance described by a statute defining an offense, that a person is aware of and consciously disregards a substantial and unjustifiable risk that the result will occur or that the circumstance exists. The risk must be of such nature and degree that disregard of such risk constitutes a gross deviation from the standard of conduct that a reasonable person would observe in the situation. A person who creates such a risk but is unaware of such risk solely by reason of voluntary intoxication also acts recklessly with respect to such risk.
In State v. Serrano, 145 Ariz. 498, 702 P.2d 1343 (App.1985), this court considered recklessness in the context of criminal trespass. We stated that the state must establish that (1) the conduct poses a risk to others that “is so great that disregard of it constitutes a gross deviation from the standard of conduct that a reasonable person would observe in the situation” and (2) the accused was actually aware of the risk. Id. at 501, 702 P.2d at 1346.
Applying the Serrano analysis, sufficient evidence exists to support the juvenile court’s determination. Objectively, the hurling of water balloons at fast-moving vehicles travelling on state highways constitutes a gross deviation from the standard of conduct a reasonable person would exercise. Proof that the minor was cognizant of the risk caused by his conduct is apparent from the minor’s statement that he anticipated that the drivers of the vehicles at which balloons were thrown would swerve, as indeed at least one did. Such spontaneous evasive action places in grave peril not only the occupants of the vehicle taking evasive action but others who may be in the vicinity.
We affirm the juvenile court’s decision finding the minor delinquent.
HATHAWAY and HOWARD, JJ„ concur.
|
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GORDON, Chief Justice.
Scott Allen Watton (defendant) petitioned for review of a court of appeals order reversing the superior court’s dismissal of his petition for post-conviction relief and remanding for an evidentiary hearing. The State did not file a response. We granted review pursuant to Rule 32.9(f), Ariz.R. Crim.P., 17 A.R.S. We have jurisdiction under Ariz. Const, art. 6, § 5(3).
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
Defendant was indicted on charges of kidnapping, in violation of A.R.S. § 13-1304, and aggravated assault with a dangerous weapon, in violation of A.R.S. §§ 13-1204(A) and 13-604(G). Defendant and the State entered into a plea agreement under which defendant pleaded guilty to the aggravated assault charge, a class 3 felony, and in exchange the kidnapping charge, a class 2 felony, was dismissed. The agreement set out the sentencing range and required defendant to serve at least two-thirds of any sentence imposed before being eligible for release.
The plea agreement also contained the following provision:
Both State and Defendant agree to submit the matter of sentencing on the basis of the presentence report. Neither the prosecutor nor the defense counsel will contact the Adult Probation Officer who is writing the presentence report.
At the change of plea hearing, defense counsel advised the court of this provision, stating:
[Tjhere’s an additional provision in the plea agreement whereby the prosecutor and I have agreed to submit the matter of sentencing on the record on the basis of the pre-sentence report. As I understand that, I am not to make any argument to the court at the time of sentencing.
I have discussed that provision with Mr. Watton, and I understand that he agrees with that provision as well.
Defendant also informed the court that he agreed to the provision. The trial court found that defendant voluntarily entered the plea agreement and that a factual basis existed for the plea. The court then set the matter for sentencing and ordered preparation of a presentence report.
At sentencing, neither the prosecutor nor defense counsel argued their respective positions about defendant’s sentencing; neither did they discuss the presentence report. The court found that aggravating factors outweighed any mitigating factors and sentenced defendant to the maximum term of 15 years. Defendant did not appeal.
Defendant filed a petition for post-conviction relief and counsel was appointed to represent him. Defendant alleged that the presentence report contained inaccurate statements and ignored other information relevant to sentencing. He contended that the challenged provision threatened the foundation of our judicial system by leading to a sentence based on incomplete and inaccurate information. Defendant argued that both counsel interpreted the agreement to prohibit them from addressing the court at sentencing, which prevented them from correcting inaccuracies in the presen-tence report and led the court to impose sentence without having all relevant information before it.
The trial court subsequently dismissed the petition without, an evidentiary hearing and denied defendant’s motion for rehearing. Defendant then sought review in the court of appeals, raising the same arguments. The court of appeals granted review and ordered:
[Defendant] raised a colorable claim as to whether the provision of the plea agreement pertaining to sentencing was construed by the court and counsel to prohibit counsel not only from arguing their respective positions with respect to sentencing, which is permissible, but also to preclude petitioner’s counsel from raising and correcting any factual inaccuracies in the presentence report, which would violate petitioner’s right to due process and to the effective assistance of counsel.
The court of appeals vacated the trial court’s order and remanded for an eviden-tiary hearing to determine whether the plea agreement was construed as precluding defense counsel from raising and correcting inaccuracies and whether the report contained any errors. The court ordered defendant resentenced if the trial court found that the provision had been so construed and factual errors existed. Otherwise, the court held, defendant was not entitled to any relief.
On review in this court, defendant challenges the court of appeals order. He submits that the entire plea agreement should be set aside and that he should be granted a new trial. In the alternative, defendant claims he is entitled to be resentenced without an evidentiary hearing.
DISCUSSION
Defendant asks that we determine whether counsels’ interpretation of the stipulation in the plea agreement: (1) rendered his plea involuntary; (2) violated the due process clauses of the state and federal constitutions; (3) deprived him of effective assistance of counsel; or (4) contravened public policy. Defendant also asks us to determine the appropriate relief if a violation is found.
Voluntariness of the Plea Agreement
[1] We note at the outset that a grant or denial of post-conviction relief is within the trial court’s discretion. We will not reverse the trial court’s decision unless an abuse of discretion affirmatively appears. State v. Schrock, 149 Ariz. 433, 441, 719 P.2d 1049, 1057 (1986); State v. Adamson, 136 Ariz. 250, 265, 665 P.2d 972, 987 (1983), cert. denied, 464 U.S. 865,104 S.Ct. 204, 78 L.Ed.2d 178 (1983).
Defendant argues that he did not knowingly, intelligently, and voluntarily enter the guilty plea because: (1) he could not, and did not, foresee that the presentence report would be prepared in a biased and prejudicial manner; (2) he could not foresee that the provision would be interpreted to prevent counsel from challenging any inaccuracies in the report, presenting mitigating evidence, or contacting the probation officer preparing the report; and (3) counsels’ interpretation of the provision effectively led to defendant being deprived of his right to a presentence hearing. Accordingly, defendant claims, he should be allowed to withdraw from the plea agreement, and he should be granted a new trial.
Public policy supports the use of plea agreements in the criminal process. Properly negotiated plea agreements, when used correctly, enhance judicial economy, protect the State’s resources, and promote justice for defendants, victims, and the State. State v. Draper, 162 Ariz. 433, 439-40, 784 P.2d 259, 265-66 (1989) (quoting State v. Superior Court, 125 Ariz. 575, 577, 611 P.2d 928, 930 (1980)). Under Rule 17.4(a) of the Arizona Rules of Criminal Procedure, 17 A.R.S., parties may negotiate and reach an agreement on any aspect of the disposition of a case, including an agreement not to make sentencing recommendations. State v. Solano, 150 Ariz. 398, 401, 724 P.2d 17, 20 (1986).
A plea must be made voluntarily, “with sufficient awareness of the relevant circumstances and likely consequences.” Brady v. United States, 397 U.S. 742, 748, 90 S.Ct. 1463, 1469, 25 L.Ed.2d 747 (1970). The court will accept a plea of guilty only if it is voluntarily and intelligently made. Rule 17.1(b), Ariz.R.Crim.P., 17 A.R.S. A defendant must thoroughly understand the plea’s potential ramifications and be apprised of both the sentencing range and the rights forfeited. Rule 17.2, Ariz.R.Crim.P., 17 A.R.S.; State v. Cutler, 121 Ariz. 328, 329, 590 P.2d 444, 445 (1979). Moreover, the plea must not be induced by any force, threats, or promises outside the plea agreement that change the voluntary nature of the plea. State v. Linsner, 105 Ariz. 488, 491, 467 P.2d 238, 241 (1970).
The fact that a sentencing judge may be presented with ambiguous, unreliable, or inaccurate information at sentencing is not necessarily grounds for finding that a defendant did not enter the plea agreement voluntarily. In this case, any misinformation would affect only the term of the sentence; defendant knew he faced a possible aggravated term of 15 years by entering into the plea agreement. See State v. Phillips, 108 Ariz. 332, 333-34, 498 P.2d 199, 200-01 (1972) (defendant claiming he was led to believe he would receive shorter sentence than sentence imposed was not entitled to change the plea just because he decided he made a bad bargain). A defendant who has received the full benefit of a plea bargain cannot be allowed to withdraw the plea merely because of disagreement with the sentence. State v. Crowder, 155 Ariz. 477, 481, 747 P.2d 1176, 1180 (1987) (“Where the missing information does not go to defendant’s essential objective in making the agreement, where it involves secondary or minor terms collateral to the decision to plead, and where it is not ‘of the essence’ of the agreement, it is in the public interest that the agreement be enforced.”).
From the record, we can discern that the trial court did not abuse its discretion in denying defendant’s request that the plea agreement be vacated, as there was sufficient evidence that defendant entered the plea voluntarily and intelligently. Defendant was represented by counsel at the change of plea hearing, and the court detailed the punishment to which defendant could be subjected for the crime of aggravated assault with a deadly weapon. Before accepting defendant’s guilty plea, the judge also explained the rights defendant waived by entering the plea agreement. Defendant stated that he understood and accepted the terms of the plea agreement, including the provision challenged here.
Defendant knew of and understood the essential terms of the plea agreement, including the fact that he could be sentenced to an aggravated term of 15 years. Defendant also knew that, without the plea agreement, he faced conviction on kidnapping in addition to aggravated assault and that the court could impose consecutive sentences. Defendant does not claim the plea was induced by any threats or force. Defendant received the benefit of his plea bargain, which he entered voluntarily, and the alleged problem with the plea provision did not affect the decision-making process with respect to his guilty plea. The trial court therefore acted within its discretion in refusing to vacate the plea agreement.
Validity of the Sentence
Although we find that defendant voluntarily entered the plea agreement, and therefore is not entitled to vacate the agreement and demand a new trial, we must address whether the challenged provision or its interpretation affected the validity of defendant’s sentence. The question presented here is whether a plea agreement provision can -be interpreted to deny defendant the opportunity to correct errors or to supplement the presentence report once the parties agree the judge will exercise discretion at sentencing. We believe the answer is no.
Although public policy favors the use of plea agreements, it also mandates a fair sentencing process. Arizona courts have long held that a court must tailor the sentence based on complete and accurate information. State v. Claboume, 142 Ariz. 335, 346, 690 P.2d 54, 65 (1984); State v. Fenton, 86 Ariz. Ill, 119, 341 P.2d 237, 242 (1959), cert. denied, 361 U.S. 877, 80 S.Ct. 142, 4 L.Ed.2d 115 (1959); State v. Gaydman, 127 Ariz. 600, 602, 623 P.2d 30, 32 (App.1981); see also State v. Grier, 146 Ariz. 511, 515, 707 P.2d 309, 313 (1985). The primary source of information at sentencing usually is the presentence report, which contains a broad range of information about a defendant and serves a key function in the sentencing process. See A.R.S. § 12-253(4). The court must, with limited exceptions, require a presentence report in all cases in which it has discretion over the penalty imposed. Rule 26.4(a), Ariz.R.Crim.P., 17 A.R.S.
Presentence reports must contain complete and accurate information, especially where a presentence hearing does not take place. State v. Dixon, 21 Ariz.App. 517, 519, 521 P.2d 148, 150 (1974); Fennell & Hall, Due Process at Sentencing: An Empirical and Legal Analysis of the Disclosure of Presentence Reports in Federal Courts, 93 Harv.L.Rev. 1615, 1629 (1980). The reliance on presentence reports, however, leads to the possibility that misleading, inaccurate or incomplete information may be provided to the sentencing court. Fennell & Hall, supra, 93 Harv.L.Rev. at 1629. The potential for misleading the court becomes even more problematic after a guilty plea because, in such cases, “the probation officer engages in a new investigation of the offense without the use of traditional adversarial and evidentiary safeguards for ensuring fairness and accuracy.” Id.
The goal of providing the court with complete and accurate information at sentencing does not mean that a defendant is entitled to a presentence report of his own liking. The mere fact that a presentence report contains information adverse to defendant does not render the report biased or inaccurate. State v. Stanhope, 139 Ariz. 88, 94, 676 P.2d 1146, 1152 (App. 1984). As noted by our courts of appeals, the sentencing judge has discretion to decide the weight given the presentence report and we will assume the judge was not influenced adversely by any improper statements in the report if brought to the court’s attention. State v. Warren, 124 Ariz. 396, 405, 604 P.2d 660, 669 (App.1979) (quoting Dixon, 21 Ariz.App. at 519, 521 P.2d at 150).
Generally, a defendant has a duty to demonstrate to the sentencing judge that certain information is unreliable or inaccurate. If a defendant has the opportunity to challenge the report, this court will presume that the lower court recog nized any error or misleading information and gave the information appropriate consideration. Id. A defendant denied the opportunity to challenge the accuracy of the report, however, has been denied a fair sentencing.
The sentencing process is designed to assist the court in intelligently exercising its discretion based on complete and accurate information. Anything that inhibits a court’s or a probation officer’s access to information undermines the truth-seeking function of the judicial process and threatens the adversary system. A judge cannot fashion an appropriate sentence for a particular defendant if relevant information, whether in aggravation or mitigation, is withheld. Anything that prevents a probation officer or a sentencing judge from obtaining relevant and accurate information therefore hampers the proper exercise of the court’s discretion. State v. Thur-ston, 781 P.2d 1296, 1300 (Utah App.1989); see also State v. Prentiss, 163 Ariz. 81, 86, 786 P.2d 932, 937 (1989) (“Any rule which inhibits a lawyer at sentencing from revealing, recommending, alleging or discussing mitigating circumstances with that judge fosters injustice.”)
The court of appeals has stated:
[W]e look with great concern upon any plea agreement which would prevent the court from obtaining complete sentencing information. One of the most important elements of the criminal justice system is just and informed sentencing by a trial court furnished with all relevant sentencing data. In our opinion, a plea agreement which prevents this is detrimental to society and a fraud on the court. Public policy may require us to take a closer look at such agreements in the future.
State v. Kelly, 126 Ariz. 193, 196, 613 P.2d 857, 860 (App.1980). We agree with the court of appeals because we believe public policy forbids counsel from bargaining away defendant’s opportunity to correct inaccuracies in a presentence report and to verify that the court has complete and accurate information at sentencing.
We believe counsels’ interpretation of the plea agreement provision may have denied defendant the opportunity to correct inaccuracies or to supplement the presentence report with additional mitigating evidence. Defendant therefore raised a colorable claim, and we must determine the appropriate remedy and disposition.
REMEDY
Rule 32 post-conviction relief allows a defendant to raise issues unknown or unavailable at trial. One of the purposes of a Rule 32 proceeding “is to furnish an evi-dentiary forum for the establishment of facts underlying a claim for relief, when such facts have not previously been established of record.” State v. Scrivner, 132 Ariz. 52, 54, 643 P.2d 1022, 1024 (App. 1982); see also State v. Cabrera, 114 Ariz. 233, 236, 560 P.2d 417, 420 (1977); State v. Bell, 23 Ariz.App. 169, 171, 531 P.2d 545, 547 (1975). The goal of post-conviction relief is the elimination of confusion and avoidance of repetitious applications for relief while protecting a defendant’s rights. Post-conviction relief provides a simple and efficient means of inquiry into a defendant’s claim that the conviction or sentence was obtained in disregard of fundamental fairness, which is essential to our concept of justice. 24 C.J.S. Criminal Law § 1612 (1989).
A defendant is entitled to an evidentiary hearing when he presents a colorable claim, that is a claim which, if defendant’s allegations are true, might have changed the outcome. State v. Schrock, 149 Ariz. 433, 441, 719 P.2d 1049, 1057 (1986). When doubts exist, “a hearing should be held to allow the defendant to raise the relevant issues, to resolve the matter, and to make a record for review.” Id.
Here, defendant raised a colorable claim that counsels’ interpretation of the plea agreement potentially denied him the opportunity to address the court at sentencing to correct inaccurate or supplement incomplete information contained in the pre-sentence report. Thus, the trial court abused its discretion in denying defendant an evidentiary hearing. On remand, the trial court must grant such an evidentiary hearing to determine whether information relevant to defendant’s sentence was withheld or whether the trial court relied on inaccurate information in determining defendant’s sentence. If so, defendant’s sentence is invalid and defendant is entitled to resentencing. If it appears that a new presentence report is appropriate, the court shall order its preparation.
CONCLUSION AND DISPOSITION
As a matter of public policy, we will examine closely any provision or interpretation of a plea agreement that could limit the court's access to complete and accurate information at sentencing. Counsels’ apparent belief that they could not address the court at sentencing may have denied defendant the opportunity to correct inaccuracies in the presentence report and to supplement the record. If defendant was denied that opportunity, he was denied a fair sentencing proceeding and is entitled to resentencing. Defendant therefore raised a colorable claim in his petition for post-conviction relief and the trial court abused its discretion in denying defendant an evidentiary hearing.
However, the trial court did not abuse its discretion in finding that defendant entered the plea agreement voluntarily, knowingly, and intelligently. Moreover, defendant has received the benefit of his plea bargain. For these reasons, the plea agreement will stand.
The court of appeals’ order is approved as modified. The matter is remanded to the trial court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
FELDMAN, V.C.J., and CAMERON, MOELLER and CORCORAN, JJ., concur.
. At sentencing, both counsel again indicated that they understood they could not address the court, and that the matter was to be submitted only on the basis of the presentence report. When defendant’s sister stated she wanted to address the court on defendant’s behalf, the prosecutor stated: "Your honor, that presents a problem to the State. According to the terms of the plea agreement, we were going to submit this matter on the basis of the presentence report.”
Later during the hearing, the following exchange took place:
The Court: ... [YJou’re going to submit the matter based on the presentence report, other than having the sister address the Court?
[Defense counsel]: Your honor, I don’t have any choice in the matter____
Defendant’s sister then made a brief statement to the court on defendant’s behalf.
. The trial court told defendant that the presumptive sentence was 7.5 years, but that defendant could be subjected to an aggravated sentence of fifteen years or a reduced sentence of five years. The court also explained to defendant that, due to the dangerous nature of the offense, he could not receive probation and that, pursuant to the plea agreement, he would "not be eligible for suspension or commutation of sentence, probation, pardon, parole, work furlough or release from confinement” until he served at least two-thirds of the sentence imposed.
. We do not here invite a wholesale assault on plea agreements or sentencing procedures. Defense counsel must be selective in presenting claims to the courts that a defendant was denied the opportunity to address the court. The competing public policy considerations favoring the use of plea agreements, and our general assumption that courts act within their discretion, militate against setting aside a sentence for a mere unsubstantiated claim that the court did not have full information at sentencing.
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GERBER, Presiding Judge.
Appellant Miguel Rodriguez-Gonzales (defendant) was indicted on March 31,1987, on three counts of attempted murder in the first degree; one count of second degree escape; and one count of resisting arrest. Prior to trial, the state filed allegations of prior convictions. Defendant’s jury trial ended on August 17, 1987, with guilty verdicts on three counts of attempted murder and the resisting arrest count. The jury acquitted him on the escape charge. On October 6, 1987, defendant was sentenced to the maximum aggravated term of twenty-one years on each of the three attempted murder convictions with each sentence concurrent. On the resisting arrest conviction, defendant was sentenced to the aggravated term of 1.78 years consecutive to the attempted murder sentences. He was credited for 196 days of presentence incarceration and ordered to pay a total of $400 in felony penalty assessments. He filed a timely notice of appeal.
The facts are as follows. On March 22, 1987, Miguel Rodriguez-Gonzales was at the Silver Dollar Bar in Phoenix. After an incident in the men’s room, two uniformed security guards ejected him from the back door of the bar. Approximately one-half hour later, he returned to the back door armed with a handgun. He fired four or more shots into the bar. The shots struck both uniformed security guards and an innocent bystander. All three were seriously wounded. All three survived. Phoenix police officers arrested him the next day.
On appeal, defendant’s appointed counsel filed a brief in compliance with Anders v. California, 386 U.S. 738, 87 S.Ct. 1396, 18 L.Ed.2d 493 (1967), and State v. Leon, 104 Ariz. 297, 451 P.2d 878 (1969). On September 13,1988, this court ordered the state to file an answering brief addressing two issues:
(1) Whether the doctrine of transferred intent has any application to attempted murder, a crime that is complete even if defendant’s criminal conduct causes no actual harm to the intended victim; and if so,
(2) Whether a jury should be instructed ‘ on transferred intent to kill when a defendant, having injured both his intended victim and a bystander, is charged with multiple attempted murders — one as to the intended victim and one as to the unintended victim.
ATTEMPTED MURDER AND TRANSFERRED INTENT
In Arizona, a person commits first-degree murder if “intending or knowing that his conduct will cause death, such person causes the death of another with premeditation.” A.R.S. § 13-1105(A)(1). A person commits attempted first degree murder if, “acting with the kind of culpability otherwise required for commission of this offense, the person: (1) Intentionally engages in conduct which would constitute [the] offense if the attendant circumstances were as the person believes them to be; or (2) Intentionally does or omits to do anything which, under the circumstances as such person believes them to be, is any step in a course of conduct planned to culminate in commission of [an] offense.” A.R.S. § 13-1001(A)(1) and (2).
The application of the doctrine of transferred intent to attempted first degree murder is a question of first impression in Arizona. Unlike some jurisdictions, Arizona has a transferred intent statute, which provides:
If intentionally causing a particular result is an element of an offense, and the actual result is not within the intention or contemplation of the person, that element is established if:
(1) the actual result differs from that intended or contemplated only in the respect that a different person or different property is injured or affected or that the injury or harm intended or contemplated would have been more serious or extensive than that caused; or
(2) the actual result involves similar injury or harm as that intended or contemplated and occurs in a manner which the person knows or should know is rendered substantially more probable by such person’s conduct.
A.R.S. § 13-203(B). Arizona’s legislature has seen fit to codify the doctrine of transferred intent and to extend that doctrine to intentional criminal conduct causing an unintended result. Nothing in the wording of the statute prohibits the doctrine from applying to attempted murder situations. On the contrary, it appears intended to apply to the precise fact situation in this case.
Arizona’s transferred intent statute is taken from the Model Penal Code. State v. Cantua-Ramirez, 149 Ariz. 377, 718 P.2d 1030 (App.1986). The comment to Model Penal Code § 2.03 states:
Subsection 2(A) (A.R.S. § 13-203(B)(1)) deals with the situations in which the actual result differs from the result designed or contemplated only in that a different person or property was injured or affected, or in that the injury or harm designed or contemplated would have been more serious or extensive than that which actually occurred. Following existing law, the Code makes such differences immaterial.
Model Penal Code § 2.03 commentary at 260-61 (1985). Under our statute, criminal intent “follows the bullet” from anticipated to unanticipated victims. As applied to Arizona’s attempt statute, A.R.S. § 13-1001(A)(1) and (2), transferred intent addresses the circumstances surrounding an attempted crime as the actor believes them to be, i.e., where the actor’s belief about some facts varies from the actual circumstances only insofar as there is a different victim or different harm. Intent to murder is transferable to each unintended victim once there is an attempt to kill someone.
Though this is its first appearance in this state in an attempted murder context, the transferred intent doctrine has a long history. English courts recognized the doctrine as early as 1576 in Reg. v. Saunders, 2 Plowd. 473, 474a, 75 Eng.Rep. 706, 708 (1576):
And therefore it is every man’s business to foresee what wrong or mischief may happen from that which he does with an ill-intention, and it shall be no excuse for him to say that he intended to kill another, and not the person killed, (c) For if a man of malice prepense shoots an arrow at another with an intent to kill him, and a person to whom he bore no malice is killed by it, this shall be murder in him, for when he shot the arrow he intended to kill, and inasmuch as he directed his' instrument of death at one, and thereby has killed another, it shall be the same offence in him as if he had killed the person he aimed at ... so the end of the act, viz. the killing of another shall be in the same degree, and therefore it shall be murder, and not homicide only.
Despite verbal differences, A.R.S. § 13-203(B) is consistent with this ancient doctrine.
INSTRUCTIONS AS TO THE INTENDED AND UNINTENDED VICTIMS
At trial, the jury was instructed on transferred intent as to the bystander, Rick Silva (Silva), who was wounded. Subsequently, the jury returned a guilty verdict for the attempted first degree murder of Silva. We find no error in this instruction or in this verdict.
The argument that the jury instructions and verdict are error simply because the defendant lacked the intent to commit first degree murder upon Silva lacks merit for reasons already given. Defendant now argues in addition that the crime of attempted murder was complete when he committed an overt act in furtherance of his attempt to harm the intended victims, the security guards. We disagree. The offenses with which defendant was charged are constituted, in part, by the results of that conduct. State v. White, 160 Ariz. 377, 773 P.2d 482 (App.1989); State v. Gunter, 132 Ariz. 64, 69-70, 643 P.2d 1034, 1039-40 (App.1982). The act of shooting did not end when the first bullet found its intended target, but rather when the final victim was hit.
Arizona law has already addressed this issue in an assault context, Cantua-Ra-mirez, supra. There the appellant intended to strike the baby’s mother. The intent was formed and the act attempted while the mother held the baby, the unintended target. There the court stated:
Subsection (B)(1) of Arizona’s transferred intent statute applies where the actual result of the appellant’s conduct differs from that intended “only in the respect that a different person ... is injured.” The appellant intended an assault on the mother, and an assault on the baby resulted. Had he succeeded in striking the baby’s mother, the injury which resulted would most likely be a bruise or laceration. The injury actually suffered by the baby — the unintended victim — was a facial bruise which persisted for one week. The injury was the same; the only difference was the classification of the offense as a felony instead of a misdemeanor and the range of imposable punishment. We believe the transferred intent instruction was properly given.
Cantua-Ramirez, 149 Ariz. at 380, 718 P.2d at 1033.
The same reasoning applies to the present case. The instruction was correct. In any event, defendant did not object to the instruction on transferred intent. Failure to object to an instruction waives any potential error unless that error is fundamental. State v. Grilz, 136 Ariz. 450, 454, 666 P.2d 1059, 1063 (1983). No fundamental error appears in the record.
Defendant’s convictions and sentences are therefore affirmed.
FIDEL, J., and MONTIEL, J. Pro Tern., concur.
NOTE: The Honorable ROBERTO C. MONTIEL of the Santa Cruz County Superior Court, State of Arizona, has been authorized to participate in this matter by the Chief Justice of the Arizona Supreme Court, pursuant to Ariz. Const, art. VI, § 3.
|
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OPINION
HOWARD, Judge.
Scott and Sandra Jones (Jones) appeal from a judgment quieting title, finding ownership by adverse possession. Steven and Carol Burk (Burks) cross-appeal on the propriety of that judgment.
FACTS
The Jones own the Antlers Cocktail Lounge on which the disputed parcel is located (Antler property). The Burks own the property abutting it to the west. The disputed parcel is 9.37 feet in width and runs north-south for 191.61 feet on the western edge of the Antler property.
Stanley Investment Corporation (SIC) purchased the Antler property in 1974. Barry Latham, a principal of SIC, testified to placing a row of cement parking blocks on the western edge of the disputed parcel in 1975. Based on an erroneous survey, Latham thought he owned the parcel. However, his title described the property otherwise. On a regular basis, customers used the southern half of the parcel for parking. Latham sold the Antler property in 1980 to Richard Spickerman. Spicker-man testified that the parking blocks lined the southern two-thirds of the western edge of the disputed parcel. A dumpster was located at the northern apex of the parcel.
The Jones purchased the Antler property in 1983. They learned of their lack of title in July 1986. The Burks fenced the parcel in August 1986. More than 20 days prior to the filing of this suit in February 1987, the Jones tendered $5 to the Burks with a quit claim deed, requesting the Burks to deliver title to the parcel. See A.R.S. § 12-1103(B).
The trial court found that there was sufficient evidence to find ownership by adverse possession as to the southern half of the disputed parcel but denied the Jones title to the northern half. It awarded $2,000 in attorney’s fees to the Jones. This appeal followed.
ISSUES
The Jones contend that the trial court erred in denying prescriptive title as to the northern portion of the disputed parcel. They also contend that the trial court abused its discretion by failing to award them the total amount of attorney’s fees requested. In their cross-appeal, the Burks argue that the evidence does not support a finding of adverse possession and that attorney’s fees were inappropriately granted. For the following reasons, we affirm.
ADVERSE POSSESSION
1. Appeal.
The Jones contend that the trial court erred in determining that they had not met their burden in establishing ownership of the northern portion of the disputed parcel by adverse possession. Viewing the record most favorably to upholding the judgment, we find no error. Chandler v. Jackson, 148 Ariz. 307, 714 P.2d 477 (App. 1986).
Adverse possession means “an actual and visible appropriation of the land, commenced and continued under a claim of right inconsistent with and hostile to the claim of another.” A.R.S. § 12-521(A)(1). The burden of proof is on the claimant. Tenney v. Luplow, 103 Ariz. 363, 442 P.2d 107 (1968); Tena v. Yorgulez, 24 Ariz.App. 311, 538 P.2d 398 (1975). Evidence must be presented to indicate that the true owner has sufficient notice of the claimant’s adverse use. Knapp v. Wise, 122 Ariz. 327, 594 P.2d 1023 (App.1979). That is, the claimant must “fly the flag” of ownership over the property. Id.
The record shows that when the Antler property was sold in 1980, cement blocks lined the southern two-thirds portion of the disputed parcel on its western edge. No cement blocks were placed on the northern portion. A dumpster was located at the northern apex of the disputed parcel. The Jones concede in their reply brief that because of trees and the dumpster, parking was not practicable in the northern half of the parcel. The Jones assert that the dumpster was a sufficient indication of their adverse use. The trial court found that no evidence was presented that the dumpster was in place for the requisite ten-year period. Assuming arguendo that the time period was satisfied, evidence of the dumpster’s presence, without more, was insufficient to show that the Burks, or their predecessors in interest, would have been aware of any adverse claim. See Conwell v. Allen, 21 Ariz.App. 383, 519 P.2d 872 (1974); Brown v. Windland, 249 Ark. 6, 457 S.W.2d 840 (1970); Taylor v. Johnston, 289 N.C. 690, 224 S.E.2d 567 (1976); King v. Hawkins, 282 S.C. 508, 319 S.E.2d 361 (App.1984). The Jones did not carry their burden as to the northern portion of the disputed parcel.
The Jones contended at oral argument that, at the very least, they are entitled to % of the parcel rather than the 'h awarded. In their brief, the Jones only made the argument that they are entitled to the entire parcel. Issues not clearly raised and argued in a party’s appellate brief constitute waiver of error on review. 17A A.R.S. Rules Sup.Ct., Rule 5(b) and Rule 101; Gillard v. Estrella Dells I Improvement District, 25 Ariz.App. 141, 541 P.2d 932 (1975); State v. Scofield, 7 Ariz. App. 307, 438 P.2d 776 (1968). Therefore, this issue will not be considered.
2. Cross-Appeal.
The Burks cross-appeal contending that there is no evidentiary support to find ownership by adverse possession as to the entire parcel. They claim the Jones’s possession of the southern half of the disputed parcel was neither open and notorious nor continuous for ten years. See A.R.S. § 12-526.
The key issue, as discussed above, concerns whether the Burks or their predecessors in interest had notice of an adverse claim of ownership. The evidence shows that Latham lined the entire western edge of the parcel with cement blocks in 1975. When the property was sold in 1980, the southern two-thirds remained lined. Although some of the blocks were broken or moved, a sufficiently identifiable demarcation of the line remained until this action arose. Beyond evidence of the parking blocks, customers regularly parked along the area when stopping at the Antler Lounge. We find the evidence supported the trial court’s judgment.
ATTORNEY’S FEES
The Jones appeal the order of the trial court granting less attorney’s fees than requested. The Burks cross-appeal contending the award was inappropriate. The Jones offered $5 to the Burks for the execution and delivery of a quit claim deed for the disputed parcel, in compliance with A.R.S. § 12-1103(B) which provides that if a person refuses or neglects to execute the deed, the court may award the plaintiff his attorney’s fees. The award of the court of $2,000 where $17,586 were requested was based on the partial success of the Jones and the Burks’ willingness to settle the action. The purpose of A.R.S. § 12-1103(B) is to avoid needless litigation and to mitigate the burden of the expenses of litigation to establish a just claim. Mariposa Development Co. v. Stoddard, 147 Ariz. 561, 711 P.2d 1234 (App.1985).
The Burks argue that this court should vacate the award of attorney’s fees because the Jones requested them to quit claim more of the disputed parcel than they obtained from the judgment. They assert that if we uphold the award, we will encourage needless litigation because claimants will try to claim more land than to which they are entitled. We do not agree. First, logic dictates that one who both claims real property and complies with the statute will tender a deed to avoid litigation and to become eligible for attorney’s fees if litigation is necessary. Claiming more than one is entitled to would be counterpro ductive because it would be tantamount to inviting a lawsuit. Second, one can always avoid liability for attorney’s fees by quit claiming the lesser amount, the amount to which the other party is entitled.
Because both the Jones and Burks fail to point to evidence suggesting an abuse of discretion, we will not disturb the award of the trial court. U.S. Fiduciary Corp. v. Loma Vista Assoc., 138 Ariz. 464, 675 P.2d 724 (App.1983); Sonnenberg v. Ashby, 17 Ariz.App. 60, 495 P.2d 500 (1972).
Both parties have requested attorney’s fees on appeal. We decline to grant an award of fees to either party.
Affirmed.
ROLL, P.J., and HATHAWAY, J., concur.
|
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OPINION
EUBANK, Judge.
The supreme court 'has transferred its criminal appeal No. CR-87-0128 AP/PC to this court because our jurisdiction was expanded by the amendment of A.R.S. § 12-120.21 (Laws of 1989, ch. 58), which now includes life imprisonment appeals.
Following a lengthy jury trial, appellant was convicted of three counts of first-degree, felony-murder (A.R.S. § 13-1105) and one count of burglary (A.R.S. § 13-1508). He was sentenced to life imprisonment on the murder charges and ten years imprisonment on the burglary charge, with all counts to run concurrently.
The events which resulted in these charges being filed against appellant involved a shoot-out in an apartment in Phoenix. Appellant, with three of his companions, had entered the victim’s apartment to confront him about problems which had occurred between the victim and one of appellant’s companions. During the confrontation that ensued, appellant struck the victim in the side of the face with a .45 caliber automatic pistol that he was carrying. The weapon belonged to the appellant’s companion, with whom the victim had been having a disagreement. After striking the victim in the face with the weapon, appellant began walking towards the front door of the apartment.
At about the same time, the victim’s “common law” wife advised appellant that the police had been called and that he and the other people who had accompanied him should leave. When told this, appellant apparently looked over to his companion, stated that there was no use continuing to talk, fired and shot the victim, knocking him to the floor near the balcony of the apartment.
Appellant and one of his companions then immediately exited the apartment. However, before the other two companions could leave, the victim apparently got to his feet, walked back into the apartment and began firing at the individuals who were still there. The two individuals were killed. During the time the victim was firing his weapon, the appellant returned to the apartment, yelled to his companions to get out, and then fled to the parking lot where his truck was parked.
The appellant and his companion got into the truck and were leaving the parking lot as the first police officer arrived on the scene. The victim apparently climbed over his balcony and jumped into the parking lot where the appellant’s truck was parked. The victim managed to get to the other side of the parking lot but collapsed and died on a cement parking block.
Appellant and his companion were captured approximately ten minutes later after being chased by the police from the scene. The .45 automatic which was used to shoot the victim was recovered along the route that appellant used to flee on foot from the police. He later made statements to the officer which conflicted with his trial testimony regarding how the shooting incident had occurred.
Two witnesses to the shooting, the victim’s “common law” wife, Wanda Scurlock, and a neighbor, Donald Sandry, testified at trial. They were both in the apartment along with the victim, appellant and appellant’s three companions. They were uninjured and testified about the incident at length. Appellant took the stand in his own behalf and testified. The jury convicted appellant, and he appeals from the judgment and sentences.
On appeal, appellant argues:
(1) His murder convictions are contrary to law and reason.
(2) Prosecution witnesses testified about alleged prior bad acts in violation of a pretrial order.
(3) Appellant was denied effective assistance of counsel when counsel allowed testimony of the prior bad acts to be brought before the jury.
(4) The trial court’s handling of an alleged incident of juror misconduct denied appellant a fair trial.
(5) The trial court erred when it instructed the jury on justification defenses.
(6) Appellant was denied effective assistance of counsel through counsel’s request for self-defense instructions.
(7) The trial court erred in refusing to give a Willits instruction.
(8) The trial court erred in its decision regarding a petition for post-conviction relief.
CONVICTIONS FOR FELONY MURDER
Appellant argues that a charge of felony murder cannot be predicated on an assault. He argues that the assault is merged into the murder and may not be deemed a separate and independent offense which can support a conviction for felony murder. State v. Essman, 98 Ariz. 228, 235, 403 P.2d 540, 547 (1965); Note, Felony-Murder and Merger in Arizona, 17 Ariz.L.Rev. 791-804 (1975). Appellant concludes that the state has simply attempted to avoid that consequence by charging burglary as a predicate offense for felony murder. The state argues that appellant’s argument has been expressly rejected. See State v. Hankins, 141 Ariz. 217, 221, 686 P.2d 740, 744 (1984); State v. Miller, 110 Ariz. 489, 520 P.2d 1113 (1974).
Arizona Revised Statutes § 13-1105(A)(2) states that a person commits first-degree murder if, while committing burglary or during immediate flight from such an offense, the person or another person causes the death of any person. Burglary is committed “by entering or remaining unlawfully in or on a residential structure with the intent to commit ... any felony therein.” A.R.S. §§ 13-1507, -1508. Burglary is complete when entrance to the structure is made with the requisite criminal intent. State v. Bottom, 131 Ariz. 574, 643 P.2d 19 (App.1982). Remaining unlawfully in a residence with the intent to commit assault constitutes burglary and satisfies the requirements of a felony murder charge. State v. McGuire, 131 Ariz. 93, 638 P.2d 1339 (1981).
While an assault which resulted in a death would not itself warrant a felony-murder charge, remaining unlawfully in a residence with the intent to commit an assault constitutes a burglary and, when a death occurs, may warrant a felony-murder charge. State v. Hankins, 141 Ariz. 217, 221, 686 P.2d 740, 744 (1984). The deaths of the victims, “Big Dee” and “Duke” clearly occurred either during the burglary or during immediate flight therefrom, and appellant was properly charged with their murders. State v. Jimenez, 130 Ariz. 138, 141, 634 P.2d 950, 953 (1981).
TESTIMONY REGARDING PRIOR BAD ACTS
Appellant argues that during trial, several of the state’s witnesses testified in violation of a pretrial ruling prohibiting reference to certain prior misconduct by him. Initially, appellant argues that testimony by Detective House, who related a portion of Wanda Scurlock’s statement to him made the day of the shootings, constituted an improper reference to precluded matters. Appellant also argues that Officer Lazell’s testimony regarding appellant’s statements to him at the station house during his booking procedure violated the order. During a conversation with the officer, appellant asked the officer whether he wore a bullet-proof vest and told him that he wore one on his motorcycle rides in Texas because he never knew “what they were going to get into.” Appellant also told the officer that he wasn’t worried about his arrest that evening because he had been arrested before in Texas, and “his lawyer got him off on a self-defense charge, and he said his lawyer would get him off on a self-defense charge this time also.”
Finally, appellant objects to two separate statements in closing arguments by the prosecutor that made reference to this last alleged statement to Officer Lazell. At the close of the first closing argument the prosecutor stated:
There is an old adage there is nothing more dangerous than a wounded animal. What is more dangerous is someone who got away with murder. Jimmy Lucas boasted before. We should not let him boast again.
Finally, the prosecutor stated in the final closing argument:
... You come back in this courtroom and tell this defendant that the statement he made to Jeff Lazell that night, who testified in this courtroom: He seemed very calm at the time, and he said that he wasn’t worried about the arrest that night, because he had been arrested before, and the last time down in Texas he said his lawyer got him off on a self-defense, and he said his lawyer will get him off on a self-defense charge this time also. Please come back in this courtroom and don’t ever allow this man to boast like that again.
Appellant suggests the first statement by the prosecutor insinuated that he had “gotten away with murder” and compounded the erroneous admission of the testimony regarding his statement that he had been arrested before and that his lawyer had “got him off on a self-defense charge____”
Appellant’s counsel argues that the above testimony and the prosecutor’s closing arguments violated the court’s pretrial order prohibiting any reference to prior bad acts and denied the appellant a fair trial.
Prior to the commencement of trial, the defense filed a motion in limine arguing that no prior mention of bad acts should be made by the state, including Wanda Scurlock’s statements, if any, that she was aware of appellant’s reputation for violence. Such statements by Scurlock, according to appellant, would be based solely on hearsay. The motion was granted. Several weeks into the trial, Detective House testified in response to the following question by the state:
Q. What did she tell you after she described the meeting with Duke, Andy [sic] [and Dee] Humphries, and whether they were friends or not?
A. She said that during the time that she and Bill had known Dee Humphries, he had stated on several different occasions, that if Bill wanted someone killed, he was to contact Jimmy in Houston, Texas. She didn’t know Jimmy’s last name, but stated he was a white male, approximately, 46, 47 years of age.
Following the officer’s testimony, defense counsel moved for a mistrial. The prosecutor avowed to the court that it was an unexpected answer.
The trial court denied the motion for mistrial. The testimony did not concern Wanda Scurlock’s knowledge of the appellant’s reputation for violence. Moreover, the witness’s answer was unexpectedly volunteered and was clearly not solicited by the prosecutor. In such a situation, the proper response rests largely within the discretion of the trial court, which must decide whether a remedy short of a mistrial would cure the error. State v. Rockwell, 161 Ariz. 5, 775 P.2d 1069 (1989); State v. Adamson, 136 Ariz. 250, 262, 665 P.2d 972, 984 (1983), cert. denied, 464 U.S. 865, 104 S.Ct. 204, 78 L.Ed.2d 178. If the resulting prejudice makes it reasonably probable that the verdict would have been different, a mistrial may be an appropriate remedy. State v. Grijalva, 137 Ariz. 10,14, 667 P.2d 1336, 1340 (1983).
Initially, we note that this was an isolated reference which occurred during a month long trial which was not emphasized in closing arguments or in any other way by the state. In addition, when this remark was made, Wanda Scurlock had already testified, as well as the Scurlock’s neighbor, Donald Sandry, and both had related eyewitness accounts of the shooting. It does not appear that this isolated remark by the detective, although inappropriate, could have had such a substantial, prejudicial effect that a mistrial was the only remedy to preserve the appellant’s right to a fair trial. It is unlikely that the jury would have chosen to believe this one isolated statement by Ms. Scurlock and rejected her other testimony. Because it does not appear reasonably possible that this statement could have materially influenced the jury, a mistrial was not warranted under the facts. State v. Grijalva, 137 Ariz. at 14, 667 P.2d at 1340.
Appellant also argues that officer La-zell’s testimony about appellant’s remarks during the booking process was improper. Although appellant suggests these remarks violated the judge’s pretrial ruling on the motion in limine, it is clear to us that they did not. At the pretrial discussion regarding the admissibility of this evidence, defense counsel did argue these statements were not relevant to any issue in the case and should not be admitted. The state argues the remarks concerning appellant’s wearing of a bullet-proof vest on motorcycle rides was relevant to the case as proof of a state of mind, i.e., intent or absence of mistake or accident.
Evidence is relevant if it has any tendency to make the existence of a disputed fact more or less probable. Rule 401, Arizona Rules of Evidence. The state argues that, given the wide discretion a judge has in determining the admissibility of evidence and the fact that appellant’s state of mind was the crux of the state’s case, it was not an abuse of discretion to admit the statement. State v. Rose, 121 Ariz. 131, 136, 589 P.2d 5, 10 (1978). However, we find that appellant’s statement that he previously wore a bullet-proof vest in Texas because he never knew “what they were going to get into” was not relevant to any issue in this case.
There was no contention that appellant was wearing a bullet-proof vest at the time the shooting occurred or that the prior statement made any issue in this case more or less probable. It appears the sole purpose of the evidence was to show appellant’s violent character by his wearing a bullet-proof vest and that the state wished the jury to infer in this case that appellant had simply acted in conformity with his violent character. When evidence is offered simply to show that a person acted in conformity with his aggressive and violent character, it is not admissible as a trait of character. State v. Superior Court, 132 Ariz. 374, 645 P.2d 1288 (App.1982). However, the state argues that even assuming the statement was erroneously admitted, it was harmless under the circumstances. The record supports such a position.
There could have been little doubt in any of the jurors’ minds at the end of the trial that all of the individuals involved in this case were associated with “biker” groups. At various times throughout the trial, the jurors were aware that some of the victims had been associated with a “Veteran’s” biker group, that one of the victims had allegedly stolen a motorcycle from the Dirty Dozen bikers’ club, and that Donald Sandry was involved with either the Hell’s Angels or another motorcycle club. Defense counsel cross-examined Donald San-dry suggesting that Sandry had painted this entire incident as a “biker” war. It appears from the record that any harm that could have resulted from the jurors becoming aware that appellant had previously worn a bullet-proof vest while riding with a motorcycle club in Texas was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt.
The second comment testified to by Officer Lazell concerned appellant’s statement that he had been arrested before, but that “his lawyer got him off on a self-defense charge, and he said his lawyer would get him off on a self-defense charge this time also.” In his opening brief, appellant does not explain why the admission of this statement was erroneous other than to argue the fact that it allegedly violated the pretrial ruling by the trial court. The admission of this statement did not violate the pretrial ruling. However, appellant does make a broad allegation that the admission of this statement and its use in the closing arguments by the prosecutors denied him a fair trial. He argues that the testimony, coupled with the prosecutor’s arguments, called the jury’s attention to matters that could not properly be considered in determining their verdicts. The state argues that the statement was a tacit admission of guilt because appellant’s words implied the defense was fabricated.
In a similar situation, State v. Ferguson, 149 Ariz. 200, 717 P.2d 879 (1986), a defendant who was aware that he was being charged with first-degree murder voluntarily stated that he was going to plead insanity because, “it was the only way out. I have got to try it.” The court found that such a statement indicated a consciousness of guilt and was a fact which the jury could consider as raising an inference that the defendant was guilty. Similarly, in State v. Parris, 144 Ariz. 219, 696 P.2d 1368 (1985), the court found that a defendant’s inquiry to third parties regarding the necessity of hiring an attorney to defend him was admissible on the issue of identity. In State v. Moya, 138 Ariz. 7, 11, 672 P.2d 959, 963 (App.1983), the court found that evidence that a defendant had attempted to obtain financial help to hire an attorney “because he was going to be convicted because he shot the man,” was admissible where the defendant raised the defense of self-defense. The court found that his conversations with the witnesses, in which he attempted to solicit support to hire an attorney and failed to mention that he had committed the act in self-defense, were admissible as evidence supporting the inference that he had not committed the act in self-defense. Id.
While the statements in this case may come close to being characterized as penalizing the appellant for exercising his constitutional right to counsel, a fair reading of the record demonstrates that the statements were not to the effect that appellant had committed the act in self-defense and needed a lawyer to protect his rights, but were rather statements that he would “get off” on a self-defense plea. This statement was particularly relevant in view of the fact appellant had fled from the scene, attempted to escape on foot from police officers who pursued him, and that he initially told Detective House that he and his companion, Steve, did not go up to the victim’s apartment until after they had heard gunshots.
Thus, given appellant’s initial statements to Detective House shortly after his arrest, the statement was relevant and properly considered by the jury as evidence that the defense of self-defense was fabricated and indicated a consciousness of guilt. Cf., State v. Ferguson, supra; State v. Moya, supra. The statement was properly admitted.
Finally, appellant argues the remarks made by the prosecutors during closing argument were improper. He argues the statements referred to above suggested to the jury that the appellant had previously “gotten away with murder.” No objection was made to these statements during trial. Normally, opposing counsel must timely object to erroneous or improper statements made during closing arguments or waive the right to object to them on appeal. State v. Smith, 138 Ariz. 79, 83, 673 P.2d 17, 21 (1983). This court will only consider those unobjected to comments, which are made during closing argument, which rise to the level of fundamental error. State v. Denny, 119 Ariz. 131, 134, 579 P.2d 1101, 1104 (1978).
We agree with the state that the first comment referred to is somewhat ambiguous and does not necessarily suggest that appellant previously “got away” with murder. It clearly could have suggested to the jury that appellant was fabricating his defense of self-defense and that if the jury accepted it, it would be permitting him to now get away with murder. The same conclusion may be reached with respect to the second statement made by the prosecutor.
As noted in Donnelly v. De Christoforo, 416 U.S. 637, 646-47, 94 S.Ct. 1868, 1873, 40 L.Ed.2d 431, 439 (1974):
[A] court should not lightly infer that a prosecutor intends an ambiguous remark to have its most damaging meaning or that a jury, sitting through lengthy exhortation, will draw that meaning from the plethora of less damaging interpretations.
Moreover, a prosecutor may refer to a defendant as a murderer if the evidence at trial reasonably supports such a description. State v. McDaniel, 136 Ariz. 188, 197, 665 P.2d 70, 79 (1983). Not all emotional appeals by the prosecutor during closing arguments are condemned. State v. Garrison, 120 Ariz. 255, 257, 585 P.2d 563, 565 (1978). An emotional appeal which constitutes a permissible inference drawn from the nature of the evidence presented to the jury does not unfairly prejudice a defendant. Id.
In this case, the prosecutor’s arguments, occurring after a month-long jury trial, in which the jurors had been instructed that the prosecutor’s arguments were not evidence, did not, in our opinion, rise to the level of fundamental error.
INEFFECTIVE ASSISTANCE OF COUNSEL
Appellant argues that to the extent the improper testimony concerning prior bad acts was admitted by defense counsel’s failure to renew his motion in limine and preserve the court’s favorable pretrial rulings, he was denied effective assistance of counsel. Appellant also argued in the motion for rehearing on his petition for post-conviction relief that he was denied effective assistance of counsel. He argued that after defense counsel obtained favorable pretrial rulings excluding any reference to prior bad acts, he examined witnesses at trial in a manner which tended to bring out. appellant’s possible bad reputation. He also argued that defense counsel allowed police officers to testify to the statements discussed above, “which was clearly in violation of the court’s pretrial rulings.”
To demonstrate ineffective assistance of counsel, appellant must satisfy a two-prong test. First, he must show that under the circumstances, his counsel’s actions were unreasonable under prevailing professional norms. State v. Nash, 143 Ariz. 392, 397, 694 P.2d 222, 227 (1985), cert. denied, 471 U.S. 1143, 105 S.Ct. 2689, 86 L.Ed.2d 706 (1985). Second, there must be a reasonable probability that, absent counsel’s unprofessional errors, the result of the proceedings would have been different. Id. 143 Ariz. at 398, 694 P.2d at 228; State v. Lee, 142 Ariz. 210, 219, 689 P.2d 153, 162 (1984). The court need not approach the inquiry in a specific order or address both prongs of the inquiry if the defendant makes an insufficient showing of either one. State v. Salazar, 146 Ariz. 540, 541, 707 P.2d 944, 945 (1985).
Actions of defense counsel which appear to be trial tactics will not support an allegation of ineffective assistance of counsel. State v. Espinoza-Gamez, 139 Ariz. 415, 417, 678 P.2d 1379,1381 (1984). Courts presume that counsel’s conduct is trial strategy. State v. Fisher, 152 Ariz. 116, 118, 730 P.2d 825, 827 (1986), citing Strickland v. Washington, 466 U.S. 668, 689, 104 S.Ct. 2052, 2065, 80 L.Ed.2d 674, 694-95 (1984).
Appellant’s argument that defense counsel’s failure to renew his motion in limine and preserve the court’s favorable pretrial rulings constituted ineffective assistance of counsel is without merit. Defense counsel was not required to renew the motion in limine through additional objections at trial in order to preserve the issue for review on appeal. State v. Williams, 133 Ariz. 220, 224, 650 P.2d 1202, 1206 (1982).
In his opening brief, counsel does not articulate the “improper testimony” to which he refers. However, in the petition for post-conviction relief, he argued that counsel: (1) “examined witnesses as though those pretrial rulings had never been made” (i.e., defense counsel “repeatedly referred to his own client as ‘the muscle imported from Texas’ ”); (2) “allowed” police officers to testify about appellant’s statements regarding the wearing of bullet-proof vests and previous acquittals on self-defense; and (3) permitted the jury to learn that appellant was employed by the attorney who was defending him in this case.
As noted above, the officer’s testimony regarding the bullet-proof vest, although not relevant to any issue in the case, was harmless. Therefore, appellant has failed to demonstrate that his case was prejudiced by counsel’s conduct and his claim of ineffective assistance of counsel on this ground fails. State v. Nash,. 143 Ariz. 392, 694 P.2d 222 (1985). Furthermore, the testimony suggesting appellant’s fabrication of the self-defense issue was properly admitted at trial. Finally, appellant’s counsel on appeal takes issue with the strategy utilized by trial counsel in referring to his client as “the muscle imported from Texas.”
The portion of the examination from which that reference was taken clearly suggests the method of examination was a tactical decision. The purpose of the examination appears to have been to show that the victim and Sandry visited Big Dee’s home several days prior to the shooting and they sat outside the home for over two hours in their truck without feeling threatened by appellant while they waited for a friend. He also got Sandry to admit that, on the night of the shooting, the vie- tim had not immediately attempted to draw his weapon when the appellant allegedly kicked his apartment door in and came in with a weapon drawn. It appears the inference counsel sought to have the jury draw was that appellant was not the dangerous person the state was attempting to portray. In other words, his point was that the victim did not demonstrate the concern or intimidation that might have been expected if the appellant were truly “the muscle imported from Texas.” That appellate counsel disagrees with the strategy or claims error in the trial tactics chosen is not enough to support a finding that the trial lawyer’s conduct was ineffective. State v. Oppenkeimer, 138 Ariz. 120, 123, 673 P.2d 318, 321 (App.1983).
In view of the evidence, including the presence of two eyewitnesses, appellant’s flight from the scene, conflicting statements after arrest, and his attempt to elude the police and conceal the weapon, the defense faced a difficult task at trial. Counsels’ conduct did not result in the failure to preserve favorable pretrial rulings, and their performance at trial was consonant with the sixth amendment standards pertaining to effective assistance of counsel.
ALLEGED JUROR MISCONDUCT
During trial, a letter was presented to the trial judge from one of the jurors, who complained about the actions of another juror’s wife. After receiving the letter, the court called the complaining juror into chambers and spoke to her about it. She told the judge the letter had been shown to several other jurors. The juror also told the judge that it appeared to several of the jurors that the juror’s wife, who had been attending the trial almost every day, had been acting inappropriately by obviously sympathizing with members of the appellant’s family who were also attending the trial. She also told the judge the juror’s wife tried to explain to them why breaks were being taken during trial. She also explained other trial matters the juror’s wife had tried to talk about. Other jurors who were examined by the court also confirmed that this person had attempted to talk to them about the evidence and about delays that had occurred during trial. After the complaining juror advised the court that she could still act fairly and give a decision based on the evidence, all of the other jurors were examined in chambers by the judge.
After all of the jurors were examined, the court called the juror whose wife was at the center of the controversy into chambers. This juror admitted that he had been discussing trial testimony with his wife and acknowledged to the judge that he had been aware of the admonition not to do so but had violated it anyway. The judge then excused this juror and advised the remaining jurors that they were not to speculate about the reasons for the court’s action in excusing the juror.
All of the jurors who had been called into chambers and examined by the court and counsel told the court the “letter” incident would not affect them and that they could still continue to judge the case on the evidence that was presented to them. Although appellant concedes that the one juror improperly discussed trial testimony with his wife and that the court was justified in excluding him from deliberating on the case, he argues that the manner in which the trial court handled the situation denied him a fair trial. He argues that the judge should have explained to the other jurors that the one juror was dismissed because he had discussed the testimony with his wife. Appellant concludes that the other jurors, not knowing the reason, might have drawn the conclusion that anyone sympathizing with the defense would be removed from the jury.
In reviewing the entire record in this matter, it is clear the court properly determined that each of the jurors, except the one dismissed, could render a fair and impartial verdict. A clear showing of an abuse of that discretion is required before the trial judge’s determination will be reversed on appeal. State v. Rose, 121 Ariz. 131, 139, 589 P.2d 5, 13 (1978). Furthermore, it cannot be presumed that the jurors violated the judge’s admonition not to spec ulate about the reasons for the juror’s removal. State v. Trujillo, 120 Ariz. 527, 531, 587 P.2d 246, 250 (1978).
Appellant has failed to establish that any of the jurors were incapable of rendering a fair and impartial verdict. To the contrary, each assured the court that they were capable of doing so even after the matter arose and they were made aware that a letter had been presented to the court detailing a concern about the sympathy of the juror’s wife to the appellant’s family. Moreover, some of the jurors told the court they were unaware of the possible displays of sympathy and yet others told the judge that the juror’s wife had attempted to talk to them about the case, including the evidence and the reasons for delays that were occurring during the trial. We cannot say that the trial court’s determination and manner in which it excused one juror prevented the jury from rendering a fair and impartial verdict.
INSTRUCTIONS ON JUSTIFICATION
Appellant argues that the justification instructions given to the jury were erroneous and could have misled the jury into considering that the victim’s use of deadly force was a justified response to appellant’s use of non-deadly force.
The trial court instructed the jury pursuant to A.R.S. § 13-405. However, it erroneously advised them that a person is justified in threatening or using deadly physical force against another person when a reasonable person would believe that deadly physical force was immediately necessary to protect that person against the other’s use or attempted use of “unlawful physical force,” rather than the other’s use or attempted use of “unlawful deadly physical force.” The judge also instructed the jurors when the use of deadly physical force was not justified as set forth in A.R.S. § 13-404(B)(1), (3). The judge also instructed the jurors on the justification defense set forth in A.R.S. § 13-411. In accordance with that statute, he instructed the jurors on the lack of a duty to retreat and the presumption that a person is acting reasonably in using deadly force when he is acting to prevent the commission of murder, burglary, or aggravated assault.
Thereafter, the court defined “aggravated assault” as occurring when a serious physical injury results or when a deadly weapon is used. The court further instructed the jurors that “aggravated assault” could include those assaults which occur after entering the residence of another with the intent to commit an assault.
Appellant argues that A.R.S. § 13-411(A) does not permit deadly physical force to be used to prevent the commission of a burglary or an assault unless they involve a deadly weapon or where serious physical injury occurs. A.R.S. § 13-411 does require that aggravated assault be accomplished through either the infliction of serious physical injury or the use of a deadly weapon. Therefore, to the extent the instructions may be construed as advising the jurors that an aggravated assault could include any assault which occurs after entering the residence, it was erroneous.
Appellant argues that it was fundamental error for the court to give the jury any instructions concerning justification because there was no issue of premeditation and there can be no claim of self-defense to a charge of felony murder. State v. Celaya, 135 Ariz. 248, 660 P.2d 849 (1983). However, appellant agrees that the justification instructions given to the jury were directed to the shooting and not to the underlying assault or burglary charge. Appellant argues, however, that because the instructions were given, and were in part erroneous, they invited the jury to conclude that the victim’s use of deadly physical force was justified when the statutes do not so provide. Appellant asserts these instructions constituted fundamental error because no objection was ever made to them. Not only were they not objected to, it appears they were offered by the defense, which, as a matter of strategy, had pursued its case on a theory of self-defense.
However, appellant’s argument misses the point. Whether or not the victim’s use of deadly force was justified was simply not an issue in the case. The only issues properly before the jury were whether a burglary occurred and whether during the commission of that offense or during the immediate flight therefrom, a person caused the death of any other person. Whether the victim’s conduct in shooting “Big Dee” and “Duke” was justified was not an issue and was not argued at trial. The degree of the force necessary to prevent the assault or burglary was never an issue at trial, only whether the appellant acted in self-defense or was the aggressor.
When a defendant does not object to an instruction, any error is waived unless the instruction constitutes fundamental error. State v. Grilz, 136 Ariz. 450, 454, 666 P.2d 1059, 1063 (1983). Not only were there no objections to these instructions, but the defense requested them. Under those circumstances, it is a rare ease in which counsel will be able to argue on appeal that the instructions nevertheless constituted fundamental, reversible error. See State v. Taylor, 109 Ariz. 481, 483, 512 P.2d 590, 592 (1973). It is clear the instructions did not deprive the appellant of “a right essential to his defense.” State v. Grilz, 136 Ariz. at 454, 666 P.2d at 1063. Under the facts of this case, the self-defense instructions could only have benefited the appellant by providing counsel with an argument that should not have been available. See State v. Celaya, 135 Ariz. 248, 660 P.2d 849 (1983). Self-defense simply does not apply in a felony murder case.
Under the facts, it appears that the justification instructions requested by defense counsel did not constitute fundamental reversible error. See, e.g., State v. Jackson, 511 S.W.2d 771 (Mo.1974); People v. Cran-dell, 46 Cal.3d 833, 760 P.2d 423, 251 Cal. Rptr. 227 (1988) (a review of all the evidence introduced at trial demonstrated that the jury clearly rejected the defendant’s claim of self-defense). Here, the jury was properly instructed that appellant could be convicted of felony murder if they found that he had committed burglary by entering or remaining unlawfully in a residential structure with the intent to commit any felony while armed with a deadly weapon. State v. Hankins, 141 Ariz. 217, 686 P.2d 740 (1984). There was no issue in this case as to whether or not appellant had entered the apartment with a weapon or that serious physical injury was caused to the victim. The only issue was whether or not the appellant had entered the apartment with the intent to commit assault. Under those circumstances, there is no reasonable likelihood that the jurors could have been confused or misled by the instructions given to them by the court on justification. Cf., State v. Avila, 147 Ariz. 330, 338, 710 P.2d 440, 448 (1985) (when an element of a crime is not at issue, a failure to instruct on it is harmless).
INEFFECTIVE ASSISTANCE OF COUNSEL
The standard of review involving a claim of ineffective assistance of counsel is set out above. Appellant argues that to the extent improper instructions regarding justification were requested by the defense, appellant was denied effective assistance of counsel. Although appellant suggests in his opening brief that this claim was the subject of a petition for post-conviction relief, it was not an issue raised in the motion for rehearing.
Matters of trial strategy will not support a claim of ineffective assistance of counsel, provided the challenged conduct had some reasoned basis. State v. Nirschel, 155 Ariz. 206, 208, 745 P.2d 953, 955 (1987); State v. Oppenheimer, 138 Ariz. 120, 673 P.2d 318 (App.1983). As counsel admitted in the motion to vacate judgment, the strategy of the defense was, from the outset, to present a self-defense defense to the jury. Other than that defense, appellant’s only other available defense was that he did not have the intent to commit a felony when he entered the victim’s apartment.
It is clear from the record that defense counsel determined early on to pursue a self-defense defense at trial, and it is also clear their choice was one of strategy. Therefore, appellant’s claim of ineffective assistance of counsel must fail. Id. That appellate counsel now disagrees with the strategy pursued simply is not enough to support a finding that trial counsel’s conduct was incompetent. There was a demonstrable and reasoned basis for all of the choices made by trial counsel, one of whom was an experienced Arizona trial attorney. While co-counsel may have been from Texas, there is nothing in the record to suggest or support an inference that pursuit of the self-defense defense was an uninformed choice of counsel.
WILLITS INSTRUCTION
Counsel’s final argument in his direct appeal challenges the trial court’s refusal to give a Willits instruction based on the alleged destruction or non-preservation of certain evidence at the crime scene. He refers to testimony that the victim’s door was kicked in, that there was blood on the balcony outside the apartment, and that a bloody fingerprint appeared in exhibit 41. His motion for new trial listed eight separate examples of failure to collect and/or preserve evidence. He argues the trial court erred by failing to give an instruction on the inferences to be drawn by the jury where the destruction of evidence has occurred. State v. Willits, 96 Ariz. 184, 893 P.2d 274 (1964).
In State v. Perez, 141 Ariz. 459, 464, 687 P.2d 1214, 1219 (1984), the court held that where the state failed to act in a timely manner to insure the preservation of evidence that was obviously material and reasonably accessible, a defendant was entitled to a Willits instruction after showing he was prejudiced by the loss of the evidence. Id. The court explained that where the state failed to obtain obviously material evidence, the defendant must show actual prejudice before he could claim entitlement to a Willits instruction. Finally, the court stated that the trial court’s decision to give or forego a Willits instruction would not be reversed absent a clear abuse of discretion. Id.
We review the three claims of error which appellant argues supported the giving of a Willits instruction in this case. Although the state made no effort to preserve evidence that the victim’s apartment door may have showed signs of being “jimmied” or to collect fingerprints from the doorknob, or to take a sample of the blood on the balcony, or to discover the print allegedly appearing on the inside of the trigger guard on the .38 caliber handgun found next to the victim “Duke” in the kitchen, the court was not required to give a Willits instruction under the facts of this case.
Appellant claims that physical evidence showing the doorjam had not been broken or damaged and that his fingerprints were on the doorknob would have supported his argument that he had not “kicked in” the apartment door as alleged in some of the testimony introduced at trial. However, the offense of burglary can be committed by unlawfully remaining on the premises with the intent to commit a felony, including assault. Here, the evidence was uncon-tradicted that appellant was on the property with a handgun in his possession. The eyewitnesses testified that he struck the victim in the side of the head with the .45 before leaving the apartment. The evidence at trial supported an inference that appellant had the intention to assault the victim before he ever arrived at the victim’s apartment and had not been invited into it. The collection of this evidence was not “obviously material,” and appellant has failed to make any showing that he was prejudiced by the state’s failure to act in a timely manner to preserve such evidence.
The same analysis applies to the appellant’s allegation that the failure to preserve blood samples from the balcony prejudiced him. Appellant’s own testimony at trial corroborated the eyewitness testimony that the victim, after being shot, staggered onto the balcony. Appellant has failed to show actual prejudice by the state’s failure to collect or preserve any of the blood samples from the balcony.
Finally, the state and defense only became aware of the existence of a possible bloody fingerprint inside exhibit 41 at the time of trial. Appellant’s counsel had the same opportunity as the state to determine the existence of the fingerprint at a much earlier stage. In any event, although appellant suggested at trial that perhaps the victim’s neighbor, Donald Sandry, had somehow sneaked into the kitchen and planted the weapon on “Duke,” he failed to show that he was actually prejudiced by the state’s failure to preserve the evidence of the apparent bloody fingerprint, and he additionally failed to show the state should have recognized this evidence was “obviously material.”
In view of the eyewitness testimony, the other facts referred to above with respect to this incident, and appellant’s own inconsistent stories, it is clear the state cannot be faulted for determining that this was not “obviously material” evidence and preserving it. The trial court’s decision to refuse the giving of a Willits instruction in this case was not an abuse of discretion.
PETITION FOR POST-CONVICTION RELIEF
In the motion for rehearing filed from the denial of post-conviction relief, appellant argued several bases for a finding that he was denied effective assistance of counsel: (1) counsel’s failure to preserve favorable pretrial rulings; (2) improper examination of witnesses resulted in appellant’s reputation being placed before the jurors; (3) that counsel allowed police officers to repeat appellant’s statements about wearing bullet-proof vests when he went on motorcycle rides in Texas; and (4) that counsel allowed a police officer to repeat his statement that he had previously been acquitted on a self-defense theory in Texas. These claims have been discussed above and further discussion of them is not necessary.
Additionally, appellant argued that counsel was ineffective because he failed to call potential defense witnesses at trial whose testimony would have supported “one or more defense theories.” He suggests counsel was ineffective for failing to call appellant’s daughter, Angela Garland, and Linda Humphries as potential witnesses at trial. A supplemental motion for rehearing was filed in which counsel stated that one of the basic claims, i.e., that his trial counsel was ineffective for failing to subpoena witnesses in support of any coherent defense theory, was supported by the documents attached thereto. The documents attached were affidavits from appellant and an investigator. In a second supplemental motion for rehearing, appellant again argued that trial counsel’s failure to call witnesses, including his daughter, was ineffective because she could have explained his non-criminal reason for being in Phoenix.
Disagreements in trial tactics will not support a claim of ineffective assistance of counsel provided the conduct had some reasoned basis. State v. Lee, 142 Ariz. 210, 214, 689 P.2d 153, 157 (1984). A defendant’s sixth amendment right to present a defense does not include the right to determine what witnesses will be called at trial. Id. Here, trial counsel may have determined that it would not be appropriate to call the appellant’s young daughter to testify at trial. Appellant testified that he and his daughters were here in Phoenix to allow the daughters to visit their mother — without mentioning she was incarcerated in a women’s prison. Trial counsel may well have determined that the potential danger of having that information come out inadvertently through the daughter’s testimony was not worth the risk of her testifying. In any event, the weight of her testimony may have been such that defense counsel decided that it was not worth the risk of having her testify because the jurors would not have given any more credibility to her testimony than to her father’s or other witnesses who testified on his behalf. There were several witnesses who testified for the appellant, including Paul Flagg and “Big Dee’s” son.
Appellant does not explain how either Linda Humphries’ or Angela Garland’s testimony would have changed the outcome of this trial. The only evidence of what Garland would have testified to was that she had seen two individuals jump off the third floor of the apartment complex directly across from her residence, which presumably was the victim’s apartment complex. There was no other evidence to support or corroborate her testimony, and defense counsel cannot be faulted for failing to present it at trial. Finally, appellate counsel suggests that trial counsel was ineffective in failing to call “Big Dee’s” wife, Linda Humphries, to testify at trial. Again, it is unclear what testimony she would have provided. Paul Flagg, who was in the parking lot with her at the time the shooting occurred, testified that he was with Linda Humphries and that “Big Dee” had given them the keys to his truck and told Linda to leave in the event anything “went down.”
In order to succeed on a claim of ineffective assistance of counsel, a defendant must show both that counsel’s performance was professionally defective and that the defense was thereby prejudiced. State v. Nash, 143 Ariz. 392, 694 P.2d 222 (1985). The arguments preserved in the motion for rehearing prove neither of these elements. Although appellant’s daughter’s testimony or Linda Humphries’ testimony may have added some slight weight to the defense case, it does not appear that it would have had any substantial weight and certainly cannot be said to have affected the outcome of appellant’s trial. The failure to call witness Garland, under the facts as set forth in this record, was clearly a proper strategic choice by counsel, as was the choice not to call either appellant’s daughter or Linda Humphries.
The judgment and sentences are affirmed.
. Appellant's failure to set forth any of the other claimed grounds supporting the giving of a Wil-lits instruction in the opening brief constitutes a waiver. State v. Nirschel, 155 Ariz. 206, 208, 745 P.2d 953, 955 (1987). However, to the extent those allegations of error could be considered as raisable on appeal, our resolution of the three specific points raised is equally applicable to the other allegations of failure to preserve evidence.
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MEMORANDUM DECISION
GRANT, Chief Judge.
This is the state’s appeal from the trial court’s order dismissing criminal charges against the defendant. The trial court’s dismissal order was predicated on State v. Youngblood, 153 Ariz. 50, 734 P.2d 592 (App.1986), rev’d, 488 U.S. 51, 109 S.Ct. 333, 102 L.Ed.2d 281 (1988), and State v. Escalante, 153 Ariz. 55, 734 P.2d 597 (App. 1986). After entry of the dismissal order, the state timely appealed and the United States Supreme Court reversed Young-blood. Arizona v. Youngblood, 488 U.S. 51, 109 S.Ct. 333, 102 L.Ed.2d 281 (1988). In light of Youngblood’s reversal, and for the reasons set forth below, the trial court's dismissal order is reversed.
FACTS
Defendant was charged with sexual assault, kidnapping, armed burglary and aggravated assault stemming from the alleged rape of a seventy-year-old woman. The case proceeded to trial but ended in a mistrial because the jury was unable to reach a verdict.
Before the case was submitted to the jury, defendant filed a motion to dismiss because the state failed to properly preserve a cotton-swab sample from a “rape kit.” He relied on the Arizona and federal constitutional guarantees of due process, and the Youngblood and Escalante Arizona Court of Appeals cases. The state’s criminalist testified at trial that although a cotton swab contained semen, the swab was not properly preserved and therefore test results were “not conclusive.” After arguments on the motion, the trial court indicated it needed more time to consider the matter. Therefore, the motion was denied without prejudice. However, the trial court did give a “Willits” instruction. After about five hours of deliberation, the jury informed the court that it could not reach a unanimous verdict, and a mistrial was declared.
Prior to retrial, an evidentiary hearing was held on the motion to dismiss. The state presented testimony from its crimi-nalist that even if the cotton swab had been properly preserved (air-dried), the specimen may not have been of sufficient quantity to enable successful testing. The state also presented testimony that hair comparisons were made and that hairs taken from the victim's clothing and bed sheet were similar to known pubic hairs from the defendant. The criminalist also testified that animal hairs recovered from the defendant’s clothing were similar to animal hairs found on the victim’s clothing, bed sheets and pillow cases. The state did not present this evidence at defendant’s trial because it was unaware the comparison had been made.
The state argued that hospital personnel, not police, failed to properly preserve the cotton swab. Defendant countered that hospital personnel were acting as agents of the police and that the failure to air-dry the cotton swab should result in dismissal. Defendant contended the state’s evidence was weak and identification was the crucial issue. Therefore, he argued, Youngblood and Escalante mandated dismissal. None of the parties argued or considered bad faith on the part of police, as the United States Supreme Court had not yet issued its opinion in Arizona v. Youngblood.
After the hearing, the trial court, based on State v. Youngblood and State v. Esca-lante, stated that it could not conclude that the evidence of defendant’s guilt was so strong that, beyond a reasonable doubt, the destroyed evidence would not have provéd exonerating. Consequently, the court dismissed the indictment.
DISCUSSION
Arizona v. Youngblood
The United States Supreme Court made it clear the federal Constitution does not require dismissal of a criminal case where police fail to preserve material evidence, absent a showing of “bad faith.” In reversing State v. Youngblood, the Supreme Court announced that, “unless a criminal defendant can show bad faith on the part of the police, failure to preserve potentially useful evidence does not constitute a denial of due process of law.” Arizona v. Youngblood, 488 U.S. 51, 109 S.Ct. 333, 337, 102 L.Ed.2d 281, 289 (1988). In reaching this result, the Court noted that:
requiring a defendant to show bad faith on the part of the police both limits the extent of the police’s obligation to preserve evidence to reasonable bounds and confines it to that class of cases where the interests of justice most clearly required it, i.e., those cases in which the police themselves by their conduct indicate that the evidence could form a basis for exonerating the defendant.
Id. Thus, the due process analysis espoused in State v. Youngblood and relied on by the trial court in dismissing the case against defendant is no longer valid.
Article 2, § 4 of the Arizona Constitution
The sole argument presented in the defendant’s answering brief is that the Arizona Constitution provides greater safeguards than the federal Constitution and therefore the trial court’s order of dismissal should be affirmed. Defendant does not indicate which portion of the Arizona Constitution he relies on. Nor does he cite any authority holding that the Arizona Constitution requires dismissal of a case where police fail to preserve evidence absent bad faith.
In Youngblood, the United States Supreme Court based its holding on the due process clause of the fourteenth amendment. The analogous provision in the Arizona Constitution is article 2, § 4, which states that “[n]o person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.” This wording is nearly identical to the fourteenth amendment, which provides: “nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law____” The similarity of language suggests a similar standard. Cf. Feldman & Abney, The Double Security of Federalism: Protecting Individual Liberty Under the Arizona Constitution, 20 Ariz.St.L.J. 115, 123-24 (1988). There, the authors suggest that in those instances where the “Arizona provision contains broader and more protective language,” the specific Arizona constitutional provision may indeed provide greater protection than its federal constitutional counterpart. Id. at 124. However, the authors do not contend that the due process clause is one such provision.
The Arizona Supreme Court has relied on textual differences between the state constitution and its federal counterpart in formulating decisions finding more security in the Arizona Constitution. See, e.g., State v. Ault, 150 Ariz. 459, 466, 724 P.2d 545, 552 (1986) (refusal to extend inevitable discovery doctrine into defendant’s home, based on art. 2, § 8 of Arizona Constitution, which more explicitly protects sanctity of the home than its federal counterpart); State v. Bolt, 142 Ariz. 260, 264-65, 689 P.2d 519, 523-24 (1984) (in absence of exigent circumstances, warrantless searches go beyond protections of art. 2, § 8 of Arizona Constitution, despite rulings of U.S. Supreme Court under counterpart provisions of U.S. Constitution); State v. Martin, 139 Ariz. 466, 475, 679 P.2d 489, 498 (1984) (refusal to allow warrantless search, based on constitutional sanctity of the home).
As noted, however, the wording of the due process clauses of both constitutions is nearly identical. This suggests that the state due process clause is coterminous with the federal due process clause, a notion implicit in several Arizona Supreme Court cases. See, e.g., State v. Schreiber, 115 Ariz. 555, 558-59, 566 P.2d 1031, 1034-35 (1977); State v. Fowler, 101 Ariz. 561, 564, 422 P.2d 125, 128 (1967); State v. Cota, 99 Ariz. 233, 236-37, 408 P.2d 23, 26 (1965). Any further extension of our own constitution to limit or circumscribe the standards set forth in Arizona v. Young-blood is a matter left for the Arizona Supreme Court. See State v. Calabrese, 157 Ariz. 189, 191, 755 P.2d 1177, 1179 (App. 1988) (whether art. 2, § 8 of the Arizona Constitution provides more protection than the federal Constitution’s counterpart is a matter for the Arizona Supreme Court).
Prejudice to Defendant
In his concurring opinion in Arizona v. Youngblood, Justice Stevens relied heavily on the fact that the jury was given a Willits instruction. Based on this instruction, he noted that any “uncertainty as to what the evidence might have proved was turned to the defendant’s advantage.” Arizona v. Youngblood, 488 U.S. at 60, 109 S.Ct. at 338, 102 L.Ed.2d at 290 (Stevens, J., concurring). In Arizona v. Youngblood, the defendant was convicted by the jury. Therefore, Justice Stevens noted:
In declining defense counsel’s and the court's invitations to draw the permissive inference, the jurors in effect indicated that, in their view, the other evidence at trial was so overwhelming that it was highly improbable that the lost evidence was exculpatory____ [I]n a case involving a closer question as to guilt or innocence, the jurors would have been more ready to infer that the lost evidence was exculpatory.
Id. at 60, 109 S.Ct. at 338, 102 L.Ed.2d at 291 (Stevens, J., concurring). This suggests that the Willits instruction is an adequate remedy in cases where, absent bad faith, the state fails to preserve material evidence.
In this case, the question as to guilt or innocence may have been a “closer question,” and some jurors indeed may have inferred that the lost evidence was exculpatory. Although “there may well be cases in which the defendant is unable to prove that the state acted in bad faith but in which the loss or destruction of evidence is nonetheless so critical to the defense as to make a criminal trial fundamentally unfair,” id. at 61, 109 S.Ct. at 339, 102 L.Ed.2d at 291 (Stevens, J., concurring); see also State v. Gerhardt, 778 P.2d at 1308-09, the present case is not such a case.
For all of the above reasons, we find that the trial court’s order of dismissal must be reversed and the charges against defendant reinstated.
CLABORNE, P.J., and BROOKS, J., ' concur.
. A "rape kit" is a sex crimes evidence tool used by police to collect various evidence for testing, including semen or sperm specimens from rape victims.
. State v. Willits, 96 Ariz. 184, 393 P.2d 274 (1964)
. In State v. Gerhardt, 161 Ariz. 410, 778 P.2d 1306, 1308-09 (1989), the court suggested that if there is a clear showing of substantial prejudice, dismissal may be required even absent a showing of bad faith if the loss of evidence would result in a fundamentally unfair trial. As we pointed out in this case, the state's criminalist testified that the quantity of semen collected may have been insufficient to enable testing even if it had been properly preserved. We made clear in Gerhardt that "a showing of prejudice dependant on speculation as to the potentially exculpatory value of lost evidence is insufficient to justify dismissal.” Id. 778 P.2d at 1309. We find no substantial prejudice in the instant case.
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OPINION
LIVERMORE, Presiding Judge.
Plaintiff B & M Construction, Inc. entered into a contract for construction work with defendant Mueller Development Co. as owner and general contractor of an apartment development. B & M sued Mueller in two counts for breach of contract and to foreclose a mechanic’s lien. Mueller demanded arbitration. The arbitrator ruled in favor of B & M on the contract claim and that award was confirmed by judgment. B & M then successfully sought summary judgment on the lien foreclosure claim. On this appeal Mueller contends that the lien claim should also have been submitted to arbitration and that the award of attorneys’ fees to pursue the lien claim was improper. We affirm the judgment but modify it to correct a clerical error.
The arbitration article of the contract between the parties provided that:
All claims, disputes and other matters in question arising out of, or relating to, this Subcontract, or the breach thereof, shall be decided by arbitration____
It also provided:
This Article shall not be deemed a limitation of any rights or remedies which the Subcontractor may have under any Federal or State mechanics’ lien laws or under any applicable labor and material payment bonds unless such rights or remedies are expressly waived by him.
Defendant argues that this latter provision means only that the agreement to arbitrate is not a waiver of lien claims. Because there is nothing else in the arbitration article to suggest waiver, this would render the provision meaningless. Contracts are not to be so construed. In our view, the provision can only mean that the validity of the lien, as opposed to its amount, need not be submitted to arbitration. This construction makes sense for an additional reason. Construction litigation often involves many lien claimants, contesting not only whether a lien has been properly perfected but which of many liens have priority. These claimants would not be parties to the contract requiring arbitration or to the resulting arbitration and would not be bound by it. Accordingly, they would be free to litigate validity and priority. Because that would be a common result, it is sensible to exclude these issues from arbitration and to have them tried once in an action between all competing lien claimants.
Mueller next contends that no attorneys’ fees should have been awarded B & M under A.R.S. § 12-341.01 on its lien foreclosure action because that claim did not arise out of a contract. When a lien is filed against a property owner by one having no contractual relationship with the owner, that contention has merit. Cashway Concrete & Materials v. Sanner Contracting Co., 158 Ariz. 81, 761 P.2d 155 (App.1988). In this case, however, the contract between B & M and Mueller was at the heart of both the contract and the lien foreclosure claims. Indeed, almost all the legal work related to whether the contract’s arbitration clause precluded the lien foreclosure action. In these circumstances, the foreclosure action did arise out of contract. See Scottsdale Memorial Health Systems, Inc. v. Clark, 157 Ariz. 456, 759 P.2d 602 (App.1987), vacated on other grounds, 157 Ariz. 461, 759 P.2d 607 (1988).
The trial court confirmed the arbitration award, which included attorneys’ fees, and then awarded attorneys’ fees for services in the arbitration. This double award cannot stand and must be reduced by $6,939.75.
The judgment is modified to $83,239.23 and, as modified, is affirmed.
FERNANDEZ, C.J., and HATHAWAY, J., concur.
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GRANT, Chief Judge.
Appellant, Gregory W. Boudette, challenges the constitutionality of two traffic-law-enforcement statutes, and raises three issues on appeal:
(1) Is A.R.S. § 28-1075(B) void for vagueness because it does not specify what evidence of identity, other than a driver’s license, a driver may offer, and is therefore subject to arbitrary enforcement?
(2) Is A.R.S. § 28-1075(B) unconstitutional because it punishes people for exercising their right to remain silent during the investigation of a traffic offense?
(3) Is A.R.S. § 28-1074 unconstitutional because it empowers police officers to stop vehicles to investigate civil traffic violations, rather than for suspicion of criminal activity?
We agree with Boudette that part of A.R.S. § 28-1075(B) is unconstitutionally vague and therefore void. However, we disagree with him on the other two issues.
FACTS
A Phoenix police officer stopped Boud-ette to cite him for allegedly turning left on a red arrow, in violation of A.R.S. § 28-645(A)(3)(a). When the officer asked Boudette for his driver’s license, Boudette responded that he did not have one. The officer then asked Boudette for his name, but Boudette refused to identify himself. Upon the officer’s threat of arrest, however, Boudette gave his name and, after additional questioning, also gave his date of birth. The officer then asked for Boud-ette’s address, to help in identifying him. Boudette refused to divulge his address and said that the officer was asking him to confess without benefit of legal counsel. After Boudette again refused the information, he was arrested for failing to provide proof of identity as required by A.R.S. § 28-1075(B). The officer then ran Boud-ette’s name through the police computer and discovered that Boudette’s driver’s license had been suspended.
Boudette was cited for failing to remain stopped for a red traffic signal, in violation of A.R.S. § 28-645(A)(3)(a), a civil traffic offense; driving on a suspended license, in violation of A.R.S. § 28-473(A), a class 1 misdemeanor; and failing to provide proof of identity, in violation of A.R.S. § 28-1075(B), a class 2 misdemeanor.
Boudette contested all three citations. Boudette sought to suppress his statements to the officer on the ground that they were coerced. The municipal court judge denied all of his motions. The court found Boudette responsible on the red-light violation and guilty of the other two traffic violations. At sentencing on December 3, 1987, the court fined Boudette $65 for failing to remain stopped at a red signal, $119 for failing to produce identification, and $411 for driving on a suspended license. The court denied Boudette’s motion to vacate the judgment. Boudette appealed the convictions to the superior court, which affirmed all three.
A.R.S. § 28-1075(B)
Boudette challenges A.R.S. § 28-1075(B) on grounds that the statute is unconstitutionally vague and that it punishes drivers for exercising their fifth amendment right against self-incrimination.
The statute states:
The operator of a motor vehicle who, after stopping as required by subsection A of this section, fails or refuses to exhibit his operator’s or chauffeur’s license as required by § 28-423 or an operator who is not licensed and who fails or refuses to provide evidence of his identity upon request is guilty of a class 2 misdemeanor.
1. Vagueness
The thrust of Part B of this statute is to penalize motorists who refuse to display their driver’s licenses or, if they do not have licenses, who refuse to give other identifying information. Boudette argues that this provision in the statute is unconstitutional because it allows police officers to arbitrarily determine when unlicensed drivers have sufficiently. identified themselves and because it fails to give drivers fair and adequate notice of what proof of identity suffices to comply with the statute.
The Attorney General of Arizona has interpreted “evidence of his identity” as requiring unlicensed drivers to produce the functional equivalent of a driver’s license that would enable a law-enforcement officer or traffic agent to fill out the standardized Arizona traffic ticket and complaint. Ariz.Atty.Gen.Op. 188-016 (1988). This functional equivalent of a driver’s license, according to the attorney general, must be a government-issued identification card that provides the officer or agent with information such as the driver’s full name, residence, physical description, social security number and date of birth. Id. at 2, 3.
However, the Phoenix City Attorney, on behalf of the state, concedes that the statute is vague as it applies to unlicensed motorists, citing Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352, 103 S.Ct. 1855, 75 L.Ed.2d 903 (1983). In Kolender, the United States Supreme Court struck down a statute that allowed police officers to arrest people who loitered or wandered on the streets for failure to provide “credible and reliable” identification. Id. at 353-54, 103 S.Ct. at 1856, 75 L.Ed.2d at 906. The statute thus gave a police officer virtually complete discretion to determine whether the suspect provided sufficient identification. Id. at 358, 103 S.Ct. at 1858, 75 L.Ed.2d at 909. The Court concluded that the statute was unconstitutionally vague on its face because it encouraged arbitrary enforcement “by failing to describe with sufficient particularity what a suspect must do in order to satisfy the statute.” Id. at 361, 103 S.Ct. at 1860, 75 L.Ed.2d at 911.
We agree that the part of A.R.S. § 28-1075(B) that requires unlicensed drivers or drivers without licenses in their possession to produce “evidence of ... identity” is unconstitutionally vague based on Kolender. The statute gives no notice of what type of identification, other than a driver’s license, will suffice to avoid arrest and in failing to do so, the statute encourages arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement.
The part of the statute which is invalid is severable from the balance of the statute. If an unconstitutional provision of a statute can be eliminated, leaving a complete statute the meaning and effect of which are not repugnant to the original law, the remainder of the act will stand. Scottish Union & Nat’l Ins. Co. v. Phoenix Title & Trust Co., 28 Ariz. 22, 235 P. 137 (1925); State v. Jones, 142 Ariz. 302, 689 P.2d 561 (App.1984).
When A.R.S. § 28-1075(B) is read together with A.R.S. § 28-1075(C) it is clear that these provisions require three distinct groups of individuals — licensed operators, unlicensed operators, and passengers who may have committed a violation of the traffic code — to identify themselves to police officers. In all three cases a misdemeanor arises from failure to provide identification. Our holding today in no way limits law enforcement authorities’ ability to prosecute unlicensed drivers for operating motor vehicles, as such persons will continue to be subject to prosecution under A.R.S. § 28-411(A).
We therefore hold that the part of A.R.S. § 28-1075(B)^ that declares a driver who fails or refuses to exhibit his license (as required by § 28-423) upon being stopped to be guilty of a class 2 misdemeanor is constitutional and may stand. However, that part that declares an unlicensed driver to be guilty of a misdemeanor for refusing to provide evidence of his identity is unconstitutionally vague and must fall.
2. Fifth Amendment
Boudette argues that A.R.S. § 28-1075(B) violates the fifth amendment privilege against self-incrimination by compelling a motorist to identify himself. This, he contends, forces the unlicensed driver to open his unlicensed status to ready discovery and thereby subject himself to prosecution under A.R.S. § 28-423 for driving without a license. We disagree. The fifth amendment provides no privilege against giving one’s name. In California v. Byers, 402 U.S. 424, 91 S.Ct. 1535, 29 L.Ed.2d 9 (1971), the United States Supreme Court upheld the validity of a California statute that required motorists involved in accidents to stop and give their names and addresses. The Court determined that “[disclosure of name and address is an essentially neutral act. Whatever the collateral consequences of disclosing name and address the statutory purpose is to implement the state police power to regulate use of motor vehicles.” Id. at 432, 91 S.Ct. at 1540, 29 L.Ed.2d at 19. The Court noted that compliance with the statute could lead to prosecution for some contemporaneous criminal violation of the motor vehicle code, if one occurred, or an unrelated offense. Id. at 434, 91 S.Ct. at 1541, 29 L.Ed.2d at 20. This potential “collateral consequence” did not, however, support a fifth amendment privilege against disclosure of one's name. Id.
The right to use the public highways is not an unlimited right; it is always subject to reasonable regulation under the state’s police power. State v. Burns, 121 Ariz. 471, 591 P.2d 563 (App.1979); Wood-head v. Kansas Dep’t of Rev., 13 Kan. App.2d 145, 765 P.2d 167 (1988). A driver’s license is a statutorily mandated condition for operating a motor vehicle upon the public highways. We hold that the police reasonably demanded production of Boudette’s driver’s license in exercise of the state’s police power to regulate the use of motor vehicles.
AUTHORITY TO STOP MOTORISTS FOR CIVIL TRAFFIC VIOLATIONS
Finally, Boudette argues that the officer had no authority to stop him for violating a civil traffic law. To lawfully stop a motorist, Boudette contends, police officers must have reasonable cause to suspect that the motorist has committed a crime. Police officers cannot stop motorists for violations of civil traffic laws, he continues, because the officers do not suspect the motorists of committing crimes. The state responds that the reasonableness of a stop does not turn on whether a state defines its traffic infractions as civil or criminal.
A.R.S. § 28-1074 authorizes peace officers or duly authorized agents of traffic enforcement agencies to “stop and detain a person as is reasonably necessary to investigate an actual or suspected violation of this title and to serve a copy of the traffic complaint for any alleged civil or criminal violation of this title.”
In 1983, the Arizona Legislature amended A.R.S. § 28-181 to make the penalties for violations of certain traffic laws civil rather than criminal. As a result, such offenses as speeding and disobeying a red signal, failure to register a motor vehicle, and failure to carry one’s license are punishable by fines only, not imprisonment. See, e.g., A.R.S. §§ 28-326(D), 28-423, 28-645(A). Such civil traffic infractions also are governed by a separate set of procedural rules. See Rules of Procedure in Civil Traffic Violation Cases. The legislature created this classification of civil traffic violations and a quasi-administrative procedure as a way to expedite their enforcement. State v. Walker, 159 Ariz. 506, 768 P.2d 668 (App.1989).
We recognize that the fourth amendment applies to any governmental action, not just one arising out of possible criminal activity. See, e.g., Marshall v. Barlow’s, Inc., 436 U.S. 307, 98 S.Ct. 1816, 56 L.Ed.2d 305 (1978) (federal inspection under interstate commerce power of health and safety of work place); See v. Seattle, 387 U.S. 541, 87 S.Ct. 1737, 18 L.Ed.2d 943 (1967) (inspection of warehouse for municipal fire code violations); Camara v. Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523, 87 S.Ct. 1727, 18 L.Ed.2d 930 (1967) (inspection of residence for municipal fire code violations). The essential purpose of the fourth amendment is to impose a standard of “reasonableness” upon the exercise of discretion by government officials, including law enforcement officers, in order to safeguard the privacy and security of individuals against arbitrary invasions by the government. Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 653-54, 99 S.Ct. 1391, 1396, 59 L.Ed.2d 660, 667 (1979). The constitutionality of a governmental seizure, therefore, must be judged by balancing the nature and quality of the intrusion on the individual’s fourth amendment interests against the importance of the legitimate governmental interests alleged to justify the intrusion. Tennessee v. Garner, 471 U.S. 1, 105 S.Ct. 1694, 85 L.Ed.2d 1 (1985); see also Welsh v. Wisconsin, 466 U.S. 740, 104 S.Ct. 2091, 80 L.Ed.2d 732 (1984).
Stopping an automobile and detaining its driver to serve a traffic citation is a seizure within the meaning of the fourth amendment, even though the detention is brief and the purpose of the stop is limited. Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. at 653, 99 S.Ct. at 1396, 59 L.Ed.2d at 667. Therefore, a stop to serve a traffic citation must comport with the constitutional requirement of reasonableness.
The state’s legitimate interest in authorizing its agents to stop motorists to issue citations for traffic violations outweighs the minimal intrusion suffered. The state has a valid interest in seeing that the roadways remain safe for use by all citizens. See, e.g., State v. Powell, 61 Haw. 316, 603 P.2d 143 (1979). Citing motorists as they violate traffic laws helps ensure that they will obey the laws and also provides law-enforcement agents with the opportunity to check whether motorists have complied with licensing requirements. This is a reasonable exercise of the state’s police power.
Moreover, even if we accepted Boud-ette’s argument that the officer could not stop him for a civil violation, his interpretation of the law is hypertechnical at best. Fourth amendment cases often use the term “public offenses” when discussing search and seizure issues. See, e.g., State v. Ochoa, 112 Ariz. 582, 544 P.2d 1097 (1976). The word “crime” includes violations of public laws, such as traffic regulations. See, e.g., Callan v. Wilson, 127 U.S. 540, 8 S.Ct. 1301, 32 L.Ed. 223 (1888); People v. Babb, 103 Cal.App.2d 326, 229 P.2d 843 (1951); see also State v. Inman, 301 A.2d 348 (Me.1973); Squadrito v. Griebsch, 1 N.Y.2d 471, 154 N.Y.S.2d 37, 136 N.E.2d 504 (1956). In Arizona, an offense for which a sentence is a fine only is considered a petty offense, as defined in the criminal code. A.R.S. § 13-105(24).
For the above reasons, we hold that A.R.S. § 28-1074 is constitutional.
CONCLUSION
We reverse Boudette’s conviction for violating A.R.S. § 28-1075(B), but affirm the convictions on the other two citations.
KLEINSCHMIDT, P.J., and FIDEL, J., concur.
. Boudette relies only on federal constitutional law. As a result, we do not address any state 164 Arizona Reports — 8 constitutional issues.
. A.R.S. § 28-423 states:
Every licensee shall have a legible operator’s or chauffeur’s license in his immediate possession at all times when operating a motor vehicle and shall display the license, upon demand by a justice of the peace, a police officer or a field deputy or inspector of the department. However, no person served a complaint for violating this section shall be found responsible if he produces in court or the office of the police officer, field deputy or inspector of the department a legible operator’s or chauffeur’s license or an authorized duplicate of the license issued to him and valid at the time of the alleged violation of this section.
. A.R.S. § 28-181 provides:
A. A person violating any provision of this title, or failing or refusing to do or perform any act or thing required by this title, is guilty of a class 2 misdemeanor, unless the statute defining the offense provides for a different classification. This subsection does not apply to any provision or requirement of chapter 3, 4 or 6 or chapter 7, article 8 or chapter 8, article 3.2 of this title.
B. Any violation of or failure or refusal to do or perform any act or thing required by chapter 3, 4 or 6 or chapter 7, article 8 or chapter 8, article 3.2 of this title constitutes a civil traffic violation unless the statute defining the violation provides for a different classification. Civil traffic violations are subject to the provisions of chapter 6, articles ?0 and 21 of this title.
(Footnotes omitted.) Chapter 3 deals with motor vehicle registration; chapter 4, operators and chauffeurs; chapter 6, traffic laws; chapter 7, article 8, motor carrier financial responsibility; chapter 8, article 3.2, vehicle service transporter plates. Chapter 6, article 20 deals with parties, procedures upon arrest and reports in criminal cases, and article 21 outlines procedure for adjudication of civil traffic violations.
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OPINION
MOELLER, Justice.
JURISDICTION
These two special actions present questions concerning the timeliness of the filing of local initiative petitions and the method of calculating the number of valid signatures on such petitions. The trial court found the petitions to be timely filed, but lacking sufficient valid signatures to require placement on the ballot. Relief by appeal is inadequate because normal appellate procedure would result in delay beyond the scheduled election. See King v. Superior Court, 138 Ariz. 147, 149-50, 673 P.2d 787, 789-90 (1983). The questions presented involve issues of law with statewide significance. See Summerfield v. Superior Court, 144 Ariz. 467, 469, 698 P.2d 712, 714 (1985). Therefore, we accepted jurisdiction of the special actions pursuant to Ariz. Const, art. 6, § 5(4), and Rule 1, Ariz. R.P.Sp.Act., 17B A.R.S. We permitted the League of Arizona Cities and Towns to file an amicus curiae brief because the issues in this case are recurring and have been the subject of controversy in cities and towns throughout Arizona. See Rule 7(f), Ariz.R.P.Sp.Act., 17B A.R.S. and Rule 16, Ariz.R.Civ.App.P., 17A A.R.S.
ISSUES PRESENTED
1. In the absence of controlling local law, what is the filing deadline for local initiative petitions?
2. If local initiative petitions are untimely filed as to the targeted election, are they nevertheless valid for a later election?
3. In the absence of controlling local law, does the Arizona Constitution require signatures on initiative petitions of fifteen percent of those who voted for mayor at the last election or fifteen percent of those eligible to vote?
4. What is the proper procedural method for calculating the number of valid signatures on initiative petitions under A.R.S. § 19-121 et seq.l
FACTS
In November 1987, the Flagstaff City Council enacted an ordinance levying a two percent tax on the gross revenues of hotels, motels, campgrounds, bars and restaurants. On August 7,1989, Jacque Sullivan, on behalf of the Citizens for Responsible Spending (Citizens), obtained an initiative petition seeking to eliminate what has become known as the “bed, board and booze tax.”
On November 21, 1989, Citizens tendered the petition to the city clerk for filing and for presentation to the city council pursuant to A.R.S. § 19-143. The city clerk refused to accept and file the petition, stating that the petition was not timely as an initiative petition because it was not filed four months prior to the March 6, 1990 election, as required by Ariz. Const, art. 4, pt. 1, § 1(4). The clerk also rejected the petition as a referendum petition because it was not filed within thirty days after passage of the challenged ordinance as required by A.R.S. § 19-142.
Citizens then filed a special action in superior court, seeking an order compelling the clerk to accept the petition and present it to the council, and to place the initiative measure on the March 6, 1990 ballot. Citizens also sought a ruling that the required fifteen percent of qualified electors be determined by applying the percentage to the number of votes cast in the last mayoral election, rather than to the number of persons qualified to vote.
The trial court held that the petition was timely because, in the absence of a controlling City Charter provision, A.R.S. § 19-143(A) mandated a ninety-day filing deadline. The trial court also held that under Ariz. Const, art. 4, pt. 1, § 1 the required number of signatures was fifteen percent of all persons qualified to vote, not just fifteen percent of those who voted at the last mayoral election.
The City filed a special action with this court seeking review of the timeliness issue. Citizens also filed a special action in this court seeking review of the issue of the required number of signatures. For reasons previously stated, we accepted jurisdiction of both special actions and consolidated them.
Following oral argument, we entered an order finding that the four-month period of Ariz. Const, art. 4, pt. 1, § 1(4) applied. Thus, the initiative petition was untimely filed for the March 6, 1990 election. However, we permitted the trial court to proceed to determine the number of valid signatures submitted. In addition, we asked the parties to brief the question of whether, assuming enough valid signatures were submitted, the initiative proposal should be placed on a later ballot. The trial court completed its determination of the number of valid signatures and the parties submitted their supplemental briefs. This opinion follows our initial order.
DISCUSSION
I. Filing Deadline
Citizens contend the trial court correctly determined that, in the absence of any controlling local provision, A.R.S. § 19-143(A) provides a ninety-day filing deadline preceding the next election. Our analysis of the applicable constitutional and statutory provisions, however, leads us to conclude that the four-month period prescribed in the state constitution controls in’ this case.
The powers of initiative and referendum as to local matters are reserved to the qualified electors of cities, towns and counties. Ariz. Const, art. 4, pt. 1, § 1(8). These municipalities “may prescribe the manner of exercising said powers within the restrictions of general laws.” Id; see also Maxwell v. Fleming, 64 Ariz. 125,128, 166 P.2d 831, 833 (1946) (initiative power under Charter must be exercised within limitations imposed by constitution and general laws). Accordingly, we must first examine the general laws of the state to determine whether the state legislature prescribed a filing deadline for local initiative petitions.
Citizens argue that A.R.S. § 19-143(A) provides a filing deadline of ninety days preceding the next election. The statute states:
If an ordinance, charter or amendment to the charter of a city or town is proposed by initiative petition, it shall be filed with the city or town clerk, who shall submit it to the voters of the city or town at the next ensuing election held therein not less than ninety days after it was first presented to the city or town council. The council may enact the ordinance or amendment and refer it to the people or it may enact the ordinance or amendment without referring it to the people, and in that case it is subject to referendum petition as other ordinances. The mayor shall not have power to veto either of such measures.
A.R.S. § 19-143(A).
We read this statute not as a deadline for filing initiative petitions, but as a measure providing in part for a mechanism by which the municipal legislative authority can enact the proposal without the necessity of an election. The statute also designates the person with whom the petitions shall be filed (the clerk) and prevents placement of the measure on the ballot at any election held less than ninety days after the clerk presents it to the council. The section further provides that the city may enact the proposed ordinance or amendment either with or without referral to the voters but precludes mayoral veto. The statute implicitly contemplates that the petition must be presented to the clerk more than ninety days prior to the election.
In contrast to A.R.S. § 19-143(A) dealing with local initiatives, A.R.S. § 19-142(A), dealing with local referenda, provides a clear filing deadline by stating “the petition shall be filed with the city or town clerk within thirty days after passage of the ordinance.” Where the legislature uses a term within one statute and excludes it from another, the term usually will not be read into the provision from which it was excluded. See Board of Regents v. Public Safety Ret. Fund Mgr., 160 Ariz. 150, 157, 771 P.2d 880, 887 (Ct.App.1989). Because a filing deadline was specifically included in § 19-142(A) for referendum petitions, but was not specifically included in § 19-143(A) for initiative petitions, we will not read a filing deadline into § 19-143(A).
Finding no filing deadline in A.R.S. § 19-143(A) or other general statutes, we look next to the Charter of the City of Flagstaff which, in turn, refers us back to the constitution and to state laws. The Charter provides:
The provisions of the Constitution and the general laws of the State, as the same now exists or hereafter may be amended, governing the initiative and referendum and recall of elected officers, shall apply to the use thereof in the City.
City of Flagstaff Charter, art. 10, § 1.
Because the City Charter refers to state law, we are led to A.R.S. § 19-141(C) which provides a “gap-filler” regarding the local initiative process:
The procedure with respect to municipal legislation shall be as nearly as practicable the same as the procedure relating to initiative and referendum provided for the state at large.
Regarding filing deadlines for statewide initiatives, article four of the constitution provides:
All petitions submitted under the power of the Initiative shall be known as Initiative petitions, and shall be filed with the Secretary of State not less than four months preceding the date of the election at which the measures so proposed are to be voted upon.
Ariz. Const, art. 4, pt. 1, § 1(4).
Because no controlling local provision exists, the effect of A.R.S. § 19-141(C) is that the four-month provision of the constitution controls. Cf. 74-5-L Op. Att’y Gen. 1, 2-7 (1974) (ninety day provision of A.R:S. § 19-143(A) conflicts with four-month deadline of Ariz. Const, art. 4, pt. 1, § 1, and constitutional provisions control). Accordingly, the clerk properly rejected the petition as untimely for the March 6, 1990 election because it was not filed four months prior to that election.
II. Effect of Untimely Filing with Respect to Later Elections
Citizens argue alternatively that, even if the petition was untimely filed for the March 6, 1990 election, the initiative measure should be submitted to the voters at a later election. Citizens base their argument on provisions of the City Charter and on A.R.S. § 19-143(A).
Citizens contend that because the City Charter does not limit the council to placing an initiative measure at only primary or general elections, the measure should be submitted to the voters at a special election. See City of Flagstaff Charter, art. 9, § 1(a), (b), (c), (d). Accordingly, Citizens posit that although the petition is untimely for the March 6, 1990 general election, it is timely for placement on the ballot at a special election to be called by the city council, to be held concurrently with the statewide November general election or at some other reasonable time. Citizens also base their argument, in part, on A.R.S. § 19-143(A), which provides that the city clerk shall submit the initiative petition to the voters “at the next ensuing election held therein.” The “next ensuing election” under § 19-143(A), Citizens argue, is a term sufficiently expansive to include the November general election, a special election, or some other general city election.
Citizens’ interpretation renders A.R.S. § 19-121(D) superfluous. That statute provides:
Initiative petitions which have not been filed with the secretary of state as of five p.m. on the day required by the constitution prior to the ensuing general election after their issuance shall be null and void____
A.R.S. § 19-121(D). Citizens contend that A.R.S. § 19-121(D) is inapplicable to municipal elections. However, as we have noted, general state statutes on initiatives indeed apply absent controlling local ordinances. To accept Citizens’ argument would result in no effective deadline because any filing would be timely for some election. We hold that A.R.S. § 19-121(D) governs on local initiatives, absent a conflicting local ordinance. Under A.R.S. § 19-121(D), initiative petitions are null and void if not filed by 5:00 p.m. on the day required prior to “the ensuing general election after their issuance.” (emphasis added). The petitions in this case were issued on August 7, 1989, and filed on November 21, 1989, less than four months prior to the March 6, 1990 general election. Therefore, the petitions are null and void by the express terms of the statute, and may not be considered for some other, later election.
III. Definition of Qualified Electors
In light of our conclusion that the petitions were untimely filed and are now null and void, the two remaining issues presented are moot for this particular case. On occasion, however, we consider issues that are moot if significant questions of public importance are presented and are likely to recur. See Fraternal Order of Police v. Phoenix Employee Relations Bd., 133 Ariz. 126, 127, 650 P.2d 428, 429 (1982); see also Camerena v. Department of Public Welfare, 106 Ariz. 30, 31, 470 P.2d 111, 112 (1970). Local elections and the rules governing them are of considerable public interest and justify departure from the usual mootness rule. Further, the remaining issues concerning the definition of qualified electors and the proper method of calculation of valid signatures recur and are the subject of differing interpretations. The issues were thoroughly briefed and presented in an adversarial fashion by the parties and by amicus, giving this court the benefit of the opposing arguments and considerations. For these reasons, we exercise our discretion to determine the merits of the two remaining issues notwithstanding the fact that those issues are moot in this particular case.
The trial court ruled that, for local initiative purposes, “qualified electors” under Ariz. Const, art. 4, pt. 1 means the entire number of persons eligible to vote at the last city election, rather than those who actually voted. As noted previously, the Arizona Constitution reserves the initiative power to “qualified electors” of cities, towns and counties. Ariz. Const, art. 4, pt. 1, § 1(8). Fifteen percent of the “qualified electors” within the municipality may propose local initiative measures. Id. “Until provided by general law, said cities and towns may prescribe the basis on which said percentages shall be computed.” Id.
Based on Adams v. Bolin, 74 Ariz. 269, 247 P.2d 617 (1952), the City argues that the constitutional requirement of fifteen percent must be applied to all electors eligible to vote. Adams involved a legislatively proposed referendum which, if approved by the voters, would have repealed an initiative measure. The constitution provides that the “power of the legislature, to repeal ... shall not extend to initiative ... measures approved by a majority vote of the qualified electors.” Ariz. Const, art. 4, pt. 1, § 1(6). In Adams, the court rejected the argument that “approved by a majority vote of the qualified electors” meant “approved by a majority of the qualified electors voting thereon” because “it is all too clear that the constitution makers knew the difference” between the two. 74 Ariz. at 273-74, 247 P.2d at 620.
The City’s reliance on Adams is misplaced. For purposes of this case involving local initiatives, the constitution provides that “qualified electors” may be defined by municipalities until defined by general law. See Ariz. Const, art. 4, pt. 1, § 1(8). Accordingly, we first examine the general laws of the state to determine if the legislature has defined “qualified electors” for local initiative purposes.
For local referendum purposes, A.R.S. § 19-142(A) expressly defines “qualified electors” as those voting in the preceding mayoral election. However, no general law defines “qualified electors” for local initiative petition purposes. With this void in the general law, we turn first to the City Charter. See generally 186-011 Op. Att’y Gen. 2 (1986) (where legislature fails to make provisions in general laws, cities free to choose basis to compute percentage of qualified electors for initiative petitions). However, as we have previously noted in connection with our discussion of filing deadlines, art. 10, § 1 of the Flagstaff City Charter refers us back to the state constitution and general state laws.
Turning back to state law, A.R.S. § 19-141(C) again provides a “gap-filler” in the absence of controlling local law and mandates that local initiative procedures be as consistent as possible with state initiative procedures. Therefore, we turn to the provisions relating to statewide initiative petitions.
Ariz. Const, art. 4, pt. 1, § 1(7) provides:
The whole number of votes cast for all candidates for Governor at the general election last preceding the filing of any initiative ... petitions on a state ... measure shall be the basis on which the number of qualified electors required to sign such petitions shall be computed.
Accordingly, we conclude that, in the absence of controlling local law to the contrary, the number of qualified electors required to sign a local initiative petition is fifteen percent of the entire vote cast for all candidates for mayor at the last preceding general municipal election.
In so holding, we are aware that in 1988 and 1989, the legislature considered, but did not pass, legislation that would expressly adopt a formula analogous to the one set forth in the constitution. See, e.g., S.B. 1249, 39th Legis., 1st Sess. (1989) (bill held in committee); H.B. 2236, 38th Legis., 2d Sess. (1988) (bill stricken). The City notes that the legislative history and historical background of an enacted statute provides guidance in ascertaining the intent of the legislature. Dupnik v. MacDougall, 136 Ariz. 39, 42, 664 P.2d 189, 192 (1983); State v. Barnard, 126 Ariz. 110,112, 612 P.2d 1073, 1075 (Ct.App.1980). Citizens correctly point out that this principle has no application to proposed, but unenacted, legislation. Rejection by the house or senate, or both, of a proposed bill is an unsure and unreliable guide to statutory construction. See Allen v. Retirement Sys., 769 P.2d 1302, 1306 (Okla.1988) (bills falling short of passage never probative of legislative intent). Indeed, one could also argue that the legislature considered the proposed legislation unnecessary. We will not speculate on the intent of the legislature in failing or refusing to adopt clarifying amendments on this issue. Absent constitutional infirmities, we are required to apply statutes as written. In re Pima County Juvenile No. 74802-2 (Ariz. Apr. 4, 1990).
IV. Calculation of Number of Valid Signatures Under A.R.S. § 19-121.04
The final issue we determine is the proper procedure for calculating the number of valid signatures. As previously noted, Flagstaff’s Charter, art. 10, § 1, refers such questions to state law. All signatures obtained by unauthorized circulators are invalidated by A.R.S. § 19-114, which provides:
No county recorder or justice of the peace, and no person other than a qualified elector shall circulate an initiative or referendum petition and all signatures verified by any such person shall be void and shall not be counted in determining the legal sufficiency of the petition.
(emphasis added).
In this case, persons who were not qualified electors circulated and verified some of the petitions. To determine the proper number of valid signatures, A.R.S. § 19-121.01 provides that the secretary of state shall first count the total number of signatures presented and issue a temporary receipt for that number, assuming it appears to be a sufficient number. The method by which ineligible signers and ineligible circulators are to be determined is specified in A.R.S. § 19-121.02:
A. [T]he secretary of state shall, at random, select five per cent of the signatures filed with each petition for verification of eligibility by the county recorder of the county in which the persons signing the petition claim to be qualified electors____ [T]he secretary of state shall also have reproduced a facsimile of:
1. Each signature sheet on which a signature or signatures selected for random sampling appears and shall [transmit] ... such facsimiles to the county recorder____
2. Each affidavit of circulator as it appears on each signature page and shall [transmit] ... such facsimiles ... to the county recorder____
Subsection B of A.R.S. § 19-121.02 then defines the duties of the county recorder after receiving the facsimile signatures of voters from the random sample and the facsimiles of all circulators’ signatures:
B. [T]he county recorder shall return such facsimile signature sheets ... to the secretary of state ... accompanied by the county recorder’s certification stating:
1. The names, as well as the actual number, of persons selected by the secretary of state for verification by the county recorder found not to be qualified electors as of the date of signing the petition.
2. Whether the person whose facsimile signature appears in execution of each affidavit of circulator was a qualified elector at the time of circulating the petition.
The form of certification issued by the county recorder to the secretary of state is set forth in A.R.S. § 19-121.02(0).
Having obtained the information concerning the ineligible signers and ineligible circulators from the county recorder, the secretary of state is to employ the procedure set forth in A.R.S. § 19 — 121.04(A) to calculate the number of valid signatures. The application of this statute, in dispute in this case, provides:
[T]he secretary of state shall subtract from the number of signatures contained in the temporary receipt ... all signatures included in the random sample ... found to be ineligible, and shall, after determining the percentage of signatures found to be invalid in the random sample, subtract a like percentage of all other signatures included on the petitions and all signatures appearing upon signature sheets circulated by persons who, as certified by the respective county recorders, were not qualified electors at the time they circulated the petition. The secretary of state shall also subtract all signatures appearing on signature sheets of the petition circulated by persons who were county recorders or justices of the peace at the time they circulated the petition.
A.R.S. § 19-121.04(A).
The City contends proper application of the statute in this case results in the following calculations:
City’s Calculation Total Signatures Submitted 3,623
Random Sample (5% multiplied by 3,623) 182
Signers in Sample not Qualified Electors 87 Percentage of Sample Invalid (87 divided by 182) 47.8% Less Invalid Sample Signatures <87> 3,536
Less Invalid Signatures by Like Percentage (3,536 multiplied by 47.8%) < 1,690 > 1,846
Less All Signatures Obtained by Unqualified Circula-tors < 1,259 >
Total Valid Signatures 587
Citizens, on the other hand, contend that the proper application of the statute in this case yields the following calculations:
Citizens’ Calculation
Total Signatures Submitted 3,623
Random Sample (5% multiplied by 3,623) 182
Signatures in Sample Obtained by an Unqualified Circulator <46> 136
Signers in Remainder of Sample not Qualified Electors 62
Percentage of Sample Invalid (62 divided by 136) 45.6%
Less All Signatures Obtained by Unqualified Circula-tors < 1,259 >
Less Invalid Sample Signatures 2,364 <62> 2,302
Less Invalid Signatures by Like Percentage (2,302 multiplied by 45.6%) < 1,049 >
Total Valid Signatures 1,253
The trial court accepted the City’s method as appropriate. Although the City’s method performs the calculations in the precise, literal order set forth in A.R.S. § 19-121.04(A), such an application gravely distorts the end result because the number of signatures on petitions circulated by unqualified persons are not subtracted until the end of the calculation. Consequently, many ineligible signatures are counted twice and, therefore, deducted twice. Under the City’s method, the projected percentage of invalid signatures based on the random sample is first applied to all signatures submitted (less the number of invalid signatures in the random sample). Having done this, the City’s method nevertheless still subtracts from the remaining figure all signatures submitted (whether otherwise “good” or “bad” signatures) that were verified by unqualified circulators. The distortion against the proponents of the initiative is apparent. In case of an extremely high projected percentage of ineligible signers, the City’s method of calculation could result in the projection of a negative number of valid signatures, a patent absurdity.
The method of calculation proposed by Citizens, however, also deviates from the statute and its intent. Citizens’ method ignores the statutory requirement that the projected percentage of invalid signatures be based on a random sample of five percent of the total signatures submitted. The sample used by Citizens is not five percent; it is five percent reduced by the number of signatures that are invalid by reason of the ineligibility of the circulator.
We find that the statute in question seeks to accomplish two separate functions.
One function is to exclude all signatures found on petitions circulated by unauthorized persons, i.e., unqualified electors, county recorders, and justices of the peace. For this purpose, all affidavits of circula-tors must be examined to determine the eligibility of the circulator. The second function of the statute is to authorize a method whereby a random sample of five percent of all signatures submitted may be used to project the likely number of ineligible signatures. Bearing in mind these dual statutory goals, we do not believe that either the City’s method or Citizens’ method is entirely consistent with the statute and its intent. The City’s method exaggerates the projected number of ineligible signers while Citizens’ method does not comply with the statute’s random sampling requirement.
We believe the proper method of calculating valid signatures is as follows:
Court’s Calculations
Total Signatures Submitted 3,623
Random Sample (5% multiplied by 3,623) 182
Signers in Sample not Qualified Electors 87
Percentage of Sample Invalid (87 divided by 182) 47.8%
Less All Signatures Obtained by Unqualified Circula-tors < 1,259 >
2,364 Less Invalid Sample Signatures < 87 >
2,277 Less Invalid Signatures by Like Percentage (2,277 multiplied by 47.8%) < 1,088 >
Total Valid Signatures 1,189
In some cases an additional calculation will be necessary in order to deduct withdrawn signatures. See A.R.S. § 1-261. No withdrawn signatures are involved in this case.
We believe this method fairly carries out the dual functions of the statute. Additionally, this interpretation of the statute is consistent with A.R.S. § 19-121.04(B) and (D), which specify the form of certified statements issued by the secretary of state after determining the number of valid signatures. See generally A.R.S. § 19-121.04(B), (D) (certified statement first lists number of invalid signatures due to an unqualified circulator; then lists number of signatures found invalid in random sample; finally lists number of projected invalid signatures).
We recognize that the method we have set forth will still result in a percentage of the invalid signatures in the random sam-pie being deducted twice. However, such deduction appears clearly mandated by the statute. We note, however, that the calculations set forth in A.R.S. § 19-121.04 result merely in a projected number of valid signatures. Any citizen may challenge the legal sufficiency of a petition. See, e.g., A.R.S. § 19-121.03 (any citizen may challenge certification made by county recorder pursuant to § 19-121.02); A.R.S. § 19-122(A) (any citizen may challenge refusal of secretary of state to file petition or transmit facsimiles of signature sheets or affidavit of circulators); A.R.S. § 19-122(C) (any citizen may bring action to enjoin secretary of state from certifying or printing ballot where petition not legally sufficient). We believe the method of calculation set forth herein harmonizes the various statutory provisions, furthers the dual statutory purposes noted, and pre vents unfairness to those supporting an initiative measure.
CONCLUSION AND DISPOSITION
In the absence of controlling local provisions, local initiative petitions must be filed not less than four months preceding the next local general election. Petitions untimely filed pursuant to this constitutional deadline are null and void for inclusion on any ballot. The petitions in this case were untimely filed.
In the absence of controlling local provisions, the number of votes actually cast for mayor at the preceding election, rather than the number of voters eligible to vote, is the basis for computing the number of signatures required for a local initiative petition. The correct procedural method for calculating valid signatures on an initiative petition under A.R.S. § 19-121.04 is as set forth herein.
Citizens requested attorney’s fees under A.R.S. § 12-2030. The court may award fees to a party prevailing on the merits in an action brought against a political subdivision or officer to compel the performance of a duty imposed by law. See A.R.S. § 12-2030(A). Because Citizens has not prevailed, we deny its request for attorney’s fees.
GORDON, C.J., FELDMAN, V.C.J., and CAMERON and CORCORAN, JJ„ concur.
. The trial court also ruled that the petition was an initiative, rather than a referendum, based on Hamilton v. Superior Court, 154 Ariz. 109, 741 P.2d 242 (1987). That ruling is not challenged here.
. Regarding the types of elections, article nine of the Charter states:
(a) City elections shall be Primary, General, or Special.
(b) Primary elections shall be held for the purpose of nominating candidates for the General Election, and for such other purposes as the . Council may prescribe.
(c) General elections shall be held for the purpose of electing a Mayor and the Council-members of the City, and such other purposes as .the Council may prescribe.
(d) All other municipal elections that may be held by authority of this Charter, or of any law, shall be known as Special Elections.
. Amicus points out in its brief in support of the City’s motion for reconsideration that some cities do not provide for direct election of mayors. This opinion is limited to those cities that do have such direct election.
. The last sentence of this statute is inapplicable in this case because no petitions were circulated by county recorders or justices of the peace,
This number, 62, is less than the number 87 which appears in both the City and the Court’s calculations. This is because 25 persons in the sample were “doubly” ineligible, i.e., they were ineligible voters who signed a petition circulated by an ineligible circulator.
. If the projection of valid signatures is at least 105% of the minimum required, the secretary of state notifies the governor that the initiative is placed on the ballot. A.R.S. § 19-121.04(B). If the projection falls between 95% and 105%, the secretary of state orders examination and verification of each signature. A.R.S. § 19-121.04(C). If the projection is less than 95%, the petitions are returned to those who submitted them. A.R.S. § 19-121.04(D).
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OPINION
FELDMAN, Vice Chief Justice.
David A. Myers (respondent) appeals from the Disciplinary Commission’s (Commission) recommendation that he be publicly censured for his failure to appear on his client’s behalf at an immigration hearing. We have jurisdiction under Rule 53(e), Ariz. R.Sup.Ct, 17A A.R.S. Respondent argues that he did not violate any provisions of the Code of Professional Responsibility with which he was charged, so that no discipline is appropriate.
FACTS
On September 9, 1985, the State Bar received a letter from Chief Immigration Judge William R. Robie stating that respondent had “failed to notify his client of the time and place of a hearing on his asylum application [and] [a]s a result, neither the alien nor his counsel was present at the hearing.” The hearing had taken place almost one year before, on September 19, 1984.
After reviewing Judge Robie’s letter and the facts concerning the occurrence, the Probable Cause Panel issued an informal reprimand on January 6, 1986. Because respondent requested a formal hearing pursuant to Rule 53(b)(4), the reprimand was withdrawn and the following formal complaint was filed:
COUNT ONE
Respondent improperly represented his client by failing to notify him of the scheduled deportation hearing date or undertake any legal activity on his behalf, thereby intentionally failing to [seek] the lawful objectives of his client in violation of Disciplinary Rule 7-101(A)(1).
COUNT TWO
Respondent, throughout the time during which he represented his client, intentionally neglected a legal matter entrusted to Respondent in violation of Disciplinary Rule 6-101(A)(3).
COUNT THREE
Respondent, throughout the time during which he represented his client, intentionally prejudiced the rights of his client in violation of Disciplinary Rule 7-101(A)(3).
Complaint, filed Apr. 24, 1986 (emphasis added).
Respondent filed a motion to dismiss on November 5, 1986. The State Bar filed a motion for judgment on the pleadings on December 22, 1986. Hearing Committee 6C convened on February 28, 1987 and granted the State Bar’s motion. The Committee recommended public censure. Hearing Committee Recommendation of Discipline, filed Apr. 13, 1987. Respondent timely filed his objections with the Commission. By order filed October 30, 1987, the Commission remanded to a hearing committee so a hearing could be conducted.
A hearing was convened before Hearing Committee 6G (Committee) on November 2, 1988. The Committee took evidence, deliberated, and concluded as follows:
The Committee finds that there is insufficient evidence that Respondent violated any canon of ethics as charged. The Committee therefore recommends dismissal of this matter.
Hearing Committee Report, filed Dec. 21, 1988.
The Commission reviewed the case. Bar counsel waived his presence and authorized respondent’s counsel to present to the Commission his view that the decision of the Committee be upheld and affirmed. The Commission declined to do so. See Commission Report, filed Mar. 2, 1989. It rejected the Committee’s recommendation that the complaint against respondent be dismissed. Instead, it concluded,, based on its belief that clear and convincing evidence existed, that:
1. Respondent failed to act diligently in representing his client by failing to notify him of a scheduled [deportation] hearing and by failing to appear himself at the time and place scheduled for the hearing, thereby failing to seek the lawful objectives of his client, in violation of DR 7 — 101(A)(1).
2. Respondent neglected a legal matter entrusted to him by failing to appear at the time of the scheduled deportation hearing, in violation of DR 6-101(A)(3).
3. Respondent failed to notify his client or to appear, himself before the Immigration Court, prejudicing the rights of his client, in violation of DR 7 — 101(A)(3).
Commission Report (emphasis added). The Commission recommended that respondent be publicly censured.
Respondent timely filed an appropriate objection in this court. See Rule 53(e).
DISCUSSION
We review the record as the ultimate finder of fact. See In re Nefstead, 163 Ariz. 518, 789 P.2d 385 (1990). Nonetheless, we give deference and serious consideration to the findings of the Committee and Commission. In re Pappas, 159 Ariz. 516, 518, 768 P.2d 1161, 1163 (1988). Before we impose discipline, we must be persuaded by clear and convincing evidence that respondent committed the violations with which he was charged. Id.
It is true respondent did not appear at the hearing scheduled before the immigration judge, Hon. John T. Zastrow, on September 19, 1984. We approve, however, the conclusion the Committee evidently reached after hearing testimony: respondent’s failure to appear could not be attributed to either a lack of desire or effort to serve his client. Respondent testified at the hearing that he had been unaware the client had been released on bail due to the efforts of another lawyer. Respondent attempted to locate his client, but was unable to find either his address or telephone number. The evidence supports the conclusion that respondent had no way to notify his client of the hearing date or to procure his appearance at the hearing before the immigration judge. No intentional failure to notify his client can be inferred from these facts.
The record also clearly supports the conclusion that respondent believed it was in his client’s best interests that he not make an appearance without the client. Respondent believed if he appeared alone, he could not obtain asylum status for his client. Therefore, his appearance would not benefit his client and might harm him because, respondent believed, by entering an appearance for the client, he might subject him to the jurisdiction of the immigration court and possible deportation. This was a risk respondent did not wish to take because, after researching the issue, he thought the notice of hearing, served only on him and not on the client, was fatally defective from a jurisdictional standpoint. The State Bar argues that respondent was wrong in these legal positions. Respondent admits that, in retrospect, he may have handled the situation differently, but avows that at the time, after only four months of practice in a highly technical area of the law, he felt his position was strategically correct and legal ly justifiable as in the best interests of his client.
In our view, the case does not turn on whether respondent was correct in his legal position, but whether he had a good faith belief in that position, based on some tenable legal argument. Considering the confusing nature of the procedural rules in immigration court at the time respondent made his decision, we accept, as the Committee must have, that his legal arguments are defensible. The fact that respondent’s legal conclusions may have been incorrect does not indicate that, as charged, he intentionally failed to advance his client’s lawful objectives in violation of DR 7-101(A)(1), intentionally neglected a legal matter in violation of DR 6 — 101(A)(3), or intentionally prejudiced his client’s rights in violation of DR 7 — 101(A)(3).
Although respondent intentionally failed to go to the hearing, no evidence exists to support the idea that he did so because he abandoned his client or knowingly neglected his client’s welfare. Rather the record convinces us, as it evidently convinced the Committee, that he thought by not appearing he would be helping his client. Compare In re Cardenas, 164 Ariz. 149, 791 P.2d 1032 (1990); In re Anderson, 163 Ariz. 362, 788 P.2d 95 (1990). He attempted to locate and identify the client, researched his legal position, and made a good faith decision that his appearance was unnecessary and perhaps would even be detrimental to his client’s legal position. While there is a possibility that respondent mismanaged the case, there is no evidence he did so knowingly or intentionally, or that he abandoned his client’s interests. The evidence in this case, at most, points to an incorrect legal judgment, mistake of law, or improper strategy. We do not equate such matters with knowing or intentional derelictions of a lawyer’s duty to his client that should warrant discipline.
The conclusion that respondent sought only to help his client is not only compelled by the specific facts in this record, and the lack of any fact from which to infer intent to abandon, neglect, or lack of concern, but is supported by the entire factual context. Respondent, an ordained clergyman, has devoted his professional life, if not his whole life, to attempting to help unfortunate Central American aliens charged with immigration violations. He lives among them, he works among them, he confines his legal practice to their problems, and, to all intents and purposes, works on a pro bono basis. These circumstances, of course, would not in any way excuse a violation of the Code; in our view, however, they certainly militate against a finding that respondent would intentionally abandon or neglect his clients.
In his commendable efforts to advance the position of the Commission, bar counsel suggests that in not entering an appearance at the immigration hearing, respondent may have failed to fulfill his obligations to that court. We do not reach any conclusions on that issue. First, the record before us does not establish that respondent acted improperly. There is evidence that respondent may, indeed, have informally notified the judge that he was not going to appear and may have explained the reasons for his decision. Transcript of Proceedings Before Disciplinary Committee 6G, Nov. 2, 1988, at 172. Second, and more important, respondent was not charged with any violation of his obligation to the immigration court. Respondent may not be charged with one violation and then, without opportunity for hearing or presentation of evidence, be disciplined for another. In re Riley, 142 Ariz. 604, 609, 691 P.2d 695, 700 (1984). In Riley, we construed the United States Supreme Court opinion in In re Ruffalo, 390 U.S. 544, 88 S.Ct. 1222, 20 L.Ed.2d 117 (1968), which held that a lawyer has the right to procedural due process in State Bar proceedings. Riley had been charged with a number of ethical violations. At his hearing, evidence was presented that indicated he had violated other ethical canons. The State Bar accordingly amended its complaint. We held such amendment did not violate procedural due process guaranteed in Ruffalo because respondent had ample time and opportunity to respond. In this case, no amended complaint was filed and respondent has not been given any opportunity to respond to the allegations of misconduct for which the dissent wishes to hold him responsible.
Bar counsel also suggests that respondent’s behavior when he first defended himself against the charges filed with the State Bar was less than exemplary. We agree. Without in any way approving some of the language or methods respondent employed in his initial pro se defense against the charges, we think it obvious, however, that most of the improprieties can be attributed either to respondent’s inexperience (especially in responding to the disciplinary process), or (and perhaps in a larger degree) to the emotions engendered by the political and moral controversy surrounding the immigration policies involving those seeking asylum from the troubles in Central America. Finally, we note on this point, as well, respondent was not charged with violating DR 7 — 106(C)(6), which states that a lawyer shall not “[ejngage in undignified or discourteous conduct which is degrading to a tribunal,” and believe his conduct did not rise to the level of a violation in any case. If anything, his conduct merely lends further support to the old adage that “a lawyer who represents himself____”
The dissent makes four points. First, it argues that respondent should not have denied he was the client’s attorney. Dissent at 564, 795 P.2d at 207. Doing so “exhibited a lack of knowledge of the attorney-client relationship____” Id. Second, it argues that respondent should not have questioned the competence of the Committee. Id. at 564-566, 795 P.2d at 207-209. Third, it criticizes respondent’s reliance “on an unsupported theory of conspiracy.” Id. at 566, 795 P.2d at 209. These points all deal with respondent’s conduct while he appeared pro se during the disciplinary proceedings.
The answer to this, of course, is that respondent has not been charged with any of these matters but only with three counts of having intentionally neglected his client’s interests. In effect, the dissent argues that respondent may be charged with specified offenses and, despite the lack of evidence to support those charges, be found to have committed others that were neither charged nor the subject of any hearing. We reject such a proposition as failing to comport with elemental due process. See Ruffalo.
Finally, the dissent disagrees with a comment in this opinion regarding respondent’s obligation to the immigration court. See dissent at 566, 795 P.2d at 209. No doubt this court could impose appropriate discipline on respondent if he had committed improprieties in his appearance before the United States Immigration Court. Before doing so, it would be necessary to charge him with such an offense and to provide him a hearing. See Ruffalo. No such charges were preferred and no such hearing was held. Lacking evidence taken at a hearing on a specified charge, we do not propose to determine whether respondent’s conduct in immigration court was proper or improper.
CONCLUSION
We do not accept the Commission’s recommendations. We find no clear and convincing evidence that respondent committed the offenses charged in the complaint. The Committee’s recommendation is ap proved. Accordingly, the charges against respondent are dismissed.
GORDON, C.J., and MOELLER, J., concur.
. The conduct in question occurred prior to the adoption of the Rules of Professional Conduct, Rule 42, Ariz.R.Sup.Ct., 17A A.R.S., effective February 1, 1985. Therefore, former Rule 29(a), Arizona Code of Professional Responsibility, governs respondent's conduct rather than current Rule 42. See Order Deleting Rules 27 Through 49, Of The Supreme Court, And Substituting Amended Rules 27 Through 121, Rules of the Supreme Court, In Their Place, reprinted in 17A A.R.S. at 212 (1988). Because the State Bar commenced proceedings after February 1, 1985, however, the current rules relating to disciplinary procedures govern. Id. References to the Arizona Supreme Court Rules will be cited as "Rule_” and will refer to the current rules unless otherwise indicated.
. Testimony at the hearing by an attorney specializing in immigration law indicated that the practice of sending notice only to attorneys and not to the clients was new at the time and that she shared respondent’s concerns about due process. Transcript of Proceedings Before Disciplinary Committee 6G, Nov. 2, 1988, at 24.
Immigration Judge John J. McCarrick testified, describing the law in this area as “Byzantine.” Id. at 79. He explained as follows:
The Immigration Court used to be part of the Immigration and Naturalization Service. In about 1982 the Justice Department decided to sever the judicial function of the Immigration Service and house it in a separate agency....
A lot of the regulations that you will see in 8 CFR refer to the service and came into play at the time when the Immigration Department was part of the Service. They don’t anymore, but they haven’t been amended to reflect the change, so there — as a result there is a considerable amount of confusion concerning the regulations that apply to the Court now because they are in — they are in language that doesn't relate to the Court itself or refers to the Service.
Id.
. We hasten to note that even if we were to deem respondent's conduct "negligent," most decisions and official ABA policy insist that a single instance of "ordinary negligence” is usually not a disciplinary violation. See generally C.W. WOLFRAM, MODERN LEGAL ETHICS at 190 n. 36 (1986) (citing ABA Informal Op. 1273 (1973) (DR 6-101(A)(3)) ("Neglect usually involves more than a single act or omission. Neglect cannot be found if the acts or omission complained of were inadvertent or the result of an error of judgment made in good faith”); see also Florida Bar v. Neale, 384 So.2d 1264, 1265 (Fla.1980) (Where lawyer discovered theory upon which he might have obtained a larger recovery for his client but then made the mistake of dismissing the action, the court stated that "[tjhere is a fine line between simple negligence by an attorney and violation [of Code) that should lead to discipline. The rights of clients should be zealously guarded by the bar, but care should be taken to avoid the use of disciplinary action ... as a substitute for what is essentially a malpractice action.").
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OPINION
ROLL, Judge.
Bruce Ferell Harkreader appeals from a judgment ordering him to pay $2,536 to reimburse the Boulder County Department of Social Services (Boulder County) for Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) payments made to Nancy Har-kreader from July 1984 through February 1985. For the reasons set forth below, we affirm.
FACTS
For purposes of this appeal, the parties stipulated to the following facts. Bruce and Nancy were married and have three minor children. At some point, they were divorced but no decree or child support order was produced. Based upon Bruce’s duty to support his minor children, Boulder County sought reimbursement of $2,536 in AFDC payments paid to Nancy Harkreader from July 1984 through February 1985 for the three minor Harkreader children.
PROCEDURAL HISTORY
Boulder County filed this action to seek reimbursement under the Revised Uniform Reciprocal Enforcement of Support Act (RURESA). The Pima County Special Commissioner rendered an “under advisement ruling” March 3, 1989. By minute entry on June 7, 1989, the commissioner denied Bruce’s motion to reconsider and amended portions of the March 3, 1989 minute entry. The commissioner then vacated the March 3 minute entry pending further hearings to determine Bruce’s ability to reimburse Boulder County. Following this hearing, the commissioner entered a judgment ordering Bruce to pay the full amount of $2,536.
ISSUES ON APPEAL
The parties stipulated to the following issues under RURESA: whether the court can require a father to reimburse an agency for AFDC benefits paid to the mother of his minor children when (1) no underlying divorce decree ordered child support, (2) Boulder County failed to prove that the children received or benefitted from the money, and (3) Boulder County did not prove the elements of the common law doctrine of necessaries.
STANDARD OF REVIEW
This appeal presents questions of law, which we review de novo. Tovrea Land & Cattle Co. v. Linsenmeyer, 100 Ariz. 107, 114, 412 P.2d 47, 51 (1966).
No Child Support Order
Bruce argues that since no court has ordered him to pay child support, he has no duty to support his children, relying on Lamb v. Superior Court, 127 Ariz. 400, 621 P.2d 906 (1981). Bruce contends that because he has no duty to support his children, the court cannot order him to reimburse Boulder County for the AFDC payments.
The history of RURESA indicates that the act’s primary purpose is to prevent a runaway obligor from fleeing across state lines thereby avoiding his or her parental duties of support. City and County of San Francisco v. Juergens, 425 So.2d 992, 996 (La.App.1983). Under RURESA, when a state or political subdivision furnishes support to an obligee, it has the same right to initiate a proceeding as the obligee and can seek reimbursement of support furnished. A.R.S. § 12-1657. An obligee is a person to whom a duty of support is owed. A.R.S. § 12-1651(7). The duty of support is determined under the law of the state where the obligor was present during the period for which support is sought. Unless otherwise shown, the obligor is presumed to have been present in the responding state. A.R.S. § 12-1656. Because there is no evidence to the contrary, Bruce is presumed to have been present in Arizona during the relevant time period of 1984-1985, therefore the law of Arizona determines his duty of support. Duty of support is defined as “a duty of support whether imposed or imposable by law or by order, decree, or judgment of any court....” A.R.S. § 12-1651(2).
In Lamb, supra, a mother sought arrears for child support. The supreme court stated:
In the absence of a valid judgment, decree or order requiring one spouse to pay a fixed sum to the other spouse for child support, no such duty exists for it is the valid judgment, decree or order that creates the duty and governs its extent.
Id. 127 Ariz. at 402, 621 P.2d at 908.
A court cannot order payment of arrears for child support unless a judgment, decree, or order exists. In this matter, the parties admit that they are divorced but no order, judgment, or decree mandates child support. Accordingly, no arrears occurred and the court cannot retroactively order one parent to pay the custodial parent a specific sum for child support. However, Lamb is factually distinguishable from this matter. Lamb involved a decree for child support which was subsequently terminated when the father was awarded custody of the children. When custody was later awarded back to the mother, she sought arrears for child support for the time period during which the father had been awarded custody although the children remained primarily with the mother. The court found that ordering child support payments for that time period was prohibited because it was equivalent to a retroactive modification of the child support order. 127 Ariz. at 401-02, 621 P.2d at 907-08. Lamb did not address the issue of reimbursement for public assistance nor reimbursement for necessities.
Lamb recognized the general duty of parents to support their children:
A.R.S. § 12-2451 imposes a general duty on parents to support their children, but there is no duty on one parent to pay a certain sum to the other parent for child support.
Id. at 402 n. 1, 621 P.2d at 908 n. 1 (emphasis in original). A.R.S. § 12-2451 states in part:
A. Every man and woman shall have the duty to provide all reasonable support for his or her natural and adopted minor, unemancipated children, regardless of the presence or residence of the child in this state and:
******
D. All such duties of support as prescribed in this chapter may be enforced by all civil and criminal remedies provided by law.
Accordingly, because under Arizona law Bruce has a general duty to support his minor children, Boulder County can seek reimbursement for benefits paid for Bruce’s minor children.
Proof Regarding Use of Benefits
Bruce argues that Boulder County must prove that the AFDC money paid to Nancy was actually used for the benefit of the children. We see no reason to impose this burden on the plaintiff. The AFDC program is a federally regulated program that requires participant states to develop a plan to distribute funds and to seek repayment from the absent parent. 42 U.S.C. § 656. The state programs are designed to assure that funds are used for the children. See A.C.R.R. R6-3-418. These regulations are sufficient to ensure the proper use of the benefits. However, if the parent from whom a state seeks reimbursement presents any evidence that the children did not receive the benefits, then the parent has successfully rebutted the presumption that the funds were used for the children. The state must then prove the AFDC funds were used to benefit the children.
In the matter before us, Bruce argues that he has been ordered to repay the entire sum of AFDC payments made to Nancy. AFDC benefits are paid to a family in need. 42 U.S.C. § 601; Shea v. Vialpando, 416 U.S. 251, 253, 94 S.Ct. 1746, 1750, 40 L.Ed.2d 120, 125 (1974) (The AFDC program is designed to provide financial assistance to needy dependent children and the parents or relatives who live with and care for them.) Bruce argues that he should only have been required to repay that portion of AFDC funds used for the three minor children. However, the minute entry of June 30, 1989, states in part:
UPON STIPULATION OF THE PARTIES:
1. The welfare grant during the relevant period of time was $317.00 per month for three minor children. The total amount of the grant was $2,536.00.
Since Bruce has stipulated that the payments were made exclusively for his three children, we reject his argument that he is being required to reimburse Boulder County for payments made to his wife for her benefit.
Doctrine of Necessaries
Bruce argues that before Boulder County can be reimbursed for the AFDC benefits, it must demonstrate that the funds were provided for necessaries that the absent parent failed or neglected to provide. We disagree.
The doctrine of necessaries is a common law doctrine used to compel a husband to support his family. Because the state has a statutory right to seek reimbursement, we find the doctrine of necessaries does not apply.
CONCLUSION
RURESA authorizes a public entity to seek, from a parent, reimbursement for AFDC benefits paid for the benefit of that parent’s minor children. The parent’s duty to reimburse arises even in the absence of an underlying judgment, decree, or order for child support, and is based on the parent’s general duty of support. The regulatory nature of state AFDC programs creates a presumption that the benefits paid to a parent were used for the children. Bruce stipulated that all of the AFDC payments were for the three minor children.
Accordingly, we affirm.
HOWARD and HATHAWAY, JJ„ concur.
. A.R.S. §§ 12-1651 et seq.
. 42 U.S.C. §§ 601 et seq.
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OPINION
GRANT, Presiding Judge.
This is a special action filed by the State from decisions by the city court (“trial court”) and the superior court finding no probable cause to arrest Respondent/Real Party in Interest, Michael Daniel Seidel for DUI. This court accepted jurisdiction of the special action with an opinion to follow. This is that opinion.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
On September 30, 1995, at approximately 3:10 a.m., Phoenix Police Officers Bill Hardy and Philip Lanoue were leaving the parking lot of Central City Precinct located at 620 West Washington. A white pickup truck pulled in front of the officers’ vehicle, blocking their exit. Officer Lanoue observed a young female, Jeanette Martinez (“Martinez”), driving the vehicle with Respondent/Real Party in Interest, Michael Daniel Seidel (“Defendant”), in the passenger seat. Martinez exited the driver’s side of the pickup truck, ran up to Officer Lanoue in the patrol car and said, “Help, this man needs help, he’s been drinking.” At the same time, Defendant exited the truck and staggered toward the patrol car. Defendant then snatched the keys to the truck from Martinez’s hand.
While Officer Hardy took Defendant aside to obtain his personal information, Officer Lanoue asked Martinez what had occurred. Martinez told the officer she was a passenger in the back seat of a vehicle traveling northbound on Seventh Avenue when she realized suddenly, as she looked out the back window, that Defendant’s vehicle was traveling too close to the vehicle in which she was riding. Martinez also observed that Defendant, who was the only occupant of his vehicle, was driving erratically; at one point he drove onto a curb, almost hitting a bus stop. As both vehicles approached a red light at Seventh Avenue and Washington, the vehicle in which Martinez was riding moved into the other lane to avoid being rear-ended by De fendant. While stopped at the traffic light, Martinez noticed Defendant’s head was bobbing back and forth as though he were having difficulty staying awake.
Martinez then left the vehicle in which she was riding and walked over to Defendant’s vehicle and asked Defendant if he was “okay.” Defendant said he was fine, but he admitted he was unable to drive. Martinez offered to drive for Defendant. She then got into Defendant’s vehicle and drove him to the Central City Precinct where she met with the officers. Officer Lanoue observed Defendant staggering about the parking lot and also smelled alcohol on Defendant’s breath. Defendant became loud and wanted to get inside his truck and leave. The officers restrained Defendant with handcuffs. The officers admitted they never saw Defendant driving or in actual physical control of his vehicle.
Defendant was charged with: Driving or Being in Actual Physical Control of a Motor Vehicle While Under the Influence of Intoxicating Liquor, in violation of Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated (“A.R.S.”) section 28-692(A)(1) (1994); Having a B.A.C. of .10 or Higher Within Two Hours of Driving, in violation of A.R.S. section 28-692(A)(2) (1994); and Failure to Drive in One Lane, in violation of A.R.S. section 28-729(1) (1989).
Prior to trial, Defendant filed a Motion to Suppress Evidence alleging lack of probable cause to arrest. Following a hearing, the trial court granted Defendant’s motion, finding no probable cause to arrest when Defendant was taken into custody. The State moved to dismiss its case to preserve its right of appeal. The trial court granted the motion. The State timely filed a Notice of Appeal on May 24, 1996. In a minute entry dated January 8, 1997, the Respondent Judge upheld the trial court’s finding of insufficient probable cause to arrest. The State then filed this special action. Because this is an issue capable of being determined, likely to arise again, and without an adequate remedy of appeal by the State, we accepted jurisdiction of this special action. Rules of Procedure for Special Actions, Rule 1. We hold that on appeal in such a case, the superior court should apply a de novo standard of review when reviewing a city court ruling.
ISSUES
I. Is a de novo review the proper standard on appeal to determine whether the facts in this case constituted sufficient probable cause to arrest?
II. Did the superior court err in declining to apply a de novo standard of review in this case?
III. Did both the superior court and the trial court err in failing to find probable cause as a matter of law based on the facts available to the arresting officer?
IV. Is an officer independently required to investigate allegations from a citizen-informant who personally witnesses criminal conduct before the officer may use the information to establish probable cause for arrest?
I. & II. Did the Superior Court Err in Declining to Apply a De Novo Standard of Review in This Case?
In its minute entry dated January 10,1997, the superior court stated it had jurisdiction and heard oral argument. Finding no error, that court affirmed the trial court. The superior court then recited the facts presented at the suppression hearing, including: (1) one officer testified he personally had no probable cause to arrest; and (2) the other officer testified he based probable cause to arrest on the information given him by a citizen, Martinez, who drove Defendant to the police station, and also on his own observations. The trial court found no probable cause to arrest.
The superior court minute entry stated:
The applicable standard of review of a motion to suppress is the abuse of discretion standard. State v. Prince, 160 Ariz. 268, 272, 772 P.2d 1121, 1125 (1989). This Court declines to apply the de novo standard as urged by the State. However, given the facts of this case the outcome would be the same under any standard. This Court finds that the issues presented are not mixed questions of fact and law requiring this Court to substitute its judg ment for the trial court’s. Application of the de novo standard requires an appellate court to substitute its judgment in instances where “the facts are admitted or established, the rule of law is undisputed, and the issue is whether the facts satisfy the statutory or constitutional issue.” State v. Winegar, 147 Ariz. 440, 445, 711 P.2d 579, 584 (1985). This is not such a ease.
The superior court then stated the only conclusion to be deduced from the facts presented was that Defendant had been drinking that evening. It agreed with the trial court that the evidence did not support the conclusion that Defendant had driven his vehicle while intoxicated. The superior court concluded the officers did not have reasonable, trustworthy, and sufficient information, facts, or circumstances to lead a reasonable person to believe an offense had been committed. Therefore, the superior court reasoned, the officer lacked probable cause to believe the person arrested committed that offense. As a result, the superior court affirmed the trial court.
The State relies on State v. Blackmore, 186 Ariz. 630, 925 P.2d 1347 (1996), for the principle that a de novo review is the proper standard to determine whether an arrest is illegal. The State claims it has no other forum for review and, if this court does not grant relief, it will suffer irreparable harm because it cannot pursue its prosecution of Defendant. Therefore, the State claims the superior court erred in not applying a de novo standard of review:
Whether an illegal arrest occurred is a mixed question of fact and law. We give great deference to the trial court’s factual determination, but we review the ultimate question de novo.
186 Ariz. at 632, 925 P.2d at 1349 (citations omitted).
State v. Blackmore was not cited or relied on by either the trial court or the superior court. Blackmore is a case in which the supreme court granted review on three issues — none dealing with the appropriate standard for reviewing probable cause to arrest. 186 Ariz. at 632, 925 P.2d at 1349. However, the opinion contains a paragraph highlighted — “Standard of Review” — containing the quote set forth above. Id. The issues in Blackmore were: (1) Did the seizure of defendant before his formal arrest exceed the bounds of an investigatory stop? (2) Did the officer violate defendant’s right to be free from an unreasonable search and seizure by drawing a gun, handcuffing defendant and placing him in a patrol car? (3) Assuming seizure of the defendant amounted to an illegal arrest, did it taint defendant’s consent to search his fanny pack for identification? In contrast, the present case involves no such issues. Furthermore, Black-more involved issues of the officer’s own safety and protection, while the safety of law-enforcement officers is not an issue in this case.
In Blackmore, our supreme court was merely reiterating a long-standing principle that de novo review is the proper standard to determine whether an arrest is illegal. See State v. Winegar, 147 Ariz. 440, 445, 711 P.2d 579, 584 (1985); State v. Chapple, 135 Ariz. 281, 297 n. 18, 660 P.2d 1208, 1224 n. 18 (1983); State v. Garcia, 162 Ariz. 471, 473, 784 P.2d 297, 299 (App.1989). Therefore, we conduct a de novo review here.
Similarly, the superior court should have applied a die novo standard of review although it specifically stated that it did not. However, the superior court also stated the result would have been the same under any standard of review. The superior court did not correctly review the case. A reviewing court may substitute its judgment for that of an agency or a lower court regarding the legal effect of factual findings. Carondelet Health Servs. v. Arizona Health Care Cost Containment Sys. Admin., 187 Ariz. 467, 469, 930 P.2d 544, 546 (App.1996).
This court has recently held:
On appeal, the superior court and the court of appeals determine whether substantial evidence supports the administrative decision. Havasu Heights Ranch and Dev. Corp. v. Desert Valley Wood Prods., Inc., 167 Ariz. 383, 387, 807 P.2d 1119, 1123 (App.1990). The reviewing court, however, conducts a de novo review of the administrative agency’s application and interpretation of the law. Eshelman v. Blubaum, 114 Ariz. 376, 378, 560 P.2d 1283, 1285 (App.1977). The reviewing court therefore may substitute its judgment for the agency’s conclusions regarding the legal effects of its factual findings. Gardiner v. Arizona Dept. [sic] of Economic Security, 127 Ariz. 603, 606, 623 P.2d 33, 36 (App.1980).
Arizona Health Care Cost Containment Sys. Admin. v. Carondelet Health Sys., 188 Ariz. 266, 269, 935 P.2d 844, 847 (App.1996). Similarly, the United States Supreme Court has essentially adopted the de novo standard for issues of illegal arrest. Ornelas v. United States, 517 U.S. 690, — 116 S.Ct. 1657, 1663, 134 L.Ed.2d 911 (1996). For the reasons stated, we hold the superior court, in reviewing a decision of the trial court, should have considered the law as applied to the facts de novo. Had the superior court applied a de novo standard of review on this record, it would necessarily have found probable cause to arrest. State v. Valenzuela, 182 Ariz. 632, 898 P.2d 1010 (App.1995). Based on the facts known to the officers, they had probable cause to arrest Defendant for Driving Under the Influence in violation of A.R.S. section 28-692(A) (1989). See Nebraska v. Ege, 227 Neb. 824, 420 N.W.2d 305 (1988) (holding that probable cause for an arrest for DUI may be acquired from a citizen); see Pharo v. Tucson City Ct., 167 Ariz. 571, 810 P.2d 569 (App.1990).
III. Did Both the Superior Court and the Trial Court Err in Failing to Find Probable Cause as a Matter of Law Based Upon the Facts Available to the Arresting Officer?
This issue is already answered in the immediately preceding sentence.
IV. Is an Officer Required to Investigate Allegations from a Citizen-Informant Who Personally Witnesses Criminal Conduct Before the Officer May Use the Information to Establish Probable Cause for Arrest?
We discuss issues III and IV jointly; although issue III has been answered, these two issues are intertwined and duplicative.
Both police officers admitted they never saw Defendant driving while intoxicated or breaking any law. They based their conclusion that he had done so solely on the statements of Martinez, who arrived at the police station with Defendant in the passenger seat of the vehicle. Both officers then determined that Defendant was intoxicated while driving. Although one officer believed he did not have probable cause to arrest, the officers did place Defendant under arrest based on the facts related to them by Martinez. The officer had probable cause to arrest even though he thought he did not. State v. Turner, 142 Ariz. 138, 688 P.2d 1030 (1984).
Formerly, an officer could not effectuate an arrest for a misdemeanor without personally observing its occurrence. That rule has now been changed by a statute allowing arrests for misdemeanors based on probable cause. A.R.S. § 13-3883(A)(4) (1989). The facts here were disputed because, although Defendant admitted he was intoxicated, he denied driving. Notwithstanding Defendant’s denial, the officers had probable cause to arrest Defendant based on their personal observations of Defendant in an obviously intoxicated condition, and Martinez’s statements about observing Defendant while he was driving. The trial court made no finding that the civilian witness was unreliable or incredible. Thus, from our de novo review of the established facts, the evidence — the information from Martinez, plus the officers’ observation of Defendant’s condition and his grabbing the keys — clearly established probable cause.
CONCLUSION
For the reasons stated, we remand this ease to the superior court with directions to reverse its affirmation of the Motion to Suppress and direct the city court to proceed with a trial on the merits.
TOCI and RYAN, JJ., concur.
|
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OPINION
MARTONE, Justice.
¶ 1 The United States District Court for the District of Arizona certified two questions on the proper use of after-acquired evidence in employment termination disputes. We accepted jurisdiction under A.R.S. § 12-1861, and Rule 27, Rules of the Supreme Court.
I. CERTIFIED FACTS
¶ 2 On June 8, 1990, McDonnell Douglas failed to promote Dennis O’Day to lead engineer at its helicopter plant in Mesa. He was laid off as part of a general work force reduction one month later. O’Day was 46 years old, had worked for the company for fourteen years, and believed he had been denied the promotion and laid off because of his age.
¶ 3 After exhausting his administrative remedies in the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, O’Day filed an action against McDonnell Douglas challenging the denial of promotion and layoff. His complaint stated four causes of action:
1. Discrimination in employment under the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, 29 U.S.C. § 621 et seq.
2. Discrimination in employment under the Arizona Civil Rights Act, A.R.S. § 41-1481 et seq.
3. Breach of contract.
4. Wrongful discharge in violation of public policy.
¶ 4 The night after O’Day was denied his promotion, he returned to the plant and searched his supervisor’s office. He took documents that he thought might be useful to his discrimination claim, copied them, and returned the originals to the supervisor’s desk.
¶ 5 It was not until after discovery began in the action that McDonnell Douglas learned of ©’Day’s misconduct. McDonnell Douglas moved for summary judgment, asserting the “after-acqpired evidence defense.” The District Court granted judgment in favor of McDonnell Douglas on all counts.
¶ 6 On appeal, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit affirmed the finding that the after-acquired evidence defense had been established, but reversed the dismissal of the complaint based upon the principles articulated in McKennon v. Nashville Banner Publishing Co., 513 U.S. 352, 115 S.Ct. 879, 130 L.Ed.2d 852 (1995). O’Day v. McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Co., 79 F.3d 756 (9th Cir.1996). The Court of Appeals remanded the case for trial but reserved ruling on whether the “after-acquired evidence” defense applied to O’Day’s state contract and tort claims. The court noted that we had not yet “determined the extent to which after-acquired evidence of wrongdoing limits an employee’s recovery of compensatory and punitive damages on these causes of action.” Id. at 764 n. 7.
II. CERTIFIED QUESTIONS
The certified questions are:
1. Whether the “after-acquired evidence” defense as delineated by the United States Supreme Court in McKennon v. Nashville Banner Publishing Co., 513 U.S. 352, 115 S.Ct. 879, 130 L.Ed.2d 852 (1995) applies to limit recovery under Arizona law in a case of wrongful discharge from employment in violation of public policy, and, if the defense applies, how it limits or precludes recovery of damages.
2. Whether the “after-acquired evidence” defense applies in a case of breach of employment contract, and, if the defense applies, how it limits or precludes recovery of damages in such a case.
III.
A. After-Acquired Evidence in Federal Statutory Discrimination Cases: the McKennon Rule
¶ 7 McKennon resolved a conflict in the circuits on the proper role of after-acquired evidence in federal statutory discrimination cases. The Tenth Circuit, in Summers v. State Farm Automobile Insurance Co., 864 F.2d 700 (10th Cir.1988), had held that after-acquired evidence could serve as a complete bar to a plaintiffs cause of action under federal employment discrimination statutes if the defendant could demonstrate that the conduct would have resulted in the employee’s discharge had it been discovered during the course of employment. The court presented a hypothetical that is often quoted in after-acquired evidence cases:
To argue, as Summers does, that this after-acquired evidence should be ignored is utterly unrealistic. The present case is akin to the hypothetical wherein a company doctor is fired because of his age, race, religion, and sex and the company, in defending a civil rights action, thereafter discovers that the discharged employee was not a “doctor.” In our view, the masquerading doctor would be entitled to no relief, and Summers is in no better position.
Id. at 708. Four years later, the Eleventh Circuit, in Wallace v. Dunn Construction Co., 968 F.2d 1174 (11th Cir.1992), reh’g granted, op. vacated, 32 F.3d 1489 (11th Cir. 1994), decision en banc, 62 F.3d 374 (11th Cir.1995), rejected this approach, and concluded that after-acquired evidence, while relevant, should operate only to limit damages. Id. at 1181. The court held that after-acquired evidence sufficient to warrant discharge precludes reinstatement or front pay. Id. The plaintiffs award of back pay would be reduced to the period between the actual discharge and the discovery of the evidence only if the employer could demonstrate that (1) the misconduct discovered would have resulted in the plaintiffs discharge and (2) the evidence would have been discovered in the absence of the alleged discrimination and the subsequent litigation. Id. at 1182.
¶ 8 The Supreme Court resolved the conflict in McKennon v. Nashville Banner Publishing Co., 513 U.S. 352, 115 S.Ct. 879, 130 L.Ed.2d 852 (1995), and held that after-acquired evidence is not a bar to an employment discrimination action, but is relevant to the measure of damages. The Court’s resolution reflected a balancing of the legitimate managerial interests of the employer and the “important claims of the employee who invokes the national employment policy mandated by the Act.” Id. at 361, 115 S.Ct. at 886. The Court held that once an employer demonstrates that the after-acquired evidence would have led to the employee’s discharge, the remedies of reinstatement and front pay are no longer appropriate. The Court concluded that the measure of back pay is the period between the termination and the date the employer discovers the after-acquired evidence. The Court expressly rejected the added prong of Wallace, and held that an employer need not show that it would have discovered the evidence in the absence of discrimination and subsequent litigation.
B. After-Acquired Evidence and State Common Law Claims
¶ 9 The question here is whether we should apply the McKennon rule to O’Day’s state common law claims for breach of contract and wrongful termination in violation of public policy. As to the contract claim, O’Day argues that (1) employee misconduct after a valid employment relationship exists ought to be treated differently than a case of résumé or application fraud, which implicates the doctrine of fraud in the inducement, (2) this court ought to consider how material O’Day’s misconduct was to the contractual relationship, and (3) after-acquired evidence should only affect damages, not liability.
¶ 10 As to the tort claim, O’Day argues, inter alia, that any limitation on damages resulting from the admission of after-acquired evidence would violate both article II, section 31 and article XVIII, section 6 of our Constitution, which prohibit laws that limit the amount of damages to be recovered for injuries. O’Day also argues that the cutoff date for future lost earnings should not be the date the employer discovers the misconduct, but instead should be a date determined by a jury. Finally, O’Day argues that after-acquired evidence should have no bearing on punitive damages, or on compensatory damages for injury to personal and professional reputation, emotional distress, humiliation, and embarrassment.
¶ 11 McDonnell Douglas argues that the contract claim and the tort claim ought to be treated differently. It relies on Hampton v. Sandy Cowen Agency, Inc., 154 Ariz. 14, 739 P.2d 1331 (App.1987) and the Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 385 (1979) for the proposition that if a party has the power to avoid a contract by disaffirmance, that party’s failure to perform is not a breach, even if the party is ignorant of his power of avoidance and believes that his refusal is a breach. The after-acquired evidence of O’Day’s misconduct would, under this rule, constitute a “first breach” of the employment contract that would excuse McDonnell Douglas’s later breach. The McKennon rule would not apply, because the purposes behind state and federal age discrimination statutes do not form the underpinnings of the law of contracts.
¶ 12 In contrast, McDonnell Douglas concedes that because the tort claim involves important public concerns, like those implicated by federal and state discrimination statutes, there is no bar. It argues that the McKennon rule should apply as to reinstatement, front pay and back pay, but that after-acquired evidence of employee misconduct ought to be a per se bar to the recovery of punitive damages and emotional distress damages.
1. Common Law Breach of Contract and After-Acquired Evidence
¶ 13 The overwhelming majority of courts hold that if an employer can demonstrate that it would have fired an employee had it known of prior misconduct, then the employee’s claim for breach of contract is barred or, put differently, the prior misconduct excuses the employer’s breach. This approach is supported by several sections of the Restatement of Contracts, leading treatises, and a century of case law. In Hampton v. Sandy Cowen Agency, 154 Ariz. 14, 739 P.2d 1331 (App.1987), the court of appeals held that a former employee’s breach of contract claim was barred by the discovery of after-acquired evidence such that, had it been known at the time of employment, the employee would not have been hired. Relying upon the Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 385 cmt. a (1979), the court rejected the plaintiff’s claim that the employer could not rescind the contract if it did not know of the grounds for rescission at the time of the plaintiffs discharge. The irrelevance of the second breaching party’s ignorance is reinforced by other sections of the Restatement. Section 237 provides:
Except as stated in § 240, it is a condition of each party’s remaining duties to render performances to be exchanged under an exchange of promises that there be no uncured material failure by the other party to render any such performance due at an earlier time.
Illustration 8 to section 237 is directly on point:
A and B make an employment contract. After the service has begun, A, the employee, commits a material breach of his duty to give efficient service that would justify B in discharging him. B is not aware of this but discharges A for an inadequate reason. A has no claim against B for discharging him.
See also E. Allan Farnsworth, Farnsworth on Contracts § 8.3 (1990). The Supreme Court, pre-Erie, acknowledged this in College Point Boat Corp. v. United States, 267 U.S. 12, 15-16, 45 S.Ct. 199, 201, 69 L.Ed. 490 (1925) (holding that a party may “justify an asserted termination, rescission, or repudiation of a contract by proving that there was adequate cause, though it was not known to him until later.”).
¶ 14 The Colorado and Kansas Supreme Courts have recently held that after-acquired evidence of employee misconduct that would have resulted in termination (or the employee never having been hired) bars a claim for breach of contract. Crawford Rehab. Servs, v. Weissman, 938 P.2d 540 (Colo.1997); Gassmann v. Evangelical Lutheran Good Samaritan Soc’y, 261 Kan. 725, 933 P.2d 743 (1997). Federal courts have reached the same conclusion as to pendant state claims. See, e.g., Johnson v. Honeywell Info. Sys., 955 F.2d 409, 412-14 (6th Cir.1992), questioned on other grounds, McKennon v. Nashville Banner Publ’g Co., 513 U.S. 352, 115 S.Ct. 879, 130 L.Ed.2d 852 (1995); Massey v. Trump’s Castle Hotel & Casino, 828 F.Supp. 314, 325 (D.N.J.1993); Leakey v. Federal Express Corp., 685 F.Supp. 127, 128 (E.D.Va.1988).
¶ 15 Under the law of contracts, O’Day’s claim that McDonnell Douglas breached the implied contract by terminating him is barred if McDonnell Douglas can demonstrate that it would have fired him had it known of the misconduct. Of course, O’Day’s breach of contract claim arising out of his employer’s conduct prior to O’Day’s misconduct (failure to promote) is not barred because this would be a first breach by the employer, not the employee. To this day, almost no court has challenged the assumption that these principles ought to apply to implied-in-fact employment contracts. But see, Crawford Rehab. Servs. v. Weissman, 938 P.2d 540, 553 (Colo.1997), (Mullarkey, J., dissenting).
¶ 16 We adhere to the traditional contract approach. We need not depart from the law of contracts just to duplicate relief that is already provided by tort and statutory causes of action that arose because o/the possible harshness of the very contract principles before us today. The result in contract merely reflects the private bargain between the parties. Of course, if the employee can demonstrate that the employer knew of the misconduct and chose to ignore it, then he will defeat the employer’s attempted use of the after-acquired evidence and defense of legal excuse.
¶ 17 We emphasize that the non-breaching party is discharged only from its remaining duties of performance. Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 237 (1979). For example, in a unilateral contract for employment, where a day’s work results in a day’s wages, an employer would, in most cases, still be obligated to provide wages and benefits for services rendered up to the moment of termination. We also believe that principles of equity would prevent the absurd results identified by opponents of the traditional contract approach. In almost all imaginable circumstances, the doctrines of quantum meruit and unjust enrichment would prevent an employer from using past wrongdoing to recover wages already paid to an employee. We therefore hold that after-acquired evidence of employee misconduct is a defense to a breach of contract action for wages and benefits lost as a result of discharge if the employer can demonstrate that it would have fired the employee had it known of the misconduct.
2. Tortious Wrongful Termination and After-Acquired Evidence
¶ 18 Other courts have adopted three approaches to after-acquired evidence in wrongful termination cases: (1) it is not admissable because it is irrelevant or because it undermines the public policy goals of these actions (see Flanigan v. Prudential Fed. Sav. & Loan, 221 Mont. 419, 720 P.2d 257, 264 (1986), appeal dismissed, 479 U.S. 980, 107 S.Ct. 564, 93 L.Ed.2d 570 (1986); Mosley v. Truckstops Corp., 891 P.2d 577, 585 (Okla. 1993) ; Mitchell v. John Wiesner, Inc., 923 S.W.2d 262, 264 (Tex.App.1996)); (2) it is an absolute bar to recovery by the employee (see Camp v. Jeffer, Mangels, Butler & Marmaro, 35 Cal.App.4th 620, 41 Cal.Rptr.2d 329, 335-40 (1995); Jordan v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 881 S.W.2d 363, 366 (Tex.App. 1994) ); and (3) it only limits remedies.
¶ 19 We reject the first approach because, while it has surface appeal, it cannot be reconciled with the employer’s right to let an employee go for the employee’s wrongful conduct. See Thompson v. Better-Bilt Aluminum Prods. Co., 187 Ariz. 121, 129, 927 P.2d 781, 789 (App.1996). We reject the second approach because the tort claim evolved to cure the failure of the law of contracts to attribute any consequence to the employer’s tortious conduct. The third approach attributes significance to both the employer’s and employee’s wrongful conduct. See generally Rebecca Hanner White & Robert D. Brussack, The Proper Role of After-Acquired Evidence in Employment Discrimination Litigation, 35 B.C. L.Rev. 49 (1993).
¶ 20 But does the McKennon rule (back pay up to discovery, but no reinstatement or front pay) strike the proper balance between the interests of employers and employees in cases of tortious wrongful discharge? In part. We think that the prohibition on reinstatement and front pay adequately protects the employer from an employee it has a right to fire. A contrary conclusion would lead to the absurd result that an employer would have to accept an employee and then discharge him. And, the unavailability of these remedies is caused by the employee’s own conduct, not the tortious conduct of the employer. But back pay alone up to discovery of misconduct does not always adequately protect the employee from all the consequences of the employer’s wrongful conduct. Tortious conduct should result in the tort measure of damages — compensatory and punitive, if justified by the evidence, and we have so held with respect to the tort of wrongful discharge. See Thompson v. Better-Bilt Aluminum Prod., 171 Ariz. 550, 554, 832 P.2d 203, 207 (1992) (holding that a tortious wrongful discharge plaintiff is entitled “to ordinary tort damages — all damages legally caused by the tort.”).
¶ 21 We acknowledge that the use of after-acquired evidence presents some policy concerns first raised by federal courts which rejected earlier decisions that had allowed after-acquired evidence to bar discrimination claims. See, e.g., Wallace v. Dunn Constr. Co. 968 F.2d 1174, 1180-81 (11th Cir.1992); Massey v. Trump’s Castle Hotel & Casino, 828 F.Supp. 314, 323 (D.N.J.1993). It is feared that employers and their lawyers will scour the employee’s work record and interview co-workers in an attempt to dig up on-the-job misconduct that will serve as a pretext for discharge. Or, an employer might ignore employee wrongdoing, but tuck away that knowledge for the day that a charge of discrimination is made. Finally, an employee might endure repeated harassment or discrimination without complaint because she knows that her work record is not spotless.
¶ 22 But these fears arose in the context of after-acquired evidence being a complete bar. Under our rule compensatory and punitive damages are available. Thus, the incentive to abuse this defense, and the consequence to the employee of such abuse, is greatly diminished.
¶ 23 Second, we believe our rule provides an employee with more protection than is at first apparent. See White & Brussack, supra, at 85-86. The question of remedy will arise only in cases in which the employer has already been found liable for wrongful conduct. Therefore, an employer that has already failed to convince a jury that it has not engaged in prohibited conduct must now convince that same jury that it would have fired this employee had it known of prior misconduct. This should discourage employers from adopting “ludicrously low thresholds,” Wallace, 968 F.2d at 1180, for terminations that are pretextual.
¶ 24 Finally, the stakes are high for employers and their lawyers who would abuse the process. An employer that feigns ignorance of prior misconduct, hides evidence, or asserts in bad faith that it would have fired the employee had it known, is subject to discovery and other sanctions, as well as the specter of perjury charges. The lawyers involved are subject to the Rules of Professional Conduct. While it is impossible to fashion a rule that will entirely eliminate the possibility of abuse, we cannot allow these fears, as yet unrealized, to drive the development of the law. Our approach reaches a fair balance of legitimate interests. To yield completely to these fears by holding all after-acquired evidence irrelevant cannot be reconciled with an employer’s right to discharge such an employee. Of course, if our estimate of the danger of abuse proves too optimistic, the matter can be revisited.
¶ 25 We hold that, in an action in tort, after-acquired evidence will only affect the remedies available to the employee. If an employer can demonstrate that it would have fired the employee had it known of the misconduct, then the remedy of reinstatement or its functional equivalent, front pay, will not be available. Damages for lost past earnings (sometimes referred to as “back pay”) will be available for the period between the time of discharge and the time the employer discovers the misconduct. However, after-acquired evidence does not affect other compensatory damages attributable to the employer’s wrongful conduct, including any decrease in earning capacity, and punitive damages, if they are otherwise warranted by the evidence.
¶ 26 We briefly turn to a distinction between front pay and other prospective dam ages. O’Day argues that any limitation on front pay ought not to apply to the common law remedy of lost future earnings. The term “front pay” arose from federal statutory employment discrimination law, and is a monetary substitute for the equitable remedy of reinstatement. Lost earnings, past or future, refer to those specific earnings that could have been earned but were not, such as earnings from an existing job. See 2 Dan B. Dobbs, Law of Remedies § 8.1(2), at 364 (2d ed.1993). Some courts have therefore defined front pay as “lost future earnings.” See Burris v. City of Phoenix, 179 Ariz. 35, 38 n. 3, 875 P.2d 1340, 1343 n. 3 (App.1993)(citing Hansard v. Pepsi-Cola Metro. Bottling Co., 865 F.2d 1461, 1469 (5th Cir.1989) and Worrell v. Multipress, Inc., 45 Ohio St.3d 241, 543 N.E.2d 1277, 1283 (1989)).
¶ 27 Other courts believe the two to be separate remedies. See, e.g., Williams v. Pharmacia, Inc., 137 F.3d 944 (7th Cir.1998). This disagreement may stem from a blurring of the distinction between lost earnings on the one hand, and lost or diminished earning capacity on the other. See Williams, 137 F.3d at 953 (holding that lost future earnings compensate the employee for a lifetime of diminished earnings resulting from the reputational harms the employee suffered as a result of the employer’s discrimination). Properly understood, lost or diminished earning capacity, as distinguished from lost future earnings, is an estimate of lost present ability to work in appropriate occupations, now and in the future. See Dobbs, supra, § 8.1(2), at 362; Rossell v. Volkswagen of America, 147 Ariz. 160, 172, 709 P.2d 517, 529 (1985)(holding that diminished earning capacity is an item of general damage, as distinguished from lost earnings, which are specific damages); Mandelbaum v. Knutson, 11 Ariz.App. 148, 149-50, 462 P.2d 841, 842-43 (1969).
¶ 28 In the ordinary tort case, where the plaintiff is injured by someone other than his employer, his damages include lost earnings to date and any decrease in earning power or capacity in the future. See, e.g., RAJI (Civil) 112 (3d ed. 1997) (Personal Injury Damages 1). In the employment context, where the tortfeasor is the employer, and where there is a finding in favor of the employer on the after-acquired evidence defense, the employer’s right to discharge affects the ordinary measure of damages as of the date the right to discharge arises. Thus, the plaintiff is entitled to lost earnings to the point of discovery rather than to date. And, because the employer has the right to discharge, reinstatement or its functional equivalent, front pay, cannot be reconciled with the employer’s right to fire. Thus lost future earnings from that specific employer are not available. But the employer’s conduct may have damaged the employee in other ways, and thus the employee is still entitled to general damages for diminished earning capacity if supported by the evidence, even where he is not entitled to lost future earnings.
¶ 29 O’Da^s argument that allowing after-acquired evidence to limit damages is unconstitutional is without merit. Both article II, section 31 and article XVIII, section 6 by their express language prohibit “enacted” and “statutory” limitations on the amount of damages. This, of course, is not a case of statutory limitation. Second, and perhaps more important, under our rule the employee is entitled to the full measure of tort damages, including any decrease in earning power or capacity in the future. The unavailability of front pay or lost future wages from that specific employer flows from the unavailability of reinstatement, which in turn flows from the employee’s own conduct, see Jimenez v. Sears Roebuck & Co., 183 Ariz. 399, 408, 904 P.2d 861, 870 (1995), not from any law limiting damages caused by the tortfeasor.
TV. ANSWERS
A. We answer question two that after-acquired evidence of employee misconduct is a defense to a breach of contract action for wages and benefits lost as a result of discharge if the employer can demonstrate that it would have fired the employee had it known of the misconduct.
B. We answer question one that after-acquired evidence of employee misconduct is not a defense to a tortious wrongful termination action, but is relevant to the question of remedies. If an employer can demonstrate that it would have fired an employee had it known of prior misconduct, then the remedies of reinstatement and front pay will not be available to the employee. The employee is entitled to lost earnings from the time of discharge to the time the employer discovers the misconduct. However, after-acquired evidence is no bar to other compensatory damages attributable to the employer’s wrongful conduct, including but not limited to diminished earning capacity and punitive damages, if otherwise warranted by the evidence.
ZLAKET, C.J., and JONES, V.C.J., and FELDMAN and TOCI, JJ., concur.
JAMES MOELLER, J. (retired) did not participate in the determination of this matter. Pursuant to Art. 6, § 3 of the Arizona Constitution, Judge Philip E. Toci, Chief Judge of the Arizona Court of Appeals, Division One, is designated to sit on this case until final determination of this matter.
. Article II, section 31 provides: “No law shall be enacted in this State limiting the amount of damages to be recovered for causing the death or injury of any person” (emphasis added).
. Article XVIII, section 6 provides: “The right of action to recover damages for injuries shall never be abrogated, and the amount recovered shall not be subject to any statutory limitation” (emphasis added).
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FIDEL, Presiding Judge.
¶ 1 Does Proposition 200 mandate probation for a person convicted of possession of a narcotic drug when the person has been convicted of two prior offenses of possession of narcotic drugs for sale? That question is presented in this special action. We accept jurisdiction because the question is one of first impression, of statewide importance, and likely to recur. See Snow v. Superior Court, 183 Ariz. 320, 322, 903 P.2d 628, 630 (App.1995). We hold that probation is not required.
¶2 On November 19, 1997, Petitioner Cicero Goddard pled guilty to possession of narcotic drugs, a class 4 felony. After considering the parties’ memoranda concerning the application of Proposition 200, the trial court ruled that Petitioner’s two prior convictions for possession of narcotic drugs for sale removed him from the auspices of Proposition 200. The trial court deferred sentencing, however, to permit the filing of this special action.
I. Which Version of A.R.S. § 13-901.01 Applies?
¶3 By enacting Proposition 200, § 10, the Arizona electorate adopted one version of Arizona Revised Statutes (“A.R.S.”) § 13-901.01. See Proposition 200, § 10. The legislature then amended that statute in a manner that, if applicable, would plainly answer the question presented in this case. See S.B. 1373, ch. 104, § 2,1997 Ariz. Sess. Laws 944, 945-46 (amending A.R.S. § 13-901.01). Senate Bill 1373 makes ineligible for probation any person convicted of personal possession who “has two or more historical prior felony convictions ... not involving possession of marijuana, a dangerous drug or a narcotic drug.” A.R.S. § 13-901.01(A)(1) (Supp. 1997).
¶4 The amendment undertaken in Senate Bill 1373 is presently inapplicable, however, because it is suspended pending a vote at the next general election on Referendum 3-R-97, which seeks to repeal Senate Bill 1373. We must therefore resolve this matter by reference to a version of A.R.S. § 13-901.01(A)(1) that is less definitive on this issue — the version embodied in Proposition 200.
II. The Impact of Prior Convictions for Sale
¶ 5 Petitioner bases his argument for mandatory probation on two sections of Proposition 200. The first, A.R.S. § 13-901.01(C), provides generally:
Personal possession or use of a controlled substance pursuant to this section shall not include possession for sale, production, manufacturing, or transportation for sale of any controlled substance.
See Proposition 200, § 10 (adding A.R.S. § 13-901.01(0), amended by S.B. 1190, ch. 246, § 1, 1997 Ariz. Sess. Laws 2751, 2752.
¶ 6 The second, A.R.S. § 13-901.01(G), provides in pertinent part:
A person who has been convicted three times of personal possession or use of a controlled substance as defined in section 36-2501 is not eligible for probation under the provisions of this section but instead shall be sentenced pursuant to the other provisions of chapter 34 of this title.
¶ 7 We understand Petitioner’s argument for mandatory probation to be as follows: (1) Because subsection G is the only part of Proposition 200 that identifies prior offenses that disqualify a present offender from otherwise mandatory probation, (2) because the only prior convictions identified as disqualifying in subsection G are two or more prior convictions for possession or use, and (3) because possession for sale is not possession or use, it necessarily follows that two prior convictions for possession for sale do not disqualify a present possessor for use from mandatory probation.
¶ 8 We disagree. Although the statutory language, read in isolation, is susceptible to that construction, we decline to interpret the statute in a manner so contrary to common sense. See State v. Womack, 174 Ariz. 108, 112, 847 P.2d 609, 613 (App.1992) (interpreting a statute through a “common sense application of the ordinary meaning of the statutory language”). Instead, we interpret the statute by reference to its stated purpose and by reference to the system of related statutes of which it forms a part. See State ex rel. Larson v. Farley, 106 Ariz. 119, 122, 471 P.2d 731, 734 (1970) (legislative intent “must be ascertained not alone from the literal meaning of the wording of the statutes but also from the view of the whole system of related statutes”); In re Appeal in Maricopa County Juvenile Action No. JD-6236, 178 Ariz. 449, 452 n. 2, 874 P.2d 1006, 1009 n. 2 (App.1994) (“Statutes relating to the same subject ... should be construed harmoniously ‘as though they constituted one law.’ ”).
¶ 9 Among the stated purposes of Proposition 200, those of evident relevance to our decision are found in subsections 3(C) and 3(D). These subsections reveal that the drafters and voters undertook to prescribe alternatives to prison — including treatment, education, and community service — for persons convicted of personal possession or use of drugs. While attempting to enlarge the probationary opportunities of drug offenders, however, the electorate distinguished possession or use of a controlled substance from participation in the chain of manufacturing and commercial distribution of a controlled substance. See Proposition 200, § 10 (adding A.R.S. § 13-901.01(0), providing for the purpose of probation that personal possession or use of a controlled substance shall not include possession for sale, production, manufacturing, or transportation for sale). In short, the drafters and voters distinguished possession for use from possession for sale.
¶ 10 This distinction was not unusual. It is common in the Arizona Revised Statutes to treat commercial trafficking in controlled substances more severely than possession for use. Compare A.R.S. § 13-3405(B)(l)-(3) (Supp.1997) (providing that possession or use of varying amounts of marijuana shall be treated as class 4, 5, or 6 felonies), A.R.S. § 13-3407(B)(1) (providing that possession or use of a dangerous drag shall be treated, with some exceptions, as a class 4 felony), and A.R.S. § 13-3408(B)(1) (providing that possession or use of a narcotic drug shall be treated as a class 4 felony), with A.R.S. § 13-3405(B)(4)-(6) (providing that possession for sale of varying amounts of marijuana shall be treated as class 2, 3, or 4 felonies), A.R.S. § 13-3407(B)(2) (providing that possession of a dangerous drug for sale shall be treated as a class 2 felony), and A.R.S. § 13-3408(B)(2) (providing that possession of a narcotic drag for sale shall be treated as a class 2 felony). An evident purpose of Proposition 200 was to preserve such a distinction and to make it plain that those who commercially traffic in controlled substances are not entitled to the benefits accorded those who possess for use.
¶ 11 Against this backdrop, we consider the meaning of A.R.S. § 13-901.01(G), quoted above. The statutory purpose, we believe, is clear: to disqualify repetitive offenders— those convicted of a third offense of personal possession or use — from entitlement to mandatory probation and treatment in lieu of imprisonment.
¶ 12 The question remains how one’s entitlement to probation is impacted under A.R.S. § 13-901.01 if one has past convictions for possession for sale or other forms of commercial trafficking in controlled substances. Subsection G does not specify an answer. Because possession for sale is defined as something other than possession or use elsewhere within the statute, it must consistently be defined as something other than possession or use for the purpose of subsection G. See State v. Oehlerking, 147 Ariz. 266, 268, 709 P.2d 900, 902 (App.1985) (“Where the same words or phrases appear in the same statute, they should be given a consistent meaning unless there is a clearly expressed legislative intent to the contrary.”). This does not mean, however, as Petitioner contends, that one who has committed two or more past offenses of possession for sale is entitled to mandatory probation. To infer such a consequence from subsection G would clash with the treatment of possession for sale elsewhere in Proposition 200 as a more severe offense than possession or use, one that disqualifies an offender from the special privileges of that enactment.
¶ 13 We note that the silence in subsection G extends not only to the impact of prior convictions for possession for sale upon one’s entitlement to mandatory probation, but also to the impact of prior convictions for a multitude of other crimes, including homicide, armed robbery, and sexual assault. We decline to interpret this silence as mandating judicial indifference to such offenses at the time of sentencing. Nor do we believe that the drafters or voters intended to require mandatory probation for virtually all prior felons who commit a current possession or use offense — no matter the number or nature or severity of their prior felonies — excepting only those who have committed two prior crimes of personal possession or use. Rather, we conclude that the statute simply does not address the impact of prior convictions for other offenses, including possession for sale, upon one’s entitlement to mandatory probation, and leaves the consequence of such convictions to the determination of the sentencing judge pursuant to the discretion accorded elsewhere in the criminal code.
¶ 14 In summary, we hold that, as a consequence of Petitioner’s two prior felony convictions for possession of narcotic drugs for sale, he is not entitled to mandatory probation pursuant to Proposition 200. We accept jurisdiction, deny relief, lift the stay that was previously entered, and remand for proceedings consistent with this opinion.
GRANT and GERBER, JJ., concur.
. For purposes of this opinion, we will cite to the text of Proposition 200 as amended by H.B. 2475, ch. 6, 1997 Ariz. Sess. Laws 430; and S.B. 1190, ch. 246, 1997 Ariz. Sess. Laws 2751. These amendments were not suspended by Referendum 3-R-97.
. A.R.S. § 13-901.01(G) was renumbered and amended by S.B. 1373, ch. 104, § 2, 1997 Ariz. Sess. Laws 944, 946. However, as discussed above, this amendment has been suspended pending a vote on Referendum 3-R-97. The minor amendments to subsection G enacted by S.B. 1190, ch. 246, § 1, 1997 Ariz. Sess. Laws 2751, 2753, were not suspended by Referendum 3-R-97 and are incorporated herein.
. In subsections 3(C) and 3(D),-the applicable purposes of Proposition 200 are declared as follows:
(C) To require that non-violent persons convicted of personal possession or use of drugs successfully undergo court-supervised mandatory drug treatment programs and probation.
(D) To require that non-violent persons currently in prison for personal possession or use of illegal drugs, and not serving a concurrent sentence for another crime, or previously convicted or sentenced or subject to sentencing under any habitual criminal statute in any jurisdiction in the United States, be made eligible for immediate parole and drug treatment, education and community service.
. In a comparable- provision, Proposition 200, § 8 added A.R.S. § 41-1604.15(C), providing for the purpose of parole that personal possession or use shall not include possession for sale, production, manufacturing, or transportation for sale. This section was deleted, however, by H.B. 2475, ch. 6, § 4, 1997 Ariz. Sess. Laws 430, 432, which was not suspended by Referendum 3-R-97.
|
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OPINION
SULT, Judge.
This consolidated appeal arises from two separate but related garnishment judgments entered for appellees David and Debra McCandless, as judgment-creditors, against appellant United Southern Assurance Company (“USAC”), as garnishee-defendant. In both proceedings, the trial court entered summary judgment, determining that USAC owed its policy limits towards satisfaction of underlying judgments McCandless had obtained against persons or entities purportedly insured by USAC.
BACKGROUND
The facts of this case are not disputed. In 1989, TWS Farms, Inc., a company based in Florida,, applied to USAC for a policy of vehicle insurance covering its large tractor trucks used for commercial purposes. The application submitted by TWS listed three specific tractors and indicated that these were the only such items of equipment being operated under TWS’ authority. TWS also agreed in the application that the policy would be void from inception if the information in the application was found to be materially false or misleading.
On May 24, 1989, USAC issued its Commercial Lines Policy to TWS, providing liability coverage up to $750,000 for any one accident for covered vehicles, which included tractor-trailer combinations. The policy listed only the three tractors specifically identified in the application, and provided coverage for only those tractors, together with any three non-owned trailers. Coverage extend ed to anyone using a covered vehicle with TWS’ permission.
After securing coverage, TWS obtained permission from the Arizona Department of Transportation to operate in the state of Arizona. This process included a showing by TWS of financial responsibility, as required by Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated (“A.R.S.”) section 28-1232(A), for those wishing to operate vehicles with a gross weight in excess of twenty thousand pounds. To comply with this requirement, TWS certified the USAC policy to the Arizona authorities as proof of financial responsibility.
On July 15,1989, McCandless was seriously injured when the vehicle he was driving collided with a tractor-trailer combination owned by TWS and driven by its employee, James B. Clegg. The accident occurred in Arizona but the tractor involved in the accident was not one of the three listed in the USAC policy. Within three months after the accident, USAC discovered that TWS was operating over one hundred tractors instead of merely the three listed in the policy. Upon learning this, USAC immediately notified TWS that the policy was being canceled due to misrepresentations made in the application.
McCandless ultimately filed suit against Clegg and TWS for damages arising out of the accident, and served the complaint on both defendants. McCandless gave USAC notice of its filing of the complaint but neither of the defendants notified USAC nor asked it to provide a defense. USAC did not defend the action.
Clegg and TWS failed to answer or appear in the action and default was entered against both. McCandless applied for a hearing to have damages determined, but was able to proceed only as to Clegg, since TWS had instituted bankruptcy proceedings. After the trial court conducted a hearing on damages, it entered a default judgment against Clegg on September 8,1994 in the amount of $2,700,000.
McCandless thereafter applied for a writ of garnishment against USAC, alleging that the USAC policy provided coverage for the underlying Clegg judgment. USAC contested the issue but the trial court entered summary judgment for McCandless, finding as a matter of law that USAC was liable in the amount of $750,000, its policy limits. As part of this garnishment judgment, the trial court also ordered USAC to pay interest on the underlying Clegg judgment of $2,700,000, overruling an objection by USAC that it should be required to pay interest only on $750,000. USAC timely appealed from this first garnishment judgment.
While the first garnishment was still pending, the bankruptcy proceedings involving TWS had either concluded or the stay had been lifted. Consequently, McCandless moved for summary judgment on its claim against TWS, arguing that pursuant to the doctrine of respondeat superior, TWS was liable for the judgment against Clegg. The trial court agreed,' and on September 15, 1995, it entered judgment for McCandless against TWS for the same $2,700,000. The trial court also assessed interest on this TWS judgment accruing from September 8, 1994, the date of entry of the Clegg judgment.
McCandless then filed a second writ of garnishment against USAC, alleging the USAC policy also covered the TWS judgment. This issue was again contested and the trial court granted summary judgment for McCandless, finding that USAC owed its $750,000 policy limits toward the underlying TWS judgment. Over objection, the trial court again ordered that USAC pay interest on $2,700,000, rather than on $750,000. It also ordered that interest against USAC was to be calculated from September 8, 1994, the date of entry of judgment in the underlying Clegg action, rather than September 15, 1995, the date of entry of judgment in the underlying TWS action. USAC timely appealed from this second garnishment judg ment and both appeals have been consolidated for decision.
ISSUES
As to both garnishment judgments, USAC attacks the finding of coverage as well as the ruling that it owes judgment interest on $2,700,000, rather than on $750,000, the amount of the respective judgments against it. Regarding the second garnishment judgment, USAC also argues that to whatever extent it may owe interest, the interest should be computed from September 15, 1995, the date of the underlying TWS judgment, not from September 8, 1994, the date of the underlying Clegg judgment.
DISCUSSION
1. The Coverage Question
This issue was decided by the trial court as a matter of law. The trial court found that, under relevant provisions of the Uniform Motor Vehicle Safety Responsibility Act (“the Act”), A.R.S. sections 28-1101 to 28-1262, USAC is required to provide its policy limits to partially satisfy the underlying Clegg and TWS judgments. The same issue is presented to us and is one of statutory interpretation. Such questions are legal issues and we therefore review the trial court’s ruling de novo. Hawkins v. Department of Economic Sec., 183 Ariz. 100, 103, 900 P.2d 1236, 1239 (App.1995). USAC makes three arguments, each of which requires that we interpret some provision of the Act.
A. Scheduled Vehicle Limitation
USAC’s first argument is based on the policy provision that expressly limits coverage to the TWS vehicles listed in the policy. Since the tractor driven by Clegg was not one of those listed vehicles, USAC contends coverage is precluded as a matter of law. McCandless responds that notwithstanding this provision, certain sections of the Act operate to impose coverage. The resolution of this dispute requires a review of the specific provisions of the Act which govern insurance policies issued in Arizona covering the operation of large tractor-trailer combinations.
Arizona, like most other states, has imposed certain requirements upon all motorists using the state’s roads as a means of providing some degree of financial protection for potential accident victims. These requirements are set forth within the eight numbered articles comprising the Act. Together, the eight articles are grouped in Chapter 7 of Title 28 of the Arizona Revised Statutes.
Article 7 of the Act is entitled “Motor Carrier Financial Responsibility,” and it is-specifically directed to persons operating particular types of large vehicles for commercial purposes. A.R.S. §§ 28-1231 to 28-1238. Section 28-1232(A) requires that every person who commercially operates a vehicle or vehicle combination in excess of twenty thousand pounds gross weight must comply with the financial responsibility provisions of Article 7. If the vehicle combination exceeds twenty-six thousand pounds, section 28-1233(A)(l)(a) requires a policy of liability insurance in the minimum amount of $750,-000. Finally, section 28-1234 provides in relevant part:
A. [A] person who operates motor vehicles in this state and is subject to the financial responsibility requirements of this article shall maintain at all times the amounts prescribed in § 28-1233 which obligates the person to pay compensation for injuries to persons and for loss or damage to property by reason of the ownership, maintenance or use of any motor vehicle or vehicle combination owned or operated by the person.
B. [T]he [agency] may require every person who is subject to the financial responsibility requirements of this article to certify the existence of financial responsibility in the form and at the times as the [agency] deems necessary. The [agency] may forward the certification to the named insurer to determine if the certification is correct....
(Emphasis added.)
The foregoing provisions are the ones pertinent to our “scheduled vehicle” issue and the ones we must construe to resolve that issue. Our goal is not only to ascertain the legislative intent behind these provisions but also to give effect to that intent. State v. Korzep, 165 Ariz. 490, 493, 799 P.2d 831, 834 (1990). As for the first step in this interpretive process, it is not difficult to ascertain what the legislature intended; namely, that a source of compensation is to be made available to those using the streets and highways of this state who are injured by reason of the ownership, maintenance or use of any large vehicle, such as tractor-trailer combinations. See Midland Risk Management Co. v. Watford, 179 Ariz. 168, 171-72, 876 P.2d 1203, 1206-07 (App.1994) (The primary purpose of the Act “is the protection of the travelling public from financial hardship resulting from the operation of motor vehicles by financially irresponsible persons”).
We also discern that the legislature intended that the existence of appropriate insurance not be left to chance or the vicissitudes of individual economic circumstances. Consequently, the legislature also established a certification process by which the Arizona authorities could be certain that appropriate insurance coverage existed before granting permission to operate in this state. This is accomplished by section 28-1234(B), whereby the legislature empowered the Arizona Department of Transportation, the agency responsible for administering the legislative plan, to require that each person wishing to own, maintain or operate such vehicles in Arizona certify to the agency that appropriate insurance coverage existed. To further insure that the prospective user in fact has appropriate coverage, the agency was additionally authorized to require the insurance company to confirm the existence of coverage.
Guided by this framework of legislative intent, the second question in the interpretive process is how we give effect to that intent. McCandless asserts that pursuant to the statutory scheme, when a policy is certified to the agency and coverage is confirmed by the insurance company, and as a result thereof permission is obtained to operate in Arizona, that policy is deemed amended to cover any large vehicle owned or operated by the insured or its authorized agent. Thus, a “scheduled vehicle” limitation in the policy cannot defeat coverage.
We agree with McCandless. The legislative purpose underlying the Act, including Article 7, is to provide a source of compensation for injured motorists. The only way to give effect to that purpose is to hold that when a policy is certified to the agency pursuant to section 28-1234(B), and permission to operate in Arizona is thereby obtained, the policy is deemed amended by operation of section 28-1234(A) to cover any vehicle which is owned or operated in Arizona by the insured and which meets the weight criterion of section 28-1232(A). See Principal Casualty Ins. Co. v. Progressive Casualty Ins. Co., 172 Ariz. 545, 547, 838 P.2d 1306, 1308 (App.1992) (in holding that the provision of the Act that liability insurance shall insure named insured and permissive users is read by law into every policy in Arizona, the court stated: “People should not be injured by the operation of motor vehicles and be left uncompensated because of the particular working of the policy insuring the car that caused the injury, thus making the injured parties public charges.”).
In the case before us, the USAC policy was certified to Arizona authorities and USAC confirmed the existence of appropriate coverage to those authorities, all pursuant to section 28-1234(B). As a consequence, TWS received permission to operate in Arizona. Under these circumstances, we hold that the USAC policy was amended by operation of section 28-1234(A) to insure any large vehicle owned or operated by TWS in Arizona.
The equity of this result is made apparent when we examine the certification process in this case. It is clear that USAC contemplated that the policy, as written, might not comply with the laws of a state where the policy was sought to be certified. To obviate this problem for its insured, USAC inserted an endorsement in the policy, providing in pertinent part:
The certification of the policy, as proof of financial responsibility under the provisions of any State motor carrier law or regulations promulgated by any State Commission having jurisdiction with respect théreto, amends the policy to provide insurance for automobile bodily injury and property damage liability in accordance with the provisions of such law or regulations to the extent of the coverage and limits of liability required thereby....
(Emphasis added.)
In addition, USAC filed Form E with the agency. This form is required by the agency pursuant to its authority in 28-1234(B) to confirm with the insurer the existence of appropriate coverage. This form provides in relevant part:
A policy or policies of insurance ... has or have been amended to provide automobile bodily injury and property damage liability insurance covering the obligations imposed upon such motor carrier by the provisions of the motor carrier law of the State....
(Emphasis added.)
The plain language of both the endorsement and Form E acknowledges and agrees that the policy when certified will be deemed amended to bring it into compliance with all applicable laws concerning “the extent of the coverage and limits of liability required thereby.” This necessarily included compliance with section 28-1234(A) requiring coverage for any large vehicle operated by TWS. By including the endorsement and executing Form E, USAC enabled TWS to certify the policy and obtain permission to operate in Arizona. USAC cannot now be heard to assert that it meant something other than what it said in the endorsement or that it should not be held to the consequences of its filing of Form E.
USAC nevertheless does attempt to avoid the impact of the endorsement and Form. While it does not dispute the import of the language in these provisions, it counters that the mere filing of a Form E cannot operate to waive a scheduled vehicle limitation in a certified policy absent a statute specifically mandating such a waiver. USAC cites no authority directly supporting this proposition, but refers to cases where the state had such a statute and the court consequently found coverage for a non-scheduled vehicle. See, e.g., Hindel v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 97 F.2d 777, 783 (7th Cir.1938) (the policy contained an endorsement required by Indiana law whereby the insurer waived the policy description of vehicles operated or used by the insured).
USAC’s argument ignores that Arizona does have a statute which effectively waives a scheduled vehicle limitation in a certified policy. Section 28-1234(A) requires coverage for any large vehicle “operated” by the insured, not any large vehicle that may be scheduled in the certified policy. We see no way to read this provision other than to mean that if the insured is operating a large vehicle, it is covered by the certified policy. And if it is covered by the certified policy, it logically follows that a scheduled vehicle limitation that exists in the certified policy must give way to the requirement of the statute. We find no merit to USAC’s argument.
We hold that when the USAC policy was certified to Arizona authorities and as a result thereof TWS received authorization to operate in Arizona, the provision limiting coverage to scheduled vehicles was amended out of the policy. We affirm the trial court on this issue.
B. Cancellation for Fraud
USAC’s second argument is that it should be absolved from coverage because the policy was void at its inception due to the fraud perpetrated by TWS in procuring the policy. We assume for purposes of this analysis that such fraud occurred when TWS represented in its application that it operated only three vehicles but was operating over one hundred such vehicles a mere six months later. McCandless responds that section 28-1170(F)(1) is applicable and precludes USAC from canceling the policy in this case. Section 28-1170(F)(l) provides:
F. Every motor vehicle liability policy is subject to the following provisions which need not be contained in the policy:
1. The liability of the insurance carrier with respect to the insurance required by this chapter shall become absolute when injury or damage covered by the motor vehicle liability policy occurs. The policy may not be canceled or annulled as to such liability by an agreement between the insurance carrier and the insured after the occurrence of the injury or damage, and no statement made by the insured or on his behalf and no violation of the policy shall defeat or void the policy.
In Midland Risk, Division Two of this court held that this section prevents an insurer under an ordinary automobile policy from canceling coverage required by the Act even where there has been fraud in the application. 179 Ariz. at 171, 876 P.2d at 1206. It found that because of the important public policy behind the Act, this section took precedence over another general insurance provision, section 20-1109, which allows insurance policies to be canceled for fraud. Id.
USAC notes, however, that section 28-1170(F)(1) is part of Article 4 of the Act. USAC argues that owners and operators of large motor carriers are subject solely to the requirements of Article 7 of the Act, and the provisions in the other articles do not apply to policies issued pursuant to Article 7. Consequently, USAC reasons, since Article 7 has no provision like section 28-1170(F)(l), USAC should not be precluded from asserting and proving that the policy became void ab initio for fraud.
.. USAC relies for this argument on the case of Wilshire Ins. Co. v. Home Ins. Co., 179 Ariz. 602, 880 P.2d 1148 (App.1994). There, Division Two of this court considered whether the permissive user coverage mandated by section 28-1170(B)(2), which also is found in Article 4, applied to a policy issued pursuant to Article 7. Reasoning that the legislature intended Article 7 to be self-contained, Wilshire held that Article 7 was not subject to the provisions of any other article in the Act. Consequently, notwithstanding the mandate of section 28-1170(B)(2), the provision in the subject policy which excluded permissive user coverage was found valid. Id. at 606, 880 P.2d at 1152.
We acknowledge that if Wilshire applies, it would dictate a result favorable to USAC. However, we find Wilshire distinguishable on its facts and also question its rationale. We address the former first.
As previously noted, all eight articles comprising the Act are found in Chapter 7 of Title 28. Section 28 — 1170(F)(1) specifically makes its non-cancellation rule applicable to every policy “required by this chapter. ...” (Emphasis added.) Article 7 is a part of Chapter 7 and the policy at issue here is therefore required by Chapter 7.
The use of the word “chapter” in section 28-1170(F)(l) is a significant factor which distinguishes our case from Wilshire. The Wilshire court was construing section 28-1170(B)(2), and nowhere in that section is there any mention that its provisions are to be applied to policies issued pursuant to the entire chapter. For that reason, the Wilshire court was free to explore and determine whether the legislature intended Article 7 policies to be subject to the provisions of section 28-1170(B)(2).
Unlike the Wilshire court, we do not have that freedom. Rather, we are constrained by the legislature’s own language expressing its intent that all policies required by Chapter 7 are subject to the non-cancellation rule of section 28-1170(F)(l). As we have noted in another context:
The words “title,” “chapter,” “article,” and “section” are used throughout the codification of Arizona statutory law and each has a consistent usage and meaning. If there is ever a situation where we are compelled to follow the maxim that “[t]he plain meaning of a statute must be observed,” it is when the legislature expresses itself using its own technical terms.
State ex rel. Fox v. New Phoenix Auto Auction, 185 Ariz. 302, 308, 916 P.2d 492, 498 (App.1996) (citations omitted).
By holding that the term “chapter” in section 28-1170(F)(1) makes the restriction therein applicable to the entirety of Chapter 7, including Article 7, we give effect to the plain meaning of the term. We also avoid rendering the term contradictory vis-a-vis Article 7, a result we eschew whenever we construe legislation. State v. Deddens, 112 Ariz. 425, 429, 542 P.2d 1124, 1128 (1975). We therefore find that Wilshire is factually distinguishable and does not apply.
USAC nevertheless urges the Wilshire result upon us, reasoning, as did the Wilshire court, that a provision in Article 8, which exempts Article 7 policies from the purview of Article 8, is solid evidence that the legislature intended Article 7 to be exclusive and self-contained. Wilshire concluded, and USAC agrees, that this exemption precluding applicability of Article 8 necessarily precludes applicability of all other articles to Article 7. However, neither the Wilshire court nor USAC explains why this should be so.
Upon careful consideration, we do not find Wilshire’s rationale persuasive. We initially note that the first six articles of Chapter 7 were enacted in 1951. Article 7 was added in 1982 and Article 8 one year later. In analyzing successive legislative enactments, we regularly presume the legislature knows its own laws. See State v. Garza Rodriguez, 164 Ariz. 107, 111, 791 P.2d 633, 637 (1990). We have held that if the legislature amends an existing statute, we presume it intended some change in existing law. Id. A logical corollary is that if the legislature, in adding to a statutory scheme, does not amend an existing statute which would impact on the addition, we must presume the legislature intended the existing statute to impact the addition.
Applying these tenets of construction, we conclude that when the legislature added Article 7 in 1982, it knew of the existence and meaning of the term “chapter” in section 28-1170(F)(1). We further conclude that the legislature deliberately chose not to amend that term to exempt Article 7 policies from its effect. Had the legislature so intended, it would have amended section 28-1170(F)(l) or have included in Article 7 the type of exempting provision that it did include in Article 8. That it did neither is clear evidence that it intended the non-cancellation provision of section 28-1170(F)(l) to apply to all policies covered by Chapter 7, including Article 7 policies.
We decline to follow Wilshire. Consequently, we find that the USAC policy became non-cancelable as to McCandless upon the occurrence of the underlying accident. We affirm the trial court on this issue.
C. Coverage for the Clegg Judgment
USAC’s third argument is limited to disputing coverage for the Clegg judgment. USAC asserts that it should be relieved from providing any coverage for that judgment, arguing that the financial responsibility requirements apply only to the owner or operator of a motor carrier company seeking to do business in Arizona. USAC points out that section 28-1231(4) defines a “person” subject to the requirements of Article 7 as “an owner or operator of any motor vehicle or vehicle combination.” USAC asserts that Clegg was neither the owner nor, for financial responsibility purposes, the “operator.” USAC reasons that in this context, “operator” can mean only the operator of a business as opposed to the operator of a piece of equipment.
We find that USAC is confusing the requirements of providing insurance coverage with whom the insurance is to cover. While pursuant to section 28-1234(A), it is only the owner or operator of the business who is required to furnish the insurance, this section also clearly provides that the insurance is to cover damages arising out of the “use” of the motor vehicle. No limitation restricting coverage to instances when the use is by the owner or operator of the business can be read into this provision. Clegg’s “use” of the vehicle involved in this accident came within the provision of section 28-1234(A) and, therefore, the USAC policy covers the Clegg judgment.
II. The Interest Question
USAC questions whether the trial court erred in its order making USAC liable for interest on the amount of the underlying judgments, rather than on the amount of USAC’s policy limits. A subsidiary question is whether such interest is payable from September 15, 1995, the date of the underlying TWS judgment or, as ordered by the trial court, from September 8, 1994, the date of the underlying Clegg judgment.
Regarding the principal question, the proper rule of law is that where the policy has no provision for payment of interest on a judgment entered against the insured, interest must be calculated on the policy limits, not the amount of the underlying judgment. Cochran v. Auto Club Ins. Ass’n, 169 Mich. App. 199, 425 N.W.2d 765, 767 (1988); C.T. Dreshler, Annotation, 76 A.L.R.2d 983, 984 (1961) (“Generally speaking, an insurer in a liability insurance policy is not, in the absence of a provision in the policy to that effect, hable for any interest on a judgment recovered against the insured.”). See Stufflebeam v. Canadian Indent. Co., 157 Ariz. 6, 9-10, 754 P.2d 385, 338-39 (App.1988) (Division Two of this court modified a judgment to provide for interest on the amount of the judgment against insurer, rather than on underlying judgment, stating that it was aware of no authority that would require payment of interest on the entire judgment).
Where the policy in question does have a provision regarding payment of interest on a judgment against the insured, the courts are split as to whether such a provision extends to the amount of the underlying judgment or is restricted to the amount of the policy limits. These cases all involve the so-called standard interest clause. Some courts construing this clause have held it applicable to the underlying judgment while others have not. Compare Dreshler, 76 A.L.R.2d at 987-91 with Dreshler, 76 A.L.R.2d at 991-94.
The parties here have cited and discussed the one Arizona case in which a variation of this standard clause was construed. In Basso v. Allstate Ins. Co., 118 Ariz. 139, 140-41, 575 P.2d 338, 339-40 (App.1977), Division Two of this court considered an insurance policy which provided for payment by the insurer of:
all interest on the entire amount of any judgment therein which accrues after entry of the judgment and before the company has paid or tendered or deposited in court that part of the judgment which does not exceed the limit of the company’s liability thereon.
In Basso, the issue was whether a tender had occurred. There was no question, though, that assuming a proper tender, the insurer had committed itself to payment of interest on the entire amount of the underlying judgment.
In this case, the USAC policy does contain a provision regarding the insurer’s obligation to pay interest. Thus, we find the Stuffle beam case initially distinguishable since that court did not mention any such provision in its policy. Nevertheless, we do not find Basso dispositive because the interest provision in our policy differs significantly from the provision construed in Basso and from the “standard clause” construed by the courts in the cited annotation.
In our policy, in a section entitled “COVERAGE EXTENSIONS,” USAC contracted to pay on behalf of its insured:
All interest on the full amount of any judgment that accrues after entry of the judgment in any “suit” we defend.
As a preliminary matter, we observe that such an interest payment provision is not mandated by any provision of the Act. Therefore, we have no statutory overlay guiding our interpretation, and we must interpret the provision in the same manner as we would interpret any other contractual provision. Cf. A.J. Bayless Markets v. Ohio Casualty Ins. Co., 55 Ariz. 530, 531, 104 P.2d 145, 146 (1940) (holding that insurance contracts are to be construed as all other contracts where there is no ambiguity). In this context, our obligation is to give effect to the clear language of the insurance contract, and we must not invent or create an ambiguity and then resolve it to expand coverage. Benevides v. Arizona Property & Casualty Ins. Guar. Fund, 184 Ariz. 610, 613, 911 P.2d 616, 619 (App.1995).
We find no ambiguity in the USAC interest clause. It clearly provides that full judgment interest will be paid only in suits in which USAC assumes the defense. The purpose of the clause is to protect the insured when the insurer assumes the defense of a matter and therefore controls the timing of payment of any judgment which is entered against the insured. If the insurer delays payment on the judgment, for example by taking an appeal, it must pay for this delay by assuming responsibility for interest on the entire amount of the judgment, even though it exceeds policy limits. Conversely, if the insurer has forfeited its right to control by not defending, it is relieved of its interest obligation to the extent the judgment exceeds the insurer’s basic amount of obligation under the policy, namely the policy limits.
In this case, for reasons that do not appear in this record, neither Clegg nor TWS tendered the defense of the underlying action to USAC, and USAC did not provide a defense to either. Thus, the interest clause was never implicated. Because the clause is inapplicable, this case is effectively in the same posture as Stufflebeam; that is, there is no interest clause on which to base an • order requiring payment of interest on the entirety of an underlying judgment.
McCandless seeks to avoid the limitation imposed by the policy language by arguing that USAC should still be liable for interest because this is a case in which USAC should have provided a defense for its insured. Had USAC done as it was obligated, McCandless reasons, it would then have been required to pay interest. This argument is, in essence, a claim that USAC breached its duty under the policy to defend its insureds. However, we do not find that such a claim was an issue litigated or decided in the trial court and the issue is thus not before us. See Stewart v. Mutual of Omaha Ins. Co., 169 Ariz. 99, 108, 817 P.2d 44, 53 (App.1991).
We turn now to the subsidiary question: should interest on the second garnishment judgment against USAC run from September 15, 1995, the date of the underlying TWS judgment, or September 8, 1994, the date of the underlying Clegg judgment. We find that we do not need to decide this issue. We have determined that USAC is responsible for the Clegg judgment, with interest payable thereon from the date of that judgment. The Clegg judgment is the earlier of the two underlying judgments. When USAC pays its policy limits, together with judgment interest to satisfy that judgment, it will by virtue of that payment also satisfy the underlying TWS judgment, since there is only one amount collectible notwithstanding there are two judgments. Therefore, even if we were to hold that interest on the TWS judgment ran only from the date of that judgment, USAC would gain nothing thereby.
III. Attorney’s Fees on Appeal
McCandless has made a request for attorney’s fees on appeal without explaining the basis of the request, nor citing any authority in support thereof. We therefore deny this request. See Rule 21(e), Arizona Rules of Civil Appellate Procedure; City of Phoenix v. Maricopa County Superior Court, 144 Ariz. 172, 177, 696 P.2d 724, 729 (App.1985) (denying request for attorneys’ fees where no authority for such award cited).
CONCLUSION
We affirm the portion of the garnishment judgments finding USAC liable for its policy limits of $750,000. However, we modify the portions of the garnishment judgments regarding interest and hold USAC liable for interest only on the sum of $750,000. We affirm the trial court’s order that payment of either garnishment judgment satisfies the other to the extent the judgments are the same.
FIDEL, P.J., and PATTERSON, J., concur.
. The judgment clarified that there was but one amount owed by USAC under the two garnishment judgments, that the amount could be collected only once, and any amount collected under one garnishment judgment would be credited to the amount owed under the other garnishment judgment. This portion of the judgment is not contested on appeal.
. Throughout this opinion, each of the judgments McCandless obtained against Clegg and TWS is referred to as the "underlying judgment” or, where necessary, additionally identified by reference to Clegg or TWS. The resulting garnishment judgments McCandless obtained against USAC are referred to as either the "first” (based on the underlying Clegg judgment) or "second” (based on the underlying TWS judgment) garnishment judgment.
. Throughout this opinion, the sections of the Act that we construe are the versions that were in effect in 1989, the year the subject policy was issued and the accident occurred.
. It is undisputed that the vehicle involved in this accident was a commercial vehicle in the weight category requiring coverage of $750,000 if operated in Arizona.
. We clarify that this holding does not amend out of the policy any right of recourse the policy may give the insurer against the insured.
. McCandless also asserts that USAC cannot argue cancellation for fraud because of its failure to prove it returned premiums to TWS. However, this argument was not raised in the trial court and we will not consider it for the first time on appeal. Stewart v. Mutual of Omaha Ins. Co., 169 Ariz. 99, 108, 817 P.2d 44, 53 (App.1991).
. A.R.S. § 28-1252(5).
. 1951 Ariz.Sess. Laws Ch. 122.
. 1982 Ariz.Sess. Laws Ch. 207, § 2; 1983 Ariz. Sess. Laws Ch. 272, § 2.
. USAC does not argue that interest should run only from the dates of the garnishment judgments.
. That clause typically provides that the insurer will pay “all interest accruing after entry of judgment until the company has paid, tendered or deposited in court such part of such judgment as does not exceed the limit of the company’s liability thereon.” Dreshler, 76 A.L.R.2d at 987.
. Moreover, we question whether breach of a duty to defend could even be raised by McCandless in this garnishment action. McCandless has no assignment of a claim from Clegg or TWS of any cause of action under the policy. See General Accident Fire & Life Assurance Corp. v. Little, 103 Ariz. 435, 437, 443 P.2d 690, 693 (1968) (A judgment creditor in a garnishment proceeding has no direct right to maintain an action based on bad faith in an insurer's dealing with its policyholder.).
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OPINION
JONES, Vice Chief Justice.
¶ 1 We granted review in a consolidated appeal from the dismissal of three separate complaints filed in Maricopa County Superior Court. Petitioners ask us to determine whether the three trial courts properly granted motions to dismiss pursuant to Rule 12(b)(6), Arizona Rules of Civil Procedure. The court of appeals, in a split opinion, found the trial courts’ dismissals proper. After consideration, we hold that the trial courts erred in their analyses and decisions. We also hold that the court of appeals majority erred in affirming the dismissals. We have jurisdiction under Arizona Constitution article VI, section 5(3), Arizona Rule of Civil Appellate Procedure 23, and Arizona Revised Statutes section 12-120.24.
Facts and Procedural History
¶2 The Arizona Department of Insurance (the Department) regulates insurance companies doing business in the state. In 1988, the Department granted an application by AMS Life Insurance Company (AMS) to transfer domicile from Illinois to Arizona. Thereafter, until 1992, when AMS went into receivership, the Department approved annual requests by AMS for renewal of its certificate of authority. The receivership precipitated the plaintiffs’ actions, alleging gross negligence by the State of Arizona, the Department, and the Department’s Director (defendants) in failing to provide adequate regulation of AMS and claiming damage as the result of the Department’s actions. The plaintiffs consist of an insurance company with business ties to AMS, an individual owner of five AMS annuity contracts, and a number of insurance brokers and their clients. The plaintiffs’ specific factual assertions were (a) that the defendants approved AMS’ transfer of domicile to Arizona knowing that AMS did not meet Arizona’s fiscal requirements for certification, and (b) that the defendants, knowing of AMS’ insolvency, violated a statutory mandate by failing to provide adequate supervision of AMS and by failing to deny AMS’ annual requests for renewal of its certificate of authority.
¶ 3 In each of the three cases, the superi- or court granted the defendants’ motions to dismiss the complaint, finding that because the defendants were conducting discretionary regulatory activities concerning the licensing of AMS to do business in Arizona, they were entitled to absolute immunity under A.R.S. § 12-820.01. The court of appeals consolidated the three appeals and, in its divided opinion, Judge Fidel dissenting, affirmed the judgments of the three trial courts.
Analysis
¶ 4 In reviewing a trial court’s decision to dismiss a complaint for failure to state a claim, we assume as true the facts alleged in the complaint and will not affirm the dismissal unless satisfied as a matter of law that plaintiffs would not be entitled to relief under any interpretation of the facts susceptible of proof. Menendez v. Paddock Pool Constr. Co., 172 Ariz. 258, 261, 836 P.2d 968, 971 (App.1991). The court of appeals affirmed each dismissal of the complaints on the ground that the defendants’ actions approving the AMS redomestication to Arizona and granting AMS’ annual requests for renewal constituted discretionary actions in the determination of fundamental governmental policy. According to the court of appeals, governmental actions by the Department in granting or renewing a certificate of authority necessarily entitled defendants to absolute immunity under section 12-820.01.
¶ 5 Petitioners, on the other hand, have asserted that the statute was erroneously applied to their claims and that the Department’s decisions to grant or renew the AMS certificate were not governmental policy decisions, were not fundamental, and did not involve the use or exercise of discretion. We agree with the petitioners.
¶ 6 A.R.S. § 12-820.01 provides:
Absolute Immunity
A A public entity shall not be hable for acts and omissions of its employees constituting:
1. The exercise of a judicial or legislative function; or
2. The exercise of an administrative function involving the determination of fundamental governmental policy.
B. The determination of a fundamental governmental policy involves the exercise of discretion and shah include, but is not limited to:
3. The licensing and regulation of any profession or occupation.
¶ 7 Stating the purpose and intent of section 12-820.01, the legislature declared as “the public policy of this state that public entities are liable for acts and omissions of employees in accordance with the statutes and [the] common law____” Laws 1984, Ch. 285, § 1A. Moreover, all of the provisions of the Act, including section 12-820.01, “should be construed with a view to carry out the [foregoing] legislative purpose.” Id. Accordingly, we have emphasized that liability of public servants is the rule in Arizona and immunity is the exception. See City of Tucson v. Fahringer, 164 Ariz. 599, 600, 795 P.2d 819, 820 (1990) (quoting Ryan v. State, 134 Ariz. 308, 656 P.2d 597 (1982)); Stone v. Arizona Highway Comm’n, 93 Ariz. 384, 892, 381 P.2d 107, 112 (1963). Since immunity is the exception and not the rule, we have concluded, consistent with the intention of the legislature, that judicial construction of immunity provisions in statutes applicable to government entities should be restrained and narrow. Schabel v. Deer Valley Unified Sch. Dist. No. 97, 186 Ariz. 161, 920 P.2d 41 (1996).
¶8 We observe further that in drafting section 12-820.01, the legislature distinguished the exercise of judicial or legislative functions from the exercise of administrative functions. Explaining the distinction between judicial and administrative functions, this court, in Grimm v. Arizona Board of Pardons & Paroles, 115 Ariz. 260, 265, 564 P.2d 1227, 1232 (1977), stated that “policy reasons for official [administrative] immunity are much weaker than for judicial immunity.” Moreover, legislative immunity is supported by similar public policy equally as compelling as that supporting judicial immunity. See also Chamberlain v. Mathis, 151 Ariz. 551, 554-60, 729 P.2d 905, 908-14 (1986) (discussing immunity generally and comparing absolute and qualified immunity).
¶ 9 Thus, under section 12-820.01, public entities are protected by absolute immunity when the process involves legislative or judicial decision making within the respective powers granted to the legislature and the judiciary, but entities are entitled to immunity for administrative action only to the extent such action involves the determination of fundamental governmental policy. It is clear that the decisions by the Department of Insurance, alleged in the complaints before us, must be viewed exclusively as administrative decisions. This means that in order to gain protection under the absolute immunity statute, the burden rests with the defendants to plead and prove that the decisions regarding AMS fall within the narrow category of fundamental governmental policy making. By granting Rule 12(b)(6) motions to dismiss in the face of the allegations in these complaints, the trial courts acted prematurely.
¶ 10 Section 12-820.01 makes it clear that whenever a decision involving fundamental governmental policy is made, discretion will invariably be an essential attribute of the decision making process. It is also true that many administrative actions in government do not involve determinations of fundamental policy and do not implicate the use of discretion. Even where discretion is exercised, administrative decisions within government do not necessarily involve determinations of fundamental governmental policy. To be absolutely immune, therefore, fundamental governmental policy is the element which, first and foremost, must be present in the decision making process. Once that element is found to exist, the exercise of discretion, under the statute, may be presumed. The term “discretion” is used in the statute only to define an essential characteristic of determinations involving fundamental governmental policy.
¶ 11 Thus, in appropriate cases, the legislature has granted absolute immunity in the field of administration for the reason that immunity protection of government officers is warranted when fundamental governmental policy making is at stake, but not otherwise. Examples of policy decisions entitled to immunity may include such matters as whether government or its agencies should pursue one general course of action over another, whether an agency of government should construct a particular budding or where the building should be located, or a decision as to the direction and focus of an entire regulatory scheme. The legislature has also determined, by express statutory direction, that certain specified functions shall be accorded absolute immunity. These include decisions on whether to provide resources for the purchase of equipment, the construction or maintenance of facilities, the hiring of personnel, the provision of govern mental services, and the licensing and regulation of professions and occupations. See A.R.S. § 12-820.0KB).
¶ 12 We conclude, based on our analysis of the facts alleged in the complaints in the instant cases, that while the actions of the Department were clearly administrative, they did not involve determinations of fundamental governmental policy as required by the immunity statute. The Department’s decisions as to AMS can be characterized as involving the implementation of an established regulatory scheme largely controlled by statute. The actions did not constitute fundamental policy making, but rather were operational decisions pursuant to existing regulations.
¶ 13 The Department argued, and the court of appeals held, that the decision to grant or renew a certificate of authority to an insurance company seeking to carry out or continue doing business in Arizona constitutes the licensing or regulation of a “profession” or “occupation” under section 12-820.01(B). We think that argument constitutes an attenuated reading of the terms “profession” and “occupation.” An insurance company such as AMS is a commercial business enterprise within an industry subject to intense regulation. We can identify no legislative policy suggesting that an insurance underwriting enterprise should be treated as a “profession” or “occupation” under section 12-801.01(B). Indeed, the Arizona Professions and Occupations Code, A.R.S. §§ 32-101, et seq., which lists some thirty-seven recognized professions and occupations for purposes of regulation, makes no mention of the insurance industry.
¶ 14 We conclude on this record that the trial court erred in granting defendants’ motions to dismiss and find the court of appeals’ dissent by Judge Fidel persuasive. The court of appeals’ majority correctly stated that to enjoy absolute immunity, administrative decisions must constitute determinations involving fundamental governmental policy. The majority went astray, however, when it determined that the Department’s decisions in the instant ease entailed both fundamental policy and the exercise of discretion. On the face of the pleadings, neither was present. Judge Fidel correctly points out under A.R.S. § 20-219 that the Department has been statutorily mandated not to renew the certificate of authority of an insolvent insurer. Specifically, section 20-219 requires that the director of the Department of Insurance “shall refuse to renew or shall revoke or suspend an insurer’s certificate of authority ... [i]f the insurer no longer meets the requirements for the authority originally granted, on account of deficiency in assets or otherwise.” (Emphasis added). This language leaves no room for discretion. A decision to grant or renew an insurer’s certificate involves the application of preordained rules and regulations defining the matter of insurer solvency. Those who promulgated the rules and regulations defining the elements of financial solvency for insurance carriers probably determined fundamental governmental policy and exercised discretion in so doing, but, except perhaps in the most extraordinary circumstances, those who apply the rules and regulations day to day do not.
¶ 15 AMS was not only alleged to be insolvent, but the complaints also alleged that the Department knew of the insolvency. If the plaintiffs adduce satisfactory proof of these allegations, then clearly, the absolute immunity statute would not protect the defendants because the mandate of section 20-219, noted above, would control.
¶ 16 On the facts before us, therefore, a defendant who moves to dismiss a complaint under Rule 12(b)(6) necessarily files a flawed motion. This is because when we presume the truth of the plaintiffs’ allegations, which we must do at this stage of the proceeding, the Department’s decisions regarding AMS must necessarily be treated as non-policy making, non-discretionary functions that are carried out pursuant to statutory mandate. When insolvency is known to exist, the words “shall refuse” and “shall revoke” in section 20-219 would eliminate discretion on the part of the Director of Insurance to approve the AMS applications. Indeed, if the company fails to meet solvency requirements, the Director must reject its application.
¶ 17 In conclusion, we observe that A.R.S. § 12-820.02 recognizes a lesser degree of immunity for public entities and then-employees under certain circumstances. That section provides in relevant part:
Qualified Immunity
A. Unless a public employee acting within the scope of his employment intended to cause injury or was grossly negligent, neither a public entity nor a public employee is liable for:
5. The issuance of or failure to revoke or suspend any permit, license, certificate, approval, order or similar authorization for which absolute immunity is not provided pursuant to § 12-820.01.
¶ 18 Because the complaints here were dismissed on the pleadings under the doctrine of absolute immunity, we do not reach the question of qualified immunity. Our decision encompasses only the question whether the trial courts properly granted the motions to dismiss on grounds of absolute immunity. In the present case, if the evidence adduced at trial does not support the defense of absolute immunity, the defense of qualified immunity may nevertheless be invoked and would apply on this record unless the plaintiffs can prove that the Department’s decisions to redomesticate and recertify AMS were either grossly negligent or made with intent to injure. As to the elements of gross negligence and intent to injure, the burden of proof, of course, remains with the plaintiffs.
¶ 19 Finally, petitioners argue that the interpretation of section 12-820.01 by the court of appeals majority conflicts with Evenstad v. State, 178 Ariz. 578, 875 P.2d 811 (App.1993), thus rendering the statute violative of the anti-abrogation provision of the Arizona Constitution. Ariz. Const, art. 18, § 6. In view of today’s decision vacating the court of appeals’ majority opinion, this issue has been rendered moot and need not be addressed.
Disposition
¶ 20 We find that it was error for the trial courts to dismiss the complaints because the Department’s decision to grant or renew a certificate of authority in favor of an insurance company does not, on the facts alleged, involve a determination of fundamental governmental policy. Moreover, section 20-219 precludes discretionary action in Department decisions of this nature. We therefore vacate the court of appeals’ opinion, reverse the dismissals of the three complaints, and remand the cases to the respective trial courts for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
ZLAKET, C.J., and MARTONE, FELDMAN and JAMES MOELLER (Retired), JJ., concur.
|
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GERBER, Justice.
¶ 1 This appeal raises the single Euclidean question whether a rezoning ordinance adopted by the city of Kingman is a legislative act subject to referendum or, on the other hand, merely an administrative act and hence not referable. After the trial court ruled that the rezoning was legislative and therefore referable, the proponent of the rezoning ordinance, Kiersten S. Fritz, appealed directly to this court. For reasons that follow, we reaffirm our view that zoning decisions are legislative matters subject to referendum. We also reaffirm that Wennerstrom v. City of Mesa, 169 Ariz. 485, 821 P.2d 146 (1991), neither alters that view nor implies that zoning ordinances reflecting a city’s general plan thereby become administrative decisions. We therefore affirm the trial court’s order.
FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
¶2 After public hearings and citizen input, the city of Kingman (city) adopted the Kingman General Plan on May 4,1992. The General Plan land use map showed the Fritz property in an area where densities could range from one to four dwelling units per acre. The existing zoning of Ms. Fritz’s land was R-R, which allowed only one dwelling per acre.
%¶ 3 In 1997, some five years after adoption of the General Plan and in response to Ms. Fritz’s request, the city adopted a zoning ordinance that changed the classification of her land to R-l-8, which permitted as many as four dwellings per acre. A citizens group opposed to the rezoning, the Committee for Responsible Zoning (Committee), filed petitions with the city to refer the rezoning to the electorate.
¶ 4 Fritz and a contending group named Citizens Supporting Fair Growth (collectively Fritz) then filed suit in the superior court to compel the city to reject the referendum petitions. The trial court allowed the Committee to intervene. Fritz moved for summary judgment on the ground that the rezoning ordinance was an administrative act not subject to referendum. The trial court denied the motion and granted the Committee’s countermotion for summary judgment, effectively holding that the rezoning constituted a legislative act subject to referendum.
¶ 5 Fritz now appeals from the trial court’s order. The Committee cross-appeals from denial of its request for an award of attorney’s fees and costs. We have jurisdiction under Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated (A.R.S.) section 19-122(C) (Supp.1997).
THE APPEAL
¶ 6 The trial court found as a matter of law that the zoning ordinance governing Fritz’s property was legislative. We review that finding de novo. Board of Regents v. Phoenix Newspapers, 167 Ariz. 254, 257, 806 P.2d 348, 351 (1991).
Zoning is a Legislative Act
¶7 In multiple decisions over a lengthy period, this court has consistently held that zoning decisions are legislative acts subject to referendum. See Pioneer Trust Co. v. Pima County, 168 Ariz. 61, 64, 811 P.2d 22, 25 (1991) (even a city’s conditional approval of an application for rezoning is subject to referendum); Wait v. City of Scottsdale, 127 Ariz. 107, 108, 618 P.2d 601, 602 (1980) (“It is well settled that the passage of an original zoning ordinance is the exercise of a legislative function.”). See also Queen Creek Land & Cattle Corp. v. Yavapai County, 108 Ariz. 449, 451, 501 P.2d 391, 393 (1972) (refusing to bar referendum on supervisors’ grant of a zoning change); City of Phoenix v. Oglesby, 112 Ariz. 64, 65, 537 P.2d 934, 935 (1975) (zoning is a function of the legislative branch); City of Phoenix v. Fehlner, 90 Ariz. 13, 17, 363 P.2d 607, 609 (1961) (establishing appropriate zoning classes is primarily legislative). We recently stated in Pioneer Trust that we are “not persuaded that any adequate reason has been demonstrated to overrule our earlier cases.” 168 Ariz. at 64, 811 P.2d at 25.
Rezoning Under a General Plan is a Legislative Act
¶ 8 Fritz argues that we need not overturn these cases because even if zoning is generally regarded as legislative, it becomes an administrative act when it merely implements the policies of a general plan. She relies on language in Wennerstrom, regarding the difference between administrative and legislative acts. 169 Ariz. at 488-89, 821 P.2d at 149-50. She asserts that just as the city of Mesa’s bond election in Wennerstrom put the public on notice of the city’s intention to construct road improvements, so the King-man General Plan put the public on notice of the zoning classifications applicable to Fritz’s land.
¶ 9 More specifically, she contends that the Kingman General Plan stated the precise policy that the subject property could be developed at a density ranging from one to four dwelling units per acre and that anyone who opposed this range of densities should have sought a referendum on the General Plan at the time of its adoption. She further contends that the rezoning ordinance allowing four dwelling units per acre merely implemented pre-existing policy embodied in the General Plan regarding the appropriate density for development of her land.
¶ 10 We do not believe that Wennerstrom departs from our earlier cases nor that it is dispositive here. In Wennerstrom, the city sought authority from the voters to issue bonds to fund city street improvements. 169 Ariz. at 486-87, 821 P.2d at 147-48. We held that the bond election was a legislative act but that later city council resolutions approving realignment and widening of certain streets were administrative acts not subject to referendum. Id. at 491-92, 821 P.2d at 152-53. The bond election represented legislative action by the voters because “they declared a public purpose and provided the ways and means for its accomplishment.” Id. at 491, 821 P.2d at 152 (emphasis added).
Kingman’s General Plan is Not Legislation
¶ 11 To constitute legislation, a proposal must enact something; it must be a “definite, specific act or resolution.” Saggio v. Connelly, 147 Ariz. 240, 241, 709 P.2d 874, 875 (1985). We have also stated that “[ljegislatures do not enact general principles.” McBride v. Kerby, 32 Ariz. 515, 522, 260 P. 435, 437 (1927).
¶ 12 Contrary to Fritz’s argument, the city’s General Plan is a statement of broad policies, goals, and principles. It enacts nothing definite or specific nor does it implement any law, purpose, or policy previously declared by the legislative body. See Wennerstrom, 169 Ariz. at 489, 821 P.2d at 150 (quoting 5 E. McQuillin, The Law of Municipal Corporations § 16.55, at 266 (3d rev. ed.1989)).
¶ 13 The language of the General Plan itself mandates this conclusion. Its Forward states:
What follows is a general development plan for the city of Kingman____ The purpose of this document is not to recommend specific uses for specific locations. It is not super-layer zoning. Rather, it is a statement of community concerns and development policies intended to aid decision-making in future community growth issues.
(Emphasis added.) Similarly, the city’s resolution adopting the General Plan refers to the “generalized land use plan” contained therein and urges consideration of General Plan policies when the city makes the actual decisions to guide its growth. Nothing in the General Plan directly addresses the zoning of the Fritz property.
¶ 14 The Arizona statute requiring each municipality to adopt a general plan also reveals that a general plan, such as the city’s, is to be an aspirational guide or statement of policies and preferences. See A.R.S. § 9-461.05(A). The statute provides in relevant part: “The general plan shall consist of a statement of community goals and development policies. It shall include a diagram ... and text setting forth objectives, principles, standards and plan proposals.” A.R.S. § 9-461.05(C) (emphasis added). The statute also requires a land use element to “designate! ] the proposed general distribution and location and extent of such uses of the land for housing, business, industry,” and other purposes. A.R.S. § 9-461.05(C)(l) (emphasis added).
¶ 15 From this language we conclude that a general plan need not command anything specific. It need not provide the ways and means of its own accomplishment and thus is not a self-executing document. To realize a general plan’s abstract policies and preferences, the city must undertake further specific actions, adopt specific ordinances, and make use-specific decisions. These further decisions entail, among others, the zoning ordinances that apply specific uses and densities to specific properties.
¶ 16 Therefore, we disagree with Fritz’s characterization of the Kingman General Plan as the legislative act that renders subsequent zoning decisions mere administrative implementations. Instead, this General Plan clearly contemplated that future decisions such as imposing specific uses on specific locations would merely adhere to the Plan because the Plan itself does not descend to or mandate such specificity. Like the conceptual approval of street widening in Wennerstrom, adoption of Kingman’s General Plan comprised conceptual land use planning “preliminary to a legislative act.” 169 Ariz. at 491, 821 P.2d at 152.
The General Plan Does Not Give Notice to Landowners
¶ 17 Furthermore, nothing in the General Plan puts landowners or their neighbors on notice of permitted uses, density of development, or other restrictions and conditions on specific properties. The time for citizens to object — indeed, their only opportunity — is when they have actual notice of specific legislative decisions regarding specific property. By its own admission, the General Plan does not provide such actual notice to specific landowners or their neighbors and thus its adoption could not trigger a referendum.
Utah Law is Not Persuasive
¶ 18 Fritz urges us to adopt the Utah Supreme Court’s view in Wilson v. Manning, 657 P.2d 251, 254 (Utah 1982), that a rezoning ordinance is not subject to referendum. In Wilson, a divided court declined to overturn a 1964 Utah case holding that a rezoning could not be referred to the electorate. The Wilson majority conceded that the original enactment of a zoning ordinance would be subject to referendum. Id. at 258. It found that a “change in a zoning classification” from residential to commercial was simply an amendment that “implement[ed] the comprehensive plan and adjusted] it to current conditions.” Id. at 254. Such an amendment accordingly was an administrative act. Id. The dissent contended that the rezoning was a legislative act which “by its very nature constitute[d] a material change ... not within the contemplation of the lawmaking body when the master plan was adopted by ordinance.” Id. at 256 (Howe, J., dissenting).
¶ 19 Even if we accept the distinction offered in Wilson that adopting a new policy is a legislative act while implementing an existing policy is an administrative act, we are not persuaded that the majority properly applied this distinction. Instead we agree with the dissent that a change in the nature of a permitted use is a new policy not reflected in the master plan. In Fritz’s case, the initial zoning law permitted one dwelling per acre; the rezoning placed her property in a new classification of four dwellings per acre. That change necessarily constitutes a new policy on the appropriate density of housing on her individual property. As such, it is a legislative decision.
¶20 We also note that, in contrast to Arizona, the relevant Utah statute subjects “master plan[s]” to the referendum process but expressly exempts “individual property zoning decisions.” Utah Code Annotated § 20A-7-101 (1995). Given this statutory dissonance, Wilson has no application in Arizona.
Conclusion Regarding the Appeal
¶ 21 We find no error in the trial court’s ruling that rezoning is a legislative decision subject to the referendum power reserved to the people in our constitution. See Ariz. Const, art. IV, § 1(8). Our decision subjects the rezoning of Fritz’s property to a referendum vote at the city’s next general election.
THE CROSS-APPEAL
¶22 The Committee unsuccessfully requested from the trial court an award of attorney’s fees and costs pursuant to Rule 11, Arizona Rules of Civil Procedure, and A.R.S. section 12-349 on the ground that Fritz filed suit to cause harassment and delay. It also seeks to recover the fees and costs incurred in this court. Our disagreement with Fritz’s argument for application of Wennerstrom to these facts does not imply that we find her argument fiivolous. We affirm the denial of attorney’s fees and costs based on our finding that Fritz made a good faith argument for extension of existing law. Each side will bear its own attorney’s fees and costs on appeal.
ZLAKET, C.J., JONES, V.C.J., and FELDMAN and MARTONE, JJ., concur.
McGREGOR, J., did not participate in the determination of this matter; pursuant to Ariz. Const, art. VI, § 3, RUDOLPH J. GERBER, Judge Arizona Court of Appeals, Division One, was designated to sit in her stead.
. See Village of Euclid, Ohio v. Ambler Realty Co., 272 U.S. 365, 47 S.Ct. 114, 71 L.Ed. 303 (1926).
. Formerly Utah Code Ann. § 20-11-24.
|
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VOSS, Judge.
¶ 1 Appellant Ronald H. Guerra (defendant) appeals from his convictions for aggravated driving under the influence (DUI) and aggravated driving with an alcohol concentration of .10 percent or more within 2 hours of driving, and from the sentences imposed.
PROCEDURAL HISTORY
¶ 2 At approximately 9:40 p.m. on December 29, 1995, while on patrol as part of a DUI task force, DPS Officer Knutson observed defendant driving a pickup truck with one headlight out. Shortly thereafter, defendant abruptly crossed three lanes of traffic and pulled into a parking lot. Knutson followed and pulled in behind defendant. Defendant told Knutson that he had a headlight out, and walked toward the front of the pickup. At this time, Knutson noticed a strong odor of alcohol on defendant’s breath. Defendant performed poorly on field sobriety tests, and was placed under arrest. An intoxilyzer test conducted at 10:26 p.m. showed defendant’s alcohol concentration at .135, with a second reading at 10:33 at .148. A records check revealed that defendant’s driver’s license had been revoked on September 16,1993.
¶ 3 Defendant was indicted on one count of aggravated DUI and one count of aggravated driving with an alcohol concentration of .10 or more within two hours of driving. Ariz.Rev.Stat. Ann. (A.R.S.) §§ 28-692(A)(l), (A)(2) ; A.R.S. § 28-697(A)(l). A jury found defendant guilty of both charges.
DISCUSSION
I. Relation-Back Evidence
¶ 4 Defendant argues that the trial court erred in instructing the jury on the statutory presumption of intoxication, set forth at A.R.S. § 28-692(E), without evidence relating his alcohol concentration back to the time of driving. Desmond v. Superior Court, 161 Ariz. 522, 528, 779 P.2d 1261, 1267 (1989) (construing former versions of both A.R.S. §§ 28-692(A) and (E), and holding that, in order for the jury to be instructed on the subsection (E) presumption, “there must be testimony relating the [alcohol concentration] back to the time of the arrest”).
A.R.S. § 28-692(E) provides:
In any trial, action or proceeding for a violation of this section ..., if the defendant’s alcohol concentration within two hours of the time of driving or being in actual physical control as shown by analysis of the defendant’s blood, breath or other bodily substance gives rise to the following presumptions:
ijc sje >;« sfj
3. If there was at that time 0.10 or more alcohol concentration in the defendant’s blood, breath or other bodily substance, it may be presumed that the defendant was under the influence of intoxicating liquor.
(Emphasis added.)
A. A.R.S. § 28-692(A)(2)
¶ 5 Initially, we must address a misconception under which both parties appear to be laboring. The subsection (E) presumption that defendant was “under the influence of intoxicating liquor” was not given on the (A)(2) charge of driving with an alcohol concentration of .10 or more. Desmond recognized that the subsection (E) presumption applies only to the charge of DUI. 161 Ariz. at 528, 779 P.2d at 1267. When the Desmond court discussed the relation-back requirement with regard to the charge of driving with an alcohol concentration of .10 or more, that statute read:
B. It is unlawful ... for any person to drive or be in actual physical control of any vehicle within this state while there is 0.10 or more alcohol concentration in the person’s blood or breath at the time of the alleged offense.
Desmond held that, in order to make a prima facie case under this subsection by introduction of a specific alcohol concentration, evidence relating the concentration back to the time of the arrest was required. 161 Ariz. at 529, 779 P.2d at 1268.
¶ 6 The legislature since amended then subsection (B). The current version, A.R.S. § 28-692(A)(2), now punishes those having an alcohol concentration of .10 or more within two hours of driving. In State v. Superior Court, 173 Ariz. 447, 844 P.2d 614 (App. 1992), this court held that this statutory amendment did abrogate Desmond with regard to the charge of violating subsection (A)(2). “Thus, on a charge of violating A.R.S. section 28-692(A)(2) as amended, the trial judge must now admit in evidence, without relation-back testimony, a valid BAC reading of .10 or more taken within two hours of driving.” Id. at 450, 844 P. 2d at 617.
¶ 7 Accordingly, with regard to the charge that defendant violated subsection (A)(2), we find that defendant’s specific alcohol concentration was properly admitted absent relation-back evidence. The “under the influence” presumption of subsection (E) was not given the jury on this charge, such a presumption having no relevance to defendant’s alcohol concentration within two hours of driving.
B. A.R.S. § 28-692(A)(l)
¶ 8 At the time the Desmond court held that relation-back evidence was required in order for the subsection (E) presumption to apply, then A.R.S. § 28-692(A) provided:
A. It is unlawful ... for any person who is under the influence of intoxicating liquor to drive or be in actual physical control of any vehicle within this state.
As noted above, § 28-692(A)(l) currently punishes driving under the influence of intoxicating liquor when impaired to the slightest degree. The issue thus remains whether relation-back evidence is still required under Desmond after the legislature amended the DUI statute.
¶ 9 Although not squarely faced with this issue, Division One of this court has clearly indicated that relation-back evidence is still required for the subsection (E) presumption to be given a jury on a subsection (A)(1) charge. In State v. Superior Court, this court addressed whether severance of a subsection (A)(1) charge from a subsection (A)(2) charge was necessary. This court held that, although the defendant’s specific alcohol concentration was admissible without relation-back evidence on the (A)(2) charge, this “will not unfairly prejudice the defendant on the charge of violating A.R.S. section 28-692(A)(1) (driving under the influence).” 173 Ariz. at 450, 844 P.2d at 617.
Under the current statute, the state must prove only that a defendant is impaired to the slightest degree. See A.R.S. § 28-692(A)(l). In determining whether a defendant charged with a violation of driving under the influence is impaired to the slightest degree, it should make little difference whether a jury considers the specific BAC indicated by the intoxilyzer results____
Any potential misunderstanding the jury may have on this point can be cured with a cautionary instruction. In absence of relation-back testimony, the judge can instruct the jury that, as to the charge of driving under the influence, it may only consider the BAC as evidence indicating the presence of alcohol in the defendant’s blood. Furthermore, in the absence of relation-back testimony, the state will be denied the benefit of any presumption that the defendant was driving under the influence.
Id. (first emphasis in original; second emphasis added.)
¶ 10 Division Two, however, has specifically rejected the analysis in State v. Superior Court. In State v. Gallow, 185 Ariz. 219, 914 P.2d 1311 (App.1995), Division Two held that “Desmond is no longer applicable given the amendments to the DUI statutes.... Nothing in [subsection (E) ] requires the introduction of evidence relating the BAC results back to the time of driving.” Id. at 221, 914 P.2d at 1313.
[Wjhile [the defendant’s] BAC within two hours of driving was probative evidence that he was impaired, the state still had to establish, and the jury still had to find, that he was “impaired to the slightest degree.” A.R.S. § 28-692(A)(l). Accordingly, we conclude that the trial court did not err in giving the presumption instruction without relation-back testimony. To the extent that our conclusion is inconsistent with dicta in State v. Superior Court, 173 Ariz. 447, 844 P.2d 614 (App.1992), which was decided by Division One of this court, we disagree with that decision.
Id.
¶ 11 When Desmond was decided, the subsection (E) presumption provided:
E. In the trial of any civil or criminal action or proceeding for violation of subsection A of this section relating to driving or being in actual physical control of a vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor ... the amount of alcohol in the defendant’s blood at the time alleged ... gives rise to the following presumptions:
5-S }}s Hi
3. If there was at that time 0.10 or more alcohol concentration in the defendant’s blood or breath, it may be presumed that the defendant was under the influence of intoxicating liquor.
(Emphasis added.) The Desmond court found that such a presumption was not unreasonable, “but it must be based on evidence that there was ‘at that time’ a BAC of O. 10 percent or more.” 161 Ariz. at 528, 779 P. 2d at 1267.
Subsection (E) now provides:
E. In any trial, action or proceeding for violation of this section ..., if the defendant’s alcohol concentration within two hours of the time of driving or being in actual physical control ... gives rise to the following presumptions:
3. If there was at that time 0.10 or more alcohol concentration in the defendant’s blood, breath or other bodily substance, it may be presumed that the defendant was under the influence of intoxicating liquor.
(Emphasis added.)
¶ 12 Under the former version of subsection (E), “at that time” under subsection (E)(3) referred to “at the time alleged;” under the current version, “at that time” under subsection (E)(3) refers to “within two hours of the time of driving.” We believe the legislature intended this amendment to respond to Desmond and facilitate the conviction of a defendant charged with a violation of subsection (A)(1). See State v. Superior Court, 173 Ariz. at 450, 844 P.2d at 617. If a defendant has an alcohol concentration of .10 or more within two hours of driving, it is reasonable to presume that he was under the influence of intoxicating liquor at the time of driving. As the court in Gallow noted, the state still needs to prove that the defendant was “impaired to the slightest degree.” A.R.S. § 28-692(A)(l).
¶ 13 We, too, disagree with the dictum in State v. Superior Court. As did Division Two in Gallow, we hold that relation-back evidence was not required in order for the jury to be instructed on the presumption that defendant was under the influence of intoxicating liquor with regard to the DUI charge.
II. “Some Credible Evidence”
¶ 14 As to the charge under subsection (A)(2) that defendant drove with a blood alcohol concentration of .10 or more within two hours of driving, A.R.S. § 28-692(B) provides:
It is an affirmative defense ... if the person did not have an alcohol concentration of 0.10 or more at the time of driving or being in actual physical control of a vehicle. If a defendant produces some credible evidence that his alcohol concentration at the time of driving or being in actual physical control of a vehicle was below 0.10, the state must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant’s alcohol concentration was 0.10 or more at the time of driving or being in actual physical control of a vehicle.
(Emphasis added.)
¶ 15 Defendant argues that, because he presented “some credible evidence” that his alcohol concentration was below .10 at the time of driving, it was error for the court to fail to instruct the jury that the state had to prove he had an alcohol concentration of .10 or more at the time of driving, rather than within two hours of driving. Because he failed to request an instruction on this affirmative defense, defendant has waived this issue absent fundamental error. E.g., State v. West, 176 Ariz. 432, 444, 862 P.2d 192, 204 (1993).
¶ 16 We agree with the state that, even had defendant requested the instruction, the evidence would not have supported this defense. Without determining what level of evidence would constitute “some credible evidence,” we believe it is more than the failure of the defendant to vomit or stagger. Cf. State v. Gallow, 185 Ariz. at 220-21, 914 P.2d at 1312-13 (criminalist testified as to possibility that defendant’s BAC was at its highest when tested and was as low as .05 when stopped). Because defendant did not present any credible evidence that he did not have an alcohol concentration of .10 or more at the time of driving, it was not error to fail to instruct the jury on the subsection (B) affirmative defense.
CONCLUSION
¶ 17 Based on the foregoing, we affirm defendant’s convictions and sentences on the charges of violating A.R.S. §§ 28-692(A)(l) and (A)(2).
WEISBERG, P.J., and NOYES, J., concur.
. A.R.S. § 28-692(A) provides:
It is unlawful for any person to drive or be in actual physical control of any vehicle within this state under any of the following circumstances:
1. While under the influence of intoxicating liquor ... if the person is impaired to the slightest degree.
2. If the person has an alcohol concentration of 0.10 or more within two hours of driving or being in actual physical control of the vehicle.
. These sections were amended and renumbered as A.R.S. §§ 28-1381 and 28-1383 effective October 1, 1997.
. Cf. State v. Superior Court, 187 Ariz. 440, 930 P.2d 517 (App. 1996) (relation-back evidence still required when blood alcohol test taken after two hours of driving).
. Because we find that defendant was not entitled to an instruction under subsection (B), we need not address the issue he raises with regard to the interplay between subsections (B) and (E). We note, however, that this argument was rejected in State v. Swanson, 184 Ariz. 194, 908 P.2d 8 (App. 1995).
There is nothing inconsistent in making blood alcohol at the time of driving the element of one offense and making a blood alcohol reading within two hours of driving probative of impairment at the time of driving. Assuming an alcohol concentration below .10 at the time of driving, one may still be impaired and guilty of driving under the influence.
Id. at 195, 908 P.2d at 9.
|
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OPINION
GRANT, Judge.
Appellant Camille Kimball (“Kimball”) challenges the trial court’s ruling that the Arizona State Personnel Board (“Personnel Board”) does not have jurisdiction over her whistleblower complaint and that the Arizona State University employee grievance procedure provides the only forum for her complaint. We affirm.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
Kimball filed a complaint with the Personnel Board alleging reprisal pursuant to Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated (“A.R.S.”) section 38-531 (“The Whistleblower Act”). Kimball is employed as a producer and writer at KAET television station, a department of Arizona State University (“ASU”). In May 1994, Kimball filed an Employment Information Form with the United States Department of Labor. On the form, Kimball asserted that although KAET characterized her as an exempt employee so it did not have to pay her overtime, in fact, she was a nonexempt employee and was entitled to overtime pay.
On December 2, 1994, Kimball filed a “whistleblower” complaint with the Personnel Board. She alleged that ASU, KAET, and KAET supervisors Michael Wong, Beth Vershure, and Charles Allen had committed prohibited personnel practices against her in reprisal for filing the Employment Information Form. She also filed a grievance under ASU Policy and Procedure (“SPP”) No. 316, which provides remedies for ASU employees whose supervisors retaliate against them for whistleblowing.
Based on A.R.S. section 38-533 (Supp. 1995), which exempts employees of state universities from statutory whistleblower protections under certain conditions, ASU moved to dismiss Kimball’s complaint before the Personnel Board. A hearing officer for the Personnel Board heard oral argument and then recommended that the complaint be dismissed because the Personnel Board did not have jurisdiction to hear an ASU employee’s whistleblower complaint since the university had its own whistleblower protection policy.
The Personnel Board rejected its hearing officer’s recommendation, denied ASU’s motion to dismiss, and set Kimball’s complaint for hearing. The Arizona Board of Regents, on behalf of ASU, KAET, and the named KAET supervisors (collectively “ASU”), filed a complaint for special action in the superior court to challenge the Personnel Board’s ruling. Arguing that A.R.S. section 38-533 exempted whistleblower complaints by university employees from Personnel Board jurisdiction, and that Article 11, Sections 2 and 5 of the Arizona Constitution also prohibited the Personnel Board from exercising jurisdiction over Kimball’s complaint, ASU sought an order directing the Personnel Board to dismiss her complaint for lack of jurisdiction.
The Personnel Board and Kimball argued that ASU did not meet criteria under A.R.S. section 38-533 for an exemption from the whistleblower law because the protections under ASU’s policy were not equivalent to those in the statute. They further asserted that the constitutional provisions did not preclude the legislature from passing laws regulating employees of universities. In addition,
Kimball argued that ASU’s grievance procedures in SPP 316 and SPP 902 did not afford her adequate due process.
The superior court accepted jurisdiction over ASU’s special action. The court found that Arizona whistleblower statutes did not require the Board of Regents and universities to duplicate the statutes in their own policies and that ASU’s SPP 316 provided adequate protection to whistleblowers. Finding that ASU’s grievance procedure on its face provided sufficient due process protections, the court declined to consider Kim-ball’s due process claims because they were not ripe for adjudication. The court noted that Kimball had an adequate remedy at law by appeal to the superior court if she ultimately believed her grievance before ASU was handled arbitrarily, capriciously, or unlawfully.
The court remanded the matter to the Personnel Board with instructions to dismiss Kimball’s whistleblower complaint. The court ordered ASU to proceed with hearing Kimball’s grievance pursuant to its policies and procedures, unless Kimball elected to withdraw her grievance.
Kimball timely appealed from the superior court judgment. We have jurisdiction pursuant to A.R.S. section 12-2101(B).
ISSUES
A. What standard of review must this court apply to the trial court’s ruling?
B. Is ASU exempt from the Whistleblower Act?
C. Does ASU’s grievance procedure meet statutory requirements?
D. Was the due process issue ripe for adjudication?
DISCUSSION
A. Standard of Review
ASU states that the trial court’s decision to grant special action relief is reviewed under the abuse of discretion standard, citing Hamilton v. Municipal Court of Mesa, 163 Ariz. 374, 377, 788 P.2d 107, 110 (App.1989). We agree. However, we do not apply that standard here because Kimball has not challenged the superior court’s acceptance of jurisdiction over the special action.
Hamilton also applied abuse of discretion review to the superior court’s decision to deny special action relief. Id. In Hamilton, the special action proceedings required the superior court to consider the evidence and whether the contempt penalty imposed by a city magistrate was impermissibly harsh. In contrast, the trial court did not consider factual evidence, but instead examined and interpreted Arizona statutes and university policies. Because the interpretation of Arizona statutes involves legal rather than factual questions, our review is de novo. Libra Group, Inc. v. State, 167 Ariz. 176, 179, 805 P.2d 409, 412 (App.1991).
B. Is ASU Exempt from the Whistle-blower Act?
First, Kimball argues the trial court erred in holding that ASU is exempt from the Whistleblower Act. She asserts that ASU’s grievance policy SPP 316 covers a substantially narrower range of personnel actions than A.R.S. section 38-531(3), and thus fails to meet the minimum requirements imposed by statute.
Title 38, Article 9 of the Arizona statutes concerns “Disclosure of Information by Public Employees.” Within Article 9, A.R.S. section 38-532(A) provides:
[i]t is a prohibited personnel practice for an employee who has control over personnel actions to take reprisal against an employee for a disclosure of information of a matter of public concern by the employee to a public body which the employee reasonably believes evidences:
1. A violation of any law.
2. Mismanagement, a gross waste of monies or an abuse of authority.
If a current or former employee believes a personnel action taken against him or her resulted from a disclosure of information covered by section 38-532, the employee may make a complaint to the appropriate independent personnel board. A.R.S. § 38-532(H).
A.R.S. section 38-533 provides:
This article [Article 9] does not apply to an employee or former employee of a state university or the board of regents which has in effect at the time a personnel action is taken against the employee a rule or provision for the protection of its employees from reprisal for the disclosure of information to a public body, except that the employee or former employee may appeal the final administrative decision to the superior court as provided in title 12, chapter 7, article 6.
Kimball does not dispute that ASU had a whistleblower protection policy in effect at the time allegedly retaliatory personnel actions were taken against her. She believes, however, that the policy is inadequate as compared to the protections afforded by A.R.S. section 38-532. Specifically, she argues she would be prejudiced by application of the ASU policy rather than the statute because the statutory definition of “personnel action” covers all actions taken against her while the ASU policy (SPP 316) does not.
In A.R.S. section 38-531(3)(a-l), “personnel action” is defined to include appointment; promotion; disciplinary or corrective action; detail, transfer, or reassignment; suspension, demotion or dismissal; reinstatement; restoration; reemployment; performance evaluation; decision concerning pay, benefits or awards; elimination of the employee’s position without a reduction in force by reason of lack of monies or work; and other significant change in duties or responsibilities which is inconsistent with the employee’s salary or grade level.
ASU’s policy, SPP 316, prohibits supervisory personnel from taking adverse personnel actions against employees who report alleged wrongful conduct. The policy lists the following as “adverse personnel actions”: termination of employment; demotion with salary reduction; imposition of suspension without pay; filing of a written reprimand; failure to promote; filing of a negative performance evaluation; withholding of appropriate salary adjustments; imposition of involuntary transfer or reassignment; elimination of the staff member’s position absent a reduction in force; reor ganization; or a decrease in or lack of sufficient funding, monies, or work load.
Nothing in A.R.S. section 38-533 requires a state university or board of regents to adopt a policy identical or equivalent to the whistleblower statutes in order to claim the exemption of A.R.S. section 38-533. The exemption applies if the university has in effect “a rule or provision for the protection of its employees from reprisal for the disclosure of information to a public body.”
We will not construe a statute to require something not within the plain intention of the legislature as expressed by the statute itself. City of Phoenix v. Donojrio, 99 Ariz. 130, 133, 407 P.2d 91, 93 (1965); Lewis v. Pleasant Country, Ltd., 173 Ariz. 186, 195, 840 P.2d 1051, 1060 (App.1992). If the legislature had intended to require state universities to adopt the same provisions as the whistleblower statutes in order to claim the exemption, it could have said so in the statute. See Lewis, 173 Ariz. at 195, 840 P.2d at 1060. As it did not do so, we conclude ASU’s whistleblower policy need not be the same as the statutes to entitle ASU to claim the section 38-533 exemption.
Kimball also argues the statutory definition of personnel actions should be regarded as a minimum for ASU’s policy; she contends SPP 316 does not meet this minimum. Again, however, if the legislature had intended the statute to be the minimum standard for a whistleblower policy adopted by a university, it could have provided for this standard in the statutes. Because it did not do so, we will not view the statute as setting forth a minimum definition of personnel actions.
In any event, the definitions of “personnel action” definitions in A.R.S. section 38-531(3) and SPP 316 are substantially similar. Some of the differences in the definitions are attributable to semantics. The statute uses “personnel action” to include actions such as appointment, reinstatement, restoration, and reemployment, which are not adverse actions. SPP 316 defines “adverse personnel actions” and lists only unfavorable actions.
ASU’s policy includes “filing of a written reprimand,” which A.R.S. section 38-531(3) does not include. A.R.S. section 38-531(3) contains two catch-all provisions that are not included in SPP 316: “disciplinary or corrective action” and “other significant change in duties or responsibilities which is inconsistent with the employee’s salary or grade level.” The lack of these catch-all phrases in SPP 316 does not make ASU’s policy inadequate to protect whistleblowers. The legislature has nowhere indicated that universities must protect whistleblowers from every type of adverse personnel action possible. ASU has adopted a policy that protects employees from the most severe adverse actions as well as most other unfavorable actions that could be taken in retaliation against a whistleblower. These protections are clearly sufficient to entitle ASU to be exempt from the statutory whistleblower provisions, including exemption from the jurisdiction of the Personnel Board.
ASU argues that Article 11, Sections 2 and 5 of the Arizona Constitution prohibit the Personnel Board from exercising jurisdiction over Kimball’s complaint. Because we conclude A.R.S. section 38-533 exempts ASU from Personnel Board jurisdiction over the whistleblower complaint, we need not resolve ASU’s constitutional argument.
C. Does ASU’s Grievance Procedure Meet Statutory Requirements?
Kimball argues ASU’s grievance procedure, SPP 902, violates two procedural provisions of Arizona’s Administrative Procedure Act (APA), A.R.S. sections 41-1001-1006. First, she contends that ASU’s rule that an employee’s attorney is advisory only and may not participate in the grievance hearing violates A.R.S. section 41-1062(A)(1), which provides that every party to an administrative proceeding shall have the right to be represented by counsel. Second, Kimball argues that the grievance hearing officer’s inability to issue subpoenas to compel the attendance of witnesses or the production of documents violates A.R.S. section 41-1062(A)(4), which provides that the hearing officer may cause subpoenas to be issued for the attendance of witnesses and production of documents and other evidence.
In response, ASU first argues we should not consider the application of the APA because Kimball has raised this issue for the first time on appeal. We note, however, that Kimball raised this issue below by way of a citation of additional authority in which she pointed out that article 6 of the APA applies to ASU’s whistleblower hearing procedure, and that A.R.S. section 41-1062(A)(3) and (4) requires that a party to adjudicative proceedings be entitled to representation by counsel and to subpoena witnesses and production of documents. Although Kimball raised this issue in a cursory manner, we find it was sufficiently before the trial court to allow us to consider the issue on appeal.
The APA applies to boards, commissions, departments, officers and other administrative units of the state. A.R.S. § 41-1001(2) (Supp.1995); A.R.S. § 41-1002 (1992). Articles 2, 3, 4 and 5 of the APA do not apply to the Board of Regents and the institutions under its jurisdiction. A.R.S. § 41-1005(D). The implication of these specific exemptions is that article 6, which contains A.R.S. section 41-1062, does apply to the Board of Regents and ASU.
ASU argues that Article 11, Sections 2 and 5 of the Arizona Constitution vest the Board of Regents with plenary authority over ASU employees, and that requiring ASU to follow A.R.S. sections 41-1061-1066 would illegally undermine that authority. Article 11, Section 2 provides:
The general conduct and supervision of the public school system shall be vested in a State Board of Education, a State Superintendent of Public Instruction, county school superintendents and such governing boards for the State institutions as may be provided by law.
Article 11, Section 5 provides for the appointment of university regents.
Civil service laws may not infringe upon the Board of Regents’ constitutional power to supervise its employees. Arizona Bd. of Regents v. State Dep’t. of Admin., 151 Ariz. 450, 451, 728 P.2d 669, 670 (App.1986). Thus, neither university employees nor employees of the Board of Regents are subject to Arizona’s civil service system. Id.; Hernandez v. Frohmiller, 68 Ariz. 242, 251, 204 P.2d 854, 860 (1949). Cf. McDonald v. Campbell, 169 Ariz. 478, 821 P.2d 139 (1991) (statutes vesting Personnel Board with power to enforce whistleblowing statutes to protect Arizona Supreme Court employees were unconstitutional encroachment on powers granted to supreme court).
Here, however, we are dealing with procedural rules for administrative hearings, not with the power of the Board of Regents to supervise its employees. In any event, as we next discuss, the Board of Regents may, as it has done, make its own rules of procedure for grievance hearings. Therefore, application of the procedures of A.R.S. sections 41-1061-1066 to ASU does not violate the constitutional powers of the Board of Regents.
In introducing the procedural rules for contested administrative cases, A.R.S. section 41-1062(A) provides that the rules shall apply “unless otherwise provided by law.” The definition of “provision of law” includes the rule of an administrative agency. A.R.S. § 41-1001(16). “ ‘Rule’ means an agency statement of general applicability that implements, interprets or prescribes law or policy, or describes the procedure or practice requirements of an agency.” A.R.S. § 41-1001(18).
Under these definitions, ASU has otherwise provided by law for procedures involving representation by counsel in grievance hearings and attendance of witnesses and production of documents. SPP 902 provides that prior to the grievance hearing, either party may receive the advice of counsel, who may be an attorney. The attorney may be present and act as an advisor during the hearing. However, attorneys may not participate in or provide testimony during the hearing. ASU may not have a legal advisor unless the grievant has a legal advisor.
As to subpoenas, the ASU staff grievance hearing procedures established pursuant to SPP 902 provide that neither the American Arbitration Association (AAA), which admin isters grievances for ASU, nor the hearing officer, has subpoena authority to compel the attendance of witnesses or production of documents. However, witnesses who are employees of ASU are “strongly encouraged” to provide testimony if the hearing officer determines their testimony is relevant to the dispute. If ASU is in control or possession of documents that the hearing officer deems to be relevant, ASU will cooperate in producing available documents if other parties are unable to do so, as long as the documents are not confidential or are otherwise not subject to disclosure.
These policies and rules adopted by ASU for its grievance hearings are to be used rather than the conflicting provisions of A.R.S. sections 41-1062(A)(1) and (4). As the statute allows for the provision of other procedures, we conclude that ASU’s grievance procedure does not violate statutory requirements.
D. Was the Due Process Issue Ripe for Adjudication?
Kimball argued below that her due process rights would be violated if she were compelled to use ASU’s grievance procedures to resolve her whistleblower complaint because the tribunal was not impartial and because her attorney could not participate in the hearing. Specifically, she believes that the university vice president who would make the final decision after receiving the recommendation of the independent hearing officer would not be able to render an impartial decision because he supervises the person against whom the allegations of reprisal were lodged.
The superior court noted that ASU’s general grievance procedure was entitled to a presumption of validity and that it appeared on its face to afford an aggrieved party adequate due process protections; the court would not presume that ASU would misinterpret or fail to follow its own rules and regulations or that it would apply them improperly in Kimball’s grievance hearing. Accordingly, the court declined to consider Kimball’s due process claims because they were not ripe for adjudication.
We agree with the superior court. We see nothing in the grievance procedure that offends due process requirements. The hearing officer will be an AAA hearing officer chosen by the parties. Kimball’s belief that the vice president who will make the ultimate decision is not impartial is pure speculation.
As to her charge that due process is violated because of the restrictions on representation by counsel, she cites only Arizona State Department of Public Welfare v. Barlow, 80 Ariz. 249, 296 P.2d 298 (1956). In Barlow, parents whose children had been taken from them and placed in the custody of the state were denied representation of counsel at the hearing to determine whether the parents could secure custody of their children. Id. at 251, 296 P.2d at 299. The court held that denial of the right to effective participation of counsel constituted a denial of due process of law. Id. at 253, 296 P.2d at 300. Barlow, however, concerned a court hearing; we are concerned with an administrative grievance hearing. Kimball’s attorney may advise her at the hearing, even though he may not directly participate. We do not believe this level of participation offends due process at the administrative hearing, particularly where ASU also cannot be represented by an attorney at the hearing. Thus, on its face, this procedure does not violate due process.
Whether any due process violations occur cannot be known until the grievance process is completed. Kimball may receive the relief she seeks; thus, any pre-hearing speculation about the process that might be afforded her would be inconsequential. As the trial court noted, if the outcome is not what she seeks, she may appeal to the superior court if she believes her grievance was arbitrarily, capri ciously, or unlawfully handled. Accordingly, we affirm the trial court.
ASU requests an award of attorneys’ fees pursuant to A.R.S. section 12-341.01 because this action arises out of an employment contract. In our discretion, we deny this request.
EHRLICH and VOSS, JJ., concur.
. But see, R.L. Augustine Const, v. Peoria School Dist. No. 11, 183 Ariz. 393, 904 P.2d 462 (App. 1995), Review granted (Oct. 24, 1995) (A governmental entity may not adjudicate cases in which it has, by virtue of its official, statutory duties, a pecuniary interest in the outcome and constitutional infirmities in the hearing process would not be cured by parties’ right to appeal to superi- or court, since review would not be de novo.) The parties in this case did not brief R.L. Augustine.
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OPINION
WEISBERG, Judge.
William Lee Branham (“defendant”) appeals from his conviction on one count of possession of dangerous drugs. We must decide whether a police officer making a legitimate traffic stop may conduct a limited search for the vehicle registration card based solely on the driver’s failure to produce it. Because we hold that such a search is not permissible under the Fourth Amendment, we remand with instructions.
Facts and Procedural History
Officer Johnson stopped defendant for speeding. Upon the officer’s request, defendant tendered his driver’s license, but indicated that he had recently cleaned out his car and left the vehicle registration at home. After twice instructing defendant to search for the registration, Officer Johnson ordered defendant and his wife to step out of the ear so he could search it himself. The officer testified that defendant said “okay.”
Officer Johnson later testified that the failure to produce the vehicle registration, by itself, justified his limited search and that he had no other basis for searching the car. He indicated that he conducted similar searches in approximately eighty-five percent of those cases in which a driver could not produce registration.
During his limited search, Officer Johnson found some methamphetamine and drug paraphernalia. Based on this evidence, defendant was charged with possession of dangerous drugs. Defendant filed a motion to suppress, which was denied by the trial court. After his conviction by a jury, defendant timely filed this appeal.
Discussion
Generally, a search without a warrant is per se unreasonable and in violation of the Fourth Amendment. See State v. Castaneda, 150 Ariz. 382, 389, 724 P.2d 1, 8 (1986). Several exceptions to the warrant requirement exist, however, and the state argued that two of these applied: the automobile exception and consent.
A. Automobile Exception
When the trial court denied defendant’s motion to suppress, it made the following observation:
It seems to me that if I went and stole a car and then got stopped for speeding while driving that car and the police officer asked me for driver’s license, registration and insurance, I might give him my driver’s license, but I wouldn’t show him the registration and insurance because it’s going to show somebody else’s names that I’ve never heard of before. Therefore, the rule of law that says a police officer can conduct a limited search for the purpose of finding evidence of registration is reasonable, and it appears that that’s exactly what Officer Johnson did in this case. I find no abuse of process.
The rule of law to which the trial court referred is found in State v. Taras, 19 Ariz. App. 7, 504 P.2d 548 (1972). In Taras, officers spotted a car parked in a desert area where stolen cars were often abandoned. When they slowly approached the car in a police vehicle, Taras drove off rapidly into the desert without turning on the headlights. The police pursued and, after a short distance, Taras abandoned the car and fled on foot. The officers apprehended Taras after a brief chase. Taras told the officers that the ear belonged to him and that the registration was not in it. One of the officers got into the vehicle and searched the dashboard and visor area for the registration, and found some marijuana and drug paraphernalia. Id. at 8-9, 504 P.2d at 549-50.
Taras moved to suppress the marijuana and paraphernalia as fruit of an illegal search. The Taras court held that the search was reasonable under the circumstances. See id. at 10, 504 P.2d at 551. The court noted that it was obvious that Taras had wished to avoid the police. See id. at 11, 504 P.2d at 552. Furthermore, the car was found in a location known by officers to be a place where stolen cars were abandoned. The officers therefore suspected that the car was stolen, and the court held that “if a driver is unable to produce proof of registration, the officer may conduct a limited search of the car for evidence of automobile ownership.” Id. This broad language appears to be the presumed rule of law upon which the trial court based its ruling and upon which the officer based his search.
The Taras court premised its decision on the automobile exception to the search warrant requirement as articulated in Chambers v. Maroney, 399 U.S. 42, 51-52, 90 S.Ct. 1975, 1981, 26 L.Ed.2d 419 (1970)(search warrant unnecessary where there is probable cause to search automobile stopped on the highway). The United States Supreme Court indicated that, because of the particular mobility of a car, an exception to the general warrant requirement exists so long as officers have probable cause to believe there is evidence “that the officers are entitled to seize.” Id. at 48, 90 S.Ct. at 1979.
In Taras, the court specifically listed the facts that supported the officers’ belief that the car might have been stolen: (1) the car was parked in an area where stolen cars were typically abandoned, (2) Taras tried to elude the police, and (3) Taras could not produce registration of the vehicle. See id. at 10-11, 504 P.2d at 551-52. On its facts, therefore, Taras simply applied Chambers and held that, under all of the circumstances, including the failure to produce registration, the officers had probable cause to believe that the car was stolen. Id.
Other cases have reached the same conclusion on similar facts. See State v. Acosta, 166 Ariz. 254, 801 P.2d 489 (App.1990); English-dark v. City of Tucson, 142 Ariz. 522, 525, 690 P.2d 1235, 1238 (App.1984). In Acosta, the state attempted to justify a search of a car on the basis that the driver failed to produce proof of ownership. See id. at 258, 801 P.2d at 493. But, as in Taras, there were other factors that supported the search, specifically, that the driver did not have a driver’s license and that he did not know the name of either the car’s owner or the person who had loaned it to him. See id. Considering these facts, this court concluded that the “officer certainly could have a reasonable suspicion that the car was stolen____” Id. The determinative fact, again, was whether there was probable cause to believe that the car was stolen.
In English-Clark, a police officer observed a truck towing a trailer without turn signals or brake lights. The driver resisted the officer’s attempts to stop the truck and, after the truck was finally halted, acted in a disruptive and obscene manner. When the officer approached the truck, he observed a shotgun, shotgun shells, and drugs on the seat. The driver, who could not produce the truck’s registration, explained that the truck belonged to his mother. The driver was then placed under arrest for fleeing from a law enforcement vehicle. After searching the truck, the officer found more guns and drugs.
The Englishr-Clark court cited Tams and concluded that all of the facts, including the failure to produce the registration, gave the officer “the articulable facts necessary to justify a search of the truck.” Id. at 525, 690 P.2d at 1238. Although not expressly set forth, these facts clearly provided probable cause to believe that the truck was stolen and that the persons in the truck illegally possessed drugs and guns.
In each of these cases, there was probable cause to believe that the vehicle was stolen, in part based upon the driver’s failure to produce registration. In the instant ease, the search was based solely on the driver’s failure to produce proof of registration. The officer even testified that he had no reason to believe that defendant’s car was stolen and that he did not need such evidence; instead, the search was pursuant to his policy to search most vehicles when the drivers could not produce registration.
Defendant relies on People v. Superior Court, 7 Cal.3d 186, 101 Cal.Rptr. 837, 496 P.2d 1205 (1972). On facts similar to the instant case, the California trial court granted a motion to suppress and the state appealed. The California Supreme Court analyzed the failure to produce registration as follows:
It would not be unreasonable for a thief to remove or destroy the registration card of an automobile he has taken; his purpose in so doing might be to prevent the true owner from being traced, to eliminate the discrepancy between the owner’s name and his own, or to facilitate substitution of a forged card---- [I]t is also true that being a stranger to the vehicle he might not be able to present the card to an officer simply because he did not know where to find it. [101 Cal.Rptr. at 842, 496 P.2d at 1210.]
This is the same reasoning that the trial court applied in the instant ease to find that the search was justified. But the California Supreme Court went on in its analysis to note that the failure to produce the registration card “could equally well be entirely innocent.” Id., 101 Cal.Rptr. at 842, 496 P.2d at 1210. The court provided such examples as when a person renews or transfers registration, requiring its removal from the car, or when a driver might innocently be unable to locate the registration. Id. The court concluded that the failure to produce registration, without more, does not provide probable cause to believe that a car has been stolen.
In State v. Valenzuela, 121 Ariz. 274, 589 P.2d 1306 (1979), this analysis was applied by the Arizona Supreme Court to another type of search. In that case, an officer searched a person who was standing in a group because the officer had smelled a strong odor of marijuana. The Valenzuela court cited People v. Superior Court for the proposition that, because the presence of marijuana odor is equally consistent with innocent behavior on Valenzuela’s part (other persons were present who could have possessed the marijuana), the odor, by itself, did not provide probable cause to search him. The court went on to note that additional factors, specifically Valenzuela’s dishonest answers about the contents of his pockets and other facts, in combination with the smell of marijuana, did provide probable cause: Valenzuela, 121 Ariz. at 276, 589 P.2d at 1308.
Applying the Valenzuela reasoning to the instant case, we reach the same result as the court in People v. Superior Court. The failure to produce registration is not a criminal offense. Ariz.Rev.Stat. Ann. § 28-305(F)(Supp.1997)(requiring registration card to be carried in car), § 28-181 (violation of chapter 3 is a civil traffic violation). As a result, the failure to produce registration is equally consistent with innocent behavior. Therefore, such failure, by itself, does not provide probable cause to believe that a car is stolen and does not permit the limited search conducted here.
This decision does not mean that failure to produce registration is irrelevant in all cases. As People v. Superior Court, Taras, Acosta, and English-Clark all conclude, other facts, in combination with the failure to provide registration, may provide probable cause to believe that a car is stolen, or is involved in some other criminal activity. We hold that because the state did not provide any additional evidence that the vehicle in this ease might be stolen or involved in some other criminal activity, the search was not supported by probable cause under the automobile exception.
B. Consent
The state also argues that defendant consented to the search. The record, however, indicates that the trial court did not rule on this fact-intensive question. See State v. Paredes, 167 Ariz. 609, 612, 810 P.2d 607, 610 (App.1991). Because we find that the trial court’s basis for denying the motion to suppress was incorrect, we remand the case for consideration of whether the state provided clear and positive evidence that consent to search was freely and voluntarily given. See id.
Conclusion
For the foregoing reasons, we vacate the trial court’s order denying defendant’s motion to suppress. Notwithstanding, we remand the case for consideration of whether a valid consent justified the search and such other further proceedings as are consistent with this opinion.
GRANT, P.J., and McGREGOR, J., concur.
. The state also argues that other evidence supported the search of the vehicle, specifically Officer Johnson’s testimony that they "were dealing with a large amount of stolen vehicles” at the time of the stop. This testimony, however, does not support any particular inference that defendant’s car was stolen and does not support probable cause to search for registration. Moreover, in this case, it is belied by the officer’s testimony.
|
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OPINION
WEISBERG, Judge.
The Judges’ Retirement Plan, the Elected Officials’ Retirement Plan, and their Fund Manager (“appellants”) appeal the grant of summary judgment in favor of Erna Thurston (“Thurston”). Because we find that the statutory amendment under which Thurston makes her claim does not apply retroactively, we reverse.
Facts and Procedural History
Thurston’s husband was a superior court judge for eleven years. In February 1976, he retired and began receiving retirement benefits. At the time of both his initial employment and his retirement, Arizona statutes provided that a spouse surviving the death of a judge receiving retirement benefits would be entitled to receive a pension equal to one-third of the judge’s retirement pension. In 1981, before the death of Thurston’s husband, the legislature changed the statute to provide that a surviving spouse would receive two-thirds of the judge’s retirement pension (“the 1981 amendment”).
Thurston’s husband died in 1989. Thurston applied for benefits equal to two-thirds of her husband’s pension. Appellants, however, paid her only one-third of her husband’s pension. Thurston filed a complaint in March 1991, claiming breach of contract and seeking monetary relief and declaratory judgment. In February 1992, Thurston filed a motion for summary judgment. Appellants responded and filed a cross-motion for summary judgment. In June 1992, the trial court granted Thurston’s motion for summary judgment.
Discussion
A Standard of Review
The parties agree there are no disputed facts in this case. The issue is purely legal: Does the 1981 amendment entitle Thurston to two-thirds of her husband’s retirement pension? This court, therefore, is free to draw its own legal conclusions from the undisputed facts. Arizona Bd. of Regents v. Phoenix Newspapers, Inc., 167 Ariz. 254, 257, 806 P.2d 348, 351 (1991).
B. Effect of the 1981 Amendment
“No statute is retroactive unless expressly declared therein.” A.R.S. § 1-244 (1989). Appellants argue that applying the 1981 amendment to Thurston would involve the improper retroactive application of the amendment. Thurston responds, in the al ternative, that either the amendment ought to apply retroactively, or, because she seeks benefits only for the time after the 1981 amendment, the application of the amendment is not really retroactive. In order to decide this issue, we must consider the nature of the retirement benefit statutes and the subsequent effect of amendments to them.
1. Is The Amendment Retroactive?
a. Retirement Benefits Are Contractual
Appellants and Thurston agree that a public employee’s retirement benefits are part of the employee’s employment contract. See Yeazell v. Copins, 98 Ariz. 109, 112-14, 402 P.2d 541, 543-44 (1965). The employment contract controls both the employee’s rights and the retirement fund’s obligations. The contract also controls the survivor’s rights under the retirement plan. Section 38-801(C) sets forth the survivor’s pension benefit that is incorporated into each elected official’s employment contract. Consequently, absent a change mandated by statute, Thurston’s survivor’s rights were fixed by contract prior to 1981.
b. Changing Retirement Benefits Is Retroactive
Thurston contends that, because the amendment only affects payments to be made after its effective date, its effect on her rights is not retroactive. The Arizona Supreme Court has defined “retroactive law” as one “which takes away or impairs vested rights acquired under existing laws, or creates a new obligation, imposes a new duty, or attaches a new disability, in respect to transactions or considerations already past.” Tower Plaza Invs., Ltd. v. DeWitt, 109 Ariz. 248, 250, 508 P.2d 324, 326 (1973). The court noted, however, that a statute “is not retrospective from the mere fact that it relates to antecedent facts.” Id., at 251, 508 P.2d at 327. In Tower Plaza, the issue was whether taxes on rental income could be levied on rental receipts from leases formed before enactment of the tax. The court held that the receipt of rent was the taxable event or transaction. Therefore, taxation of rent received after the enactment of the tax would not be deemed to be a retroactive application.
In the instant case, Thurston’s retirement benefits were vested prior to the 1981 amendment. Yeazell, 98 Ariz. at 115, 402 P.2d at 545. The transaction was then complete. Any change in those vested benefits would constitute a change in the underlying transaction and would therefore be a retroactive application. See also Krucker v. Goddard, 99 Ariz. 227, 230, 408 P.2d 20, 22 (1965) (inclusion of Court of Appeals judges in retirement system would have retroactive effect). Therefore, for Thurston to prevail, it must be shown that the legislature intended the 1981 amendment to apply retroactively. A.R.S. § 1-244; State v. Superior Court, 139 Ariz. 422, 427, 678 P.2d 1386, 1391 (1984) (legislature must expressly indicate intent to apply statute retroactively).
c. Implied Right Doctrine
Alternatively, Thurston cites case law from California arguing that statutory increases to retirement benefits enacted after retirement are valid as part of the original contract. California has adopted an “implied right/pensionable status” doctrine in which subsequent amendments affecting persons who have attained “pensionable status” are held implied within the original contract. See Sweesy v. Los Angeles County Peace Officers Retirement Bd., 17 Cal.2d 356, 110 P.2d 37, 39 (1941); Nelson v. City of Los Angeles, 21 Cal.App.3d 916, 98 Cal.Rptr. 892, 893 (1971). The trial court in the instant case seems to have adopted this reasoning: “In this Court’s view, as a matter of law, the fair and reasonable expectation of an employee is that any future enacted benefits to the employee and the employee’s spouse will be received unless the Legislature specifically states otherwise.”
The “implied right/pensionable status” doctrine has not been addressed in Arizona. See McClead v. Pima County, 174 Ariz. 348, 359 n. 19, 849 P.2d 1378, 1389 n. 19 (App.1992). As noted above, the Arizona Supreme Court has held that retirement benefits are founded on general contract principles. See Yeazell, 98 Ariz. at 112-14, 402 P.2d at 543-44; McClead, 174 Ariz. at 359, 849 P.2d at 1389. Neither the trial court nor this court may modify this rule by adopting the “implied righi/pensionable status” doctrine. We hold that an employee and an employee’s spouse are entitled only to benefits specified in the employment contract.
2. Retroactive Intent Not Expressed
Thurston argues that the legislature has enacted several amendments increasing the amounts paid to persons already retired. She reasons that, because these retroactive amendments were approved by this court in McClead, 174 Ariz. at 359, 849 P.2d at 1389, the retroactive application of the 1981 amendment should also be approved. In fact, however, the amendments considered in McClead provide contrasting examples of how the legislature expressly declares a statute’s retroactive operation when that is its intent. Consider the following statute:
Effective July 1, 1984, all persons who were receiving retirement benefits including surviving spouse benefits on or before June 30, 1983 from the judges’ retirement account ... shall receive a permanent increase of [$205] for service pensions and [$90.60] monthly for spouse’s pensions in their base benefit received on June 30, 1984.
1984 Ariz. Sess. Laws 1436, 1436 (emphasis added.) This statute expressly provides for retroactive operation. All of the amendments noted by Thurston and all of those considered in McClead have similar express provisions. The legislature clearly indicated that the increases considered in McClead would apply to persons retired before the enactment of those statutes. No similar express provision, however, is found in the 1981 amendment to A.R.S. section 38-801(C), see 1981 Ariz.Sess.Laws 1077, 1077-79. In its absence, we may not construe such an expression to apply. See A.R.S. § 1-244. An employment contract is not modified retroactively by a statutory amendment that does not include an express provision to that effect.
Conclusion
We hold that the 1981 amendment to A.R.S. section 38-801(C) does not apply refcroactively. Because Thurston’s retirement benefits are based upon her husband’s pre1981 employment contract, the amount of her survivor’s pension is controlled by the pre1981 section 38-801(C) and, therefore, she is entitled to receive only one-third of her husband’s retirement pension.
The trial court is reversed and the case is remanded with directions to grant appellant’s cross-motion for summary judgment.
McGREGOR, P.J., and GRANT, J., concur.
. When Thurston’s husband was appointed to the bench, the statute governing retirement benefits of elected officials provided that the "widow of any judge ... retired under the provisions of this Article shall ... receive ... one-third of the monthly benefits paid to such judge.” A.R.S. § 38-801(C) (1965) (current version at A.R.S. § 38-807 (1985)) (emphasis added). When the judge retired in 1976, the law remained substantively the same. See A.R.S. § 38-801(C) (1976). In 1981, the legislature amended section 38-801(C) by changing "one-third” to “two-thirds.” See A.R.S. § 38-801(C) (1981).
. Appellants rely upon dicta in Yeazell concerning presumed situations in which a member "and his widow are forever bound thereby." Yeazell, 98 Ariz. at 117, 402 P.2d at 546. We do not specifically rely on this language to conclude that survivor’s rights are governed by the employment contract, but rather on the holding of Yeazell, that all retirement benefits are .governed by contract. Survivor’s benefits are simply one facet of the retirement benefits.
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OPINION
SCHAFER, Judge.
The issue in this case is whether three chemicals, sulfuric acid, LIX, and Orfom SX-7, used to produce cathode copper from copper ore, are “machinery” or “equipment.” If they are, A.R.S. 42—1409(B)(1) exempts their cost from taxation.
The taxpayer, Cyprus Sierrita Corporation, is engaged in the business of producing copper from oxide copper ore and sulfide copper ore. The ores contain very low concentrations of copper; their bulk consists mainly of metallic oxides and non-metallic materials (referred to as “gangue”) that have no commercial value. To make the business profitable the copper must be extracted from the gangue—and that is accomplished with chemicals. The process involves three steps: (1) leaching, (2) solvent extraction, and (3) electrowinning. Here’s how it works:
First, the ore is mined and collected into large mounds. Then a weak sulfuric acid solution, containing sulfate and hydrogen ions, is sprayed on the mounds and allowed to percolate down through the ore. As it does, things happen—molecules are released and exchanged, and hydrogen ions combine with oxygen ions to form water; copper ions in the ore bond with the sulfate ions in the acidic solution; and impurities (gangue) are released from the ore. When the solution gets to the bottom of the mounds it is changed, it now contains nascent copper. This new solution is sent to a solvent extraction plant where it is mixed and agitated with a solution of LIX and Orfom SX-7. Again molecules are released and exchanged. The result is a mix of copper in an organic solution and fluid with the same chemical composition of the original leach solution (with the addition of dissolved gangue and a small amount of residual copper ions). That mix separates into two layers; the leach solution is sent back to the mounds to leach again and the copper in the organic solution is mixed with an electrowinning solution (sulfuric acid). That mix again separates into two layers; the organic solution (once again LIX and Orfom SX-7 with only a small amount of residual copper) is recycled within the solvent extraction plant and used again. The copper bearing electrowinning solution cycles to the electrowinning plant where an electric current is applied. The copper in the solution adheres to plates (copper plating) and the remaining fluid (sulfuric acid again) is recycled back to the solvent extraction plant to strip more copper.
Cyprus argues that the three chemicals (sulfuric acid, LIX and Orfom SX-7) are “machinery” or “equipment” exempt from Arizona’s use tax under A.R.S. § 42-1409, subsection B(l). “Machinery” or “equipment” it maintains is nothing more than a collection of things brought together to perform useful functions as an integrated system; the system’s parts do not have to be touched, felt, or even seen. The Department scoffs at that notion. The Department’s position is that everyone knows what “machinery” or “equipment” is, and that it is not chemicals. And, even if it were, the chemicals here are “expendable materials” specifically subject to the use tax under subsection C(l) of section 42-1409.
The Court agrees with Cyprus; its chemicals are machinery and equipment, and they are not “expendable materials” under subsection C(l) of section 42-1409.
ANALYSIS
Exemption from Taxation
Arizona imposes a use tax upon “the storage, use or consumption in this state of tangi ble personal property.” A.R.S. § 42-1408(A). “Use” and “consumption” are defined as the exercise of any right or power over tangible personal property incidental to owning the property____” A.R.S. § 42-1401(8). Everyone agrees that Cyprus “uses” the chemicals in Arizona. Cyprus, however, claims that the chemicals are tax exempt under subsection B(l) of section 42-1409, because the chemicals are “machinery” or “equipment.”
Section 42-1409, subsection B, provides an exemption from use tax for:
1. Machinery, or equipment, used directly in manufacturing, processing, fabricating, job printing, refining or metallurgical operations. The terms ‘manufacturing’, ‘processing’, ‘fabricating’, ‘job printing’, ‘refining’ and ‘metallurgical’ as used in this paragraph refer to and include those operations commonly understood within their ordinary meaning. ‘Metallurgical operations’ includes leaching, milling, precipitating, smelting and refining.
A.R.S. § 42-1409(B)(l) (emphasis added). The Department concedes that the chemicals are “used directly” in “metallurgical operations,” but disputes that the chemicals are machinery or equipment.
Neither “machinery” nor “equipment” is defined by the Tax Code. Therefore, unless the context of the statute requires otherwise, the terms will be given their ordinary meaning. State Tax Commission v. Peck, 106 Ariz. 394, 476 P.2d 849 (1970); see also Jim Click Ford, Inc. v. City of Tucson, 133 Ariz. 97, 649 P.2d 714 (App.1982). Here the statute is clear when the words are read as they are ordinarily used.
“Machinery” is defined as “machines as a functioning unit.” Webster’s Third New International Dictionary 1354 (1981). “Machine” in turn is defined as:
[A]n assemblage of parts that are usually solid bodies but include in some cases fluid bodies or electricity in conductors and that transmit forces, motion and energy one to another in some predetermined manner and to some desired end.
Id. at 1353. Webster’s also notes that the synonyms “machine, engine, apparatus, appliance”
signify, in common, a device, often complex, for doing work beyond human physical or mental limitations or faster than human hand or mind. Machine applies to a construction or organization whose parts are so connected and interrelated that it can be set in motion and perform work as a unit.
Ibid.
These chemicals are “machines” according to those definitions because they are an integral part of a complicated process, acting in predetermined manners to obtain a specific desired result—the plating of cathode copper. In the leaching phase, sulfuric acid is the “part” of the system which acts to release copper ions from the copper oxide. The LIX and Orfom SX-7 are the “parts” of the system used in the solvent extraction phase to extract the copper ions from the leaching solution and transfer the copper ions to the electrowinning solution where the copper may be plated in the electrowinning phase. Clearly, these chemicals function as part of the cathode copper plating “machinery” and as such are exempt from the use tax under section 42-1409, subsection B(l).
The chemicals also function as part of Cyprus’ “equipment” as that term is commonly defined. Webster’s defines “equipment” to include “the physical resources serving to equip a person or thing ... as: (1) the implements (as machinery or tools) used in an operation or activity.” In further defining “equipment,” Webster’s notes that the synonyms “equipment, apparatus, machinery, paraphernalia, outfit, tackle, gear, and material”
can signify, in common, all the things used in a given work or useful in effecting a given end. Equipment usually covers everything except personnel needed for efficient operation or service____ Machinery covers all devices, means or agencies which permit a thing to function or accomplish an end.
Webster at 768. The chemicals fall within these common definitions of “equipment” thereby qualifying for tax exempt treatment under section 42-1409, subsection B(l).
Exclusion from Exemption
Subsection C of section 42-1409 lists things that are not exempt in subsection B— “expendable materials” is one of them. A.R.S. § 42-1409(0(1).
The Department claims that even if the chemicals are machinery or equipment they are still taxable because they are expendable. Cyprus argues that the chemicals are not expendable. The Court agrees with Cyprus.
The statute does not define “expendable materials.” But in ordinary use the term means something that is expended, and expended means to “use up (material or force) in any operation.” The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary 929 (1971). In that sense, these chemicals are not used up in the process of extraction. The sulfuric acid does not disappear during its cycle' through the copper plating process; it is recycled. It is true that approximately 40% of the sulfuric acid is lost to the system due to its reaction with gangue, but that loss doesn’t make the acid “expendable” since in an ideal system, one with no gangue, 100% of the acid could be continuously recycled. The LIX and Orfom SX-7 are continuously recycled through the system every 30 minutes, 24 hours a day. Small amounts are lost due to entrainment (failure to separate completely in the solvent extraction phase), crud (formation of solids), spillage, evaporation and sampling. But these losses are so small they required replacement of LIX and Orfom SX-7 only once every 18.5 months during the audit period. In sum, none of the chemicals were used up in the process.
In addition, when “expendable materials” is read in the context of the entire subsection C, it is clear that the legislature intended to deny exemption to those things that are ancillary to the extraction process. The subsection taxes janitorial equipment and hand tools (A.R.S. § 42-1409(0(2)); office equipment, furniture and supplies (A.R.S. § 42-1409(C)(3)); and tangible personal property used in research (A.R.S. § 42-1409(0(4)). Such items have no direct bearing on the extraction process; they are accessories. The chemicals are not accessories; they are essential, integral parts of the production machine.
CONCLUSION
Sulfuric acid, LIX and Orfom SX-7 function as machinery and equipment in the extraction and plating of cathode copper at the Cyprus plant. Therefore, they are exempt from Arizona’s use tax pursuant to section 42-1409(B)(l). They are not “expendable materials” excluded from the exemption.
IT IS ORDERED that purchases of the chemicals at issue are exempt from use taxes and Cyprus is entitled to judgment in its favor.
This opinion is not a final, appealable judgment and other orders will follow. See Devenir Associates v. City of Phoenix, 169 Ariz. 500, 821 P.2d 161 (1991).
. "Implement” is defined as "an article (as of apparel or furniture) serving to equip." Webster at 1134. Webster’s also notes that implement "applies to anything, usually a contrivance, necessary to affect an end or perform a task.”
. The Department audited Cyprus for the period April 1986 through November 1989.
|
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JUDGMENT AND ORDER
This matter having come on for hearing before the Disciplinary Commission of the Supreme Court of Arizona, it having duly rendered its decision and no timely appeal having been filed before the Court,
IT IS ORDERED, ADJUDGED AND DECREED that L. ALTON RIGGS, JR., a member of the State Bar of Arizona, is hereby censured for conduct in violation of his duties and obligations as a lawyer, as disclosed in the commission report attached hereto as Exhibit A.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that pursuant to Rule 52(a)(8), Rules of the Supreme Court of Arizona, the State Bar of Arizona is granted judgment against L. ALTON RIGGS, JR. for costs incurred by the State Bar of Arizona in the amount of $292.80, together with interest at the legal rate from the date of this judgment.
EXHIBIT A
BEFORE THE DISCIPLINARY COMMISSION
OF THE
SUPREME COURT OF ARIZONA
In the Matter of L. Alton Riggs, Jr., a Member of the State Bar of Arizona, Respondent.
Comm. No. 93-0046
DISCIPLINARY COMMISSION REPORT
Filed Jan. 13, 1994.
This matter came before the Disciplinary Commission of the Supreme Court of Arizona for oral argument on November 13, 1993, on an agreement for discipline by consent, pursuant to Ariz.R.S.Ct., Rule 56(a). The agreement, providing for censure and probation, was tendered prior to the issuance of a formal complaint, and was reviewed by the Commission without referral to a hearing committee, pursuant to Rule 53(b).
Decision
After consideration of the oral argument of the respondent, L. Alton Riggs, Jr. (“Riggs”) and the State Bar, and review of the record on appeal, the Commission, by a vote of seven to two, recommends acceptance of the agreement for discipline by consent provid ing that Riggs be censured and placed on probation for a period of one year, under the terms and conditions set forth below. A concurrence of seven members of the Commission also adopts the tender of conditional admissions and agreement for discipline by consent and the joint memorandum in support of the agreement for discipline by consent as its findings of fact and conclusions of law.
Terms of Probation
The majority of the Commission recommends probation for a period of one year, as previously stated, under the following terms and conditions:
1. Riggs shall seek assistance from the State Bar’s Law Office Management Assistance Program (“LOMAP”) and, thereafter, shall follow the recommendations issued by the director of LOMAP, which shall be incorporated by reference into the Tender of Conditional Admissions and Agreement for Discipline By Consent, dated October 27, 1993.
2. A financial monitor shall be appointed and approved by the State Bar who will oversee Riggs’ financial affairs, including his trust and operating accounts, and who will submit quarterly reports to the State Bar regarding the manner in which Riggs is handling his financial affairs.
3. Riggs shall pay all costs incurred by the State Bar in connection with these proceedings and shall pay all reasonable costs incurred in connection with his referral to LOMAP.
Facts
Riggs was a personal friend and attorney of Client A before her death on December 11, 1987. A few weeks after her death, Riggs was appointed personal representative of Client A’s estate. Riggs was also named as the trustee of a trust established by Client A for the benefit of her son, who was virtually the sole beneficiary of her estate. The estate had an approximate value, of $219,000.
With the exception of the real property owned , by the estate, Riggs liquidated the estate assets and transferred the funds into his office trust account. This non-interest-bearing trust account contained not only funds belonging to other clients, but also money belonging to Riggs, himself.
Riggs’ failure to deposit the trust funds into a separate, interest-bearing account, and the commingling of the trust assets with other funds was not discovered for nearly five years. Upon discovering that the funds had been sitting dormant in a non-interest-bearing account for this length of time, the attorneys for Client A’s son petitioned the court for the removal of Riggs as personal representative and trustee. The court did so on December 17, 1992.
On January 21, 1993, Client A’s son filed suit against Riggs. The lawsuit was settled a few months later, with Riggs fully compensating the son and the estate for any losses which resulted from Riggs’ mishandling of the estate. Riggs had cooperated fully with the attorneys for Client A’s son in an effort to resolve the matter equitably. The estate received $149,500 as a result of the settlement, which included the interest the funds would have earned had they been deposited into the proper account when first received by Riggs.
Apparently, part of the delay in resolving this matter arose when Riggs was diagnosed with cancer and underwent surgery in November 1992. Once he was released from the hospital, Riggs completed the transfer of the estate assets to the son, and has since fully cooperated with the son’s attorneys.
The State Bar and Riggs conditionally agreed that this conduct violated ER 1.15 and Supreme Court Rules 43 and 44.
Discussion of Decision
The Commission agrees that Riggs’ actions violated ER 1.15, and Supreme Court Rules 43 and 44, which address proper handling of client property and lawyer trust accounts.
In determining the appropriateness of a disciplinary sanction, the Commission finds it helpful to review the American Bar Association’s Standards for Imposing Lawyer Sanctions. This is the guideline used by the supreme court. In re Rivkind, 164 Ariz. 154, 157, 791 P.2d 1037, 1040 (1990).
Standard 4.1 addresses the failure to properly deal with client property. Standard 4.12 provides for suspension when a lawyer knows or should know that he is dealing improperly with client property and causes injury or potential injury to a client. Standard 4.13 provides for reprimand (censure in Arizona) when a lawyer is negligent in dealing with client property and causes injury or potential injury to a client.
Riggs has indicated that his failure to properly follow trust account procedures was not an intentional act. He admits it was the result of his own ignorance of the rules. Ignorance of the rules is clearly no excuse for a lawyer’s failure to comply with those rules; however, in this instance, the majority of the Commission believes it indicates that Riggs’ conduct was negligent, rather than intentional, leading the majority to conclude that a censure is appropriate.
Standard 9.32 lists factors to be considered in mitigation. Riggs has no prior disciplinary record, he had no dishonest or selfish motive, he has made a timely good faith effort to make restitution or to rectify consequences of the misconduct, and he has made full and free disclosure and exhibited a cooperative attitude during the disciplinary proceedings, as evidenced by his willingness to enter into the agreement prior to the filing of a complaint. Since these events occurred, Riggs has familiarized himself with the rules concerning trust accounts, and has adjusted his accounts accordingly. He has also earned an excellent reputation through his active involvement in his community. Finally, Riggs has exhibited remorse for his negligent conduct.
The only aggravating factor, as listed in Standard 9.22, is substantial experience in the practice of law. Riggs has been practicing for over thirty years, since 1961. When considered in conjunction with his clean disciplinary record, however, the majority of the Commission cannot find this to be an aggravating factor.
At the time these events occurred, Riggs’ office and financial management practices were sloppy and inadequate. His failure to deposit the estate assets into a separate, interest-bearing account and his failure to distribute the funds for nearly five years resulted from these careless practices. The probationary terms recommended • in this matter include the assistance of LOMAP as well as a financial monitor. The majority of the Commission believes that these terms will prevent those office and financial management problems from recurring.
The majority also believes that the numer- • ous mitigating factors present, when considered in conjunction with Standard 4.13, make it clear that a sanction more severe than censure would be inappropriately harsh in this matter. The goal of lawyer discipline is not to punish the lawyer but to deter similar conduct by other lawyers. In re Fresquez, 162 Ariz. 328, 783 P.2d 774 (1989). The majority of the Commission believes that the imposition of a censure and a one-year probation, with terms specifically crafted to address the problems that led to the misconduct, will accomplish that goal.
/s/ Steven L. Bossé
STEVEN L. BOSSÉ,
Chairman
Disciplinary Commission
. Rule 56(a) provides that a respondent may tender a. conditional admission of a charge in exchange for a stated form of discipline other than disbarment. Rule 53(b) further provides that when an agreement for discipline is filed prior to the issuance of a formal complaint, it shall be submitted directly to the Commission for review.
. Commissioners Bossé and Greer dissented, in the belief that the conduct warrants a more severe sanction.
|
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ORDER
This matter came before the Court on November 30,1993. After due consideration, the Court believes that the issue related to sufficiency of the evidence cannot be resolved without review of the misfiled transcripts. The Court is unable to determine whether the Court of Appeals reviewed those transcripts before ruling on the Motion for Reconsideration. Therefore,
IT IS ORDERED that the Petition for Review is granted.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that, pursuant to Rule 23(f)(2), Rules of Civil Appellate Procedure, this matter is remanded to the Court of Appeals to clarify whether it reviewed the misfiled transcripts. If the transcripts were not reviewed, the Court is instructed to reconsider its ruling in light of those transcripts.
|
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OPINION
CORCORAN, Justice.
On February 22, 1993, the Disciplinary Commission of the Supreme Court of Arizona (Commission) filed its report recommending that Steven H. Elowitz (respondent) be disbarred from the practice of law and be ordered to pay a total of $7,686.83 in restitution to 4 of his former clients. The Commission also recommended that respondent be required to pay costs and expenses that the State Bar of Arizona (State Bar) incurred in this matter. We have jurisdiction pursuant to rule 53(e), Arizona Rules of the Supreme Court.
Factual and Procedural Background
On June 28, 1991, the State Bar filed a formal complaint against respondent, initially charging him with 3 counts of violating rules 42 and 51, Arizona Rules of the Supreme Court. The State Bar later amended the complaint on 3 separate occasions, and as a result, respondent ultimately was charged with 6 counts of violating rules 42 and 51. Rather than recite the chronology of these amendments, we summarize below each of the counts charged in the third and final amended complaint.
Count I arose out of respondent’s representation of client A, who retained respondent to probate her deceased husband’s estate. Count I alleged that respondent (1) failed to diligently and competently handle the probate matter; (2) failed to communicate adequately with the client, which included misrepresenting to her the status of her case and failing to respond to her reasonable requests for information; (3) failed to safeguard adequately certain property belonging to the client and/or the estate of her deceased husband; and (4) failed to cooperate with the State Bar’s investigation into the matter.
Count II arose out of respondent’s representation of client B, who retained respondent to remove her deceased husband’s name from their joint tenancy property. Count II alleged that, after receiving a retainer from the client, respondent (1) failed to perform any of the services for which he was retained; (2) failed to return any portion of the retainer, despite his failure to perform such services; and (3) failed to cooperate with the State Bar’s investigation into the matter.
Count III arose out of respondent’s representation of clients C and D, who retained respondent to probate their deceased parents’ estates. Count III alleged that respondent (1) failed to diligently and competently handle the probate matter; (2) failed to communicate adequately with the clients; (3) failed to deal appropriately with funds received on behalf of the clients and/or the estate; (4) failed to seasonably correct substantive errors made in probate documents filed with the court; and (5) failed to cooperate with the State Bar’s investigation into the matter.
Count IV arose out of respondent’s representation of client E, who retained respondent to represent him in a DUI case. Count IV alleged that respondent (1) failed to diligently and competently represent the client; (2) failed to perform most of the services for which he was retained; (3) failed to communicate adequately with the client; (4) failed to promptly deliver the client’s file and respond to requests for information upon termination of the representation; (5) charged an unreasonable fee; (6) made factual misrepresentations in a motion filed with the court; and (7) failed to cooperate with the State Bar’s investigation into the matter.
Count V alleged that, during the course of the disciplinary proceedings, respondent made a number of misrepresentations to the State Bar. These misrepresentations included, but were not limited to, false statements that respondent allegedly made during his deposition and during telephone conversations with State Bar counsel. Furthermore, respondent allegedly failed throughout the disciplinary proceedings to comply with discovery deadlines that had been imposed either by rule or by committee order.
Count VI alleged that on more than one occasion, respondent prepared legal documents, signed the names of both his clients and his secretary on these documents, and then used his secretary’s notary seal to notarize the signatures. In doing so, respondent acted without the knowledge or permission of his clients or his secretary. When questioned about these actions at his deposition, respondent committed penury by claiming that his secretary did in fact notarize the documents. Moreover, before his secretary’s deposition, respondent advised her that his actions were not improper. Apparently induced by this advice, respondent’s secretary testified falsely that she had notarized the signatures in question.
Based on the allegations summarized above, respondent was charged with violating Ethical Rules (ER) 1.1, 1.2(a), 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.15, 1.16(d), 3.2, 3.3(a), 3.4(b), 8.1, and 8.4 of rule 42, and rules 51(h) and (i), Amona Rules of the Supreme Court.
A hearing in this matter was commenced before the State Bar Hearing Committee (Committee) on January 8, 1992. Both respondent and State Bar counsel were present at this hearing, and respondent was represented by counsel. The hearing reconvened on February 12, 1992, and it continued on February 13, 1992. Before adjourning the proceedings on February 13, the Committee granted the State Bar’s oral motion to amend the complaint. Respondent did not object to the amendment, although he requested that it be submitted in writing. The Committee rescheduled the hearing to March 2, 1992.
Respondent failed to appear at the March 2 hearing. His counsel, however, did appear and indicated that respondent wished to waive his presence for the remainder of the hearing. Moreover, because the State Bar would have no opportunity to cross-examine respondent, his counsel agreed to have all of respondent’s testimony up to that point stricken.
Respondent was placed on interim suspension on August 5, 1992. On September 8, 1992, the Committee issued its report setting forth its findings of fact, conclusions of law, and recommendations. The Committee found, by clear and convincing evidence, that respondent committed the following ethical violations under rule 42, Arizona Rules of the Supreme Court:
Regarding Count I, respondent’s conduct violated ERs 1.1, 1.3, 1.4(a) and (b), 1.15, 8.1(a), and 8.4(c);
Regarding Count II, respondent’s conduct violated ERs 1.1, 1.3, and 8.1(a); Regarding Count III, respondent’s conduct violated ERs 1.1, 1.3, 1.4(a) and (b), 1.15, and 8.4(b), (c), and (d);
Regarding Count IV, respondent’s conduct violated ERs 1.1, 1.3, and 1.5(a); Regarding Count V, respondent’s conduct violated ERs 8.1(a), and 8.4(c) and (d); Regarding Count VI, respondent’s conduct violated ERs 3.4(b), 8.1(a) and (b), and 8.4(a), (b), (c), and (d).
Additionally, as to Counts I through V, the Committee found that by failing to cooperate with the State Bar’s investigation, respondent violated ER 8.1(b), and rules 51(h) and (i).
After finding that respondent committed the ethical violations listed above, the Committee identified the aggravating and mitigating factors present in this case. Specifically, it found the following aggravating factors: dishonest or selfish motive; pattern of misconduct; multiple offenses; bad faith obstruction of the disciplinary proceeding; submission of false evidence and false statements; refusal to acknowledge the wrongful nature of the conduct; substantial experience in the practice of law; and indifference to making restitution. The Committee found only one mitigating factor—namely, respondent’s lack of a prior disciplinary record.
Based on the above findings, the Committee unanimously recommended that respondent be disbarred from the practice of law. The State Bar filed an objection to the Committee’s report because it failed to include restitution as part of the recommended sanction. Respondent, however, filed neither an objection to the report nor a response to the State Bar’s objections.
The Commission held a hearing in this matter on December 12, 1992. Although properly notified of the hearing, respondent did not appear either in person or by representative. After considering the State Bar’s argument and the record, the Commission unanimously adopted the Committee’s findings of fact, conclusions of law, and recommendation that respondent be disbarred. The Commission further recommended that respondent be ordered to pay a total of $7,686.83 in restitution to 4 of his former clients.
Discussion
A. Standard of Review
In disciplinary matters, this court acts as an independent arbiter of both the facts and the law. In re Neville, 147 Ariz. 106, 108, 708 P.2d 1297, 1299 (1985). In acting as an arbiter of the facts, we give deference and serious consideration to the findings of both the Committee and the Commission. In re Pappas, 159 Ariz. 516, 518, 768 P.2d 1161, 1168 (1988), citing Neville, 147 Ariz. at 108, 708 P.2d at 1299. Before imposing discipline, however, we must be persuaded by clear and convincing evidence that respondent committed the alleged violations. In re Kersting, 151 Ariz. 171, 172, 726 P.2d 587, 588 (1986); see also rule 54(c), Arizona Rules of the Supreme Court.
Similarly, in acting as an arbiter of the law, we give great weight to the recommendations of the Committee and Commission. In re Lincoln, 165 Ariz. 233, 235-36, 798 P.2d 371, 373-74 (1990), citing Neville, 147 Ariz. at 115, 708 P.2d at 1306. Yet, this court ultimately is responsible for determining the appropriate sanction. Lincoln, 165 Ariz. at 236, 798 P.2d at 374.
B. Respondent’s Violations
The record before us establishes by clear and convincing evidence that respondent did in fact commit the ethical violations found by the Committee and adopted by the Commission. Although respondent claims that the Commission’s recommendation of disbarment is “not based in fact or law,” he offers only his unsworn avowals as evidence of his dealings with his clients. Respondent not only waived his presence during the final stages of the hearing before the Committee, but also he agreed to have his testimony up to that point stricken. He therefore has offered nothing to controvert the evidence presented by the State Bar. In any event, even when respondent’s stricken testimony is taken into consideration, the exhibits and testimony in the record provide clear and convincing support for the Committee’s findings as set forth above.
C. Sanctions
Respondent did not object to the Committee’s report recommending that he be disbarred from the practice of law. Thus, he has in effect consented to disbarment. See rule 53(c)(5), Arizona Rules of the Supreme Court. Moreover, according to the American Bar Association’s Standards for Imposing Lawyer Sanctions (1991) {Standards), disbarment clearly is warranted in this case.
This court looks to the Standards for guidance in determining the appropriate sanction to impose in a disciplinary case. In re Morris, 164 Ariz. 391, 393, 793 P.2d 544, 546 (1990). As a starting point, the Standards provide that a court should consider the following factors: (a) the duty violated; (b) the lawyer’s mental state; (c) the actual or potential injury caused by the lawyer’s misconduct; and (d) the existence of aggravating or mitigating factors. See Standard 3.0.
Although respondent violated a number of ethical duties, including duties that he owed to the legal system, his most serious ethical violations involved duties that he owed to his clients. And, as this court has reiterated in many prior disciplinary cases, an attorney’s most important ethical duties include those obligations owed to clients. In re Galusha, 164 Ariz. 503, 504, 794 P.2d 136, 137 (1990); see also Standards, Theoretical Framework, at 5. Turning to the Standards, we note that many of respondent’s ethical violations, standing alone, warrant some period of suspension. See, e.g., Standards 4.42 flack of diligence) and 4.62 flack of candor). Others warrant disbarment. See Standard 5.11 (intentional misrepresentations). Finally, as to the aggravating and mitigating factors present in this case, we find the single mitigating factor of absence of a prior disciplinary record insufficient to offset the numerous aggravating factors. Accordingly, we agree with the Committee and the Commission that disbarment is the appropriate sanction.
D. Restitution
After adopting the findings of the Committee, the Commission further recommended that respondent be ordered to pay the following amounts in restitution: $4,086.83 to client A; $450.00 to client B; $2,000.00 to the estates of the deceased parents of clients C and D; and $1,150.00 to client E. Although respondent consented to disbarment by failing to object to the Committee’s report, by appealing from the Commission’s restitution recommendation, he thereby preserved the restitution issue for review.
Respondent objects to the Commission’s recommendation, claiming that it is “without foundation in fact or law.” Yet, respondent again offers nothing other than general assertions to controvert the evidence presented by the State Bar. We have carefully examined the record in this case, and we find that it provides ample support for the Commission’s restitution determinations. We therefore agree with the Commission’s recommendation that respondent be ordered to pay the stated amounts in restitution to his clients.
E. Other Issues
Respondent raises a number of issues for the first time on appeal to this court. Specifically, respondent contends that (1) the State Bar violated both the Rules of Civil Procedure and the Arizona Rules of the Supreme Court by amending its complaint on several occasions during the proceedings; (2) respondent was not provided an adequate opportunity to respond to the amended charges; and (3) respondent did not receive effective assistance of counsel during the proceedings. Notwithstanding the fact that respondent provides no support for his contentions, we have considered his claims and find them to be without merit.
Disposition
Respondent is disbarred and ordered to pay the following amounts in restitution: $4,086.83 to client A; $450.00 to client B; $2,000.00 to the estates of the deceased parents of clients C and D; and $1,150.00 to client E. Respondent also is ordered to pay the State Bar the amount of $6,268.25 for costs and expenses incurred in this matter.
FELDMAN, C.J., MOELLER, V.C.J., and ZLAKET and MARTONE, JJ., concur.
. We recognize that clients who seek counsel from lawyers often do so in confidence. We do not believe that such confidences should be breached just because the lawyer involved is being disciplined. We therefore use client A, client B, client C, client D, and client E instead of the clients’ actual names.
|
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OPINION
KLEINSCHMIDT, Judge.
The State of Arizona appeals from an order of the Yuma County Superior Court suppressing evidence which was seized from the defendant when he was arrested for assault. We affirm the order suppressing the evidence because the police entered a residence to apprehend the defendant without an arrest warrant when there were no exigent circumstances to excuse the need for a warrant. The arrest was illegal, and the evidence found as a result of it may not be used against the defendant.
In June of 1992, the defendant, Steven Gissendaner, and his girlfriend became involved in an argument. The defendant became upset and began to leave with their baby. His girlfriend ran after him to retrieve the child, and the defendant pushed her to the ground. As she tried to get up, he kneed her in the mouth, splitting her lip. He gave her the baby and left in his truck.
The police were called and when they arrived, the girlfriend gave them a description of the defendant and his truck. She was treated at the scene by paramedics and released without further medical attention. While the police were recording the information the victim gave them, an acquaintance of the defendant stopped by and told the police that the defendant was at a house near where he, the acquaintance, lived. One police officer left the scene of the incident and went to find the defendant. Another officer was called' to assist.
The first officer noticed defendant’s truck parked in front of a house. The front door of the house was wide open and the officer could see someone seated in a chair inside. By this time, the second officer was present and standing by. The officer, without knocking or identifying himself, stated that he needed to speak with the defendant. The man who was seated in the chair, Dennis Sorrels, who resided at the house, looked into another room of the house and said, “Hey, Steve, they want to talk to you.” The officer then immediately entered the house. As the officer approached an interior door, he peeked around it and saw the defendant sitting on a couch fumbling with a piece of clothing. The officer asked him if he was Steven Gissendaner. The defendant abruptly stood up, threw the clothing on the floor in front of him, and said that he was Steven Gissendaner. The officer moved toward him, and asked him to remain seated. The officer who had been waiting outside entered the house to assist.
Underneath the piece of clothing, the officers found a pen barrel that appeared to have been used to ingest drugs. The defendant was placed under arrest. The officers requested some identification, and the defendant told them they could find it in his wallet, which was on the coffee table. In the wallet the officers found a small bag containing methamphetamine. In a duffel bag that was located a few feet from the defendant, they also found a device used for smoking marijuana and a loaded pistol.
The defendant was charged with possession of drug paraphernalia and possession of a dangerous drug. He filed a motion to suppress the evidence of the drugs and drug paraphernalia. At the suppression hearing, the officer who first entered the house testified that “based upon what I had seen at the [girlfriend’s] residence, based upon [her] appearance, I felt that there was sufficient reason that Mr. Gissendaner were [sic] going to be charged with aggravated assault and I felt that for officer safety purposes, if he were [sic] there an arrest needed to be made as soon as possible, and that I should use my best officer safety technique.” On cross-examination, the officer admitted that no one ever gave him consent to enter the residence. The trial court granted the motion to suppress, and the state appealed.
THERE WERE NO EXIGENT CIRCUMSTANCES PERMITTING THE ENTRY OF THE HOUSE WITHOUT AN ARREST WARRANT
A warrantless entry into a dwelling to effect an arrest is per se unreasonable unless there are exigent circumstances requiring police to act before a warrant can be obtained. State v. Love, 123 Ariz. 157, 159, 598 P.2d 976, 978 (1979). The Arizona Supreme Court has recognized the following as exigent circumstances: (1) response to an emergency, (2) hot pursuit, (3) probability of destruction of evidence, (4) the possibility of violence, (5) knowledge that a suspect is fleeing or attempting to flee, and (6) a substantial risk of harm to the persons involved or to the law enforcement process if police must wait for a warrant. State v. Greene, 162 Ariz. 431, 784 P.2d 257 (1989); State v. White, 160 Ariz. 24, 32-33, 770 P.2d 328, 336-37 (1989).
The state’s principal argument is that the officer’s concern for his own safety and the safety of others was an exigent circumstance justifying entry into the residence. In support of its argument, the state cites several cases involving police who were responding to domestic violence calls. In Greene, our supreme court noted that domestic violence situations are often dangerous because the possibility for physical harm or violence escalates rapidly. 162 Ariz. at 433, 784 P.2d at 259. The court also stated that the call itself creates a sufficient indication that an emergency exists to allow an officer to enter a dwelling if no circumstance indicates that entry is unnecessary. Id.; see also State v. Tassler, 159 Ariz. 183, 765 P.2d 1007 (App. 1989) (in responding to call of spousal assault, officers must have freedom to prevent further abuse; act of calling police was likely to further enrage the assailant).
The present case is distinguishable from cases like Tassler where the police were justified in entering homes without a warrant to prevent a continuing assault. Here, the defendant’s assault on his girlfriend was over before the police were even called, and although the record is not clear about the lapse of time and the span of distance between the assault and the arrest, the defendant and the victim were not in close proximity. It is obvious that there was no real danger that the assault was about to resume.
There were no other exigent circumstances. The police easily discovered the defendant’s whereabouts, and there is no serious suggestion that the defendant was going to flee the vicinity as a result of a relatively minor incident. The police had no indication that the defendant was armed, and, as the trial judge suggested, the officers could have placed the house under surveillance whole an arrest warrant was obtained, or they could have simply asked the homeowner, Sorrels, for permission to enter.
The state argued in the trial court that the entry was justified because the police were in hot pursuit of the defendant when they entered the house. It has not reurged this argument on appeal and has therefore abandoned it, State v. Rodriguez, 160 Ariz. 381, 384, 773 P.2d 486, 489 (1989), as well it might. See State v. Cook, 115 Ariz. 188, 564 P.2d 877 (1977) (no hot pursuit where officers did not witness crime, there was no indication that the suspect was armed, there was no indication, of how fresh the flight was, and two officers were present so residence could have been secured while warrant was obtained).
THE DEFENDANT HAD A REASONABLE EXPECTATION OF PRIVACY IN THE RESIDENCE
The state also argues that the evidence should not have been suppressed because the officers did not enter the defendant’s own home. The only authority cited by the state for this proposition is article 2, section 8 of the Arizona Constitution, which says that “No person shall be disturbed in his private affairs, or his home invaded, without authority of law.” (Emphasis added.)
The United States Supreme Court has held that status as an overnight guest is enough for the guest to show a reasonable expectation of privacy in the home invaded. Minnesota v. Olson, 495 U.S. 91, 110 S.Ct. 1684, 109 L.Ed.2d 85 (1990). The record is not clear, but Sorrels either owned or rented the home. The defendant had some extra clothes with him at the time of the arrest, and he testified that he intended to stay the night with Sorrels. He also said that he had stayed there previously. At the suppression hearing, the state conceded that the defendant had standing to challenge the legality of the search. As an overnight guest, the defendant had a legitimate expectation of privacy in Sorrels’ house which was protected by both the United States Constitution and by article 2, section 8 of the Arizona Constitution.
CONCLUSION
We affirm the order of the superior court suppressing the evidence seized from the residence where the defendant was arrested. The case is remanded to the superior court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
CLABORNE, P.J., and NOYES, J., concur.
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OPINION
ZLAKET, Justice.
The court of appeals, with one judge dissenting, held that the trial court abused its discretion in granting defendant’s motion to suppress. State v. Evans, 172 Ariz. 314, 836 P.2d 1024 (Ct.App.1992). We disagree and vacate the appellate court’s opinion.
Defendant was stopped for a traffic violation on January 5,1991. At the time, he had a suspended driver’s license. Neither of these offenses, however, precipitated his eventual arrest. The police officer testified at the suppression hearing that he would not have placed defendant under arrest if a computerized records check had not indicated the existence of an outstanding misdemeanor arrest warrant in his name.
While making the arrest, the officer found part of a marijuana cigarette on defendant’s person. A subsequent search of his vehicle revealed a bag of marijuana hidden under the passenger seat. Defendant was charged with possession, a class 6 felony.
The computerized record was in error. In fact, the arrest warrant had been quashed by the issuing justice court several weeks earlier. For some reason, it was not expunged from the computer. At the suppression hearing, there was conflicting evidence concerning whether this mistake was caused by the court staff or law enforcement employees. The trial court apparently concluded that it made little difference who was at fault. Relying on State v. Greene, 162 Ariz. 383, 783 P.2d 829 (Ct.App.1989), which applied the exclusionary rule where police personnel were negligent in maintaining computer records, the judge granted defendant’s motion to suppress the evidence seized during the arrest. Thereafter, the state dismissed the charges without prejudice and brought this appeal.
The court of . appeals ruled that the evidence should not have been suppressed. The majority concluded that Greene did not apply because the mistake here, more probably than not, was made by justice court employees instead of law enforcement personnel. The appeals court relied primarily on Michigan v. Tucker, 417 U.S. 433, 94 S.Ct. 2357, 41 L.Ed.2d 182 (1974) and United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897, 104 S.Ct. 3430, 82 L.Ed.2d 677 (1984) in holding that “the exclusionary rule is intended to deter police misconduct and not to punish errors of judges and magistrates,” and therefore should not have been utilized in this case. 172 Ariz. at 317, 836 P.2d at 1027.
We do not agree that the trial court abused its discretion under the facts present ed. We are unable to follow the lead of the court of appeals in dismissing conflicting inferences raised by evidence on the issue of whether fault rested with the justice court, the police, or both. See id. at 316 n. 1, 836 P.2d at 1026 n. 1. Testimony at the suppression hearing failed to clearly establish whether a telephone call from the court to the police, advising that the warrant had been quashed, was made but not entered in the record, or was never made at all. The trial judge was concerned about this gap in the proof, as evidenced by his questions during the hearing. He ultimately made no express finding with respect to responsibility for the error, apparently concluding that it did not matter. But even assuming, as did the appellate court majority, that responsibility for the error rested with the justice court, it does not follow that the exclusionary rule should be inapplicable to these facts.
Tucker is of little value here. In that case, the court was dealing with alleged violations of the 5th, 6th and 14th amendments arising from the failure of police to have given “Miranda warnings” as part of an interrogation that antedated the decision in Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966).
Lem is also not helpftd. There, officers obtained evidence on the basis of a facially valid search warrant issued by a neutral magistrate. The warrant was later held invalid because it had been issued on an insufficient showing of probable cause. Such a situation is distinguishable from one like this, where no warrant at all was in existence at the time of the arrest. See State v. Peterson, 171 Ariz. 333, 830 P.2d 854 (Ct.App.1991), cert. denied, — U.S.-, 113 S.Ct. 465, 121 L.Ed.2d 373 (1992); see also 1 Wayne R. LaFave, Search and Seizure § 1.3(g) at 77 (1986). This warrantless arrest, based entirely as it was on an erroneous computer entry, was plainly illegal.
The state argues that the police could have arrested defendant for various traffic violations, and this inevitably would have resulted in the discovery of the contraband. The record clearly establishes, however, that no arrest would have occurred in the absence of the flawed computer record. At most, defendant would have received a traffic citation.
The “good faith” analysis advanced by the state is of questionable application here. This case is not about the motives of the police. The fact that the arresting officer acted in good faith is irrelevant. 2 Wayne R. LaFave, Search and Seizure § 3.5(d) at 24 (1986); see also People v. Fields, 785 P.2d 611 (Colo.1990). The arrest was not the result of “a reasonable judgmental error” concerning facts which might constitute probable cause. A.R.S. § 13-3925(C)(1). It was the result of negligent record keeping. Whether the erroneous computer record was the fault of police or justice court personnel should be of no consequence even though, as we have noted, evidence on this point was by no means as clear as the state now suggests.
This is also not a case involving a mere “technical violation.” A.R.S. § 13-3925(C)(2). Defendant was arrested on the basis of a nonexistent warrant, not one that was “later invalidated due to a good faith mistake.” Id. See also United States v. Whiting, 781 F.2d 692 (9th Cir.1986) (summarily rejecting extension of Lem’s good faith exception to warrantless searches).
We cannot support the distinction drawn by the court of appeals and the dissent between clerical errors committed by law enforcement personnel and similar mistakes by court employees. We are concerned here with the performance of purely ministerial functions, not the exercise of judicial discretion. While it may be inappropriate to invoke the exclusionary rule where a magistrate has issued a facially valid warrant (a discretionary judicial function) based on an erroneous evaluation of the facts, the law, or both, Leon, 468 U.S. 897, 104 S.Ct. 3430, 82 L.Ed.2d 677 (1984), it is useful and proper to do so where negligent record keeping (a purely clerical function) results in an unlawful arrest. Such an application will hopefully serve to improve the efficiency of those who keep records in our criminal justice system.
The dissent laments the “high costs” of the exclusionary rule, and suggests that its application here is “purposeless” and provides “no offsetting benefits.” Such an assertion ignores the fact that arrest warrants result in a denial of human liberty, and are therefore among the most important of legal documents. It is repugnant to the principles of a free society that a person should ever be taken into police custody because of a computer error precipitated by government carelessness. As automation increasingly invades modern life, the potential for Orwellian mischief grows. Under such circumstances, the exclusionary rule is a “cost” we cannot afford to be without.
Even assuming that deterrence is the principal reason for application of the exclusionary rule, we disagree with the court of appeals that such a purpose would not be served where carelessness by a court clerk results in an unlawful arrest. It also seems to us an anomalous rule, indeed, that would prohibit the use of evidence illegally seized pursuant to the clerical error of a police department clerk, but would permit it if the same mistake was made instead by a court clerk.
We hold that the trial judge did not abuse his discretion, and we vacate the court of appeals’ opinion.
FELDMAN, C.J., MOELLER, V.C.J., and CORCORAN, J., concur.
. It is unnecessary to analyze here the purposes to be served by the exclusionary rule. We note only that deterrence of police misconduct is but one of the reasons that have been advanced in support of its use. See, e.g., Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 655, 81 S.Ct. 1684, 1691, 6 L.Ed.2d 1081 (1961); Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383, 392, 34 S.Ct. 341, 344, 58 L.Ed. 652 (1914).
. In fact, the evidence suggests that this cost is insubstantial. As one commentator notes, "[t]o date, the most careful and balanced assessment of all available empirical data shows ‘that the general level of the rule’s effects on criminal prosecutions is marginal at most.’ " 1 Wayne R. LaFave, Search and Seizure § 1.3(c) at 52 (1986) (quoting T. Davies, A Hard Look at What We Know (and Still Need to Learn) About the “Costs” of the Exclusionary Rule: The NIJ Study and Other Studies of “Lost” Arrests, 1983 Am.B.Found.Research J. 611, 622); see also Peter F. Nardulli, The Societal Cost of the Exclusionary Rule: An Empirical Assessment, 1983 Am.B.Found.Research J. 585, 606-07; Peter F. Nardulli, The Societal Costs of the Exclusionary Rule Revisited, 1987 U.Ill.L.Rev. 223, 238-39.
|
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OPINION
MOELLER, Vice Chief Justice.
STATEMENT OF THE CASE
Farmers Insurance Company of Arizona (“Farmers”) and Continental Casualty Company (“Continental”) ask this court to review a court of appeals’ opinion holding that injuries suffered during a car-to-car shooting “arose out of the use” of an uninsured motor vehicle. Ruiz v. Farmers Ins. Co., 174 Ariz. 66, 847 P.2d 111 (App.1992). The trial court granted summary judgment in favor of the defendants, Farmers and Continental, but the court of appeals reversed. 174 Ariz. at 71, 847 P.2d at 116. Because we hold that the plaintiffs injuries did not “arise out of the ownership, maintenance or use” of an uninsured vehicle, we affirm the trial court’s judgment and vacate the court of appeals’ opinion. We have jurisdiction pursuant to Ariz. Const, art. 6, § 5(3) and A.R.S. § 12-120.24.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
On June 2,1989, Angela Ruiz (“Ruiz”) was a passenger in a vehicle owned by William Ihrig (“Ihrig”) and operated by Paul Garcia. A Dodge vehicle, traveling along the same Phoenix street, pursued Ihrig’s car and maneuvered alongside it. A passenger in the Dodge fired several shotgun blasts into Ihrig’s car, injuring Ruiz.
The Dodge was uninsured at the time of the shooting. Ruiz was an insured under two policies providing uninsured motorist coverage: one issued to Ihrig by Farmers and another issued to Ruiz’ parents by Continental. The Farmers policy provided uninsured motorist coverage as follows:
[Farmers] will pay damages for bodily injury which an insured person is legally entitled to recover from the owner or operator of an uninsured motor vehicle. The bodily injury must be caused by accident and arise out of the ownership, maintenance or use of the uninsured motor vehicle.
(Emphasis added.) The Continental policy contained similar language.
In the trial court, Ruiz sought a declaratory judgment that she was entitled to uninsured motorist coverage under both policies. The insurers moved for summary judgment, arguing that, as a matter of law, the incident did not “arise out of the ownership, maintenance or use” of the uninsured Dodge vehicle. The trial court agreed and granted summary judgment in favor of Farmers and Continental.
The court of appeals reversed. Ruiz, 174 Ariz. at 71, 847 P.2d at 116. Finding no Arizona case dispositive, the court looked to other jurisdictions for guidance. The court found the analysis of Continental W. Ins. Co. v. Klug, 415 N.W.2d 876 (Minn.1987) particularly persuasive. Using the three-step analysis set out in Klug, the court held there was a sufficient causal connection between Ruiz’ injuries and use of the Dodge vehicle. Specifically, the court held Ruiz’ injuries arose out of the use of the Dodge because the vehicle was used to pursue Ihrig’s car and maneuver the gunman into position. We granted defendants’ joint petition for review.
ISSUE
Whether an injury sustained as the result of a shotgun blast fired from an uninsured motor vehicle is bodily injury that “arises out of the use” of the uninsured motor vehicle within the meaning of the policy language or AR.S. § 20-259.01(A).
DISCUSSION
On several occasions Arizona courts have considered the general issue of when an injury arises out of the ownership, maintenance or use of a vehicle. Mazon v. Farmers Ins. Exch, 107 Ariz. 601, 491 P.2d 455 (1971); Morari v. Atlantic Mut. Fire Ins. Co., 105 Ariz. 537, 468 P.2d 564 (1970); Love v. Farmers Ins. Group, 121 Ariz. 71, 588 P.2d 364 (App.1978); Vanguard Ins. Co. v. Cantrell, 18 Ariz.App. 486, 503 P.2d 962 (1972); Brenner v. Aetna Ins. Co., 8 Ariz.App. 272, 445 P.2d 474 (1968). These cases all provide that there must be a causal relationship between an injury and the ownership, maintenance or use of a motor vehicle. See, e.g., Love, 121 Ariz. at 74, 588 P.2d at 367; Brenner, 8 Ariz.App. at 276, 445 P.2d at 478. An analysis of these cases supports a holding that there is an insufficient causal nexus between Ruiz’ injuries and the use of the uninsured vehicle.
Most analogous to the fact pattern here is Mazon. 107 Ariz. 601, 491 P.2d 455. In Mazon, a driver was injured when a stone, thrown from another vehicle, struck him in the eye. In holding there was no uninsured motorist coverage, we held there was “no causal relationship between an injury resulting from a stone thrown by an unknown person from an unidentifiable vehicle, and the ownership, maintenance or use of that vehicle.” Mazon, 107 Ariz. at 603, 491 P.2d at 457 (emphasis added). So, too, should the analysis be when the injury is caused by a shotgun pellet. We see no distinguishable difference between a hurled rock and a fired shotgun pellet.
Ruiz urges us to distinguish Mazon because of the greater involvement of the present assailant’s vehicle (i.e. by pursuing and maneuvering) and the driver’s apparent awareness of the impending assault. Whether similar facts existed in Mazon is immate rial to the analysis. In Mazon, there was no coverage because the injury was caused by the stone; here there is no coverage because the injury was caused by the shotgun pellets. What injured Ruiz was how the shotgun was used, not how the car was used. The use of the uninsured vehicle was incidental.
Other Arizona cases confronting the issue of when an injury arises out of the use of a vehicle are in accord. It is not enough that Ruiz was injured by someone “using” a motor vehicle. Cantrell, 18 ArizApp. at 488, 503 P.2d at 964 (injuries suffered by drive-thru liquor attendant shot when customer fired at him from his car during robbery did not arise out of the use of the vehicle); Brenner, 8 Ariz.App. at 276, 445 P.2d at 479 (injuries suffered by passenger shot when gun held by another passenger accidently fired did not “arise out of the use” of the uninsured vehicle—car was mere situs of injury). Nor is it enough that Ruiz was injured while she herself was “úsing” a motor vehicle. Love, 121 Ariz. at 74, 588 P.2d at 367 (noting that the “attack could have occurred outside the car as easily as inside the car”). To recover, Ruiz needed to show that the uninsured vehicle caused and produced her injury, not that it merely facilitated her injury. She did not make this showing.
Morari is inapposite to these facts. In Morari, a passenger was injured on a hunting trip when-a gun being unloaded from a vehicle accidently fired. We held the injury did arise out of the use of the vehicle. 105 Ariz. at 540, 468 P.2d at 567. We noted, however, that the insurance policy in Morari defined “use” as including “the loading and unloading thereof’ and that the accident occurred while the vehicle was being unloaded. This is not a loading and unloading case; the analysis of Morari, therefore, does not apply to these facts.
The better reasoned cases from other jurisdictions support our analysis. See, e.g., Taylor v. Phoenix Ins. Co., 622 So.2d 506, 509 (Fla.App.1993) (drive-by shooting was “an act unrelated to use of a motor vehicle”); Kessler v. Arnica Mut. Ins. Co., 573 So.2d 476, 479 (La.1991) (“A common-sense analysis reveals that ... [t]he conduct of the motorist in shooting a gun toward the plaintiff was the legal cause of plaintiffs injuries”); Coleman v. Sanford, 521 So.2d 876, 877 (Miss.1988) (vehicle’s use in a drive-by shooting was “incidental” to the assault); Worldwide Underwriters Ins. Co. v. Jackson, 121 Or.App. 292, 855 P.2d 166, 168 (1993) (injury in drive-by shooting “was directly caused by some act wholly disassociated from and independent of the vehicle’s use”). We find the analyses of these cases persuasive.
To the contrary, we find unpersuasive the analyses of other jurisdictions finding a sufficient causal connection in similar situations. See, e.g., State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co. v. Davis, 937 F.2d 1415 (9th Cir.1991) (applying California law); Cung La v. State Farm Auto. Ins. Co., 830 P.2d 1007 (Colo.1992); Ganiron v. Hawaii Ins. Guar. Ass’n, 69 Haw. 432, 744 P.2d 1210 (1987); Continental W. Ins. Co. v. Klug, 415 N.W.2d 876 (Minn. 1987); Wausau Underwriters Ins. Co. v. Howser, 422 S.E.2d 106 (S.C.1992). The logic of these opinions leads to finding uninsured motorist coverage in cases where motor vehicles are used—sometimes only tangentially—merely to assist in crimes causing bodily injuries. This would vastly expand uninsured motorist coverage beyond what the legislature surely intended, namely to indemnify drivers from accidents involving negligent, financially irresponsible drivers. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co. v. Wilson, 162 Ariz. 251, 254, 782 P.2d 727, 730 (1989).
Injuries such as those suffered by Ruiz do not fall within the scope of uninsured motorist coverage as defined in the policies at issue. Nor is coverage required by the uninsured motorist statute, AR.S. § 20-259.-01(A). Ruiz’ injuries did not “arise out of the use” of an uninsured motor vehicle; they arose out of—and were caused by—the independent, voluntary, and deliberate acts of a criminal using an uninsured vehicle not as a car, but as a gun platform. We agree with one Florida court that “arising out of the ownership, maintenance or use” means something more than “while using.” Taylor, 622 So.2d at 509. We caution, however, that our opinion should not be read so as to preclude uninsured motorist coverage merely because a crime is implicated. The fundamental question is whether the use of the vehicle was itself the cause of the injury.
DISPOSITION
Ruiz’ injuries did not arise out of the ownership, maintenance or use of an uninsured vehicle. The trial court correctly granted defendants’ motions for summary judgment. Accordingly, we affirm the trial court and vacate the opinion of the court of appeals.
FELDMAN, C.J., and CORCORAN, ZLAKET and MARTONE, JJ., concur.
. Such coverage was required by A.R.S. § 20-259.01(A) prior to its amendment effective December 28, 1993: No automobile liability or motor vehicle liability policy insuring against loss resulting from liability imposed by law for bodily injury or death suffered by any person arising out of the ownership, maintenance or use of a motor vehicle shall be delivered or issued for delivery ... unless coverage is provided in the policy ... for the protection of persons insured who are legally entitled to recover damages from owners or operators of uninsured motor vehi cles because of bodily injury, sickness or disease, including death, resulting therefrom.
. This is not to say that these facts were not present in the Mazon case. Mazon did not mention whether the vehicle was used to assist in the attack or whether the driver even knew of the stone throwing.
. We have previously held that the purpose of the uninsured motorist statute is to ensure "that every insured is entitled to recover damages he or she would have been able to recover if the offending motorist had maintained a policy of liability insurance in a solvent company.” Transportation Ins. Co. v. Wade, 106 Ariz. 269, 273, 475 P.2d 253, 257 (1970) (quoting Stephens v. Allied Mut. Ins. Co., 182 Neb. 562, 156 N.W.2d 133 (1968)). Thus, A.R.S. § 20-259.01(A) requires that a plaintiffs bodily injury "arise out of the ownership, maintenance or use” of an uninsured motor vehicle. See, e.g., Love, 121 Ariz. at 74, 588 P.2d at 367 (finding no uninsured motorist coverage under the statute "because the decedent’s death did not arise from the ownership, maintenance or use of the car”).
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OPINION
FIDEL, Chief Judge.
We hold in this opinion that probation can be revoked when a probationer violates a probationary condition that was not presented in writing if the probationer admits in a revocation hearing that he received actual notice of the condition.
In January 1991, Ronald A. Robinson (“defendant”) received concurrent terms of probation in the three underlying cases after pleading guilty to criminal damage, resisting arrest, and burglary in the second degree. The trial court included among the standard written conditions of each probation that defendant “[pjarticipate and cooperate in and successfully complete any program of assistance, counseling or therapy, whether outpatient or residential, as directed by the probation officer.”
In March 1992, defendant’s probation officer petitioned in each case to revoke defendant’s probation. Defendant was given a hearing and, after being fully informed of his rights and of the consequences of admission, made the following admission:
The Court: Very well. It is alleged in the petition to revoke that you did violate Term 3 of your probation when you failed to participate, cooperate in and successfully complete DOVE, D-O-V-E, program as directed by the supervising probation officer. Do you admit or deny that allegation? The Defendant: Admit.
The Court: Were you directed by your probation officer to participate in, cooperate and successfully complete that program?
The Defendant: Yes, sir.
The Court: Did you fail to do so?
The Defendant: Yes, sir.
The Court: What happened? Did you walk away from it, stop going, or what? The Defendant: No. I never—she told me—told me to report, and I never went. The Court: That was your choice at some point. Whatever reasons, you chose not to go?
The Defendant: Yes.
The trial court accepted defendant’s admission, found that he had violated probation, and ultimately reinstated probation in each case, though adding a ninety-day jail term.
Defendant now appeals, arguing that, absent evidence that the probation officer had directed him in writing to participate in D.O.V.E., the trial court erred by finding that he violated probation by failing to do so. Defendant relies on Rule 27.7(c)(2) of the Arizona Rules of Criminal Procedure and the opinion of this court in State v. Jones, 163 Ariz. 498, 788 P.2d 1249 (App.1990).
Rule 27.7(c)(2) provides: “Probation shall not be revoked for violation of a condition or regulation of which the probationer has not received a written copy.” The purposes of this requirement are to reduce evidentiary disputes over what probationers were told and to protect probationers against probation officers’ arbitrary acts. See State v. Heasley, 23 Ariz.App. 345, 347, 533 P.2d 556, 558 (1975). Both purposes are fully met when, as here, the probationer, fully informed of the consequences of admission, voluntarily admits in open court that he was notified of the condition that he violated. Accordingly, because the purposes of Rule 27.7(c)(2) were met and because the failure to give defendant written directions caused him no prejudice, we find no cause for reversal in this case. See Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. (“AR.S.”) § 13-3987 (1989).
We acknowledge that Jones can be interpreted to require a contrary result. There, in the absence of a written directive by the probation officer to participate in a specific counseling program, we interpreted Rule 27.-7(c)(2) to preclude finding that the probationer had violated probation by failing to successfully complete the program. In Jones, however, the issue of admitted notice does not appear to have been presented and was not considered by the court. Nor was admitted notice an issue in the three cases cited in Jones. See State v. Watkins, 125 Ariz. 570, 611 P.2d 923 (1980); State v. Carvajal, 147 Ariz. 307, 709 P.2d 1366 (App.1985); State v. Heasley, 23 Ariz.App. at 347, 533 P.2d at 558. In this case, we find that issue determinative, and we reject any contrary implication in Jones.
We add that compliance with Rule 27.7(e)(2) is not just the better practice, it is the required practice. Neither judges nor probation officers are free to ignore the rule. The state has the burden of proving written notice; and, unless the probationer admits notice, revocation cannot be predicated upon a violation of a specific condition of probation that has not been given to the probationer in writing. Here, however, because defendant admitted notice in the revocation hearing, we find no basis to reverse.
The court, pursuant to A.R.S. section 13-4035 (1989), has reviewed the record for fundamental error and found none. The trial court’s judgments in these consolidated cases are affirmed.
TOCI, P.J., and CLABORNE, J., concur.
|
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OPINION
LANKFORD, Judge.
This appeal presents the following issues:
1. Did the Maricopa County Employee Merit System Rules bar Appellee Michael L. Patterson, an employee of Appellant Maricopa County Sheriff’s Office, from a candidacy for municipal office?
2. Is Maricopa County Employee Merit System Rule 20 unconstitutional?
We hold that because the office was unpaid and nonpartisan, the County rules did not prevent Patterson from both being a candidate for the position and continuing in his county job. As a result, we need not reach the constitutional question.
Patterson was employed by the Sheriff’s Office as a detention officer. In January 1989, Patterson filed nominating petitions for the position of Cave Creek Town Council representative, an unpaid and nonpartisan position.
Patterson’s employment was governed by the Maricopa County Employee Merit System Rules (“the Rules”). Section 20 of the Rules provides in part:
B. No employee shall be a member of any national, state or local committee of a political party, or an officer or chairman of a committee of a partisan political club, or a candidate for nomination or election to any paid public office, or shall take any part in the management or affairs of any political party or in any political campaign, except that any employee may express opinions, attend meetings for the purpose of becoming informed concerning the candidate for public office and the political issues and cast a vote.
C. The provisions of this section shall not apply to school board elections or junior college district governing board elections, and an employee or commissioner may serve as a member of the board of trustees of a common or high school district or as a member of the junior college district governing board.
D. Any person in the county service who violates any of the provisions of this section shall be subject to suspension of not less than thirty days or dismissal.
Prior to the Cave Creek general election, the Sheriff’s Office learned of Patterson’s candidacy and conducted an investigation to determine whether it violated the Rules proscribing political activity. The investigators concluded that Patterson was not violating Rule 20B because the position he sought was unpaid and nonpartisan. However, the Director of Detention and a Deputy Chief disagreed with this conclusion, as did Appellant Sheriff Agnos and the Maricopa County Attorney’s Office.
Patterson was elected in May 1989 to the Cave Creek Town Council. Shortly thereafter, Agnos informed Patterson by letter of Agnos’ intent to terminate Patterson’s employment for engaging in improper political activity in violation of the Rules. The letter asserted that Patterson not only violated the Rules by serving as a town council representative but created a potential conflict of interest because the Sheriffs Office had contracted with the Town of Cave Creek to provide law enforcement service.
At Patterson’s request, a pre-termination meeting was held. Agnos advised Patterson that if he would resign his elected position on the town council, the Sheriffs Office would not terminate his employment.
Patterson did not resign, and by letter dated June 28, 1989, Agnos terminated Patterson’s employment with the Sheriffs Office. Agnos cited the legal causes for dismissal as violation of Rule 17(c)(13) (“improper political activity”) and Rule 20B (“participation in political campaign”). Rule 17C provides: “An appointing authority may remove any employee with permanent status only for cause. Each of the following constitutes cause for discipline or dismissal of an employee in the county service: ... 13. Improper political activity.” Rule 20 defines political activity.
Patterson appealed his dismissal to the Maricopa County Employee Merit System Commission, which denied his appeal. He subsequently filed a superior court action challenging the Commission’s order. He sought reinstatement to his former job, back wages and other benefits, damages under 42 U.S.C. section 1983 and a declaratory judgment that Rule 20B was unconstitutional under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution and Article 2, section 6 of the Arizona Constitution.
Patterson filed a motion for partial summary judgment on liability and appellants (“the County”) filed a response and cross-motion for summary judgment. The trial court granted Patterson’s motion and denied the County’s cross-motion. The court resolved the motions by referring to Rule 20B without resolving the underlying constitutional issues. The court stated:
In this case, the word “paid” in line 3 of Section 20B would have no meaning if the defendants’ theory of the case prevailed. We must assume that the legislature intended the word to have some meaning or else it would not have been used. In addition, where a statute is plain on its face, it would be inappropriate to refer to legislative history to alter the plain and literal meaning of its words.
The County filed a timely notice of appeal from the judgment in favor of Patterson.
The facts in this matter are not in dispute. The only issue is the proper interpretation of Rule 20B. The interpretation of a statute or rule involves legal rather than factual questions; thus, we are not bound by the trial court’s construction of the rule, and we consider de novo the rule and its application to the facts before us. See Hampton v. Glendale Union High Sch. Dist., 172 Ariz. 431, 433, 837 P.2d 1166, 1168 (App.1992) (interpreting statute); Libra Group, Inc. v. State, 167 Ariz. 176, 179, 805 P.2d 409, 412 (App.1991) (interpreting statutes and regulations).
We look first to the language of the rule. Rule 20B provides in relevant part that “[n]o employee shall be ... a candidate for nomination or election to any paid public office, or shall take part in the management or affairs of any political party or in any political campaign ...” (Emphasis added).
This rule can be read in three ways: (1) Because an employee may not take part in any campaign, he may not be a candidate for any office involving a campaign; (2) An employee may be a candidate for an unpaid position, but he may not participate in his own campaign; or (3) An employee may be a candidate for unpaid office and he may take part in his own campaign. We believe that the third reading of the rule is correct. Thus, the rule allowed Patterson to campaign as a candidate for the town council.
The first interpretation of the rule would make the prohibition against running for a paid public office meaningless. If a county employee cannot campaign as a candidate for any office, paid or unpaid, then the ban on candidacy for a paid office would be superfluous. In construing a statute or rule, we presume that the promulgating body did not intend to do a futile act by including a provision that is not operative or that is inert and trivial. See Campbell v. Superior Ct., 105 Ariz. 252, 255, 462 P.2d 801, 804 (1969) (construing statute). We must give each word, phrase, clause and sentence meaning so that no part of the rule is rendered superfluous, void, insignificant, redundant or contradictory. See State v. Superior Ct., 113 Ariz. 248, 249, 550 P.2d 626, 627 (1976); Maricopa County v. Arizona Tax Ct., 162 Ariz. 64, 68, 781 P.2d 41, 45 (App.1989) (construing statutes). We therefore reject an interpretation of the rule which prohibits employees from participating in their own campaigns because that construction would render an important clause of the rule nugatory. The second alternative would allow an employee to be a candidate for unpaid office, but prohibit participation in the employee’s own campaign. We reject an interpretation that limits employees to such “passive” candidacies. An integral part of candidacy for public office is the waging of a campaign to be elected. It is through campaigns—speeches, brochures, voter canvassing—that the electorate is informed of the qualifications and views of a candidate. Disallowing campaign activity not only places the candidate at an acute disadvantage, but disserves the public as well. Moreover, the County has never offered any persuasive policy reason for distinguishing passive and active candidacies. It would not be a sensible construction of the rule to allow an employee to be a candidate, but disallow his participation in the attendant campaign for election. “Statutes must be given a sensible construction which will avoid absurd results.” Lake Havasu City v. Mohave County, 138 Ariz. 552, 557, 675 P.2d 1371, 1376 (App.1983) (citing School Dist. No. 3 of Maricopa County v. Dailey, 106 Ariz. 124, 471 P.2d 736 (1970) and St. Joseph’s Hosp. and Medical Ctr. v. Maricopa County, 130 Ariz. 239, 635 P.2d 527 (App.1981)).
We embrace the third interpretation as the most reasonable reading of Rule 20. That interpretation allows an employee to both stand for an unpaid office and campaign for that office. Other jurisdictions have considered similar provisions and have concluded, as we do, that limits on employee participation in campaigns do not control provisions regarding candidacies of the employees themselves.
In Magill v. Lynch, 560 F.2d 22 (1st Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 1063, 98 S.Ct. 1236, 55 L.Ed.2d 763 (1978), one provision of a city charter banned both partisan and nonpartisan candidacies while another prohibited employees from taking part in political campaigns. The court believed that “[i]n the light of the more specific prohibition of candidacy, ... we doubt that this provision [banning campaigning] was meant to cover candidates.” 560 F.2d at 29 n. 6; see also Mancuso v. Taft, 476 F.2d 187, 189 n. 1. (1st Cir. 1973) (subsection of city charter banning city employees from taking part in any political campaign did not apply to employee candidates in light of broader subsection prohibiting city employees from candidacies for nomination or election to any public office).
We agree with this reasoning. The only way to honor the language of both provisions in Rule 20B is to conclude that they cover separate matters: the first clause applies when the employee is a candidate, and the second governs employee involvement in the campaigns of others. Because Rule 20B does not prohibit employees from running for unpaid office, Patterson’s candidacy for the town council did not violate the ban on campaign activity.
The Rule 20C exemption of school board and junior college governing board elections does not alter our analysis. This clause exempts such elections from all of the proscriptions of Rule 20. Thus, public employees may participate in the campaigns of others for such offices, and may themselves stand as candidates regardless of whether these offices are paid or unpaid. Rule 20C therefore is consistent with the remainder of the rule as we have interpreted it.
Moreover, the exemption of school board and junior college governing board elections is consistent with the policy behind the rule: the avoidance of public employee entanglement in partisan political activities. This exemption may be an attempt to provide a non-exclusive example of allowable nonpartisan political activity. In interpreting the federal Hatch Act, the Fourth Circuit stated that:
[T]he legislative design of 5 U.S.C. § 1503 ... permits state employees subject to the [Hatch] Act to engage in nonpartisan political activity, and even to run for elective offices provided those offices and activities are strictly local in nature and completely unrelated to issues and candidates that are identified with national or state political parties. The prime example of such a permissible activity might be running for a nonpartisan local school board.
Northern Virginia Regional Park Auth. v. United States Civil Serv. Comm’n, 437 F.2d 1346, 1352 (4th Cir.), cert. denied 403 U.S. 936, 91 S.Ct. 2254, 29 L.Ed.2d 717 (1971). Because abstract line-drawing between partisan and nonpartisan activity is difficult, see OpAriz., Att’y Gen. 183-134 at 5, the framers of the Rules may have provided this exemption as such an example of an obvious instance of nonpartisan political activity.
Our interpretation of the various parts of Ride 20 not only results in a harmonious whole but appears to best serve its purposes. “The cardinal rule of statutory interpretation is to determine and give effect to the legislative intent behind the statute.” Calvert v. Farmers Ins. Co. of Arizona, 144 Ariz. 291, 294, 697 P.2d 684, 687 (1985) (citing Phoenix Title & Trust Co. v. Burns, 96 Ariz. 332, 395 P.2d 532 (1964) and Payne v. Knox, 94 Ariz. 380, 385 P.2d 514 (1963)). In determining legislative purpose, we look to the policy behind an enactment and the problem it was designed to remedy. Calvert, 144 Ariz. at 294, 697 P.2d at 687. We will also examine “the words, context, subject matter, and effects and consequences of the statute.” Id. (citing State ex rel. Flournoy v. Mangum, 113 Ariz. 151, 548 P.2d 1148 (1976)).
According to the United States Supreme Court, limitations on political activity serve at least four interests: (1) They enable government employees to enforce the law and execute government programs without bias or favoritism for or against any political party or group; (2) They instill public confidence in government by avoidance of even the appearance of “political justice”; (3) They prevent the government work force from being employed to build a political machine; and (4) They prevent political performance from being a factor in the employment and advancement of government employees and free public employees from pressure to vote in a certain way or perform political chores to curry favor. United States Civil Serv. Comm’n v. National Ass’n of Letter Carriers, AFL-CIO, 413 U.S. 548, 564-66, 93 S.Ct. 2880, 2890-91, 37 L.Ed.2d 796 (1973).
In Letter Carriers, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of 5 U.S.C. section 7324(a)(2), part of the Hatch Act. 413 U.S. at 568, 93 S.Ct. at 2892. That provision prohibits federal employees from taking “an active part in political management or in political campaigns.” 5 U.S.C. § 7324(a)(2) (1988). The Court noted that the Act exempts nonpartisan political activities. 413 U.S. at 576, 93 S.Ct. at 2896. Nonpartisan political activities do not endanger the public interests articulated in Letter Carriers.
Exemptions to political activity limitations also serve several purposes. First, such exemptions provide government employees with a means to exercise their First Amendment right of expression. Exemptions also free employees to be involved in the political process. Moreover, because ballot access restrictions tend to limit the pool of candidates from which voters may choose, see Anderson v. Celebrezze, 460 U.S. 780, 786, 103 S.Ct. 1564, 1568, 75 L.Ed.2d 547 (1983) and Bullock v. Carter, 405 U.S. 134, 143, 92 S.Ct. 849, 856, 31 L.Ed.2d 92 (1972), exemptions increase the pool of candidates.
The Arizona Legislature has also made state employees subject to limitations similar to the county rule.
The Legislature set forth the public policy underlying this provision:
L. It is the public policy of this state ... that government programs be administered in an unbiased manner and without favoritism for or against any political party or group or any member in order to promote public confidence in government, governmental integrity and the efficient delivery of governmental services and to ensure that all employees are free from any express or implied requirement or any political or other pressure of any kind to engage or not engage in any activity permitted by this section.
A.R.S. § 41-772(L) (1992).
Our reading of the Rules strikes an appropriate balance between employees’ First Amendment rights and the interests of government in avoiding political patronage. “ ‘The problem in any case is to arrive at a balance between the interests of the [employee], as a citizen, in commenting upon matters of public concern and the interest of the [government], as an employer, in promoting the efficiency of the public services it performs through its employees.’ ” Letter Carriers, 413 U.S. at 564, 93 S.Ct. at 2890 (quoting Pickering v. Board of Educ., 391 U.S. 563, 568, 88 S.Ct. 1731, 1734, 20 L.Ed.2d 811 (1968)).
The Rules are an example of this type of balancing. By prohibiting some types of political activity and allowing others, the Rules promote fair government while allowing government employees to participate in the political process. Moreover, the interests articulated by the Supreme Court and the Arizona Legislature are not violated by our reading of the rule. Because the position is nonpartisan, there is no danger of bias or favoritism for or against any political party or group, nor any danger of the appearance of “political justice.” By restricting the offices which county employees may hold to unpaid, nonpartisan offices, there is no reason to fear political machine-building.
Finally, this restriction on the type of office which an employee may hold greatly reduces the likelihood that public employees will be subject to pressure to either vote in a particular way or perform political chores. Under our interpretation, a county employee may not participate in any campaign except his own. This prevents coerced participation in the campaigns of others, particularly superiors.
We note that any potential conflict of interest between Patterson’s employment and his public office can be addressed by means other than forbidding his candidacy. The county may have or adopt anti-corruption rules and laws, and the town may have or adopt anti-corruption and conflict of interest recusal rules and laws. In fact, the record shows that the Town of Cave Creek prohibits Town Council members from participating in Council activity on an issue which presents a conflict of interest. Moreover, the Arizona Legislature has adopted a provision which, if not directly applicable to a couniy employee or town council member, at least illustrates the availability of other measures. A.R.S. section 38-503 prohibits conflict of interest in public employment.
We do not reach Patterson’s arguments that the rule is unconstitutional. We will avoid constitutional questions when other principles of law are controlling. Nunez v. Arizona Milling Co., 7 Ariz.App. 387, 389, 439 P.2d 834, 836 (1968); Blaylock v. United States Merit Sys. Protection Bd., 851 F.2d 1348, 1357 (11th Cir.1988). We are not alone in our desire to avoid the constitutional question. The federal courts have also avoided the question of whether limits on political activity apply to nonpartisan activities. “To the extent that the Hatch Act is construed to apply to nonpartisan activities, we would face a constitutional question our courts have avoided for forty years.” Bauers v. Cornett, 865 F.2d 1517, 1524 (8th Cir.1989). Our interpretation of the rules avoids any doubt as to constitutionality, at least on the vagueness and First Amendment grounds available to this plaintiff.
Moreover, because we have found that the rule did not prevent Patterson from running for the unpaid town council position, he is not adversely affected by the rule, and we need not consider his assertion that it is unconstitutional. See State v. Herrera, 121 Ariz. 12, 15-16, 588 P.2d 305, 308-09 (1978), cert. denied 441 U.S. 949, 99 S.Ct. 2175, 60 L.Ed.2d 1054 (1979) (to have standing to assert a constitutional challenge, an individual must have suffered some injury from the putatively illegal action such that he has a personal stake in the outcome of the controversy).
Because Rule 20 did not prohibit Patterson from campaigning for and holding the office of Cave Creek Town councilman, we affirm the summary judgment in his favor.
GRANT, P.J., and CONTRERAS, J., concur.
. The provisions of Maricopa County Merit Rule 20B, C and D are virtually identical to former . Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. ("A.R.S.”) section 41-772B, C and D (1985), which applied to state employees. The statute was amended in 1991.
. "Every person may freely speak, write, and publish on all subjects, being responsible for the abuse of that right.” Ariz. Const, art. II, § 6.
. The trial court included language in its partial summary judgment order which renders the judgment appealable under Arizona Rule of Civil Procedure 54(b).
. Although appellants assume that all school board positions in Maricopa County are unpaid, the record does not inform us on this point. See also Op.Ariz.Att’y Gen. 71-32-L (school boards are an exception to the ban on holding paid political office; interpreting former A.R.S. section 38-931, now section 41-772). Even if these positions are unpaid, Rule 20C assures county employees that they may seek such offices even if they become paid positions at a later date.
. A.R.S. section 41-772(B) provides that:
B. An employee or member of the personnel board shall not be a member of any national, state or local committee of a political party, an officer or chairman of a committee of a partisan political club, or a candidate for nomination or election to any paid public office, shall not hold any paid, elective public office or shall not take any part in the management or affairs of any political party or in the management of any partisan or nonpartisan campaign or recall effort, except that any employee may:
1. Express his opinion.
2. Attend meetings for the purpose of becoming informed concerning the candidates for public office and the political issues.
3. Cast his vote and sign nomination or recall petitions.
4. Make contributions to candidates, political parties or campaign committees contributing to candidates or advocating the election or defeat of candidates.
5. Circulate candidate nomination petitions or recall petitions.
6. Engage in activities to advocate the election or defeat of any candidate.
7. Solicit or encourage contributions to be made directly to candidates or campaign committees contributing to candidates or advocating the election or defeat of candidates.
A.R.S. § 41-772(B) (1992).
A.R.S. section 41-772 is patterned after the Hatch Act, 5 U.S.C. sections 7324-7327 (1988).
. That section reads in part as follows:
A. Any public officer or employee of a public agency who has, or whose relative has, a substantial interest in any contract, sale, purchase or service to such public agency shall make known that interest in the official records of such public agency and shall refrain from voting upon or otherwise participating in any manner as an officer or employee in such contract, sale or purchase.
B. Any public officer or employee who has, or whose relative has, a substantial interest in any decision of a public agency shall make known such interest in the official records of such public agency and shall refrain from participating in any manner as an officer or employee in such decision.
A.R.S. § 38-503 (Supp.1992).
. We also note that the court in Fernandez v. State Personnel Bd., 175 Ariz. 39, 852 P.2d 1223 (App.1992), held that A.R.S. section 41-772 is constitutional in its provision that prohibits all but certain state employees from being elected "to any paid public office” or holding "any paid, elective public office.” The Fernandez court primarily based its holding on United States Civil Service Comm'n v. National Ass’n of Letter Carri ers, AFL-CIO, 413 U.S. 548, 93 S.Ct. 2880, 37 L.Ed.2d 796 (1973), which upheld the constitutionality of the Hatch Act, and Broadrick v. Oklahoma, 413 U.S. 601, 93 S.Ct. 2908, 37 L.Ed.2d 830 (1973), which held that a state law patterned on the Hatch Act was constitutional.
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OPINION
LIVERMORE, Presiding Judge.
This appeal is taken from the summary judgment entered in favor of plaintiffs/appellees Jack Benton Daniels and Patricia Hefley Daniels on the issue of coverage provided by a policy issued by defendant/appellant State Farm Automobile Insurance Company (State Farm). We affirm.
The underlying facts are undisputed. State Farm issued an automobile insurance policy to Patricia Hefley covering her Honda automobile from September 25,1989 through March 28, 1990. Patricia was then residing with, but was not yet married to, Jack Daniels. Her adult son Rick Lee Smith also lived with the couple. On November 19, 1989, Patricia purchased a 1967 Chevrolet pickup truck. On November 24, Smith was driving the truck with his mother’s permission and with Jack as a passenger when, as a result of Smith’s negligence, the truck struck a light pole and Jack was severely injured.
The parties agree that the policy State Farm issued to Patricia Hefley provided coverage for Smith when he was driving a “newly acquired car.” That term is defined by the policy as follows:
Newly Acquired Car—means a car newly owned by you or your spouse if it:
1. replaces your car; or
2. is an added car and:
a. if it is a private passenger car, we insure all other private passenger cars, or
b. if it is other than a private passenger car, we insure all cars
owned by you and your spouse on the date of its delivery to you or your spouse; but only if you or your spouse:
1. tell us about it within 30 days after its delivery to you or your spouse; and
2. if you or your spouse has more than one of our car policies, tell us which one is to apply; and
3. pay us any added amount due.
State Farm was advised of neither the acquisition of the truck nor the accident until after August 1, 1991, when the Daniels sued Smith for damages and Smith requested that State Farm defend him. State Farm declined, and the Daniels entered a default judgment against Smith in the amount of $350,000 together with interest and costs.
Smith then assigned Ms rights against State Farm to the Darnels, who filed suit against State Farm seeking damages for breach of contract, bad faith, violation of the covenant of good faith and fair dealing, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. They followed with a motion for partial summary judgment on the issue of coverage, which the trial court granted. The parties stipulated to damages in the amount of the Darnels’ judgment against Smith, and tMs appeal followed.
The issue presented is whether coverage is afforded under the newly-acquired veMcle provision when the vehicle is involved in an accident within the thirty-day period for reporting the acquisition, but the insured fails to report the acquisition either within the thirty-day period or during the policy period. State Farm concedes that coverage under the provision is automatic for thirty days, provided that the insured notifies the company of the acquisition during that period, even if the notification occurs after the accident. Because it contends that the notification requirement and the provision as a whole are clear and unambiguous, and because there is no dispute that Darnels did not give notification until after the expiration of not only the thirty-day period but also the policy itself, State Farm argues that the provision should be enforced to deny coverage.
The parties agree that tMs is a question of first impression in Arizona, but one wMch has been litigated extensively elsewhere. See James L. Isham, Annotation, Construction and Application of “Automatice Insurance” or “Newly Acquired Vehicle” Clause (“Replacement,” and “Blanket,” or “Fleet” Provisions) Contained in Automobile Liability Policy, 39 A.L.R. 4th 229 (1985). .Most jurisdictions have concluded that the purpose and effect of provisions such as the State Farm provision here is to provide automatic coverage during the notification period but to preclude coverage after that period uMess the insured has given the necessary notification and otherwise complied with the terms of the provision. See, e.g., Hall v. State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins. Co., 268 F.Supp. 995 (D.S.C.1966), aff'd, 378 F.2d 371 (4th Cir.1967); Glacier General Assurance Co. v. State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins. Co., 150 Mont. 452, 436 P.2d 533 (1968); Palmer v. State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins. Co., 614 S.W.2d 788 (Tenn.1981). Contra Lowe v. State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins. Co., 420 So.2d 318 (Fla.App.1982). We agree with the reasoning of the majority.
Moreover, “[sjince coverage is automatic throughout the designated period, it is immaterial that the insured (1) does not notify the company within the period that he has acquired an additional automobile and (2) never pays an additional premium.” Hall, 268 F.Supp. at 997. Timely notification is a condition precedent to continued coverage after, not during, the grace period. Republic Mutual Ins. Co. v. State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins. Co., 527 F.2d 1002 (4th Cir.1975). Whether the notification was received during the grace period, or even during the policy period, is relevant not to the issue of the existence of coverage during the grace period but rather to the issue of whether State Farm may withdraw that coverage because it has been prejudiced by tardy notification. As the Daniels point out, however, no showing of prejudice has been made; accordingly, there is no issue of withdrawal of coverage. See Globe Indemnity Co. v. Blomfield, 115 Ariz. 5, 562 P.2d 1372 (App.1977); see also Walter v. Simmons, 169 Ariz. 229, 818 P.2d 214 (App.1991).
Affirmed.
LACAGNINA, and FERNANDEZ, JJ., concur.
|
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OPINION
JACOBSON, Judge.
Appellant James Russell Hamilton (defendant) raises the following issues on appeal:
(1) as to counts I, II, and IV, for child molestation,
(a) whether those convictions should be vacated because the conduct constituting the offenses charged is no longer a crime, and
(b) whether the sentences imposed constitute cruel and unusual punishment;
(2) whether testimony by the state’s expert was properly admitted; and
(3) whether the trial court erred in denying his motion to dismiss counts II through VI of the indictment.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
On appeal from a guilty verdict, we view the facts in the light most favorable to sustaining that verdict. State v. Zmich, 160 Ariz. 108, 109, 770 P.2d 776, 777 (1989).
Approximately one week after they met, defendant moved in with his girlfriend, V., and her three children. At that time, V.’s daughters, J. and C., were 12 and 9 years old respectively, and V.’s son was 5. V. worked full time. Defendant did not work steadily and began taking control of the house and children. Soon thereafter, defendant began demanding sexual favors from V.’s daughters in exchange for his permission to do something the girls wanted to do.
Over the years, defendant threatened the girls to keep them silent about the molestations. On one occasion, defendant .threatened to slit J.’s throat if she told her natural father what had been going on. On another occasion, defendant hit J. in the face, giving her a black eye, after J. told him she was going to tell that he had been molesting them. C. finally reported the abuse to a church counselor, who notified Child Protective Services.
Defendant was indicted on June 3,1991 on three counts of child molestation, class 2 felonies and dangerous crimes against children in the first degree (counts I, II, and IV), and three counts of sexual conduct with a minor, also class 2 felonies and dangerous crimes against children in the first degree (counts III, V, and VI). Defendant subsequently moved to dismiss counts II-VI, arguing that those counts were duplicitous and vague; the trial court denied the motion.
Defendant’s trial commenced on December 11 and concluded on December 18, 1991. The jury found defendant guilty as charged on counts I, II, TV, V, and VI, and not guilty on count III.
On January 24, 1992, after weighing the aggravating and mitigating factors, see A.R.S. § 13-702(C), the trial court sentenced defendant to aggravated terms of 20 years on counts I, II, and IV, and 25 years on count V and VI. Defendant was given 286 days of presentence incarceration credit on count I. The court ordered the sentences imposed to run consecutively, and further ordered defendant to pay $500 in felony assessments and an $8 time payment fee. Defendant timely appealed.
DISCUSSION
Counts I, II, and IV
Although put forth by defendant as one argument, defendant actually raises two arguments with regard to the child molestation counts. We address each in turn.
A. Judgment of Conviction
Counts I and II alleged that defendant had committed the crimes of child molestation against J. between October 1, 1986 and May 31, 1987; count IV alleged that defendant had committed the crime of child molestation against C. between June 15,1990 and July 15,1990. At the times the offenses were alleged to have occurred, both J. and C. were more than 14 but not yet 15 years old. These three counts were charged under A.R.S. § 13-1410 which, prior to September 1990, provided:
A person who knowingly molests a child under the age of fifteen years by directly or indirectly touching the private parts of such child or who causes a child under the age of fifteen years to directly or indirectly touch the private parts of such person is guilty of a class 2 felony and is punishable pursuant to § 13-604.01.
(Emphasis added.) In September 1990, the legislature amended § 13-1410 to read “under the age of fourteen years.” Laws 1990, ch. 384, § 4 (emphasis added). Defendant was indicted in June 1991, after the effective date of the amendment.
Defendant argues that his sentences on count I, II, and IV constitute cruel and unusual punishment because the conduct constituting the offenses charged in those counts— molestation of a child older than 14 years of age—was “no longer criminal” at the time of these proceedings. However, rather than at tacking the sentences imposed on these counts, defendant more precisely attacks the judgments of conviction themselves, contending that he should not have been convicted at all based on conduct that was not legislatively proscribed at the time the indictment was issued. In this regard, defendant contends that the judgments of conviction on counts I, II, and IV must be vacated.
In Arizona, statutes do not apply retroactively unless they specifically so provide. A.R.S. § 1-244. In the context of criminal law, an offender must be punished under the law in force when the offense was committed and is not exempted from punishment by a subsequent amendment to the applicable statutory provision. A.R.S. §§ 1-246 and -247. See also A.R.S. § 1-105 (effect of repeal by revised statutes on prior offenses and punishment). Another department of this court has recently held that these general savings statutes apply here because the 1990 amendment to § 13-1410 changed the penalty for the molestation of a 14-year old, but did not decriminalize the conduct. State v. Serna, 175 Ariz. 332, 857 P.2d 384 (App. 1993). We agree that these general savings statutes apply in this case even though, in our opinion, the amendment “decriminalized” the conduct of molestation of a 14-year old child.
The 1990 amendment to § 13-1410 changed more than the classification of the felony or the statutory range of sentences. That amendment changed an element of the crime of child molestation by decreasing the requisite age of the victim from under 15 to under 14 years. One who today directly or indirectly touches the private parts of a 14-year old, or who causes that child to directly or indirectly touch such person’s private parts, quite simply has not committed the crime of child molestation under § 13-1410. That that conduct today may constitute some other crime, such as sexual abuse, does not alter the fact that it no longer meets the elements of the crime of child molestation. Thus, in our opinion, the legislative amendment to § 13-1410 did more than change the penalty for the conduct alleged here: it “decriminalized” that conduct insofar as § 13-1410 is concerned.
Nevertheless, despite our disagreement with the Serna court on this point, we see no reason why A.R.S. §§ 1-246 and -247 should not be applied in this case. A legislative amendment that is substantive in nature, as this one undoubtedly is, will not be applied retroactively absent a legislative direction to the contrary. Cf State v. Winton, 153 Ariz. 302, 305, 736 P.2d 386, 389 (App.1987). Absent that legislative direction, even an outright “decriminalization” of conduct will not open the prison doors to those defendants convicted for conduct that was legislated “criminal” when it occurred. See Midkiff v. State, 43 Ariz. 323, 326, 30 P.2d 1057, 1058 (1934) (defendant could be punished for pretending to be an attorney under the law in effect at the time of the alleged offense, even though that law was repealed before sentence was imposed). Such a legislative direction of retroactivity is conspicuously absent with regard to the 1990 amendment to § 13-1410.
Defendant makes much of the fact that the amendment here became effective before he was even indicted. We acknowledge that this makes defendant’s argument more facially persuasive than if it had become effective, for example, just prior to sentencing. However, that defendant was indicted after the amendment lowered the operative age from 15 to 14 years does not change the fact that, at the time defendant committed the acts alleged in counts I, II, and IV, it was a class 2 felony to commit those acts against a child under the age of 15. We find no error on this basis.
B. Sentence of Imprisonment: Bartlett Analysis
Defendant next attacks the length of his sentences as constituting cruel and unusual punishment based primarily on an analysis set forth in State v. Bartlett, 171 Ariz. 302, 830 P.2d 823, cert. denied, — U.S.-, 113 S.Ct. 511, 121 L.Ed.2d 445 (1992) (Bartlett II). See U.S. Const. amend. VIII; Ariz. Const, art. 2, § 15.
In State v. Bartlett, 164 Ariz. 229, 792 P.2d 692 (1990) (Bartlett I), the Arizona Supreme Court held that Bartlett’s sentences totalling 40 years for two counts -of sexual conduct with a minor constituted cruel and unusual punishment. In so doing, the court applied the three-prong test of Solem v. Helm, 463 U.S. 277, 103 S.Ct. 3001, 77 L.Ed.2d 637 (1983), specifically analyzing (1) the gravity of the offense and the harshness of the penalty, (2) a comparison of other sentences imposed in the same jurisdiction for more serious crimes, and (3) a comparison of sentences in other jurisdictions for the same crime. Bartlett I, 164 Ariz. at 233-34, 792 P.2d at 696-97; Solem, 463 U.S. at 292, 103 S.Ct. at 3010.
Bartlett I was vacated and remanded by the United States Supreme Court with directions to reconsider in light of that Court’s holding in Harmelin v. Michigan, 501 U.S. 957, 111 S.Ct. 2680, 115 L.Ed.2d 836 (1991). Arizona v. Bartlett, — U.S.-, 111 S.Ct. 2880, 115 L.Ed.2d 1046 (1991). Upon remand, our supreme court applied Justice Kennedy’s concurring opinion in Harmelin to analyze the issue of eighth amendment proportionality review. Bartlett II, 171 Ariz. at 305, 830 P.2d at 826. Justice Kennedy opined that the three-prong Solem test was still the law, but that an analysis under the second and third prongs was “appropriate .only in the rare case in which a threshold comparison of the crime committed and the sentence imposed leads to an inference of gross disproportionality.” 501 U.S. at-, 111 S.Ct. at 2707; Bartlett II, 171 Ariz. at 304, 830 P.2d at 825. Accordingly, under Justice Kennedy’s analysis the threshold test was whether Solem’s first prong was violated—i.e., whether the sentence was grossly disproportionate to the gravity of the offense. Bartlett II, 171 Ariz. at 306, 830 P.2d at 827.
On remand in Bartlett II, our supreme court again determined that Bartlett’s sentences were grossly out of proportion to the severity of the crimes, thus violating Solem’s first prong. Id. at 307, 830 P.2d at 828. In so doing, the court based its conclusion on several factors. Defendant contends that application of these factors to his case compels the conclusion that his sentences on counts I, II, and IV were also grossly disproportionate. We disagree.
1. Circumstances of the Crime
The first factor considered in Bartlett II was the circumstances of the crime, specifically, the presence or absence of violence or the threat of violence. Id. In that ease, the Arizona Supreme Court found that the 14-year old victims were willing participants, and that defendant used no violent force or threats against them. Id. Further, neither sustained any physical injuries nor testified to any emotional trauma. Id. These circumstances, the supreme court believed, minimized the severity of Bartlett’s crimes. Id.
Apart from the fact that the victims in both Bartlett and this case were 14 years old, we find absolutely nothing similar about the circumstances of these cases. Far from being willing participants, the victims in this case suffered long-term, systematic abuse by one in a position of power over them who used that power both to molest the victims and to obtain their silence. That defendant may not have needed to resort to violence or the threat thereof in order to molest these victims does not minimize the severity of his crimes. Defendant had a far more effective weapon at his disposal: quasi-parental authority. Moreover, there was evidence that both victims suffered long-lasting emotional trauma as a result of the molestations. Suffice it to say, we find nothing surrounding the circumstances of the crimes charged in counts I, II, and IV to warrant a conclusion of disproportionality. See State v. Zimmer, 140 Ariz.Adv.Rep. 14 (App. May 28, 1993).
2. Personal Culpability
Bartlett was young and immature, with no prior felony record, and did not intend to harm the victims either physically or emotionally. Bartlett II, 171 Ariz. at 307, 830 P.2d at 828. Conversely, defendant here was 30 years old when he moved in with the victims’ mother; he was neither immature nor emotionally insecure. His systematic manipulation of the victims so as to satisfy his sexual desires clearly permits the inference of an intent to harm. Further, although defendant may technically lack a prior rec ord, he was also convicted and sentenced on counts V and VI for sexual conduct with a minor, sentences which he does not contend were cruel or unusual; defendant’s implied claim of criminal purity is hardly credible.
3. Harm to Society
In analyzing the harm to society caused by Bartlett’s conduct, the supreme court in Bartlett II acknowledged the “realities of adolescent life,” and noted that “sexual conduct among post-pubescent teenagers is not uncommon.” 171 Ariz. at 308, 830 P.2d at 829. Defendant here urges us to consider that “the realities of adolescent life continue to be a factor.”
As noted, this case is a far cry from Bartlett. We do not have here a consensual, romantic relationship between a post-pubescent teen and an immature young man. Rather, this is a case of a coercive, psychologically brutalizing relationship between an adult man in a position of trust and authority over children of his girlfriend. To contend that such a relationship is a “reality of adolescent life” is a travesty on normal behavior.
4. Evolution of the Law and Present Sentencing Standards
Finally, the supreme court in Bartlett II noted the modem legal trend to separate the crime of statutory rape from other violent sex crimes and to reduce the severity of the sentences accordingly. Id. at 308-10, 830 P.2d at 829-31. Defendant also points out the legislature’s amendment of § 13-1410 to lower the requisite age of the victim from 15 to 14 years as indicative of gross disproportionality. See discussion, supra. We acknowledge that, if defendant had committed the acts alleged in counts I, II, and IV today against 14-year old victims, his conduct would not be punishable under § 13-1410. However, we agree with the state that a mere subsequent change in the law, without more, will not convert a sentence within the statutory limits into one that is disproportionate.
5. Conclusion
As explained by Justice Kennedy in Harmelin, and as adopted by our supreme court in Bartlett II, examination under the second and third Solem prongs is no longer required in a cruel and unusual analysis unless Solem’s first prong establishes an inference of disproportionate punishment. In this case, we find that defendant’s sentences of 20 consecutive years on counts I, II, and IV for child molestation are not grossly disproportionate to the gravity of the offenses charged. Thus, we need not reach the intra- and inter-jurisdictional comparisons of prongs two and three. See Bartlett II, 171 Ariz. at 310, 830 P.2d at 831 (conducting intra- and inter-jurisdictional comparisons because threshold inference of gross disproportionality reached). We hold instead that defendant’s sentences on counts I, II, and IV do not constitute cruel and unusual punishment in violation of either the state or federal constitutions.
Testimony by State’s Expert
Dr. Tascha Boychuk, director of the Child Abuse Prevention Center at St. Joseph’s Hospital in Phoenix, was called by the state to testify regarding the general characteristics of child molesters and their victims, or “child abuse accommodation syndrome” as it is known. Defendant argues on appeal that Dr. Boychuk’s testimony was inadmissible expert testimony. The state argues that defendant failed to specifically object to this evidence at trial, consequently failing to preserve this issue for appeal.
A party must make a specific and timely objection at trial to the admission of certain evidence in order to preserve that issue for appeal. E.g., State v. Cook, 170 Ariz. 40, 58, 821 P.2d 731, 749 (1991), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 113 S.Ct. 137, 121 L.Ed.2d 90 (1992). See generally Rule 103(a), Arizona Rules of Evidence. A general objection, such as “irrelevance,” will not be sufficient to preserve the issue for appeal. Grant v. Arizona Public Serv. Co., 133 Ariz. 434, 450, 652 P.2d 507, 523 (1982). Further, an objection to the admission of evidence on one ground will not preserve issues relating to the admission of that evidence on other grounds. E.g., State v. Lopez, 170 Ariz. 112, 118, 822 P.2d 465, 471 (App.1991) (objections to insufficient foundation and form of the question failed to preserve on appeal issue that testimony was beyond scope of permissible expert testimony); State v. Hernandez, 170 Ariz. 301, 306-07, 823 P.2d 1309, 1314-15 (App.1991) (hearsay objection did not preserve issue that testimony violated confrontation clause).
Defendant filed no pretrial motions to preclude Dr. Boychuk’s testimony. At trial, defendant objected at several points in Dr. Boychuk’s testimony on grounds of hearsay, improper foundation, and relevancy. However, on appeal defendant argues (1) that Dr. Boychuk was not a qualified expert, (2) that child abuse accommodation syndrome is not a proper subject for expert testimony, and (3) that the probative value of the testimony was outweighed by its prejudicial effects. See generally State v. Chapple, 135 Ariz. 281, 291, 660 P.2d 1208, 1218 (1983); State v. Moran, 151 Ariz. 378, 380-81, 728 P.2d 248, 250-51 (1986) (setting forth requirements for admissibility of expert testimony). We agree with the state that defendant’s general objections failed to preserve those issues now raised by him on appeal.
Given defendant’s waiver of this issue, our review is limited to one of fundamental error. State v. Gendron, 168 Ariz. 153, 812 P.2d 626 (1991) (defining fundamental error). Because we find that admission of Dr. Boychuk’s testimony was not error in the first place, we concomitantly find that it was not fundamental error.
An expert can be a lay person with special knowledge superior to the general population gained through actual experience or careful study. State v. Bauer, 146 Ariz. 134, 137, 704 P.2d 264, 267 (App.1985). Dr. Boychuk testified as to her extensive experience, both through study and in practice, with child molestation victims. We believe Dr. Boychuk clearly qualified as an “expert” as that term is contemplated by the Arizona Rules of Evidence.
Next, Dr. Boychuk’s testimony regarding the general behavioral characteristics of child molesters and their victims is virtually the identical type of testimony that is consistently upheld by both this court and the supreme court as being helpful to jurors and, thus, a proper subject for expert testimony. E.g., State v. Moran, supra; State v. Lindsey, 149 Ariz. 472, 720 P.2d 73 (1986); State v. Lopez, supra; State v. Jackson, 170 Ariz. 89, 92, 821 P.2d 1374, 1377 (App.1991). And, finally, that the expert testimony about the behavioral characteristics of child molestation victims is persuasive does not mean that it is “unfairly” prejudicial. State v. Moran, 151 Ariz. at 384, 728 P.2d at 254. We see nothing about the generalized nature of Dr. Boychuk’s testimony that makes it “unfairly” prejudicial in defendant’s case.
Defendant also argues that Dr. Boychuk’s discussion of a scientific article by Dr. Roland Summit was hearsay and therefore violated his right to cross-examine and confront witnesses. See U.S. Const, amend. VI; Ariz. Const, art. 2, § 24. At trial, defendant specifically objected to Dr. Boychuk’s oral discussion of this article; the trial court ruled it admissible under Rule 703, Arizona Rules of Evidence, but requested that the state lay a further foundation on this basis. Dr. Boychuk then testified that Dr. Summit’s 1983 article regarding child abuse accommodation syndrome was generally accepted in her professional field. Defendant made no further objections to Dr. Boychuk’s testimony along these lines.
Assuming without deciding that defendant preserved this issue for appeal without objecting again after the state laid the foundation under Rule 703 for Dr. Boychuk’s oral discussion of the article, we find no error. The United States Supreme Court has consistently held that the confrontation clause is satisfied when the proffered evidence has sufficient guarantees of reliability to come within a firmly rooted exception to the hearsay rule. White v. Illinois, — U.S. -, -, 112 S.Ct. 736, 743, 116 L.Ed.2d 848 (1992); Idaho v. Wright, 497 U.S. 805, 814, 110 S.Ct. 3139, 3146, 111 L.Ed.2d 638 (1990). In this case, the proffered evidence—Dr. Summit’s article—falls squarely within the “learned treatise” exception to the hearsay rule. Rule 803(18), Arizona Rules of Evidence; Reeves v. Markle, 119 Ariz. 159, 162, 579 P.2d 1382, 1385 (1978). Consequently, defendant’s rights of confrontation were not violated by Dr. Boychuk’s discussion of the standards set forth in Dr. Summit’s article on child abuse accommodation syndrome.
Duplicitous Indictment
Défendant next argues that the trial court erred in denying his motion to dismiss counts II through VI of the indictment.
An indictment is duplicitous if it charges separate crimes in the same count. State v. Whitney, 159 Ariz. 476, 480, 768 P.2d 638, 642 (1989). Duplicitous indictments are prohibited because they fail to give adequate notice of the charge, present a hazard of a non-unanimous jury verdict, and make a precise pleading of double jeopardy impossible in the event of a later prosecution. Id. However, in order to prevail on an arguably duplicitous indictment, defendant must demonstrate that he was actually prejudiced thereby. State v. Schroeder, 167 Ariz. 47, 52, 804 P.2d 776, 781 (App.1990).
In Spencer v. Coconino County Superior Court, 136 Ariz. 608, 667 P.2d 1323 (1983), the defendant was charged with one count of incest and one count of child molestation, but the facts giving rise to these charges involved over 100 separate incidents occurring over 13 months. Thus, the supreme court held that the indictment was duplicitous. Id. at 610, 667 P.2d at 1325. Here, however, the challenged counts charged defendant with the commission of one specific act against one specific victim within a specific time period. The victims testified as to the specific occurrence that formed the basis for each specific count, and the state clearly delineated during closing arguments what specific conduct constituted the offense charged in each specific count. Although the. indictment does allege time periods in which the offenses were alleged to have occurred ranging up to one year, defendant does not show any actual prejudice therefrom. Accordingly, we find no error in the trial court’s denial of defendant’s motion to dismiss.
CONCLUSION
We affirm the judgments of convictions and the sentences imposed. However, the sentencing minute entry erroneously orders imposition of two $8 time payment fees. Pursuant to A.R.S. § 13-4037, we modify the sentencing minute entry to reflect imposition under A.R.S. § 12-116 of one $8 time payment fee. See State v. Rivera, 172 Ariz. 247, 250, 836 P.2d 460, 463 (App.1992).
GERBER, P.J., and TOCI, J., concur.
. But see discussion, infra.
. See A.R.S. § 13-1404; Serna, 175 Ariz. at 335, 857 P.2d at 387.
. Defendant contends that a pretrial hearing was necessary in order to determine the admissibility of Dr. Boychuk’s testimony under Rule 703, Arizona Rules of Evidence. However, defendant never requested a pretrial hearing on this issue, and fails to cite us to any authority that holds it reversible error for the trial court to fail to sua sponte hold one.
. Without any citation to authority, defendant argues in. his reply brief that an expert’s discussion of a "learned treatise” is only admissible under Rule 803(18) if that expert was involved in the underlying research conducted by the author of the treatise. We flatly reject this argument.
. Defendant was acquitted of count III.
. Defendant’s assertion that he was unable to present an alibi defense, because he could not reconstruct his life for a specific year, is a theoretical, not an actual, prejudice that could be asserted any time an offense was alleged to have occurred over a period of time.
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OPINION
LANKFORD, Judge.
Plaintiff Sandra K. Heinig appeals from a summary judgment granted in favor of defendants George Hudman and Cheryl Fisher Hudman. We reverse in part and affirm in part.
The parties raise numerous issues which we summarize as follows:
1. Does the doctrine of res judicata bar Heinig’s action?
2. Does Heinig have a fraudulent conveyance claim against the Hudmans’ marital community when she is a judgment creditor only of Mr. Hudman individually?
On review of summary judgment, we view the evidence in a light most favorable to the party against whom summary judgment was granted and draw all reasonable inferences in favor of that party. United Bank of Ariz. v. Allyn, 167 Ariz. 191, 193, 195, 805 P.2d 1012, 1014, 1016 (App.1990). Summary judgment was granted against the plaintiff, Heinig, and we view the record accordingly.
The facts are as follows. Heinig, George Hudman, and a third person entered into a partnership agreement to develop raw land owned by Heinig. George Hudman represented both orally and on the face of the partnership agreement that he was a married man dealing with his sole and separate property. The agreement also contained a provision requiring that disputes among the partners would be subject to arbitration.
Subsequently, George Hudman purchased the interest held by the third partner. He then attempted to use the unanimity requirement in the partnership agreement to inhibit financing until he could buy out Heinig’s interest at terms favorable to him. The real estate market deteriorated, the project became less viable, and a lender initiated a trustee’s sale on the property.
Heinig then initiated arbitration proceedings against George Hudman under the arbitration provision of the partnership agreement. Heinig and Hudman asserted claims against each other in the arbitration.
Heinig learned from George Hudman’s testimony in the arbitration hearing that, contrary to Mr. Hudman’s prior oral and written statements that he was a married man dealing with his sole and separate property, he had acquired his partnership interest with funds obtained through a line of credit on which both he and his wife, Cheryl Hudman, were obligors. The line of credit was secured by a mortgage on real property which the record suggests is an asset of their marital community.
Following George Hudman’s testimony in the arbitration proceeding, Heinig moved to join Cheryl Hudman as a party to the arbitration so that any resulting judgment would be paid from the Hudmans’ community assets. George Hudman opposed that motion, arguing:
The clear, written agreement between the parties does not give the arbitrator the authority to determine any claims against Cheryl Hudman____
. Since Mrs. Hudman cannot be forced to be a party to this arbitration, no claim against the community property of George and Cheryl Hudman can be asserted here. Ariz.Rev.Stat. (A.R.S.) § 25-215(d) [sic] makes both spouses necessary parties to any claim against community property. Eng v. Stein, 599 P.2d 796, 798, 231 Ariz. 343 [sic] (1979).
The arbitrator declined to join Mrs. Hudman. The arbitrator and plaintiffs counsel discussed the significance of that ruling:
THE ARBITRATOR: I understand the issues of community property and the enforceability of judgments and all of those good things, and I would suggest to the claimant that if you are successful in this action to any extent and you want to go after the community interests of Mr. and Mrs. Hudman, do it by separate action. I’m not saying I’m leaning one way or the other, but if, in fact, that happens I think you have avenues of redress but—
MR. POLI [counsel for plaintiff]: You are not expressing any decision on the merits of that?
THE ARBITRATOR: No decision on the merits, and if you want to bring in evidence the fact [sic] that you were somehow defrauded by representations of the community or sole and separate, that is fine, but I think the claimant’s beef is with Mr. Hudman, and I will adjudicate that beef only. I think any claim or attempt to bring Mrs. Hudman into the action is merely for enforceability of a judgment ... But I don’t think this is Mrs. Hudman’s fight. So for that reason I will deny your claim to admit her as a party to this action.
MR. POLI: So I’m clear on the denial, this is not a resolution on the merits and is no prejudice to our ability to claim—
THE ARBITRATOR: You guys can do whatever you want after this is over. I’m going to resolve the dispute only with respect to the parties to the partnership ...
MR. POLI: The only thing concerning me is in the event that we get a verdict in our favor and we go to what perhaps will be the next step, which is some sort of, you know, RICO claim perhaps against the marital community or some other fraud claim against the marital community, that you are not rendering any decision that would have res judicata effect.
THE ARBITRATOR: I would hope so. I am making no adjudication as to whether or not this was Mr. Hudman’s sole and separate property or his community property or whatever____ [T]he only reason to bring in the community property issue, as far as I am concerned, would be enforceability and collectability, and I’m going to leave that to you guys. I just don’t see that as being within my province with what we have on the table here. But I guess the roundabout answer to your question is no, I’m not going to rule one way or the other whether it was sole and separate property or community property, and frankly don’t necessarily want to get into it.
The arbitrator eventually decided some of the claims in favor of each party. He determined that George Hudman had breached both the contract and the fiduciary duty he owed to his partners. The arbitrator entered an award for Heinig against George Hudman in the amount of $195,000, but denied both Heinig’s racketeering claim and her punitive damages claim. On the other hand, the arbitrator found in favor of George Hudman’s claim against Heinig for negligent misrepresentation and awarded $30,000 to Hudman. The arbitrator offset the two awards and entered a net award in favor of Heinig in the amount of $165,000.
Heinig then applied to the superior court to have the arbitration award confirmed. See Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. (“A.R.S.”) § 12-1511 (1982). The court entered a money judgment against George Hudman for $165,000, which was not appealed and became final.
Heinig next filed the present action in superior court. She sought declaratory relief that the judgment against George Hudman was enforceable against the Hudmans’ marital community. She also raised fraudulent conveyance and racketeering claims against Mr. and Mrs. Hudman.
The superior court granted summary judgment in favor of Mr. and Mrs. Hudman on every claim! The court held that the doctrine of res judicata barred Heinig from raising claims which had already been litigated in arbitration.
Our decision reverses the superior court’s ruling. Heinig is not barred from pursuing claims against Mrs. Hudman in this action because Heinig did not have a prior opportunity to assert those claims in the arbitration. Moreover, the fraudulent conveyance and/or racketeering claims are not barred because they differ from the claims asserted in the arbitration proceeding.
I.
We first consider whether the superi- or court properly granted summary judgment against Heinig’s claim for declaratory relief. She had requested a declaratory judgment that the community assets of George and Cheryl Hudman are subject to satisfy the prior money judgment, which named only George Hudman. In other words, Heinig sought to convert the judgment on the arbitration award against one spouse into a judgment enforceable against both spouses and the assets of their marital community. In response, George and Cheryl Hudman raised the defense of res judicata.
The trial court incorrectly entered summary judgment against the declaratory relief claim. Res judicata is no defense because Heinig had no opportunity in the arbitration proceeding to assert her claims against Cheryl Hudman. The arbitration proceeded against Mr. Hudman in his capacity as a married man dealing with his separate property, and resulted in an arbitration award and judgment against him alone. The parties correctly assume that this judgment did not bind the marital community. See A.R.S. § 25-215(D) (1991); Flexmaster Aluminum Awning Co. v. Hirschberg, 173 Ariz. 83, 88, 839 P.2d 1128, 1133 (App.1992). Thus, the community liability of Mr. and Mrs. Hudman remains an open question.
However, the judgment against George Hudman cannot be converted into one against both George and Cheryl Hudman without regard for Mrs. Hudman’s right to procedural due process. As Article 2, Section 4 of the Arizona Constitution provides, “No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.” See also U.S. Const, amend. XIV (“nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ...”). Under the Arizona and federal constitutions, Cheryl Hudman must have an opportunity to be heard at a meaningful time and in a meaningful manner before governmental power can be employed to deprive her of property. See Morrison v. Shanwick Int’l Corp., 167 Ariz. 39, 42, 804 P.2d 768, 771 (App.1990). The claim against her husband was decided in an arbitration to which Cheryl Hudman was not a party.
Thus, Mrs. Hudman has not yet had the opportunity to defend Heinig’s claims. We cannot agree with Heinig’s argument that it was enough that Cheryl Hudman sat through the arbitration hearing or that she may have assisted in presenting George Hudman’s case. The record is clear that she was never a party to the arbitration. The arbitrator decided no claims against her, and she cannot now be held automatically liable for the resulting money judgment entered against George Hudman only..
The existing judgment against Mr. Hudman can be executed only against his separate property, not the Hudmans’ community property. Community property generally cannot be reached to satisfy a judgment against only one spouse. See Schilling v. Embree, 118 Ariz. 236, 575 P.2d 1262 (App. 1977). Heinig’s judgment against George Hudman’s separate property cannot be executed against the Hudmans’ community property.
Although Heinig can neither collect the judgment out of community property nor obtain a declaration based on the judgment alone that the marital community is liable for it, she is not necessarily precluded from holding the community liable under any and all circumstances. We see no reason why Heinig may not collect against the Hudmans’ community property if she proves that the community is in fact liable.
Because Cheryl Hudman was not a party to the arbitration, Heinig may not collect against the Hudman community property based on AR.S. section 25-215(D). As long as both spouses have an opportunity to litigate community liability issues, and Cheryl Hudman has an opportunity to litigate the underlying liability which the arbitration denied against her husband, due process is satisfied. Cf. Flexmaster Aluminum Co. v. Hirschberg, 173 Ariz. at 88, 839 P.2d at 1133, (“The wife’s interest in community property includes a due process right to litigate both the premarital debt and the value of the husband’s contribution to the marital community.”) We emphasize that Heinig cannot add Mrs. Hudman as a party liable on the judgment merely by a summary post-judgment declaratory action converting the judgment automatically from one against one spouse into one against both spouses.
In Spudnuts, Inc. v. Lane, 139 Ariz. 35, 676 P.2d 669 (App.1984), the judgment creditor persuaded the trial court to amend a final judgment against a husband by adding the wife as a defendant and judgment debtor. We held that the wife’s due process right to answer the claim against her was violated by adding her as a defendant in post-judgment proceedings.
Although a creditor cannot summarily convert a separate judgment into one against the community, we see no reason to permit the community to escape liability merely because the arbitrator refused to consider the matter of community liability. The arbitration proceeding did not determine that the community bore no liability, and indeed the arbitrator reserved that issue for another day. If the spouses are sued in a subsequent action and given a full opportunity to contest the community’s liability, and the spouse who is not the judgment creditor is allowed to litigate the claims decided in the prior judgment, due process is no bar to such a proceeding. Under the circumstances presented here, we hold that an independent action may be brought to establish the liability of the spouse who could not have been joined in the first action.
In the later action Mrs. Hudman must be given the opportunity to litigate the existence of liability, the amount of damages, and the nature of the liability as a separate or community obligation. While such an action is one for damages rather than declaratory relief, Heinig may amend her complaint in this action to state the proper claim.
II.
The next issue is whether the res judicata effect of the prior judgment bars Heinig’s claims in this action. Res judicata has been defined as follows:
When a valid and final judgment rendered in an action extinguishes the plaintiff’s claim pursuant to the rules of merger or bar ..., the claim extinguished includes all rights of the plaintiff to remedies against the defendant with respect to all or any part of the transaction, or series of connected transactions, out of which the action arose.
Restatement (Second) of Judgments § 24(1) (1982). A valid final judgment is also conclusive as to every issue decided and every issue raised by the record that could have been decided. Day v. Wiswall’s Estate, 98 Ariz. 400, 402, 381 P.2d 217, 219 (1963); Fraternal Order of Police v. Superior Ct., 122 Ariz. 563, 565, 596 P.2d 701, 703 (1979).
We first consider whether the existence of a judgment confirming the arbitration award bars any claims in this action against the marital community.
The rule of preclusion has its exceptions, two of which apply here:
(1) When any of the following circumstances exists, the general rule of [res judicata] does not apply to extinguish the claim, and part or all of the claim subsists as a possible basis for a second action by the plaintiff against the defendant:
(b) The court in the first action has expressly reserved the plaintiff’s right to maintain the second action; or
(c) The plaintiff was unable ... to seek a certain remedy or form of relief in the first action because of the limitations on the subject matter jurisdiction of the courts or restrictions on their authority to entertain multiple theories or demands for multiple remedies or forms of relief in a single action, and the plaintiff desires in the second action to rely on that theory or to seek that remedy or form of relief; ...
Restatement (Second) of Judgments § 26(1) (1982).
We hold that Heinig’s claims against the community property of George and Cheryl Hudman qualify under both of these exceptions to the general res judicata rule.
The exception described in Restatement section 26(l)(b) applies when a court expressly reserves the plaintiff’s right to bring a second action. In this case, the arbitrator reserved the issue of community liability for another action and another forum. The arbitrator stated, “I would suggest to the claimant that if you are successful in this action to any extent and you want to go after the community interests of Mr. and Mrs. Hudman, do it by separate action.” Responding to Heinig’s counsel, who, in an attempt to clarify the reservation by the arbitrator, stated, “So I’m clear on the denial, this is not a resolution on the merits and is no prejudice to our ability to claim—,” the arbitrator stated: “You guys can do whatever you want after this is over. I’m going to resolve the dispute only with respect to the parties to the partnership____”
Heinig’s counsel then specifically mentioned res judicata:
The only thing concerning me is in the event that we get a verdict in our favor and we go to what perhaps will be the next step, which is some sort of, you know, RICO claim perhaps against the marital community or some other fraud claim against the marital community, that you are not rendering any decision that would have res judicata effect.
The arbitrator responded in the affirmative. The arbitrator clearly refused to consider claims against Mrs. Hudman in the arbitration and reserved resolution of the community liability issues for another action and another forum.
The other exception to the res judicata rule, described in Restatement section 26(l)(c), allows a claim when the plaintiff was prevented from seeking relief in the first action because of the limited subject matter jurisdiction of the court. This exception applies because the arbitrator lacked subject matter jurisdiction to decide claims against Mrs. Hudman.
The subject matter jurisdiction of an arbitrator is limited in scope to issues raised by the arbitration agreement. Clarke v. ASARCO, Inc., 123 Ariz. 587, 589, 601 P.2d 587, 589 (1979). The issue of community liability was outside the scope of the arbitration because Cheryl Hudman was not bound by the arbitration. She was neither a party to the arbitration agreement nor to the arbitration proceeding. In Able Distrib. v. James Lampe, 160 Ariz. 399, 773 P.2d 504 (App. 1989), this court held that a non-party garnishing creditor was not bound by an arbitration agreement between the garnishee and the judgment debtor. 160 Ariz. at 410, 773 P.2d at 515. The court stated that AR.S. section 12-1501, which upholds the validity of arbitration agreements, “binds only the parties to the arbitration agreement, and is therefore inapplicable to non-parties ...” Id.
Heinig and George Hudman were parties to the arbitration agreement; Cheryl Hudman was not. If the arbitrator were to have considered and ruled on community liability without her consent to submit to arbitration, he would have exceeded his authority. Res judicata does not preclude Heinig from litigating claims against Mr. and Mrs. Hudman’s community property which could not have been litigated in the arbitration.
In summary, Heinig’s claims against the community are not barred by res judicata principles for two reasons: (1) the arbitrator reserved the issue, and (2) the matter was outside the scope of arbitration. Accordingly, we need not reach Heinig’s other arguments as to why res judicata does not apply.
The Hudmans nevertheless argue that C & J Travel, Inc. v. Shumway; 161 Ariz. 33, 775 P.2d 1097 (App.1989) allows the res judicata defense on these facts. In Shumway, the plaintiff, C & J Travel, sought to enforce against the marital community a foreign judgment it had obtained in another state against the defendant’s husband. We held that res judicata precluded a second action in Arizona against the husband.
Shumway is readily distinguishable from this case. As we noted in our opinion, no procedural impediment prevented joinder of the wife in Shumway. 161 Ariz. at 36, 775 P.2d at 1100. In contrast, Heinig attempted to join Cheryl Hudman in the arbitration proceeding and could not do so. In addition, the community liability issue was outside the scope of the arbitration proceeding. Thus, exceptions to res judicata which apply in this case did not apply in Shumway.
A related line of cases also offers no support to the Hudmans’ position. In Spudnuts, Inc. v. Lane, 139 Ariz. 35, 676 P.2d 669 (App.1984), the court held that judgment against a spouse who was not served and whose liability was not determined would be a due process violation. Similarly, the court in Eng v. Stein, 123 Ariz. 343, 599 P.2d 796 (1979), held that a judgment was improperly entered against a husband and wife when only the husband had been named as a defendant. Finally, in Vikse v. Johnson, 137 Ariz. 528, 672 P.2d 193 (App.1983), the court held that a foreign state’s judgment against a husband only could not be enforced in Arizona against the marital community when neither the spouse nor the community had been served in the state in which the judgment was entered. None of these cases held that a subsequent action against the marital community is barred when one spouse could not be joined in the initial action.
Cheryl Hudman also asserts on appeal that Heinig is barred from pursuing this action because instead of filing this independent action she should have either: (1) objected to the arbitration award in the confirmation process to avoid a final judgment, or (2) moved to stay the arbitration and requested appropriate relief from the superior court to void the arbitration agreement and/or resolve the community liability issue. George Hudman argues that Heinig should have either: (1) filed a separate lawsuit to have the arbitration clause declared void, or (2) appealed the confirmation award. Heinig’s failure to follow any of these courses of action, the Hudmans contend, bars her present action.
Heinig could not have opposed the arbitration award during the confirmation proceedings. The superior court’s jurisdiction in a confirmation proceeding is limited to considering opposition on statutorily enumerated grounds, A.R.S. section 12-1512, and to confirming or rejecting the arbitration award. Ariz. Pub. Service Co. v. Mountain States Tel. & Tel. Co., 149 Ariz. 239, 244, 717 P.2d 918, 923 (App.1985). Heinig lacked the statutory grounds to attack the award.
Moreover, Heinig’s objections could not have succeeded. Cheryl Hudman was not a party to the agreement to arbitrate the claims between Heinig and George Hudman. The question of community property liability for the claims against George Hudman was outside the scope of the agreement and outside the scope of the arbitration proceeding.
Although Heinig could not have successfully opposed the arbitration award in the confirmation proceedings, she could have requested a stay of the arbitration. While Arizona law and public policy have long favored arbitration, Einhorn v. Valley Medical Specialists, 172 Ariz. 571, 838 P.2d 1332 (App.1992), the preference for arbitration presupposes a valid arbitration agreement between or among the parties. Stevens/Leinweber/Sullens v. Holm Dev., 165 Ariz. 25, 30, 795 P.2d 1308, 1313 (App.1990). Arizona has adopted legislation relating to the enforceability of arbitration provisions in A.R.S. sections 12-1501 and 12-1502 (1982). A.R.S. section 12-1501 provides that:
A written agreement to submit any existing controversy to arbitration or a provision in a written contract to submit to arbitration any controversy thereafter arising between the parties is valid, enforceable and irrevocable, save upon such grounds as exist at law or in equity for the revocation of any contract.
In the event of a refusal to arbitrate or disagreement regarding the existence of an arbitration agreement, A.R.S. section 12-1502 provides that:
A. On application of a party showing an agreement [to arbitrate] ..., and the opposing party’s refusal to arbitrate, the court shall order the parties to proceed with arbitration, but if the opposing party denies the existence of the agreement to arbitrate, the court shall proceed summarily to the determination of the issue so raised and shall order arbitration if found for the moving party. Otherwise, the application shall be denied.
B. On application, the court may stay an arbitration proceeding commenced or threatened on a showing that there is no agreement to arbitrate. Such an issue, when in substantial and bona fide dispute, shah be forthwith and summarily tried and the stay ordered if found for the moving party. If found for the opposing party, the court shall order the parties to proceed to arbitration.
To avoid arbitration, Heinig would have had to prove that the arbitration provision itself was unenforceable because grounds “in law or in equity for the revocation of any contract” existed. Cf U.S. Insulation, Inc. v. Hilro Const. Co., 146 Ariz. 250, 256, 705 P.2d 490, 496 (App.1985) (to successfully challenge a motion to compel arbitration requires evidence either that (1) with regard to the arbitration provision itself, grounds exist “in law or in equity for the revocation of any contract” or (2) the arbitration clause was repudiated, resulting in waiver). To render the arbitration provision unenforceable, Heinig would have had to show that the arbitration clause itself was invalid as void or voidable because of fraud in the inducement resulting from George Hudman’s representation as to his status as a married man, dealing with his sole and separate property. If Heinig had sustained this burden of proof, she would have been entitled to a stay order pursuant to A.R.S. section 12-1502(B).
We therefore must determine whether Heinig’s failure to seek a stay of the proceedings that led to the first judgment bars this action. We hold that her inaction is not a bar. Once the arbitrator refused to consider the issue of community liability, Heinig was entitled to rely on his ruling. Heinig had agreed to submit to arbitration and was not required to attack the validity of the arbitration agreement or any of the arbitrator’s rulings through a stay application.
We next consider whether Heinig’s claims in this action are barred, at least as against George Hudman, because they are the same claims decided in the arbitration. If the present claims are distinct and separate from those raised in the arbitration proceeding, they are not precluded:
For a prior suit to be res judicata, the same issues must be decided therein which were raised in the second cause. Only such matters are adjudicated in a former judgment which appear upon its face to have been adjudicated or which were actually and necessarily included therein or necessary thereto. Rights, claims, or demands—even though they grow out of the same subject matter—which constitute separate or distinct causes of action not appearing in the former litigation, are not barred in the latter action because of res judicata. (Citations omitted).
Rousselle v. Jewett, 101 Ariz. 510, 512, 421 P.2d 529, 531 (1966).
Heinig’s original demand for arbitration contained two counts: breach of contract and breach of fiduciary duty. Heinig then moved to add a racketeering claim and a claim relating to community liability. The racketeering claim was described in her hearing memorandum as follows:
The wealth of evidence which has been presented to date in this hearing shows that Mr. Hudman engaged in a concerted scheme, over an extended period of time, to use economic pressure to “squeeze” Heinig ... out of the partnership. In addition, and as testified to by numerous disinterested parties with no axe to grind, the evidence shows that Hudman took a' variety of concrete steps to achieve his goal of squeezing ... Heinig out.
Heinig set forth her racketeering claim in paragraphs 25 and 27 of her complaint in the present action:
25. Hudman committed a scheme or artifice to defraud for financial gain by, inter alia: (1) falsely representing to Mrs. Heinig that he was using separate funds for his investment in the Baseline Plaza partnership; (2) falsely representing to Mrs. Heinig that he had sufficient separate assets to perform as the “money partner”; and (3) by conveying community property assets to his wife in an attempt to keep those assets out of the reach of creditors.
27. For purposes of this claim, George Hudman was acting on behalf of, and to benefit, his marital community; among other things, he was attempting to improperly shield his community assets.
The record thus reveals that Heinig’s current claims for fraud and racketeering involve different facts and conduct from those raised before in the arbitration. While the claims in the arbitration relate to George Hudman’s attempts to force Heinig out of the partnership, the claims in the present action relate to George Hudman’s misrepresentations regarding the source of the money he used in the partnership. Heinig has a final judgment against George Hudman for $165,- 000 based on her claims of breach of fiduciary duty and breach of contract. The fraud and racketeering claims she now raises concern her inability to collect that judgment because of misrepresentations made by Hudman. In fact, Heinig states—and the Hudmans do not dispute—that Heinig did not even discover her current claims until George Hudman’s testimony during the arbitration hearing. Although all of these claims arise out of the partnership, they are separate and distinct causes of action. We conclude that res judicata is no bar to the present action.
III.
Heinig alleged that shortly before commencement of the arbitration proceeding George Hudman fraudulently “conveyed his entire interest in a community asset (their home) located in Casa Blanca Estates, Lot 16, Maricopa County” to Cheryl Hudman. Heinig asserted that George Hudman was unable to satisfy the arbitration judgment without resorting to community funds, specifically the Casa Blanca property. Heinig sought an order that the Casa Blanca property and any other property fraudulently conveyed be subject to execution. A.R.S. section 44-1007 provided that an intentionally fraudulent conveyance may be set aside : “Every conveyance made and every obligation incurred with actual intent, as distinguished from intent presumed in law, to hinder, delay, or defraud either present or future creditors, is fraudulent as to both present and future creditors.”
Cheiyl Hudman responds that because the Casa Blanca property was a community asset, Heinig would be required to have a claim against the community in order to execute against the property. Because Heinig’s judgment is only against George Hudman’s separate property, Cheryl Hudman reasons that Heinig may not set aside the conveyance as fraudulent: Heinig was not a present or future creditor of the community when the property was conveyed.
However, if George and Cheryl Hudman held the property as joint tenants, Heinig need not have been a creditor of the community when the property was conveyed. Married joint tenants hold their respective interests as separate property. Russo v. Russo, 80 Ariz. 365, 367, 298 P.2d 174, 175 (1956); Collier v. Collier, 73 Ariz. 405, 411, 242 P.2d 537, 541 (1952); Ferree v. City of Yuma, 124 Ariz. 225, 227, 603 P.2d 117, 119 (App.1979). As a creditor with a claim on George Hudman’s separate property, Heinig would have a fraudulent conveyance claim if George and Cheryl Hudman held the property in joint tenancy at the time of the conveyance.
Although the language of the deed may purport to create a joint tenancy, the language is not controlling. Heinig must show that George Hudman accepted the deed to the Casa Blanca property with knowledge of the joint tenancy term. In re Baldwin’s Estate, 50 Ariz. 265, 274-75, 71 P.2d 791, 795 (1937). Because of the statutory presumption that all property acquired during marriage is community property, property conveyed to a husband and wife is held in joint tenancy only when both spouses knowingly accept that form of title. Id.
If the property was held in joint tenancy and George Hudman fraudulently transferred his interest in it to Cheryl Hudman, then Heinig can reach that interest. A conveyance from George Hudman to Cheryl Hudman would impede execution against George Hudman’s one-half joint tenancy interest in the Casa Blanca Property. Assuming that Heinig proves that a fraudulent conveyance occurred and that the property was held in joint tenancy, the trial court may set aside the conveyance or may make the property available for execution to satisfy her judgment pursuant to A.R.S. sections 44-1001 through 44-1010 (Supp.1991).
If Heinig ultimately obtains a judgment against the community, she may of course execute against community property at that time.
The judgment is reversed and this matter is remanded to the superior court for further proceedings in accordance with this opinion.
GERBER, P.J., and JACOBSON, J., concur.
. This person is not a party to this action.
. But see A.R.S. § 25-215(B) (1991): "The community property is liable for the premarital separate debts or other liabilities of a spouse, incurred after September 1, 1973 but only to the extent of the value of that spouse’s contribution to the community property which would have been such spouse's separate property if single.” In such a case, however, the non-debtor spouse has a right to be heard before being subjected to liability: Flexmaster Aluminum Co. v. Hirschberg, 173 Ariz. at 88-89, 839 P.2d at 1133-34.
. Moreover, because Mrs. Hudman could not have been sued in the prior proceeding—because she was not a party to the arbitration agreement and because the arbitrator would not permit her joinder—A.R.S. section 25-215(D) does not apply. While that statute ordinarily requires the joinder of both spouses to create community liability, the statute does not require the impossible.
. Chapter 44 has subsequently been amended and renumbered. This provision is now found in A.R.S. §§ 44-1004 and 44-1007 (Supp.1991).
. At the time George Hudman transferred his interest in the property to Cheryl Hudman, Heinig may have been a future creditor with an unmatured claim under the fraudulent conveyanee statutes. As such, Heinig would have standing under the statute to petition the superi- or court to set aside George Hudman’s fraudulent conveyance. " ‘[C]reditor' means a person who has a claim." A.R.S. § 44-1001(3) (Supp. 1991).
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OPINION
SCHAFER, Judge.
The issue in this case is whether A.R.S. § 11-506 allows a refund when the taxpayer erroneously classified its computer equipment and consequently paid a higher tax.
Taxpayer Abrams Airborne Manufacturing, Inc. (Abrams) brought this Special Action requesting that this Court order Pima County and the Arizona Department of Revenue (collectively “the Government”) to refund an alleged overpayment by Abrams of its 1990, 1991 and 1992 personal property taxes. Abrams brings this Special Action under A.R.S. § 11-506.
Abrams alleges that for tax years 1990, 1991 and 1992, it filed business personal property statements for its secured personal property. It admits that it incorrectly listed part of its property, computer equipment, as “machinery and equipment” rather than “Computer Numeric Controlled (CNC) equipment.” That error resulted in a higher tax. Now, Abrams wants its mistake classified as an “erroneous assessment” under section 11-506 and a refund of the taxes mistakenly paid.
This Court finds that section 11-506 does not provide a remedy for judgmental, non-clerical, non-computational errors by the Taxpayer. The Special Action is denied.
ANALYSIS
A.R.S. § 11-506 provides in pertinent part:
A. If all or a part of a property tax has been paid on an erroneous assessment ... the county board of supervisors shall direct the county treasurer to grant a refund to the taxpayer, to the extent of the erroneous tax paid pursuant to such erroneous assessment____
B. For purposes of this section, an erroneous assessment is limited to a clerical or computational error or any other error not involving the exercise of discretion, opinion or judgment by the assessor or the department. This section does not apply to questions of valuation that can be appealed according to § 42-221 or 42-604. An erroneous assessment does not include an assessment that is uniformly made according to department of revenue guidelines for all similarly classified property.
A.R.S. § 11-506 (emphasis added).
In interpreting a statute, the Court will first examine the language to be interpreted. If that language expresses a clear unequivocal standard, the Court will interpret the statute accordingly; it will look no further for guidance. Escalanti v. Superior Court, 165 Ariz. 385, 799 P.2d 5 (App.1990).
This Court found no cases deciding whose mistakes are to be considered when applying section 11-506. From the plain language of the statute four conclusions can be drawn: (1) errors involving judgment or discretion (non-clerical, non-computational errors) are not remediable; (2) only errors “by the assessor or the department” are recognized; (3) before a taxpayer may capitalize on a government error it must first have the assessor verify the error and submit a claim for refund to the treasurer; and (4) the claim must be submitted within three years of the payment.
The error in this ease is not a clerical or computational error; it is a classification error, a process that involves the exercise of discretion and judgment. Rico Properties v. Santa Cruz County, 172 Ariz. 80, 834 P.2d 166 (Tax.1992). And it is the Taxpayer’s error, not the Government’s. The Taxpayer admits this in its pleadings when it states: “if correctly reported, Petitioner’s computer equipment would have been assessed at a lower full cash value, resulting in a lower tax on such equipment.” Section 11-506 is limited to clerical or computational errors by the government. So, even if the error in this case were one recognized by section 11-506, the Taxpayer would not be entitled to relief.
CONCLUSION
Section 11-506 applies to remedy only those “erroneous assessments” which are the result of clerical or computational mistakes made by the assessor or the department of revenue; it does not apply to non-clerical, non-computational mistakes by the taxpayer.
IT IS ORDERED denying Taxpayer’s Special Action.
This opinion is not a final, appealable judgment; other orders will follow. See Devenir Associates v. City of Phoenix, 169 Ariz. 500, 821 P.2d 161 (1991).
. Taxpayer also filed a petition which is virtually identical to the Special Action disposed of by this opinion. The refund request contained in Taxpayer’s petition is also based upon A.R.S. §11-506.
. Petitioner’s request for oral argument on its Special Action is denied.
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OPINION
SCHAFER, Judge.
The parties raise two issues in this case. One is whether the Assessor may audit prior years’ personal properly tax returns and retroactively impose taxes found unpaid. The other is whether taxes are “delinquent” when a corrected tax bill is mailed out after settlement with a stated delinquency date prior to the date of mailing. But the Court will not decide either issue because of the untimeliness of the appeal.
In the fall of 1990, the Maricopa County Assessor’s office audited Ringier America’s unsecured personal property statements for tax years 1987 through 1990. The audit found Ringier, in preparing and filing its property tax statements for those years, improperly classified certain equipment. The improper classifications resulted in more favorable depreciation schedules which in turn resulted in lower taxes.
In December of 1990 the Assessor reclassified the equipment and issued a tax bill for an additional $51,970.29 for the years 1987 through 1990. The December bill had a due date of January 14, 1991, and a delinquency date of February 13, 1991.
Ringier filed a petition for review with the Assessor on December 13, 1990. On December 24, 1990, the Assessor denied relief. Ringier appealed to the State Board of Equalization. Again, relief was denied. Ringier then appealed to the State Board of Tax Appeals. In January of 1991, before the State Board of Tax Appeals heard the matter, a settlement was reached—the $51,-970.29 due was reduced to $43,430.07.
At the time of settlement, the Assessor informed Ringier a revised tax bill would be issued reflecting the corrected tax amount. On April 3,1991, a revised tax bill was issued showing $43,430.07 as the amount due. However, the revised tax bill had a stated delinquency date of February 13, 1991, a date approximately 5 weeks before the bill was issued. The delinquency date was the same date as the delinquency date of the original tax bill. On April 23, 1991, Ringier paid the taxes.
On April 9, 1993, Ringier filed a document with the Tax Court entitled “Petition for Special Action and Complaint and Appeal from Denial of Tax Refund.” This Court dismissed that portion of the document entitled “Petition for Special Action” stating a special action is not appropriate where an appeal lies. On May 20,1993, Ringier filed a motion for reconsideration arguing an “appeal” under A.R.S. § 11-506 is required to be by way of special action and Ringier’s complaint was made under section 11-506. This Court denied the motion noting claims under section 11-506 are limited to refunds arising only from an “erroneous assessment” and Ringier’s claims were not based on an “erroneous assessment.” This Court treated Ringier’s April 9th document requesting relief under section 11-606 as an appeal under section 42-176.
On July 22,1993, the County filed a motion to dismiss the appeal or, in the alternative, a motion for summary judgment. The County asserts alternative grounds for dismissal: (1) Ringier failed to state any claim under section 11-506 because there was no “erroneous assessment;” and (2) the Tax Court must dismiss the case because the taxes at issue were not paid prior to delinquency. Ringier opposes the motion arguing: (1) its claims are the result of an “erroneous assessment;” and (2) the Assessor waived delinquency on the original tax bill.
ANALYSIS
Section 11-506 states:
A. If all or a part of a property tax has been paid on an erroneous assessment after such assessment is first verified by the county assessor and then verified by the department of revenue, the county board of supervisors shall direct the county treasurer to grant a refund to the taxpayer, to the extent of the erroneous tax paid pursuant to such erroneous assessment, after correcting the tax roll, provided the taxpayer submits a claim on a form approved by the department to the county treasurer within three years after the payment of such erroneous tax. Such claim shall be processed in the same manner and subject to the provisions as provided in § 11-505.
B. For purposes of this section, an erroneous assessment is limited to a clerical or computational error or any other error not involving the exercise of discretion, opinion or judgment by the assessor or the department. This section does not apply to questions of valuation that can be appealed according to § 42-221 or 42-604. An erroneous assessment does not include ' an assessment that is uniformly made according to department of revenue guidelines for all similarly classified property.
A.R.S. § 11-506 (Supp.1993) (emphasis added).
The County argues Ringier’s claims should have been filed under section 42-204. Section 42-204, subsection C, provides:
Within one year after payment of the first installment of the tax, an action may be maintained to recover any tax illegally collected____
Whether Ringier could have filed for a refund under section 42-204 is beside the point because it continues to assert its claims only under section 11-506.
Under section 11-506, Ringier does not claim a computational or clerical error, but instead claims an incorrect valuation by the assessor, discrimination and an inability of the assessor to audit and impose taxes retroactively. It claims that those things fall within that part of section 11-506 directing refunds for “erroneous assessments” arising from “... any other error not involving the exercise of discretion, opinion or judgment by the assessor or the department.” A.R.S. § 11-506QB).
The scope of section 11-506 was recently addressed by Division 1 of our Court of Appeals in. S & R Properties v. Maricopa County, (Ariz.App.1993). The court held section 11-506 provides an administrative avenue for refunds of taxes paid under erroneous assessments. Id. However, the court also found section 11-506 directs refunds only for those assessments which are due to “clear and indisputable” errors evident from either the County’s own records or from the taxpayer’s claim. Id.
It is plain from the pleadings here Ringier’s claims are that the Assessor incorrectly valued its property and in doing so acted illegally and in a discriminatory fashion. These are not the kind of indisputable errors section 11-506 has in mind. The nature of the audit process itself takes both it, and virtually any resulting assessment, outside the scope of errors redressible under section 11-506. The decision whether to audit, what years and returns to include in the audit, whether there were improper classifications, and the information to be assessed during the audit all clearly involve the exercise of the Assessor’s discretion, opinion and judgment. Errors which result from an exercise of discretion, opinion or judgment of the assessor are specifically excluded from those “erroneous assessments” redressible under section 11-506. A.R.S. § 11-506(B). Therefore, Ringier has failed to establish an “erroneous assessment” under section 11-506.
Additionally, section 11-506 is an improper basis for Ringier’s claims for another reason. The court in S & R Properties stated:
The function of the appeal process is to resolve disputed issues of fact and law between taxpayers and the taxing authority____ Consequently, a taxpayer who fails to appeal an alleged erroneous assessment, the determination of which depends on the adjudication of disputed issues of fact or law, may not litigate his right to a refund under section 11-506.
S & R Properties, supra. Here, Ringier’s claims of illegality, discrimination and improper valuation involve unresolved issues of both law and fact. Its claims fall squarely within the class which must be resolved through the appeal process. Since Ringier may not litigate its right to a refund under section 11-506, its appeal must be brought under another statute.
The appeals process has specific statutory guidelines and filing deadlines for each permitted type of appeal. Appeals of valuation or classification must be filed by November 1st of the year the taxes are assessed. A.R.S. §§ 42-176, 42-177, and 42-256. Appeals of taxes illegally collected must be filed within one year of payment of the tax. A.R.S. § 42-204(C).
Viewing Ringier’s appeal as any one of the permitted types of appeals, Ringier failed to timely file its appeal. No appeal to this Court was filed until April 9,1993. That was nearly two years after payment of the allegedly illegally collected taxes at issue here, and a year and a half after the November 1, 1991, statutory filing deadline for valuation and classification claims. Consequently, this Court must dismiss the action.
CONCLUSION
Section 11-506 is not applicable to Ringier’s claims. The claimed errors are not “erroneous assessments” within section 11-506. Additionally, because Ringier’s claims require the resolution of issues of fact and/or law, the claims are not properly the subject of a section 11-506 action. Ringier should have timely raised its claims through an appeal to the Tax Court. It failed to do that. Therefore,
IT IS ORDERED granting the Defendants’ Motion to Dismiss.
This opinion is not a final, appealable judgment; other orders will follow. See Devenir Associates v. City of Phoenix, 169 Ariz. 500, 821 P.2d 161 (1991).
. At oral argument, Ringier attempted to convince this Court that the section 11-506 action is somehow still pending, even after the Court's sua sponte dismissal of the "Petition for Special Action” and the Court’s denial of the motion for reconsideration. The June 14, 1993, minute entry denying reconsideration of its earlier dismissal of Ringier's "Petition for Special Action,” states in pertinent part:
[W]hen a taxpayer files a special action from an 11-506 decision, it is limited to arguing only that there was an “erroneous assessment,” and that phrase is limited "to a clerical or computational error or any other error not involving the exercise of discretion, opinion or judgment by the assessor or the department.” The taxpayer’s action here does not claim a clerical or computation error; it claims an incorrect valuation by the assessor, discrimination and an inability of the assessor to impose retroactive taxes. Those things are not cogni zable under § 11-506. As the Court [previously noted], those are appeal claims.
After reviewing the two applicable minute entries, there is no room for doubt—Ringier’s special action under section 11-506 was dismissed on May 4, 1993 and the dismissal was affirmed on June 14,. 1993. That action is no longer pending and Ringier will not he allowed to revive it through creative argument.
. More specifically, in S & R Properties v. Maricopa County, (Ariz.App.1993) the appellate court addressed the scope of the 1991 amendments to section 11-506 and the effect of the retroactivity provision contained in those amendments. Although the actual holding in S & R Properties is premised upon the application of pre-amendment section 11-506, the court addressed the scope of section 11-506 as it now reads.
. Due to this Court’s resolution against Ringier of the applicability of section 11-506 to this action, the Court need not, and does not, address the issue of whether the subject taxes were delinquent when paid.
|
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OPINION
LANKFORD, Judge.
Charles L. Cotterhill filed this action against Ann Bafile, the owner of Mickey’s Cocktail Lounge, to recover damages for personal injuries resulting from an assault by other patrons of the bar. A jury found that Cotterhill’s damages were $300,000 and allocated 75% of the liability to Bafile. The trial court entered a judgment notwithstanding the verdict (“n.o.v.”) and conditionally granted a new trial under Rule 50(c), Arizona Rules of Civil Procedure. Cotterhill appeals from the judgment n.o.v. and the conditional grant of a new trial. We reverse the judgment n.o.v. and affirm the order granting a new trial.
On appeal, we must decide the following issues:
1. Did the trial court err when it granted judgment n.o.v. based on its finding that Bafile had not violated the applicable standard of care?
2. Did the trial court err in conditionally granting a new trial based on its ruling that evidence of prior violence at the lounge had been improperly admitted and that a refused jury instruction should have been given?
3. May the trial court admit evidence of Cotterhill’s blood alcohol level at a new trial?
Cotterhill and two co-workers, Eddie DeLuna and Keith Davis, went to the lounge to drink and play pool. One bartender was on duty. During the evening there was open antagonism between the Cotterhill group and some of the bar “regulars.” The record contains conflicting eyewitness testimony concerning the events leading to the assault on Cotterhill. Because of serious brain injuries resulting from this assault, Cotterhill had no memory at trial of these events.
Davis testified that although the bartender was aware of an angry confrontation between DeLuna and another patron, she did not ask anyone to leave or otherwise act to calm the situation. Davis told DeLuna to leave the bar because he felt that DeLuna’s behavior could result in a fight. According to Davis, after DeLuna left the bar a group of men surrounded Cotterhill and Davis while they sat on bar stools. Someone tapped either Cotterhill or Davis on the shoulder and said that the group did not like DeLuna or them. A fight ensued during which Davis escaped through the door and Cotterhill was severely beaten.
Another eyewitness testified that some of the bar “regulars” were annoyed with Cotterhill for irritating them while they were playing pool. He described the tension between the two groups as having existed for about ten to fifteen minutes before the fight broke out. He had no recollection of DeLuna.
I.
In reviewing the granting of judgment n.o.v., we must determine “whether the evidence is sufficient that reasonable people could discern facts to support the verdict.” Koepnick v. Sears Roebuck & Co., 158 Ariz. 322, 329, 762 P.2d 609, 616 (App.1988). In doing so, we view the evidence in a light most favorable to sustaining the jury verdict. Id. Citing Pierce v. Lopez, 16 Ariz.App. 54, 490 P.2d 1182 (1971) and Sucanick v. Clayton, 152 Ariz. 158, 730 P.2d 867 (App.1986), the trial court granted judgment n.o.v. for lack of evidence that the bartender had time to act to prevent the violence, which meant that the bartender could not have breached the duty of care she owed to Cotterhill.
To establish negligence, a plaintiff need only present facts from which negligence can reasonably be inferred. McFarlin v. Hall, 127 Ariz. 220, 224, 619 P.2d 729, 733 (1980). However, in Pierce and Sucanick we held that while a bar owner owes a duty to his patrons to exercise reasonable care to protect them from physical assault, the injury must be reasonably foreseeable. In Pierce, it was estimated that only thirty seconds elapsed between the time that beer was spilled by one patron on another, angry words were spoken, and a fight erupted. In Sucanick, bar employees reasonably believed that all of the members of one rival group had left the bar.
In contrast, in this case evidence permits the inference that bad feelings between two groups persisted for 10 to 15 minutes, including loud and hostile verbal exchanges among several men. However, the bartender did not attempt to calm the situation, ask anyone to leave, threaten to call the police or call the police during that time. A reasonable jury could have inferred that the probability of a fight was evident for several minutes before it occurred, and that the bartender neglected to take reasonable action to avert violence.
Evidence presented at trial also permits the inference that the bartender saw Cotter-hill assaulted, pushed outside and followed by his attackers, yet failed to go outside and determine whether Cotterhill had been injured.
The Second Restatement of Torts defines the duty owed to Cotterhill by Bafile:
A possessor of land who holds it open to the public for entry for his business purposes is subject to liability to members of the public while they are upon the land for such a purpose, for physical harm caused by the accidental, negligent, or intentionally harmful acts of third persons ..., and by the failure of the possessor to exercise reasonable care to
(a) discover that such acts are being done or are likely to be done, or
(b) give a warning adequate to enable the visitors to avoid the harm, or otherwise to protect them against it.
Restatement (Second) of Torts § 344 (1965). Under this section of the Restatement, Bafile could be held liable if Cotterhill’s injuries resulted from her negligent operation of her business. See also Porter v. Superior Ct., 144 Ariz. 346, 697 P.2d 1096 (1985) (business proprietor has affirmative duty to make business premises reasonably safe for invitees’ use); McDonald v. Smitty’s Super Valu, Inc., 157 Ariz. 316, 757 P.2d 120 (App.1988) (business owner owes duty to invitees to maintain premises in reasonably safe manner).
The evidence supports a reasonable inference of negligence. Accordingly, we conclude that the trial court erred in granting judgment n.o.v. in favor of Bafile.
II.
We next consider whether the trial court erred in issuing the new trial order.
This court will not set aside a trial court’s order granting a new trial absent a clear showing of an abuse of discretion. Adroit Supply Co. v. Electric Mut. Liab. Ins. Co., 112 Ariz. 385, 389, 542 P.2d 810, 814 (1975). The court based its decision to grant a new trial on two grounds. An order granting a new trial for more than one reason will be upheld if any of the reasons stated is supportable. Reeves v. Markle, 119 Ariz. 159, 163, 579 P.2d 1382, 1386 (1978).
A.
We first consider the court’s decision to grant a new trial on the basis that it erred by refusing Bafile’s requested instruction on the duty of bar owners. In determining whether a jury instruction should be given, this court views the evidence in the light most favorable to the requesting party, and if there is evidence tending to establish the theory proposed in the instruction, it should be given. Andrews v. Fry’s Food Stores of Arizona, 160 Ariz. 93, 95, 770 P.2d 397, 399 (App.1989).
The judge was not required to give the requested instruction. A trial judge need not instruct on every refinement of the law suggested by counsel. Pioneer Roofing Co. v. Mardian Constr. Co., 152 Ariz. 455, 462, 733 P.2d 652, 659 (App.1986).
However, the judge did not abuse his discretion by deciding that the requested instruction should have been given and conditionally granting a new trial. Cotterhill argues that the requested instruction was unnecessary because it was already covered by an instruction which informed the jury that a bar owner owes a duty to exercise reasonable care and vigilance to protect patrons from reasonably foreseeable injury. However, the proposed instruction clarified this general instruction by setting forth factors relevant to foreseeability and informed the jurors that they could determine, as an issue of fact, whether the person in charge of the bar should have observed and realized whether the conduct involved was likely to result in an injury to one of the patrons.
The purpose of jury instructions is to explain the applicable law to the jury in terms that it can understand. Barrett v. Samaritan Health Servs., Inc., 153 Ariz. 138, 143, 735 P.2d 460, 465 (App.1987). Evidence supported the proposed instruction and the instruction correctly stated the law. Although the trial judge instructed the jury on the basic proposition of law, he was entitled to give additional instructions which elaborad ed on the minimally required instructions to help the jury better understand the issues. A trial judge has considerable discretion in deciding whether more specific instructions are necessary to avoid misleading the jury. See Ott v. Samaritan Health Serv., 127 Ariz. 485, 491-92, 622 P.2d 44, 50-51 (App.1980) (while general rule is that decision to further instruct jury is within trial court’s discretion, error for court to refuse to further instruct confused jury); Gammon v. Clark Equip. Co., 104 Wash.2d 613, 707 P.2d 685, 687 (1985) (not error for trial judge to refuse jury instruction clarifying strict liability and negligence theories). We conclude that the trial court did not abuse its discretion in granting a new trial based on its failure to give the proposed instruction.
B.
The trial court also based its new trial order on the admission at trial of evidence regarding prior incidents of violence at the lounge, which the court later found to be a violation of Arizona Rule of Evidence 403.
In conditionally granting a new trial, the trial judge relied on Burgbacher v. Mellor, 112 Ariz. 481, 543 P.2d 1110 (1975). In that case, our supreme court stated that:
Without a foundational showing that other accidents occurred under similar conditions and for similar reasons, such evidence is prejudicial to the defendant____ It must be shown, ... that the previous conditions were substantially similar to the conditions resulting in the accident at issue; it is sufficient if they are similar in general character if not precisely the same.
Burgbacher, 112 Ariz. at 483, 543 P.2d at 1112 (citations omitted). The trial judge concluded that under Burgbacher, evidence of prior incidents at the lounge should not have been admitted because those incidents were not substantially similar to the incident in which Cotterhill was injured. The prior incidents included liquor violations, disorderly conduct, domestic violence, and an alleged assault involving Bafile’s former partner. Some of these occurrences took place outside the lounge in the parking lot. In contrast, Cotterhill’s injury resulted from an altercation among bar patrons inside the lounge. The conditional grant of a new trial based on the court’s conclusion that the prior incidents were not substantially similar to the one in which Cotterhill was injured was not an abuse of discretion.
III.
Cotterhill also argues that the trial court, relying on Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. (“A.R.S.”) section 4-312(A) , improperly refused to admit evidence of his blood alcohol level. Cotterhill asks us to direct the trial court to admit that evidence in any retrial.
Subsequent to the trial in this case, the Arizona Supreme Court held section 4-312(A) unconstitutional in Schwab v. Matley, 164 Ariz. 421, 793 P.2d 1088 (1990). The Supreme Court held that by making the doc trines of contributory negligence and assumption of the risk questions of law, section 4-312(A) violated article 18, section 5 of the Arizona Constitution. Id.
The trial court concluded that the holding in Schwab would not have altered its ruling excluding evidence of Cotterhill’s blood alcohol level at trial. Cotterhill sought to admit this evidence to show that the bartender failed to adequately monitor conditions in the bar and failed to intervene when she had a duty to do so. He argues that his intoxication was evidence of the bartender’s negligent operation of the lounge.
We will not disturb a trial court’s ruling on the exclusion or admission of evidence absent a clear abuse of discretion and resulting prejudice. Selby v. Savard, 134 Ariz. 222, 227, 655 P.2d 342, 347 (1982). This trial court’s ruling was not an abuse of discretion. The court found that because Cotterhill did not base his claim on an allegation that the bartender negligently sold alcohol to him, Schwab was inapplicable. The court found that Cotterhill’s intoxication was not obvious and thus had no effect on the events at the lounge. Cotterhill has not attacked that finding on appeal. Therefore, his intoxication had no bearing on the question of whether the bartender acted negligently.
Even if it was error to exclude this evidence, Cotterhill has failed to show any resulting prejudice. Such prejudice “must affirmatively appear from the record.” Walters v. First Federal Sav. and Loan Ass’n of Phoenix, 131 Ariz. 321, 326, 641 P.2d 235, 240 (1982). The record in this case shows no prejudice resulting from the trial court’s decision to exclude evidence of Cotterhill’s blood alcohol content. It is within the trial court’s discretion to rule upon the admission or exclusion of this evidence at a new trial.
Conclusion
We reverse the judgment notwithstanding the verdict and affirm the order for new trial.
GERBER, P.J., and McGREGOR, J., concur.
. The proposed instruction read as follows:
You are instructed that one who operates a bar where the public is invited, while not an insurer of the safety of his patrons, owes the duty to his patrons to exercise reasonable care and vigilance to protect them from reasonably foreseeable injury, mistreatment or annoyance at the hands of other patrons.
In particular the protector must exercise the power of control or expulsion which his occupation of the premises gives him over the conduct of any person who may be present, to prevent injury, mistreatment or annoyance to the patron at said person’s hand. He must act as a reasonable man to prevent harm from the negligence of patrons who have entered the premises or even from intentional acts on the part of said persons. He is required to take action only when he has reason to believe, from what he has observed, that the conduct of the other person will be dangerous to the visitor. The test of whether the duty of reasonable care is discharged is the probability of injury to the plaintiff. Whether the person in charge of the premises, in the exercise of ordinary care, should have observed the conduct of the offender, realized it was likely to result in injury to an invitee, and stopped it, are questions of fact to be determined by you.
. Although a similar instruction was approved in Pierce v. Lopez, 16 Ariz.App. 54, 490 P.2d 1182 (1971), we are troubled by the following sentence in the instruction proposed here: "The test of whether the duty of reasonable care is discharged is the probability of injury 'to the plaintiff.” Our state Supreme Court disapproved of a prior version of this sentence which used the words "probability or possibility of injury.” McFarlin v. Hall, 127 Ariz. 220, 225, 619 P.2d 729, 734 (1980). Although the Supreme Court focused on the error in using the term "possibili ty,” we believe that this part of the instruction is inherently misleading because it states that breach of a defendant’s duty is dependent not on defendant’s actions, but on one of the factors which the court uses to determine the existence of a duty. This does not change our conclusion that the trial court could grant a new trial, however. The record does not reveal that the trial court intended to give the proposed instruction verbatim rather than as modified to correctly state the law.
. A.R.S. § 4-312(A) read as follows:
A licensee is not liable in damages to any consumer or purchaser of spirituous liquor over the legal drinking age who is injured or whose property is damaged, or to survivors of such a person, if the injury or damage is alleged to have been caused in whole or in part by reason of the sale, furnishing or serving of spirituous liquor to that person. A licensee is not liable in damages to any other adult person who is injured or whose property is damaged, or to the survivors of such a person, who was present with the person who consumed the spirituous liquor at the time the spirituous liquor was consumed and who knew of the impaired condition of the person, if the injury or damage is alleged to have been caused in whole or in part by reason of the sale, furnishing or serving of spirituous liquor.
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OPINION
EHRLICH, Judge.
Celia Barr Associates, Inc. (“Celia Barr”) appeals from a judgment dismissing its claims for contribution and indemnity and from the denial of its motion for new trial. We affirm the judgment for the reasons which follow.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
On June 25, 1986, Gerald and Edwina Glassman, Plainville Electro Plating Company, and Plainville West, Inc. (“Glassmans”) conditionally contracted with Miles and William Munzer and Technical Metal Finishing Corporation (“Munzers”) for the purchase of Marro Plating, an electroplating facility in Scottsdale, Arizona. On June 30, 1986, the Glassmans, through Robert B. Cohen, a Connecticut attorney with the firm of Cohen & Channin (“Cohen”), and the Munzers contracted with Celia Barr to conduct an environmental audit of the plating facility- On that same day, Celia Barr submitted an oral report of its environmental audit. The Glassmans and Munzers closed the transaction the next day. However, in January 1988, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (“EPA”) notified the Glass-mans that Marro Plating was located in the Indian Bend Wash Superfund site and that the facility was the subject of an EPA investigation.
In May 1988, the Glassmans filed an action against the Munzers and Celia Barr in federal court. The only claim against Celia Barr alleged professional malpractice in performing the environmental audit; it was dismissed without prejudice. The court later granted the Munzers’ motion for summary judgment on the federal claims and declined jurisdiction over the pendent state racketeering claim, thereby ending the Glassmans’ federal litigation.
In February 1989, the Glassmans filed an action against Celia Barr in Maricopa County Superior Court for professional negligence and malpractice. Celia Barr in turn designated Cohen and the Munzers as “non-parties at fault.” In January 1990, the Glass-mans sued the Munzers in a separate Maricopa County Superior Court action for alleged racketeering violations and added a claim for breach of contractual warranties. On May 24, 1990, Celia Barr moved to consolidate the Glassmans’ two state cases, and to file a third-party complaint, adding the Munzers and Cohen as third-party defendants in the professional malpractice action against it. The trial court denied both motions. The Glassmans’ suit against the Munzers eventually was settled.
While the jury was deliberating in the Glassmans’ action against Celia Barr, but before it reached its verdict, the parties settled the lawsuit. Celia Barr agreed to pay the Glassmans $1,250,000, for which the Glassmans released Celia Barr and Cohen from liability; there was no reference to the Munzers. The parties nonetheless allowed the jury to continue deliberations, although the settlement made moot any verdict. Three days later, the jury rendered its verdict; it found the Glassmans and Celia Barr each 18.5% liable, Cohen 87% at fault, and the Munzers 26% liable for total damages of $700,000.
After the trial court refused to allow Celia Barr to file a third-party complaint in the Glassmans’ malpractice action, but before that case was settled, Celia Barr filed an action against Cohen and the Munzers, the subject of this appeal. In its complaint, Celia Barr claimed that, with regard tó damages for which it was liable to the Glassmans in the malpractice action, it was entitled to contribution from the Munzers and Cohen, indemnification from Cohen, and indemnification and treble damages from the Munzers. Only Cohen was served. The trial court granted Cohen’s motion to dismiss; it later denied Celia Barr’s motions for reconsideration and new trial. Celia Barr timely appealed.
DISCUSSION
A. Standard of Review
In this appeal, we decide whether the trial court properly dismissed Celia Barr’s claims against Cohen for contribution and indemnity, and whether it properly denied Celia Barr’s subsequent motion for new trial. However, we first must resolve the parties’ disagreement as to the appropriate standard of review. Celia Barr urges that we apply the standard used to review a trial court’s dismissal. Cohen maintains that his motion to dismiss was converted to one for summary judgment because the trial court relied upon facts and documents outside the pleadings submitted by Celia Barr.
Whether we designate the motion as one to dismiss or one for summary judgment is of little consequence to the resolution of this appeal. See Brosie v. Stockton, 105 Ariz. 574, 576, 468 P.2d 933, 935 (1970). However, in granting Cohen’s motion to dismiss the contribution and indemnity claims pursuant to Arizona Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6), the trial court considered evidence extrinsic to the pleadings. Thus we consider Cohen’s motion as one for summary judgment. E.g., Frey v. Stoneman, 150 Ariz. 106, 109, 722 P.2d 274, 277 (1986). The motion was properly granted if, viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to Celia Barr, “factually, ‘reasonable people could not agree with the conclusion advanced by the proponent of the claim.’” Riley, Hoggatt & Suagee, P.C. v. English, 177 Ariz. 10, 12, 864 P.2d 1042, 1044 (1993), quoting Orme School v. Reeves, 166 Ariz. 301, 309, 802 P.2d 1000, 1008 (1990); see Ariz.R.Civ.P. 56(c).
B. Contribution Claim
Celia Barr challenges the trial court’s dismissal of its claim for contribution against Cohen. The court granted Cohen’s motion to dismiss because Celia Barr failed to comply with the requirements of Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated (“AR.S.”) section 12-2503(D) by not discharging all parties potentially liable to the Glassmans, specifically the Munzers. The court then denied Celia Barr’s motion for reconsideration and later denied its motion for new trial, stating similarly that, because Celia Barr had not obtained a release of the Munzers, it had not discharged the “common liability” and therefore was not entitled to contribution from Cohen.
In 1984, the Arizona legislature adopted a version of the Uniform Contribution Among Tortfeasors Act, AR.S. § 12-2501 et seq., which retained a comparative negligence scheme and recognized a right of contribution for a joint tortfeasor who paid more than his pro rata share of the common liability for the same injury. City of Tucson v. Superior Court, 165 Ariz. 236, 240, 798 P.2d 374, 378 (1990); Neil v. Kavena, 176 Ariz. 93, 95, 859 P.2d 203, 205 (App.1993), citing Dietz v. General Electric Company, 169 Ariz. 505, 510, 821 P.2d 166, 171 (1991). In 1987, however, the legislature repealed the then-existing version of section 12-2506 and enacted a new statute which abolished joint liability and provided that a defendant in a personal-injury action “is liable only for the amount of damages allocated to that defendant in direct proportion to that defendant’s percentage of fault.” AR.S. § 12-2506, added by Laws 1987, ch. 1, § 2, eff. Jan. 1, 1988. Thus, for lawsuits filed after January 1, 1988, a defendant’s liability is several only, unless a statutory exception applies. Dietz, 169 Ariz. at 506-08, 821 P.2d at 167-69; City of Tucson, 165 Ariz. at 240 n. 2, 789 P.2d at 378 n. 2; cf A.R.S. § 12-2506(D) (specifying circumstances in which joint and several liability remain).
Celia Barr maintains on appeal that, even as a severally-liable tortfeasor, it is entitled to seek contribution from Cohen if it shows that Cohen is also hable to the Glassmans .for the same injury and that Celia Barr has paid more than its pro rata share of the common liability. Section 12-2501 provides:
A. Except as otherwise provided in this article, if two or more persons become jointly or severally hable in tort for the same injury to person or property or for the same wrongful death, there is a right of contribution among them even though judgment has not been recovered against ah or any of them. [Emphasis added.]
B. The right of contribution exists only in favor of a tortfeasor who has paid more than his pro rata share of the common liability, and his total recovery is limited to the amount paid by him in excess of his pro rata share.
D. A tortfeasor who enters into a settlement with a claimant is not entitled to recover contribution from another tortfeasor whose liability for the injury or wrongful death is not extinguished by the settlement nor in respect to any amount paid in a settlement which is in excess of what was reasonable.
Celia Barr asserts that, because subsection A of this statute uses the disjunctive phrase “jointly or severally liable” rather than the conjunctive phrase “jointly and severally liable,” contribution is available to merely severally-liable tortfeasors “even though judgment has not been entered against all or any of them.” It further maintains that, according to subsection B, this right exists when the tortfeasor has paid more than his pro rata share of the common liability and that subsection D permits a settling tortfeasor’s contribution action against those tortfeasors whose liability has been extinguished by the settlement. Celia Barr also asserts that it satisfied the procedural requirements of AR.S. § 12-2503 for enforcing its right.
Recently, however, Arizona courts have recognized that, in cases such as this when several liability applies, contribution among joint tortfeasors virtually is nonexistent. E.g., Dietz, 169 Ariz. at 510, 821 P.2d at 171; City of Tucson, 165 Ariz. at 240 n. 2, 798 P.2d at 378 n. 2; Neil, 176 Ariz. at 95, 859 P.2d at 205; Roland v. Bernstein, 171 Ariz. 96, 97-98, 828 P.2d 1237, 1238-39 (App.1991); see also Jefferson L. Lankford & Douglas A. Blaze, The Law of Negligence in Arizona § 12.3, at 304 (1992) (scope of contribution restricted significantly by limitation of joint and several liability; “right of contribution now only arises in cases based on concerted action or relating to hazardous wastes.”). It is undisputed that Celia Barr’s action against Cohen and the Munzers was filed subsequent to Arizona’s effective abolition of joint liability.
Further, the term “common liability,” as it is used in section 12-2501(B), contemplates that tortfeasors have some shared liability. After the dismissal of the contribution claim in this case, the Arizona Supreme Court construed the phrase to mean “the dollar amount shared by joint tortfeasors for which they were legally answerable.” Parker v. Vanell, 170 Ariz. 350, 352, 824 P.2d 746, 748 (1992) (emphasis original; footnote omitted). Although the court was not required to address whether this definition of common liability included all joint tortfeasors, later discussion indicates that the phrase refers to the “total damages” suffered by an injured person instead of a portion of those damages shared by some but not all of the joint tortfeasors. See id. at 353, 354, 824 P.2d at 749, 750. Under the current section 12-2506, with the exclusion of two narrow exceptions, tortfeasors have no common liability; rather, each is only severally liable for his pro rata amount. Because there is no common liability to discharge, there is no right of contribution when a single tortfeasor settles a plaintiffs claim against him. Thus the legislature’s virtual elimination of joint liability defeats Celia Barr’s contribution claim and it was properly dismissed.
Celia Barr submits alternatively that its contribution claim was dismissed improperly because it falls within at least one, if not both, of the exceptions to the abolition of joint liability. See AR.S. § 12-2506(D). Cohen responds that the exceptions do not apply because the Glassmans’ claim against Celia Barr was for its professional malpractice and we agree.
The first statutory exception provides that a “party is responsible for the fault of another person, or for the payment of the proportionate share of another person, if both the party and the other person were acting in concert or if the other person was acting as an agent or servant of the party.” AR.S. § 12-2506(D)(1). Celia Barr contends that it was acting as Cohen’s agent or servant in performing the environmental audit. Celia Barr alleged in its complaint, however, that it had a contractual relationship with the Glassmans to perform the environmental audit. Thus Celia Barr was acting as the Glassmans’ agent, the party making the claim against Celia Barr for professional malpractice. The exception explained in section 12-2506(D)(1) applies instead when the party seeking protection under this subsection is acting as a agent or servant óf another tortfeasor, not the injured party. Consequently, Celia Barr’s liability to the Glassmans, if any, was only several.
The second exception states that “[n]othing in this section prohibits the imposition of joint and several liability in a cause of action relating to hazardous wastes or substances or solid waste disposal sites.” AR.S. § 12-2506(D)(2). Celia Barr also argues that its contribution claim relates to hazardous wastes or substances because the Glassmans’ action was for Celia Barr’s failure to discover that the plating facility was located in a Superfund site and had other environmental problems. Notwithstanding, the Glassmans sued Celia Barr for professional malpractice in conducting the environmental audit. Such a claim does not fall within the second exception to the abolition of joint liability even if the subject matter of the professional services was related to hazardous wastes or substances. Celia Barr’s liability related to the quality of its professional services rendered the Glassmans and not to hazardous wastes or substances.
C. Indemnity Claims
Celia Barr next submits that the trial court improperly dismissed its two indemnity claims against Cohen because the facts in its complaint, taken as true, support a claim upon which relief could have been granted. The court found that these claims lacked merit and accordingly granted Cohen’s motion to dismiss and denied Celia Barr’s subsequent motion for new trial.
Generally, there is no indemnity among joint tortfeasors, Shea v. Superior Court, 150 Ariz. 271, 274, 723 P.2d 89, 92 (1986); King & Johnson Rental Equipment Company v. Superior Court, 123 Ariz. 256, 257, 599 P.2d 212, 213 (1979), although Arizona recognizes certain exceptions, such as when the party seeking indemnity is not at fault. Id. These exceptions are limited to situations when it is equitable to shift liability for the loss from one joint tortfeasor to another. See Pinal County v. Adams, 13 Ariz. App. 571, 572-73, 479 P.2d 718, 719-20 (1971).
Celia Barr maintains that its failure to discover and disclose certain environmental problems, if any, was merely “passive” negligence because Cohen was actively negligent in his instructions. The trial court, though, found it incredible that an engineering firm which held itself out to be an expert in performing environmental audits was “passively negligent” in failing to discover that the property was in an EPA-designated Superfund site.
In the present matter, we agree with the trial court that Celia Barr’s failure to discover environmental obstacles when conducting an environmental audit could not constitute “passive” negligence. Celia Barr admitted in its complaint that it had contracted with the Glassmans to perform engineer ing and related services in connection with an environmental audit of the electroplating facility. Its failure to conduct a thorough examination under its contract with the Glass-mans is not passive negligence. See Shea, 150 Ariz. at 273, 723 P.2d at 91 (Arizona Public Service Company’s negligence active despite fact that alleged negligence was failure to repair defective wire); Pinal County, 13 Ariz.App. at 573, 479 P.2d at 720 (county’s failure to post sign warning drivers of Tinterseetion not passive negligence). Further, Celia Barr stated in its amended response to Cohen’s motion to dismiss that it was not claiming that its negligence, if any, was passive; this admission is binding on appeal. Brenteson Wholesale, Inc. v. Arizona Public Service Company, 166 Ariz. 519, 522, 803 P.2d 930, 933 (App.1990).
In its first of two indemnity claims against Cohen, Celia Barr alleged that its liability to the Glassmans, if any, was due to Cohen’s reckless misconduct in allowing the transaction to close with known environmental risks. Celia Barr submits that the trial court improperly dismissed this claim and that it is entitled to indemnification from Cohen according to the rationale of section 97 of the Restatement of the Law of Restitution (1937), which provides:
A person whose negligent conduct combined with the reckless or intentionally wrongful conduct of another has resulted in injury for which both have become liable in tort to a third person is entitled to indemnity from the other for expenditures properly made in the discharge of such liability, if the other knew of the peril and could have averted the harm at a time when the negligent tortfeasor could not have done so.
Cohen responds that this section is not applicable in Arizona and is contrary to the policy of denying indemnity when a party actively participates in creating the liability.
As noted by Celia Barr, Arizona courts have acknowledged section 97 but have not applied it to the facts of a particular case. See, e.g., King & Johnson, 123 Ariz. at 258, 599 P.2d at 214; Stroud v. Dorr-Oliver, Inc., 112 Ariz. 403, 407, 542 P.2d 1102, 1106 (1975), supp. op. 112 Ariz. 574, 544 P.2d 1089 (1976); Sequoia Manufacturing Company, Inc. v. Halec Construction Company, 117 Ariz. 11, 21, 570 P.2d 782, 792 (App.1977); Allison Steel Manufacturing Company v. Superior Court, 20 Ariz.App. 185, 189, 511 P.2d 198, 202 (1973). Its rule allows indemnity when two or more joint tortfeasors are liable to the injured person, if the tortfeasor against whom indemnity is sought is guilty of reckless or intentional wrongdoing and was able to prevent the harm. Restatement of Restitution § 97, cmt. a. The Arizona Supreme Court has noted that section 97 is essentially ‘“an application between tortfeasors of the doctrine of last clear chance.’” King & Johnson, 123 Ariz. at 258, 599 P.2d at 214. As such, this theory of indemnity did not survive the adoption of comparative negligence in Arizona and provides no relief for Celia Barr. See Dykeman v. Engelbrecht, 166 Ariz. 398, 400-01, 803 P.2d 119, 121-22 (App.1990).
Celia Barr maintains finally that the trial court erroneously dismissed its second claim against Cohen for indemnity because its liability, if any, was premised on actions taken at Cohen’s direction and any defects in the environmental audit were attributable to Cohen’s faulty or limited instructions. Celia Barr argues that indemnity in such a circumstance is recognized by section 90 of the Restatement of Restitution, which states:
A person who, at the direction of and on account of another, has done an authorized act because of which both are liable in tort, is entitled to indemnity from the other for expenditures properly made in the discharge of such liability, if he acted in reliance upon the lawfulness of the direction, and, as between the two, his reliance was justifiable.
Given the general rule in Arizona that indemnity among joint tortfeasors is not allowed, Young v. Environmental Air Products, Inc., 136 Ariz. 206, 214, 665 P.2d 88, 96 (App.1982), aff'd as modified, 136 Ariz. 158, 665 P.2d 40 (1983), section 90 provides an exception because, under that section, an agent is entitled to indemnification when he becomes liable in tort, without any fault of his own, simply by following the instructions of another agent of the principal. See id.; see also Radcliffe v. Hilton Inn, 119 Ariz. 306, 308, 580 P.2d 767, 769 (App.1978) (hotel security entitled to indemnity under section 90 for damages caused by its unlawful entry of hotel room at direction of hotel manager); Restatement § 90, cmt. a.
Although Celia Barr does not dispute that it contracted with the Glassmans to perform an environmental audit, it alleged that Cohen, acting as the Glassmans’ agent, directed the audit, attaching in support the jury verdict finding Cohen to be 37% at fault, twice the liability of Celia Barr. Cohen maintains that Celia Barr cannot recover under this theory because Celia Barr was independently negligent. Cf. Schweber Electronics v. Natural Semiconductor Corp., 174 Ariz. 406, 410, 850 P.2d 119, 123 (App.1992) (indemnity in cham-of-distribution case requires distributor or retailer to have no independent negligence).
Section 90 applies only when the agent has done “an authorized act” in the manner directed by the principal. Restatement of Restitution § 90, cmt. b. Here, Celia Barr never alleged in its complaint that the Glass-mans, acting through their agent Cohen, authorized Celia Barr to negligently conduct an environmental audit of the plating facility. In any event, Celia Barr could not be liable if it had properly conducted the study; it is liable for its negligent performance of the audit. In other words,- Celia Barr incurs liability because of its own negligence in conducting the environmental audit, not because of Cohen’s direction on behalf of the Glass-mans. Thus Celia Barr is not entitled to indemnity under section 90.
Additionally, the record fails to establish that the Glassmans placed Celia Barr under the direct supervision of Cohen and that Celia Barr acted reasonably pursuant to Cohen’s direction in performing the audit. Although Celia Barr pled in its complaint that Cohen was acting as the Glass-mans’ agent and that the environmental audit was conducted at Cohen’s direction, Cohen replied that no employment relationship existed between him and Celia Barr, and that Celia Barr was merely “an independent contractor hired to conduct an environmental audii/study on behalf of Glassman, not ... Cohen.” (Emphasis original.) Because Cohen made clear that there was no issue as to whether Celia Barr acted according to Cohen’s direction, Celia Barr then was required to establish with admissible evidence that Celia Barr and Cohen were agents of the principal, the Glassmans, and that, under the terms of this relationship, Celia Barr was acting at the direction of Cohen and in the intended manner. Celia Barr, however, merely relied upon the allegations in its complaint and consequently faded to create a factual issue about which reasonable people could disagree. Thus the trial court granted properly Cohen’s motion to dismiss.
CONCLUSION
For the foregoing reasons, we affirm the judgment of the trial court.
TOCI, P.J., and NOYES, J., concur.
. Although the deposition transcripts Celia Barr attached to its motion for reconsideration from the trial court’s grant of Cohen's motion to dismiss arguably establish that Celia Barr was acting under Cohen's direction, we are precluded from relying on this evidence as a basis for reversing the trial court. See GM Development Corporation v. Community American Mortgage Corporation, 165 Ariz. 1, 4, 795 P.2d 827, 830 (App. 1990) (appellate court only considers evidence presented to the trial court when the summary-judgment motion considered).
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OPINION
VOSS, Presiding Judge.
Defendant James Morales Carbajal pled guilty to six felonies and three misdemeanors arising out of his operation of a nursing home. On appeal he argues that the trial court erred in imposing aggravated sentences and ordering restitution. We hold that the restitution order was improper and remand for a redetermination of restitution. We affirm the convictions and sentences in all other respects.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
Defendant was originally charged with twenty-three counts of criminal conduct in connection with his operation of Angel’s Quality Care, a registered residential care home. The charges arose from his misrepresentations to prospective clients about his qualifications to operate such a facility, improprieties regarding forged documents, and his mistreatment of and failure to properly care for the residents in the nursing home.
Pursuant to a plea agreement, defendant pled guilty to illegally conducting an enterprise, a class 3 felony; fraudulent schemes and artifices, a class 2 felony; forgery, a class 4 felony; three counts of aggravated assault, a class 6 felony; and three counts of neglect of an incapacitated adult, a class 1 misdemeanor. Also, defendant agreed to pay restitution on all counts including those dismissed, not to exceed $30,000. In exchange, the state agreed to dismiss the remaining charges against him.
Following an aggravation/mitigation hearing, the trial court sentenced defendant to three consecutive six-month jail terms for the misdemeanors and a presumptive four-year prison term for the forgery count. Finding the aggravating factors outweighed the mitigating factors, the trial court sentenced defendant to an aggravated prison term of 1.87 years each for the three aggravated assault counts and an aggravated prison term of 10.5 years for the fraud count. All sentences were ordered to run consecutively. Defendant was placed on five years probation to commence upon his release from prison for the charge of illegally conducting an enterprise. In addition, he was ordered to pay $24,692.25 in restitution to the victims and their families. Defendant filed a timely notice of appeal.
ISSUES PRESENTED
Defendant raises the following issues on appeal with , respect to his sentencing:
1. Whether the trial court erred in imposing the four aggravated sentences?
2. Whether the trial court erred in awarding restitution in amounts greater than the economic losses suffered by the victims?
DISCUSSION
A. AGGRAVATED SENTENCES
Defendant argues that the trial court erroneously imposed the four aggravated sentences by considering an improper aggravating factor. In setting forth the reasons for imposing the aggravated sentences, the trial court stated that it found appropriate all the aggravating factors “spelled out in the pre[-]sentence report.”
Specifically, defendant contends that the trial court erred in considering aggravating factor number five, which states “the offenses alleged in Navajo County Cause Numbers 91-CR-162/163.” This factor relates to charges brought against defendant in two earlier proceedings that were dismissed following his indictment in the present case. Defendant argues Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. (“A.R.S.”) section 13-702(C) (Supp.1992) provides that before the court may use a matter as an aggravating factor, it must be found to be true. Defendant contends that the evidence presented at the sentencing hearing regarding these prior charges was insufficient for the court to find them to be true.
It is well established that the trial court may consider a defendant’s criminal character even if the defendant’s conduct has not resulted in a conviction. State v. Shuler, 162 Ariz. 19, 21, 780 P.2d 1067, 1069 (App.1989); State v. Cawley, 133 Ariz. 27, 29, 648 P.2d 142, 144 (App.1982). The trial court may not, however, consider mere arrests as aggravating factors where there is “no evidence of the underlying facts to demonstrate that a crime or some bad act was probably committed by defendant----” Shuler, 162 Ariz. at 21, 780 P.2d at 1069.
Here the trial court had ample evidence from which it could determine defendant probably committed the offenses charged in the two earlier proceedings. A pre-sentence report regarding cause numbers 91-CR-162/163 was attached to the presentence report in the present case and therefore made available for the trial court’s consideration. The pre-sentence report concerning the dismissed offenses contained facts taken from Navajo County Sheriff’s Office reports and statements given by the victims. Information in pre-sentence reports taken from police records is admissible to show aggravating and mitigating circumstances. State v. Marquez, 127 Ariz. 3, 6, 617 P.2d 787, 790 (App.1980).
Furthermore, evidence was presented at the pre-sentence hearing concerning the pri- or charges. Among the evidence was oral testimony from a victim and another witness regarding the underlying facts of the prior offenses. Considering the information in the pre-sentence report and testimony at the sentencing hearing, substantial evidence existed in the record from which the trial court could determine that defendant committed the prior offenses.
Defendant next claims that the trial court overlooked two mitigating factors. He asserts that sufficient evidence was presented of (1) his remorse and (2) the lack of any large pecuniary gain from the nursing home; therefore, the trial court was required to take these factors into account as mitigating factors pursuant to A.R.S. section 13-702(C). Again, we disagree.
The consideration of mitigating circumstances is entirely within the discretion of the trial court. State v. Webb, 164 Ariz. 348, 355, 793 P.2d 105, 112 (App.1990); State v. Bly, 127 Ariz. 370, 372, 621 P.2d 279, 281 (1980). When a sentence is within statutory limits, it will not be modified on review unless it clearly appears that the trial court abused its discretion by showing arbitrariness or capriciousness, or by failing to conduct an adequate investigation into the facts. State v. Fatty, 150 Ariz. 587, 592, 724 P.2d 1256, 1261 (App.1986). The law is well established that the trial court is not obligated to find mitigating factors just because evidence is presented; the court is only required to consider them. Id. The trial court is in the best position to determine the evidence surrounding the aggravating and mitigating factors and which factors should be given credence. We find no abuse of discretion in the trial court’s consideration of mitigating and aggravating factors.
B. RESTITUTION
Defendant also contends that the trial court erred in ordering $24,692.25 in restitu tion to the various victims. In explaining the restitution awards, the trial court stated:
I was concerned about the restitution. Because care was given, food was received, lodging was cared for[,] [t]he people who were paying for the care did get something in return for their money [—] [i]n some cases, probably fair consideration.
Although we have a' ease of an illegal enterprise, fraud and forgery, the income derived by Mr. Carbajal was pretty insignificant in the case[J ... I heard the money that he was receiving for patients ... was not high. It was probably well below market[,] so he wasn’t gaining a large financial award from his enterprise.
But I have elected to order the restitution as set forth in the presentence report, as modified ... [n]ot so much as to reimburse them for that amount of money, because they received nothing.
[T]he court finds that they did receive somethingf,] [b]ut I don’t have a proper gauge to restore them their emotional and their mental health, their sorrow and their neglect, other than what they paid out of pocket. So, I’m not really giving them their money, but it is using that as a criteria and setting the restitution for all of the other harm that was done to them.
[Tjhat’s why I’ve elected to follow the restitution as set forth in the presentence report.
The award of restitution is controlled by statute. State v. Morris, 173 Ariz. 14, 16, 839 P.2d 434, 436 (App.1992). A.R.S. section 13-603(0 (Supp.1993) states in relevant part:
If a person is convicted of an offense, the court shall require the convicted person to make restitution to the person who is the victim of the crime or to the immediate family of the victim if the victim has died, in the full amount of the economic loss as determined by the court.
Under AR.S. section 13-105(12) (Supp.1993), “economic loss” is defined as:
[Ajny loss incurred by a person as a result of the commission of an offense. Economic loss includes lost interest, lost earnings and other losses which would not have been incurred but for the offense. Economic loss does not include losses incurred by the convicted person, damages for pain and suffering, punitive damages or consequential damages.
When read together, these statutes indicate a legislative intent to impose mandatory restitution, while limiting the types of losses for which a defendant can be ordered to pay. Morris, 173 Ariz. at 17, 839 P.2d at 437.
Here, the trial court’s comments indicate the restitution order was made to compensate the victims for “their emotional and their mental health, their sorrow and their neglect.” In other words, restitution was awarded as damages for pain and suffering, not for “economic losses” suffered by the victims. Arizona law does not authorize restitution for such losses. Accordingly, the restitution order was improper and must be remanded.
The state attempts to justify the restitution order by arguing that the trial court’s statement should be read “as merely an acknowledgment that these- people did not get what they paid for and that they are entitled to be made economically whole.” However, the trial court’s plain language explaining its purpose for the restitution refutes this argument. The trial court clearly indicates that restitution was not ordered to reimburse the victims for the fees paid to defendant. It was ordered to compensate the victims for their pain and suffering. Although the trial court used the amounts paid by the victims as the basis for calculating restitution, this cannot save the awards.
Pursuant to the plea agreement, defendant agreed to pay up to $30,000 for restitution to his victims. The victims remain entitled to restitution for all economic losses they have suffered as a result of defendant’s offenses. A.R.S. § 13-603(C). Although the victims “received some care in return for their money,” there is evidence of “economic losses” that calls for restitution. The victims and their families paid for food, lodging, and medical assistance and expertise. Although the victims were given some attention, other evidence indicates that they were deprived of food, their medication, and clean clothing and linen. When a trial court bases a restitution award on improper crite ria, the proper remedy is to vacate that portion of the sentence and remand the matter to the trial court for a redetermination of restitution. See State v. Iniguez, 169 Ariz. 533, 538, 821 P.2d 194, 199 (App.1991).
DISPOSITION
We have reviewed the entire record for error pursuant to A.R.S. section 13-4035 (1989), and have found none other than the restitution order discussed above. Therefore, the convictions and sentences are affirmed with the exception of the restitution awards, which are vacated. This matter is remanded to the trial court for further proceedings consistent with this decision.
McGREGOR, J., and MICHAEL D. RYAN, Superior Court Judge , concur.
. Defendant entered guilty pleas to four charges in 91-CR-163 pursuant to a plea agreement. All charges in 91-CR-162/163 were apparently dismissed before sentencing.
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OPINION
SCHAFER, Judge.
The issue in this case is whether the 1992 valuation of the Arizona Biltmore Hotel property is too high—or too low.
The Biltmore is a quality, full-service, luxury resort hotel opened in 1929. It has 502 rooms, a 38,000+ square foot conference center, three heated swimming pools, eight lighted tennis courts, a health & fitness center, retail shops and boutiques, three restaurants and two lounges, and is adjacent to two PGA-rated championship golf courses. From 1959 through 1990 it received a five-star rating from the Mobil Travel Guide.
In mid-1991 the Biltmore underwent approximately $7,000,000 worth of renovations to its main lobby, restaurants and outdoor recreation facilities. Another $20,000,000 will be spent in the next three years to renovate the guest rooms and other facilities to return it to its previous five-star condition.
In June of 1992 Biltmore Hotel Partners (Partners) purchased the Biltmore for $61.5 million. The Partners’ marketing plan anticipated an occupancy level of 63.46-68.20% and' an average daily room rate (ADR) of between $162.76 and $186.37 for 1992, 1993 and 1994.
For the tax year 1992, Maricopa County set the full cash value of the Biltmore, as of January 1, 1992, at $48,146,291. After the Partners purchased the property in June of 1992 they filed an appeal with this Court contesting the County’s 1992 valuation. Trial to the Court was held in September of 1993.
The Partners contend that the County’s full cash value of $48+ million is excessive and should be lowered to $37,078,160. The County argues $48 + is too low and should be raised to $61.5 million.
ANALYSIS
When a valuation is appealed to the Tax Court, there is a presumption that the government’s valuation is correct and lawful. AR.S. § 42-178(B). The presumption is one of fact and may be overcome by competent evidence. Department of Property Valuation v. Trico Electric Cooperative, Inc., 113 Ariz. 68, 70, 546 P.2d 804, 806 (1976). In order to overcome the presumption, a taxpayer must present sufficient “ ‘evidence contradicting the presumption ... from which the trial court can determine the fidl cash value of the property in question.’ ” Department of Property Valuation v. Trico Electric Cooperative, Inc., supra, 113 Ariz. at 69 and 70, 546 P.2d at 805 and 806 (quoting Graham County v. Graham County Electric Coop., Inc., 109 Ariz. 468, 512 P.2d 11 (1973)). Likewise, the County, to overcome the presumption and have the assessed value raised, must produce enough evidence contradictory to the presumption which will allow the Court to determine the true full cash value of the property. Ibid.
The Tax Court may make an independent evaluation of full cash value only after two conditions are met. First, evidence must be presented to rebut the presumption. AR.S. § 42—178(C); Department of Property Valuation v. Trico Electric Cooperative, Inc., supra, 113 Ariz. at 70, 546 P.2d at 806. This evidence may be comprised of the evidence used in determining the full cash value. Department of Property Valuation v. Trico Electric Cooperative, Inc., supra, 113 Ariz. at 70, 546 P.2d at 806. Second, the Court must make a preliminary finding that the valuation is excessive or insufficient.
Here, in an effort to overcome the presumption of correctness of the County’s valuation of $48+ million, the Partners pre sented the testimony of Matthew Crow, one of the Partners, Dr. Karl L. Guntermann, a professor in the Department of Business Administration at Arizona State University, Pete Zych, a tax agent, and rebuttal testimony of Mike Husij, an MAI appraiser. Through these witnesses, the Partners attempted to establish that (1) the financing obtained by the Partners for the purchase of the Biltmore was not at market interest rates or market terms; (2) an equivalent market rate for the financing received on the Biltmore purchase would have been either 14.5% or 15.4%; and (3) when an appropriate market interest rate is factored into the calculation of a cash equivalency for the Biltmore property the result is a value of only $37,-078,160. Clearly this evidence contradicts the initial full cash value determined by the County. However, it was not sufficient to prove the original valuation is excessive.
Several significant flaws exist in the evidence the Partners presented. Those flaws include: an initial presumption by the Partners that the financing obtained on the Biltmore purchase was not at prevailing market rates and terms, a purported market interest rate derived from data which was not specific to the hotel-resort industry when such data was readily available, a failure to consider the $20 million loan guarantee of AOKI Corporation in calculating the value, and the inability to satisfactorily explain why a purchase price of $61.5 million was set if such price was not a reflection of the Biltmore’s true value.
Further, and most significant, in arriving at the figure the Partners want this Court to adopt, the Partners’ expert performed only a cash equivalency analysis for the Biltmore property rather than utilizing one of the three standard approaches to valuation. For purposes of establishing value for property taxes, Arizona courts have traditionally recognized only three approaches: the income approach, the cost approach, and the market or sales comparison approach. These are the three accepted approaches to valuation. Mohave County v. Duval Corp., 119 Ariz. 105, 106, 579 P.2d 1075, 1076 (1978). It has been stated:
Evidence is competent for the purposes of rebutting the statutory presumption [of correctness] and of showing that the Department’s valuation was excessive when it is derived by standard appraisal methods and techniques which are shown to be appropriate under the particular circumstances involved. Appraisal evidence is competent even though it is based on a different method of appraisal than that utilized by the Department, as long as the method used is shown by expert testimony to be a standard method of appraisal.
Inspiration Consolidated Copper v. Arizona Department of Revenue, 147 Ariz. 216, 223, 709 P.2d 573, 580 (App.1985) (emphasis added). The analysis performed by the Partners’ expert was not done utilizing one of the standard appraisal methods and, although it may be said the method he did use is, in some circumstances, standard and appropriate, this Court does not find it appropriate here. Therefore, the Partners’ evidence does not overcome the statutory presumption of correctness. While this Court was impressed with the knowledge and experience of the Partners’ witnesses, the evidence produced did not present a complete or convincing analysis of the full cash value of the Biltmore. Consequently, this Court finds that the County’s initial full cash valuation of $48,146,291.00 is not excessive.
This brings us to the second issue: Is the initial fiill cash value by the County insufficient, thereby allowing this Court to find a full cash value higher than that initially assigned by the County?
To support its position that the original full cash value should be raised to $61.5 million, the County presented expert testimony and a full appraisal of the Biltmore property. The appraisal was prepared by Mr. Lawrence E. Bloom, an experienced, certified MAI appraiser and consultant. Mr. Bloom has been involved in the appraisals of over 40 large hotels and resort hotels. He performed the Biltmore appraisal after formal and informal inspections of the property, including an aerial inspection, and after a review of the Biltmore’s financial and operating statements, including budgeted operating performance estimates, demographic data, development patterns, growth and market trends in the region. Mr. Bloom evaluated the propriety of using each of the three traditional methods of valuation and actually performed both the income approach and the sales comparison approach, which yielded similar values. He did an extensive sales comparison analysis utilizing sales data specific to the hotel and resort-hotel market. In short, the evidence presented by the County through Mr. Bloom was thorough, detailed and competent to overcome the presumption of correctness of the initial $48+ million. Further, it is undisputed the Partners purchased the Biltmore property in June of 1992 for $61.5 million.
This Court finds that as of January 1, 1992, the full cash value of the Biltmore property was $61.5 million. This may or may not be merely coincidental with the purchase price the Partners agreed to pay in June of that same year.
Once the Court finds the original valuation of the property was deficient, the judgment shall be for the government against the taxpayer for the costs of the appeal and the taxes due on the property in excess of the amount originally levied and assessed. A.R.S. § 42-178(D)(3). Also, when a valuation is contested on appeal and a higher valuation is determined by the Court, interest at the rate of 10%, not the delinquency rate of 16%, is due on the judgment running from the date of the underpayment. Waddell v. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 176 Ariz. 178, 859 P.2d 801 (Tax 1993); AR.S. § 42-178(F).
CONCLUSION
IT IS ORDERED that the full cash value of the Biltmore property for 1992 be raised to $61.5 million and the tax rolls corrected accordingly. The Partners, as the owners of the Biltmore property, are ORDERED to pay the additional assessment of property taxes which results from the difference in the initial property valuation of $48,146,291.00 and this corrected valuation of $61.5 million, plus interest. Finally, IT IS ORDERED that the Partners pay the County’s costs associated with this appeal.
This opinion is not a final, appealable judgment; other orders will follow. See Devenir Associates v. City of Phoenix, 169 Ariz. 500, 821 P.2d 161 (1991).
. In arriving at its full cash value figure, the County's appraiser used an occupancy rate of 68% and an ADR of $170. The Partner’s estimation of the cash equivalency value of the Biltmore was not broken down in a manner utilizing occupancy rates or average daily room rates.
. From the record in this matter it appears the taxes were paid in two installments, one on April 28, 1993, and one on October 29, 1991. Therefore, interest on the underpayment shall be calculated by attributing a pro rata share of the total underpayment to each installment. A.R.S. § 42-178(F).
|
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OPINION
GERBER, Judge.
Defendant Alfred Eli Hopkins (Hopkins) appeals from his convictions of sexual abuse of a minor and child molestation. He presents two issues for review: whether the trial court erred by admitting evidence of prior bad acts and whether trial counsel’s representation was ineffective. Because the prior acts were improperly admitted, we reverse and remand for a new trial and, for this reason, do not reach the second issue.
BACKGROUND
Hopkins was charged by indictment with two counts of sexual abuse of a minor, class 8 felonies, and one count of child molestation, a class 2 felony. All of the offenses charged were dangerous crimes against children. A jury convicted him of all counts.
The charges against Hopkins arose from allegations that he sexually molested his niece, D.C., when she was eleven years old. Prior to trial, the state filed a motion to admit evidence of his alleged prior molestation of other young family members pursuant to Rule 404(b) of the Arizona Rules of Evidence. Hopkins filed no written response.
At the pretrial hearing on the motion, the state argued that evidence of Hopkins’s molestation of his two stepdaughters, J.P. and K.P., and his nephew, K.T., was admissible to establish his emotional propensity to molest children and to establish that his fondling of D.C. was intentional rather than accidental. These alleged molestations ended approximately ten years prior to the present charges.
Prior to trial, the state offered an avowal concerning what its expert, a psychologist named Dr. Hinton, would testify to if he were called as an expert medical witness on the emotional propensity issue. Dr. Hinton did not appear at the hearing or the trial. After describing Dr. Hinton’s credentials and experience, the state avowed that he would testify that Hopkins’s previous acts of molestation demonstrated a continuing emotional propensity to molest children; that the fact that approximately ten years had passed without incident between the previous acts and the present offense was due solely to the unavailability of young children in the home; and that the acts were similar in nature despite differences in age and gender of the victims and in the types of acts involved.
Characterizing the avowal as uncontested, the trial court granted the motion to admit evidence of the prior bad acts. It found that the state had established by expert testimony that the prior acts showed a continuing emotional propensity to molest children and that the acts were not too dissimilar or remote in time. The trial court did not comment on the admission of the acts for the other purpose of showing intent, knowledge, and absence of mistake. The prior acts were described in detail at Hopkins’s trial.
DISCUSSION
Objection by Defense Counsel
The state argues in its brief on appeal that defense counsel failed to contest the avowal concerning the expert’s testimony and that therefore Hopkins may not contest the avowal for the first time on appeal.
We disagree with the state and the trial judge that the avowal was uncontested. It is true that counsel did not object to the fact that the expert was not present to testify. However, the record reveals several extended instances where defense counsel objected both to the admission and to the substance of the state’s avowal about the absent medical expert’s expected testimony:
DEFENSE COUNSEL: Your honor, essentially our response is that these prior bad acts, none of them should be admitted. ... we have a problem with the evidence of the bad acts themselves, the sufficiency. ... we have a changed story as far as [stepdaughter J.P.] is concerned. [J.P.], although initially apparently told Detective Sehaub that there had been some relations, sexual relations between her and her father, that statement is now being recanted by that witness and was recanted under oath.
THE COURT: ... So if [stepdaughter K.P.] is called to testify and she takes the stand, what is she going to say? Is she going to say that these prior acts occurred or they did not? Or don’t you know? DEFENSE COUNSEL: At this point, your honor, the indications are that she will say that nothing ever happened. And for that reason, I don’t think the state would have sufficient evidence to proceed and try to establish with any degree of certainty that this—these acts supposedly happened.
We feel remoteness in time is a major factor in this case.
The other factor that we would note to the court that would tend to eliminate the significance or relevance of any such acts [regarding nephew K.T.] is the sex of the victim and the nature of the acts, which are totally different from the sex of the victim that’s alleged in these other incidents.
... There is no evidence for two of the allegations. The third allegation is so remote and so distinguishable from the present facts of the case that it would be highly prejudicial. And the relevance is very questionable on whether Mr. Hopkins did or didn’t commit the acts he’s accused of
Your honor, essentially touching on the point that the court was concerned about with regard to [K.T.], your honor, we feel that it’s a combination that the court has to consider, not only the differences in sex, differences in acts, but also taking into consideration the remoteness in time that those factors make the admission or the presentation of any such evidence to the jury extremely prejudicial, and the relevance of it, even given an opinion by a doctor, is extremely unreliable. (Emphasis added.)
By arguing that the acts were prejudicial, dissimilar, and remote in time, counsel made a relevancy and foundational objection. He also explicitly questioned the reliability of the evidence of the prior acts. His objection regarding the prior bad acts is sufficiently detailed to be preserved for review. See Killingsworth v. Nottingham, 18 Ariz.App. 356, 358, 501 P.2d 1197, 1199 (1972). Even in the absence of an objection, we find fundamental error in the admission of these prior acts based solely on an avowal that is so inadequate on its face. See State v. Gendron, 168 Ariz. 153, 155, 812 P.2d 626, 628 (1991).
Insufficiency of Avowal
In State v. McFarlin, 110 Ariz. 225, 517 P.2d 87 (1973), our supreme court established the emotional propensity exception to the exclusionary rule. The court there held that in those cases in which the offense charged involves abnormal sex acts, there may be reason to accept proof of similar acts near in time to the offense charged as evidence of the accused’s propensity to commit the charged crime. Id. at 228, 517 P.2d at 90. The reason for requiring the prior uncharged sex acts to have been committed near in time to the offense charged is to ensure that the emotional propensity existed when the charged crime was committed. State v. Spence, 146 Ariz. 142, 144, 704 P.2d 272, 274 (App.1985).
Admission of prior bad acts to show a continuing emotional propensity to commit the crime charged is an exception to the general prohibition on admission of such acts in Rule 404(b). This exception does not exist in the federal rule from which Arizona’s rule derives. Arizona’s exception to the rule’s exclusionary policy rests on expert medical testimony showing a reliable medical basis for the continuing emotional propensity.
In State v. Treadaway, 116 Ariz. 163, 167, 568 P.2d 1061, 1065 (1977), the supreme court held that where the prior acts are remote in time or dissimilar in nature to the crime charged, the prior acts are inadmissible unless there is “reliable expert medical testimony” that such acts show a continuing emotional propensity to commit the crime charged. The rationale underlying Treadaway is that admission of such evidence ought to be strictly limited because of the danger of unfair prejudice to the defendant. If this kind of supercharged evidence of remote pri- or misconduct is to be admitted, foundational medical expert testimony must precede it. Id. The court reiterated the requirement of reliable expert medical testimony for prior remote or dissimilar acts in State ex rel. LaSota v. Corcoran, 119 Ariz. 573, 576-77, 583 P.2d 229, 232-33 (1978). The present state of the law, as it appears in both these cases, is that admitting emotional propensity to molest based on acts as remote in time as ten years requires medical testimony which is factually and medically “reliable” about the continuing emotional propensity during the interval between the prior acts and the present charges.
Here, the state fell well short of meeting this reliability requirement. No medical expert testified at the pre-trial hearing or the trial. The state offered no affidavits or written reports in lieu of such testimony. Neither the trial judge nor defense counsel could question the expert, and the trial judge could not possibly evaluate his reliability. The most the trial judge could do was to listen to the prosecutor’s piecemeal rendition of the expert’s anticipated testimony. The prosecutor presented an inconsistent and uncertain account of what the expert would testify about:
There was not the availability of a young child in the home for him to abuse maybe is what he would say. But the obvious implication from the evidence is that perhaps other acts might have occurred. (Emphasis added.)
The state made no precise avowal that the absent expert would testify to emotional propensity. The state tried to account for the ten-year gap between the prior bad acts and the offense charged by arguing that, because there was no child living in Hopkins’s home during this period of time, Hopkins “maybe” lacked a potential victim. Equally credible explanations for the time gap are that Hopkins simply changed his behavior or lacked any emotional propensity to molest or did not commit the prior acts at all. There is nothing in the record to show that these innocent interpretations are any less reliable than the uninformed criminal interpretation urged by the prosecution.
As of 1977, the emotional propensity exception had been extended to questionable lengths. Treadaway, 116 Ariz. at 167, 568 P.2d at 1065. In this case it has gone far beyond those lengths. Evidence of prior sexually aberrant acts is of such a highly prejudicial nature that it makes the guilty verdict “almost a formality.” Id. Jurors hearing evidence of prior sexual misconduct may assume too readily that the past misconduct is conclusive proof of the present charge. To admit evidence of these ten-year-old prior bad acts without expert testimony of their relevancy, where the prosecution’s rendition of the anticipated testimony is riddled with uncertainty and speculation, falls short of the reliability requirements of Treadaway and takes the emotional propensity exception to unacceptable lengths. We hold, therefore, that because there was no reliable expert medical testimony to show emotional propensity, the trial court abused its discretion by admitting this evidence.
In an apparent backup argument, the state also argues that evidence of these prior acts is admissible to show intent and absence of mistake under Rule 404(b). For the same reasons that this evidence is inadmissible under the emotional propensity exception—its highly inflammatory nature coupled with little or no predictive value—it is inadmissible under these exceptions to Rule 404(b). A further problem exists: before admitting evidence of prior crimes, the trial court must weigh on the record the probative value of the evidence against any possible prejudice to the defendant. State v. Taylor, 9 Ariz.App. 290, 293, 451 P.2d 648, 651 (1969). The record reveals no such balancing by the trial court—not surprisingly, because the rationale for admission was emotional propensity rather than absence of mistake.
J.P.’s son, who was present in the room at the time of the alleged crime, denied that the charged incident occurred at all. Without the bombshell evidence of the prior bad acts, there is a reasonable prospect of a different verdict and, hence, reversal is required. State v. Grijalva, 137 Ariz. 10, 14, 667 P.2d 1336, 1340 (App.1983).
In light of our reversal, we need not reach the remaining issue raised by Hopkins.
CONCLUSION
For the foregoing reasons, the trial court erred by admitting evidence of Hopkins’s alleged prior bad acts. We reverse the convictions and remand for a new trial.
VOSS, P.J., and LANKFORD, J., concur.
. Rule 404(b), in effect at the time of Hopkins’s trial, provided:
(b) Other crimes, wrongs, or acts. Evidence of other crimes, wrongs, or acts is not admissible to prove the character of a person in order to show that he acted in conformity therewith. It may, however, be admissible for other purposes, such as proof of motive, opportunity, intent, preparation, plan, knowledge, identity, or absence of mistake or accident.
. The state acknowledged that one of the stepdaughters, K.P., denied being molested by Hopkins. Despite the state’s subpoena, she did not appear at trial.
|
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ORDER
FELDMAN, Chief Justice.
Applicant Reed Warren King, having established to the satisfaction of the Disciplinary Commission and this Court that he is qualified for reinstatement to active bar membership; now therefore, pursuant to Rule 72 of the Rules of the Supreme Court,
IT IS ORDERED that Applicant Reed Warren King be reinstated to active membership in the State Bar of Arizona. Applicant Reed Warren King is placed on probation for a period of two years, under the terms and conditions as disclosed in the commission report attached hereto as Exhibit A.
EXHIBIT A
BEFORE THE DISCIPLINARY COMMISSION OF THE SUPREME COURT OF ARIZONA
Comm. No. 91-0044
In the Matter of the
Application for
Reinstatement of
REED W. KING,
PETITIONER.
DISCIPLINARY COMMISSION REPORT
[Filed Nov. 19, 1993.]
This matter came before the Disciplinary Commission of the Supreme Court of Arizona on October 16, 1993, for oral argument, pursuant to Rule 72(e), RAriz.Sup.Ct. The Commission considered the Hearing Committee’s recommendation of reinstatement and probation. No objections to the Committee’s recommendation were filed.
Decision
By a concurrence of the eight members present, the Commission adopts the recommendation of the Hearing Committee that Respondent be reinstated and placed on probation for a period of two years, under the terms and conditions set forth below. The Commission also unanimously adopts the findings of fact and conclusions of law of the Hearing Committee.
Terms of Probation
Upon reinstatement, Applicant shall be placed on probation for a period of two years, under the following terms and conditions:
1. Applicant shall refrain from engaging in conduct which violates the Rules of Professional Conduct, Rule 42, Ariz.R.Sup.Ct.
2. If any lawsuit is filed or criminal charges are brought against Applicant, he shall send copies of those matters to the State Bar within two weeks of notification.
3. Applicant shall obtain a practice monitor approved by Chief Bar Counsel who will agree to meet with Applicant no less than once per month. The practice monitor must agree to file quarterly reports, reporting the dates upon which he and Applicant met, the number of cases Applicant has pending, the nature of those cases, whether Applicant is handling the cases in a timely manner, any problems identified by the monitor in terms of Applicant’s handling of cases, and any recommendations he or she may have for addressing these problems.
4. Applicant shall file quarterly reports with the Director of the Law Office Management Assistance Program (LOMAP) showing:
a. the amount of income realized during the reporting period and the source thereof;
b. the amount of debt repayment effectuated during the reporting period;
c. debt balances; and
d. any major purchases (i.e., greater than $2,500.00).
5. Applicant will submit to unscheduled inspections and random audits by the LO-MAP Director or her designee not to exceed once per month for the first six months of probation and thereafter not to exceed quarterly unless some question is raised regarding Applicant’s finances. If an irregularity is identified, Applicant will submit to a resumption of inspections and random audits on a monthly basis.
6. Applicant shall issue no NSF checks on any trust or general operating account maintained in connection with the practice of law.
7. Applicant shall provide copies of his state and federal income tax returns.
8. The State Bar may obtain credit reports at its discretion.
9. As long as Applicant is employed by a law firm or another attorney, he will not be a signatory on a trust account. If Applicant becomes self-employed, he will abide by the State Bar of Arizona Trust Account Guidelines (revised May 1,1984), and make all financial records and accounts available for inspection by the LOMAP Director upon reasonable request.
10. Should Applicant become self-employed during the period of probation, he shall instruct, in writing, any individual or entity responsible for preparing settlement drafts or other checks in which a third party may have an interest to notify the client or third party of the issuance of any such draft or check.
11. As long as Applicant is employed by a law firm or other attorney, he shall inform, in writing, any individual or entity responsible for preparing settlement drafts or other checks in which a third parly may have an interest that the draft or check must name a co-payee in addition to Applicant, such as the client, the law firm or another lawyer in the firm.
12. Applicant shall advise any prospective employer of the misconduct which led to his suspension, the disciplinary action taken, and these terms of probation.
13. Applicant shall provide the Disciplinary Clerk and the Director of Membership Records of the State Bar of Arizona written notice of any change in his address or employment status within thirty days of said change.
14. Applicant shall pay all reasonable costs associated with the monitoring or enforcement of these terms of probation.
15. In the event it comes to the attention of the State Bar that Applicant may be in breach of any of the above terms of probation or has violated the Rules of Professional Conduct during the term of his suspension, the State Bar shall file a notice of non-compliance or violation with the Disci plinary Clerk who will refer this matter to a hearing committee or hearing officer for an evidentiary hearing to be held as soon as practicable, but in no event later than forty-five days thereafter, to determine whether Applicant is in breach of the terms of probation. The burden of proof of non-compliance or violation shall be by a preponderance of the evidence. At the conclusion of any evidentiary hearing on non-compliance or violation, the hearing committee or hearing officer will issue a report containing findings of fact, conclusions of law and a recommendation. The matter will then proceed pursuant to Rule 53(d) and (e), Ariz.R.Sup.Ct.
Underlying Facts
Applicant was suspended from the practice of law for a period of two years effective July 7, 1986, for violations of DR 6-101(A)(3), DR 9-102(A), DR 9-102(B)(3), and DR 9-102(B)(4).
Respondent represented a plaintiff (the “Client”) in a personal injury action arising out of an accident. Applicant also represent ed the Client concerning medical expenses she had incurred with a number of providers as a result of the accident. The Client planned to use her prospective recovery in the lawsuit to discharge those debts.
The case settled in July 1982 for $6,250.00. This amount was immediately deposited into Applicant’s trust account. Respondent disbursed $2,010.90 to the Client, indicating that this was the balance remaining after his fees and the outstanding medical expenses were paid. However, using the figures Applicant provided to the Client in his “accounting” of the disbursements, the amount paid to the Client was actually the amount that was owed to the creditors. The Client should have received approximately sixty dollars more than she received.
In addition to simply confusing the disbursements, Applicant made another, more serious, error. Rather than paying the creditors the balance he believed was due to them, Respondent used those funds to resolve his own personal financial difficulties. Applicant then lied to the creditors when asked when they would be paid.
In January 1983, Applicant’s misrepresentations became clear when the Client met with the major creditor’s representative. Subsequent to this meeting, the major creditor contacted Applicant directly, and secured full payment of the debt.
When the Client contacted Applicant in January 1983 concerning her discovery, he advised her that a mistake had been made. Later that month, Applicant arranged for the payment of the remaining outstanding debts although, by this time, one of the creditors had ceased doing business.
When Applicant learned that the State Bar had received a complaint against him in this matter, he arranged to be interviewed by an investigator of the State Bar, and candidly acknowledged that the allegations were substantially correct. He stated that he had been in a precarious financial situation at the time of the misconduct due to unforeseen circumstances. Respondent was very cooperative throughout the disciplinary proceedings, accepted absolute responsibility for his actions, and exhibited sincere remorse.
Application for Reinstatement
Applicant filed a petition for reinstatement on February 4, 1991. In April 1991, after a newspaper article was published alleging that Applicant, among others, was involved in farm subsidy abuse, the State Bar, with Applicant’s cooperation and approval, continued the reinstatement proceedings to conduct further investigation into these alleged improprieties. Upon thorough investigation of the matter, the State Bar was unable to uncover any evidence linking Applicant to the alleged abuses.
The United States Attorney’s Office, after conducting its own investigation, has made no effort to commence criminal proceedings. While the U.S. Attorney’s Office fell short of issuing a statement affirming it has no intention of ever pursuing criminal proceedings, a representative from the Department of Agriculture has indicated that the investigation has shifted away from Applicant and other individuals. In addition, Applicant has subsequently been approved for participation in programs of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The State Bar is satisfied with this information, and is now urging Applicant’s reinstatement.
The matter came on for hearing before the Committee on April 20, 1992, and June 18, 1993. Applicant appeared pro per.
Discussion of Decision
Rule 72(e), Ariz.R.Sup.Ct., indicates that an applicant for reinstatement must demonstrate his rehabilitation, compliance with all applicable discipline orders and rules, fitness to practice, and competence. The Committee, upon consideration of the testimony presented, the application for reinstatement, and the rehabilitation demonstrated, found that Applicant has carried his burden of proof. The Committee found that, during the term of suspension, Applicant complied with all relevant disciplinary orders and rules imposed as a result of his suspension. During this period, Applicant also worked diligently to maintain his competency in the areas of agricultural, water, and real estate law, which are his intended areas of practice, by actively reviewing current decisions and literature, attending classes and seminars, serving on committees of the Arizona Cotton Growers’ Association, and participating in various activities directed at improving legislation in these areas of practice. Applicant has been a law-abiding citizen during the period of suspension, and has shown remorse for his past conduct. Applicant also presented an abundance of letters from friends and colleagues attesting to his excellent character and high ethical standards, and urging that he be reinstated.
The Committee found that the likelihood of Applicant again misappropriating funds is remote. Virtually all of the reference letters reflect the belief that Applicant's misconduct was aberrational. The State Bar is also convinced that Applicant’s misconduct was out of character and unlikely to be repeated.
Applicant has been undergoing financial difficulties, and has filed for a Chapter 11 reorganization. The Commission expressed initial concern, as the original misconduct which led to Applicant’s suspension stemmed from his then-existing personal financial problems. However, the probation recommended herein includes numerous terms which have been crafted specifically to address this particular concern. The Commission is convinced these terms will adequately deter any anticipated problems.
During the period of suspension, Applicant was informally reprimanded for conduct involving neglect of a legal matter, failure to communicate with a client, and failure to return files to a client. However, this sanction was issued for conduct occurring prior to Applicant’s suspension. In addition, the record on appeal contains a letter from the complainant in that matter, stating that the matter was fully resolved satisfactorily without additional cost to the client. The Commission does not find that this reprimand detracts from the character and rehabilitation of Applicant as presented in these proceedings.
Upon observation of Applicant at oral argument, the Commission was impressed with his candor and obvious willingness to cooperate throughout these disciplinary proceedings, as well as Applicant’s acceptance of total responsibility for his actions. Applicant has apparently made every effort to regain the excellent character and reputation he enjoyed prior to his suspension. It is apparent to the Commission that Applicant has been successful in that effort. The Commission believes that Applicant’s conduct was an aberration, and agrees with the Committee that the chance of recurrence is remote. The Commission finds that Applicant has carried his burden of proving that he is sufficiently rehabilitated to resume the practice of law. The Commission unanimously recommends that Applicant be reinstated, and that, upon reinstatement, he be placed on probation for a period of two years, under the terms and conditions set forth above.
RESPECTFULLY SUBMITTED this 19th day of November, 1993.
/s/Steven L. Bossé
Steven L. Bossé, Chairman
Disciplinary Commission
. Commissioner Burlison did not participate in these proceedings.
. As the conduct giving rise to the suspension occurred prior to February 1, 1985, the Rules of Professional Conduct, former Rule 29(a), Ariz. R.Sup.Ct., prevailed. However, as the application for reinstatement was filed after February 1, 1985, these proceedings are governed by the Ariz.R.Sup.Ct., Rules 71 and 72, effective February 1, 1985.
. Applicant later admitted to the Hearing Committee that this was not true; the problems were not the result of a mistake.
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OPINION
NOYES, Judge.
Appellants O’Malley Lumber Co. (O’Malley) and Olympia Tools, Inc. (Olympia) appeal from a 1.35 million dollar jury verdict in favor of Appellees Gibbs in this product liability case. We have jurisdiction pursuant to Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated (A.R.S.) sections 12-120.21(A)(1) (1992) and -2101(B) (Supp.1993).
I.
The product at issue was a thirty-six inch “bungee” cord, an elastieized cord with metal hooks on each end. A few days before his injury, Michael Gibbs had purchased the cord from O’Malley, who had purchased it from Olympia, who had imported it from Taiwan. The injury occurred when Michael was stretching the cord across the bed of a pickup truck to secure a load of building material. He had anchored one hook on the pipe rack in the bed of the truck and was stretching the cord to the other side of the truck. Suddenly, the hook being pulled against straightened out and the cord fired the straightened hook into Michael’s right eye. The eye had to be surgically removed.
Appellees Gibbs argued at trial that the cord was defective and unreasonably dangerous because, during normal use, the hooks would fail long before the cord reached its limit of elasticity. They also argued that the cord was defective and unreasonably dangerous because there were no instructions or warnings concerning the relative weakness of the hooks. Appellees presented expert testimony that the cord would fail at about one hundred pounds of load, that the hooks would fail at less than fifty pounds of load, and that the load capacities of the cord and the hooks would be equalized if the diameter of the hooks was increased by .6 millimeter.
Olympia’s product catalog claimed that its bungee cords could be stretched to “twice their lengths,” which would be seventy-two inches for the cord in this case. The bed of Michael’s truck was sixty-nine inches wide. Appellants’ misuse theory was based on testimony from Michael that suggested to Appellants that Michael had kept a slack of one foot of cord while stretching the other two feet of cord across five feet of truck bed. Appellants do not argue that Michael misused the cord by stretching it across the truck bed; they argue that he misused the cord by stretching a portion of it well beyond its limit of elasticity and well beyond twice its length.
Appellants O’Malley and Olympia argue on appeal that the trial court erred by refusing to instruct the jury on comparative fault and by admitting evidence of Olympia’s and others’ knowledge regarding the product. By cross assignment of error, Michael Gibbs and his wife Vicky (Appellees) argue that the trial court erred by instructing the jury on the affirmative defense of product misuse. We conclude that misuse is still an all-or-nothing defense in Arizona, and that there was no error in jury instructions or in the admission of evidence.
II.
A
Appellants O’Malley and Olympia argue that the trial court erred by refusing to instruct the jury on comparative fault. Over the objection of O’Malley and Olympia, the trial court gave the jury the following misuse instruction, a non-comparative fault instruction that is a modified version of Recommended Arizona Jury Instructions (Civil) 2d, Product Liability 9:
Defendants are not at fault if defendants prove each of the following:
(1) The product was used by the plaintiffs for purposes or in a manner not reasonably foreseen by the defendants;
(2) The only cause of plaintiffs’ injuries was such use or consumption of the product.
This instruction is based on A.R.S. section 12-683(3) as interpreted by the Arizona Supreme Court in Gosewisch v. American Honda Motor Company, 153 Ariz. 400, 737 P.2d 376 (1987). Section 12-683(3) provides that a defendant in a product liability action shall not be liable if defendant proves that “[t]he proximate cause of the incident giving rise to the action was a use or consumption of the product which was for a purpose, in a manner or in an activity other than that which was reasonably foreseeable----” AR.S. § 12-683(3) (1992). Gosewisch held that the statute provided an all-or-nothing defense:
We interpret AR.S. § 12-683(3) to bar recovery if “the" proximate cause, meaning the sole proximate cause, of the incident giving rise to the injury was either of the actions listed in the statute. The statute does not bar recovery if the circumstances described is “a proximate cause” or “one of the proximate causes” of the incident---Instead, A.R.S. § 12-683(3) bars recovery if the only proximate cause is one of the circumstances listed.
Gosewisch, 153 Ariz. at 407, 737 P.2d at 383 (emphasis added).
Appellants argue that Gosewisch is no longer controlling because A.R.S. section 12-2506, which abolished joint and several liability effective January 1, 1988, now requires the trier of fact to determine the relative degrees of fault of all parties. See AR.S. § 12-2506 (Supp.1992). That statute defines fault as “an actionable breach of legal duty, act or omission proximately causing or con tributing to injury or damages sustained by a person seeking recovery, including ... products liability and misuse, modification or abuse of a product.” A.R.S. § 12-2506(F)(2) (Supp.1992).
Olympia argues that section 12-2506 overrules Gosewisch and amends section 12-683(3) by implication. O’Malley argues that section 12-2506 creates a new misuse defense, and that, although the section 12-683(3) misuse defense is an all-or-nothing defense because of Gosewisch, the misuse defense created by section 12-2506 is a comparative defense.
It has been observed that “perhaps the most difficult tort question facing courts in recent years has been how to reconcile [the doctrines of strict product liability and comparative negligence] when neither was developed with the other in mind.” Mark E. Roszkowski & Robert A. Prentice, Reconciling Comparative Negligence and Strict Liability: A Public Policy Analysis, 33 St. Louis Univ.LJ. 19, 21 (1988). Courts across the country are divided on whether comparative negligence principles should be applied in strict liability actions. See generally id. at 32-47 (describing the various approaches taken by courts to reconcile comparative negligence and strict liability); Randy R. Koenders, Annotation, Products Liability: Product Misuse Defense, 65 AL.RAth 263, 291-97 (1988 & Supp.1993) (listing jurisdictions that do and do not apply comparative negligence principles to the misuse defense); Romualdo P. Eclavea, Annotation, Applicability of Comparative Negligence Doctrine to Actions Based on Strict Liability in Tort, 9 A.L.R.4th 633, 641-49 (1981 & Supp.1993) (listing jurisdiction that do and do not apply comparative negligence principles in product liability actions).
In deciding whether A.R.S. section 12-2506 overrules Gosewisch, amends A.R.S. section 12-683(3), or creates a new kind of misuse defense, we apply the following principles of statutory construction:
First, repeal of statutes by implication is not favored in the law. In State ex rel. Larson v. Farley, 106 Ariz. 119, 471 P.2d 731 (1970), we held that if it is reasonably practical, a statute should be explained in conjunction with other statutes to the end that they may be harmonious and consistent; and, if statutes relate to the same subject and are thus in pari materia, they should be construed together with other related statutes as though they constituted one law. Unless a statute, from its language or effect, clearly requires the conclusion that the legislature must have intended it to supersede or impliedly repeal an earlier statute, courts will not presume such an intent. State v. Jaastad, 43 Ariz. 458, 32 P.2d 799 (1934). Also, when reconciling two or more statutes, courts should construe and interpret them, whenever possible, in such a way so as to give effect to all the statutes involved. Ordway v. Pickrell, 112 Ariz. 456, 543 P.2d 444 (1975); State Land Dept. v. Tucson Rock & Sand Co., 107 Ariz. 74, 481 P.2d 867 (1971).
Pima County v. Maya Constr. Co., 158 Ariz. 151, 155, 761 P.2d 1055, 1059 (1988).
We conclude that A.R.S. section 12-2506 does not overrule Gosewisch, that it does not amend A.R.S. section 12-683(3), and that it does not create a new kind of misuse defense. The holding of Gosewisch is so clear and direct that, surely, if the legislature had ever intended to change either section 12-683(3) or the supreme court’s interpretation of that statute, it would have done so explicitly, not by implication. We agree with the trial court’s observation that “if the Legislature really intended to change products liability law ... they would have done it in [section] 12-683 not in [section] 12-2506.” The text of section 12-683 has not been changed since Gosewisch was decided in 1987.
Another reason why the legislature did not intend section 12-2506 to overrule Gosewisch is that the statute was enacted before the case was published. Section 12-2506 was enacted by Senate Bill 1036, which was filed in the Office of the Secretary of State on February 13,1987. See 1987 Ariz.Sess.Laws ch. 1. Gosewisch was filed by the Clerk of the Supreme Court on April 23, 1987.
Our holding does not render section 12-2506 meaningless regarding product liability law, nor does it create a conflict between sections 12-2506 and -683(3). The inclusion of “misuse of a product” in section 12-2506(F)(2) has significance apart from, and not inconsistent with, section 12-683(3). Section 12-2509(B) provides that “[i]f an action involves claims for relief alleging both negligence and strict liability in tort,” then comparative fault principles apply to the strict liability claims as well, with some exceptions. In this case, section 12-2509 was inapplicable because there were no negligence claims, only strict liability claims. The trial court properly refused to instruct on comparative fault.
B.
Appellees Gibbs argue that there was insufficient evidence for a misuse instruction. This is a close question on the facts here, and recognized as such by the trial court. The misuse defense is available only for uses that are not “reasonably foreseeable.” A.R.S. § 12-683(3) (1992). A reasonably foreseeable use is one “which would be expected of an ordinary and prudent purchaser, user or consumer and which an ordinary and prudent manufacturer should have anticipated.” AR.S. § 12-681(4) (1992).
We recall what this Court stated in Kavanaugh v. Kavanaugh, 131 Ariz. 344, 641 P.2d 258 (App.1982): “[S]ome abnormal, or unintended uses will not constitute a legal misuse of the product, if they are reasonably foreseeable. This is ordinarily a question of fact for the jury, unless reasonable minds could not differ.” 131 Ariz. at 349, 641 P.2d at 263 (quoting W. Kimble & R. Lesher, Products Liability § 244, at 279 (1979)).
A bungee cord is not useful as such unless it is stretched. A strong argument can be made that an ordinary and prudent manufacturer should anticipate that an unwarned cord user might stretch the cord past failure point of the hooks, if the hooks will fail at half the load the cord will withstand. A strong argument can be made that said manufacturer should anticipate that an ordinary and prudent cord user might stretch the cord, or a portion of the cord, beyond twice its length. Nevertheless, we conclude that the trial court did not err in instructing the jury on the affirmative defense of product misuse. The trial court has a duty to instruct the jury on all legal theories supported by the evidence. Newell v. Town of Oro Valley, 163 Ariz. 527, 528, 789 P.2d 394, 395 (App.1990). On appeal, we must view the evidence to support the theory of the party requesting the jury instruction. Id. Viewed in this light, Appellants presented sufficient evidence, discussed in Section I of this Opinion, to get to the jury on their theory that a portion of the cord was stretched far beyond its limit of elasticity, far beyond the point that any ordinary and prudent user would have stretched it, and that the hooks, weak as they were in relation to the cord, were adequate to withstand any reasonably anticipated use of the cord. See Boy v. I.T.T. Grinnell Corp., 150 Ariz. 526, 534, 724 P.2d 612, 620 (App.1986) (approving misuse instruction on evidence that the product, a cast-iron pipe fitting, would not have broken unless exposed to four times the amount of proper force).
C.
Olympia contends that, because Appellees made strict liability claims and did not make any negligence claims, evidence of Olympia’s knowledge and conduct regarding the cord was irrelevant. The purported erroneous admission of evidence took place during Appellees’ cross-examination of the Olympia representative. Counsel asked the representative whether Olympia imposed any quality control standards on the manufacture and production of the bungee cords, whether he knew what the manufacturer’s quality control was, and whether Olympia required its manufacturers to perform their own quality control tests. The representative also was asked about his expectations regarding the strength of the hooks and whether, if Olympia had known of the strength capacities, it would have modified the hooks. In addition, he was asked questions regarding how consumers would use the cords, what their expectations would be, and how far they would stretch the cords. Because many of the representative’s answers alluded to Olympia’s lack of knowledge about the product, Olympia argues that the evidence was unfairly prejudicial. Olympia claims that Appellees “wanted the jury to believe that Olympia either knew about the risk and did not care or was ignorant of the risk and therefore acted incompetently.”
In Dart v. Wiebe Manufacturing, Inc., 147 Adz. 242, 709 P.2d 876 (1985), the supreme court discussed the tension between negligence and strict liability theories in design defect cases. 147 Ariz. at 246-48, 709 P.2d at 880-82. The court observed that the focus in negligence cases is the conduct of the manufacturer or seller, whereas the focus in strict liability eases is the quality of the product. Id. at 246, 709 P.2d at 880. However, the court noted:
The quality of the product may be measured not only by the information available to the manufacturer at the time of the design, but also by the information available to the trier of fact at the time of the trial. In Byrns v. Riddell, 113 Ariz. 264, 550 P.2d 1065 (1976) we quoted with approval
“[t]he following test of “unreasonable danger”: “whether a reasonable manufacturer would continue to market his product in the same condition as he sold it to the plaintiff with knowledge of the potential dangerous consequences the trial has just revealed.’ ”
This “hindsight” test is generally recommended by the commentators, and by precedent, if the case is to be pursued in strict liability.
The hindsight test has been described as a “prudent manufacturer test” because the factfinder must evaluate the reasonableness of the manufacturer’s conduct. However, the test actually concerns itself with the quality of the product.
Id. at 247, 709 P.2d at 881 (citations and footnote omitted).
Based on Dart, the objected-to testimony was relevant to the question whether the product was defective and unreasonably dangerous. Moreover, the objected-to testimony was relevant to the foreseeability issue; AR.S. section 12-683(3) provides that reasonably foreseeable misuse is not a defense.
We conclude that the trial court did. not abuse its discretion in finding that the probative value of the evidence was not substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice. See Ariz.R.Evid. 403; Readenour v. Marion Power Shovel, 149 Ariz. 442, 449-50, 719 P.2d 1058, 1065-66 (1986) (applying an abuse of discretion standard and holding that an appellate court may not “substitute its judgment for that of the trial court and utilize Rule 403 to exclude evidence after the trial judge has presumably weighed the factors and decided in favor of admissibility”). The trial court correctly instructed the jury, and we presume that the jury followed the instructions given and did not use the evidence for other than its proper purposes. See State v. Reynolds, 125 Ariz. 530, 532, 611 P.2d 117, 119 (App.1980) (“Jurors are presumed to do their duty.”).
D.
Olympia claims that counsel for Appellees violated a pre-trial ruling by 'questioning Olympia’s representative about the knowledge and conduct of the foreign corporation that manufactured the cord. The pre-trial ruling prohibited evidence regarding elastic strap products other than the cord involved in this case. The complained-of questions about the foreign manufacturer, however, related to the cord at issue in this case. Moreover, Olympia did not object to the questions as being violative of the pre-trial ruling, and, as discussed previously, the questions were relevant to the design defect claim.
Counsel for Appellees did ask one question that violated the pre-trial ruling. Appellants made a timely objection, the objection was sustained, the question was not answered, and the court gave the jury a cautionary instruction that cured the error caused by the question.
III.
In conclusion, AR.S. section 12-2506 does not make misuse a comparative defense in a strict product liability case, Gosewisch has not been overruled, and AR.S. section 12-683(3) has not been amended. Product misuse is still an all-or-nothing defense in Arizona, the evidence supported a misuse in struction, and there was no error in jury instructions or in the admission of evidence.
The judgment is affirmed.
GRANT, P.J., concurs.
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JUDGMENT AND ORDER
This matter having come on for hearing before the Disciplinary Commission of the Supreme Court of Arizona, it having duly rendered its decision and no timely appeal having been filed before the Court,
IT IS ORDERED, ADJUDGED AND DECREED that MICHAEL Y. STUHFF, a member of the State Bar of Arizona, is hereby censured for conduct in violation of his duties and obligations as a lawyer, as disclosed in the commission report attached hereto as Exhibit A.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that pursuant to Rule 52(a)(8), Rules of the Supreme Court of Arizona, the State Bar of Arizona is granted ■ judgment against MICHAEL V. STUHFF for costs incurred by the State Bar of Arizona in the amount of $287.60, together with interest at the legal rate from the date of this judgment.
EXHIBIT A
BEFORE THE DISCIPLINARY COMMISSION OF THE SUPREME COURT OF ARIZONA
Comm. No. 93-0808
In the Matter of
MICHAEL V. STUHFF,
a Member of the State
Bar of Arizona,
RESPONDENT.
DISCIPLINARY COMMISSION REPORT
[Filed Jan. 13, 1994.]
This matter came before the Disciplinary Commission of the Supreme Court of Arizona on November 13, 1993, for determination of whether to impose the same discipline upon the respondent as was imposed by the Supreme Court of Nevada; that is, a public reprimand and fine.
Decision
A concurrence of the full Commission recommends that the respondent, Michael Y. Stuhff (“Stuhff’), receive a sanction equivalent to that imposed by the Nevada Supreme Court; that is, a public censure. The Commission unanimously rejects Stuhffs request to admit additional documents to the record on appeal, as it finds the documents are not relevant to these proceedings.
Facts
Stuhff is a lawyer who is licensed to practice law in three states. He has been licensed to practice in Utah since 1973, in Arizona since 1975, and in Nevada since 1985.
The Nevada Supreme Court found that in 1988 Stuhff represented a client who was indicted on controlled substance and racketeering charges. During the trial on these charges, Stuhff clashed repeatedly with the judge who was presiding over the trial (the “Judge”). Stuhff believed the Judge exhibited hostility and contempt toward the defense team. The Judge, in turn, found that Stuhff attempted to control the court and refused to abide by the court’s rulings.
On December 16, 1988, the jury found Stuhffs client guilty, and sentencing was scheduled for January 26,1989. The seriousness of the charges made a lengthy prison term probable, especially because the Judge had a reputation of being very tough on drug offenders.
After the verdict was returned, the relationship between Stuhff and his client began to deteriorate, and on January 20, 1989, Stuhff filed a motion to withdraw as his attorney. The Judge scheduled a hearing on that motion for January 31, 1989.
On January 24, 1989, just two days before the scheduled sentencing hearing, Stuhff filed a complaint with the Nevada Commission on Judicial Discipline alleging that the Judge committed misconduct during the trial. The next day, Stuhff personally served the Judge with a copy of the complaint.
On January 26, 1989, the parties met before the Judge for the scheduled sentencing hearing. Rather than sentence the client, however, the Judge heard and granted Stuhffs motion to withdraw, and continued the sentencing until February 14,1989. The Judge then recused himself from the sentencing hearing, as he believed the allegations of Stuhffs complaint might create the appearance of a lack of impartiality on the Judge’s part. The prosecutor considered the Judge’s recusal problematic, because a newly-assigned judge would neither understand nor appreciate the complexity of the client’s crimes. Nevertheless, the sentencing was turned over to another judge, who sentenced the client to concurrent terms of ten, ten, three, and three years. This was considerably less than the maximum penalty he could have received.
On October 24, 1989, the Judge lodged a complaint against Stuhff with the Southern Nevada Disciplinary Board, and Stuhff was eventually charged with violating SCR 174(3) and SCR 203(4). The disciplinary board subsequently recommended that Stuhff be sus pended for six months, that he retake the ethics portion of the Nevada Bar Examination, that he make a private apology to the Judge, and that he pay the costs and expenses of the disciplinary proceedings. In its opinion dated August 20, 1992, the Nevada Supreme Court found that Stuhff violated SCR 203(4), and reduced the sanction to a public reprimand and a fine of $5,000.
Discussion of Decision
This matter came before the Nevada Supreme Court on the disciplinary board’s findings of fact, conclusions of law, and recommendation that, among other provisions, Respondent be suspended for six months. Upon careful review of the record, the Court found the board’s findings of fact to be supported by full, clear, and convincing evidence. The Court agreed with the board’s conclusion of law that Stuhffis conduct was prejudicial to the administration of justice, in violation of SCR 203(4), but agreed with Stuhff that SCR 174(3), concerning conduct intended to disrupt a tribunal, was not applicable to the facts in the matter. The Court also found that Stuhffis conduct violated rules 5, 6, and 14 of the rules on judicial discipline, concerning the confidentiality of judicial disciplinary proceedings. However, the Court determined the conduct warranted only a public reprimand and a fine.
This matter is directly before the Commission pursuant to Rule 58 dealing with reciprocal discipline. Rule 58(c) provides in part:
The commission shall impose or recommend the identical discipline, unless bar counsel or respondent demonstrates or the commission finds that upon the face of the record from which the discipline is predicated, it clearly appears that:
1. The procedure was so lacking in notice or opportunity to be heard as to constitute a deprivation of due process; or
2. There was such infirmity of proof establishing the misconduct as to give rise to the clear conviction that the commission could not, consistent with its duty, accept as final the other jurisdiction’s conclusion on that subject; or
3. The imposition of the same discipline would result in grave injustice; or
4. The misconduct established warrants substantially different discipline in this state.
In its consideration of this matter, the Commission reviewed the opinion issued by the Supreme Court of Nevada and Stuhffis Response and Request for Oral Argument submitted in this matter.
In determining whether the misconduct established warrants substantially different discipline, the Commission considered the American Bar Association’s Standards for Imposing Lawyer Sanctions. These Standards are used by the Court in considering the appropriate sanction for a violation of the Rules of Professional Conduct. In re Moris, 164 Ariz. 391, 793 P.2d 544 (1990). The Commission is guided by the Standards, as well.
Standard 6.0 concerns violations of duties owed to the legal system. One of those is the duty to abide by the legal rules of substance and procedure which affect the administration of justice. Standard 6.33 provides for reprimand (censure in Arizona) when a lawyer is negligent in determining whether it is proper to engage in communication with an individual in the legal system, and causes interference or potential interference with the outcome of the legal proceeding. Stuhff personally served a copy of his complaint upon the Judge, which was forbidden by the rules and was obviously potentially disruptive, given that Stuhff was still handling the case over which the Judge was presiding. Application of the Standards, then, indicates that the misconduct warrants a censure.
In Ms Response, Stuhff claims that the imposition of the same discipline would result in a grave injustice. He also claims that the procedure employed by the State of Nevada does not comply with otherwise accepted standards of due process. Finally, Stuhff argues that the discipline imposed in Nevada presents a political question concerning the extent of protection necessary and appropriate to safeguard the right of individuals, including attorneys, to criticize government officials and to seek redress of grievances through governmental agencies. He states that the disciplinary actions instituted against him were part of a campaign to harass and intimidate him.
The Commission finds no evidence to support Stuhffs claims. A review of the opimon of the Nevada Supreme Court makes it clear that the facts are not in dispute in the matter. Stuhff admits that he filed the complaint and personally served a copy of his complaint upon the Judge, an action specifically proMbited by the rules. Regardless of Ms intentions in serving the complaint upon the Judge, the fact is that he breached one of the procedural rules concerning the confidentiality of judicial disciplinary proceedings. The Commission finds no evidence in the record on appeal of any injustice or lack of due process in Nevada’s handling of the disciplinary matter. Further, tMs lack of evidence in support of Stuhffs contentions leads the Commission to conclude that tMs is not the proper forum to address Stuhffs concerns over the political climate of the state of Nevada.
The Commission is limited to addressing tMs matter only within the boundaries provided by Rule 58(c). In light of Stuhffs admission that he filed the complaint and served it upon the Judge, the fact that the Court imposed a sanction less severe than that recommended by the disciplinary board, the Commission’s interpretation of the Standards as deeming censure appropriate, and the lack of evidence supporting Stuhffs contentions, the Commission does not believe that the imposition of a censure in tMs instance would be a grave injustice; on the contrary, it believes a censure is appropriate.
The Commission finds that none of the factors required by Rule 58(c) for the imposition of a different sanction have been established. Therefore, the Commission recommends that Respondent receive the equivalent discipline of a public censure.
RESPECTFULLY SUBMITTED tMs 13th day of January, 1994.
/a/ Steven L. Bosse
Steven L. Bosse, Chairman
Disciplinary Commission
. This matter comes before the Commission pursuant to Rule 58, Ariz.R.S.Ct., concerning reciprocal discipline. Rule 58(a) provides that, upon being disciplined in another jurisdiction, a lawyer admitted to practice in Arizona shall immediately notify the State Bar of Arizona of such action. Rule 58(d) provides that a final adjudication in another jurisdiction that a lawyer has been guilty of misconduct shall conclusively establish the misconduct for the purposes of disciplinary proceedings in this state. Rule 58(c) provides that, unless specific elements exist, as detailed below, the Commission shall impose or recommend identical discipline.
. Although the Nevada Supreme Court also imposed a $5,000 fine upon Stuhff, the Commission did not consider imposing a fine, as the Arizona Rules of the Supreme Court include no provision for the imposition of a fine as a sanction.
. The client had already hired additional counsel to assist with his sentencing and appeal.
. Stuhff never paid the fine. After some investigation, the disciplinary board found that Stuhff failed to show cause for his failure to pay the fine, and asked the Nevada Supreme Court to determine the appropriate discipline. At the time this matter came before this Commission, however, there was no information on whether the Supreme Court had imposed any discipline for his failure to pay the fine.
. This recommendation was issued following a hearing held before a five-member panel of the board.
. Stuhff has stated that he served the Judge with a copy of the complaint out of a "moral obligation and professional courtesy." The Nevada Supreme Court was not persuaded, however.
|
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OPINION
MARTONE, Justice.
We granted review to determine whether the spouse of a deceased worker has standing to claim workers’ compensation death benefits when she was married to the worker at the time of death but not at the time of trauma. We answer this question in the affirmative because, as we hold in the companion case of Dunn v. Industrial Comm’n, 177 Ariz. 190, 866 P.2d 858 (1994), dependency determinations under AR.S. § 23-1046 and AR.S. § 23-1064 are made at the time of the worker’s death. Because Tina Rico was married to Roy Rico on the date of his death, she has standing to claim death benefits under § 23-1046 and is conclusively presumed to be dependent under § 23-1064.
BACKGROUND
In 1973 Roy Rico suffered a compensable industrial injury and received benefits from his employer’s insurance carrier, the State Compensation Fund. At the time of the traumatic incident, Roy had been living with Tina Rico, the respondent here, for a number of years. Roy and Tina were not married at the time of Roy’s trauma, but they married the next year. Roy and Tina remained married for 16 years up until Roy’s death in 1990.
After Roy died, Tina filed a claim for workers’ compensation death benefits. Because the carrier denied her claim, she requested a hearing in the Industrial Commission. The Industrial Commission refused to award Tina benefits because Tina and Roy were not married at the time Roy suffered the trauma that allegedly caused his death. Even though she had been his wife for 16 years before death, the Commission held she had no standing to claim workers’ compensation benefits. The court of appeals reversed. Rico v. Industrial Comm’n, 174 Ariz. 7, 846 P.2d 157 (1992). It held that, although Tina was not married to Roy at the time of trauma, she was in fact dependent upon him at that time. Therefore, she had standing to file a claim under § 23-1046. Id. at 8, 846 P.2d 157. We granted the Fund’s petition for review and now affirm the order of the court of appeals setting aside the award, but vacate its opinion.
DISCUSSION
Our resolution of this case is dictated by our holding in the companion case we decide today, Dunn v. Industrial Comm’n, 177 Ariz. 190, 866 P.2d 858 (1994). In Dunn, we discussed at length the interrelationship between § 23-1064 and § 23-1046, and earlier judicial interpretations of the statutes. We concluded that the legislative purpose is best advanced by a construction that dependency determinations for purposes of workers’ compensation death benefits are made at the date of death, not the date of trauma. Hence, the surviving spouse of a worker who died as a result of industrial trauma is presumptively dependent upon the worker if he or she was married to the worker at the time of death.
Tina and Roy were married at the time of Roy’s death. Therefore, Tina has standing to claim death benefits under the statute. This case graphically illustrates the wisdom of the rule we adopt in Dunn. We no longer need to engage in factual inquiries about whether the surviving spouse was dependent upon the deceased worker at the time he or she suffered trauma. As we hold in Dunn, making dependency determinations at the date of death is the most sensible interpretation of the relevant statutes. Dunn, 177 Ariz. at 197, 866 P.2d at 865.
RESOLUTION
Because Tina Rico was married to Roy Rico at the date of his death, she has standing to claim workers’ compensation death benefits under § 23-1046 and § 23-1064. We therefore affirm the order of the court of appeals which set aside the award denying benefits, but because of our holding in Dunn, vacate its opinion.
FELDMAN, C.J., MOELLER, V.C.J., CORCORAN and ZLAKET, JJ., concur.
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OPINION
WEISBERG, Judge.
Marco A. (Tony) Reyes appeals from the trial court’s ruling upholding a contested election. For the reasons set forth below, we reverse and remand with directions to set aside the election.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
Reyes and Clyde Cuming were candidates for a seat on the Yuma County Board of Supervisors at the November 1996 general election. After the ballots were counted, excluding absentee ballots, Reyes led Cuming 1320 votes to 1169 votes. After 1210 absentee ballots were added to the totals, Cuming led Reyes 1861 to 1838. As a result, the Yuma County Board of Supervisors declared Cuming the winner. Reyes filed a timely contest to this election.
The trial court found that the County Recorder had not compared any of the signatures on the outside of the absentee ballots with the registration lists, as required by statute. See Ariz.Rev.Stat. Ann. (“A.R.S.”) § 16-550(A)(1996). Notwithstanding, the trial court also found that compliance with the statute would place “an undue burden on the Recorder” and that there was “no evidence indicating that any ballot was cast by any person other than the elector who requested the early ballot.” Based upon these findings, the trial court held that “the Recorder was in substantial compliance with all of the rules, regulations and statutes governing election for this office,” and affirmed the election. Reyes timely brought this appeal.
DISCUSSION
The legislature has established statutory procedures for absentee voting. Upon an elector’s request, the Recorder must mail that elector an absentee ballot and return envelope. A.R.S. § 16-542(A),(C). The elector may then complete the absentee ballot and seal it within the provided envelope. The return envelope includes an affidavit printed on the back that requires the elector to certify that he or she is a qualified elector and affix his or her signature. A.R.S. § 16-547(A). The ballot is then placed inside the envelope and returned to the Recorder by mail or in person.
A.R.S. section 16-550(A) directs the Recorder to compare the signature on the outside of the absentee ballot with that on the voter registration form to confirm that the ballot is being cast by a registered elector:
Upon receipt of the envelope containing the absentee ballot and the completed application, the county recorder ... shall compare the signatures thereon with the signature of the elector on his registration form. If satisfied that the signatures correspond, the recorder ... shall hold them unopened in accordance with the rules of the secretary of state.
This appeal involves the effect of the Recorder’s non-compliance with this statute. The parties agree that the Recorder did not comply with section 16-550(A) and that the absentee ballots changed the outcome of the election. We must decide whether these facts, by themselves, require setting aside the election.
Reyes relies heavily upon Miller v. Picacho Elementary School District No. 33, 179 Ariz. 178, 877 P.2d 277 (1994). In Miller, the Arizona Supreme Court considered a school budget override election in which absentee ballots were distributed in violation of A.R.S. section 16-542(B). Although the statute required absentee ballot distribution by mail, employees of the school district, at the direction of district administrators, personally distributed and returned absentee ballots to and from electors. The trial court set aside the election because of the violations of A.R.S. section 16-542(B). Division Two of this Court reversed because the contestant failed to show any actual fraud.
The Supreme Court vacated the Court of Appeals’ decision and affirmed the trial court’s judgment setting aside the election. The court held that, even without a showing of actual fraud, the election had to be set aside because (1) absentee ballots were procured in violation of a non-teehnical statute and (2) those ballots were in sufficient numbers to alter the outcome of the election. Id.
The Miller court first considered the nature of the statute at issue in that case. “At first blush, mailing versus hand delivery may seem unimportant. But in the context of absentee voting, it is very important.” Id. at 180, 877 P.2d 277 (1994). The court held that A.R.S. section 16-542(B) advanced the constitutional goal of protecting a secret ballot “by setting forth procedural safeguards to prevent undue influence, fraud, ballot tampering, and voter intimidation.” Id. (quoting Ariz. Const, art. VII, § 1).
These same values are protected by A.R.S. section 16-550(A); it guarantees that the absentee ballots are being cast by the registered voters and prevents fraud and ballot tampering. See also Ariz. Const, art. VII, § 12 (“There shall be enacted registration and other laws to secure the purity of elections and guard against abuses of the elective franchise.”). The instant case illustrates the manifest importance of signature comparison because almost one-third of the votes cast were by absentee ballot and each candidate personally returned many of the sealed ballots.
We are not swayed by the Recorder’s testimony that it would be difficult to retain handwriting experts to compare these signatures. While having a handwriting expert on hand for exceptional cases might be a sound practice, A.R.S. section 16-550(A) does not require any special expertise on the part of the person making the comparison. The statute merely requires that the comparison be made.
Although the trial court found that it would be impracticable for the Recorder to comply with A.R.S. section 16-550(A), we hold as a matter of law that such a finding does not excuse the complete non-compliance with this non-technical statute. “[Election statutes are mandatory, not ‘advisory,’ or else they would not be law at all.” Miller, 179 Ariz. at 180, 877 P.2d at 279. If the statute unduly burdens election officials, the Recorder or other appropriate officials may lobby the legislature to change it; until then it is the law. We therefore conclude that the statute is a non-technical statute.
Cuming responds that, even if A.R.S. section 16-550(A) is a non-technical statute, the trial court found that (1) the absentee ballots were cast in substantial compliance with the statute and (2) there was no evidence showing that any absentee ballots were cast by persons other than registered voters.
Although the trial court did find that the Recorder was in substantial compliance with the election statutes, “[a] conclusion not supported by the facts is considered an abuse of discretion.” In re Fallers, 181 Ariz. 227, 230, 889 P.2d 20, 23 (App.1995). The purpose of A.R.S. section 16-550(A) is to prevent the inclusion of invalid votes. Without the proper signature of a registered elector on the outside, an absentee ballot is void and may not be counted. A.R.S. § 16-552(B).
In the instant case, where a non-technical statute has been disregarded and almost one-third of the ballots cast counted without compliance with A.R.S. section 16-550(A), the trial court abuses its discretion by finding that the Recorder substantially complied with the statute. To rule otherwise would “affect the result or at least render it uncertain.” Miller, 179 Ariz. at 180, 877 P.2d at 279 (quoting Findley v. Sorenson, 35 Ariz. 265, 269, 276 P. 843, 844 (1929)).
Furthermore, the absentee ballots counted in violation of A.R.S. section 16-550(A) indisputably changed the outcome of the election. Before the absentee ballots were counted, Reyes had the most votes; after the absentee ballots were counted, Cuming had the most votes. Miller established that an election contestant need only show that absentee ballots counted in violation of a non-technical statute changed the outcome of the election; actual fraud is not a necessary element. Id. Therefore, the trial court’s finding that there was no evidence that any ballots were cast by persons other than registered voters is irrelevant.
CONCLUSION
The parties have not argued, and the record does not suggest, that any remedy short of setting aside the election is appropriate here. Therefore, because A.R.S. section 16-550(A) is a non-technical statute and because absentee ballots counted in violation of that statute have rendered the outcome of this election uncertain, we reverse the trial court’s judgment and remand with directions to set aside the election.
GRANT, P.J., and McGREGOR, J., concur.
. Reyes also notes that the trial court found a violation of A.R.S. section 16-542(C), which requires that the Recorder mail out the ballots within five days of the receipt of the request. However, Reyes did not independently analyze this issue in his brief and we do not reach that issue. See Reisch v. M. & D. Terminals, Inc., 180 Ariz. 356, 360, 884 P.2d 242, 246 (App.1994). In any event, our resolution of this case renders the mailing issue moot.
|
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OPINION
HOWARD, Judge.
Section 16-204, A.R.S., enacted in 1996, restricts elections held by political subdivisions to four specified dates during the year. The City of Tucson sued the State of Arizona, claiming that the statute is invalid as applied to the City because it conflicts with Chapter XVI of the Tucson City Charter. The trial court ruled in favor of the City, holding that the consolidated election schedule of § 16-204 does not apply to the City and that the City Charter governs city elections. In this appeal from that ruling, we review de novo the trial court’s interpretation of the charter and statute, as well as its conclusions of law. Turf Paradise v. Maricopa County, 179 Ariz. 337, 878 P.2d 1375 (App.1994). For the reasons stated below, we reverse.
Section 16-204(A) contains the following finding of purpose:
While the legislature recognizes that the method of conducting elections by political subdivisions including charter counties and cities may be a matter of local concern, the legislature finds and determines that for the purposes of increasing voter participation and for decreasing the costs to the taxpayers it is a matter of statewide concern that all elections in this state be conducted on a limited number of days and, therefore, the legislature finds and declares that the holding of all elections on certain specific consolidated days is a matter of statewide concern.
Chapter XVI, § 2, of the City Charter contains the following provision:
Primary elections under this Charter shall be held on the third Tuesday in September .of each year in which a general election for the offices of mayor and eouncilmen, or councilmen only, shall be held as hereinafter provided by this chapter. The provisions of the general laws of the State of Arizona relating to and governing primary elections and the nomination of elective officers, whether by primary or certificate of nomination ... applicable to a city of the population and the class of this city, shall apply and govern the holding of primaries and nominations of elective officers....
Under § 16-204(B)(3), the 1997 primary election would have been held on September 9; in accordance with the City Charter, however, the election was held on September 16, the third Tuesday in September. Further, the City Charter also allows the City Council to hold special elections on days other than those specified under the consolidated election schedule. City Charter Ch. XVI, § 6.
The State initially argues there is no conflict between the statute and the Charter because the Charter incorporates the general law concerning primaries. We disagree. Although the City Charter states that the general laws relating to primaries apply to City elections, it specifies a date for the City’s primary election. Under the usual rules of construction, the specific designation takes precedence over the language on general election laws. Mercy Healthcare Arizona v. Arizona Health Care Cost Containment System, 181 Ariz. 95, 887 P.2d 625 (App.1994). See also City Charter Ch. XVI, § 7. Moreover, the City’s interpretation of its own Charter is entitled to some weight. See City of Mesa v. Killingsworth, 96 Ariz. 290, 394 P.2d 410 (1964); Arizona Foundation for Neurology Psychiatry v. Sienerth, 13 Ariz. App. 472, 477 P.2d 758 (1970). Further, the requirement under the statute’s consolidated election schedule that special elections be held on certain days interferes with Chapter XVI, § 6, which allows the City to schedule special elections on other days. We conclude, therefore, that the City Charter conflicts with the statute.
Our courts have historically held that general state laws pertaining to matters of statewide concern override conflicting city charters. As our supreme court stated in Humphrey v. City of Phoenix, 55 Ariz. 374, 388, 102 P.2d 82, 88 (1940):
Section 2 of such article provides that a home rule charter must be “consistent with, and subject to, the Constitution and the laws of the State.” We think it is a well-settled rule in this jurisdiction that the general laws of the state are operative in cities incorporated under Article XIII____ Clayton v. State, 38 Ariz. 466, 300 Pac. 1010 [1931]; State v. Jaastad, 43 Ariz. 458, 32 Pac.(2d) 799 [1934].
See also City of Tucson v. Arizona Alpha of Sigma Alpha Epsilon, 67 Ariz. 330, 195 P.2d 562 (1948); City of Phoenix v. Michael, 61 Ariz. 238, 148 P.2d 353 (1944); Luhrs v. City of Phoenix, 52 Ariz. 438, 83 P.2d 283 (1938). In City of Tucson v. Walker, 60 Ariz. 232, 239, 135 P.2d 223, 226 (1943), the supreme court quoted with approval the following language in Axberg v. City of Lincoln, 141 Neb. 55, 2 N.W.2d 613, 614 (1942):
“The purpose of the home rule charter provision of the Constitution was to render the cities adopting such charter provisions as nearly independent of state legislation as was possible. Under it a city may provide for the exercise of every power connected with the proper and efficient government of the municipality where the legislature has not entered the field. Where the legislature has enacted a law affecting municipal affairs, but which is also of state concern, the law takes precedence over any municipal action taken under the home rule charter.”
(Emphasis added.) More recently, in Jett v. City of Tucson, 180 Ariz. 115, 882 P.2d 426 (1994), the supreme court reviewed a city charter provision allowing the council to remove a city magistrate to determine whether it was consistent with state law and found the removal of a city magistrate to be a matter of statewide concern.
Relying on Strode v. Sullivan, 72 Ariz. 360, 236 P.2d 48 (1951), the City contends its primary election is strictly a matter of local concern. In Strode, our supreme court found that a provision of the Phoenix City Charter prohibiting partisan designation on the ballot overrode a state statute requiring such a designation because the method and manner of conducting the city election was a matter of local concern. Strode is distinguishable. It did not involve an election date or a consolidated election schedule, and the statute in that case, unlike § 16-204, did not contain a finding of statewide importance. Contrary to the City’s position at oral argument, Strode did not establish an automatic, blanket rule prohibiting state statutes that infringe on any aspect of charter cities’ municipal election procedures and preferences. In fact, the court in Strode acknowledged the general rule that if a matter “can be said to be a subject of state concern,” then “where there is a conflict between the provisions of the charter of a self-governed city and the statutory law, the former must give way to the latter.” Id. at 363, 236 P.2d at 50. Strode, therefore, is not determinative.
The Arizona Constitution establishes the relationship between charter cities and the State. Article XIII, § 2, provides in pertinent part that “[a]ny city ... may frame a charter for its own government consistent with, and subject to, the Constitution and the laws of the State____” Although this provision gives charter cities autonomy, that autonomy is tempered by the requirement that the charter be consistent with state law.
The legislative authority of the State is vested in the legislature. Ariz. Const, art. IV, pt. 1, § 1. The Constitution requires the legislature’s involvement in elections, including those conducted by charter cities, on many levels. See Ariz. Const, art. IV, pt. 1, § 1(8) (city initiative and referendum elections must comply with the general laws; city may establish basis for calculating percentages of signatures until provided by general law); Ariz. Const, art. IV, pt. 2, § 19(11), (20) (no local laws shall be enacted on the conduct of elections, allowing general laws by implication); Ariz. Const, art. VII, § 1 (legislature can provide for a method for elections other than by ballot); Ariz. Const, art. VII, § 10 (legislature shall enact primary election law providing for the nomination of state, county, and city officials); Ariz. Const, art. VII, § 12 (legislature shall adopt a registration system and other laws to prevent abuses of the voting privilege); Ariz. Const, art. VII, § 16 (legislature required to adopt campaign finance law applicable to the cities and the state).
Having considered the case law and constitutional background, we now turn to the statute itself. The language of § 16-204 and its legislative history both indicate a strong state interest. The legislative declaration in subsection (A) that the statute regulates a matter of statewide concern is entitled to our deference. Arizona Center for Law in the Public Interest v. Hassell, 172 Ariz. 356, 837 P.2d 158 (App.1991); Humphrey. The legislative history supports that declaration. In 1991, the legislature adopted a voluntary consolidated election schedule and required reporting of the results. 1991 Ariz. Sess. Laws, ch. 246, §§ 4-6. Reports from the two-year pilot program indicated the consolidated election schedule resulted in significantly increased voter turnout and reduced election costs. Attempts to refer approval of the mandatory consolidated schedule to the voters, however, or to enact a mandatory consolidated election schedule in 1993, 1994, 1995, and early 1996 failed. During these attempts, speakers before the legislative committees voiced concern about voter confusion and fatigue, administration of consolidated elections, and conflict with cities’ charters. Other speakers supported the proposed legislation because the proliferation of elections was expensive and led to voter apathy.
After considering the arguments, the legislature determined that the benefits of increased voter turnout and reduced costs were of statewide concern and outweighed the potential problems. In light of the constitutional framework, the legislative history, and the legislature’s express findings and declaration in § 16-204(A), we agree that the statute pertains to matters of statewide concern and does not “relate to purely municipal affairs.” Strode, 72 Ariz. at 365, 236 P.2d at 51.
Where, as here, an issue involves both local and statewide interests, a balancing test evaluating the issues and determining which is paramount is also appropriate. 2 Eugene McQuillin, The Law of Municipal Corporations § 4.85 (3d ed.1996). At the outset, we find persuasive the fact that the State will be unable to achieve full implementation of the consolidated election schedule and to assess its effects on costs and voter turnout unless all political subdivisions of the State are required to follow the schedule. While the City has an interest in maintaining its autonomy and preserving its Charter, a one-week change in the date of its primary election is a minor intrusion upon its autonomy. Although certain special elections may be delayed, elections are typically planned far in advance, and the consolidated schedule should result in minimal actual delay. The City may also conduct elections by mail on any dates it chooses. A.R.S. § 16-409. The City has not produced evidence of any substantial interference with its election process.
The City argues that, although the consolidated election schedule is designed to cut costs and increase voter turnout, it could have the deleterious effects of creating voter inattention and confusion. The record, however, contains no evidence of these effects to overcome our deference to the legislature’s findings. The City also claims that § 16-204 requires it to relinquish control of the elections board to the county and delegate its Voting Rights Act responsibilities. We disagree. Section 16-205(C) allows, but does not require, cities to enter into intergovern mental agreements with the county for the administration of elections. In that event, the county appoints the election board after consultation with the City. Therefore, the consolidated election schedule does not deprive the City of control of the elections board or its Voting Rights Act responsibilities. The State’s interest is paramount.
The legislature has acted in an area of statewide concern and its legislation takes precedence over the City’s Charter. Walker. Further, the State’s interest is paramount. The consolidated election schedule under § 16-204, therefore, governs City elections. The trial court’s decision is reversed.
PELANDER, P.J., and ESPINOSA, J., concur.
. Section 16-204(B) provides in pertinent part:
Notwithstanding any other law or any charter or ordinance of any county, city or town to the contrary, an election held for or on behalf of a county, city or town, a school district, a community college district or a special district organized pursuant to title 48, chapters 5, 6, 8, 10 and 13 through 16 may only be held on the following dates:
1. The second Tuesday in March.
2. The third Tuesday in May.
3. The eighth Tuesday before the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. A primary election that is held in an odd-numbered year may be held on this date.
4. The first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. A general election that is held in an odd-numbered year may be held on this date.
. The State does not contest the validity of the results of the City primary.
. At oral argument, the City argued for the first time that § 16-204 conflicts with Ariz. Const, art. XIII, § 4. Because this argument was not presented to the trial court, we will not address it on appeal. Scottsdale Princess Partnership v. Maricopa County, 185 Ariz. 368, 916 P.2d 1084 (App. 1995).
. Appellate courts may take judicial notice of legislative history. Hayes v. Continental Ins. Co., 178 Ariz. 264, 872 P.2d 668 (1994).
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OPINION
ZLAKET, Chief Justice.
Defendant, David Anthony Trostle, was indicted on charges of first degree murder, armed robbery, kidnapping, sexual assault, and theft by control. Following trial, a jury found him guilty of all but the assault. The court sentenced him to death for the murder, to consecutive 14-year prison terms for armed robbery and kidnapping, and to a concurrent 10-year term for theft. This automatic appeal followed. We have jurisdiction pursuant to Ariz. Const, art. VI, § 5(3), A.R.S. § 13-4031, and Rule 31.2(b), Ariz. R.Crim.P.
FACTS
Ellen Marie Knauss was reported missing on September 21,1993. Within 24 hours, her Toyota 4-Runner truck was spotted in the parking lot of a Tucson apartment complex. Police set up surveillance and questioned various individuals observed near the vehicle. They eventually obtained the names of two suspects — Trostle and 14-year-old Jack Jewitt. Defendant was apprehended the following evening, made conflicting inculpatory statements, and led police to a remote desert area where Knauss’s body was later found.
According to defendant, Jewitt had wanted a four-wheel drive truck and sought his help in “jacking” one. Around 6:00 p.m. on Sunday, September 19, they went to the parking lot of the Tucson Mall, where Jewitt first picked out a blue Suzuki. When its owner came out of the shopping mall escorted by a security officer, however, Jewitt set his sights on Knauss’s Toyota. While waiting, he allegedly said, “Fuck it, we’ll just do this all the way.” Defendant told police he thought this meant Jewitt intended to kill the owner of the truck.
Knauss, a part-time employee of an inventory company, signed out of work that night at 11:48 p.m. and exited the mall. Defendant stated that Jewitt approached her with a sawed-off shotgun as she was getting into her truck. He ordered her to move over and open the passenger door. Once Jewitt had control of the vehicle, defendant got into the driver’s seat. Jewitt held the weapon to the back of the victim’s head while defendant drove to an isolated area outside of town. There, defendant took her into the desert and forced her to remove her clothing.
At 12:35 a.m., a Tohono O’Odham tribal police officer observed the Toyota parked alongside Mission Road and stopped to investigate. Jewitt, seated in the front passenger seat, told him that the truck had broken down and his uncle had gone to seek help. Having satisfied himself that the vehicle was not stolen, the officer left to search for the fictitious uncle. Thereafter, Jewitt joined defendant, who had tied Knauss’s hands and ankles with her underwear, and allegedly exclaimed, “Time to get ready to go.” Jewitt is then reported to have said, “We’ll do it execution style. That way, that way it’ll look like we didn’t do it.” According to defendant, while Knauss kneeled on her clothing, Jewitt fired the 12-gauge shotgun into the back of her head.
Jewitt was tried separately as an adult and found guilty of first degree murder, armed robbery, kidnapping, and theft by control. He was sentenced to life imprisonment without possibility of release. Following defendant Trostle’s convictions, the trial court found two aggravating factors — that there was an expectation of pecuniary gain, A.R.S. § 13-703(F)(5), and that the killing was especially heinous, cruel or depraved, A.R.S. § 13-703(F)(6). Believing that the mitigation evidence was insufficient to call for leniency, the judge sentenced him to death.
TRIAL ISSUES
VENUE
This “carjacking” murder received extensive media coverage. Defendant argues that the trial court erred in denying his motion for change of venue because the pretrial publicity was so pervasive and unfair that prejudice should have been presumed. Alternatively, he claims the jurors were actually prejudiced.
A trial court’s ruling on a motion for change of venue will not be disturbed on appeal absent a prejudicial abuse of discretion. State v. Salazar, 173 Ariz. 399, 406, 844 P.2d 566, 573 (1992). For prejudice to be presumed, the defendant must show “that the publicity was so unfair, so prejudicial, and so pervasive that we cannot give any credibility to the jurors’ answers during voir dire affirming their ability to decide the case fairly.” State v. Bible, 175 Ariz. 549, 565, 858 P.2d 1152, 1168 (1993). This burden is extremely heavy and rarely met. Id. at 564, 858 P.2d at 1167.
Defendant documented 65 television broadcasts and 15 newspaper articles disseminated in the Tucson area prior to trial. Forty of the TV reports occurred within the first week following the victim’s disappearance. Although most described only the facts of the crime, several highlighted increased mall protection and how shoppers could avoid being victimized. In our view, general reporting of the need for security in public areas and of citizens’ vulnerability to random violence falls short of an “attempt [by the media] to whip up hysteria and passion in the community.” Bible, 175 Ariz. at 565, 858 P.2d at 1168. We cannot say that this coverage was unfair or pervasive. The remaining stories, broadcast on only 8 days over a 3-month period, focused on whether Jewitt would be tried as an adult. Unquestionably, the publicity diminished with the passage of time; the last TV broadcast aired several months before the start of trial.
Two of the newspaper articles contained evidence of prior bad acts not admitted at trial. In one, defendant was described as having had a history of molesting children. In the other, the prosecutor was interviewed regarding defendant’s conviction for an unrelated car theft two weeks before the trial of this case began. He commented that the earlier crime displayed a similar motive as the carjacking in question. A review of everything submitted by defendant, however, reveals that these two articles were “exceptions to the largely factual information in the great bulk of the news reports.” Bible, 175 Ariz. at 564, 858 P.2d at 1167. Furthermore, although 31 of 34 prospective jurors on the panel had some knowledge of the crime, the vast majority stated they remembered few, if any, details. Reviewing the record as a whole, we believe the trial was not “utterly corrupted” by publicity such that prejudice must be presumed. See id. at 565, 858 P.2d at 1168.
To prove actual prejudice, the defendant “must show that the jurors have formed preconceived notions concerning [his] guilt and that they cannot lay those notions aside.” State v. Chaney, 141 Ariz. 295, 302, 686 P.2d 1265, 1272 (1984). The appropriate inquiry focuses on the effect of pretrial publicity, and mere knowledge of the case is insufficient to disqualify a juror. Id. Of the 46 panelists questioned about media coverage, 8 expressed views regarding defendant’s guilt and were immediately dismissed. Most of those remaining recalled little or nothing of the news reports. Additionally, two of the jurors who sat on the case had no knowledge of the offense, and all 12 indicated that they could decide the issues solely on the basis of the evidence presented at trial. The court’s denial of the motion for change of venue was within its sound discretion. See State v. Eastlack, 180 Ariz. 243, 253, 883 P.2d 999, 1009 (1994).
Defendant also argues that the trial court conducted inadequate voir dire. He claims that the judge should have probed the prospective jurors’ knowledge and biases stemming from pretrial publicity by utilizing written questionnaires, as well as individual, small group, or private examination at the bench. When jury selection began, the judge stated:
I am going to be asking for a show of hands of people that think they may have seen or heard about this case in some form. And then I will ask you what if anything you may have seen or heard about it, that is, have you seen something about it on TV, have you read about it in the newspaper.
Now when I am talking to you I don’t want you to tell me exactly what details you remember because what you say might have an impact on one of the other jurors who may not have seen or heard about the case. See what I am saying? I don’t want what you say to effect [sic] these other jurors. So just kind of keep your responses tailored to my questions, if you would.
Defendant did not object to this limiting instruction and at no time requested further inquiry of any particular juror. Other than initially asking that voir dire be conducted by counsel, the defense made no objections to the scope or adequacy of the selection process.
The trial court examined each person about his or her media exposure, memory of details, and ability to keep an open mind. It also asked questions requested by defendant, who ultimately passed the panel. Although the court might have conducted a more extensive voir dire using other techniques, defendant’s failure to object precludes any claim on this basis. Bible, 175 Ariz. at 570, 858 P.2d at 1173. Waiver aside, the court did not abuse its discretion. None of the jurors exhibited a closed mind. All stated that they could follow the court’s instructions and decide the case on the evidence. Id. at 572, 858 P.2d at 1175.
BATSON CHALLENGES
The prosecution exercised two peremptory strikes to remove the only Hispanic members of the panel. Defendant made a Batson challenge, 476 U.S. 79, 89, 106 S.Ct. 1712, 1719, 90 L.Ed.2d 69 (1986), and the court, by requesting explanations for the strikes, implicitly found that a prima facie showing of racial discrimination had been made. See State v. Hernandez, 170 Ariz. 301, 304, 823 P.2d 1309, 1312 (App.1991). The prosecutor replied that one of the jurors had previously served on a criminal jury that returned not guilty verdicts and the other had expressed concern about not getting paid if he were selected. The court denied the motion, finding the explanations to be “ethical reasons for excusing those two jurors.”
Defendant argues that the prosecutor’s explanations were not objectively verifiable, as required by State v. Cruz, 175 Ariz. 395, 399, 857 P.2d 1249, 1253 (1993), and thus not race neutral. We disagree. In Cruz, the prosecutor struck a Hispanic juror because he believed she was “weak,” had “poor contact” with him, and “felt she would be led.” Id. We held that such purely subjective impressions of a juror’s qualities had to be coupled with objective support to overcome a prima facie showing of discrimination. Id. Without examining the continued validity of Cruz in light of the U.S. Supreme Court’s more recent decision in Purkett v. Elem, 514 U.S. 765, 115 S.Ct. 1769, 131 L.Ed.2d 834 (1995), we can say that participation on a prior acquitting jury is not the type of “wholly subjective” reason implicated therein. Rather, it is a facially objective basis for a peremptory challenge, unrelated to race or gender. See State v. Castillo, 156 Ariz. 323, 325, 751 P.2d 983, 985 (App.1987); Garza v. State, 739 S.W.2d 374, 375 (Tex.App.1987). Similarly, a prospective juror’s expressed reluctance to serve due to financial hardship is a legitimate rationale for a peremptory strike. See State v. Sanderson, 182 Ariz. 534, 540, 898 P.2d 483, 489 (App.1995).
In a footnote, defendant also complains that two of the prosecutor’s peremptory strikes were not gender neutral. This claim was waived by failing to raise it in the court below. Cruz, 175 Ariz. at 398, 857 P.2d at 1252. Additionally, the issue has been presented here without argument and is therefore precluded. Id. at 401, 857 P.2d at 1255.
CHALLENGES FOR CAUSE
Defendant challenged for cause three panelists during voir dire and one seated trial juror. Under Rule 18.4(b), Ariz. R.Crim.P., cause to excuse a juror exists “[w]hen there is reasonable ground to believe that [he or she] cannot render a fair and impartial verdict.” Because the trial court observes firsthand a juror’s demeanor and credibility, its ruling will not be disturbed absent a clear abuse of discretion. State v. Lavers, 168 Ariz. 376, 390, 814 P.2d 333, 347 (1991). Moreover, the burden of establishing that a juror was not fair and impartial rests with the party challenging the court’s failure to strike. Id.
Defendant argues that the trial court abused its discretion by denying his request to excuse venirepersons Douglas, Lindahl, and Gibbs. Douglas had once sat on a jury that convicted in a similar type of case, and defendant believed his voice sounded “bitter” while describing the incident. Lindahl and Gibbs had personal experiences with violent crime that defendant feared would evoke emotional responses. Upon questioning, however, all three jurors indicated they could be fair and impartial, and defendant has presented no evidence to the contrary. Because prejudice will not be presumed but must appear affirmatively from the record, the court did not err. See State v. Reasoner, 154 Ariz. 377, 384, 742 P.2d 1363, 1370 (App.1987).
Defendant further asserts that Douglas and Lindahl should have been stricken because they gave ambiguous responses about pretrial publicity. Douglas responded, “I guess,” when asked if he could keep an open mind, and Lindahl said he did not “believe” the publicity would affect his ability to do the same. Because defendant did not challenge on these grounds in the trial court, the arguments are waived. Encinas v. State, 26 Ariz. 24, 27, 221 P. 232, 233 (1923), overruled on other grounds, State v. Huerta, 175 Ariz. 262, 855 P.2d 776 (1993); State v. Bravo, 131 Ariz. 168, 171, 639 P.2d 358, 360 (App.1981). In any event, the claims are meritless. A juror’s assurance of impartiality need not be couched in absolute terms. E.g., State v. Clayton, 109 Ariz. 587, 592-93, 514 P.2d 720, 725-26 (1973) (juror “would try” to follow instructions); State v. Poehnelt, 150 Ariz. 136, 146, 722 P.2d 304, 314 (App.1985) (juror “believed” he could be fair and impartial).
Without argument and for the first time on appeal, defendant challenges the discharge of a venireman who had interrupted the selection process to inform the court that he did not believe in the jury system. Defendant waived this issue below and has effectively done so here. See State v. Kemp, 185 Ariz. 52, 57, 912 P.2d 1281, 1286, cert. denied, — U.S. —, 117 S.Ct. 117, 136 L.Ed.2d 68 (1996).
Lastly, defendant claims juror Ahlstrom should have been dismissed. On the second day of trial, Ahlstrom requested a private meeting with the judge. That morning, she had stopped by her workplace and was told by a supervisor that Trostle was a former employee. Together they looked up his employment record because the juror wanted to know when he worked there and why he was let go (repeated absences). In chambers with the judge and both counsel, Ahlstrom said, “I don’t recall seeing him on the job or anything but I did want you to know that I may have said hello to him in passing____” She also asserted that she was not influenced by the information, would not discuss it with other jurors, and could reserve judgment until the end of trial. The court subsequently denied defendant’s request for her dismissal. At the close of the evidence, Ahlstrom was randomly chosen as an alternate.
Defendant argues that his right to a fair and impartial jury was violated because Ahlstrom was not excused. While the trial court certainly would have been justified in striking the juror for violating its admonitions, see State v. Cook, 170 Ariz. 40, 54, 821 P.2d 731, 745 (1991), the refusal to remove her was not an abuse of discretion. Ahlstrom assured the court that she had not discussed the trial with her supervisor nor formed an opinion regarding the case. It appears that she was more concerned about reporting her previously unknown connection to defendant. The court satisfied itself that she could be fair and impartial, and defendant failed to establish otherwise.
Defendant also claims that the jury may have received harmful extraneous evidence from Ahlstrom and that the court should have determined whether such information influenced the verdict. He did not, however, request an evidentiary hearing nor move for either a mistrial or new trial. Any claim that the verdict was tainted by extrinsic evidence was thus waived. Moreover, defendant has failed to show prejudice from the juror’s misconduct, and this is not a case in which it can be presumed from the facts. Cf. State v. Miller, 178 Ariz. 555, 875 P.2d 788 (1994) (third-party communication related directly to ultimate issue of defendant’s guilt or innocence). Ahlstrom did not participate in the deliberations, her information pertained only to defendant’s prior work history, and nothing in the record suggests she shared this knowledge with other jurors. See, e.g., State v. Spears, 184 Ariz. 277, 289, 908 P.2d 1062, 1074 (1996) (finding no prejudice, in part, because record did not show whether jurors were exposed to extraneous information). The trial court’s failure to inquire sua sponte if the verdict had been tainted was not error.
ADMISSION OF DEFENDANT’S STATEMENTS
At police headquarters following his arrest, defendant was given Miranda warnings. After indicating that he understood his rights, he agreed to answer questions and subsequently made three taped statements. The first began at 6:51 p.m. It ended over two hours later when he agreed to accompany detectives to the Tucson Mall and show them where the truck had been parked. While in transit, he answered more questions, eventually admitting that he knew where the victim’s body was located. This statement ended at 10:47 p.m. when they reached Mission Road and detectives began searching the desert. Over the next two hours, he remained in the police car and allegedly slept. At 1:23 a.m., following their return to headquarters, detectives interrogated defendant for another 15 minutes. Their questions included whether he had ever asked for a lawyer or indicated that he did not want to answer questions, and whether he had been promised anything or threatened. He answered each in the negative.
Defendant argues that Miranda was violated because he never explicitly waived his rights and because the warnings were not repeated at any point during the 7-plus hours of interrogation. We disagree. Defendant did not hesitate in answering questions and at no time asked to stop or speak with an attorney. “Answering questions after police properly give the Miranda warnings constitutes a waiver by conduct.” State v. Tapia, 159 Ariz. 284, 287, 767 P.2d 5, 8 (1988); State v. Knapp, 114 Ariz. 531, 538, 562 P.2d 704, 711 (1977). Moreover, absent circumstances suggesting that a suspect is not fully aware of his rights, there is no obligation to repeat them. State v. Henry, 176 Ariz. 569, 577, 863 P.2d 861, 869 (1993); State v. Gilreath, 107 Ariz. 318, 319, 487 P.2d 385, 386 (1971)(12- and 36-hour gaps between interrogations). Defendant does not reference, and we cannot find, anything in the record suggesting that he was not fully aware of his rights during the entire questioning period.
Defendant also asserts that his statements were not made voluntarily. Because confessions are prima facie involuntary, the state has the burden of showing voluntariness by a preponderance of the evidence. State v. Scott, 177 Ariz. 131, 136, 865 P.2d 792, 797 (1993). The trial court must look at the totality of circumstances to decide whether police conduct constituted overreaching. Id. Because this inquiry is highly fact-intensive, a court’s finding will not be disturbed absent clear and manifest error. State v. Lopez, 174 Ariz. 131, 137, 847 P.2d 1078, 1084 (1992).
In support of his involuntariness claim, defendant points to the absence of counsel during interrogation, the failure to repeat Miranda warnings, and his lack of food and sleep. As already noted, however, he freely answered questions, never requested an attorney, and did not ask to stop or take a break. Furthermore, the detectives gave him coffee and let him sleep while they searched for the victim. Although they never offered him food, at no time did defendant indicate he was hungry or request something to eat.
Defendant also argues that his statements were improperly induced with promises of leniency. A confession is involuntary if it was made in reliance on an express or implied promise. State v. Amaya-Ruiz, 166 Ariz. 152, 165, 800 P.2d 1260, 1273 (1990). Defendant focuses on two com ments made during the interrogation. In the first, detectives encouraged him to tell the truth because they were talking to Jewitt as well: “We’re giving you the opportunity to win the contest [against Jewitt]. Okay? Because it’s a big contest ... this is a bigger contest than you’ve ever been in before.” While en route to the mall, a detective said, “Help us out the best you can. That’s all we ask. Be honest with us and help us out and it’ll work out in the long run.”
On the surface, these two remarks appear to imply that defendant would receive some type of reward in exchange for his cooperation. We need not determine whether they amounted to promises, however, because the record establishes clearly that he faded to act in reliance on either one.
At the outset of the interrogation, defendant claimed that Jewitt had “borrowed” the truck from a Mend at the mall. Within the first half hour, he acknowledged that the Toyota had “probably” been stolen by Jewitt but denied knowing anything about it. Soon thereafter, detectives reminded him that they were also questioning Jewitt, who would likely claim defendant was the thief, and told him they could only believe one person’s story. They then urged him to be honest, tell the truth, and “win the contest” because they “liked” him more than Jewitt. Defendant, however, continued denying any knowledge of the theft.
Over an hour into the interview, when detectives falsely claimed they had found Knauss’s body, defendant finally admitted a “jacking” had occurred. While breaking into tears, he insisted he was only a bystander and again denied knowing exactly what happened.
By the time he was assured it would all “work out,” defendant had already confessed to lying in wait with Jewitt and had begun recounting some details of the abduction. Yet even after this alleged promise of leniency, he maintained that Jewitt alone was responsible for stealing the truck and killing its owner. It was only after the police persisted in questioning him about where Jewitt might have disposed of the victim’s body that he finally admitted the extent of his involvement and agreed to show them where Knauss was killed.
Defendant clearly did not react to the two comments as if he believed them to be promises, nor did they induce him to confess. See State v. Walton, 159 Ariz. 571, 579-80, 769 P.2d 1017, 1025-26 (1989), aff'd on other grounds, 497 U.S. 639, 110 S.Ct. 3047, 111 L.Ed.2d 511 (1990). On the contrary, defendant’s cooperation apparently was motivated more by his guilty conscience than either of the detectives’ remarks. Furthermore, defendant admitted that he had not been promised anything. Having considered all of the surrounding circumstances, we cannot say that the trial court erred in finding voluntariness.
ADEQUACY OF JURY INSTRUCTIONS
Defendant alleges error in the trial court’s refusal to give a voluntary intoxication instruction. See former A.R.S. § 13-503. A party is entitled to a jury instruction on any theory reasonably supported by the evidence. State v. LaGrand, 152 Ariz. 483, 487, 733 P.2d 1066, 1070 (1987). In his statement, defendant said he consumed two 40-ounce bottles of malt liquor over a Vh- to 2-hour period and smoked a “hit” or two of marijuana before walking to the Tucson Mall, some 6 hours before Knauss was abducted. No other evidence of intoxication was presented.
“Mere proof of consumption of alcohol is insufficient for an instruction; there must be evidence that alcohol could have had an effect on defendant so as to negate an element of the crime.” State v. Murray, 184 Ariz. 9, 34, 906 P.2d 542, 567 (1995). Defendant admitted that although the alcohol made him tired, he knew what he was doing when he committed the offenses. He was also able to recall detailed information about the crime and led police to within 100 yards of the remote desert location where the victim’s body was eventually found. See State v. Reid, 155 Ariz. 399, 401, 747 P.2d 560, 562 (1987). A determination that defendant was intoxicated at the time of the offense would have been based on pure speculation.
Defendant also claims that he was entitled to a lesser-included instruction on unlawful imprisonment even though he did not request one. He alleges that the absence of such an instruction amounts to fundamental error because the jury may have used kidnapping as the predicate offense for felony murder.
In determining if evidence is sufficient to require a lesser-included instruction, “the test is ‘whether the jury could rationally fail to find the distinguishing element of the greater offense.’ ” State v. Detrich, 178 Ariz. 380, 383, 873 P.2d 1302, 1305 (1994) (citation omitted). In this case, the crucial inquiry is whether the unlawful imprisonment was accompanied by one of the enumerated mental states in the kidnapping statute, including intent to “inflict death, physical injury or a sexual offense on the victim, or to otherwise aid in the commission of a felony.” A.R.S. § 13-1304(A)(3); see Detrich, 178 Ariz. at 383, 873 P.2d at 1305. Defendant admitted knowing or strongly suspecting that Jewitt planned to kidnap and murder the truck’s owner, and he alone bound her hands and feet. There was also ample evidence of his intent to aid in stealing the truck. The court’s failure to provide a lesser-included instruction on unlawful imprisonment was not error, let alone fundamental error.
Finally, defendant argues that he was entitled to an instruction on premeditated murder and its lesser-included offenses, even though that allegation was abandoned during trial. In State v. West, 176 Ariz. 432, 862 P.2d 192 (1993), we held that the trial court has “no obligation to instruct the jury on theories withdrawn in the prosecutor’s discretion.” Id. at 443, 862 P.2d at 201. Defendant’s attempt to distinguish West is based on a misreading of the facts in that case. We find no error.
PROSECUTORIAL MISCONDUCT
Defendant alleges multiple instances of prosecutorial misconduct that he contends deprived him of a fair trial. These include calling him a coward, liar, pervert, rapist, and murderer in opening statement, and, in closing argument, commenting on his failure to call an expert witness, the loss of the victim to her family, and his right to remain silent. Defendant waived all of these claims by failing to object at trial. State v. Valdez, 160 Ariz. 9, 13, 770 P.2d 313, 317 (1989). In any event, none requires reversal.
“Opening statement is not a time to argue the inferences and conclusions that may be drawn from evidence not yet admitted.” Bible, 175 Ariz. at 602, 858 P.2d at 1205 (citation omitted). The prosecutor’s inflammatory characterizations of defendant were plainly improper. The substantial evidence of guilt, however, combined with his acquittal of sexual assault, belies any claim that the misconduct deprived defendant of a fair trial. See id.
Comments that are invited and prompted by opposing counsel’s arguments are not improper if they are reasonable and pertinent to the issues raised. State v. Arredondo, 111 Ariz. 141, 144, 526 P.2d 163, 166 (1974). Our review of the record indicates that the references to the victim’s family and to defendant’s failure to call an expert witness fall squarely into this category. Therefore, neither was inappropriate.
The final alleged instance of misconduct occurred during the state’s rebuttal to defense counsel’s intimation that detectives, through questionable interrogation techniques, put words in defendant’s mouth. The prosecutor argued that only two individuals knew detailed information of the crime: “One is Jack Jewitt and the other one is sitting right here at the table asking you not to hold him accountable through his lawyer.” Although this statement constitutes an impermissible comment on defendant’s failure to testify, we cannot say it contributed to the jury’s verdict in view of the overwhelming evidence of guilt and the context within which it was made. Any error was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt. Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. 18, 23-24, 87 S.Ct. 824, 827-28, 17 L.Ed.2d 705 (1967); State v. Scarborough, 110 Ariz. 1, 5, 514 P.2d 997, 1001 (1973).
ADMISSION OF GRUESOME PHOTOGRAPH
Defendant argues that a crime scene photo, depicting the victim lying face down and bound at the hands and ankles, was improperly admitted. Relevant photographs that are neither inflammatory nor unduly prejudicial are admissible. State v. Gulbrandson, 184 Ariz. 46, 60, 906 P.2d 579, 593 (1995). The exhibit, which was the only full-body photograph of the victim in evidence, was relevant to corroborate defendant’s detailed account of how she was murdered. Although arguably gruesome since the body had been in the desert for several days, the photo shows neither her face nor the fatal head wound. We find that its probative value outweighed any danger of unfair prejudice.
SUFFICIENCY OF THE EVIDENCE
Defendant claims that the judge wrongly denied his motion for directed verdict on the theft, robbery, kidnapping, and first degree murder charges. We disagree. A judgment of acquittal is appropriate only when there is no “substantial evidence to warrant a conviction.” Rule 20(a), Ariz. R.Crim.P. Evidence in the case, including defendant’s statements and palmprints on the truck, clearly provided support for the verdict.
SENTENCING ISSUES
In every capital case, this court must independently review the facts establishing the presence or absence of aggravating and mitigating circumstances to determine if the death penalty is appropriate. A.R.S. § 13-703.01(A).
ENMUND/TISON
Because defendant was convicted of felony murder, we must ascertain whether he is death eligible. In Enmund v. Florida, 458 U.S. 782, 797, 102 S.Ct. 3368, 3376, 73 L.Ed.2d 1140 (1982), the United States Supreme Court held that a felony murder defendant could receive the death penalty only if he actually killed, attempted to kill, or intended to kill. The Court’s subsequent decision in Tison v. Arizona, 481 U.S. 137, 157-58, 107 S.Ct. 1676, 1688, 95 L.Ed.2d 127 (1987), expanded this rule, allowing capital punishment where the defendant was a major participant in the underlying felony and acted with reckless indifference to human life.
In its special verdict, the trial court found beyond a reasonable doubt that: “1. The Defendant was the one who killed, or 2. The Defendant was not the actual killer but intended to kill, or 3. The Defendant was not the actual killer but was a major participant in acts that led up to the killing and exhibited a reckless indifference to human life.” On its face, this alternative listing of Enmund/Tison factors appears improper; defendant consistently claimed that Jewitt shot the victim and there is no evidence in this record to indicate otherwise. Although generic language should be avoided in a special verdict, we have previously held that it is the substance of the finding, not its label, that counts. State v. Runningeagle, 176 Ariz. 59, 64, 859 P.2d 169, 174 (1993).
Here, the court went on to make specific factual findings in support of its disjunctive conclusions. These included defendant’s own statements that he intended to help steal the truck and knew from the beginning its owner would be killed, that he tied up the victim, that he told her to kneel prior to being shot, and that he kept her quiet in the desert when the reservation police officer stopped to investigate. These facts establish beyond a reasonable doubt that defendant was a major participant in the murder and acted with reckless indifference to human life.
AGGRAVATION
The trial court found that the murder was committed for pecuniary gain, A.R.S. § 13-703(F)(5), and in an especially heinous, cruel or depraved manner, A.R.S. § 13-703(F)(6).
Pecuniary Gain
The court based its (F)(5) finding on the fact that the truck was actually stolen, defendant admitted participation in the theft, and his stated purpose for the killing was to facilitate stealing the truck and eliminate the victim as a witness. Defendant argues that the state failed to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that he, rather than Jewitt, wanted to steal the truck or kill Knauss. We disagree.
The (F)(5) aggravating factor may be established by a showing that the defendant’s participation in the crime was motivated by the expectation of pecuniary gain. State v. LaGrand, 153 Ariz. 21, 35, 734 P.2d 563, 577 (1987). “When a defendant comes to rob, [he] expects pecuniary gain and this desire infects all other conduct of the defendant.” Id. (emphasis added); see also State v. Greenway, 170 Ariz. 155, 164, 823 P.2d 22, 31 (1991). Thus, a significant consideration is whether the killing was part of an overall robbery scheme, as opposed to being unexpected or accidental. Greenway, 170 Ariz. at 164, 823 P.2d at 31.
Defendant admitted that he and Jewitt, armed with a shotgun, went to a shopping mall for the sole purpose of stealing a truck. In fact, they picked out a vehicle and waited hours for the opportunity to rob its owner. Defendant acknowledged that the victim was killed to delay reporting of the theft and to eliminate the only witness, an act benefitting both perpetrators. Moreover, Jewitt announced that they would kill her execution style so “it will look like we didn’t do it.” Clearly, the murder was not accidental or unexpected but instead directly connected to the professed goal of “jacking” a vehicle. See State v. Correll, 148 Ariz. 468, 479, 715 P.2d 721, 732 (1986) (finding pecuniary gain where the only motivation for murders was to ensure no witnesses to robbery). That Jewitt ultimately kept the truck for himself does not nullify defendant’s participation in the theft. We therefore agree with the trial court that the murder was committed for pecuniary gain.
Defendant also argues that the pecuniary gain aggravating factor is unconstitutionally overbroad because it duplicates an element of felony murder (robbery). We have previously held to the contrary, see Greenway, 170 Ariz. at 163-64, 823 P.2d at 30-31, and decline to revisit this issue.
Especially Heinous, Cruel or Depraved
The court found the killing to be especially cruel because the drive into the desert took at least 30 minutes, the victim did not know the defendants, she was confronted with a shotgun at the beginning of the abduction, and threatened with it until her death. She was also forced to walk into the desert, disrobe, and kneel down before being shot. Defendant argues the state failed to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that he intended or foresaw the victim’s mental suffering. He also claims that the court erroneously imputed Jewitt’s acts and motives to him in its sentencing analysis. We again disagree.
Cruelty exists if the victim consciously experienced physical or mental pain prior to death, State v. Kiles, 175 Ariz. 358, 371, 857 P.2d 1212, 1225 (1993), and the defendant knew or should have known that suffering would occur. State v. Apelt, 176 Ariz. 369, 376, 861 P.2d 654, 661 (1993). “Mental anguish includes a victim’s uncertainty about her ultimate fate.” Kiles, 175 Ariz. at 371, 857 P.2d at 1225 (citations omitted).
Unquestionably, the victim suffered extreme mental distress. According to defendant, Knauss repeatedly begged not to be hurt and was “whining and whimpering” pri- or to being shot. He told police, “[S]he was scared. She didn’t know what was gonna go on.” We agree with the trial court that defendant knew or should have known that the victim would suffer mental anguish. See State v. Lambright, 138 Ariz. 63, 75, 673 P.2d 1, 13 (1983) (finding mental suffering where victim was abducted, sexually assaulted, and in fear for her life as shown by her trembling and begging to be released).
The trial court also found that the murder was committed in an especially heinous or depraved manner because the killing was senseless and the victim was helpless. See State v. Gretzler, 135 Ariz. 42, 52, 659 P.2d 1, 11 (1983).. Ordinarily, senselessness and helplessness alone are insufficient to establish heinousness or depravity. State v. Ross, 180 Ariz. 598, 607, 886 P.2d 1354, 1363 (1994). Nonetheless, because we concur in the court’s cruelty finding, we uphold the (F)(6) aggravating factor. See State v. West, 176 Ariz. 432, 448, 862 P.2d 192, 208 (1993) (“[A] finding of any one of the three factors [heinous, cruel or depraved] will suffice. ...”).
MITIGATION
Mental Impairment
The trial court found that defendant’s “capacity to appreciate the wrongfulness of his conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of law” was not significantly impaired. See A.R.S. § 13-703(G)(1). It based this conclusion on, among other things, the fact that defendant said he knew what he did was wrong. Defendant argues, however, that he provided sufficient mitigation evidence to show that even though he could appreciate the wrongfulness of his conduct, his ability to conduct himself according to the law’s requirements was impaired at the time of the offense. See State v. Rossi, 154 Ariz. 245, 251, 741 P.2d 1223, 1229 (1987)(“[A.R.S. § 13-703(G)(1) ] is phrased disjunctively____ Proof of significant impairment of either of these two personal attributes will suffice.”). In support, he points to the uncontradicted testimony of Dr. Joseph Geffen, who stated that defendant’s traumatic upbringing and resulting mental disturbance influenced his criminal actions.
Defendant’s abusive childhood is well documented. The first incident reported to Child Protective Services (CPS) occurred when he was only 2-3 months old and was discovered sleeping in his own vomit, wearing a soiled diaper. His drug-abusing mother, who had separated from his father when defendant was very young, was investigated by CPS for physical abuse and neglect on numerous occasions throughout his developmental years.
Defendant spent a considerable amount of time at the home of his mother’s parents. His grandmother beat him regularly and once severely burned him with hot water for wetting his pants. His grandfather was convicted of sexually molesting him over a substantial period of time beginning at age 11. This man had also allegedly assaulted defendant’s mother and at least one of her eight sisters when they were young. Subsequently, defendant acted out in sexually inappropriate ways with other children and was placed by juvenile authorities in a residential treatment and educational program (Pathways) when he was 14 years old.
Psychological evaluations of defendant pri- or to and during his stay at Pathways warned of escalating developmental problems. He was diagnosed as being severely emotionally handicapped and at high risk of developing antisocial behavioral patterns. While at the group home, doctors described defendant as struggling with gender identity issues, due in part to his effeminate manner and confusion regarding sexual orientation.
Without question, defendant’s years at Pathways were the most stable in his life. Although he had made considerable progress and was released prior to his 18th birthday, his case manager stated at that time, “He will need a good deal of aftercare support____ If David should fail to get the support he needs, there is a significant chance that he could cycle into the same behaviors that initially required that he be placed.” However, he received little followup treatment after being released.
While incarcerated pending trial on the present matter, defendant was temporarily transferred into the detention center’s mental health unit. Records described him as assaultive and depressed, and he was initially placed on a five-minute suicide watch. He was also treated for a contusion on his forehead apparently caused by self-inflicted head banging. He was characterized as “acutely agitated” and required the use of leather restraints. Other record entries indicated that defendant had been crying, appeared psychotic, and was disoriented as to time and place.
Dr. Geffen, one of the psychologists who had previously evaluated defendant as a juvenile, was the only mental health expert to testify at the aggravation/mitigation hearing. After meeting with defendant on four different occasions. between December 27, 1993, and February 21, 1994, Dr. Geffen reported:
Based on the obtained history, the client was considered to have been suffering from chronic mental illness, including a conduct disorder, severe polysubstance abuse disorder and mixed personality disorder with schizotypic, narcissistic, dependent and borderline features____
David was considered to have demonstrated extreme social dysfunction and an inability to function independently in the general community. He was probably not ready to be reintegrated in society after Ms release from the residential program. This was confirmed by the subsequent events, mcluding Ms dramatic and extreme involvement in substance abuse.
David’s history, from the time of the sexual and physical abuse experienced in his childhood, demonstrated clearly an absence of any stabilizing factors in his family life. His own experience as a victim of abuse significantly predisposed him to repeat such behaviors as he developed further, and indeed tMs led him to violations which brought him under the jurisdiction of the Juvenile Court and his eventual placement in a residential treatment program. Indeed, the clinical notes from that program indicated how serious the child’s disturbance had been and how difficult it was to treat him.
(Emphasis added). Based on these findings, the doctor concluded:
Among the longterm psychological damages were the development of David’s perceptions and feelings of being alienated from others, i.e. not belonging or being accepted. His longing for nurture and acceptance and Ms own poor self-perception led David to fall under the influence of a peer group of similar bent, i.e. drug using, asocial and antisocial orientation. In his interpersonal relationships within this group, David was a follower, easily mampulated and pushed to do what others with stronger willpower wanted him to do in order to prove himself worthy of their acceptance. It is my professional opinion that David’s criminal actions were directly influenced by his mentally disturbed condition. The data obtamed m this evaluation strongly indicated that this is an individual who could not have been expected to conform to the expectations and demands of society to behave in a legal and responsible manner, given the history of Ms development and the circumstances in wMeh he was when the crimes occurred. The outcome was quite predictable.
____ There was evidence that he characteristically tends to respond impulsively and without reflection, especially in situations of considerable stress____ Ultimately, he was unable to prevent the criminal actions or from escaping the situation____
(Emphasis added).
Lay witnesses supported Dr. Geffen’s conclusions. Family members testified to defendant’s immaturity and eagerness to please others. His special education teacher at Pathways observed that “he seemed young.... He seemed immature but needy, emotionally needy.” A maternal aunt, with whom defendant resided until almost six months before the carjacking, stated that he craved and actively sought affection and approval. She also testified that he was anxious to please his older sister, Robin, whom she viewed as a “strong influence.” He began hanging around with her friends, including her 14-year-old boyfriend, Jack Jewitt.
In State v. Richmond, we analyzed the origin of A.R.S. § 13-154(F)(1), currently 13-703(G)(1), and concluded that the legislature intended to exclude character and personality disorders such as sociopathy from consideration under this section. 114 Ariz. 186, 197-98, 560 P.2d 41, 52-53 (1976). Following the Umted States Supreme Court’s decision in Lockett v. Ohio, 438 U.S. 586, 98 S.Ct. 2954, 57 L.Ed.2d 973 (1978), however, we recognized that even if a disorder does not rise to the level of mental disease or defect originally contemplated in (G)(1), the inquiry is not over. State v. McMurtrey, 136 Ariz. 93, 102, 664 P.2d 637, 646 (1983). In McMurtrey, we stated:
The court must consider the offered evidence further to determine whether it in some other way suggests that the defendant should be treated with leniency. For example, a defendant may offer evidence of several factors including a difficult family history in an effort to establish the mitigating circumstance in § 13-703(G)(1). The court may not refuse to consider the independent mitigating effect, if any, of the family history merely because all the factors taken together fail to establish the mitigating circumstance in § 13 — 703(G)(1).
Id.
In considering evidence of mental impairment, our primary task is to determine its mitigating weight, if any. Understandably, some disturbances may be more significant than others. State v. Walton, 159 Ariz. 571, 588, 769 P.2d 1017, 1034 (1989). For instance, in State v. Stuard, the defendant had organic brain damage, dementia, a low IQ bordering on retarded, and a serious personality disorder at the time of the killings. 176 Ariz. 589, 610, 863 P.2d 881, 902 (1993). We found that the impairment was significant for (G)(1) purposes and considered it a substantial factor in our independent reweighing, which resulted in a reduction of the defendant’s three death sentences. Id. at 605-10, 863 P.2d at 897-902.
In contrast, the remorseless, sociopathic personality of the defendant in State v. Gerlaugh did not constitute a mitigating circumstance, statutory or otherwise. 144 Ariz. 449, 459-60, 698 P.2d 694, 704-05 (1985). In that case, the defendant had been raised in a relatively stable home environment, and there was no evidence he had been abused as a child. The defense expert was simply unable to explain why the defendant displayed violent and destructive tendencies. Id. at 460, 698 P.2d at 705. Clearly, these cases represent extremes on the mitigation scale. They suggest, however, that the weight to be given mental impairment should be proportional to a defendant’s ability to conform or appreciate the wrongfulness of his conduct.
The defendant here established, by a preponderance of the evidence, that he was affected in no small measure by an impaired ability to conform his conduct to the law’s requirements. The state failed to present anything to rebut Dr. Geffen’s assessment, and it clearly appears that his testimony was credible. The trial court, therefore, should have given serious consideration to this evidence, either as statutory or nonstatutory mitigation. State v. Zaragoza, 135 Ariz. 63, 70, 659 P.2d 22, 29 (1983). We certainly do so as part of our independent review.
Duress
To prove he was “under unusual and substantial duress,” A.R.S. § 13-703(G)(2), defendant must show that he was coerced or induced to commit the offense against his own free will. State v. Castaneda, 150 Ariz. 382, 394, 724 P.2d 1, 13 (1986). Although he expressed a general fear of being attacked if he did not go along with his friends, there is no evidence that Jewitt or anyone else forced defendant to participate in the crime. The trial court correctly declined to find duress as a statutory or non-statutory circumstance.
Minor Participant
As previously discussed regarding the Enmund/Tison finding, although there is no proof defendant shot the victim, the evidence conclusively shows that he was a major participant in the murder. Thus, defendant’s claim that his role was minor compared to Jewitt’s fails to qualify under A.R.S. § 13-703(G)(3) or as nonstatutory mitigation.
Foreseeability of Death
The record establishes that defendant knew the truck’s owner would likely be killed. Therefore, the court properly refused to consider his claim that the death was unforeseeable as either a statutory or non-statutory mitigating circumstance. See A.R.S. § 13-703(G)(4).
Age
Defendant was 20 years old at the time of the offense. The trial court found, and we agree, that his age is a mitigating circumstance. We also consider the defendant’s intelligence, maturity, and life experiences when determining the weight to be given this factor. State v. Gallegos, 185 Ariz. 340, 346, 916 P.2d 1056, 1062 (1996). Although defendant’s IQ at the time of the offense was in the average range, other evidence established that he was immature and easily influenced. Dr. Geffen concluded that he was “a follower, easily manipulated and pushed to do what others with stronger willpower wanted him to do.” Moreover, Dr. Geffen reported that defendant’s emotional development was at a child-like level and that he “never has had the experience of living as an independent functioning adult.”
Other Mitigation
The trial court considered defendant’s cooperation with police and dysfunctional family background, including past drug and alcohol abuse, as nonstatutory mitigating circumstances. The state does not contest, and we agree, that they were proven by a preponderance of the evidence. We note, however, that although defendant’s statements assisted in solving this homicide, his cooperation carries reduced mitigating weight in light of his initial refusal to tell the truth. See State v. Bishop, 127 Ariz. 531, 534-35, 622 P.2d 478, 481-82 (1980).
The court also found that defendant adequately demonstrated good conduct during trial and loving family relationships, but ruled that each was irrelevant as mitigation. In dismissing defendant’s trial behavior, the judge correctly observed that such conduct “is the norm and is expected.” See State v. Spencer, 176 Ariz. 36, 44, 859 P.2d 146, 154 (1993) (good trial behavior says nothing about defendant’s character, tendencies, or rehabilitative potential). Regarding familial relationships, however, the state admits that this evidence might have some mitigating force. Bible, 175 Ariz. at 606, 858 P.2d at 1209. The court should have given this circumstance some weight.
Defendant next argues that the court erred by not considering the following nonstatutory mitigators: (1) ability to function well in a structured environment; (2) lack of a prior violent felony conviction; and (3) remorse. The state does not deny that the record contains evidence in support of these factors. Furthermore, each is relevant for mitigation purposes. See State v. Murray, 184 Ariz. 9, 40, 906 P.2d 542, 573 (1995) (potential for rehabilitation); State v. Atwood, 171 Ariz. 576, 654, 832 P.2d 593, 671 (1992) (lack of prior violent convictions); State v. Tittle, 147 Ariz. 339, 344, 710 P.2d 449, 454 (1985) (remorse).
Defendant’s 2$-year stay in a residential treatment center was documented in the presentence report. Evaluations during that time indicated that he responded well in a stable and supportive environment. In addition, nothing in his criminal record reveals a tendency toward the kind of violent crime for which he has been convicted. He had one previous adult felony conviction for car theft (nondangerous), which occurred just two weeks before this incident, and his juvenile record consists mainly of sexual “acting out” episodes. In letters written to both the victim’s family and the judge, defendant expressed remorse for the damage his “rash and unthoughtful” actions had caused.
The state acknowledges that the trial judge made no findings either accepting or rejecting this evidence as mitigating. It argues instead that the court is “not required to separately discuss, in the special verdict, each circumstance claimed to be mitigating, and each argument made by the defense.” State v. Spencer, 176 Ariz. 36, 44, 859 P.2d 146, 154 (1993). This judge, however, specifically identified each nonstatutory mitigator he found to exist and whether it was relevant. It is, therefore, reasonable to conclude that defendant’s remorse, his ability to function in a structured environment, and the lack of prior violent felony convictions might not have been considered. Nevertheless, the record before us contains sufficient evidence of these factors, and each will be taken into account in our independent reweighing. See A.R.S. §§ 13-703.01(B),(C).
Defendant also claims that the judge should have considered requests from the victim’s family that he be sentenced to life imprisonment. We have previously held, however, that such evidence is irrelevant to either the defendant’s character or the circumstances of the crime and is therefore not proper mitigation. State v. Williams, 183 Ariz. 368, 385, 904 P.2d 437, 454 (1995).
Lastly, defendant suggests that the trial court failed to consider sentencing him to life imprisonment without possibility of release under A.R.S. § 13-703(A). However, no evidence supports this assertion. See Walton v. Arizona, 497 U.S. 639, 653, 110 S.Ct. 3047, 3057, 111 L.Ed.2d 511 (1990)(“Trial judges are presumed to know the law and to apply it in making their decisions.”). We further decline defendant’s request to treat the natural-life option as a mitigating circumstance. See State v. Soto-Fong, 187 Ariz. 186, 211, 928 P.2d 610, 635 (1996)(“The availability of a ‘real life’ sentence is not, in our opinion, a mitigator____”).
INDEPENDENT REWEIGHING
When the trial court errs in its aggravation or mitigation findings, remand is generally not appropriate unless the judge wrongly excluded evidence or the record does not adequately reflect all of the relevant facts. A.R.S. § 13-703.01(C). Neither situation is present here. Therefore, we must independently reweigh and determine whether the proven mitigation is sufficiently substantial to warrant leniency. A.R.S. § 13-703.01(B). In carrying out this duty, we have stated:
The question before us is not whether the trial court properly imposed the death penalty, but whether, based upon the record before us, we believe that the death penalty should be imposed. A finding merely that the imposition of the death penalty by the trial court was “factually supported” or “justified by the evidence” is not the separate and independent judgment by this court that the death penalty warrants.
State v. Watson, 129 Ariz. 60, 63, 628 P.2d 943, 946 (1981).
Our task in evaluating and weighing the proffered mitigation is difficult at best. There is no scale upon which to measure what is or is not “sufficiently substantial.” In this case, the state proved that Ellen Knauss suffered unimaginable terror. In deciding whether death is an appropriate sentence, however, we must look at more than just the facts of the crime. We must focus on the defendant in order to make an individualized sentencing determination as required by both the Arizona and United States Constitutions. In carrying out this responsibility, “we are sometimes called upon to reduce a death sentence to life imprisonment even in cases where the facts are aggravated and the tragedy immense.” Stuard, 176 Ariz. at 605, 863 P.2d at 897.
As noted, defendant presented substantial mitigation evidence. Taken as a whole, this evidence causes us to question whether death is appropriate. Where “there is a doubt whether the death sentence should be imposed, we will resolve that doubt in favor of a life sentence.” State v. Valencia, 132 Ariz. 248, 250, 645 P.2d 239, 241 (1982). Due to the danger defendant poses to society, however, we believe he should be imprisoned for the rest of his natural life and never be released.
In view of the foregoing resolution, it is unnecessary to address defendant’s other sentencing issues.
DISPOSITION
Defendant’s convictions and non-capital sentences are affirmed. His sentence of death is reduced to natural life imprisonment without possibility of release, to be served consecutively to the prison terms for the non-capital convictions. See A.R.S. §§ 13-703.01(B), -703(A), and -708.
FELDMAN and MOELLER, JJ., concur.
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NOYES, Judge.
¶ 1 Ada N. Rodriguez was hit by a truck that was owned by Ryder Truck Rental, Inc., insured by Old Republic Insurance Company, and rented to a person who paid with a bad check and kept the vehicle past its due date. Ryder and Old Republic filed this action, seeking a judgment declaring that their insurance did not cover Rodriguez’ claim because the renter was a thief. The trial court granted summary judgment to Ryder and Old Republic. Rodriguez appealed. We reverse and remand because the record is too ambiguous at this point to support summary judgment for anyone.
¶ 2 Our jurisdiction of the appeal is pursuant to Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated (“A.R.S.”) section 12-210KB) (1994). We review the facts in a light most favorable to the party against whom summary judgment was granted, and we review the questions of law de novo. Pioneer Annuity Life Ins. Co. v. Rich, 179 Ariz. 462, 464, 880 P.2d 682, 684 (App.1994).
¶ 3 On January 16, 1996, Howard Herndon rented a Ryder truck for one day. He used his real name and gave a $200 deposit check. The rental agreement provided that liability coverage did not exist “if the Vehicle is obtained, used or operated in violation of any provision of this Agreement____” On January 19, Ryder learned that the bank had dishonored the deposit check because the account had been closed. On January 22, a person driving the truck with Herndon’s permission hit Rodriguez’ vehicle. Also on January 22, at a time not in the record, a Ryder employee “filed a stolen vehicle report with Ryder.” On January 25, Ryder wrote Herndon a letter demanding immediate return of the truck. Three weeks later, the truck was anonymously returned.
¶ 4 The rented truck in this case meets the requirements of A.R.S. section 28-324, which provides as follows:
A. No owner engaged in the business of renting ... a motor vehicle without a driver shall be permitted to register the motor vehicle until he has procured public liability insurance with an insurance company ... insuring the renter thereof against liability arising from his negligence in the operation of the rented motor vehicle____
A.R.S. § 28-324(A) (Supp.1997). (Title 28 was amended effective October 1, 1997, and January 1,1998. A.R.S. section 28-324(A) is now at A.R.S. section 28-2166(A) and (B) (Special Pamphlet 1997).)
¶ 5 The question is whether Herndon was a “renter” within the meaning of section 28-324 when Rodriguez was injured. If so, then Ryder’s insurance covers her claim. (The person driving the truck when Rodriguez was injured had Herndon’s permission. Section 28-324(G)(2) (current version at § 28-2166(1) (Special Pamphlet 1997)) provides that “ ‘Renter’ includes any person operating a motor vehicle with permission of the person who has rented it.”)
¶ 6 Ryder argues that Herndon obtained the vehicle by fraud and so was a thief rather than a renter. We conclude that the fact that Herndon obtained the vehicle by fraud does not necessarily exclude him from being a renter within the meaning of section 28-324. The injury-causing vehicle was on the road because Ryder rented it to Herndon. To allow Ryder to avoid financial responsibility for the vehicle solely on a hindsight analysis of the behavior of the renter would too easily defeat the purpose of section 28-324.
¶ 7 In enacting A.R.S. section 28-324, the “legislature’s primary concern ... was to ensure at least minimum protection for innocent third parties.” Consolidated Enters., Inc. v. Schwindt, 172 Ariz. 35, 40, 833 P.2d 706, 711 (1992) (holding that a rental agency may not sue a renter to recover payments made to a person injured by a nonauthorized use of the vehicle); see also Lowry v. Tucson Diesel, Inc., 17 Ariz.App. 348, 350, 498 P.2d 160, 162 (1972) (stating that section 28-324 seeks to protect the public from possible economic hardship caused by irresponsible renters).
¶ 8 On the other hand, section 28-324 does not manifest a legislative intention to hold agencies strictly liable for any damage done by a vehicle whose renter turned out to be a thief. Interpretation of section 28-324 thus requires finding the point at which an agency is relieved of financial responsibility in such a situation. No Arizona case addresses this issue. To highlight the competing policy considerations the issue raises, we discuss a Florida case that was decided differently at each step of a three-step appellate process.
¶ 9 In Hertz Corp. v. Jackson, 617 So.2d 1051 (Fla.1993), a vehicle was rented for two days. Twelve days later, Hertz learned that the vehicle had been rented with a stolen credit card. Hertz then sent certified letters to the renters demanding return of the vehicle. The letters were returned undeliverable. About two months later, Hertz reported the vehicle stolen. Eleven days after that, the vehicle was in an accident.
¶ 10 A panel of the court of appeals affirmed a judgment in favor of Hertz, reasoning that Hertz was not financially responsible because the vehicle was procured by fraud and “[tjhis fraud vitiated Hertz’s consent from the outset.” Jackson By and Through Whitaker v. Hertz, 590 So.2d 929, 932 (Fla. App.1990). On rehearing en banc, however, the court reversed that judgment and held Hertz liable as a matter of law, reasoning,
It would fatally compromise the interests of the innocent public if a rent-a-car agency ... which (a) is in the very business of leasing cars for a profit, (b) has extensive and elaborate means to safeguard itself against fraud or other misconduct and (c) is certainly “in the best position to make certain that there will be adequate resources” to pay damages caused by its vehicle, can avoid that liability if it is given a bad check, a counterfeit bill or a fraudulent driver’s license — all of which involve violations of the criminal law, but none of which should affect the owner’s tort liability for its automobile.
Id. at 939 (citations and footnotes omitted). The en banc court declined to discuss Hertz’s efforts to reclaim the vehicle, stating that “no such efforts, even heroic ones, can be effective to obviate the owner’s liability under [Florida’s ‘dangerous instrumentalities’] doctrine.” Id. at 941.
¶ 11 The Florida Supreme Court then quashed the en banc decision of the court of appeals and affirmed the trial court’s judgment for Hertz, reasoning,
[Liability should be determined on the basis of whether there has, in fact, been a conversion or theft of the vehicle prior to the negligence at issue____ [0]nce a vehicle has been the subject of a theft or conversion, the owner’s initial consent has been vitiated and the vehicle is no longer on public highways “by authority of’ the owner.
Hertz, 617 So.2d at 1053.
¶ 12 The supreme court also stated, “We emphasize, however, that procurement of a vehicle through fraud is but one factor to be considered in determining whether a vehicle has been the subject of theft or conversion.” Id. The supreme court reviewed the undisputed facts — including the facts that Hertz attempted to recover the vehicle and reported it stolen — and the court concluded, “Given these facts, we find that the vehicle was converted and that a theft had occurred.” Id. at 1054.
¶ 13 We agree with the analysis by the Florida Supreme Court in Hertz, and with the suggestion that a rental agency intending to revoke a renter’s permission to use the vehicle should make a reasonable effort to cancel the contract and recover the vehicle. This approach furthers the public-protection policy of A.R.S. section 28-324 without making a rental agency strictly liable for renters who turn out to be thieves.
¶ 14 To illustrate the proposition that a rental agency should take reasonable action to revoke the consent given to a renter who is suspected of being a thief, we discuss some cases that considered agency efforts to cancel the contract and recover the vehicle. In re Utica Mutual Insurance Co., 95 A.D.2d 150, 465 N.Y.S.2d 553 (1983), involved a one-day rental. When the vehicle was two days overdue, the agency’s manager sent letters to the renter by certified mail, telephoned the renter’s relatives, contacted police in New York and New Jersey, and drove to New Jersey looking for the vehicle. Seven days later, the agency filed a criminal complaint against the renter. Four days later, the vehicle was in an accident. Utica, 465 N.Y.S.2d at 554. The court found that the agency’s efforts to recover the vehicle “were sufficient to constitute a revocation of its consent to the lessee to operate the vehicle.” Id. at 555.
¶ 15 In Nationwide Mutual Insurance Co. v. Land, 78 N.C.App. 342, 337 S.E.2d 180 (1985) , aff'd, 318 N.C. 551, 350 S.E.2d 500 (1986) , a vehicle lessee made payments for four months, then quit. The lessor then tried to find the vehicle, and it contacted the Automobile Recovery Bureau for assistance. The lessor sent the lessee a default letter demanding full payment and surrender of the vehicle. The lessor contacted the lessee’s ex-wife, and others, trying to find him. About six months later, the lessor had a warrant issued for the lessee’s arrest. About eight months later, the lessee had an accident driving the vehicle. Id., 337 S.E.2d at 182. The • court determined that the lessee’s “continued possession of the automobile, after [the lessor] had given him notice that he was in default and demanded possession of the automobile, ... amounted to a conversion of the automobile.” Id. at 184.
¶ 16 In line with the above-discussed cases, we hold that a person who rents a vehicle from an agency is a “renter” within the meaning of A.R.S. section 28-324 unless the agency proves that, prior to plaintiffs injury, (1) the renter converted or stole the vehicle, and (2) the agency made a reasonable effort to cancel the rental contract and recover the vehicle. These elements must be proved by a preponderance of the evidence. See Almadova v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 133 Ariz. 81, 86, 649 P.2d 284, 289 (1982) (stating that renter’s criminal intent must be proved by a preponderance of the evidence).
¶ 17 Whether a rental agency has acted reasonably to cancel the contract and recover the vehicle will depend on the facts and circumstances of the individual case. Acting reasonably in such circumstances means acting with due diligence. Due diligence involves making the effort that a person would reasonably make if trying to accomplish the desired result. See, e.g., Pioneer Fed. Sav. Bank v. Driver, 166 Ariz. 585, 589, 804 P.2d 118, 122 (App.1990) (finding that due diligence required that plaintiff seeking to serve process on absentee defendant use “means ... such as one desirous of actually informing the absentee might reasonably adopt to accomplish it,” quoting Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co., 339 U.S. 306, 315, 70 S.Ct. 652, 657, 94 L.Ed. 865 (1950)); Black’s Law Dictionary 457 (6th ed.1990) (defining “due diligence” as “[s]uch a measure of pru dence, activity, or assiduity, as is properly to be expected from, and ordinarily exercised by, a reasonable and prudent [person] under the particular circumstances; not measured by any absolute standard, but depending on the relative facts of the special case”).
¶ 18 We now discuss the facts in this record. In granting summary judgment to Ryder and Old Republic, the trial court stated, “The vehicle was obtained by a fraudulent deposit of a $200.00 check on a closed account. It was kept for 27 days in excess of the one-day rental agreement. Furthermore, Ryder took all proper steps to cancel the contract when the vehicle was not returned in a prompt fashion.” The first sentence is accurate but does not by itself warrant summary judgment. See Hertz, 617 So.2d at 1053. The second sentence is accurate but immaterial: Rodriguez was not injured when the vehicle was twenty-seven days overdue; she was injured when it was five days overdue. The third sentence is immaterial to the extent that it credits Ryder’s post-accident efforts to cancel the contract and recover the vehicle, and the record does not reflect what, if any, efforts Ryder made in that regard before Rodriguez was injured.
¶ 19 We conclude that this record is too ambiguous to declare as a matter of law that Herndon was or was not a “renter” within the meaning of A.R.S. section 28-324 at the time Rodriguez was injured. Accordingly, the judgment for Ryder and Old Republic is reversed, and the case is remanded for further proceedings.
¶ 20 All parties requested attorneys’ fees if they prevailed on appeal. Rodriguez has now prevailed, and the appeal required resolution of an important question of law concerning A.R.S. section 28-324. We therefore award reasonable attorneys’ fees to Rodriguez, even though the case continues in the trial court. See Barmat v. John & Jane Doe Partners A-D, 155 Ariz. 519, 521, 747 P.2d 1218, 1220 (1987); Wagenseller v. Scottsdale Mem'l Hosp., 147 Ariz. 370, 393-94, 710 P.2d 1025, 1048-49 (1985).
LANKFORD, P.J., and GARBARINO, J., concur.
|
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OPINION
MARTONE, Justice.
This is a lawyer disciplinary proceeding. The Hearing Officer recommended that William M. Piatt, IV, be publicly censured. The Disciplinary Commission agreed and also recommended a one-year period of probation during which Piatt would participate in the State Bar’s membership assistance program and complete a counseling program. Two members of the Commission dissented, recommending suspension instead. Piatt appeals to this court under Rule 53(e), Ariz. R.Sup.Ct., as it existed before its recent amendment provided for discretionary review. We adopt the recommendation of the Disciplinary Commission.
I. Background
Piatt did not object to the Hearing Officer’s report and the Commission unanimously adopted the Hearing Officer’s findings of fact and conclusions of law. We thus state the facts as found by the Hearing Officer and adopted by the Commission.
In May of 1990, twenty-year-old client A retained Piatt to represent her in a domestic relations action. During the initial interview, Piatt asked her whether she had ever masturbated at the age of fourteen. In a later meeting, he told her she looked delicious and that it would be even better if her skirt were four inches shorter. At still another meeting, he asked her if she had ever had a sexual relationship without emotional involvement and told her that she needed somebody like him who could take care of her needs. Client A told Piatt that she did not appreciate the way he talked and asked him to direct his attention to her divorce.
Piatt later asked client A to come to his house to prepare for a post-decree hearing. When she arrived, Piatt was in his bathrobe. After the meeting, Piatt asked her to stay, and told her that if she was not going to respond to him, he could no longer represent her unless she came up with a lot more money.
During the same time frame, client B retained Piatt to represent her in a domestic relations action. During the representation, he frequently made inappropriate sexual comments. At a luncheon meeting, he made lewd suggestions about things they could do under the tablecloth. When they got back to the office, Piatt smacked his lips and told her a chemical attraction existed. Client B left the office in shock. She then sent him a letter saying she did not want to get involved and that she hoped it would not affect his professional performance on her behalf. The following week Piatt called her about a proposed property settlement which she did not like. Piatt told her that if he had to rewrite the papers it was going to cost her a lot more money. At a hearing the next day, she felt pressured to accept the agreement.
The Hearing Officer found that Piatt’s denials and explanations lacked any credibility and that he had violated ER 1.7(b), and Rule 41(g), Ariz.R.Sup.Ct. After reviewing the Commission’s report and the briefs, we solicited supplemental briefs on the question of suspension and scheduled the case for oral argument.
II. Analysis
Piatt argues that his conduct was not clearly unethical at the time it was committed. Relying on In re Evans, 113 Ariz. 458, 556 P.2d 792 (1976), he contends that it is not proper to discipline a lawyer for debatable conduct. The State Bar contends that there is nothing debatable about the ethical impropriety of sexually harassing one’s clients. We agree with the State Bar.
A lawyer is a fiduciary with a duty of loyalty, care, and obedience to the client. The relationship is, and must be, one of utmost trust. It matters not that the words “sexual harassment” are not used in our Rules of Professional Conduct. ER 1.7(b) prohibits a lawyer from representing a client if that representation is going to be materially limited “by the lawyer’s own interests.” Clearly, sexual harassment by a lawyer serves the lawyer’s interest and not the client’s. Asking wholly inappropriate questions and making obscene comments to a client undermines trust in the lawyer and the representation.
Indeed, this case went beyond sexual harassment. Piatt told client A that unless she responded sexually to him he could no longer represent her unless she came up with a lot more money. Client A had already invested time and energy in Piatt as her lawyer. It is hard to imagine a more egregious case of putting one’s interests ahead of the client’s. Piatt also put his interests ahead of client B’s.
In 1994, we considered a petition under Rule 28, Ariz.R.Sup.Ct., to adopt a rule that would prohibit lawyers from requesting, requiring or demanding sexual relations with a client as a condition of professional representation. In re Rule 12, Ariz.R.Sup.Ct., R-94-0003. We denied the petition, stating that “the problem addressed ... is covered by the existing rules.” Order of May 18, 1994. We continue to believe the obvious— that we do not need a specific rule against attempting to extort sexual conduct from a client. Rule 42, Ariz.R.Sup.Ct., does not purport to describe in exhaustive detail the different ways in which a lawyer may breach the fiduciary duty to the client. For example, our rules do not say that a lawyer shall not threaten, intimidate, or strike a client. They do not say that a lawyer must not steal from a client. But who would doubt that these are breaches?
Nor does Rule 41, Ariz.R.Sup.Ct., purport to exhaust the duties and obligations of members of the Bar. It is true, as Piatt argues here, that Rule 41(g), which requires lawyers to “abstain from all offensive personality” is quite general. But this case does not come close to the outer contours of the rule. Piatt’s behavior here is offensive under any standard. This is not just a case of a lawyer using offensive language. This is a case of exploitation and extortion. We thus reject Piatt’s argument and agree with the Commission’s conclusion that “he violated the trust that is vital to every lawyer-client rela tionship.” Disciplinary Commission Report at 7.
Piatt next argues that the Commission’s recommendation of probation is unjustified and should be rejected. We disagree. We agree with the Commission that Piatt could reoffend unless he comes to grips with his problem. The membership assistance program of the State Bar could be very helpful. And we agree with the Commission that counseling should help Piatt stop his destructive behavior before any other clients are harmed.
Piatt next argues that his misconduct was not proved by clear and convincing evidence. The Hearing Officer believed the clients and did not believe Piatt. After reviewing the record, we agree that his misconduct was proved by clear and convincing evidence.
Normally at this point, having rejected each of Piatt’s arguments, we would simply adopt the Disciplinary Commission’s recommendation as our own. However, we solicited briefs on the question of possible suspension because some members of this court thought that a public censure might be too lenient. Others would have ordered suspension had they been making the decision in the first instance. But the State Bar did not appeal from the Disciplinary Commission Report and Piatt did. In every other setting in which a party appeals, one of two things is expected. If one prevails, one gets relief. If one does not prevail, the decision below is affirmed. There is no “upping the ante.” No one expects that by appealing, things will get worse. Our ultimate authority over disciplinary matters makes upping the ante possible. But unless that power is exercised rarely and only in the clearest of situations, many lawyers will not risk an appeal even where they have legitimate. and reasonable claims to make.
We understand the outrage Piatt’s behavior inspires. The purpose of lawyer discipline, however, is not to punish the lawyer but to protect the public. In re Brown, 184 Ariz. 480, 483, 910 P.2d 631, 634 (1996). Piatt has never before been the subject of lawyer discipline in over twenty years of active practice. Considered deliberation suggests that suspension is not necessary to deal with Piatt’s problems and to protect the public. See, e.g., People v. Bergner, 873 P.2d 726 (Colo.1994). A public censure and the publication of this opinion will get Piatt’s attention. And supervised probation with counseling is more likely than unsupervised suspension to ensure that this behavior will never happen again. The prospect that noncompliance will lead to revocation of probation, suspension or disbarment is likely to be a powerful incentive to change. We thus defer to the recommendation of the Hearing Officer, who heard the witnesses, and the Disciplinary Commission, which gave the matter careful and reflective consideration.
III. Disposition
Piatt is hereby publicly censured. He is assessed fees and costs as may be taxed and allowed. He is placed upon probation for a period of one year effective thirty days after the filing of this opinion, under the following terms and conditions:
1. Piatt shall participate in the membership assistance program of the State Bar of Arizona.
2. At his sole expense, Piatt shall successfully complete a program of counseling appropriate for his misconduct, selected and monitored by the State Bar of Arizona.
3. During the probationary period, Piatt shall be supervised by a practice monitor appointed by the State Bar of Arizona who shall consult with Piatt and his clients as necessary to ensure that Piatt’s misbehavior has ceased forthwith.
4. Failure to comply or cooperate will lead to suspension, disbarment or other disposition as the circumstances may warrant.
MOELLER, J., concurs.
MANDATE AND JUDGMENT
This matter having come on for hearing before the Disciplinary Commission of the Supreme Court of Arizona, it having duly rendered its decision and this Court having considered the matter, filed its Opinion on the 24th day of December, 1997.
The time for filing a Motion for Reconsideration has expired and no motion was filed.
IT IS ORDERED, ADJUDGED AND DECREED that WILLIAM M. PIATT, IV., a member of the State Bar of Arizona, is hereby censured for conduct in violation of his duties and obligations as a lawyer pursuant to the Opinion of this Court.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that WILLIAM M. PIATT, IV., is placed upon probation for a period of one year effective January 23, 1998 in accordance with the conditions set forth in the Opinion filed December 24, 1997.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that pursuant to Rule 52(a)(8), Rules of the Supreme Court of Arizona, the State Bar of Arizona is granted judgment against WILLIAM M. PIATT, IV., for costs incurred by the State Bar of Arizona in the amount of $5,506.54, together with interest at the legal rate from the date of this judgment.
|
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OPINION
ESPINOSA, Judge.
Petitioner/appellant Stanley Lalli, by and through his next friend and mother, Joan Hall, appeals from the trial court’s order dismissing his paternity petition against respondent/appellee Joseph Lalli as barred by res judicata because of the previous dismissal of a paternity action against Lalli brought by the State of Arizona. For the reasons set forth below, we vacate the order of dismissal and remand for further proceedings.
Background
Hall and Lalli divorced in 1978 after seven years of marriage. The decree awarded custody of their three minor children to Lalli and stated that Hall was not pregnant. Less than five months later, Hall gave birth to Stanley. Shortly thereafter, Hall began receiving Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) benefits. In November 1979, the state filed a “special paternity complaint” against Lalli, alleging he was Stanley’s natural father and seeking past and future support. A few months later, the state moved to dismiss the complaint, attaching a handwritten letter apparently signed by Hall stating that Lalli was not Stanley’s natural father and that she did not know Stanley’s father’s last name or his whereabouts. No hearing was requested or held and the court dismissed the complaint with prejudice in March 1980.
In September 1995, Hall filed her own paternity complaint against Lalli. He moved to dismiss pursuant to Rule 12(b)(6), Ariz. R.Civ.P., 16 A.R.S., alleging the complaint failed to state a claim upon which relief could be granted because her claim was barred by res judicata and collateral estoppel. In November, Stanley, through Hall as his next Mend, filed a motion to intervene, Rule 24(a), Ariz.R.Civ.P., and a separate “verified petition for paternity.” The court granted Stanley’s motion and Lalli amended his motion to dismiss, arguing that both Hall’s complaint and Stanley’s petition were barred by res judicata, collateral estoppel, waiver, and laches. Following a hearing at which neither Hall nor her attorney appeared, the trial court dismissed Hall’s complaint and Stanley’s petition on the grounds that the state’s prior action involved the same claim and the same “parties or their privies,” and the 1980 judgment of dismissal was therefore res judicata as to both Hall and Stanley. This appeal followed.
Standards of Review
In reviewing the trial court’s dismissal of a claim under Rule 12(b)(6), we accept the allegations in the complaint as true and resolve all inferences in favor of the plaintiff. Wallace v. Casa Grande Union High School District No. 82, 184 Ariz. 419, 909 P.2d 486 (App.1995). We will uphold the dismissal only if it is certain that the plaintiff cannot prove any set of facts which would entitle him to relief. Id. Whether a claim is precluded as res judicata is a question of law, which we review de novo. Phoenix Newspapers, Inc. v. Dept. of Corrections, 188 Ariz. 237, 934 P.2d 801 (App.1997).
Privity Between Parent and Child
Under the doctrine of res judicata, a final judgment, entered on the merits in a prior suit involving the same parties or their privies, bars a second suit on the same cause of action and is conclusive as to facts which actually were or could have been decided. Gilbert v. Board of Medical Examiners, 155 Ariz. 169, 745 P.2d 617 (App.1987). In order for res judicata to apply, there must be a common “identity of the parties, the capacity in which they appear, the subject matter, and the cause of action.” Matusik v. Arizona Public Service Co., 141 Ariz. 1, 3, 684 P.2d 882, 884 (App.1984), quoting El Paso Natural Gas Co. v. State, 123 Ariz. 219, 222, 599 P.2d 175, 178 (1979).
Stanley argues that the trial court erred in finding his petition barred by res judicata because he was neither a party to the underlying action, nor in privity with either the state or his mother. For res judicata purposes, “[a] privy is one who, after rendition of the judgment, has acquired an interest in the subject matter affected by the judgment through or under one of the parties, as by inheritance, succession, or purchase.” Aldrich and Steinberger v. Martin, 172 Ariz. 445, 448, 837 P.2d 1180, 1183 (App. 1992) (citations omitted); see also Garrett v. Holmes-Tuttle Broadway Ford, 5 Ariz.App. 388, 427 P.2d 369 (1967). Whether there is privity between a parent and a child in this context is a somewhat novel question which appears to have been addressed in only one Arizona decision, Bill v. Gossett, 132 Ariz. 518, 647 P.2d 649 (App.1982), wherein Division One of this court found such privity to exist. Other jurisdictions have held that as a general rule, privity does not arise from the parent-child relationship. See Ex parte Snow, 508 So.2d 266 (Ala.1987); Simcox v. Simcox, 175 Ill.App.3d 473, 124 Ill.Dec. 915, 529 N.E.2d 1032 (1988); Payne v. Cartee, 111 Ohio App.3d 580, 676 N.E.2d 946 (1996); Commonwealth Department of Social Services v. Johnson, 7 Va.App. 614, 376 S.E.2d 787 (1989); see also Restatement (Second) of Judgments § 31 cmt. f (1982).
Relying on Bill, the trial court concluded that Stanley’s petition involved the same issues and parties or their privies as the previous state action and was therefore barred. In Bill, the state brought a paternity action with the mother as the complaining witness. The mother and putative father stipulated that the paternity question would be resolved by a polygraph examination of the mother as to whether she had had sexual intercourse with anyone other than the putative father. After the mother failed the test, the state’s action was dismissed with prejudice. The minor subsequently brought her own paternity action through her mother. Division One of this court upheld the dismissal, concluding that “the child’s interests are inextricably bound to the litigation of a paternity action, whether brought in the name of the state, the mother or the guardian,” and that “in addition to the cause of action in both suits being identical, the child’s rights and interests are the same in each.” 132 Ariz. at 523, 524, 647 P.2d at 654, 655.
Stanley urges us not to follow Bill, arguing its holding “belies the reality of the distinct interests of the potential litigants” and is undermined by its misinterpretation of State v. Sax, 231 Minn. 1, 42 N.W.2d 680 (1950), to support the proposition that a mother and child are in privity in paternity actions. In Sax, the Minnesota Supreme Court upheld a mother’s standing to appeal a paternity order in an action brought in the state’s name, finding that the proceedings were “for the benefit of the mother as well as the child and the public.” Id. at 684. Relying on this language, the Bill court reasoned that Arizona’s paternity statutes
evince an intention to benefit the public, mother and child, regardless of who is formally named a party. The state’s main goal in a paternity suit is to divest itself of responsibility for supporting the child through various welfare programs. The mother’s aim is assuredly economic as well. An order of filiation bears a concomitant obligation for the father to share in childrearing expenses.
132 Ariz. at 523, 647 P.2d at 654. While recognizing that the child has “other independent interests” from the mother and the state, the court nonetheless concluded that regardless of who brings the action, “the issue to be litigated and the effect on the child’s rights to support will be equal.” Id.
Stanley argues that the Bill court “incorrectly lumped together” the issues of identity of claims and identity of parties, and points out that the Minnesota Supreme Court subsequently criticized Bill’s application of Sax in Johnson v. Hunter, 447 N.W.2d 871 (Minn. 1989). In that case, the court reversed a lower court’s dismissal of a child’s paternity action on res judicata grounds, noting that the parent-child relationship is “traditionally excluded from privity notions,” id. at 874, and that Sax did not address the issue of a child’s status for res judicata purposes. The court went on to observe that “an Arizona court” had cited Sax in precluding a child’s paternity action, and inferentially faulted Bill’s emphasis on “the common economic interest of the state, mother and child, particularly the right to child support, rather than the other interests a child may have.” Id. at 875. The court declined to accept the putative father’s characterization of the child’s interests “as mere ‘incidental interests that are part of the package’ of any paternity action,” without addressing the child’s “unique rights.” Id. at 876. “Establishment of the parent-child relationship is the most fundamental right a child possesses, to be equated in importance with personal liberty and the most basic constitutional rights.” Id.
We are persuaded that Bill focused too narrowly on the economic interests of the state and the mother, and not enough on the distinct and compelling interests of the child. Here, the state’s interest in the underlying action was purely economic; it sought to recoup AFDC benefits it had paid, A.R.S. §§ 25-509 and 46-295, and to compel future support. §§ 25-803(A) and 25-809(A). Indeed, the state was expressly prohibited by § 25-803(B) from seeking or defending “any ancillary matters such as custody or visitation.” The mother’s interests also were solely economic in seeking past and future child support, § 25-809(A), and “the expenses for the lying-in, support of and attendance upon the mother during her confinement.” § 25-809(B). While Stanley did have a similar interest in receiving support, his interests in a paternity action are much broader. Those interests include:
inheritance rights, social security survivor benefits, employee death benefits, and in some instances, proceeds of life insurance policies. A child’s interests may also in- elude the establishment of familial bonds, indoctrination into cultural heritage, and knowledge of the family’s medical history.
Marsh v. Rodgers, 659 N.E.2d 171, 173 (Ind. App.1995), quoting Clark v. Kenley, 646 N.E.2d 76, 79 (Ind.App.1995). Accord In re M.C., 895 P.2d 1098 (Colo.App.1994) (custody, inheritance, medical history); Department of Human Services v. Comeau, 663 A.2d 46 (Me.1995) (inheritance, identity, relationship); Johnson v. Hunter (psychological and emotional benefits, inheritance, medical support, causes of action, workers’ compensation dependent benefits, veteran’s education benefits); Settle v. Beasley, 309 N.C. 616, 308 S.E.2d 288 (1983) (inheritance, custody, medical history, relationship); Commonwealth Department of Social Services v. Johnson, 376 S.E.2d at 791 (“fundamental right” to establish father-child relationship); In re Chad M.G., 194 Wis.2d 689, 535 N.W.2d 97 (App.1995) (inheritance, custody, relationship). See also R.A.J. v. L.B.V., 169 Ariz. 92, 817 P.2d 37 (App.1991) (child’s interests in paternity adjudication include inheritance rights and the establishment and maintenance of familial bonds).
The Arizona legislature has long recognized the importance of these diverse nonsupport interests in A.R.S. § 12-621, which enables a person to establish his or her identity, birthright, or parentage. See Backora v. Balkin, 14 Ariz.App. 569, 485 P.2d 292 (1971) (purpose of § 12-621 action is to legally establish petitioner’s identity). The divergence in respective interests is also reflected in the parties’ requests for relief here. In contrast to the state’s complaint seeking numerous forms of financial remuneration, Stanley’s petition did not request any financial support, but only sought a declaration that Lalli is his father. See In re M.C. Thus, contrary to Lalli’s repeated urging, the interests of Stanley, the state, and Hall in the underlying action were not the same, and that either the state or Hall was authorized to originate a paternity action under § 12-843 (now § 25-803) does not alter that conclusion.
Courts have observed that a mother’s and a child’s interests in a paternity determination not only differ, but may potentially conflict.
A mother may have a variety of reasons for not initiating paternity proceedings: she may have a continuing relation with or affection for the father; she may wish to avoid continuing any relation with the father, including child support; she may wish to avoid the disapproval of her family or the community that she believes a paternity action would produce; she may be subject to the emotional strain and confusion that often attend the birth of a child born out of wedlock and continue for a prolonged period, hindering any effort by her to seek child support; she may be able to support the child and not foresee a change in her circumstances.
Johnson v. Hunter, 447 N.W.2d at 875-76, quoting In re R.W.L., 116 Wis.2d 150, 341 N.W.2d 682, 686 (1984). See G.E.B. v. S.R.W., 422 Mass. 158, 661 N.E.2d 646, 651 (1996) (child cannot be bound by settlement of mother’s claim because her “independent interests ... may prevent her from fully protecting the child’s sometimes competing concerns”); Department of Human Services v. Comeau (differing interests of mother and child preclude privity when mother settles her action or permits it to be dismissed with prejudice); cf R.A.J. v. L.B.V., 169 Ariz. at 97, 817 P.2d at 42 (“a conflict of interest between the parties is inherent in these situations, which often leaves the child unprotected”).
We note that, in pursuing the 1979 paternity action, neither the state nor Hall adequately represented Stanley’s interests. When the state filed its paternity complaint, Hall was the obligatory complaining witness as a recipient of AFDC benefits. A.R.S. § 46-407. The state requested that Lalli be adjudged Stanley’s father and sought reimbursement for past care and support, expenses for lying-in and support for Hall during her confinement, and a future support order. Stanley was only one year old at the time, had no guardian or attorney appearing for him, and had no control or influence over the litigation. The state sought dismissal of the complaint with prejudice before any actual determination of paternity was made, based on an unsworn handwritten note. “The likelihood that the child’s interests might not be fully represented in a paternity action brought by a parent or the State is even greater where ... the action was not fully litigated and there was no judgment that the defendant was or was not the father.” Marsh, 659 N.E.2d at 173. See also Elacqua v. James EE, 203 A.D.2d 688, 610 N.Y.S.2d 354 (1994).
In a different but analogous context, Division One has recognized that the absence of the child from a previous proceeding is a factor “that weighs against the application of issue preclusion.” State v. Powers, 184 Ariz. 235, 237, 908 P.2d 49, 51 (App.1995). Holding that a mother’s admission in a prior dissolution action did not bar a subsequent paternity action, the court noted:
The Restatement states that, in questions of paternity,
the tendency is to hold open the possibility of establishing legitimacy and the right to support against any judgment except one which is based on full and fair litigation of the question and which involves the child himself as a party.
Id. at 237, 908 P.2d at 51, quoting Restatement (Second) of Judgments § 31 cmt. a (1982).
Lalli argues that allowing a previously uninvolved child to avoid preclusion may open the door to successive paternity actions against the same defendant, a prospect not contemplated by the paternity statutes and a concern of Division One in Bill. The Wisconsin Court of Appeals addressed this problem, recommending that
when a paternity action is initiated by a party, trial courts take affirmative steps to ensure that those persons whose similar interests remain unlitigated are added as additional parties. In this way, the first judgment will have preelusory effects on all individual parties to the action, and the courts and defendants will not be confronted with a series of sequential claims identical to previously resolved judicial matters. Taking steps to join the unnamed parties who have an interest in the determination should be neither difficult nor time consuming, and the benefits of fairness and judicial economy well support whatever additional expense may be required to litigate the rights of all parties in the initial action.
In re Chad M.G., 535 N.W.2d at 100. See R.A.J. v. L.B.V., 169 Ariz. at 96, 817 P.2d at 41 (child’s “numerous interests” in outcome of paternity litigation require that child be joined as necessary party and court has equitable power to appoint guardian ad litem to represent child’s interests). See also Unif. Parentage Act § 9, 9B U.L.A. 312 (1987) (adopted in several jurisdictions, including California, Colorado, and Washington; joinder of child and appointment of guardian ad litem required in all paternity proceedings).
We find the reasoning of Chad and that of a majority of courts that have addressed this issue, including Minnesota’s, to be sound. Accordingly, we decline to follow Bill and instead hold that, under the circumstances of this case, Stanley was not in privity with the state or with Hall in the initial paternity proceeding when he was not a party to that action and his interests were not represented by a guardian ad litem or independent counsel. See, e.g., County of Shasta v. Caruthers, 31 Cal.App.4th 1838, 38 Cal.Rptr.2d 18 (1995); In re M.C.; Marsh; G.E.B. v. S.R.W.; Johnson v. Hunter, Elacqua; Payne v. Cartee; Department of Health and Human Resources v. Pentasuglia, 193 W.Va. 621, 457 S.E.2d 644 (1995); In re SDM, 882 P.2d 1217 (Wyo.1994). But see Bradley v. Division of Child Support Enforcement, 582 A.2d 478 (Del.1990). Consequently, Stanley is not barred by the doctrine of res judicata from pursuing his paternity petition against Lalli. In view of our resolution of this issue, we need not address Stanley’s arguments that Bill is “inconsistent” with subsequent amendments to the paternity statutes and scientific advances in paternity testing.
Disposition
The trial court’s order granting Lalli’s motion to dismiss Stanley’s petition is vacated and the matter is remanded for further proceedings. The parties shall bear their own attorneys’ fees on appeal.
PELANDER, P.J., and HOWARD, J., concur.
. Only Stanley filed a notice of appeal; consequently, the dismissal of Hall’s complaint is not at issue.
. The Bill court looked to Minnesota law because Arizona’s paternity statutes, as they existed at that time, were derived from those of Minnesota. 132 Ariz. at 522, 647 P.2d at 653; A.R.S. §§ 12-846 and 12-849, Historical and Statutory Notes (renumbered as §§ 25-806 and 25-809 by 1996 Ariz.Sess.Laws, ch. 192, § 14).
. A.R.S. § 12-621 provides:
A. When a person desires to establish his identity or fix his birthright and parentage, or both, he may file in the superior court in the county where his residence is maintained an application setting forth his reasons for desiring to establish his identity, birthright or parentage. The court may, after hearing the application, enter judgment establishing identity or birthright and parentage, or both, of such person.
B. The parent, guardian ad litem or next friend of a minor may file such application in the county where the minor’s residence is maintained.
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OPINION
MOELLER, Justice.
STATEMENT OF THE CASE
¶ 1 In this negligence case, the trial court granted summary judgment to the defendant City of Tucson (“City”). The court of appeals affirmed, based on the theory that the City did not exercise control over the location where the accident occurred, and therefore owed no duty to the infant plaintiff, Jose Sanchez (“plaintiff’). Because we conclude that issues of fact exist which preclude summary judgment, we reverse and remand.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
¶ 2 On the night of March 14,1993, Teresa Barocio, carrying her eighteen-month-old son, plaintiff Jose Sanchez, attempted to cross West Ajo Way, a state route, at its intersection with South Pandora Avenue in Tucson. They were hit by a vehicle traveling on the state route. The child was catastrophically injured and is paralyzed from the waist down.
¶ 3 Plaintiff sued the driver of the vehicle, the State of Arizona (“State”), and the City. This appeal involves only the claim against the City. Plaintiff asserted that the City had a duty to maintain the roadway in a reasonably safe condition and that the City breached that duty by failing to install a traffic light at the intersection.
¶ 4 The City moved for summary judgment, arguing that it owed no duty to plaintiff as it did not have the authority to put up traffic lights on the roadway as the roadway was a state route maintained by the State. In opposition, plaintiff argued that the facts would support a finding that the City and the State exercised joint control over the accident site, therefore imposing a duty on the City to install a traffic light at the intersection.
1Í 5 The City’s motion for summary judgment was granted and the court of appeals affirmed. Sanchez v. City of Tucson, 189 Ariz. 429, 943 P.2d 789 (App.1997). The court of appeals relied heavily on our case of Harlan v. City of Tucson, 82 Ariz. 111, 309 P.2d 244 (1957), to conclude that a city, county or other political subdivision of the State owes no duty to prevent injury on a state route, absent an agreement with the State in which the entity assumes such a duty. The court recognized that in the instant case the State and the City had an Intergovernmental Agreement (“IGA”), which created a duty on the part of the City to provide routine and emergency maintenance on the roadway in question. Sanchez, 189 Ariz. at 431, 943 P.2d at 791. It held, however, that the IGA did not impose a duty on the City to make improvements on the roadway, such as the installation of traffic lights. Id. Further, it held that Arizona Revised Statutes (A.R.S.) § 28-627(B) prohibited the City from installing a traffic light on the roadway absent written permission from the State. Id. Accordingly, the court affirmed the summary judgment in favor of the City. We granted review and have jurisdiction pursuant to Ariz. Const, art. 6, § 5(3), Ariz. R. Civ.App. P. 23, and A.R.S. § 12-120.24.
ISSUE PRESENTED
¶ 6 Whether the City could be found to have assumed a duty to plaintiff to construct a traffic light in the area in question by virtue of its Intergovernmental Agreement with the State, its pattern of joint control over the roadway, and its authorization from the State to construct a traffic light.
DISCUSSION
I. Standard of Review
¶ 7 A trial judge should grant a motion for summary judgment “if the facts produced in support of the claim or defense have so little probative value, given the quantum of evidence required, that reasonable people could not agree with the conclusion advanced by the proponent of the claim or defense.” Orme School v. Reeves, 166 Ariz. 301, 309, 802 P.2d 1000, 1008 (1990). In deciding the motion for summary judgment, “[t]he evidence of the non-movant is to be believed, and all justifiable inferences are to be drawn in [its] favor.” Id. at 309-10, 802 P.2d at 1008-09 (quoting from Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 255, 106 S.Ct. 2505, 2513, 91 L.Ed.2d 202, 216 (1986) (citations omitted)). We review issues of summary judgment de novo. United Bank of Ariz. v. Allyn, 167 Ariz. 191, 195, 805 P.2d 1012, 1016 (App.1990).
II. The Issue
¶ 8 In deciding this ease, we bear in mind that in negligence cases, “the rule is uniformly applied that where different inferences can be drawn from uncontroverted facts the case must be left to the jury.” Beach v. City of Phoenix, 136 Ariz. 601, 604, 667 P.2d 1316, 1319 (1983) (footnote omitted). Negligence cases where “jurors might reach different conclusions from uncontroverted facts ... are generally not appropriate for summary adjudication.” Mast v. Standard Oil Co. of Cal., 140 Ariz. 1, 5, 680 P.2d 137, 141 (1984) (citation omitted).
¶ 9 A supportable negligence action requires that the defendant owe a duty of care to the plaintiff. See Bell v. Smitty’s Super Valu, Inc., 183 Ariz. 66, 68, 900 P.2d 15, 17 (App.1995). A question of duty is “to be decided by the court as a matter of law.” Beach, 136 Ariz. at 604, 667 P.2d at 1319 (footnote omitted).
¶ 10 In Arizona, a municipality owes a duty to the public to keep its streets in a reasonably safe condition. See City of Phoenix v. Weedon, 71 Ariz. 259, 263, 226 P.2d 157, 160 (1950), Beach, 136 Ariz. at 602, 667 P.2d at 1317. In this case, if the City exercised control over the roadway in question, it would owe a duty to plaintiff to keep it in a reasonably safe condition. See Martinez v. State, 177 Ariz. 270, 271, 866 P.2d 1356, 1357 (App.1993). The issue of control or amount of control, unlike the issue of duty, is “a question of fact which ordinarily should be left to the fact finder.” Lewis v. N.J. Riebe Enter., Inc., 170 Ariz. 384, 389, 825 P.2d 5, 10 (1992) (citations omitted). Therefore, whether the City exercised enough eon trol over the roadway to have a duty to install a traffic light would generally be a question of fact for the jury.
¶ 11 The question before this court is whether plaintiff has provided enough factual evidence to defeat a summary judgment motion on the issue of control. Has plaintiff shown — with all of his evidence believed and all reasonable inferences drawn in his favor — that a jury could reasonably find that the City exercised sufficient control over the roadway to permit it to install a traffic light? We now examine plaintiffs argument in opposition to summary judgment.
III. Facts in Support of Plaintiffs Case
¶ 12 Plaintiffs argument is that the record created a factual dispute as to whether the City had exercised control over the section of road involved and had therefore assumed a duty to the public to keep the roadway reasonably safe by installing a traffic light. Plaintiff relies on the relationship between the parties, including the IGA mentioned above, to show that the City exercised control over the roadway.
¶ 13 Plaintiff has pointed to many acts of the City as proof of the City’s control over the roadway. For the sake of brevity, we summarize what we feel to be sufficient salient facts to defeat summary judgment. Plaintiff presented a 1973 memorandum from the City’s Traffic Engineer, Charles Male, to Frank Brooks, Tucson’s Assistant City Manager, stating that since the roadway was a state route, any action to alleviate traffic problems reported in this stretch of road would require a “joint effort” between the City and the State to develop a “mutually satisfactory” solution. Plaintiff also presented a 1979 traffic study conducted jointly by the City and the State to show that the City exercised control over the roadway.
¶ 14 Moreover, in 1981, the State approved installation of a traffic light for the intersection in question. The traffic light was to be erected by the City with private funds from a developer planning to build a shopping mall in the area. The developer later declared bankruptcy and the traffic light was never installed. Although the traffic light was approved, in part, because of the expected traffic increase from the shopping mall, nothing in the record indicates either that the approval of the light was conditional on building the mall or that approval was withdrawn when the mall was not built. In other words, it is possible that the City had authority to install a traffic light where the accident occurred but chose not to do so when the private funding evaporated.
¶ 15 Plaintiff also relies on the IGA between the City and the State, in effect since 1983, as evidence that the City exercised some control over the roadway at the time of the accident, thereby creating a duty to keep the roadway in a reasonably safe condition. Under Arizona law, exclusive control and jurisdiction over state highways and routes is vested in the State, particularly in the Arizona Department of Transportation (“ADOT”). A.R.S. §§ 28-104(A), (B)(3) and 28-108(A)(19). The director of ADOT, however, has the power to relinquish the State’s exclusive control and jurisdiction, by entering “into agreements on behalf of the State with counties, cities, towns or rural districts for the improvement or maintenance of state routes or for the joint improvement or maintenance thereof.” A.R.S. § 28-108(A)(18) (as it existed on the date of the accident, see 1992 Ariz. Sess. Laws 655).
¶ 16 In the IGA the City assumed responsibility for routine maintenance and operation of traffic lights and street lighting on specified intersections of state routes within the City of Tucson, but did not assume responsibility for improvements. The intersection involved in this case is not expressly listed in this agreement because it contained no traffic lights. In the IGA, however, the State and the City agreed that:
Any new installation or any betterment shall be based on a traffic engineering study conducted, or concurred with, by the STATE; and the mutual involvements shall be negotiable, (emphasis added).
Plaintiffs argument is that the last clause of the sentence made this IGA a “joint improvement” agreement through which the City exercised control in determining the need for installation of traffic lights on state routes in the City of Tucson, creating a duty upon the City to keep the roadways reasonably safe.
¶ 17 Plaintiff also presented evidence of a 1995 meeting (after the accident) at which the installation of a traffic light in that section of the roadway was discussed (a precise location had not yet been determined). At that meeting, a City Council member stated that a solution to the traffic problem on the roadway had not been worked out, partially because “one government or the other said it wasn’t working,” referring to the State and the City. This evidence, even if a discussion of a subsequent remedial measure, would be admissible on the issue of control. See Ariz. R. Evid. 407; Manhattan-Dickman Const. Co. v. Showier, 113 Ariz. 549, 552, 558 P.2d 894, 897 (1976); Sullins v. Third and Catalina Const. Partnership, 124 Ariz. 114, 119, 602 P.2d 495, 500 (App.1979).
¶ 18 The court of appeals, relying on Harlan, indicated that the only manner in which a political subdivision of the State could assume a duty to the public on a state route would be through an agreement. In Harlan, the State was in the process of constructing a highway within the City of Tucson. 82 Ariz. at 113-14, 309 P.2d at 246-47. Although the highway had not been finished, the frontage roads had been opened to the public. Id. at 114, 309 P.2d at 246-247. The Harlan plaintiffs were injured when they entered two dips constructed at the intersection of the highway and a city street. Id. at 113, 309 P.2d at 246.
¶ 19 The State and the City had signed an agreement which provided that the City would assume responsibility for maintenance of frontage roads once construction was complete, but would not assume responsibility for improvements. Id. at 114, 309 P.2d at 246. Under the statutes at the time, the State could only contract with another entity for the maintenance of state roads, but not for improvements. Id. at 116-117, 309 P.2d at
248. The court found that the agreement did not give the City either the duty or the right to make the changes necessary to alleviate the dangerous condition. Id. at 117, 309 P.2d at 248-49.
¶ 20 The Harlan plaintiffs brought up the issue of actual control. The alleged acts of control included some maintenance work before the accident and aid to the State in changing the grade of the highway after the accident. Id. at 118, 309 P.2d at 249. Although the court addressed the issue of actual control, it relied on the written agreement between the State and the City to resolve the issue. Under the agreement, the City was to assume maintenance duties only after notice from the State that construction was complete. Id. Because no such notice had been given, the court reasoned there could be no liability based on the maintenance performed by the City; without notice the maintenance constituted “the acts of a volunteer which in no way contributed to the injury.” Id. at 118-119, 309 P.2d at 250. The court also reasoned that the aid in changing the grade after the accident, an improvement which the City was prohibited from making under the law at the time, was a “voluntary act[ ] without duty in the matter, and being done after the accident, can furnish no basis for liability.” Id. at 118, 309 P.2d at 250. The Harlan court held that the evidence showed the acts of a volunteer, not someone potentially exercising joint control. Id. at 118-19, 309 P.2d at 249-50. Harlan should not be read to preclude potential liability for one who exercises control, but does so in a negligent manner.
¶ 21 We believe plaintiff has presented sufficient probative evidence to raise a factual issue: a jury could reasonably find that the City exercised control over the roadway as part of its “joint effort” with the State to alleviate traffic problems.
¶ 22 Even if a jury finds that the City had no right to exercise control under the IGA, it could alternatively find that the City in fact exercised control over the roadway and assumed a duty to the public to keep the roadway in a reasonably safe condition. See Martinez, 177 Ariz. at 271, 866 P.2d at 1357. See also Federoff v. Camperlengo, 215 A.D.2d 806, 626 N.Y.S.2d 301, 303 (1995); Nurek v. Town of Vestal, 115 A.D.2d 116, 494 N.Y.S.2d 920, 921-22 (1985). As we have previously stated,
[“D]uty” is not sacrosanct in itself, but only an expression of the sum total of those considerations of policy which lead the law to say that the particular plaintiff is entitled to protection.
No better general statement can be made, than that the courts will find a duty, where, in general, reasonable men would recognize it and agree that it exists.
Ontiveros v. Borak, 136 Ariz. 500, 508, 667 P.2d 200, 208 (1983) (citing William L. Prosser, Handbook of the Law of Torts, § 53, at 324-27 (4th ed.1971)).
¶ 23 Therefore, the question of whether the City had or exercised enough control to be able to install a traffic light on the roadway is a question of fact to be decided by a jury-
THE DISSENT
¶ 24 The dissent’s disagreement with the majority is founded primarily upon two bases. First, the dissent asserts that because plaintiff has a claim against the State there is no reason to permit the jury to consider evidence of the City’s negligence. We disagree.
¶ 25 Under the Uniform Contribution Among Tortfeasors Act (UCATA), A.R.S. §§ 12-2501 to 12-2509, each tortfeasor in a personal injury action is liable only for his or her share of fault. See A.R.S. § 12-2506(A); see also Aitken v. Industrial Comm’n of Arizona, 183 Ariz. 387, 392, 904 P.2d 456, 461 (1995). Under UCATA, the State can name nonparties at fault and have the trier of fact apportion liability among them, thus reducing the amount recoverable from the State. See A.R.S. § 12-2506(A). In fact, after the trial court in this case granted the City’s motion for summary judgment, the State named the City a nonparty at fault pursuant to Rule 26(b)(5) of the Arizona Rules of Civil Procedure and A.R.S. § 12-2506(B). The State, when it settled, was only paying for its share of fault, not that of any other tortfeasor. See A.R.S. § 12-2506; see also Gemstar Ltd. v. Ernst & Young, 185 Ariz. 493, 507-08, 917 P.2d 222, 236-37 (1996) (citations omitted). Thus, under A.R.S. § 12-2506(B), recovery on a claim or settlement of a claim against one tortfeasor does not make an injured plaintiff whole if there are other tortfeasors. The dissent’s assertion that UCATA is not applicable is based on the assumption that the State is wholly responsible for plaintiffs injuries. However, we have concluded that there is an issue of fact with respect to the City’s liability-
¶ 26 Second, the dissent would hold that “[t]he existence of a legal duty is dictated by the legal right to control rather than the exercise of control.” Dissent at ¶ 30. Under this theory, the City (or any other entity) cannot be held liable for an accident on a state route even though it exercised control over the state route, because it did not have “legal control” over the state route. We believe such an approach overlooks the factual realities such as those presented in this case and unduly restricts the class of those having “legal control” only to those who are expressly granted control by statutory or intergovernmental contractual provisions. See A.R.S. § 11-952. Under the dissent’s view, we again note that under UCATA, the State could, in such a case, name the entity exercising control as a nonparty at fault and reduce its liability, conceivably to nothing, foreclosing injured plaintiffs from any recovery from the entities who had negligently exercised total or partial control over the road.
¶ 27 In support of its argument, the dissent relies on the court of appeals’ Martinez case, which we have previously cited. The dissent argues that Martinez does not support a claim against a governmental entity exercising control over a roadway over which the entity has no formal, legal right of control. We adhere to our reading of Martinez. It reversed a directed verdict in favor of the county because the county assumed and exercised control over a road on private proper ty that had originally been created by the State.
¶28 We believe Martinez supports our conclusion that a governmental entity which exercises control over a roadway, even though it has no statutory or express contractual right of or duty to control the roadway may, in appropriate circumstances, be held liable for negligence in the exercise of that control. This assures that those entities which have been negligent cannot avoid liability for their actions by passing on those costs to entities that have legal control. This conclusion also assures that negligently injured plaintiffs are not left without a remedy against those who have negligently exercised control over public roads.
DISPOSITION
¶29 That portion of the opinion of the court of appeals dealing with the City’s duty is vacated, and the summary judgment of the superior court is reversed. This case is remanded to the trial court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
ZLAKET, C.J., and JONES, V.C.J., concur.
FELDMAN, J., recused himself and did not participate in the determination of this case.
. There was no cross-petition for review and neither party preserved any issue presented to, but not decided by, the court of appeals pursuant to Ariz. R. Civ.App. P. 23. Thus, we deal only with the single issue presented in this petition for review.
. Although the issue is not before us, it is important to note that the acts of a volunteer, governmental or private, can in fact lead to liability for negligence. See Bamum v. Rural Fire Protection Co., 24 Ariz.App. 233, 236-37, 537 P.2d 618, 621-22 (1975); see also W. Page Keeton, et at, Prosser & Keeton on the Law of Torts, § 56, at 379-82 (5th ed.1984).
. Martinez went on to reverse a summary judgment for the State, ruling that whether the State could be held liable for its failure to warn, on its State-controlled road, of the upcoming danger on the county-controlled road was a question for the jury. 177 Ariz. at 272, 866 P.2d at 1358.
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OPINION
MOELLER, Justice.
SUMMARY
¶ 1 This opinion addresses the constitutionality of Article XXVIII of the Arizona Constitution (the “Amendment”), which was adopted in 1988 and which provides, inter alia, that English is the official language of the State of Arizona and that the state and its political subdivisions — including all government officials and employees performing government business — must “act” only in English.
¶ 2 We hold that the Amendment violates the First Amendment to the United States Constitution because it adversely impacts the constitutional rights of non-English-speaking persons with regard to their obtaining access to their government and limits the political speech of elected officials and public employees. We also hold that the Amendment violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution because it unduly burdens core First Amendment rights of a specific class without materially advancing a legitimate state interest.
¶ 3 In making these rulings, we express no opinion concerning the constitutional validity of less restrictive English-only provisions discussed in this opinion. We also emphasize that nothing in this opinion compels any Arizona governmental entity to provide any service in a language other than English.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
I. The Amendment
¶ 4 In October 1987, Arizonans for Official English (“AOE”) initiated a petition drive to amend Arizona’s constitution to designate English as the state’s official language and to require state and local governments in Arizona to conduct business only in English. As a result of the general election in November 1988, the Amendment was added to the Arizona Constitution, receiving affirmative votes from 50.5% of Arizona citizens casting ballots. See Yniguez v. Arizonans for Official English (“AOE”), 69 F.3d 920, 924 (9th Cir.1995) (en banc). The Amendment, entitled “English as the Official Language,” is set forth in full in the Appendix and provides that “[t]he State and all political subdivisions of [the] State shall act in English and in no other language.” The Amendment binds all government officials and employees in Arizona during the performance of all government business, and provides that any “person who resides in or does business in this State shall have standing to bring suit to enforce this article in a court of record of the State.”
II. Yniguez v. Mofford
¶ 5 Two days after the voters passed the Amendment, Maria-Kelley F. Yniguez sued the State of Arizona, the Governor, and various parties pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 1983 in the United States District Court for the District of Arizona, seeking to enjoin enforcement of the Amendment and to have it declared unconstitutional under the First and Fourteenth Amendments. She also contended that it violated federal civil rights laws. Yniguez v. Mofford, 730 F.Supp. 309 (D.Ariz. 1990). When she filed her action, Yniquez was employed by the Arizona Department of Administration and handled medical malpractice claims asserted against the state. Yniguez was bilingual, fluent and literate in both Spanish and English, and, prior to the Amendment’s passage, she communicated in Spanish with monolingual Spanish-speaking claimants and in a combination of English and Spanish with bilingual claimants. Id. at 310.
¶ 6 By the time the district court ruled, only the Governor remained as a defendant. Id. The district court granted declaratory relief, finding that the Amendment was facially overbroad in violation of the First Amendment. Id. at 313. Injunctive relief, however, was denied because there was no enforcement action pending against Yniguez. Id. at 317. The Governor did not appeal the decision. The Attorney General of Arizona, AOE, and Robert D. Park, a principal sponsor of the Amendment, then moved to intervene for purposes of pursuing an appeal. The district court denied the motion. Yniguez v. Mofford, 130 F.R.D. 410 (D.Ariz. 1990).
¶7 The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the district court’s denial and also allowed Arizonans Against Constitutional Tampering, the principal opponent of the Amendment, to intervene as plaintiffs-appellees. Yniguez v. AOE, 42 F.3d 1217, 1223-24 (9th Cir.1994). The intervention of the Arizona Attorney General was permitted for the limited purpose of urging adoption of his narrow interpretation of the Amendment discuss'ed below or, alternatively, to urge the certification of the interpretation of the Amendment to this court pursuant to Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated (“A.R.S.”) § 12-1861.
¶ 8 The State of Arizona filed a suggestion of mootness because Yniguez was no longer employed by the State of Arizona. The court of appeals rejected the suggestion of mootness, reasoning that Yniguez had a right to appeal the district court’s failure to award nominal damages to her and, therefore, had a sufficient concrete interest in the outcome of the litigation to confer standing to pursue declaratory relief. Yniguez v. Arizona, 975 F.2d 646, 647 (9th Cir.1992) (citations omitted).
¶ 9 AOE appealed the district court’s judgment that declared the Amendment unconstitutional and Yniguez cross-appealed the denial of nominal damages. A panel of the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals agreed with the district court that the Amendment is unconstitutionally overbroad and also held that Yniguez was entitled to nominal damages. Yniguez v. AOE, 42 F.3d at 1229, 1243. The Ninth Circuit then reheard the case en banc and affirmed. Yniguez v. AOE, 69 F.3d at 947.
¶ 10 AOE petitioned for certiorari to the United States Supreme Court, which granted the petition and ordered additional briefing on whether the petitioners had standing to maintain the action and whether there remained a federal case or controversy with respect to Yniguez, in light of the fact that she was no longer employed by the State of Arizona. In a unanimous decision, the Supreme Court vacated the Ninth Circuit opinion and remanded to that court with directions that the action be dismissed. AOE v. Arizona, 520 U.S. 43, 117 S.Ct. 1055, 1075, 137 L.Ed.2d 170 (1997). The Court held there was no case or controversy to support federal court jurisdiction and determined that the lower court decisions should be vacated because the Ninth Circuit should have certified the construction of the Amendment to this court. Id., 117 S.Ct. at 1074. In doing so, the Court expressed no opinion on the constitutionality of the Amendment. Id. at 1060.
III. This Litigation
¶ 11 In November 1992, the ten plaintiffs in this case brought an action in superior court against then-Governor J. Fife Symington, III and the Attorney General. On September 5, 1997, Governor Symington resigned and was succeeded by Jane Dee Hull, who has been substituted pursuant to Rule 27(c)(1) of the Arizona Rules of Civil Appellate Procedure. The plaintiffs sought a declaratory judgment that the Amendment violates the First, Ninth, and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution. The plaintiffs are four elected officials, five state employees, and one public school teacher. They are all bilingual and regularly communicate in both Spanish and English as private citizens and during the performance of government business. Plaintiffs allege that they speak Spanish during the performance of their government jobs and that they “fear communicating in Spanish ‘during the performance of government business’ in violation of Article XXVIII of the Arizona Constitution.”
¶ 12 The principal sponsors of the Amendment, AOE and Robert D. Park, AOE’s spokesperson, intervened as defendants. On cross-motions for summary judgment, the superior court ruled that the Amendment is constitutional, finding that it (1) is a content-neutral regulation that does not violate the First Amendment; (2) does not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment because there is no proof of discriminatory intent; and (3) does not violate the Ninth Amendment because it does not protect choice of language. The trial court denied AOE’s request for attorneys’ fees pursuant to A.R.S. § 12-2030, and AOE appealed that denial. Under this opinion, AOE is no longer a prevailing party so we do not discuss its request for attorneys’ fees further.
¶ 13 On appeal, the court of appeals reversed in part and affirmed in part. Ruiz v. AOE, 218 Ariz. Adv. Rep. 9 (App.1996). Citing the principle of judicial comity, the court held that “it is appropriate for us to exercise our discretion and defer to the federal litigation and thereby accept the construction of Article [XXVIII] and the analysis that was set forth by the Ninth Circuit.” 1996 WL 309512 at *4, 218 Ariz. Adv. Rep. at 12. The state defendants petitioned this court for review, which we granted. In 1996, we stayed all proceedings pending the Supreme Court’s decision in AOE v. Arizona.
¶ 14 As already noted, in 1997 the United States Supreme Court held that Yniguez’ federal court claim was moot and remanded with directions that it be dismissed. Plaintiffs then filed a motion in this court to lift the stay and requested leave to submit supplemental briefs and for oral argument. AOE filed a motion to vacate our order granting review. AOE maintained, in essence, that there was no court of appeals decision for this court to review because the court of appeals had adopted the Ninth Circuit’s construction and analysis of the Amendment, see Yniguez v. AOE, 69 F.3d at 947, and the United States Supreme Court had vacated the Ninth Circuit’s opinion. The result, AOE argued, was that the court of appeals’ opinion was “eradicated.” Thus, AOE requested us to either affirm the trial court’s judgment or to return the matter to the court of appeals for consideration. We denied AOE’s motion to vacate the order granting review and granted plaintiffs’ motion to lift the stay.
¶ 15 This court then received supplemental briefing and heard oral argument from the parties. In addition, numerous amici curiae briefs were filed on behalf of a host of organizations and individuals. We reviewed, considered, and appreciate the many amici briefs which advanced varying positions in this case. However, in accordance with our practice, we base our opinion solely on legal issues advanced by the parties themselves. See Town of Chino Valley v. City of Prescott, 131 Ariz. 78, 84, 638 P.2d 1324, 1330 (1981), appeal dismissed, 457 U.S. 1101, 102 S.Ct. 2897, 73 L.Ed.2d 1310, reh. denied, 459 U.S. 899, 103 S.Ct. 199, 74 L.Ed.2d 160 (1982), citing City of Tempe v. Prudential Ins. Co., 109 Ariz. 429, 510 P.2d 745 (1973) (holding that amici curiae are not permitted to create, extend, or enlarge issues beyond those raised and argued by the parties). Because we resolve the case on the merits as presented by the parties, we do not discuss the concerns referred to in the special concurrence because, as the special concurrence itself observes, the parties have not raised, briefed, or argued any matter referred to by the special concurrence.
¶ 16 We have jurisdiction pursuant to A.R.S. § 12-102.21.
ISSUES
¶ 17 1. Whether the trial court erred by ruling that the Amendment did not vio late the First Amendment to the United States Constitution because it was content-neutral, did not reach constitutionally-protected free speech rights, and was thus not fatally overbroad.
¶ 18 2. Whether the trial court erred by concluding that the Amendment did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution because there was no proof of discriminatory intent.
DISCUSSION
I. Introduction
¶ 19 Plaintiffs contend that the Amendment is a blanket prohibition against all publicly elected officials and government employees using any language other than English in the performance of any government business. Therefore, they reason that the Amendment is a content-based regulation of speech contrary to the First Amendment. Plaintiffs also argue that the Amendment constitutes discrimination against non-English-speaking minorities, thereby violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. AOE and the state defendants respond that the Amendment should be narrowly read and should be construed as requiring the use of English only with regard to “official, binding government acts.” They argue that this narrow construction renders the Amendment constitutional.
¶ 20 At the outset, we note that this case concerns the tension between the constitutional status of language rights and the state’s power to restrict such rights. On the one hand, in our diverse society, the importance of establishing common bonds and a common language between citizens is clear. Yniguez v. AOE, 69 F.3d at 923, citing Guadalupe Organization, Inc. v. Tempe Elementary Sch. Dist., 587 F.2d 1022, 1027 (9th Cir.1978). We recognize that the acquisition of English language skills is important in our society. For instance, as a condition to Arizona’s admission to the Union, Congress required Arizona to create a public school system and provided that “said schools shall always be conducted in English.” Act of June 20, 1910, ch. 310, § 20(4). That same Act requires all state officers and members of the Legislature to have the “ability to read, write, speak and understand the English language sufficiently well to conduct the duties of the office without the aid of an interpreter.” Id., § 20(5). Also, the Sixth Amendment permits an English language requirement for jurors. United States v. Benmuhar, 658 F.2d 14, 18-20 (1st Cir.1981) (noting that state’s significant interest in having branch of national court system operate in national language rebutted defendant’s prima facie showing that English proficiency requirement for jurors resulted in underrepresentation). Congress has recognized the importance of understanding English in such matters as naturalization legislation, 8 U.S.C. § 1423, and the need for the education of non-English-speaking students, Equal Educational Opportunity Act of 1974, 20 U.S.C. §§ 1701-1758. Indeed, Arizona law mandates that school districts in which there are pupils who have limited English proficiency shall provide programs of bilingual instruction or English as a second language with a primary goal of allowing the pupils to become proficient in English in order to succeed in classes taught in English. A.R.S. § 15-752. Finally, the importance of acquiring English skills is emphasized in the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, 8 U.S.C. § 1255a(b)(1)(D), which legalizes resident status of illegal immigrants who demonstrate progress toward learning English, and terminates legal residence for those who make little or no progress, 8 U.S.C. § 1255a(b)(2)(C).
¶ 21 Indeed, English is also the language of political activity through initiative petition. See Montero v. Meyer, 861 F.2d 603 (10th Cir.1988) (providing that initiative petitions that are printed only in English are not covered by and do not offend provisions of the Voting Rights Act); accord Delgado v. Smith, 861 F.2d 1489 (11th Cir.1988).
¶ 22 However, the American tradition of tolerance “recognizes a critical difference between encouraging the use of English and repressing the use of other languages.” Yniguez v. AOE, 69 F.3d at 923. We agree with the Ninth Circuit’s statement that Arizona’s rejection of that tradition by enacting the Amendment has severe consequences not only for Arizona’s public officials and employees, but also for the many thousands of persons who would be precluded from receiving essential information from government employees and elected officials in Arizona’s governments. Id. If the wide-ranging language of the prohibitions contained in the Amendment were to be implemented as written, the First Amendment rights of all those persons would be violated, id., a fact now conceded by the proponents of the Amendment, who, instead, urge a restrictive interpretation in accordance with the Attorney General’s narrow construction discussed below.
¶ 23 By this opinion, we do not imply that the intent of those urging passage of the Amendment or of those who voted for it stemmed from linguistic chauvinism or from any other repressive or discriminatory intent. Rather we assume, without deciding, that the drafters of the initiative urged passage of the Amendment to further social harmony in our state by having English as a common language among its citizens.
¶ 24 This court must interpret the Amendment as a whole and in harmony with other portions of the Arizona Constitution. State ex rel. Nelson v. Jordan, 104 Ariz. 193, 196, 450 P.2d 383, 386 (1969); State ex rel. Jones v. Lockhart, 76 Ariz. 390, 398, 265 P.2d 447, 453 (1953). And, if possible, we must construe the Amendment to avoid conflict with the United States Constitution. AOE v. Arizona, 117 S.Ct. at 1074.
¶ 25 Every duly enacted state and federal law is entitled to a presumption of constitutionality. Town of Lockport v. Citizens for Community Action at Local Level, Inc., 430 U.S. 259, 272-73, 97 S.Ct. 1047, 1055-56, 51 L.Ed.2d 313 (1977); Eastin v. Broomfield, 116 Ariz. 576, 580, 570 P.2d 744, 748 (1977). The presumption applies equally to initiatives as well as statutes, and where alternative constructions are available, the court should choose the one that results in constitutionality. Slayton v. Shumway, 166 Ariz. 87, 92, 800 P.2d 590, 595 (1990); Hernandez v. Frohmiller, 68 Ariz. 242, 249, 204 P.2d 854, 859 (1949). However, as discussed more fully below, where the regulation in question impinges on core constitutional rights, the standards of strict scrutiny apply and the burden of showing constitutionality is shifted to the proponent of the regulation. See generally Rosen v. Port of Portland, 641 F.2d 1243, 1246, 1249 (9th Cir.1981) (laws restricting speech face a heavy presumption against their constitutional validity and proponents bear burden of establishing that they are “narrowly tailored” to further a “compelling” government interest); see also Barnes v. Glen Theatre, Inc., 501 U.S. 560, 576, 111 S.Ct. 2456, 2465-66, 115 L.Ed.2d 504 (1991) (Scalia, J., concurring). Mindful of these principles, we turn now to an analysis of the constitutionality of the Amendment.
II. Attorney General’s Opinion
¶26 On its face, the Amendment provides that, except for some enumerated narrow exceptions, English is the official language of the State of Arizona, of all political subdivisions, of the ballot, the public schools, and government functions and actions. The exceptions pertain to the teaching of English as a second language, matters required by federal law, any matter pertaining to the protection of public health or safety, or of the rights of criminal defendants or victims of crime. See Appendix. Before making a facial analysis of the Amendment, however, we must first determine the propriety of adopting the Attorney General’s proposed narrowing construction.
¶27 In 1989, shortly after the Amendment was passed, Robert Corbin, then Attorney General, issued an opinion upholding the constitutionality of the Amendment, based upon a narrow construction of the Amendment. Ariz. Att’y Gen. Op. 189-009 (1989); see also Ariz. Att’y Gen. Ops. 189-013 and - 014 (1989).
¶ 28 Opinions of the Attorney General are advisory. Green v. Osborne, 157 Ariz. 363, 365, 758 P.2d 138, 140 (1988), and are not binding. Marston’s Inc. v. Roman Catholic Church, 132 Ariz. 90, 94, 644 P.2d 244, 248 (1982) (in division). However, the reasoned opinion of a state attorney general should be accorded respectful consideration. See AOE v. Arizona, 117 S.Ct. at 1073 n. 30, citing Huggins v. Isenbarger, 798 F.2d 203, 207-10 (7th Cir.1986) (Easterbrook, J., concurring).
¶ 29 While we duly consider the Attorney General’s proposed narrowing construction, we reject that construction for three substantive reasons, each of which we discuss in turn. First, the proffered narrowing construction does not comport with the plain wording of the Amendment, and hence, with the plain meaning rule guiding our construction of statutes and provisions in the Arizona Constitution. Second, it does not comport with the stated intent of the drafters of the Amendment. Third, it suffers from both ambiguity and implausibility. Therefore, the narrowing construction is rejected because the Amendment’s clear terms are not “readily susceptible” to the constraints that the Attorney General attempts to place on them. Yniguez v. AOE, 69 F.3d at 929; see also Virginia v. American Booksellers Ass’n, 484 U.S. 383, 395, 108 S.Ct. 636, 644, 98 L.Ed.2d 782 (1988) (refusing to accept as authority a non-binding attorney general opinion where narrowing construction advocated by attorney general was not in accordance with the plain meaning of the statute).
A. Plain Meaning Rule
¶ 30 The Attorney General maintains that although the Amendment declares English to be Arizona’s “official” language, its proscriptions against the use of non-English languages should be interpreted to apply only to “official acts of government.” Ariz. Att’y Gen. Op. 189-009, at 5-6. The Attorney General defines “official act” as “a decision or determination of a sovereign, a legislative council, or a court of justice.” Id. at 7. Although he does not further explain what acts would be official, the Attorney General concludes that the Amendment should not be read to prohibit public employees from using non-English languages while performing their public functions that could not be characterized as official. The Attorney General opines that the provision “does not mean that languages other than English cannot be used when reasonable to facilitate the day-to-day operation of government.” Id. at 10.
¶ 31 Somewhat curiously, intervenors now agree with the Attorney General that the Amendment should be held to govern only binding, official acts of the state, which they also seek to construe narrowly as “formal rule-making or rate making ... or any other policy matters.” AOE and the state defendants also point to the definition of “official act” adopted by the court in Kerby v. State ex rel. Frohmiller, 62 Ariz. 294, 310-11, 157 P.2d 698, 705-06 (1945). The court there defined “official acts” as “acts by an officer in his official capacity under color and by virtue of his office.” Id. However, assuming, without deciding, that the government could require official acts to be conducted in English only, nothing in the language of the Amendment remotely supports such a limiting construction.
¶32 To arrive at his interpretation, the Attorney General takes the word “act” from § 3(l)(a) of the Amendment, which provides that, with limited exceptions, the “State and all political subdivisions of this State shall act in English and in no other language.” (Emphasis added.) The Attorney General proposes that the word “act” from § 3(l)(a) should be ascribed to the word “official,” found in the Amendment’s proclamation that English is the official language of Arizona. Therefore, the Attorney General interprets the Amendment to apply only to the official acts of the state and limits the definition of the noun “act” to a “decision or determination of a sovereign, a legislative council, or a court of justice.” Op. Atty. Gen. Az. No. 189-009, at 7 (quoting Webster’s International Dictionary 20 (3d ed., unabridged, 1976) (third meaning of “act”)). We agree with the Ninth Circuit in Yniguez v. AOE that the former Attorney General’s opinion ignores the fact that “act,” when used as a verb as in the Amendment, does not include among its meanings the limited definition he proposed. 69 F.3d at 929. Similarly, section 1(2) of the Amendment also describes English as the language of “all government functions and actions.” The Amendment does not limit the terms “functions” and “actions” to official acts as urged by the Attorney General, and the ordinary meanings of those terms do not impose such a limitation. Id. at 929 n. 13. We agree with the district court that originally evaluated the challenges to the Amendment in Yniguez: “The Attorney General’s restrictive interpretation of the Amendment is in effect a ‘remarkable job of plastic surgery upon the face of the [Amendment].’” Yniguez v. Mofford, 730 F.Supp. at 316, citing Shuttlesworth v. City of Birmingham, 394 U.S. 147, 153, 89 S.Ct. 935, 940, 22 L.Ed.2d 162 (1969).
¶ 33 We hold that by ignoring the express language of the Amendment, the Attorney General’s proposed construction violates the plain meaning rule that requires the words of the Amendment to be given their natural, obvious, and ordinary meaning. County of Apache v. Southwest Lumber Mills, Inc., 92 Ariz. 323, 327, 376 P.2d 854, 856 (1962). By its express terms, the Amendment is not limited to official governmental acts or to the “formal, policy making, enacting and binding activities of government.” Rather, it is plainly written in the broadest possible terms, declaring that the “English language is the language of ... all government functions and actions ” and prohibiting all “government officials and employees” at every level of state and local government from using non-English languages “during the performance of government business.” Amendment, §§ 1(2), l(3)(a)(iv) (emphasis added).
B. Legislative Intent
¶ 34 We also believe the Attorney General’s proposed construction is at odds with the intent of the drafters of the Amendment. The drafters perceived and obviously intended that the application of the Amendment would be widespread. They therefore inserted some limited exceptions to it. Those exceptions permit the use of non-English languages to protect the rights of criminal defendants and victims, to protect the public health and safety, to teach a foreign language, and to comply with federal laws. Amendment, § 3.2. Regardless of the precise limits of these general exceptions, their existence demonstrates that the drafters of the Amendment understood that it would apply to far more than just official acts.
¶ 35 For example, one exception allows public school teachers to instruct in a non-English language when teaching foreign languages or when teaching students with limited English proficiency. Such instruction by teachers is obviously not a “formal, policy making, enacting or binding activity by the government,” the narrow construction urged by the Attorney General. The exceptions would have been largely, if not entirely, unnecessary under the Attorney General’s proposed construction of the Amendment. When construing statutes, we must read the statute as a whole and give meaningful operation to each of its provisions. Kaku v. Arizona Board of Regents, 172 Ariz. 296, 297, 836 P.2d 1006, 1007 (App.1992).
¶ 36 In construing an initiative, we may consider ballot materials and publicity pamphlets circulated in support of the initiative. Bussanich v. Douglas, 152 Ariz. 447, 450, 733 P.2d 644, 647 (App.1986). The ballot materials and publicity pamphlets pertaining to the Amendment do not support the Attorney General’s limiting construction. In AOE’s argument for the Amendment, Chairman Robert D. Park stated that the Amendment was intended to “require the government to function in English, except in certain circumstances,” and then listed those exceptions set forth in section 4 of the Amendment (emphasis added). Chairman Park’s argument then went on to state that “[officially sanctioned multilingualism causes tension and division within a state. Proposition 106 [enacting the Amendment] will avoid that fate in Arizona.” (Emphasis added.) The Legislative Council’s argument in support of the Amendment stated that the existence of a multilingual society would lead to “the fears and tensions of language rivalries and ethnic distrust.” Arizona Publicity Pamphlet in Support of the Amendment, at 26. Therefore, the Amendment’s legislative history supports a broad, comprehensive construction of the Amendment, not the narrow construction urged by the Attorney General.
C. Ambiguity
¶37 The Attorney General’s interpretation would unnecessarily inject elements of vagueness into the Amendment. We feel confident that an average reader of the Amendment would never divine that he or she was free to use a language other than English unless one was performing an official act defined as “a decision or determination of a sovereign, a legislative council, or a court of justice.”
¶38 Because we conclude that the narrow construction advocated by the Attorney General is untenable, we analyze the constitutionality of the Amendment based on the language of the Amendment itself.
III. English-Only Provisions in Other Jurisdictions
¶ 39 Although English-only provisions have recently become quite common, Arizona’s is unique. Thus, we receive little guidance from other state courts. Twenty-one states and forty municipalities have official English statutes. However, most of those provisions are substantially less encompassing and certainly less proscriptive than the Amendment. The official English provisions in most states appear to be primarily symbolic. See, e.g., Puerto Rican Org. for Political Action v. Rasper, 490 F.2d 575, 577 (7th Cir.1973) (noting that official English law appears with laws naming the state bird and state song, and does not restrict the use to non-English languages by state and city agencies). Indeed, the Amendment has been identified as “by far the most restrictively worded officiai-English law to date.” M. Arrington, Note, English Only Laws and Direct Legislation: The Battle in the States Over Language Minority Rights, 7 L.J. & Pol. 325, 327 (1991). This observation is shared by other commentators — who note that the Amendment “is the most restrictive of the current wave of official-language laws,” and “is so far the most restrictive Official English measure.” See D. Baron, The English-Only Question 21 (1990), and J. Crawford, Hold Your Tongue 176 (1992) (emphasis added).
¶40 In contrast to the Amendment, the official English laws that have been enacted in other states are for the most part brief and nonrestrictive. For instance, Colorado’s official English law, Colo. Const. § 30, adopted by the initiative process, provides that the “English language is the official language of the State of Colorado. This section is self executing; however, the General Assembly may enact laws to implement this section.” Similarly, the official English statute of Arkansas states: “(a) The English language shall be the official language of the State of Arkansas, (b) This section shall not prohibit the public schools from performing their duty to provide equal educational opportunities to all children.” Ark. Stat. Ann. 1-4-117. Florida’s 1988 official English law is similar: “(a) English is the official language of the State of Florida, (b) The legislature shall have the power to enforce this section by appropriate legislation.” Fla. Const. Art. II, § 9 (1988). Indeed, three states have simply enacted a provision which declares that English is the official language of the state: Illinois, 5 Ill. Comp. Stat. Ann. § 460/20; Kentucky, Ky.Rev.Stat. § 2.013; and Indiana, Ind.Code Ann. § 1-2-10-1.
¶41 The more detailed official English laws contain provisions which avoid some of the constitutional questions presented by the Amendment. For instance, Wyoming’s law provides, in pertinent part, that:
(a) English shall be designated as the official language of Wyoming. Except as otherwise provided by law, no state agency or political subdivision of the state shall be required to provide any documents, information, literature or other written materials in any language other than English.
(b) A state agency or political subdivision or its officers or employees may act in a language other than the English language for any of the following purposes: (i) To provide information orally to individuals in the course of delivering services to the general public .... (vii) To promote international commerce, trade or tourism.
Wyo. St. 8-6-101.
¶ 42 Similarly, Montana’s official English law protects the free speech rights of state employees and elected officials by allowing them to use non-English languages in the course and scope of their employment, stating in pertinent part:
This section is not intended to violate the federal or state constitutional right to freedom of speech of government officers and employees acting in the course and scope of their employment. This section does not prohibit a government officer or employee acting in the course and scope of their employment from using a language other than English, including use in a government document or record, if the employee chooses.
Mont.Code Ann. § 1-1-510 (emphasis added).
¶43 Finally, although California’s official English law, passed as an initiative in 1986, is specific and lengthy, it does not prohibit the use of languages other than English. If Arizona’s Amendment were merely symbolic or contained some of the express exceptions of the official English provisions discussed above, it might well have passed constitutional muster. We do not express any opinion concerning the constitutionality of less restrictive English-only provisions. We turn now to a discussion of the constitutional questions presented by the Amendment.
IV. Language is Speech Protected by the First Amendment
¶ 44 Unlike other English-only provisions, the Amendment explicitly and broadly prohibits government employees from using non-English languages even when communicating with persons who have limited or no English skills, stating that all “government officials and employees during the performance of government business” must “act in English and no other language.” Amendment, §§ l(3)(a)(iv), 3(l)(a). It also requires every level and branch of government to “preserve, protect and enhance the role of ... English ... as the official language” and prohibits all state and local entities from enacting or enforcing any “law, order, decree or policy which requires the use of a language other than English.” §§ 2, 3(l)(b). We agree with the Ninth Circuit that the Amendment “could hardly be more inclusive” and that it “prohibit[s] the use in all oral and written communications by persons connected with the government of all words and phrases in any language other than English.” Yniguez v. AOE, 69 F.3d at 933.
¶ 45 Assuming arguendo that the government may, under certain circumstances and for appropriate reasons, restrict public employees from using non-English languages to communicate while performing their duties, the Amendment’s reach is too broad. For example, by its express language, it prohibits a public school teacher, such as Appellant Garcia, and a monolingual Spanish-speaking parent from speaking in Spanish about a child’s education. It also prohibits a town hall discussion between citizens and elected individuals in a language other than English and also precludes a discussion in a language other than English between public employees and citizens seeking unemployment or workers’ compensation benefits, or access to fair housing or public assistance, or to redress violations of those rights.
¶ 46 The First Amendment to the United States Constitution provides:
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
¶ 47 The First Amendment applies to the states as well as to the federal government. Gitlow v. New York, 268 U.S. 652, 665, 45 S.Ct. 625, 630, 69 L.Ed. 1138 (1925). The expression of one’s opinion is absolutely protected by the First and Fourteenth Amendments. AMCOR Inv. Corp. v. Cox Ariz. Publications, Inc., 158 Ariz. 566, 568, 764 P.2d 327, 329 (App.1988) (citation omitted); see also Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390, 401, 43 S.Ct. 625, 627, 67 L.Ed. 1042 (1923) (stating that the United States Constitution protects speakers of ail languages). The trial court held that the Amendment is content-neutral, and, therefore, does not violate the First Amendment. City of Renton v. Playtime Theatres, Inc., 475 U.S. 41, 47-48, 106 S.Ct. 925, 929-30, 89 L.Ed.2d 29 (1986). That ruling is flawed.
¶ 48 “Whatever differences may exist about interpretations of the First Amendment, there is practically universal agreement that a major purpose of that Amendment was to protect the free discussion of governmental affairs.” Landmark Communications, Inc. v. Virginia, 435 U.S. 829, 838, 98 S.Ct. 1535, 1541, 56 L.Ed.2d 1 (1978) (footnote omitted) (quoting Mills v. Alabama, 384 U.S. 214, 218, 86 S.Ct. 1434, 1437, 16 L.Ed.2d 484 (1966)). We note that the Amendment, Section 3, acknowledges that its mandate that government act only in English is superseded by the use of foreign languages in schools both to enable students to transi tion to English (subsection 2(a)) and to teach students a foreign language (subsection 2(c)). Subsection 2(b) states that the Amendment’s English-only mandate does not apply in instances where foreign language use is required to ensure compliance with federal laws. Therefore, the Amendment would not apply, for instance, with regard to bilingual ballots in Arizona in designated political subdivisions as required by the Voting Rights Act, 42 U.S.C. §§ 1973 aa-la(e) (forbidding states from conditioning the right to vote on the ability to read, write, understand, or interpret English). Nor would it affect a criminal defendant’s right to have a competent translator assist him, at state expense, if need be. See United States ex rel. Negron v. New York, 434 F.2d 386, 391 (2d Cir.1970).
¶49 Notwithstanding these limited exceptions, we find that the Amendment unconstitutionally inhibits “the free discussion of governmental affairs” in two ways. First, it deprives limited- and non-English-speaking persons of access to information about the government when multilingual access may be available and may be necessary to ensure fair and effective delivery of governmental services to non-English-speaking persons. It is not our prerogative to impinge upon the Legislature’s ability to require, under appropriate circumstances, the provision of services in languages other than English. See, e.g., A.R.S. § 23-906(D) (Providing that every employer engaged in occupations subject to Arizona’s Workers’ Compensation statutes shall post in a conspicuous place upon his premises, in English and Spanish, a notice informing employees that unless they specifically reject coverage under Arizona’s compulsory compensation law, they are deemed to have accepted the provisions of that law). The United States Supreme Court has held that First Amendment protection is afforded to the communication, its source, and its recipient. Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, Inc., 425 U.S. 748, 756-57, 96 S.Ct. 1817, 1822-23, 48 L.Ed.2d 346 (1976).
¶ 50 In his concurring opinion in Barnes, Justice Scalia stated, “[Wjhen any law restricts speech, even for a purpose that has nothing to do with the suppression of communication ..., we insist that it meet the high First-Amendment standard of justification.” 501 U.S. at 576, 111 S.Ct. at 2465-66. The Amendment contravenes core principles and values undergirding the First Amendment — the right of the people to seek redress from their government — by directly banning pure speech on its face. By denying persons who are limited in English-proficiency, or entirely lacking in it, the right to participate equally in the political process, the Amendment violates the constitutional right to participate in and have access to government, a right which is one of the “fundamental principle[s] of representative government in this country.” See Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533, 560, 566-68, 84 S.Ct. 1362, 1381, 1383-85, 12 L.Ed.2d 506 (1964). The First Amendment right to petition for redress of grievances lies at the core of America’s democracy. McDonald v. Smith, 472 U.S. 479, 482-83, 485, 105 S.Ct. 2787, 2790, 2791, 86 L.Ed.2d 384 (1985); United Mine Workers of America v. Illinois State Bar Assn., 389 U.S. 217, 222, 88 S.Ct. 353, 356, 19 L.Ed.2d 426 (1967) (right to petition is “among the most precious liberties safeguarded by the Bill of Rights”). In Board of Education v. Pico, 457 U.S. 853, 867, 102 S.Ct. 2799, 2808, 73 L.Ed.2d 435 (1982), the Court recognized that “the right to receive ideas is a necessary predicate to the recipient’s meaningful exercise of his own rights of speech, press and political freedom.”
¶ 51 The Amendment violates the First Amendment by depriving elected officials and public employees of the ability to communicate with their constituents and with the public. With only a few exceptions, the Amendment prohibits all public officials and employees in Arizona from acting in a language other than English while performing governmental functions and policies. We do not prohibit government offices from adopting language rules for appropriate reasons. We hold that the Amendment goes too far because it effectively cuts off governmental communication with thousands of limited-English-proficient and non-English-speaking persons in Arizona, even when the officials and employees have the ability and desire to communicate in a language understandable to them. Meaningful communication in those cases is barred. Under such circumstances, prohibiting an elected or appointed governmental official or an employee from communicating with the public violates the employee’s and the official’s rights. See, e.g., United States v. National Treasury Employees Union, 518 U.S. 454, 465-66, 115 S.Ct. 1003, 1012, 130 L.Ed.2d 964 (1995) (employee commenting on matters of public concern has right to speak, subject to considerations of governmental efficiency); Eu v. San Francisco County Democratic Cent. Comm., 489 U.S. 214, 223, 109 S.Ct. 1013, 1020, 103 L.Ed.2d 271 (1989) (finding state law violates party officials’ rights to spread political message to voters seeking to inform themselves on campaign issues). As the Ninth Circuit noted, the Amendment could “hardly be more inclusive”; it “prohibit[s] the use in all oral and written communications by persons connected with the government of all words and phrases in any language othér than English.” Yniguez v. AOE, 69 F.3d at 933.
¶52 Except for a few exceptions, the Amendment prohibits all elected officials from acting in a language other than English while carrying out governmental functions and policies. Several of the plaintiffs in this matter are elected state legislators, who enjoy the “widest latitude to express their views on issues of policy.” Bond v. Floyd, 385 U.S. 116, 136, 87 S.Ct. 339, 349, 17 L.Ed.2d 235 (1966). Heretofore, when necessary in order to communicate effectively with their constituents, those legislators have spoken their constituents’ primary language if those constituents do not speak English well, or at all.
¶ 53 Citizens of limited English proficiency, such as many of the named legislator’s constituents, often face obstacles in petitioning their government for redress and in accessing the political system. Legislators and other elected officials attempting to serve limited-English-proficient constituents face a difficult task in helping provide those constituents with government services and in assisting those constituents in both understanding and accessing government. The Amendment makes the use of non-English communication to accomplish that task illegal. In Arizona, English is not the primary language of many citizens. A substantial number of Arizona’s Native Americans, Spanish-speaking citizens, and other citizens for whom English is not a primary language, either do not speak English at all or do not speak English well enough to be able to express their political beliefs, opinions, or needs to their elected officials. Under the Amendment, with few exceptions, no elected official can speak with his or her constituents except in English, even though such a requirement renders the speaking useless. While certainly not dis-positive, it is also worth noting that in everyday experience, even among persons fluent in English as a second language, it is often more effective to communicate complex ideas in a person’s primary language because some words, such as idioms and colloquialisms, do not translate well, if at all. In many cases, though, it is clear that the Amendment jeopardizes or prevents meaningful communication between constituents and their elected representatives, and thus contravenes core principles and values undergirding the First Amendment.
¶ 54 AOE argues that the “First Amendment addresses [the] content not [the] mode of communication.” The trial court adopted this argument, concluding that the Amendment was a permissible content-neutral prohibition of speech. Essentially, AOE argues that strict scrutiny should be reduced in this case because the decision to speak a non-English language does not implicate pure speech rights, but rather only affects the "mode of communication.” By requiring that government officials communicate only in a language which is incomprehensible to non-English speaking persons, the Amendment effectively bars communication itself. Therefore, its effect cannot be characterized as merely a time, place, or manner restriction because such restrictions, by definition, assume and require the availability of alternative means of communication. E.g., Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781, 109 S.Ct. 2746, 105 L.Ed.2d 661 (1989) (requiring the performance of a concert at a lower than desired volume); see also Members of City Council of Los Angeles v. Taxpayers for Vincent, 466 U.S. 789, 104 S.Ct. 2118, 80 L.Ed.2d 772 (1984) (requiring the distribu tion rather than the posting of leaflets on public property).
¶ 55 AOE also argues that the Amendment can be characterized as a regulation that serves purposes unrelated to the content of expression and therefore should be deemed neutral, even if it has an incidental effect on some speakers or messages but not others. See Ward, 491 U.S. at 791, 109 S.Ct. at 2754 (citing City of Renton, 475 U.S. at 47-48, 106 S.Ct. at 929-30). We agree with the Ninth Circuit’s emphatic rejection in Yniguez v. AOE of the suggestion that the decision to speak in a language other than English does not implicate free speech concerns, but is instead akin to expressive conduct. There, the court said that “[sjpeech in any language is still speech and the decision to speak in another language is a decision involving speech alone.” 69 F.3d at 936. See generally Cecilia Wong, Language is Speech: The Illegitimacy of Official English After Yniguez v. Arizonans for Official English, 30 U.C. Davis L.Rev. 277, 278 (1996).
¶ 56 The United States Supreme Court has observed that “[cjomplete speech bans, unlike content-neutral restrictions on time, place or manner of expression, are particularly dangerous because they all but foreclose alternative means of disseminating certain information.” II Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island, 517 U.S. 484, 506, 116 S.Ct. 1495, 1507, 134 L.Ed.2d 711 (1996) (internal citation omitted); see also City of Ladue v. Gilleo, 512 U.S. 43, 55, 114 S.Ct. 2038, 2045, 129 L.Ed.2d 36 (1994) (“Our prior decisions have voiced particular concern with laws that foreclose an entire medium of expression.”).
¶ 57 The Amendment poses a more immediate threat to First Amendment values than does legislation that regulates conduct and only incidentally impinges upon speech. Cf. United States v. O’Brien, 391 U.S. 367, 375-76, 382, 88 S.Ct. 1673, 1678, 1681-82, 20 L.Ed.2d 672 (1968) (statute prohibiting knowing destruction or mutilation of selective service certificate did not abridge free speech on its face); Clark v. Community for Creative Non-Violence, 468 U.S. 288, 293-94, 104 S.Ct. 3065, 3068-69, 82 L.Ed.2d 221 (1984) (National Park Service regulation forbidding sleeping in certain areas was defensible as a regulation of symbolic conduct or a time, place, or manner restriction). Laws “directed at speech” and communication are subject to exacting scrutiny and must be “justified by the substantial showing of need that the First Amendment requires.” Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397, 406, 109 S.Ct. 2533, 2541, 105 L.Ed.2d 342 (1989) (citations omitted); accord First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti, 435 U.S. 765, 786, 98 S.Ct. 1407, 1421, 55 L.Ed.2d 707 (1978); Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 16-17, 96 S.Ct. 612, 633, 46 L.Ed.2d 659 (1976). Here, the drafters of the Amendment articulated the need for its enactment as promoting English as a common language. The Legislative Council’s official argument in favor of the Amendment stated: “The State of Arizona is at a crossroads. It can move toward the fears and tensions of language rivalries and ethnic distrust, or it can reverse this trend and strengthen our common bond, the English language.”
¶ 58 Even if the Amendment were characterized as a content- and viewpoint-neutral ban, and we hold such a characterization does not apply, the Amendment violates the First Amendment because it broadly infringes on protected speech. See National Treasury Employees Union, 513 U.S. at 470, 115 S.Ct. at 1015 (striking down content-neutral provisions of Ethics Reform Act due to significant burdens on public employee speech and on the “public’s right to read and hear what Government employees would otherwise have written and said”). In National Treasury Employees Union, the Court recognized that a ban on speech ex ante (such as that imposed by the Amendment) constitutes a “wholesale deterrent to a broad category of expression by a massive number of potential speakers” and thus “chills potential speech before it happens.” Id. at 467-68, 115 S.Ct. at 1013-14 (footnote omitted) (citation omitted); see also City of Ladue, 512 U.S. at 55, 114 S.Ct. at 2045 (holding that even content- and viewpoint-neutral laws can “suppress too much speech”); Board of Airport Comm’rs v. Jews for Jesus, Inc., 482 U.S. 569, 574, 107 S.Ct. 2568, 2572, 96 L.Ed.2d 500 (1987) (viewpoint neutral regulation held unconstitutional because it “prohibited all protected expression”).
¶ 59 The chilling effect of the Amendment’s broad applications is reinforced by Section 4 which provides that elected officials and state employees can be sued for violating the Amendment’s prohibitions. See Appendix. We conclude that the Amendment violates the First Amendment.
V. Equal Protection
¶ 60 Section One of the Fourteenth Amendment provides, in pertinent part, that “[n]o state shall ... deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” The right to petition for redress of grievances is one of the fundamental rights guaranteed by the First Amendment. United Mine Workers, 389 U.S. at 222, 88 S.Ct. at 356 (right to petition for redress of grievances is among the most precious of the liberties safeguarded by the Bill of Rights). A corollary to the right to petition for redress of grievances is the right to participate equally in the political process. See Reynolds, 377 U.S. at 560, 556-68, 84 S.Ct. at 1380, 1379-85 (concept of equal protection has been traditionally viewed as requiring the uniform treatment of persons standing in the same relation to the governmental action questioned or challenged); accord Evans v. Romer, 854 P.2d 1270, 1276 (Colo.1993)(“the Equal Protection Clause guarantees the fundamental right to participate equally in the political process and ... any attempt to infringe on an independently identifiable group’s ability to exercise that right is subject to strict judicial scrutiny”); see also Dunn v. Blumstein, 405 U.S. 330, 335, 92 S.Ct. 995, 1000, 31 L.Ed.2d 274 (1972) (recognizing fundamental right to participate in state elections on an equal basis with other citizens in the jurisdiction).
¶ 61 The Amendment is subject to strict scrutiny because it impinges upon the fundamental First Amendment right to petition the government for redress of grievances. United Mine Workers, 389 U.S. at 222, 88 S.Ct. at 356. The right to petition bars state action interfering with access to the legislature, the executive branch and its various agencies, and the judicial branch. Eastern R.R. Presidents Conference v. Noerr Motor Freight, Inc., 365 U.S. 127, 137-39, 81 S.Ct. 523, 529-31, 5 L.Ed.2d 464 (1961) (legislature); United Mine Workers v. Pennington, 381 U.S. 657, 85 S.Ct. 1585, 14 L.Ed.2d 626 (1965) (executive); California Motor Transport Co. v. Trucking Unlimited, 404 U.S. 508, 92 S.Ct. 609, 30 L.Ed.2d 642 (1972) (administrative agencies and courts); United Mine Workers, 389 U.S. at 221-22, 88 S.Ct. at 355-56 (courts).
V 62 The trial court rejected plaintiffs’ equal protection argument on the grounds that plaintiffs had not shown that the Amendment was driven by discriminatory intent. See Hunter v. Underwood, 471 U.S. 222, 229, 105 S.Ct. 1916, 1921, 85 L.Ed.2d 222 (1985). Because the Amendment curtails First Amendment rights, however, it is presumed unconstitutional and must survive this court’s strict scrutiny. See generally Rosen, 641 F.2d at 1246. AOE and the state defendants bear the burden of establishing the Amendment’s constitutionality by demonstrating that it is drawn with narrow specificity to meet a compelling state interest. Id. ¶
¶ 63 Challenges to official English pepper history, but, except for its decision in Yniguez which was dismissed on standing, the United States Supreme Court has not addressed the constitutionality of official En glish statutes since the 1920s. In Meyer, 262 U.S. 390, 43 S.Ct. 625, the Court reviewed a statute forbidding any teacher to “teach any subject to any person in any language other than the English language.” The Court held that teachers have the constitutional right to teach, and students have the equivalent right to receive, foreign language instruction. Id. at 400-03, 43 S.Ct. at 627-28. In so doing, the Court noted:
[T]he individual has certain fundamental rights which must be respected. The protection of the Constitution extends to all, to those who speak other languages as well as to those bom with English on the tongue. Perhaps it would be highly advantageous if all had ready understanding of our ordinary speech, but this cannot be coerced by methods which conflict with the Constitution — a desirable end cannot be promoted by prohibited means.
Id. at 401, 43 S.Ct. at 627 (emphasis added).
¶ 64 In Meyer, the Court held that the statute violated Fourteenth Amendment due process and equal protection rights. Specifically, the Court held that the Nebraska statute, by forbidding foreign language instruction, was arbitrary and did not reasonably relate to any end within the competency of the state to regulate. Id. at 403, 43 S.Ct. at 628. The Court acknowledged that a state has legitimate interests in promoting the civic development of its citizens and that a uniform language might -aid this promotion. Id. at 401, 43 S.Ct. at 627. The Court held, however, that the statute abrogated the fundamental, individual right of choice of language. Id. at 403, 43 S.Ct. at 628. Despite its desirable goals, the Nebraska statute was held to employ prohibited means exceeding the state’s powers. Id. at 402, 43 S.Ct. at 628. The discriminatory Nebraska law, as applied, thus deprived both teachers and students of their liberty without due process of law. Id. at 400-02, 43 S.Ct. at 627-28. We believe the Amendment suffers from the same constitutional infirmity.
¶ 65 As discussed previously, the compelling state interest test applies to the Amendment because it affects fundamental First Amendment rights. Even assuming arguendo that AOE and the state defendants could establish a compelling state interest for the Amendment (and they have not met that burden), they cannot satisfy the narrow specificity requirement. Under certain very restricted circumstances, states may regulate speech. See, e.g., Kovacs v. Cooper, 336 U.S. 77, 80, 69 S.Ct. 448, 450, 93 L.Ed. 513 (1949) (the First Amendment permits regulation of the time, place, and manner of the use of sound trucks). However, the Amendment is not a “regulation.” Rather, it is a general prohibition of the use of non-English languages by all state personnel during the performance of government business and by all persons seeking to interact with all levels of government in Arizona. The Amendment’s goal to promote English as a common language does not require a general prohibition on non-English usage. English can be promoted without prohibiting the use of other languages by state and local governments. Therefore, the Amendment does not meet the compelling state interest test and thus does not survive First Amendment strict scrutiny analysis.
¶66 Finally, we note that any interference with First Amendment rights need not be an absolute bar to render it unconstitutional as violating equal protection; a substantial burden upon that right is sufficient to warrant constitutional protections. By permanently implementing a linguistic barrier between persons and the government they have a right to petition, the Amendment substantially burdens First Amendment rights. See Eastern R.R. Presidents Conference, 365 U.S. at 137, 81 S.Ct. at 529 (“The whole concept of representation depends upon the ability of the people to make their wishes known to their representatives”). Therefore, the Amendment violates the Fourteenth Amendment’s guarantees of equal protection because it impinges upon both the fundamental right to participate equally in the political process and the right to petition the government for redress.
VII. Severability
¶ 67 In an effort to salvage the Amendment, the Attorney General urges us to hold that only Sections 1(2) and 8(l)(a) are unconstitutional and to sever the remaining portions. In Arizona, an entire statute (in this case, a constitutional provision) need not be declared unconstitutional if constitutional portions can be separated. Republic Inv. Fund I v. Town of Surprise, 166 Ariz. 143, 151, 800 P.2d 1251, 1259 (1990). However, the valid portion of the statute will be severed only if it can be determined from the language that the voters would have enacted the valid portion absent the invalid portion. State Compensation Fund v. Symington, 174 Ariz. 188, 195, 848 P.2d 273, 280 (1993). We hold that the Amendment is not capable of such judicial surgery, and we decline to sever the invalid portions of the Amendment. We do so, first, because the Amendment does not contain a severability clause and, second, because the record is devoid of evidence that the voters would have enacted such a rewritten and essentially meaningless amendment. See Campana v. Arizona State Land Dep’t, 176 Ariz. 288, 294, 860 P.2d 1341, 1347 (1993) (“A statute or provision is severable if the valid and invalid portions are not so intimately connected as to raise the presumption that the legislature would not have enacted the one without the other and if the invalid portion was not the inducement for the passage of the entire act”) (citations omitted).
¶ 68 It is not possible to sanitize the Amendment in order to narrow it sufficiently to support its constitutionality. We have no way of knowing, aside from mere speculation, whether the people would have passed the two sections that declare English as the official language and require that all acts of government be conducted in English. Moreover, even if those two provisions alone had been passed, it would be an unjustified stretch to insert the word “official” before the word “act” as the Attorney General now proposes. Therefore, we hold that the Amendment does not lend itself to severability.
CONCLUSION
¶ 69 The Attorney General’s attempt to narrow the construction and application of the Amendment is irreconcilable with both the Amendment’s plain language and its legislative history. Thus, that construction cannot be used to obviate the Amendment’s unconstitutionally or to cure its overbreadth. The Amendment is not content-neutral; rather, it constitutes a sweeping injunction against speech in any language other than English. The Amendment unconstitutionally infringes upon multiple First Amendment interests — those of the public, of public employees, and of elected officials.
¶70 The Amendment adversely affects non-English speaking persons and impinges on their ability to seek and obtain information and services from government. Because the Amendment chills First Amendment rights that government is not otherwise entitled to proscribe, it violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Amendment’s constitutional infirmity cannot be salvaged by invoking the doctrine of severability.
¶71 We expressly note that we do not undertake to define the constitutional parameters of officially promoting English, as distinguished from banning non-English speech. Our holding does not question or denigrate efforts to encourage English as a common language; but such efforts must not run afoul of constitutional requirements and individual liberties. Nor is the constitutionality of a less comprehensive English-only provision before us.
¶ 72 Significantly, in finding the Amendment unconstitutional, we do not hold, or even suggest, that any governmental entity in Arizona has a constitutional obligation to provide services in languages other than En glish, except, of course, to the extent required by federal law.
¶ 73 The opinion of the court of appeals is vacated and the trial court’s judgment is reversed. This matter is remanded with directions to enter judgment in accordance with this opinion.
ZLAKET, C.J., and JONES, V.C.J., and FELDMAN, J., concur.
. As pointed out infra, the Ninth Circuit’s opinion in Yniguez v. AOE was vacated by the United States Supreme Court because Yniguez lacked standing. AOE v. Arizona, 520 U.S. 43, 117 S.Ct. 1055, 137 L.Ed.2d 170 (1997), vacated on remand, Yniguez v. AOE, 118 F.3d 667 (9th Cir. 1997). On the merits of the case, however, we agree with the result and with much of the reasoning of the Ninth Circuit opinion. Thus, we refer to the Ninth Circuit opinion throughout this opinion, recognizing that it has been vacated on grounds unrelated to the merits of the issues with which we are presented.
. The Ninth Circuit affirmed the district court's denial of the Arizona Attorney General’s Motion to Intervene insofar as he sought to be reinstated as a party in the appeal, but permitted the intervention for the limited purpose described. See Yniguez v. Arizona, 939 F.2d 727, 740 (9th Cir. 1991). The district court had refused to certify the question of the proper interpretation of the Amendment to this court, ruling that certification was inappropriate because the Amendment is not susceptible of a narrowing construction, and therefore could not be held constitutional. See Yniguez v. Mofford, 130 F.R.D. at 411.
. Arizona State Senator Joe Eddie Lopez was substituted for retired Senator Manuel Pena by this court’s order of May 2, 1997.
. No Ninth Amendment issue has been presented to us on appeal.
. "Limited English proficient” is defined as having a "low level of skill in comprehending, speaking, reading or writing the English language because of being from an environment in which another language is spoken." A.R.S. § 15-751(1). Article 20, paragraph 7 of the Arizona Constitution provides that Arizona public schools shall be conducted in English.
. We fully recognize that the power of the people to legislate is as great as that of the Legislature. See Ariz. Const, art. IV; Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community v. Hull, 190 Ariz. 97, 103, 945 P.2d 818, 824 (1997); Queen Creek Land & Cattle Corp. v. Yavapai County Board of Sup’rs, 108 Ariz. 449, 451, 501 P.2d 391, 393 (1972). However, we note that the search for the people’s intent in passing initiatives is far different from the attempt to discern legislative intent: there are no legislative hearing transcripts, committee reports or other legislative histoiy. Before an initiative is passed, no committee meetings are held; no legislative analysts study the law; no floor debates occur; no separate representative bodies vote on the legislation; no reconciliation conferences are held; no amendments are drafted; no executive official wields a veto power and reviews the law under that authority; and it is far more difficult for the people to “reconvene” to amend or clarify a law if a court interprets it contrary to the voters’ intent. See Jane S. Schacter, The Pursuit of "Popular Intent": Interpretive Dilemmas in Direct Democracy, 105 Yale L.J. 107, 109 (1995).
. Although it is unnecessary for us to address the plaintiffs’ separate argument that the Amendment, as written, is unconstitutionally vague (because we hold that the Amendment violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments), we do note that the Attorney General's proposed narrowing construction, if adopted, would undoubtedly add weight to the plaintiffs’ vagueness argument. A statute is vague if it fails to give fair notice of what it prohibits. State ex rel. Purcell v. Superior Court, 111 Ariz. 582, 584, 535 P.2d 1299, 1301 (1975); see also Connally v. General Constr. Co., 269 U.S. 385, 391, 46 S.Ct. 126, 127, 70 L.Ed. 322 (1926) (Vagueness is concerned with clarity of law; a law is void on its face, and thereby violates due process, if it is so vague that persons "of common intelligence must necessarily guess at its meaning and differ as to its application.”).
. Ala. Const, amend 509 (1990); Ariz. Const, art XXVIII (1988); Ark.Code Ann. § 1-4-117 (1987); Cal. Const, art. Ill, § 6 (1986); Colo. Const, art. II, § 30a (1988); Fla. Const, art. II § 9 (1988); Ga.Code Ann. § 50-3-100 (1996); Haw. Const, art. XV, § 4 (1978) (also naming Hawaiian as an official language); 5 Ill. Comp. Stat. Ann. 460/20 (West 1993); Ind.Code Ann. § 1-2-10-1 (1984); Ky.Rev.Stat. Ann. § 2.013 (1984); Miss.Code Ann. § 3-3-31 (1987); Mont.Code Ann. § 1-1-510 (1995); Neb. Const, art. 1, § 27 (1920); N.H.Rev.Stat. Ann. § 3-C:l (1995); N.C. Gen. Stat. § 145-12 (1987); N.D. Cent.Code § 54-02-13 (1987); S.C.Code Ann. § 1-1-696 (1987); S.D. Codified Laws § 1-27-20 (1995); Tenn. Code Ann. § 4-1-404 (1984); Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 8-6-101 (Michie 1996).
.See Cecilia Wong, Language is Speech: The Illegitimacy of Official English After Yniguez v. Arizonans for Official English, 30 U.C. Davis L.Rev. 277, 278 (1996).
. California's Official English law, Cal. Const., Art. Ill, § 6, provides that:
(a) Purpose
English is the common language of the people of the United States of America and the State of California. This section is intended to preserve, protect and strengthen the English language, and not to supersede any of the rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution.
(b) English as the Official Language of California
English is the official language of the State of California.
(c) Enforcement
The Legislature shall enforce this section by appropriate legislation. The Legislature and officials of the State of California shall take all steps necessary to insure that the role of English as the common language of the State of California is preserved and enhanced. The Legislature shall make no law which diminishes or ignores the role of English as the common language of the State of California.
(d) Personal Right of Action and Jurisdiction of Courts
Any person who is a resident of or doing business in the State of California shall have standing to sue the State of California to enforce this section, and the Courts of record of the State of California shall have jurisdiction to hear cases brought to enforce this section. The Legislature may provide reasonable and appropriate limitations on the time and manner of suits brought under this section.
. We do not address the plaintiffs’ separate overbreadth claim because we hold that the Amendment unconstitutionally infringes on First Amendment rights. Overbreadth should only be addressed where its effect might be salutary. Massachusetts v. Oakes, 491 U.S. 576, 581-82, 109 S.Ct. 2633, 2636-37, 105 L.Ed.2d 493 (1989); see also Broadrick v. Oklahoma, 413 U.S. 601, 613, 93 S.Ct. 2908, 2916, 37 L.Ed.2d 830 (1973) (holding that applying overbreadth analysis constitutes manifestly strong medicine that is to be employed sparingly and only as a last resort).
. Because strict scrutiny analysis applies to the governmental regulation of speech imposed by the Amendment, we do not address whether a language minority constitutes a suspect class for equal protection purposes. See San Antonio Independent Sch. Dist. v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1, 93 S.Ct. 1278, 36 L.Ed.2d 16 (1973) (describing the criteria characterizing suspect classification for equal protection purposes).
. We recognize that in Yniguez v. AOE the Ninth Circuit relied upon Meyer in concluding that the Amendment violated the First Amendment. 69 F.3d at 945-48 (citing Meyer, 262 U.S. at 403, 43 S.Ct. at 626). We note, however, that Meyer was decided two years before the Court applied the First Amendment to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Gitlow, 268 U.S. 652, 45 S.Ct. 625. While we hold that the Amendment violates the First Amendment, we rely on the decisions previously discussed and we do not reach the issue of whether Meyer offers speech any particular protection under the First Amendment. See Howard O. Hunter, Problems in Search of Principles: The First Amendment in the Supreme Court from 1791-1930, 35 Emory L.J. 59, 117, 128 (1986) (stating that Meyer does not offer speech any particular protection).
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OPINION
ZLAKET, Chief Justice.
¶ 1. Defendant Gregorio Garcia-Contreras was indicted on multiple counts of child molestation and sexual abuse. The alleged victim was his twelve-year-old daughter. He was thereafter convicted on some, but not all, of the charges. For reasons unimportant to the present discussion, the judge granted a new trial, which was commenced in August of 1992. On opening day, defendant was not present in court. The judge noted for the record:
The Court was advised this morning that the Defendant’s civilian clothing had not arrived. Counsel for the Defendant requested a delay until his clothing arrived. The Court has denied the request, offered to — either the Defendant could appear in his custody clothes or waive his presence for the commencement of jury selection, and is not present at this time.
Jury selection was completed in defendant’s absence that morning. The record reflects his presence in the courtroom that afternoon.
¶ 2. After three days of trial, defendant was found guilty on two of the molestation counts. He claimed on appeal that he had been improperly denied his right to be present at jury selection. The court of appeals remanded to the trial court for an evidentiary hearing regarding the circumstances surrounding defendant’s absence, and new counsel was appointed.
¶3. After reviewing the hearing transcript, the appellate court ruled that although defendant’s absence had been involuntary, any error was harmless. Defendant’s trial attorney and his lawyer at the subsequent hearing each petitioned for review, which we granted only with respect to the following issue:
[Wjhether it is error to preclude a defendant who was in custody from attending, the jury selection because the sheriff had not dressed the defendant in defendant’s civilian clothes and the replacement civilian clothes had not yet arrived.
¶4. The trial record is far from clear. We do not know what ensued immediately after counsel alerted the court to defendant’s lack of street clothes. We are forced to rely on the sometimes inconsistent testimony from an evidentiary hearing held three years later. At the hearing, defendant testified that on the first day of trial, he was brought from jail to the court in his prisoner clothes. He stated that his brother would bring civilian clothing to him whenever he had a court appearance. He also remembered telling his attorney that he would rather be absent from the courtroom than have prospective jurors see him in jail garb.
¶ 5. Defendant’s brother testified that he received a call from defense counsel’s secretary requesting civilian clothing. He then went to another brother’s home, where items of apparel were retrieved and ironed. He delivered them to the secretary around noon.
¶ 6. According to defense counsel, his client was brought to court in his inmate outfit even though he had other apparel at the jail. Concerned, the lawyer called his secretary with instructions to immediately find some clothes. He then notified the judge’s staff of the problem, and an off-the-record meeting was held in chambers. At this conference, counsel asked the judge for a continuance. According to the lawyer,
it was made very clear to me he wanted to select a jury now. That my client was to select between one or two of the options he had. And then at that point the interpreter and I went back and spoke to Mr. Contreras about what happened.
Counsel then told defendant that he had to choose between not attending the jury selection or appearing in jail clothes. Defendant asked what he should do. The attorney advised him not to appear in court, but to wait until new clothing arrived. He explained, “It’s my feelings [sic] if they are seen in jail clothes that is the end of the case.” About this defendant, counsel noted that he
had previously been convicted of those serious offenses ... He was aware of what could happen in a courtroom. He was aware that his life, essentially, was on the line. He did not have a cavalier attitude about this____ He wanted to be present. Because I am the lawyer, he left the decision up to me.
When questioned as to what he might have done differently, counsel replied:
I couldn’t have a continuance for a few minutes for the clothes to arrive. I did not think that was an option; I couldn’t just leave. Of course, I would have been held in contempt myself had I done that. I just did not see many options.
At the close of the evidentiary hearing, the judge stated that he had no recollection of these events.
¶ 7. It is plain that the trial court’s refusal to grant a continuance forced the defendant to choose between two equally objectionable alternatives. He could either have appeared before the jury in prison attire, jeopardizing his Fourteenth Amendment guarantee of presumptive innocence, or sacrificed his Sixth Amendment right to be present at jury selection. Faced with this dilemma, and upon advice of counsel, defendant “chose” not to be present.
Defendant’s Constitutional Rights
¶ 8. An accused’s “right to be present at trial is protected both by the Sixth Amendment to the federal constitution as incorporated and applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment, and by article II, section 24 of the Arizona Constitution.” State v. Levato, 186 Ariz. 441, 443, 924 P.2d 445, 447 (1996) (citation omitted). Where, as here, the confrontation of witnesses is not directly implicated, “the right to presence is nevertheless protected by the due process clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments.” Id. (citations omitted). This encompasses the defendant’s presence at jury selection. See State v. Tudgay, 128 Ariz. 1, 2, 623 P.2d 360, 361 (1981); Rule 19.2, Ariz.R.Crim.P. Moreover, an accused has the right, derived from constitutional fair trial guarantees, see Estelle v. Williams, 425 U.S. 501, 503, 96 S.Ct. 1691, 1692, 48 L.Ed.2d 126 (1976), not to be compelled by the state to appear before a jury in prison attire. See id. at 512, 96 S.Ct. at 1697; State v. Jeffers, 135 Ariz. 404, 416, 661 P.2d 1105, 1117 (1983).
Waiver
¶ 9. A defendant may voluntarily relinquish the right to attend trial. See State v. Bohn, 116 Ariz. 500, 503, 570 P.2d 187, 190 (1977); State v. Sainz, 186 Ariz. 470, 472, 924 P.2d 474, 476 (App.1996); Rule 9.1, Ariz. R.Crim.P. He or she may also waive the protection against being compelled to appear before a jury in prison clothes. See Jeffers, 135 Ariz. at 416, 661 P.2d at 1117 (attending trial in prison garb may be the “intentional relinquishment of a known right”); see also Estelle, 425 U.S. at 507-08, 96 S.Ct. at 1694-95 (recognizing that defendants may choose to appear before jury in prison attire). In any case, a valid waiver depends upon voluntariness. See Sainz, 186 Ariz. at 473, 924 P.2d at 477 (evaluating circumstances to determine whether trial absence was voluntary or involuntary); Jeffers, 135 Ariz. at 416, 661 P.2d at 1117 (determining whether defendant made a “voluntary election to appear in court wearing jail clothes”).
¶ 10. Because defendant here elected not to be present at jury selection, we must ascertain whether this choice was voluntary. The mere prospect of appearing in prison attire does not automatically render his decision “involuntary” for the reason that “instances frequently arise where a defendant prefers to stand trial before his peers in prison garments.” Estelle, 425 U.S. at 507-08, 96 S.Ct. at 1694-95. The record indicates, however, that defendant did not want to appear before the jrny in this fashion.
¶ 11. Defendant followed the advice of his attorney, who understood the peril of appearing before a jury in jail garb. The Supreme Court has observed that such clothing serves as a
constant reminder of the accused’s condition implicit in such distinctive, identifiable attire [and] may affect a juror’s judgment. The defendant’s clothing is so likely to be a continuing influence throughout the trial that... an unacceptable risk is presented of impermissible factors coming into play.
Estelle, 425 U.S. at 504-05, 96 S.Ct. at 1693 (citation omitted). Voluntary choice presupposes meaningful alternatives. Put another way, a voluntary waiver of the right to be present requires true freedom of choice. Because defendant was without meaningful alternatives, his decision not to attend jury selection must be considered involuntary.
¶ 12. The state argues that it did nothing to restrict defendant’s right to appear in civilian clothes. Therefore, it says, he was not “compelled by the state against his will.” Jeffers, 135 Ariz. at 416, 661 P.2d at 1117. We think this argument reflects an inappropriately narrow view of the issue. It is the harm to defendant that must be the focus of our analysis. In Bentley v. Crist, for example, the Ninth Circuit observed that “an accused who is forced to stand trial in prison garb because of financial inability to obtain other attire is under a compulsion equal to that of the prisoner who is not allowed to don readily available civilian attire.” 469 F.2d 854, 856 (9th Cir.1972). Thus, the prosecution’s lack of direct involvement with this defendant’s condition did not obviate the onerous decision facing him, or the compulsion under which he was placed.
¶ 13. We understand that the degree of a defendant’s responsibility for such a predicament affects the extent to which his or her actions may rightfully be deemed involuntary. We should be wary of accuseds who attempt to “frustrate the process of justice,” Estelle, 425 U.S. at 505 n. 2, 96 S.Ct. at 1693 n. 2, by purposely arriving at the courthouse without civilian clothing. No one suggests here that defendant’s lack of such clothing was either planned or purposeful, even though inadequacies in the record prevent us from knowing exactly why his clothes were not available. Nothing indicates that defendant ever arrived at any other proceeding without appropriate attire.
¶ 14. An incarcerated defendant’s ability to control his situation is limited, and even the most comprehensive clothing delivery system may, on occasion, be thwarted by a flat tire, a traffic accident, or other unanticipated occurrence. Thus, while we agree that it is a defendant’s responsibility to ensure the availability of civilian clothing at trial, we reject the idea that every failure in this regard can sensibly be characterized as “voluntary.” Mindful that we should “indulge every reasonable presumption against the loss of constitutional rights,” Illinois v. Allen, 397 U.S. 337, 343, 90 S.Ct. 1057, 1060, 25 L.Ed.2d 353 (1970)(citing Johnson v. Zerbst, 304 U.S. 458, 464, 58 S.Ct. 1019, 1023, 82 L.Ed. 1461 (1938)), we agree with the court of appeals that this defendant did not voluntarily waive his right to be present. On the contrary, he apparently wanted to be in attendance and knew the importance of this decision based on his prior courtroom experience. When presented with this dilemma, he relied on his lawyer, who gave the only advice he thought acceptable under the circumstances.
Applicability of Harmless Error Review
¶ 15. In Arizona v. Fulminante, the United States Supreme Court distinguished between ordinary trial error that, in the context of all the evidence, is amenable to quantitative assessment, and structural error, which affects the basic “framework within which the trial proceeds” and implicates the “entire conduct of the trial from beginning to end.” 499 U.S. 279, 307-08, 309-10, 111 S.Ct. 1246, 1264-65, 113 L.Ed.2d 302 (1991); see also State v. Gaines, 188 Ariz. 511, 514, 937 P.2d 701, 704 (App.1997). A criminal trial undermined by structural error “ ‘cannot reliably serve its function as a vehicle for determination of guilt or innocence____Fulminante, 499 U.S. at 310, 111 S.Ct. at 1265 (quoting Rose v. Clark, 478 U.S. 570, 577-78, 106 S.Ct. 3101, 3106, 92 L.Ed.2d 460 (1986)). Moreover, because structural error is impossible to quantify, it “deifies] analysis by ‘harmless-error’ standards.” Id. at 309, 111 S.Ct. at 1265.
Analyzing “Presence Error”
¶ 16. A constitutional violation involving a defendant’s involuntary absence from trial — “presence error” — may be subject to harmless error review. See Hegler v. Borg, 50 F.3d 1472, 1476 (9th Cir.1995); Fulminante, 499 U.S. at 306-07, 111 S.Ct. at 1263 (citing Rushen v. Spain, 464 U.S. 114, 117-18 & n. 2, 104 S.Ct. 453, 454-55 & n. 2, 78 L.Ed.2d 267 (1983), in support of the proposition that the denial of a defendant’s right to be present can be “trial error”); Sainz, 186 Ariz. at 474, 924 P.2d at 478. On occasion, however, presence error may “so undermine the integrity of the trial process that [it] will necessarily fall within that category of cases requiring automatic reversal.” Hegler, 50 F.3d at 1476.
In sum, we think that before a court can classify a “presence error,” the character of the proceeding from which the defendant was excluded must be evaluated to ascertain the impact of the constitutional violation on the overall structure of the criminal proceeding.
Id. at 1477.
¶ 17. In this case, the defendant was involuntarily excluded from the entire jury selection proceeding. As noted in State v. Ayers, “harmless error has generally been found only where the accused’s absence has been from some minor portion of the selection process,” rather than from the whole thing. 133 Ariz. 570, 571, 653 P.2d 27, 28 (App.1982) (holding defendant’s involuntary absence from entire jury selection process to be reversible error). Total exclusion runs afoul of “one of the substantial rights of the prisoner to be brought face to face with the jurors at the time... challenges [are] made.” Lewis v. United States, 146 U.S. 370, 376, 13 S.Ct. 136, 138, 36 L.Ed. 1011 (1892) (citation omitted). We cannot ignore “what sudden impressions and unaccountable prejudices [defendants] are apt to conceive upon the bare looks and gestures of another, and how necessary it is that a prisoner (when put to defend his life) should have a good opinion of his jury____” Id. at 376, 13 S.Ct. at 138 (citation omitted).
¶ 18. An accused’s presence at jury selection protects the effective exercise of his challenges. See United States v. Washington, 705 F.2d 489, 497 (D.C.Cir.1983). Even though counsel may conduct the voir dire, a defendant has the right to provide input, and an opportunity to monitor the attorney’s performance. The defendant can also “personally see and know what is being done in the case,” and “see to it that what does take place is in accord with law and good prac tice.” Goodroe v. Georgia, 224 Ga.App. 378, 480 S.E.2d 378, 381 (1997) (quoting Wilson v. Georgia, 212 Ga. 73, 90 S.E.2d 557, 558-59 (1955)). The accused has the power, “if present, to give advice or suggestion or even to supersede his lawyers altogether and conduct the trial himself.” Snyder v. Massachusetts, 291 U.S. 97, 106, 54 S.Ct. 330, 332, 78 L.Ed. 674 (1934). We cannot tell what opportunities might have been lost in the present case.
¶ 19. Additionally, the interplay between potential jurors and a defendant, while often subtle, is both immediate and continuous. Here, the trial judge’s introduction to the jury panel included the following statement: “[T]he Court Reporter will be present at all times, the attorneys will be present, myself, my clerk, and the Defendant will be present.” No one can tell what the prospective jurors might have thought when all of the key players were introduced save the defendant, whose whereabouts were left mysteriously unexplained: “The defendant is [sic] will be here shortly____” Defendant’s absence may have damaged him in the eyes of the jury— some may have thought he had irresponsibly failed to show up for the first day of his trial.
¶20. Had defendant been present, he might have been able to influence the jury selection process. We are unable to meaningfully quantify the resulting harm. The matter is thus not amenable to harmless error review. See Hegler, 50 F.3d at 1476.
¶ 21. We are sensitive to the “day-to-day realities of courtroom life,” Rushen, 464 U.S. at 119, 104 S.Ct. at 456, and appreciate that the grant or denial of a continuance should generally be disturbed only upon a showing of a clear abuse of discretion and prejudice to defendant. See State v. Amaya-Ruiz, 166 Ariz. 152, 164, 800 P.2d 1260, 1272 (1990). Athough the record is silent, the defendant’s lack of appropriate clothing no doubt posed practical problems for the trial judge. The restless milling about of numerous prospective jurors, an uncertain delivery time for defendant’s clothes, and the possible unavailability of an afternoon jury panel, may all have factored into his decision.
¶ 22. Nevertheless, we hold that by denying the short continuance that defendant requested, the trial court effectively deprived him of his constitutional right to be present for jury selection. In so doing, the court abused its discretion. Moreover, because the error was structural, we need not find actual prejudice. The convictions are reversed and the case remanded for a new trial.
JONES, V.C.J., and FELDMAN, MOELLER and MARTONE, JJ., concur.
. An opinion filed on February 6, 1998 in this case was withdrawn by order of the court dated February' 11, 1998. This opinion has been substituted in its place.
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OPINION
PELANDER, Presiding Judge.
This case raises an issue of first impression in Arizona: the effect of unintentional destruction of relevant evidence after suit has been filed in a negligence action. Concluding that plaintiff/appellant Donna Souza’s failure to preserve crucial evidence precluded her from establishing a prima facie case and deprived defendant/appellee Fred Carries Contracts, Inc. (FCCI) of an opportunity to mount an effective defense, the trial court granted summary judgment for FCCI. For the reasons stated below, we reverse and remand.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
We view the evidence and any reasonable inferences in the light most favorable to the party against whom summary judgment was entered. Angus Medical Co. v. Digital Equip. Corp., 173 Ariz. 159, 840 P.2d 1024 (App.1992). In late January 1992, plaintiff bought a 1982 Ford Mustang from FCCI, a used car dealer. Two weeks later, after she had experienced three tire blow-outs and after FCCI had replaced the car’s rear axle assembly with a used unit, plaintiff was injured when she had another blow-out, lost control of her car, and collided head-on with an oncoming vehicle. Plaintiffs car was totaled and towed to a storage yard, where it remained for two and one-half years. In February 1994, plaintiff retained counsel and sued FCCI, alleging it had negligently maintained or repaired the Mustang, resulting in its having a mechanically defective rear end which collapsed and caused the accident.
The storage yard owner ultimately obtained title to the Mustang under Arizona’s abandoned vehicle statutes in April 1994. Unbeknownst to the parties, in September 1994, the storage company transferred title to an auto recycler, which had the Mustang destroyed on December 22, 1994, before either party had performed a mechanical inspection of it. In June 1995, FCCI moved for summary judgment and/or dismissal under Ariz.R.Civ.P. 56 and 37,16 A.R.S. FCCI contended the permanent loss of the car precluded plaintiff from establishing a prima facie case, irreparably prejudiced its ability to defend, and warranted the sanction of dismissal for plaintiffs failure, albeit inadvertent, to maintain and preserve the evidence. The trial court granted summary judgment for FCCI, and this appeal followed.
DISCUSSION
1. Sanction for Destruction of Evidence
In its ruling, the trial court concluded plaintiff had failed to fulfill “her responsibility to assure that crucial evidence was preserved,” infringed on FCCI’s “right to inspect the vehicle to determine whether or not the alleged defect was in fact the cause of the accident,” and thus “deprived [FCCI] of the ability to mount an effective defense.” As both parties acknowledge, although the court granted summary judgment for FCCI, its ruling was “tantamount” to ordering a “dismissal sanction” for destruction of evidence. Thus, we must first determine whether the trial court abused its discretion in essentially dismissing the action on that ground.
“The sanction of dismissal, though within the sound discretion of the trial court, is ‘harsh and not to be invoked except under extreme circumstances.’ ” Austin v. City of Scottsdale, 140. Ariz. 579, 581, 684 P.2d 151, 153 (1984), quoting Buchanan v. Jimenez, 18 Ariz.App. 298, 299, 501 P.2d 567, 568 (1972) (citation omitted). See also Groat v. Equity Am. Ins. Co., 180 Ariz. 342, 884 P.2d 228 (App.1994); Sears Roebuck & Co. v. Walker, 127 Ariz. 432, 437, 621 P.2d 938, 943 (App. 1980) (“[T]he range of discretion for dismissal is narrow.”); Golleher v. Horton, 119 Ariz. 604, 606, 583 P.2d 260, 262 (App.1978) (a trial court’s discretion “as to the ultimate sanc tions of dismissal and/or entry of default judgment^] has been rather severely limited by the decisions of this state as well as courts of other jurisdictions”).
PCCI contends plaintiff and her counsel had an affirmative duty to preserve relevant evidence within their control, and their negligent breach of that duty justified dismissal of the case. We agree with the first proposition, but under the circumstances of this case, disagree with the second. Preliminarily, we note that litigants have a duty to preserve evidence which they know, or reasonably should know, “ ‘is relevant in the action, is reasonably calculated to lead to the discovery of admissible evidence, is reasonably likely to be requested during discovery and/or is the subject of a pending discovery request.’ ” Turner v. Hudson Transit Lines, Inc., 142 F.R.D. 68, 72 (S.D.N.Y.1991), quoting Wm. T. Thompson Co. v. General Nutrition Corp., 593 F.Supp. 1443, 1455 (C.D.Cal.1984). See also Unigard Security Ins. Co. v. Lakewood Eng’g & Mfg. Corp., 982 F.2d 363 (9th Cir.1992); Baliotis v. McNeil, 870 F.Supp. 1285 (M.D.Pa.1994).
Although plaintiff does not dispute her duty to preserve relevant evidence, she maintains the extreme sanction of dismissal is warranted only in cases of intentional destruction of evidence (spoliation). Adopting inflexible, “bright line” rules in this area, in our view, would be ill-advised. Rather, issues concerning destruction of evidence and appropriate sanctions therefor should be decided on a case-by-case basis, considering all relevant factors. See Stubli v. Big D International Trucks, Inc., 107 Nev. 309, 810 P.2d 785 (1991) (setting forth nonexhaustive list of factors relevant to deciding whether dismissal is appropriate sanction). As the Sixth Circuit has noted: “Destruction of potentially relevant evidence obviously occurs along a continuum of fault — ranging from innocence through the degrees of negligence to intentionality. The resulting penalties vary correspondingly.” Welsh v. United States, 844 F.2d 1239, 1246 (6th Cir.1988). Based on the totality of circumstances in this case, as discussed below, we agree with plaintiff that dismissal was too harsh a sanction for her negligently failing to preserve the Mustang.
First, plaintiff did not willfully or volitionally destroy the evidence or even know it was going to be destroyed. Although there is substantial evidence that plaintiff and her counsel were negligent, their failure to retrieve or otherwise preserve the car was unintentional. Generally, an innocent failure to preserve evidence does not warrant the sanction of dismissal. See, e.g., Vodusek v. Bayliner Marine Corp., 71 F.3d 148 (4th Cir.1995); Beil v. Lakewood Eng’g & Mfg. Co., 15 F.3d 546 (6th Cir.1994); Gumbs v. International Harvester, Inc., 718 F.2d 88 (3d Cir.1983); Headley v. Chrysler Motor Corp., 141 F.R.D. 362 (D.Mass.1991); Beers v. Bayliner Marine Corp., 236 Conn. 769, 675 A.2d 829 (1996); cf. Martin v. Intex Recreational Corp., 858 F.Supp. 161 (D.Kan.1994).
Second, this case involves neither failure to comply with a court order nor abuse of discovery or disclosure procedures or requirements. Rule 37(a) and (b), upon which FCCI’s motion for dismissal was based, “are designed to compel reasonable discovery and to provide sanctions when there has been a failure to comply with an order compelling discovery.” Sears Roebuck, 127 Ariz. at 436, 621 P.2d at 942. See also Birds Int’l Corp. v. Arizona Maintenance Co., 135 Ariz. 545, 662 P.2d 1052 (App.1983). Although Rule 37(b)(2) “permits striking a claim when a ‘party fails to obey an order to provide or permit discovery,’ ” Nesmith v. Superior Court, 164 Ariz. 70, 72, 790 P.2d 768, 770 (App.1990), in this case, as in Nesmith, “there is no clear evidence, and no clear finding, that the plaintiff or [her] counsel engaged in any conduct that would bring the rules that authorize dismissal into play.” Id. Cf. Beil, 15 F.3d at 552.
For example, the record does not indicate that FCCI ever asked plaintiff, formally or informally, to preserve the Mustang or make it available for inspection. Although FCCI’s counsel, who was retained in mid-March 1994, knew the Mustang was in a storage yard and realized inspection of it would be necessary, she merely assumed plaintiff and her counsel would maintain it. FCCI’s counsel, however, had reason to question that assumption by at least July 1994, when FCCI’s automotive expert was erroneously informed by the storage yard that it no longer had the car because it had been sold to a dismantler. In addition, FCCI’s president informed its counsel in July that he had received an abandoned vehicle notice for the Mustang in March.
Third, FCCI, as lienholder on the Mustang, had the right, opportunity, and ability to retrieve and preserve the car if it so chose. FCCI knew where the car was being stored after the accident. In fact, FCCI’s president twice inspected the car there briefly, in March 1992 and again in February 1994, when he took some photographs. Shortly after being served with process in this action, FCCI received a “Notification of Abandoned Vehicle” from Arizona’s Motor Vehicle Division, which indicated the car was still in the storage yard’s possession.
It is undisputed that FCCI never performed a post-accident mechanical inspection of the Mustang, and particularly its pertinent rear end assembly. While FCCI understandably did not want to incur the substantial storage charges for re-claiming the totaled car, there is no evidence that it ever inquired about the possibility of, or sought a court order for, performing a full mechanical inspection of the car at the storage yard without having to pay exorbitant fees. See Beers. Despite considerable finger-pointing in this case, the trial court found “[t]he evidence was destroyed through the inaction of both parties.” The record supports that finding.
Fourth, no evidence establishes that destruction of the Mustang rendered FCCI completely incapable of mounting a defense or irreparably prejudiced its ability to defend. For example, nothing in the record indicates that FCCI’s expert would be unable or unwilling to offer opinions on mechanical or causation issues in the case or to otherwise refute the opinions of plaintiffs expert. Compare Stubli. Although FCCI now has no opportunity to conduct a thorough mechanical inspection of the car, that lost opportunity is partly due to its own inaction. In addition, an inspection might or might not have supported its defense. Destruction of the Mustang, at any rate, did not totally disarm FCCI of its defense arsenal. It presented substantial, independent evidence, for example, that plaintiff was negligent, both before and at the time of the accident, and that the known “defect” in the rear axle’s gears could not have caused the rear wheel to lock or the tire to blow, as plaintiff alleged. In short, even without the car, FCCI has plenty of ammunition left to mount a defense.
Finally, the record does not indicate the trial court “thoroughly considered other, less severe, sanctions before resorting to the most extreme.” Nesmith, 164 Ariz. at 72, 790 P.2d at 770. See also Birds Int’l, 135 Ariz. at 547, 662 P.2d at 1054 (“Arizona courts have expressed a preference for less drastic sanctions than dismissal.”). Without a hearing or a determination on the availability of any lesser sanctions and the nature and extent of harm destruction of the evidence caused FCCI, we cannot say dismissal of the action was appropriate or warranted in this case. See GNLV Corp. v. Service Control Corp., 111 Nev. 866, 869, 900 P.2d 323, 325 (1995) (“[Dismissal of a case, based upon ... the destruction or loss of evidence, ‘should be used only in extreme situations; if less drastic sanctions are available, they should be utilized.”’). See also Baliotis. We do not limit the trial court’s exploration and consideration of appropriate, alternative sanctions on remand. See, e.g., Glover; Shaffer v. RWP Group, Inc., 169 F.R.D. 19 (E.D.N.Y. 1996); Turner; Chapman v. Auto Owners Ins. Co., 220 Ga.App. 539, 469 S.E.2d 783 (1996).
II. Prima Facie Case/Summary Judgment
Having concluded that dismissal was too harsh a sanction for the inadvertent destruction of evidence in this case, we turn to the other basis for the trial court’s granting summary judgment for FCCI: plaintiff could not establish a prima facie case of negligence without the vehicle. In a related ruling, the trial court concluded the proffered testimony of plaintiffs expert, who was first retained well after the car had been destroyed, was “no more than speculation” and therefore did not raise a genuine issue of material fact. “Summary judgment is appropriate if there is no genuine issue of material fact and the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. However, we must reverse and remand for a trial on the merits if reasonable inferences concerning material facts could be resolved in favor of either party.” Dole Food Co., Inc. v. North Carolina Foam Indus., Inc., 188 Ariz. 298, 301, 935 P.2d 876, 879 (App.1996) (citations omitted). Although it is a close question, we conclude there are sufficient facts and inferences therefrom to preclude summary judgment in this case.
Plaintiffs complaint, which sounded only in negligence, alleged the Mustang’s “rear end collapsed as a result of the negligent maintenance and/or repair of the vehicle by employees of [FCCI], resulting in plaintiffs vehicle swerving to the left over the center of the road.” To support that claim, plaintiff had to establish duty, breach of standard of care, proximate cause, and damages. Smith v. Johnson, 183 Ariz. 38, 899 P.2d 199 (App. 1995). FCCI does not dispute that it owed a duty of reasonable care to plaintiff, its customer, or that she was injured as a result of the accident. Rather, FCCI essentially contends that on the elements of breach of duty, or defectiveness, and causation, there is insufficient evidence to establish a prima facie case. We disagree.
After plaintiff experienced three tire blowouts within a few days after buying the car, FCCI had the car towed to its lot. Based on his inspection, FCCI’s mechanic concluded the rear axle assembly was defective and about to fail. After informing plaintiff the rear end had fallen out and would be replaced at no charge, FCCI replaced the rear axle assembly with a used unit it had obtained from an auto parts dealer. FCCI’s mechanic then test-drove the car and noted grinding noises from the rear end. He concluded, and informed FCCI’s president, that the replacement assembly was no better than the original, that he “did not trust it,” and implied that the differential “could be dangerous.” Consequently, FCCI decided to replace the rear axle assembly again.
When plaintiff picked up the Mustang later that day, FCCI’s mechanic told her he had replaced the rear end but it was “not the right part.” According to plaintiff, FCCI’s mechanic and president told her the correct part would be available the following week, and the president told her she could take the car and drive it until then. FCCI refused to provide her with a temporary car until the repairs could be made. In his deposition, FCCI’s president acknowledged he knew the car was defective when he let plaintiff take it.
Plaintiff drove the Mustang home from the FCCI lot without incident and drove it only a few miles on one other occasion before the accident. She testified that at the time of the accident, she was driving at approximately 40 miles per hour when she heard a “big pop” and her rear driver’s side tire blew out. According to plaintiff, there were sparks from that side’s rear, the rim was on the pavement, and the ear “was out of control.” She tried to move to the right, heard another loud noise, and the car then went further out of control. The last thing she recalled was a pair of headlights coming toward her.
In opposing FCCI’s motion for summary judgment, plaintiff submitted an affidavit from Stanley Gardner, an accident reconstruction/mechanical engineering expert. Based on his review of the depositions of FCCI’s president and mechanic, Gardner concluded that the Mustang’s rear end assembly “was defective and dangerous” and that FCCI’s returning the vehicle to plaintiff in that condition was negligent. Viewing the foregoing evidence in the light most favorable to plaintiff, a trier could reasonably infer that FCCI was negligent in releasing the car to her with a defective and potentially dangerous rear axle assembly.
This brings us to the more difficult element of causation. Plaintiff contends the accident occurred because a mechanical defect in the rear axle assembly caused a tire blow-out, which in turn caused her to lose control of the car. Gardner’s affidavit supported that theory by stating, inter alia:
It is my opinion to a reasonable degree of mechanical engineering certainty that the defective rear end assembly in this vehicle was the cause in fact of the accident and resulting [sic ] in plaintiffs injuries. With a defective rear axle condition, the vehicle was unreasonably dangerous.
The possibility of a tire failure causing the accident exists because the left rear tire blew out. It is known that, however, the left rear tire had blown previously on the prior defective rear end assembly^] thus for this reason, it makes this a much lesser probability in causing this accident.
... The probability of a bearing seizure causing this accident is very high because its seizure would have caused the wheel to freeze, resulting in a blown tire and its subsequent removal from the rim causing the vehicle to be out of control while operating on its rim as occurred in this accident. The unavailability of the car precludes establishing definitely the bearing failure as a cause of the accident----
The probability exists of bearing seizures causing the accident by freezing rear axle shaft and wheels resulting in tire failure and subsequent loss of control. Clearly tire failure may occur from road hazards, but a known and established defective rear axle increased the probability of the latter being the proximate cause of the accident.
There is a high probability, given the description of the noise that the defective rear end made, the noise that the replacement rear end made, the description of the accident, the probable seizure of the wheel bearing, the blowing of the tire, the tire separating from the rim and the vehicle being out of control on the rim, for the accident occurring from rear end failure.
My conclusions are based upon my education, my experience in the field of automotive accident reconstruction, tire and brake failure investigation, and component failure. It is my professional opinion that the driver of the vehicle lost control of the vehicle as a result of tire failure probably resulting from a rear axle failure and the accident would not have occurred but for the replacement of the rear end assembly with a defective rear end assembly----
Proximate cause issues usually present questions of fact for the jury. See, e.g., Petolicchio v. Santa Cruz County Fair & Rodeo Ass’n, 177 Ariz. 256, 866 P.2d 1342 (1994); Robertson v. Sixpence Inns of America, 163 Ariz. 539, 789 P.2d 1040 (1990). A plaintiff “need only present probable facts from which the causal relationship reasonably may be inferred.” Robertson, 163 Ariz. at 546, 789 P.2d at 1047. In addition, to be a proximate cause of the accident, FCCI’s conduct “need have contributed only slightly to the injury.” Tellez v. Saban, 188 Ariz. 165, 172, 933 P.2d 1233, 1240, (App.1996), citing Ontiveros v. Borak, 136 Ariz. 500, 667 P.2d 200 (1983).
Circumstantial evidence of a defect and causation generally is acceptable, particularly when, as here, a motor vehicle is not available for inspection. See Dietz v. Waller, 141 Ariz. 107, 110-11, 685 P.2d 744, 747-48 (1984) (“[N]o specific defect need be shown if the evidence, direct or circumstantial, permits the inference that the accident was caused by a defect.”); Rocky Mountain Fire & Cas. Co. v. Biddulph Oldsmobile, 131 Ariz. 289, 640 P.2d 851 (1982). In our view, that is so even though plaintiffs liability theory is based solely on negligence. As the court stated in Dietz, “reasonable minds could differ over the conclusions to be drawn from the evidence presented by [plaintiffs].” 141 Ariz. at 110, 685 P.2d at 747. We reach the same conclusion here.
FCCI also maintains, and the trial court ruled, that Gardner’s opinions were based on sheer speculation, not facts. According to FCCI, without a mechanical inspection of the Mustang or clear photographs of its relevant parts, a jury would have to engage in complete conjecture to conclude the accident was caused by any particular mechanical defect. FCCI does not challenge Gardner’s qualifications or competence in the field of accident reconstruction. Nor does it suggest this is a ease in which expert testimony is neither necessary nor helpful. Rather, FCCI contends that, because Gardner never inspected the Mustang, his proffered opinions about defectiveness and causation are without foundation, speculative, and inadmissible.
Whether a witness is competent to testify as an expert is a matter primarily for the trial court and largely within its discretion. Englehart v. Jeep Corp., 122 Ariz. 256, 594 P.2d 510 (1979). Generally, however, when a qualified expert testifies that a defendant’s negligence or product defect caused or contributed to an accident and resulting injury, that evidence “is sufficient to prevent summary judgment and warrant a trial.” Dole Food Co., 188 Ariz. at 306, 935 P.2d at 884. It is well settled that “[ejxpert opinion will not be rejected merely because it touches an ultimate issue or possibly invades the ‘province of the jury.’ ” Bliss v. Treece, 134 Ariz. 516, 518, 658 P.2d 169, 171 (1983); Ariz.R.Evid. 704, 17A A.R.S. Even in the absence of clear physical evidence relating to how or why an accident occurred, a qualified expert usually is permitted to render opinions on such topics, so long as they are not based on sheer speculation, unsupported by any pertinent facts. See Englehart (accident reconstructionist should have been allowed to give opinion as to whether wheel came off jeep before or after it overturned, even though no survivors or eyewitnesses to the accident). Compare Shaner v. Tucson Airport Authority, Inc., 117 Ariz. 444, 573 P.2d 518 (App.1977).
Inspection of a vehicle involved in an accident is not always indispensable for admission of an accident reconstruction expert’s opinions as to how and why an accident occurred. See Roundy v. Stewart, 140 Ariz. 201, 680 P.2d 1262 (App.1984); City of Phoenix v. Schroeder, 1 Ariz.App. 510, 405 P.2d 301 (1965); cf. Beil, 15 F.3d at 553 (“Cases are often tried even though a crucial piece of evidence is unavailable. The plaintiff must then rely on other sources of proof to establish what might more easily have been proved if the missing evidence was available.”). As the court in Schroeder stated: “The fact that the witness testified from photographs was a matter to be considered by the jury in determining what weight to give to his testimony, but it did not make his testimony inadmissible.” Id. at 516, 405 P.2d at 307.
Based on the foregoing principles, Gardner’s affidavit rested on admissible evidence and raised sufficient issues on causation to preclude summary judgment. That the accident could have occurred for reasons other than a mechanical defect in the car, as FCCI contends, does not mean plaintiff failed to establish a prima facie case. See Dietz, 141 Ariz. at 111, 685 P.2d at 748 (“To prove a product defective, a plaintiff is not required to eliminate with certainty all other possible causes of an accident, but rather to present evidence sufficient to allow the trier of facts to reasonably infer that it was more probable than not that the product was defective.”). Similarly, that Gardner’s affidavit is not as detañed as FCCI would have liked and contains some assumptions and internal inconsistencies does not render it fatally deficient as a matter of law. In our view, any shortcomings in Gardner’s opinions affect their weight but not their admissibility. Cf. Ulibarri v. Gerstenberger, 178 Ariz. 151, 162, 871 P.2d 698, 709 (App.1993) (medical expert’s affidavit which stated that “defendant caused plaintiff not to remember his acts or to recognize her injuries and that he did so by hypnosis” raised a material fact issue, precluding summary judgment); Butler v. Wong, 117 Ariz. 395, 573 P.2d 86 (App.1977).
Because reasonable people could agree with plaintiffs liabhity claim, the trial court erred in granting summary judgment for FCCI. Orme School v. Reeves, 166 Ariz. 301, 802 P.2d 1000 (1990). We reject plaintiffs contention, however, that she is entitled to summary judgment on liability based on Gardner’s affidavit. First, plaintiff never moved for summary judgment on that basis and submitted the affidavit only in opposition to FCCI’s motion. We will not consider issues and theories which were not presented to the trial court. Pima County v. Testin, 173 Ariz. 117, 840 P.2d 293 (App.1992). Second, even if plaintiff had moved for summary judgment, the record clearly presents genuine issues of material fact on plaintiff’s claim and FCCI’s various defenses thereto.
CONCLUSION
We reverse the trial court’s judgment for FCCI and remand the matter for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
ESPINOSA, J., and WINTON D. WOODS, J. Pro Tern., concur.
. Arizona does not recognize a separate tort of spoliation of evidence. See LaRaia v. Superior Court, 150 Ariz. 118, 722 P.2d 286 (1986); Dunlap v. City of Phoenix, 169 Ariz. 63, 817 P.2d 8 (App. 1990).
. The rear axle assembly generally consists of the central housing and drive gears (the differential) and the axles.
. The trial court apparently adopted that view, stating: "The plaintiff was not prevented from locating her vehicle and securing it by any conduct of the defendant. The defendant had information which probably should have been disclosed earlier but late or non disclosure did not relieve the plaintiff of her responsibility to assure that crucial evidence was preserved.”
. Plaintiff’s counsel on appeal is different from her counsel in the trial court.
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ORDER
After hearing oral argument and considering further the pleadings filed, it appears to the Court that the grant of review in this case was improvident. Therefore,
IT IS ORDERED that the order granting review is vacated.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that the Petition for Review is dismissed.
Justice Martone and Judge Brammer dissent from the dismissal of the Petition for Review.
|
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OPINION
VOSS, Judge.
¶ 1 Appellant Arizona Department of Economic Security (DES) appeals from the juvenile court’s order placing appellee Ciana H. (the juvenile) in the physical custody of Mingus Mountain Estates and ordering DES to share with the juvenile court the cost of such placement. The primary issue on appeal is whether the court can order placement of a juvenile in a “mental health agency” as defined by A.R.S. § 8-201(20) without first complying with A.R.S. § 8-242.01.
PROCEDURAL HISTORY
¶ 2 The juvenile, who was born October 6, 1981, was adjudicated incorrigible in February 1996. Since that time, the state had filed four petitions alleging delinquency and/or probation violation. The third such petition was filed on January 28, 1997, alleging that the juvenile had violated her probation by running away from home. The juvenile was still on runaway status at the time of the advisory hearing on February 5, 1997, and a warrant was issued. The juvenile was present at the warrant hearing on March 9, 1997; she admitted the probation violation at that time.
¶ 3 On March 13, 1997, the juvenile’s guardian ad litem filed a dependency petition. See A.R.S. § 8-201(13)(a) (Supp.1997). The juvenile court set the initial dependency hearing for April 2, 1997, and ordered that the juvenile be made a temporary ward of the court committed to the care of DES.
¶ 4 At the disposition hearing on March 20, 1997 on the probation violation, the court placed the juvenile on intensive probation in the physical custody of DES. The juvenile violated that probation by running away the next day, and the state filed a petition alleging the probation violation on March 31, 1997. The juvenile admitted the violation at an advisory hearing on May 21,1997.
¶ 5 On May 28, 1997, the juvenile was adjudicated dependent as to both parents.
¶ 6 Prior to the disposition hearing on the March 31st probation violation, the juvenile’s guardian ad litem and her probation officer filed reports with the court. The guardian ad litem repeated her previous recommendation that the juvenile be placed in a locked facility “for her own protection.”
Counsel once again reiterates that this child needs treatment in a locked facility and needs it desperately before she dies of a drug overdose____ [The juvenile] has been using methamphetamines and other illegal substances on a daily basis at least since October of 1996.
... Under no circumstances should the child be released to anything other than a locked facility.
¶7 The juvenile’s probation officer concurred in this recommendation:
... In my opinion, her record is not all indicative of the seriousness of her situation. [The juvenile] has been deeply involved in drug abuse since at least late 1995. She has been completely incorrigible at home and completely noncompliant with the Court’s orders and attempts to provide her services.
Acknowledging that the juvenile scored only a “1” on the ADOJC risk assessment guidelines, the officer nonetheless concluded that the guidelines were not appropriate for the juvenile.
In my opinion, [the juvenile] will need a period of approximately 18 months at Black Canyon School or a secure placement in order to effectively deal with her substance abuse problem and behavioral difficulties.
The officer concluded that, if DES could not place the juvenile in a seeure-treatment facility, “then I see no other options but commitment.”
¶ 8 On June 18, 1997, the court deferred the disposition hearing, and directed the DES caseworker “to locate, within 10 days, at least two or three locked facilities that will accept the juvenile.”
¶ 9 At the disposition hearing on June 27th, the court stated:
We had deferred this disposition, because we were looking for a locked facility for the Juvenile, but we wanted it through DES.
I don’t believe she qualifies for Black Canyon. So, I ordered DES to come up with some names of some secured facilities where we could place the Juvenile.
DES responded that it “has been unable to locate a facility that would accept the child.”
Any locked facility that the Department deals with would be a mental health facility pursuant to Title 36. This would require under [A.R.S. § 8-242.01], a psychiatric evaluation, which would indicate[ ] that the child is in need of behavioral health treatment.
The reports that I have been able to review ... do not indicate any mental health difficulties, they simply indicate a substance abuse problem that this Juvenile has.
The Department does not have secured facilities that would accept a child without a psychiatric evaluation indicating that the child is in need of that level of care on a psychiatric basis or mental health basis.
DES then went on that, in any event, only one mental health facility, Mingus Mountain Estate Residential Center, would even accept the juvenile without a prior psychiatric evaluation being done, but reiterated its objection to placement at Mingus Mountain:
[T]his is a secured facility and it falls within the definition of a- mental health treatment facility. Again, under ARS 242.01, it requires that this Court find that before placing a child in such facility, by clear and convincing evidence, that there are not available alternatives to inpatient treatment and that the child is in need of inpatient treatment.
There is clearly no psychiatric evidence before this Court at this point in time, which would indicate that either one of those standards have been met____
¶ 10 Over DES’ objection, the court without further discussion ordered that the juvenile be placed at Mingus Mountain, and that the cost for this placement be shared by DES and the juvenile court. DES also objected to this order on the basis that it should not have to share in the cost of a placement that did not comply with A.R.S. § 8-242.01. DES timely appealed.
DISCUSSION
¶ 11 Because this appeal involves legal issues requiring interpretation of statutes and application of those statutes to the juvenile court’s actions, our review is de novo. Arizona Dep’t of Econ. Sec. v. Gerald F., 190 Ariz. 190, 196, 945 P.2d 1321, 1327 (App. 1997).
A. “Mental Health Agency”
¶ 12 A.R.S. § 8-242.01 governs the admission of a child to a “mental health agency.” See A.R.S. § 8-242.01(B). A “mental health agency” is defined by A.R.S. § 8-201(20) (Supp.1997) as meaning:
any private or public facility which is licensed by this state as a mental health treatment agency, a psychiatric hospital, a psychiatric unit of a general hospital or a residential treatment center for emotionally disturbed children and which utilizes secure settings or mechanical restraints.
(Emphasis added.) Thus, the threshold issue is whether Mingus Mountain is a “mental health agency” such that A.R.S. § 8-242.01 is even triggered. Cf. Gerald F., 190 Ariz. at 196-99, 945 P.2d at 1327-30 (holding that Florida-based comprehensive transition education program not a mental health agency so was not “within the purview” of A.R.S. § 8-242.01).
¶ 13 “Mental health treatment agency,” as that term is used in A.R.S. § 8-201(20), is defined as a “health care agency which is licensed by the [Department of Health Services] and which provides those services which are required of the agency by this chapter.” A.R.S. § 36-501(24) (emphasis added); see generally Title 36, ch. 5 (entitled “Mental Health Services”). Mingus Mountain holds a Level I Behavioral Health Service Agency Health Care Institution License issued by DHS pursuant to Title 36, chapter 5, approving Mingus Mountain to provide, among other things, “Restrictive Behavior Management,” which is defined as “the use of medication, mechanical restraints, or seclusion for a client suffering a behavioral health emergency when less restrictive measures to assist the client in regaining control have failed.” Arizona Administrative Code R920-101(A)(83) (emphasis added).
¶ 14 In sum, Mingus Mountain holds a license by DHS to provide mental health services under Title 36, chapter 5. A.R.S. § 36-501(24). It does so in a secured setting and is authorized to utilize mechanical restraints. Accordingly, it qualifies as a “mental health agency” under A.R.S. § 8-201(20).
B. A.R.S. § 8-242.01
¶ 15 A.R.S. § 8-242.01, governing the treatment and placement of mentally ill children, provides two avenues by which a child may be admitted to a mental health agency. The court may approve the child’s admission to a mental health agency for inpatient evaluation or treatment when evidence indicates that there is “reasonable cause” to believe the child meets the standard for “voluntary” inpatient evaluation or treatment set forth in A.R.S. § 36-518(C). A.R.S. § 8-242.01(B). This admission based on “reasonable cause” is limited to a period of 72 hours, after which time the director of the agency must determine whether the child does in fact meet the admission criteria of A.R.S. § 36-518(C). A.R.S. §§ 8-242.0RB), (C). If the child does not meet that criteria, he or she must be discharged from the agency within 24 hours. If she does meet that criteria, she may remain in the mental health agency for only 48 more hours, pending court review pursuant to subsection (D). A.R.S. § 8-242.01(0).
A.R.S. § 8-242.01(D) provides:
If it appears from an inpatient or outpatient mental health evaluation that a child meets the standards for admission in § 36- 518 and is suffering from a mental disorder, personality disorder or emotional condition and inpatient mental health treatment is recommended, the juvenile court shall hold a hearing to determine the most appropriate treatment alternative. The court may approve admission of a child to a mental health agency if the court finds by clear and convincing evidence that:
1. Available alternatives to hospitalization have been explored and considered ... to the final preference of placement in a mental health agency.
2. An available alternative is not appropriate and the child is in need of inpatient care and treatment offered by a mental health agency.
(Emphasis added.) After this hearing, the court may approve admission of the child to the mental health agency, but must state in writing the reasons for making its determination. A.R.S. § 8-242.01(E). The placement of the child in the mental health agency must be reviewed at least every 60 days. A.R.S. § 8-242.01(G).
¶ 16 We are mindful that the disposition of this juvenile was problematic for the court. The record is replete with evidence that the juvenile had a major substance abuse and behavioral problem, and she clearly needed placement in a secure facility. On the other hand, she had a very low score on the ADOJC risk assessment scale, which supported the court’s finding that commitment at Black Canyon was not appropriate. Mingus Mountain was a secure facility that indicated that it would accept the juvenile. However, before placing a juvenile at Mingus Mountain or any other mental health agency, due process mandates that the court comply with A.R.S. § 8-242.01. E.g., Pima County Public Fiduciary v. Superior Court, 26 Ariz. App. 85, 546 P.2d 354 (1976) (it is fundamental law that person cannot be deprived of liberty by involuntary hospitalization without due process of law); Matter of Appeal in Pima County Mental Health Serv. Action No. MH-1140-6-93, 176 Ariz. 565, 567, 863 P.2d 284, 286 (App.1993) (statutes providing for involuntary commitment on basis of mental illness must be strictly construed); Matter of Maricopa County Cause No. MH-90-00566, 173 Ariz. 177, 182, 840 P.2d 1042, 1047 (App.1992) (civil commitment involves “massive curtailment of liberty” that can have adverse social consequences or significant unfavorable stigma; proposed patient must be accorded due process protection).
¶ 17 We agree that the court erred in placing the juvenile in Mingus Mountain. The court made absolutely no attempt to comply with A.R.S. § 8-242.01. It held no hearing under subsection (D) and made none of the findings required by that subsection, findings that the court was required to make by clear and convincing evidence. There was no evidence in the record, much less clear and convincing evidence, that the juvenile suffered from any form of mental illness or disorder or was in need of inpatient care or treatment in a mental health agency.
¶ 18 “The main objective of the juvenile court system is the protection and rehabilitation of the juvenile.” Gerald F., 190 Ariz. at 201, 945 P.2d at 1332. Although the placement here might have been in what the court thought was the juvenile’s best interest, the juvenile’s right to due process of law before being placed in a mental health agency limits the court’s discretion absent compliance with A.R.S. § 8-242.01.
C. Order Requiring DES to Share Expenses of Placement
¶ 19 DES also argues that the court erred in ordering it to pay a share of the expenses of the juvenile’s placement at Mingus Mountain.
¶ 20 DES is 'statutorily obligated to provide the cost of care for children who are adjudicated dependent and who are in institutions. A.R.S. § 46-134(A)(2)(c)(i). DES acknowledges this obligation, but contends that it should not be responsible for costs associated with the juvenile’s placement in Mingus Mountain because such placement did not comply with A.R.S. § 8-242.01.
¶21 Initially, we note that there is at least a facial appeal to DES’ argument. DES did not sit silent while the court committed error; to the contrary, DES clearly explained the requirements of A.R.S. § 8-242.01 to the court, and vigorously objected and argued the issue when the court nevertheless ordered the juvenile placed in violation of that statute.
¶ 22 That being said, however, DES cites no authority for the proposition that its obligation under A.R.S. § 46 — 134(A)(2)(c)(i) to pay for the institutionalization of a dependent child is conditioned upon the court’s compliance with A.R.S. § 8-242.01. In our opinion, such a holding would lead to untenable results. The juvenile was a dependent child, and, as such, DES was entrusted by law with the responsibility for her “care, custody, and control.” Arizona Dep’t of Econ. Sec. v. Superior Court, 178 Ariz. 236, 240, 871 P.2d 1172, 1176 (App.1994). The court’s error in placing the juvenile in Mingus Mountain does not void DES’ legal obligation toward her.
CONCLUSION
¶ 23 Based on the foregoing, the court’s order of June 27, 1997 placing the juvenile in Mingus Mountain is reversed. The order of that date ordering DES to share the cost of such placement is, however, affirmed.
WEISBERG, P.J., and NOYES, J., concur.
. No answering brief having been filed in this matter, this appeal was submitted for decision on the record and the opening brief.
. DES is an aggrieved party and has standing to appeal pursuant to A.R.S. § 8-236(A). Arizona Dep't of Econ. Sec. v. Gerald F., 190 Ariz. 190, 192, 945 P.2d 1321, 1323 (App.1997).
. The record reflects that the juvenile ran away from Mingus Mountain in August 1997. The court ordered that the juvenile’s placement in Mingus Mountain, and the payments therefor, be terminated effective August 9, 1997. This appeal is not moot, however, because the issue raised is capable of repetition yet evading review. See Matter of Maricopa County Cause No. MH-90-00566, 173 Ariz. 177, 180, 840 P.2d 1042, 1045 (App. 1992). Moreover, whether DES is required to pay its share of the placement cost remains at issue. See Gerald F., 190 Ariz. at 195, 945 P.2d at 1326.
. Actually, A.R.S. § 36-518(C) does not set forth a "standard” for inpatient evaluation or treatment so much as it sets forth the procedure whereby a parent, guardian, or custodian can apply to "voluntarily” admit a child to a mental health agency. This procedure culminates in a voluntary admission when the medical director of the mental health agency determines that the child “needs an inpatient evaluation or will benefit from the care and treatment” of the mental health agency. A.R.S. § 36-518(C)(5).
. Even a limited 72 hour admission for the purposes of an inpatient evaluation by the agency’s medical director can only be made if "evidence indicates that there is reasonable cause to believe" that the juvenile would meet the "voluntary” admission standard of A.R.S. § 36-518(C). A.R.S. § 8-242.01(B). Thus, because there was no "reasonable cause” to believe that the juvenile would meet the A.R.S. § 36 — 518(C) standard, the juvenile could not have been placed in Mingus Mountain or any other mental health agency.
. For example, if DES were relieved of the placement costs in this case, by analogy, the Department of Corrections could be relieved of its obligation to pay the contract price for the incarceration of a criminal defendant improperly imprisoned in a privately run facility. See A.R.S. § 41-1609 (allowing DOC to enter into contracts with private facilities for incarceration).
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CATES, Judge.
1. The matter at issue arises from both an appeal from the Arizona Board of Tax Appeals and the Tax Court case of Kerr v. Waddell. The underlying case was brought by four named plaintiffs, former and current employees of various federal government agencies, who undertook to represent all similarly situated federal employees subject to Arizona’s state income tax on federal retirement contributions. During the tax years 1985 through 1990, the State of Arizona, as directed by the Arizona Department of Revenue, imposed state income taxes upon the federal employees’ mandatory federal retirement contributions. Although Arizona state and local employees pay mandatory state retirement contributions, the State did not tax these contributions.
2. The complaint in Kerr alleged that federal employees had been discriminated against with respect to the taxation of their mandatory retirement contributions in violation of the federal constitutional doctrine of intergovernmental tax immunity, codified in 4 U.S.C. § 111, because state and local employees were not taxed similarly. Years of litigation and administrative action, in which the plaintiff class was represented by the two law firms who now seek fees, resulted in a Court of Appeals decision which concluded that Arizona’s taxation of federal employees’ mandatory retirement contributions was illegal and in violation of federal law. These efforts also resulted in a Board of Tax Appeals decision that the federal employees were entitled to a refund of the illegally collected taxes, which created a fund in the amount of approximately $28 million.
3. In the present action, plaintiffs’ attorneys’ motion for partial summary judgment argues that they are entitled to an award of reasonable attorneys’ fees under the “common fund doctrine.” They assert that because the $28 million fund was created through their efforts, allowing nearly 42,000 federal employees to receive tax refunds and interest, an award of attorneys’ fees is necessary to prevent unjust enrichment. Defendant’s cross-motion for summary judgment argues that plaintiffs’ attorneys are not entitled to attorneys’ fees for the following reasons: (1) such fees are available only pursuant to statute in tax cases, (2) there is no common fund against which their fees can be claimed, and (3) an award would violate the taxpayers’ right to a full refund.
4. The common fund doctrine was articulated by the United States Supreme Court over a century ago in Trustees of the Internal Improvement Fund v. Greenough, 105 U.S. 527, 26 L.Ed. 1157 (1881). The doctrine provides that “a litigant or a lawyer who recovers a common fund for the benefit of persons other than himself or his client is entitled to a reasonable attorney’s fee from the fund as a whole.” Boeing Co. v. Van Gemert, 444 U.S. 472, 478, 100 S.Ct. 745, 749, 62 L.Ed.2d 676 (1980). A common fund case usually arises where a successful suit, brought by an individual or representative plaintiff, results in the creation of a monetary fund that benefits a limited and identifiable group situated similarly to the plaintiff. Kuhn v. State, 924 P.2d 1053, 1057 (Colo. 1996); Edwards v. Alaska Pulp Corp., 920 P.2d 751, 754 (Alaska 1996). Therefore, it is the creation of the fund that triggers the common fund doctrine. Kuhn at 1059.
5. The purpose of the common fund doctrine is to “avoid the unjust enrichment of those who benefit from the fund that is created, protected, or increased by the litigation and who otherwise would bear none of the litigation costs.” Court Awarded Attorney Fees, 108 F.R.D. 237, 250 (1985). Put another way, the common fund doctrine is a fee spreading device which avoids inequitable results by spreading the costs of litigation amongst those benefitted by the efforts and expenses incurred by the representative plaintiff and his counsel. Id. An attorney’s right to recover fees in a common fund case derives from principles of equity and fairness. Kuhn at 1059. Attorneys who undertake collection suits such as the current case, and whose efforts result in the creation of a common fund, do not provide their services to the absentee plaintiffs as a gift. Id. (citing Charles Silver, A Restitutionary Theory of Attorneys’ Fees in Glass Actions, 76 Cornell L.Rev. 656 (1991)). Accordingly, in order to prevent unjust enrichment of common fund beneficiaries, the attorneys responsible for its creation must be compensated for the reasonable value of their services. Id.
6. In Matter of Estate of Brown, 137 Ariz. 309, 670 P.2d 414 (App.1983), the Arizona Court of Appeals stated that “the so-called common fund theory of recovery is a recognized exception to the rule that attorney’s fees in Arizona are allowed pursuant only to statute or contract.” Id. at 312, 670 P.2d at 417. The court stated further that “it is a general rule of equity in Arizona that a person or persons who employ attorneys for the preservation of a common fund may be entitled to have their attorney’s fees paid out of that fund.” Id. (citing Steinfeld v. Zeckendorf, 15 Ariz. 335, 138 P. 1044 (1914), affirmed, 239 U.S. 26, 36 S.Ct. 14, 60 L.Ed. 125 (1915)). Having established that the common fund doctrine is an accepted principle in Arizona, the next inquiry is whether the common fund doctrine is applicable to the present case.
7. The United States Supreme Court has set forth the following criteria for the application of the common fund doctrine: (1) the class of beneficiaries is sufficiently identifiable, (2) the benefits can be accurately traced, and (3) the fee can be shifted with some exactitude to those benefitting. Alyeska Pipeline Serv. v. Wilderness Soc’y, 421 U.S. 240, 261-64 n. 39, 95 S.Ct. 1612, 1625-26 n. 39, 44 L.Ed.2d 141 (1975); Boeing v. Van Gemert, 444 U.S. at 478-79, 100 S.Ct. at 749-50 (1980). These criteria are satisfied when each member of the certified class “has an undisputed and mathematically ascertainable claim to part of a lump-sum judgment recovered on his behalf.” Boeing, 444 U.S. at 477, 100 S.Ct. at 749. In the present case, the class of beneficiaries has already been identified and notified of its right to a refund of the illegally collected taxes. The precise value of each member’s claim has been determined, and refunds of the illegally collected taxes have been secured. The fee can be shifted to those benefitting from the creation of the fund by taking the same percentage from each beneficiary to cover the reasonable attorneys’ fees established. Therefore, the common fund doctrine applies to this case.
8. This court has read the numerous letters sent by federal employees entitled to the tax refunds. The theme of the letters is that those who are entitled to a refund did not retain, nor consent to representation by these two law firms. Therefore, they argue, the attorneys should not be entitled to a percentage of their refunds as a fee. While the court understands the position of the federal employees, the law cited above requires that the attorneys be compensated for the reasonable value of the services they rendered. The attorneys have worked on this case for more than eight years, putting in over 4,000 hours for which they have not been compensated. In addition to the exhaustive discovery, they have appeared on behalf of the representative plaintiffs before the Tax Court, the Board of Tax Appeals, the Arizona Court of Appeals and the Arizona Supreme Court. When this case began in 1989 as Kerr v. Waddell, plaintiffs’ counsel filed actions in the Superior Court and with the Department of Revenue, which resulted in several years of litigation and administrative action. Because of the efforts of plaintiffs’ counsel, the statute which mandated the tax at issue was declared unconstitutional and federal employees were put on notice of their right to a refund. This court concludes that the labor of plaintiffs’ counsel in both the Kerr litigation and the Board of Tax Appeals decision resulted in the creation of the common fund from which the federal employees will receive their refunds. Absent counsel’s efforts, it is unlikely that these federal employees would have received any refund.
9. Fairness dictates that those persons benefitting from the labor of the representative plaintiffs and their counsel pay their proportionate share of the reasonable attorneys’ fees to be established by the court. The size of the fee to be deducted from each beneficiary’s refund check will be minor compared to the cost of filing an individual suit to recover the illegally collected tax, both in terms of court expenses and time. This court wishes to stress that this ruling in no way constitutes an acceptance of the twenty percent (20%) fee proposed by the attorneys. The recovery will be determined following a hearing to set the amount of the award, this hearing being scheduled by separate order.
10. IT IS THEREFORE ORDERED granting plaintiffs’ motion for partial summary judgment re: entitlement to attorneys’ fees pursuant to the common fund doctrine, and denying defendant’s cross-motion for partial summary judgment.
11. IT IS FURTHER ORDERED continuing the preliminary injunction until further order of this court.
. This matter was certified as a class action by Judge Pro Tem Kenneth Reeves on December 4, 1990. Judge Reeves designated the applicant law firms as counsel for the plaintiff class. He ordered that no notice need be given to members of the certified class, except for the Notice To Current & Former Federal Civilian Employees in the 1990 Arizona income tax packet, which was mailed to income taxpayers at year end.
|
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OPINION
FLÓREZ, Judge.
In 1995, appellant, a twice-convicted felon, was playing with a loaded firearm in the presence of his girlfriend, Rachel, and her two small children when the gun discharged and the bullet hit Rachel’s hand. A jury found appellant guilty of aggravated assault, two counts of endangerment, and misconduct involving weapons while being a prohibited possessor. He received concurrent sentences on the aggravated assault and endangerment convictions, the longest of which was fifteen years, and a consecutive seventeen-year sentence on the prohibited possessor conviction. We affirm, publishing only our resolution of the issue of ex post facto application of A.R.S. §§ 13-904(A) and 13-3101(5)(b). See Fenn v. Fenn, 174 Ariz. 84, 847 P.2d 129 (App.1993). We resolve the other issues raised on appeal by contemporaneous memorandum decision.
Before trial, the court denied appellant’s motion to dismiss the “prohibited possessor” count. Appellant contended that when he was convicted in 1992, A.R.S. § 13-904 did not then deprive him of his right to possess firearms. The legislature amended the statute in 1994, expanding its language to prohibit any felon from possessing a firearm and amended the definition of “prohibited possessor” in § 13 — 3101(5)(b) to include any felon whose right to possess a firearm had not been restored. In effect, appellant maintains that the application of these statutes to him amounts to a retroactive application and therefore violates the constitutional prohibitions against ex post facto laws.
We first must determine if the 1994 statutory changes are being retrospectively applied to appellant. “A law is retrospective if it ‘changes the legal consequences of acts completed before its effective date.’ ” Miller v. Florida, 482 U.S. 423, 430, 107 S.Ct. 2446, 2451, 96 L.Ed.2d 351 (1987); see also State v. Yellowmexican, 142 Ariz. 205, 688 P.2d 1097 (App.1984), adopted and approved, 142 Ariz. 91, 688 P.2d 983 (1984). The 1994 amendments to §§ 13-904(A) and 13-3101 are not expressly retroactive. Section 1-244 states that a statute will not be deemed to be retroactive unless it expressly declares its retroactivity. The amendments are not being applied to him retroactively; they are prospective only, punishing conduct that occurred after the effective date of the amendments. In the common use of the term, therefore, the amendments do not amount to ex post facto laws. Cases v. United States, 131 F.2d 916 (1st Cir.1942).
Appellant nonetheless argues that the amendments are ex post facto laws as applied to him because they impose an additional penalty for crimes he committed and for which he was convicted prior to the effective date of the amendments. Therefore, the sole question remaining is whether the prohibition of firearm possession by felons, unless they have succeeded in having their civil rights restored, constitutes punishment. The situation here is analogous to that in Yellowmexican, wherein the defendant challenged the application to him of amendments to our DUI statutes. The defendant had been convicted in 1980 and 1981 of DUI, in violation of § 28-692. In 1982, the legislature enacted § 28-692.01(F), designating a third or subsequent violation of the statute within a 36-month period a felony. In March 1993, the defendant was again arrested and charged with DUI. He argued that when he pled guilty to his first two offenses, a third conviction would have been a misdemeanor and the application of the amendment to him was invalid on the ground of ex post facto because it made the third conviction a felony, requiring a six-month prison term. Division One of this court rejected his claim that he was being punished more severely for his prior offenses. The court concluded that the defendant was not being subjected to increased punishment for his past crimes but rather enhanced punishment for his new conduct. The court reasoned that the 1982 legislation had changed his criminal status to recidivist and thereby resulted in increased punishment for his new conduct. Cf. State v. Noble, 171 Ariz. 171, 829 P.2d 1217 (1992) (Arizona sex offender registration statute found to be part of a regulatory scheme to effect a legitimate public purpose and, therefore, despite some punitive effect, did not violate the ex post facto clauses of either the United States or Arizona Constitutions).
If a statute “is a bona fide regulation of conduct which the legislature has power to regulate, it is not void as an ex post facto law even though the right to engage in the conduct is made to depend on past behaviour, even behaviour before the passage of the regulatory act.” Cases v. United States, 131 F.2d at 921. Obviously, a legislature may not avoid a challenge on the ground of ex post facto by maintaining that the purpose of a statute is to regulate present conduct and not punish prior conduct; the overall design and effect of the statute must display its non-punitive intent. United States v. Huss, 7 F.3d 1444 (9th Cir.1993); see also United States v. Ward, 448 U.S. 242, 100 S.Ct. 2636, 65 L.Ed.2d 742 (1980). To avoid being labeled punitive, the past conduct must be relevant to the regulated activity and, if that past conduct is not indicative of unfitness to participate in the regulated activity, the assumption will be that the statute’s purpose is to impose an additional penalty for the earlier conduct. Cases; Huss. But if, as the Ninth Circuit said in Huss, the past conduct can reasonably be found to demonstrate unfitness to engage in a future activity, the assumption will be that the purpose of the statute is regulatory, not punitive.
Here, the past conduct which was considered by the Arizona legislature, that is, a felony conviction, can reasonably be found to indicate unfitness to engage in the future activity of possession of a firearm. We are persuaded by our overview of the entire legislative scheme that the legislature’s intent was to restrict firearm possession from those likely to engage in felonious conduct in order to secure the safety of the state’s citizens.
We find appellant’s ex post facto argument unpersuasive because the amendments are not punishing him for his past offenses, nor did they criminalize conduct committed prior to the amendments’ enactment. Appellant was already a felon in 1992, and the amendments merely changed his status to a “prohibited possessor felon.” The amendments did not amount to punishment for his earlier convictions. The statutory change made him a felon whose right to possess a firearm was suspended. Such impairment is not punishment. Huss. Any claim by appellant that he had been led to believe that his ability to possess a firearm had been unaffected due to the statute in effect at the time of his earlier convictions is of no moment. His was not a mistake of fact, but rather one of law and, therefore, no defense to the crime charged. State v. Harmon, 25 Ariz.App. 137, 541 P.2d 600 (1975), citing People v. Kuykendall, 134 Cal.App. 2d 642, 285 P.2d 996 (1955). Appellant’s conviction as a prohibited possessor in violation of A.R.S. §§ 13-3101(6)(b) and 13-3102(A)(4) was not in violation of appellant’s right to be free from ex post facto laws.
DRUKE, C.J., and BRAMMER, J., concur.
. Prior to April 19, 1994, A.R.S. § 13-904(A) provided:
A conviction for a felony suspends the following civil rights of the person sentenced:
1. The right to vote.
2. The right to hold public office of trust or profit.
3. The right to serve as a juror.
4. During any period of imprisonment any other civil rights the suspension of which is reasonably necessary for the security of the institution in which the person sentenced is confined or for the reasonable protection of the public.
In 1994, the statute was amended to add "the right to possess a gun or firearm" to the list of those civil rights automatically suspended by a felony conviction. 1994 Ariz. Sess. Laws, ch. 200, § 5, effective April 19, 1994.
. U.S. Const, art. I, § 9; Ariz. Const, art. II, § 25.
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OPINION
ZLAKET, Chief Justice.
¶ 1 On June 2,1992, 4-year-old Rick Sid-dons was seriously injured when a heavy door fell on him in front of Berry’s Appliance Warehouse, one of several businesses in a Tempe strip mall. Earlier that day, Berry’s employees had removed the glass and metal door from its hinges and placed it on the sidewalk, propping it against the outside wall of the building beside the customer entrance.
¶ 2 Deposition testimony of store managers indicates that Berry’s employees routinely followed this practice — sometimes two or three times a day — to facilitate the movement of large appliances in and out of the store. The door frequently remained off the hinges for an hour or two at a time. Berry’s had asked its landlord, Business Properties Development (BPD), for permission to install double doors, but that request was refused for “aesthetic” reasons.
¶ 3 This action was brought against both Berry’s and BPD. The claim against Berry’s was settled and is not at issue here. The trial court granted BPD’s motion for summary judgment. The court of appeals affirmed, holding that “BPD had no duty to protect against a condition created exclusively by Berry’s after it took possession of the property, and more so here, when BPD did not have notice that the condition presented a foreseeable risk of harm.” We granted review. Because this is an appeal from summary judgment, we must view the facts in a light most favorable to the non-movant. See Gulf Insurance Co. v. Grisham, 126 Ariz. 123, 124, 613 P.2d 283, 284 (1980).
¶4 While the question of duty is generally answered by the court as a matter of law, see Beach v. City of Phoenix, 136 Ariz. 601, 604, 667 P.2d 1316, 1320 (1983), there may be preliminary fact issues that a jury must resolve. See, e.g., McNally v. Ward, 192 Cal.App.2d 871, 14 Cal.Rptr. 260, 266 (1961) (whether defective portion of premises was reserved by landlord for common use, or was under exclusive control of tenant, ordinarily a question of fact).
¶ 5 This matter concerns a landlord’s duty with respect to areas allegedly within its control. Our analysis is guided by Restatement (Second) of Torts § 360 (1965), which reads as follows:
A possessor of land who leases a part thereof and retains in his own control any other part which the lessee is entitled to use as appurtenant to the part leased to him, is subject to liability to his lessee and others lawfully upon the land with the consent of the lessee or a sublessee for physical harm caused by a dangerous condition upon that part of the land retained in the lessor’s control, if the lessor by the exercise of reasonable care could have discovered the condition and the unreasonable risk involved therein and could have made the condition safe.
See also Martinez v. Woodmar IV Condominiums Homeowners Ass’n Inc., 189 Ariz. 206, 208-09, 941 P.2d 218, 220-21 (1997). Thus, if BPD retained control over the area where the accident occurred, it would have had a duty to inspect and make safe. This duty extended to “members of the tenant’s family, his employees, his invitees, his guests, and others on the land in the right of the tenant.” Martinez, 189 Ariz. at 209, 941 P.2d at 221 (quoting W. Page Keeton et al., Prosser & Keeton on the Law of Torts § 63, at 440 (5th ed.1984)); see also Dolezal v. Carbrey, 161 Ariz. 365, 371, 778 P.2d 1261, 1267 (App.1989).
¶ 6 We must therefore decide if the evidence here would support a finding that the condition was within BPD’s “dominion and control.” See Udy v. Calvary Corp., 162 Ariz. 7, 12-13, 780 P.2d 1055, 1060-61 (App. 1989) (quoting Limberhand v. Big Ditch Co., 218 Mont. 132, 706 P.2d 491, 499-500 (1985)). The lease between defendant and Berry’s states that “[a]ll common areas shall be subject to the exclusive control and management of Landlord.” Common areas, as defined in the contract, include the shopping center’s parking lot, exterior walks, and service corridors. Another clause of the lease provides that
Tenant shall not make any alterations, additions, changes or improvements ... to the interior or exterior of the premises nor make any contract therefor without first procuring Landlord’s written consent.
Arguably, this broad language gave BPD the power to prevent removal of the door, thus eliminating the potential hazard. At the very least, such evidence raises factual issues regarding the landlord’s control.
¶ 7 Summary judgment was also inappropriate because disputable facts exist as to whether BPD had notice of the hazardous condition. The store owner, Brian Frank Berry, and managers Jimmy Wazney and John R. Garber testified on deposition that they had asked the landlord for permission to install double doors on numerous occasions. BPD argues that Berry’s never expressed safety as a reason for these requests. Wazney, however, claims that he told a BPD representative about the store having to remove the door from its hinges, and brought up the potential injury risk with her. In any event, testimony indicates that BPD actively managed the shopping center and made frequent on-site visits. As previously noted, the door was often removed two or three times a day. Thus, BPD arguably had opportunities to discover the condition. In fact, BPD admits having received notice that the “tenant occasionally took the door off its hinges.” This is sufficient to create a jury question regarding the reasonableness of BPD’s inaction, making summary judgment inappropriate.
¶ 8 Our analysis is unaffected by the lessee’s alleged failure to explicitly inform BPD that the door presented a risk of harm. See Restatement (Second) of Torts § 360 cmt. a (rule applies “whether the lessee knows or does not know of the dangerous condition”). A jury could find that BPD had sufficient independent knowledge to require at least an inspection of the premises. Similarly, that the tenant may have created the hazard does not diminish the landlord’s obligation to make those areas within its control safe. Whether the landlord could have done so is clearly for a jury to decide. See Restatement (Second) of Torts § 360.
¶ 9 We reverse the trial court’s grant of summary judgment, vacate the court of appeals’ memorandum decision, and remand for trial on the merits.
JONES, V.C.J., and FELDMAN, MOELLER and MARTONE, JJ., concur.
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THOMPSON, Judge.
¶ 1 Sharper Image Corporation (Sharper Image) appeals from summary judgment in favor of the Arizona Department of Revenue (DOR) in Sharper Image’s tax court appeal from an assessment of Arizona use taxes. The use taxes were levied on Sharper Image’s expenditures from October 1, 1987, through September 30,1991, for printing and mass-mailing merchandise catalogs to Arizona residents from outside of the state. We must consider whether the tax court erred in interpreting our recent decision in Service Merchandise Co. v. Arizona Dep’t of Revenue, 188 Ariz. 414, 937 P.2d 336 (App.1996), as requiring a holding that Sharper Image engaged in a taxable “use” of these merchandise catalogs in Arizona.
FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
¶ 2 During the audit period Sharper Image engaged in retañ sales of merchandise from its headquarters in San Francisco, California. It made sales in response to mail and telephone orders and at its retañ stores, one of which is located in Phoenix.
¶3 To stimulate sales, Sharper Image published monthly merchandise catalogs. A third-party contractor in Lincoln, Nebraska, printed, addressed and mailed the catalogs directly to persons named on mailing lists that Sharper Image supplied. The named recipients included persons in Arizona. About two mülion catalogs were mañed from Lincoln to Arizona addresses during the audit period. Sharper Image paid no sales tax on those catalogs.
¶ 4 Sharper Image determined what products would be advertised in the catalogs and their prices; created and designed the catalogs down to their layouts and print typefaces; selected the third-party printer; edited and proofread the catalogs before the printer finalized them; and decided how of ten, how many, when, where and to whom the catalogs would be sent. Sharper Image made all arrangements with its third-party printer from its offices in San Francisco or through in-person contact in Lincoln. Sharper Image paid all postage for mailing its catalogs. Neither Sharper Image nor the printer made any arrangements in Arizona concerning their transactions. Additionally, no agent conducted business or engaged in any activity on behalf of Sharper Image in Arizona pertaining to distribution of its catalogs.
¶ 5 Sharper Image instructed its printer to mail the catalogs so its customers would receive them between approximately the fifth and fifteenth of each month. All mailings were accomplished through a “plant load operation,” in which the printer deposited the finished, addressed catalogs into detached postal service trailer units placed at its business location by agreement with the United States Postal Service (USPS). After loading, a USPS inspector would close and seal the doors, terminating all control Sharper Image or the printer had over the catalogs. Once the catalogs were loaded, neither could recall them, redirect them, or obtain their return. Because the catalogs were sent as third-class mail, undeliverable catalogs were not returned to the sender, but rather destroyed by USPS.
¶ 6 The catalogs contained complete lists of Sharper Image retail locations. They also included mail order forms and telephone ordering numbers. Sharper Image directed its catalogs to areas in Arizona with no Sharper Image stores.
¶ 7 DOR audited Sharper Image for the period from October 1, 1987, through September 30, 1991. During the audit period, Sharper Image earned approximately $14.8 million from Arizona sales. Some $3.14 million of this amount came from telephone and mail order sales to Arizona residents, and the balance from sales at the Phoenix retail store. DOR assessed $26,837.50 in Arizona use taxes and $7,642.81 in interest on the value of the catalogs that Sharper Image sent to Arizona residents during the audit period. On Sharper Image’s protest, a DOR hearing officer set the assessment aside, but the DOR Director reinstated it.
¶ 8 Sharper Image brought this action in the tax court as permitted by Ariz.Rev.Stat. Ann. (A.R.S.) § 42-124. On cross-motions for summary judgment, the tax court ruled:
The Sharper Image argues that it didn’t “use” the catalogs in Arizona; it merely shipped them here. The Department argues, that in view of the fact that The Sharper Image directed who would mail the catalogs, to whom they would be sent, and how and when they would be sent, it “used” them.
In Service Merchandise Co., Inc. v. Arizona Dep’t of Revenue, 188 Ariz. 414, 937 P.2d 336 (App.1996), the Court of Appeals, in a situation almost identical to this one, ruled that an out-of-state company that directed who would mail its catalogs, to whom they would be sent, and how and when they would be sent to Arizona customers, did “use” the catalogs in Arizona.
The Sharper Image makes a trenchant argument that that case is distinguishable. I don’t believe it is. If “use” is defined as exercising a right or power over property incidental to ownership, then The Sharper Image “used” this property.
¶ 9 From formal judgment, Sharper Image timely appeals. We have appellate jurisdiction under A.R.S. § 12-2101(B).
DISCUSSION
¶ 10 A.R.S. § 42-1408 (Supp.1997) levies an excise, commonly called a “use tax,” on the “storage, use or consumption in this state of tangible personal property purchased from a retailer, as a percentage of the sales price.” The rate of tax is the same as would be applied to a retailer for the same type of transaction under Arizona’s transaction privilege tax statutes. A.R.S. § 42-1408(C). A.R.S. § 42-1401(8) provides that “[u]se or consumption means the exercise of any right or power over tangible personal property incidental to owning the property except holding for sale or selling the property in the regular course of business.”
¶ 11 Sharper Image contends that Service Merchandise does not control this case. In that case, notes Sharper Image, we determined that the taxpayer had “used” its merchandise catalogs in Arizona through the actions of “agents” it employed to deliver them to Arizona residents. 188 Ariz. at 416-17, 418 n. 2, 937 P.2d at 338-39, 340 n. 2. By contrast, Sharper Image placed its catalogs in the hands of Arizona residents not through “agents,” but rather via USPS. Sharper Image emphasizes at some length that the postal service clearly could not be its “agent” within the meaning of that term under the law of principal and agent. Sharper Image places great store in the detailed evidence it presented in the tax court that it had no control at all over what USPS did with the catalogs once they were in USPS hands, and that Sharper Image could not recall, withdraw or redirect the catalogs or order their return. In response to DOR’s argument that the Service Merchandise court used the term “agent” more loosely that Sharper Image construes it, and that the court meant equally to encompass independent contractors over whom a shipper controls only the ultimate result to be accomplished, Sharper Image argues:
Had this Court in Service Merchandise intended its use of the term “agent” to mean something other than a principal-agent relationship, it would have expressed as much. It did not, and indeed it used the term agent in three separate places. This Court used the term agent because ... only an agent’s actions can be attributed to another party; thus, the court stated that Service Merchandise could not do through “agents” what it could not otherwise do itself. An agent serves as an instrumentality for the principal to accomplish the objectives of the principal.
Moreover, the Arizona courts have expressly held that ordinarily no liability flows to a principal from the actions of an independent contractor.
Reply Brief at 8, 10 (footnote omitted, citations omitted).
¶ 12 Sharper Image’s extensive foray into agency and master-servant law suggests it has missed the real holding of Service Merchandise. Service Merchandise had nothing to do with fixing vicarious tort or contract liability on the taxpayer based on the nature of specific conduct that others undertook in its name or in the course of its business. The determinative fact in Service Merchandise was that the non-Arizona taxpayer there accomplished intended dispositions of its personal property in Arizona through other entities acting on its behalf, as its surrogates, instrumentalities, proxies, or, loosely, “agents.” The details of principal-agent and master-servant law were accordingly immaterial there. They are likewise immaterial here.
¶ 13 Service Merchandise characterizes its holding as follows:
[Distribution of the catalogs and fliers in Arizona was a use by Service Merchandise incidental to its ownership. Service Merchandise contracted for the right to have the catalogs distributed to specified Arizona customers at particular times during the year. Although the distribution contracts were consummated outside Arizona, the rights to control when, where, how, to whom and whether the catalogs ' would be delivered were exercised in Arizona through Service Merchandise’s agents. We see no reason to treat Service Merchandise differently for tax purposes merely because it employed agents to do in Arizona what it could have done itself.
188 Ariz. at 416, 937 P.2d at 338. We grant that the taxpayer in Service Merchandise may have had more precise control over the timing and reliability of in-Arizona deliveries of its catalogs than did Sharper Image here. But both taxpayers did the same thing in the final analysis — they put their catalogs to use as marketing tools in Arizona through the actions of third parties whom they enlisted and paid to act as their Arizona proxies in doing so.
¶ 14 One cannot reasonably dispute the use-tax liability of a hypothetical taxpayer in the position of Service Merchandise or Sharper Image who has its own employees truck its advertising materials to Arizona and deliver them to Arizona addressees. As we intimated in Service Merchandise, no sensible rationale can be offered for holding that a taxpayer who does exactly the same thing through private or quasi-public independent contractors does not use its property in Arizona to precisely the same extent.
¶ 15 In a recent decision, the Supreme Court of Connecticut reached the same conclusions that we do. See Sharper Image Corp. v. Miller, 240 Conn. 531, 692 A.2d 774 (1997). In rejecting Sharper Image’s challenge to a use tax assessment on the purchase price of catalogs mailed to residents of Connecticut, the court stated:
Sharper Image argues that it did not exercise any rights or control over the catalogs in Connecticut, because once they were deposited with the postal service outside the state, the postal service had exclusive control over the catalogs from that point onward, including the time during which the catalogs were being distributed in Connecticut. Even though the distribution was accomplished by having the catalogs placed in the hands of the postal service in Nebraska, the delivery was not at the discretion of the postal service. Rather, the delivery was directed by Sharper Image to specific residents in this state. Sharper Image contracted with Foote & Davies to print and label the catalogs based on a mailing list it provided to them, and Sharper Image also directed that they be delivered by the postal service. Simply put, the catalogs entered the state at the command and direction of Sharper Image. We see no distinction between this arrangement and one in which the employees of Sharper Image themselves deliver the catalogs door to door in Connecticut. Furthermore, merely because Sharper Image made an intentional business decision to have the catalogs mailed by third class mail, which resulted in undeliverable catalogs being destroyed, does not alter the character of the use of the catalogs in Connecticut. Likewise, Sharper Image’s argument that it could not withdraw or redirect the catalogs under any circumstances once they were placed with the postal service is unconvincing. Although Sharper Image did not have possession of the catalogs while they were en route to Connecticut residents, its ultimate decision to target deliveries to those residents falls within the ambit of the statute’s progressive definition of “use.” We conclude that our legislature’s definition of “use” in § 12-407(5), which is defined as including the “exercise of any right or power over tangible personal property,” encompasses, but is not limited to, the distribution of catalogs as it occurred in this case.
Id., 692 A.2d at 779-80 (footnote omitted). The Sharper Image Corp. v. Miller court cited our decision in Service Merchandise, characterizing it as “factually indistinguishable from the present case with respect to the assessment of a use tax on catalogs distributed from outside the taxing state.” Id. at 780.
¶ 16 We reject Sharper Image’s contention that Sharper Image Corp. v. Miller is legally distinguishable due to a significantly greater breadth in the scope of the Connecticut use tax statute. The definition of “use” in the Connecticut statute includes the “exercise of any right or power over tangible personal property....” Conn. Gen.Stat. Ann. § 12-407(5). There is no significant difference between that definition and the definition of “use or consumption” in A.R.S. § 42-1401(8) (Supp.1997): the “exercise of any right or power over tangible personal property incidental to owning the property except holding for sale or selling the property in the regular course of business.” In meaning, Connecticut’s statutory definition of “use” was virtually identical to that of “use or consumption” under A.R.S. § 42-1401(8).
¶ 17 The same is true of the scope of Connecticut’s taxing provision itself. The Connecticut use tax statute imposed the tax on the purchase price of property acquired for “storage, acceptance, consumption or any other use” in the state. Conn. Gen.Stat. Ann. § 12-411(1). The use tax under A.R.S. § 42-1408 (Supp.1997) is on the “storage, use or consumption in this state of tangible personal property purchased from a retailer, as a percentage of the sales price.” Given the breadth of the Arizona definition of “use or consumption,” the additional specifics and the phrase “any other use” in the Connecticut statute do not render its reach any broader than that of A.R.S. § 42-1408.
¶ 18 Sharper Image relies on Sharper Image Corp. v. Department of Treasury of Michigan, 216 Mich.App. 698, 550 N.W.2d 596 (1996), though it is only in its reply brief that Sharper Image cites the case other than in a footnote. That case concerned a situation virtually identical with the one before us here. The Michigan statute defined “use” as “the exercise of a right or power over tangible personal property incident to the ownership of that property including transfer of the property in a transaction where possession is given.” Mich. Stat. Ann. § 7.555(2)(b). The appellate court ruled for Sharper Image, holding (1) that its “exercise of a right or power over the catalogs ended when the catalogs were delivered to the postal service in Nebraska,” and (2) the statutory definition of “use” did not encompass “distribution.” 550 N.W.2d at 598.
¶ 19 In Service Merchandise, 188 Ariz. at 416-17, 937 P.2d at 338-39, we distinguished the Michigan appellate court opinion based on the broader language of A.R.S. § 42-1401(8) (“use” is “the exercise of any right or power over tangible personal property incidental to owning the property____” (emphasis added)). We now observe that the Michigan court’s opinion appears to have determined the scope of the definition of “use” largely on the absence of the term “distribution” in its concluding clause. Unaccountably, the Michigan court chose not to comment on the effect that the inherently broad, general definition of “use” (“exercise of a right or power over tangible personal property incident to the ownership of that property ... ”) might have on the meaning of the definition considered as a whole.
¶ 20 The Michigan court’s opinion fails to take account of these additional facts: (1) Sharper Image had its printers address its catalogs to individual Michigan residents; (2) Sharper Image paid USPS to deliver the catalogs as addressed; (3) Sharper Image made a business decision to purchase a class of USPS service under which undeliverable catalogs would not be returned to it; and (4) USPS delivered catalogs to the Michigan addressees on Sharper Image’s behalf, as its surrogate or proxy. We are unpersuaded by the Michigan court’s analysis. Cf. Sharper Image Corp. v. Miller, 692 A.2d at 780 (citing Sharper Image Corp. v. Department of Treasury as example of other jurisdictions’ contrary decisions by which court was “unpersuaded”).
¶21 Sharper Image contends, however, that applying Arizona’s use tax to a nonresident taxpayer is not within the legislative purpose for that tax. It states that that purpose was and is to prevent in-state residents from evading Arizona sales taxes by buying personalty in a jurisdiction with no such tax and then bringing it home to use. This is surely true as far as it goes, but it does not account for the fact that the tax code does not limit the application of the use tax to Arizona residents. Sharper Image attempts no harmonizing explanation on that point. To the extent that Sharper Image’s argument amounts to a request that we revisit Service Merchandise, we decline to do so.
CONCLUSION
¶22 The tax court correctly held that Sharper Image engaged in a taxable “use” of its merchandise catalogs in Arizona. The judgment is affirmed.
PATTERSON, P.J., and RYAN, J., concur.
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OPINION
BRAMMER, Judge.
Bart Nihiser was convicted of one count each of aggravated driving under the influence of intoxicating liquor (DUI) and aggravated driving with a blood alcohol concentration of 0.10 or more while his license was suspended, revoked or in violation of a restriction, both class four felonies. A.R.S. §§ 28-692 and 28-697(A)(l). The trial court suspended Nihiser’s sentence and placed him on probation for four years. As a condition of probation, the court imposed a mandatory four-month prison sentence. § 28-697(E). Nihiser contends the trial court erred in admitting the results of his blood alcohol concentration (BAC) test and in failing to offset two days of presentenee incarceration against his prison time. We affirm the convictions but modify the sentence.
Facts and Procedural History
We view the evidence in the light most favorable to sustaining the verdicts and resolve all inferences against appellant. State v. Atwood, 171 Ariz. 576, 832 P.2d 593 (1992). Following Nihiser’s arrest for driving under the influence, and after he refused to submit to a breath test, the arresting officers obtained a search warrant to collect a sample of his blood, which they subsequently obtained from him at a local hospital. Nihiser moved to suppress the blood test results because the state had failed to disclose the name and qualifications of the person who had drawn the blood. The court denied the motion, determining that, although § 28-692(F) requires that the individual drawing the blood be “a physician, registered nurse or another qualified person,” proof of the person’s qualifications is not a foundational prerequisite for admitting the BAC test results.
Suppression of BAC Results
A. Vague and ambiguous statute
Nihiser first contends that § 28-692(F) is comprised of two contradictory sentences that render it unconstitutionally vague and ambiguous. The subsection reads as follows:
If blood is drawn under the provisions of § 28-691, only a physician, a registered nurse or another qualified person may withdraw blood for the purpose of determining the alcohol concentration or drug content therein. The qualifications of the individual withdrawing the blood and the method used to withdraw the blood shall not be foundational prerequisites for the admissibility of any blood alcohol content determination made pursuant to this subsection.
Nihiser argues the statute is ambiguous because it first grants the defendant “the right to have blood extracted by someone authorized by law [but then] the right is emasculated with the second sentence because the state need not show its compliance with that right.” He claims that the rule of lenity applies, dictating that any doubt as to the statute’s meaning be resolved in his favor, citing State v. Pena, 140 Ariz. 545, 683 P.2d 744 (App.1983). Accordingly, he argues the trial court was required to declare void the second sentence of the subsection and deny admission of the blood test evidence. Because the legislative intent behind the statute is discernable, we find that the rule of lenity, if otherwise appropriate, is inapplicable in this context. See id. at 549, 683 P.2d at 748 (court applied the rule of lenity “absent any expression of legislative intent” as to the meaning of the statute at issue); see also State v. Ramos, 155 Ariz. 468, 747 P.2d 629 (App.1987).
When construing a statute, our goal “is to fulfill the intent of the legislature that wrote it.” State v. Williams, 175 Ariz. 98, 100, 854 P.2d 131, 133 (1993). In determining legislative intent, we first consider the statute’s language because it is “the best and most reliable index of a statute’s meaning.” Janson v. Christensen, 167 Ariz. 470, 471, 808 P.2d 1222, 1223 (1991). When the statute’s language is not clear, we determine legislative intent by reading the statute as a whole, giving meaningful operation to all its provisions, and by considering factors such as the statute’s context, language, history, subject matter, effects and consequences, and spirit and purpose. Wyatt v. Wehmueller, 167 Ariz. 281, 806 P.2d 870 (1991).
Nihiser interprets the second sentence of § 28-692(F) as nullifying completely the first sentence limiting those who may draw blood for testing. We do not believe the legislature intended to create a statute with no effect or consequence. See City of Mesa v. Killingsworth, 96 Ariz. 290, 394 P.2d 410 (1964) (courts presume the legislature did not intend to do a futile thing by including a provision that is not operative). Nor do we find that the legislature intended to eliminate all foundational evidence that those who draw blood are within the authorized group described in the statute. Otherwise, it would not have included the first sentence requiring that only physicians, registered nurses, or other qualified persons draw the blood.
The logical interpretation of the statute is that the legislature intended evidence to be presented that someone trained in blood withdrawal — a physician, nurse, or other qualified person — actually drew the blood, but does not require evidence of the individual’s professional qualifications or credentials or of the method used to withdraw the blood. Hence, if the state presents evidence that a statutorily qualified person drew the defendant’s blood, the foundational requirement under the statute is met. Accordingly, we reject Nihiser’s claim that § 28-692(F) is unconstitutionally vague and ambiguous, finding that the statute’s language clearly evidences the legislative intent that only individuals who have been trained in the practice of blood withdrawal may draw blood for BAC testing. See State v. Tocco, 156 Ariz. 116, 119-20, 750 P.2d 874, 877-78 (1988) (court will not declare as void for vagueness every statute it believes “could have been drafted with greater precision”); Fuenning v. Superior Court, 139 Ariz. 590, 598, 680 P.2d 121, 129 (1983) (“Due process requires neither perfect notice, absolute precision nor impossible standards.”).
B. Separation of Powers
Nihiser next contends that § 28-692(F) violates the separation of powers doctrine because it eliminates foundational safeguards for admitting blood test results, thereby invading the judiciary’s evidentiary rule-making authority. The legislature cannot create a statutory rule that “conflicts with] or ... tends to engulf a general rule of admissibility” adopted by the court pursuant to its exclusive power to make evidentiary rules. State ex rel. Collins v. Seidel, 142 Ariz. 587, 591, 691 P.2d 678, 682 (1984); see also Barsema v. Susong, 156 Ariz. 309, 751 P.2d 969 (1988). It can, however, create “‘statutory arrangements which seem reasonable and workable’ and which supplement the [supreme court’s] rules.” Seidel, 142 Ariz. at 591, 691 P.2d at 682, quoting Alexander v. Delgado, 84 N.M. 717, 718, 507 P.2d 778, 779 (1973). We find § 28-692(F) to be such a statute because the presentation of evidence that a qualified person drew the blood establishes a reasonable and fair presumption that the sample was drawn property-
The state contends that the qualifications of the person who draws the blood and the method used to draw it are not relevant and are thus inadmissible because they have no tendency to prove the defendant’s BAC, an ultimate issue. Ariz.R.Evid. 402, 17A A.R.S. (“Evidence which is not relevant is not admissible.”). The state thus concludes there are no foundational prerequisites to consider. We disagree. Evidence is “relevant” if it has “any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence to the determination of the action more probable or less probable than it would be without the evidence.” Rule 401. Because the qualifications of, and the method used by, the person drawing the blood have a tendency to show that the blood samples are reliable, they are relevant in authenticating the test results and are thus admissible.
Consequently, if the wording of the statute was so broad as to eliminate entirety all foundation for this evidence, the statute would indeed be unconstitutional. That is not the case here, however, because the proponent of the blood test results must present evidence that a person described in the statute drew the blood. Once this foundational showing is made, the individual’s qualifications and the validity of the method used are presumed.
The trial court reached this same conclusion in denying Nihiser’s motion to preclude the BAC test results, finding that “the blood was drawn at a hospital [and] there’s a presumption that hospitals are not in the business of allowing unqualified persons to draw blood.” We believe common experience supports this presumption.
We view presumptions as procedural, rather than evidentiary, concepts. Morris K. Udall et al., Arizona Law of Evidence § 143 at 322 (3d ed. 1991). The role of presumptions in the law is not to supplant the rules of evidence, but rather to provide a framework within which evidence is admitted. As is the case here, presumptions based on fact are defined as those in which “ ‘the basic fact has sufficient value as evidence to support a rational inference as to the presumed fact[s].’ ” Id. § 142 at 321 n. 3, quoting Silva v. Traver, 63 Ariz. 364, 373, 162 P.2d 615, 619 (1945), overruled on other grounds, Reed v. Hinderland, 135 Ariz. 213, 660 P.2d 464 (1983). The opponent can overcome these presumptions by disproving either the factual basis underlying the presumptions or the existence of the presumed facts. Id. § 143 at 322. As such, the presumptions shift the burden of going forward to the party opposing admission, but the burden of persuasion remains on the proponent of the evidence. Both sides are entitled to the presumptions.
Given these considerations, once the state establishes a prima facie case for the admission of certain evidence, which is predicated on a reasonable presumption of validity, the law places the onus of challenging the admissibility of such evidence on the defendant. See State v. Hyde, 186 Ariz. 252, 921 P.2d 655 (1996), cert. denied, — U.S. —, 117 S.Ct. 1091, 137 L.Ed.2d 224 (1997) (A defendant must present sufficient evidence to dispel a search or arrest warrant’s presumption of regularity); State ex rel. McDougall v. Superior Court, 181 Ariz. 202, 888 P.2d 1389 (App.1995) (state need not prove compliance with all Department of Health Services regulations to establish prima facie evidence that a breath test device was in proper operating condition at time test was administered.) In the present context, a defendant has the opportunity to present evidence that the individual who drew the blood was not qualified or the blood was drawn improperly to rebut the statutory presumptions that the samples were drawn by a qualified person in a reliable manner.
Having found that the statutory scheme provides an adequate basis for assuring the accuracy and reliability of the blood samples, we conclude that § 28-692(F) does not violate the doctrine of separation of powers because it neither conflicts with nor “tends to engulf’ the evidentiary rules pertaining to admissibility, but rather, is a reasonable and workable supplement to the rules. See State v. Leonard, 151 Ariz. 1, 725 P.2d 493 (App.1986) (statutory amendment reducing foundational requirements necessary to admit results of breath test does not conflict with rules of evidence).
Nor do we find that the court erred in ruling that the state complied with the statute’s foundational requirements in this case. The first police officer stated that the person who drew the blood sample was a member of the hospital staff. The second officer testified that the person had told him he was a doctor and the person’s name tag identified him as a doctor. The second officer also testified that he had provided the equipment used in the blood draw, including a “betadine swipe solution,” from a sealed Mt that he brought for this purpose. Nihiser did not contest this evidence nor did he offer any evidence impugning the qualifications of the medical professional who drew the blood or the quality of the blood samples. Consequently, we find that proper foundation was laid pursuant to § 28-692(F), and the trial court did not err in admitting the BAC test results.
C. Equal Protection
Nihiser next contends that the Arizona statutes violate his state and federal equal protection rights because they impermissibly create two standards for DUI offenders. He argues that those whose BAC is determined through blood collection fail to receive the same foundational protections as those whose BAC is determined through breath collection. Specifically, “those whose breath is collected under § 28-695(A) are granted foundation as to the collector’s qualifieation[s], and those whose blood is collected under § 28-692(F) are not granted foundation as to the collector’s qualifications.”
Section 28-695(A)(2) requires the proponent of breath test results to provide evidence that the individual collecting the breath samples is certified. Having found that § 28-692(F) also requires the proponent of the blood test results to provide evidence that a qualified person drew the blood, we find no disparate treatment with respect to those whose breath is collected versus those whose blood is collected. Consequently, we do not agree with appellant that the statute has created two standards for DUI offenders, and we find no equal protection violation.
Presentence Incarceration Credit
The trial court sentenced Nihiser to four months in prison as a condition of probation as required by § 28-697(E) for persons convicted of aggravated driving under the influence. The court gave no credit for the two days Nihiser spent in custody prior to sentencing, which Nihiser contends was error. Although Nihiser has already served his four-month prison term, we find that the issue is not moot because our decision will affect him should he face further incarceration if his probation should be revoked.
We agree that Nihiser is entitled to a credit for his two days of presentence custody. State v. Mathieu, 165 Ariz. 20, 795 P.2d 1303 (App.1990) (defendants convicted of felony DUI who receive a mandatory prison term as a condition of probation are statutorily entitled to credit against that term for time spent in presentence incarceration). Although the state urges us to follow State v. Brodie, 127 Ariz. 150, 618 P.2d 644 (App. 1980), we decline to do so because that case is distinguishable from both Mathieu and the present case. Brodie held that persons who receive mandatory jail time as a condition of probation are not statutorily entitled to credit for their time spent in presentence incarceration. While acknowledging Brodie's holding in the context of probationary jail time, the Mathieu court found that defendants who receive mandatory probationary prison time are entitled to a credit pursuant to A.R.S. § 13-709(B). Because Nihiser was sentenced to prison rather than jail, Mathieu controls. Nihiser is entitled to a credit for his two days of presentence custody should future incarceration be considered.
We affirm the convictions and modify the sentence.
FLOREZ, J., concurs.
. Hence, if appellant had his blood drawn and analyzed independently, he likewise would be entitled to the statutory presumption that the blood samples were drawn correctly upon a showing that a person described in the statute drew the blood.
. See also State v. Irving, 165 Ariz. 219, 797 P.2d 1237 (App.1990) (statute providing for self-authentication of Arizona Department of Transportation records construed to supplement rules of evidence and to provide reasonable and workable method of introducing motor-vehicle records about defendants); Seidel (statutory method of introducing evidence of breath test analysis, which allows admission of the evidence without expert testimony, is an alternative to admission under the rules of evidence).
. Mathieu "[left] for another day the reexamination [of Brodie as to] whether [credit should be given for] incarceration in the county jail as a condition of probation.” 165 Ariz. at 25 n. 3, 795 P.2d at 1308 n. 3.
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OPINION
GARBARINO, Judge.
¶ 1 Chicago Insurance Company (Chicago) filed a declaratory action putting at issue its obligation to provide coverage for claims asserted against Dr. Dennis Elias and his wife by AnNette Manterola (Manterola), which arose out of the psychologisf/patient relationship. Manterola appeals the grant of summary judgment in favor of Chicago. We affirm.
FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
¶ 2 In March 1992, Dr. Elias, a psychologist, began treating Manterola for severe emotional problems. He eventually engaged in a sexual relationship with her. Dr. Elias was covered by a Chicago “Psychologists Professional Liability Claims-Made Insurance Policy.”
¶ 3 On August 9, 1995, Manterola sued Dr. Elias and his wife. She alleged professional negligence, a number of intentional torts, and statutory claims against Dr. Elias. She also alleged a negligence claim against Mrs. Elias. Chicago agreed to defend, but reserved its right to deny coverage based on policy language and various exclusions.
¶4 Manterola and the Eliases entered into an agreement stipulating to judgment (the agreement) in the amount of $2 million in favor of Manterola. As part of the agreement, Manterola covenanted not to execute on the judgment against the Eliases. In return, the Eliases assigned their rights against Chicago and other insurers to Manterola. The agreement further stated:
Dr. Elias hereby asserts and acknowledges that, during the ordinary course of his vocation as a treating psychologist, he provided treatment to AnNette and, after termination of formal professional service and treatment to her, he engaged in a sexual relationship with her.
¶ 5 Chicago filed its declaratory action, seeking a determination that its policy did not cover Manterola’s claims against the Eliases. Chicago moved for summary judgment, contending that the agreement stated that the sexual relationship between Dr. Eli as and Manterola occurred after the termination of her therapy. Chicago argues that the policy limits its responsibility to sums which the insured became obligated to pay as damages stemming from “the practice of psychology by the [i]nsured.” Chicago next asserted a lack of coverage based upon Exclusion G of the policy, which precludes coverage for damages resulting from sexual misconduct. Last, Chicago claimed a lack of coverage based upon the intentional acts exclusion of the policy. Chicago also denied that Mrs. Elias was an insured entitled to coverage under the policy.
¶ 6 The trial court granted summary judgment in favor of Chicago, finding that the alleged acts of Dr. Elias fell within Exclusion G, the sexual acts exclusion, of the policy. Manterola timely filed this appeal. We have jurisdiction pursuant to Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated (A.R.S.) section 12-2101(B) (1994).
ISSUES
I. Whether Exclusion G of the policy precludes coverage for damages arising from sexual misconduct.
II. Whether the policy fails to cover the claims against Mrs. Elias.
STANDARD OF REVIEW
¶ 7 In reviewing a summary judgment, this Court considers the facts in the light most favorable to the non-movant. Estate of Hernandez v. Flavio, 187 Ariz. 506, 509, 930 P.2d 1309, 1312 (1997). We determine de novo whether the trial court correctly applied the law. See AHCCCS v. Bentley, 187 Ariz. 229, 231, 928 P.2d 653, 655 (App.1996); see also Hudnell v. Allstate Ins. Co., 190 Ariz. 52, 945 P.2d 363, 364 (App.1997) (interpretation of an insurance contract is a matter of law reviewed de novo); Citibank (Arizona) v. Bhandhusavee, 188 Ariz. 434, 435, 937 P.2d 356, 357 (App.1996) (interpretation of a stipulated judgment and settlement agreement are questions of law subject to de novo review). We will affirm a “summary judgment only when the facts presented by the opposing party in support of [its] claim or defense have so little probative value that reasonable minds could not agree with the conclusion being advanced.” Lasley v. Helms, 179 Ariz. 589, 591, 880 P.2d 1135, 1137 (App.1994). This Court may affirm the trial court’s grant of summary judgment if it is correct for any reason. Logerquist v. Danforth, 188 Ariz. 16, 18, 932 P.2d 281, 283 (App.1996).
DISCUSSION
I. Exclusion G of the Policy, Precluding Coverage for Damages Arising from Sexual Misconduct, Bars Coverage of Manterola’s Claims.
A. Manterola’s Claims Fall Within Exclusion G.
¶8 Chicago asserted, and the trial court agreed, that Exclusion G of the policy precludes coverage of Manterola’s claims against Dr. Elias. Exclusion G provides in pertinent part:
This insurance does not apply:
G. to any Claims made or Suits brought against any Insured alleging, in whole or part, sexual assault, abuse, molestation, or licentious, immoral, amoral or other behavior which threatened, led • to or culminated in any sexual act whether committed intentionally, negligently, inadvertently or with the belief, erroneous or otherwise, that the other party is consenting and has the legal and mental capacity to consent thereto, that was committed, or alleged to have been committed by the Insured or by any person for whom the Insured is legally responsible.
¶ 9 Manterola’s claims against Dr. Elias stem entirely from the mishandling of the transference phenomenon and the resulting sexual relationship with her. Manterola has not alleged any other act of malpractice by Dr. Elias other than his development of a sexual relationship with her. She complained that Dr. Elias’s misconduct consisted of the following:
negligently, carelessly, unethically, in breach of his fiduciary duty, in violation of his professional obligation to her and without due regard to his position of confi dence, superiority and responsibility, commence to negligently mistreat, exploit, abuse, discriminate against and molest AnNette, and continued to do so from approximately 1992 through approximately January, 1995, in various particulars, including, but not limited to, the following: predatory behavior of grooming, gaining her confidence, holding and hugging her and “treating" her with romantic assurances, whereupon, Elias had sex with AnNette.
(Emphasis added). Similarly, the only wrongdoing by Dr. Elias asserted in the agreement was his sexual contact with Manterola. The agreement stated:
Dr. Elias hereby asserts and acknowledges that, during the ordinary course of his vocation as a treating psychologist, he provided treatment to AnNette and, after termiriation of formal professional service and treatment to her, he engaged in a sexual relationship with her. But for the stress Dr. Elias was under in having to deal with patients’ demands, upheaval with office staff and administration, and other life and medical problems, he believes he would not have made this error of judgment and consequently had these careless sexual relations with AnNette. Dr. Elias had completed treating AnNette for serious psychological problems that were a function of hugely complex family and post-family circumstances, the uncovering of which emerged after her automotive accident and marriage. In retrospect, Dr. Elias’ fatigue and emotional exhaustion caused him to mishandle the relationship with AnNette. Dr. Elias now appreciates that it was imprudent to fail to recognize AnNette’s emotional instability and allow their relationship to become sexual, and, [sic] further, [sic] his own emotional self-interests. Dr. Elias acknowledges that AnNette had been subject to a series of harsh, abusive and non-nurturing relationships from (1) father, (2) rapist, (3) husband, and others, and suffered from PTSD. Dr. Elias became infatuated with AnNette and could not disentangle his professional services from his secondary emotional attachment. Dr. Elias thought it would not be detrimental to her.
¶ 10 Because all of the alleged misconduct by Dr. Elias was behavior “which threatened, led to or culminated in any sexual act,” Exclusion G of the policy bars Manterola’s claims.
B. Exclusion G is Not Void Against Public Policy.
¶ 11 Manterola does not dispute that her claims fall within the parameters of Exclusion G. However, she contends that Exclusion G is void against the public policy of this state. Manterola asserts that public policy weighs in favor of compensating innocent victims. She further asserts that Chicago’s coverage of her claims will not encourage sexual misconduct by other therapists because there are other deterrents, such as professional censure and possible criminal liability. In support of this argument, Manterola relies on American Home Assurance Co. v. Cohen, 124 Wash.2d 865, 881 P.2d 1001 (1994), in which she asserts that the Washington Supreme Court held a similar sexual acts exclusion void against public policy.
¶ 12 We believe Manterola misinterprets the holding of American Home. In American Home, the court held that a limitation on recovery for sexual misconduct claims against psychologists did not conflict with any state public policy. Id. at 1009. American Home arose out of the psychologist/patient relationship of Dr. David Cohen and Theresa Scott. The Scotts sued Dr. Cohen, alleging that he mishandled Theresa’s transference phenomenon and engaged in a sexual relationship with her. Id. at 1003-04. American Home had issued Dr. Cohen a professional liability policy with a $1 million limit. Id. at 1003. However, the policy contained a $25,000 liability sublimit for claims involving sexual misconduct, even if non-sexual misconduct was also alleged. Id.
¶ 13 While American Home was defending Dr. Cohen in the Scotts’ lawsuit under a reservation of rights, it filed a declaratory action in district court, alleging that the Scotts’ entire recovery was limited to $25,000 under the sexual misconduct liability sublimit. Id. at 1004. The Scotts countered that the provision was void because it was against public policy. Id. The district court concluded that the public policy of Washington did not preclude the liability sublimit for sexual misconduct claims, but the limitation on recovery for non-sexual misconduct where sexual misconduct was also alleged did violate the state’s public policy. Id. Both the Scotts and American Home appealed to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. Id.
¶ 14 The Ninth Circuit certified two questions to the Washington Supreme Court: (1) whether it violated the public policy of Washington for an insurer to provide lesser coverage for a psychologist’s sexual misconduct than for his or her non-sexual misconduct; and (2) whether it violated the public policy of the state for an insurer to provide lesser coverage for claims of non-sexual misconduct where sexual misconduct was also alleged to have occurred. Id. at 1005.
¶ 15 With regard to the first question, the Washington Supreme Court concluded that providing lesser coverage for a psychologist’s sexual misconduct than for non-sexual misconduct did not violate the public policy of the state. Id. To the contrary, the court found that this provision corresponded with state policy opposing insuring against liability arising from the intentional infliction of injury on the person of another. Id. The court noted that it is undisputed that a psychologist’s sexual contact with a client was wrongful, unprofessional, unethical, and possibly criminal. Id. The court looked to Washington’s statutes to determine the public policy of the state. Id. at 1007. While there was no Washington statute expressly or implicitly requiring financial compensation for injuries resulting from a psychologist’s sexual misconduct, there were criminal and professional misconduct statutes prohibiting a psychologist’s sexual contact with a client. Id. at 1007-08,1010.
¶ 16 The court also discussed, studies indicating that a significant percentage of claims against psychologists was based on sexual misconduct, and held that the limitation on recovery for such claims was based on an identifiable risk to the insurer which did not conflict with any state public policy. Id. at 1009; see also American Home Assurance Co. v. Stone, 61 F.3d 1321, 1328 (7th Cir.1995) (holding professional liability insurer’s limitation on liability for sexual misconduct did not violate Illinois public policy).
¶ 17 Similarly, the sexual acts exclusion of the Chicago policy at issue does not violate Arizona public policy. Arizona statutes clearly proscribe sexual contact between psychologists and their patients. One statute criminalizes sexual intercourse between a psychologist and a current patient (A.R.S. section 13-1418 (Supp.1997)), while others deem sexual intimacy between a psychologist and a current or former patient “unprofessional conduct” which subjects the psychologist to censure, probation, suspension, or revocation of his or her license. See A.R.S. § 32-2061(A)(13)(f) (Supp.1997) (“unprofessional conduct” by a psychologist includes “sexual intimacies or sexual intercourse with a current client ... or with a former client within two years after the cessation or termination of treatment”); A.R.S. § 32-2081(K) (Supp.1997) (setting forth disciplinary measures for unprofessional conduct). Arizona public policy also forbids contracts indemnifying a person against loss from willful wrongdoing. See Transamerica Ins. Group v. Meere, 143 Ariz. 351, 356, 694 P.2d 181, 186 (1984) (intentional acts exclusions coincide with public policy opposing insuring against liability for one’s willful, wrongful acts)'. These public policies support the exclusion at issue.
¶ 18 Manterola mistakenly suggests that insurers regularly indemnify criminal actors for damages arising from their criminal conduct. The cases on which she relies, Meere, 143 Ariz. 351, 694 P.2d 181, Fire Insurance Exchange v. Betray, 143 Ariz. 361, 694 P.2d 191 (1984), and Republic Insurance Co. v. Feidler, 178 Ariz. 528, 875 P.2d 187 (App. 1993), do not support this proposition. In Meere, the court approved an intentional acts exclusion as comporting with the public policy against insuring against liability for one’s willful misconduct, but stated that acts done in self-defense might not be considered willful wrongdoing. 143 Ariz. at 356-60, 694 P.2d at 186-90; see also Betray, 143 Ariz. at 363-64, 694 P.2d at 193-94. Similarly, in Feidler, this Court questioned whether the insured lacked the intent to injure for purposes of an intentional acts exclusion when voluntary intoxication may have deprived him of the mental capacity needed to form such intent. 178 Ariz. at 531-32, 875 P.2d at 190-91.
¶ 19 In light of the fact that a significant' percentage of claims against psychologists is based on sexual misconduct and that such claims present a recognizable risk to insurers, many courts have noted that professional liability insurers who wish to avoid coverage of such claims should include sexual acts exclusions, like the one present here, in their policies. See, e.g., Govar v. Chicago Ins. Co., 879 F.2d 1581, 1582-83 (8th Cir.1989) (finding no coverage for damages arising out of sexual relationship between psychologist and patient where professional liability policy excluded claims arising out of sexual acts); Cranford Ins. Co., Inc. v. Allwest Ins. Co., 645 F.Supp. 1440, 1442-44 (N.D.Cal.1986) (holding exclusion of damages arising from suits involving undue familiarity, sexual intimacy, or concomitant assault applied to transference mishandling claim); Vigilant Ins. Co. v. Employers Ins. of Wausau, 626 F.Supp. 262, 266 n. 2 (S.D.N.Y.1986) (noting professional liability insurer could have avoided coverage for mishandling of transference phenomenon by including sexual acts exclusion in policy); St. Paul Fire & Marine Ins. Co. v. Love, 459 N.W.2d 698, 702 (Minn. 1990) (same). Chicago included just such a provision to protect itself from claims like the ones at issue. Nothing about the provision in Chicago’s policy violates the public policy of this state. Exclusion G precludes coverage of Manterola’s claims.
II. The Chicago Policy Does Not Cover the Claims Against Mrs. Elias.
¶ 20 Manterola asserts that even if there is no coverage for Dr. Elias under the Chicago policy, Mrs. Elias still had a reasonable expectation for coverage of the separate negligence claims asserted against her. We disagree.
¶21 Manterola has admitted that Mrs. Elias is not a named insured under the Chicago policy. Manterola asserts, however, that Mrs. Elias has an interest in coverage as a “negligent coinsured.”
¶ 22 Manterola has not explained how Mrs. Elias came to be a coinsured, and the policy does not support this assertion. Mrs. Elias is not a named insured under the policy (Dr. Elias’s professional corporation is the named insured), nor is there any evidence that Mrs. Elias fits any definition of an “Insured” under the policy.
¶ 23 Manterola also alleges that Mrs. Elias has a separate community property interest in the policy. However, Manterola has not demonstrated how that interest can increase the coverage provided by the policy. The terms of the policy remain the same regardless of this community interest, and Exclusion G of the policy eliminated coverage for Dr. Elias’s misconduct. Manterola has not presented any facts showing that Mrs. Elias has a reasonable expectation of coverage under the policy.
CONCLUSION
¶24 The trial court correctly concluded that Exclusion G of the policy did not conflict with the public policy of this state and barred coverage of Manterola’s claims against Dr. Elias. Manterola has not demonstrated that Mrs. Elias is a separate insured or has any reasonable expectation of coverage under this policy. Therefore, we affirm the judgment of the trial court.
SULT, P.J., and KLEINSCHMIDT, J., concurring.
. In addition to the Chicago policy, Manterola also sought coverage from the Eliases’ homeowners policy, a personal umbrella policy, and a general commercial liability policy (the Farmers Policies). The Farmers insurers filed a separate declaratory judgment action against Manterola which was consolidated with this matter. The Farmers insurers obtained summary judgment in their favor. Manterola has also appealed that ruling. We address that appeal in a separate decision. See Farmers Ins. Co. of Arizona, et al. v. Manterola, 1 CA-CV 97-0382,- Ariz. -, -P.2d - (App. Mar. 10, 1998).
. In the transference phenomenon, a patient transfers usually positive feelings of love and affection felt for others onto the psychiatrist. Cranford Ins. Co., Inc. v. Allwest Ins. Co., 645 F.Supp. 1440, 1443 (N.D.Cal.1986). The psychiatrist may mishandle the transference phenomenon by engaging in a romantic and/or sexual relationship with the patient. Id.
. The court did find that the provision limiting coverage for non-sexual misconduct where sexual misconduct was also alleged violated the public policy of the state because it discouraged patients from reporting sexual misconduct (conduct the legislature sought to eradicate) since such reports could reduce their recovery. American Home, 881 P.2d at 1009-10.
That issue is not before us, however, because, as discussed, Manterola has only alleged sexual misconduct by Dr. Elias.
. In light of our conclusion that Exclusion G of the policy precludes coverage of Manterola’s claims against Dr. Elias, we will not address Chicago’s arguments that Dr. Elias’s misconduct fell outside the "practice of psychology” and was therefore not covered under the policy, or that the intentional acts exclusion of the policy bars coverage of Manterola’s claims.
|
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ORDER
We granted the petition for review in this ease on June 24, 1997, but have been presented with a stipulation to dismiss it because the parties have settled the matter.
We therefore dismiss the petition for review on grounds of mootness. This order shall be published.
|
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OPINION
ESPINOSA, Judge.
¶ 1 Plaintiff/appellant Elmer Oaks appeals from a summary judgment granted in favor of defendanf/appellee Randal J. McQuiller in Oaks’s personal injury action. For the reasons set forth below, we vacate and remand.
Facts and Procedural Background
¶ 2 The facts in this case are not in dispute. Oaks and McQuiller were involved in an automobile accident in which Oaks was injured. At the time of the collision, Oaks was acting in the course and scope of his employment but did not apply for workers’ compensation benefits, although he had not opted out of the workers’ compensation scheme. Ariz. Const, art. 18, § 8; A.R.S. § 23-906(C). Eighteen months later, Oaks filed a personal injury claim against McQuiller without requesting reassignment of his third-party tort claim from his employer’s workers’ compensation carrier. McQuiller moved for summary judgment, arguing that pursuant to A.R.S. § 23-1023(B), Oaks’s third-party claim had been assigned to the carrier as a matter of law, and Oaks no longer had a claim to prosecute because he had failed to obtain reassignment from the carrier as that statute required. The trial court agreed and granted McQuiller’s motion. This appeal followed.
Standard of Review
¶ 3 Summary judgment is appropriate when there are no genuine issues of material fact and the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. Orme School v. Reeves, 166 Ariz. 301, 802 P.2d 1000 (1990). Oaks’s appeal involves issues of statutory and constitutional interpretation, which we review de novo. Little v. All Phoenix South Community Mental Health Center, Inc., 186 Ariz. 97, 919 P.2d 1368 (App.1995).
Application of A.R.S. § 23-1023
¶ 4 Section 23-1023, A.R.S., provides in pertinent part as follows:
A. If an employee entitled to compensation under this chapter is injured or killed by the negligence or wrong of another not in the same employ, such injured employee, or in event of death his dependents, may pursue his remedy against such other person.
B. If the employee entitled to compensation under this chapter, or his dependents, does not pursue his or their remedy against such other person by instituting an action within one year after the cause of action accrues, the claim against such other person shall be deemed assigned to the insurance carrier, or to the person liable for the payment thereof. Such a claim so assigned may be prosecuted or compromised by the insurance carrier or the person liable for the payment thereof, or may be reassigned in its entirety to the employ-
■ ee or his dependents. After the reassignment, the employee entitled to compensation, or his dependents, shall have the same rights to pursue the claim as if it had been filed within the first year.
Subsection C provides that in the event the injured employee pursues a civil remedy, the employee is still entitled to workers’ compensation benefits, and gives the responsible employer/carrier a lien on the employee’s recovery from the third-party to the extent of benefits actually paid. Oaks contends that an injured employee’s third-party tort claim cannot be assigned pursuant to § 23-1023 absent the filing of a workers’ compensation claim or the actual payment of benefits to the injured employee. McQuiller responds that one year after the claim arises, the assignment under § 23-1023 is automatic, regardless of whether the injured employee actually applied for or received benefits.
¶ 5 In construing a statute, we attempt to determine and give effect to the legislature’s intent. Dugan v. Fujitsu Business Communications Systems, Inc., 188 Ariz. 516, 937 P.2d 706 (App.1997). We first look to the language of the statute, applying it without resorting to other rules of statutory construction if it is plain and unambiguous. Id. However, the language at issue must be considered in the context of the entire statutory scheme of which it is a part. Id. We construe workers’ compensation laws “liberally, remedially, and in a manner ensuring that injured employees receive maximum available benefits.” Aitken v. Industrial Comm’n, 183 Ariz. 387, 392, 904 P.2d 456, 461 (1995).
¶ 6 Division One of this court recently addressed the same issue involved here in Moretto v. Samaritan Health System, 190 Ariz. 343, 947 P.2d 917 (App.1997). Finding conflicting inferences between subsection A, which makes applicability of § 23-1023 depend on entitlement to compensation, and subsection C’s limitation on the carrier’s lien to compensation actually paid, the court held that an assignment pursuant to § 23-1023(B) does not occur unless the injured employee makes a claim for or accepts workers’ compensation benefits. The court noted that § 23-1023(B) is not a statute of limitations, but rather is “part of a statutory scheme that requires tortfeasors to pay damages to those injured by their wrongs, that reimburses employers/carriers for their compensation liability, and that allows injured employees to receive the excess of the damage recovery over compensation but eliminates any double recovery.” 190 Ariz. at 348, 947 P.2d at 922. The court concluded that the purposes of the statute would not be served when the injured employee has not claimed or accepted bene fits, thereby eliminating the possibility of a double recovery, and the responsible carrier has paid no benefits and, therefore, has no right to reimbursement under subsection C. Applying § 23-1023(B) in such situations would “merely create a trap for the unwary and unnecessarily shield an alleged tortfeasor from liability.” Id. See also Davis v. Reed, 188 Kan. 159, 360 P.2d 847 (1961).
¶ 7 We agree with the reasoning of Moretto. Furthermore, adopting McQuiller’s position would be contrary to the well-established principle that the assignment and reassignment provisions of § 23-1023 were not intended to benefit third-party tortfeasors, or to relieve them fi'om liability. Moretto; see also Smith v. Payne, 156 Ariz. 506, 753 P.2d 1162 (1988); Chevron Chemical Co. v. Superior Court, 131 Ariz. 431, 641 P.2d 1275 (1982). Moreover, applying the automatic assignment in this situation would vitiate the overriding theme of the workers’ compensation system, which is “to preserve a claimant’s opportunity to be made whole to the fullest possible extent — nothing more nor less.” Aitken, 183 Ariz. at 392, 904 P.2d at 461.
¶ 8 McQuiller argues that the history of § 23-1023 evinces the legislature’s intent that the assignment need not be conditioned on an application for benefits. As originally written, § 23-1023(A) required an employee injured by a negligent third party to choose between receiving workers’ compensation benefits and pursuing a claim against the third party. If the employee applied for workers’ compensation benefits, subsection B automatically assigned the third-party claim to the carrier. In 1968, the legislature substantially rewrote the statute to its current form, eliminating the requirement in subsection A that the employee choose which remedy to pursue and eliminating subsection B’s requirement that a claim for benefits be filed to precipitate the assignment. It appears that the replacing of the phrase “[i]f the election is to take compensation” with “[i]f the employee is entitled to compensation” in subsection B was simply to comport with the deletion of the election provision in subsection A. We do not believe the legislature considered, much less intended, the anomaly that would result under McQuiller’s interpretation of § 23-1023(B) and circumstances such as those at hand. We will not imply a legislative intent that is at odds with the statutory scheme. See Aitken; Dietz v. General Electric Co., 169 Ariz. 505, 821 P.2d 166 (1991); Moretto.
¶ 9 In view of our resolution of this issue, we need not address Oaks’s arguments regarding the constitutionality of § 23-1023. Aitken. The judgment in favor of McQuiller is vacated and the matter is remanded to the trial court for further proceedings.
PELANDER, P.J., and HOWARD, J., concur.
. Under A.R.S. § 23-1021(A), an injured employee is entitled to compensation if the injury arose out of and in the course of employment.
. An injured employee has one year from the date of injury to bring a claim for workers’ compensation benefits. A.R.S. § 23-1061(A). As McQuiller points out, there are exceptions in § 23-1061 that could expose a carrier to liability after one year has passed, but none of those exceptions applies here.
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OPINION
GERBER, Judge.
¶ 1 Armando Michael Hernandez (“Defendant”) appeals from his conviction and sentence on one count of murder in the second degree under Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated (“A.R.S.”) section 13-1104. For the following reasons, we affirm.
FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
¶ 2 Defendant and the victim, Perry Cota, had an ongoing, sometimes violent dispute. When the two confronted each other on the night of January 22, 1994, Defendant fatally shot Cota with a handgun. Several people witnessed the event. Defendant left the scene and called 9-1-1 approximately 20 minutes after the shooting to report the incident. Defendant told the 9-1-1 operator that Cota attacked him with two broken bottles and that he shot Cota in self defense. Police arrested Defendant later that evening.
¶ 3 A Maricopa County grand jury indicted Defendant on one charge of first degree murder. The case proceeded to a jury trial where Defendant sought acquittal on a self-defense theory. The State’s witnesses testified to a version of events that did not support self defense. The jury convicted Defendant of second degree murder. The trial court sentenced him to a presumptive 16-year prison term.
¶ 4 Defendant timely appealed. This court has jurisdiction to adjudicate the appeal. Ariz. Const, art. VI, § 9; A.R.S. §§ 12-120.21(A)(1) (1992), 13-4031 (1989), 13 — 1033(A)(1) (Supp.1997).
ANALYSIS
1. The trial court was within its discretion in admitting Defendant’s prior felony convictions to impeach his statements on the 9-1-1 tape.
¶ 5 Anticipating that Defendant might testify at trial, the State moved under Rule 609 of the Arizona Rules of Evidence (“Rules”) to admit Defendant’s prior felony convictions for purposes of impeaching his testimony. After a hearing, the court ruled the prior convictions admissible for impeachment if they were “sanitized” as to the nature of the felonies and subject to an appropriate limiting instruction.
¶ 6 Defendant moved in limine to admit a tape recording of the 9-1-1 call he made from his parents’ home approximately 20 minutes after the murder (the “9-1-1 tape”), arguing alternatively that it was not hearsay, and that it fell within the excited utterance exception to the hearsay rule. The State noticed its intention to use the prior convictions for impeachment of Defendant’s statements on the tape regardless whether he testified, relying on Rule 806. Defendant objected to use of the prior convictions to impeach his 9-1-1 tape statements, and the parties briefed and argued the issue. Defendant contended that the prior convictions should not be used. First he argued that Rule 806 applied only to hearsay statements, and the 9-1-1 tape was not hearsay because it was being introduced to rebut premeditation by showing that he reported the incident to authorities, an act presumably inconsistent with premeditation. Secondly, he argued that the prior convictions were “not probative at all” because he was not convicted until after the date of the shooting.
¶ 7 Defendant did not testify, but he did introduce the 9-1-1 tape. Over defense objection, and after briefing and argument on the applicability of Rule 806, the trial court permitted the State to impeach Defendant’s statements on the 9-1-1 tape with his prior convictions. He argues that prior convictions may only be used to impeach testifying witnesses, that it is illogical to impeach excited utterances with prior convictions, and that the use of prior convictions against a criminal defendant is distinct from and more unfairly prejudicial than use of prior convictions to impeach other categories of witnesses. We disagree with each of these contentions.
¶ 8 We note at the outset that Rule 806 applies because, as Defendant implicitly concedes on appeal, his statements on the 9-1-1 tape were hearsay, i.e. statements offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted. Ariz. R. Evid. 801(c). We have only to refer to Defendant’s opening statement and closing argument to establish this point beyond doubt:
(referring to anticipated testimony from a defense expert) [H]e will tell you that in his opinion, the very same thing that you will be able to hear from Mr. Hernandez, not now, but then, on that 911 tape moments after this happened is what happened.
$ ‡ ‡ $
(referring to the 9-1-1 tape) And you heard him. You heard him talking to the police, turniñg himself in.
This guy came at me with two beer bottles. I didn’t know what to do. I didn’t want to. I didn’t know what to do.
Defense counsel also argued that his expert’s conclusions matched the version of events Defendant related to the 9-1-1 operator.
a. Impeachment of Excited Utterances
¶ 9 Rule 806 clearly contemplates use of impeachment evidence to discredit hearsay statements by non-testifying declarants:
When a hearsay statement ... has been admitted in evidence, the credibility of the declarant may be attacked ... by any evidence which would be admissible for [that] purpose[ ] if declarant had testified as a witness.
[Emphasis added.] Rule 806 “specifically permits impeachment of a hearsay statement made by an absent declarant by any means which would have been permissible had the declarant been present and testified.” State v. Valencia, 186 Ariz. 493, 501, 924 P.2d 497, 505 (App.1996).
¶ 10 Defendant argues that the impeachment evidence is irrelevant because it “can only be used to weigh the credibility of a witness whose demeanor and words the jury has viewed.” This notion, too, conflicts with the very existence of Rule 806, which we interpret to specifically permit impeachment of hearsay statements by absent declarants. See Valencia, 186 Ariz. at 501, 924 P.2d at 505. Even before the Arizona Supreme Court promulgated the current Rules in 1977, our courts permitted the use of prior felony convictions to impeach a non-testifying declarant’s hearsay statements. State v. Owen, 101 Ariz. 156, 158, 416 P.2d 589, 591 (1966).
¶ 11 We see nothing illogical in concluding that excited utterances may be impeached. Although excited utterances are admissible because they are inherently trustworthy, that badge of trustworthiness does not render them unimpeachable. The jury determines the credibility of all testimonial statements offered to prove the truth of their content, including excited utterances. See State v. Bowie, 119 Ariz. 336, 342, 580 P.2d 1190, 1196 (1978). Advising the jurors of the declarant’s prior felony convictions aids them in assessing the trustworthiness of the declarant’s statement.
¶ 12 The dissent contends that because an excited utterance is only admissible on the theory that it is likely to be free of conscious fabrication, it is illogical to allow the declarant to be impeached with a felony conviction because a felony conviction evidences the declarant’s willingness to consciously disregard the truth. The flaw in the dissent’s argument is that felony convictions are always admissible on the issue of credibility if they meet the requirements of Rule 609, but such convictions do not always implicate a willingness to consciously disregard the truth. See Gordon v. United States, 383 F.2d 936, 940 (D.C.Cir.1967) cert. denied, 390 U.S. 1029, 88 S.Ct. 1421, 20 L.Ed.2d 287. Acts of violence that result from short temper, a combative nature, or extreme provocation, have no direct bearing on honesty and veracity. Id. Under the dissent’s logic, only convictions that rest on conduct that is a conscious, reflective act implicating the witness’s honesty should be admitted to impeach credibility of a witness. But, Rule 609 expressly provides to the contrary, and our courts have always allowed impeachment with any felony, regardless whether it directly involves an act that involves dishonesty or false statement. See State v. Malloy, 131 Ariz. 125, 127, 639 P.2d 315, 317 (1981) (because the perpetrator of a criminal act has demonstrated such a lack of scruples as to show a willingness to give false testimony, all felonies have some probative value in determining credibility).
¶ 13 Had the framers of the rules intended to limit impeachment for felony convictions or impeachment of an excited utterance, they would have done so. Instead, they expressly provided that felony convictions that do not relate to dishonesty or false statement are admissible to impeach credibility and that the credibility of the declarant of an out-of-court statement can be attacked by evidence “which would be admissible for those purposes if declarant had testified as a witness.” See Rules 609 and 806. If defendant had testified as a witness, his testimony could have been impeached with his felony convictions regardless whether the underlying crimes involved his conscious fabrication. To accept the dissent’s argument would require us to give defendant’s out-of-court excited utterance more beneficial treatment than if defendant had related the same statement in open court while subject to cross examination.
¶ 14 The dissent answers that we have missed the point. The dissent again asserts that we should give the declarant of an out-of-court excited utterance more beneficial treatment because an excited utterance is, in effect, involuntary, while court testimony is deliberative. Aside from the fact that Rule 806 draws no such distinction, we think this argument overlooks an important consideration. Properly stated, the theory behind excited utterances is that “circumstances may produce a condition of excitement which temporarily stills the capacity of reflection and produces utterances free of conscious fabrication.” Morris K. Udall et al., Law of Evidence, § 127, at 269 (3rd. ed.1991).
¶ 15 Arizona law does not require that, as a condition to admissibility, the court find that the declarant’s statement was actually produced without reason or reflection. The statement may be admitted if, under all the circumstances of the declaration, the speaker may be considered as speaking under the stress of nervous excitement. Keefe v. State, 50 Ariz. 293, 298-299, 72 P.2d 425, 427 (1937). A jury may still find that the declarant of an excited utterance admitted under Rule 803(2) was not so influenced by the stress of excitement as to be incapable of fabricating the facts or acting in his or her own self interests. For this reason, Rule 806 permits the admission of a felony conviction to test the credibility of the declarant of an excited utterance.
b. Impeachment of a Non-testifying Defendant
¶ 16 Defendant also argues that use of the prior convictions was uniquely prejudicial because the defendant was the declarant, thus exacerbating the error in admitting the prior convictions. We disagree.
¶ 17 Use of the prior convictions to impeach the 9-1-1 tape was not error in the first instance. Testifying defendants are subject to impeachment with prior felonies under Rule 609. In adjudicating the State’s Rule 609 motion, the trial court found that the probative value of the prior felonies outweighed their prejudicial effect. The trial court also issued an appropriate limiting instruction. We see no unfair prejudice under these circumstances.
2. The trial court did not commit fundamental error by failing to reweigh the probative impeachment value of Defendant’s prior felony convictions when it became apparent that Defendant would not testify.
¶ 18 Rule 609(a)permits the introduction of prior felony convictions for pur poses of impeaching a testifying witness, subject to a finding that the probative value of admitting the prior convictions outweighs the prejudicial effect. The State sought a ruling on this issue prior to trial, anticipating that Defendant might testify in his own defense. The trial court found the prior convictions to be admissible under the rule, expressly concluding that the probative value outweighed the prejudicial effect.
¶ 19 Defendant did not testify. However, he introduced his hearsay statements on the 9-1-1 tape into evidence, and the State impeached those statements with the prior felony convictions. See discussion supra.
¶ 20 Defendant contends for the first time on appeal that the trial court erred by failing to reweigh the probative value of the prior convictions in impeaching the hearsay statement. He maintains “there is every likelihood” that the trial court would have reversed itself on this question had it performed a second balancing test. This conclusion rests on the following unrelated and largely undeveloped points:
Defendant’s statements on the 9-1-1 tape were inherently reliable;
the felony convictions' and the underlying acts did not exist at the time of the murder;
the jury was likely to disregard the limiting instruction;
Defendant’s decision not to testify caused the jury to place undue emphasis on the prior felony convictions, a point manifested in the contents of a jury note.
¶ 21 The State contends that it was unnecessary to reweigh the probative value against the prejudicial effect. Because the reweighing issue is raised for the first time on appeal, we review the trial court’s actions on this matter only for fundamental error. Error is fundamental when it reaches the foundation of the case or takes from the defendant a right essential to his defense, or is an error of such dimensions that it cannot be said that it is possible for a defendant to have had a fair trial. State v. Gendron, 168 Ariz. 153, 154, 812 P.2d 626, 627 (1991).
¶ 22 Defendant did raise one of the sub-issues below: whether the State could impeach Defendant with felony convictions imposed after the date of the Cota murder. The trial court correctly concluded that convictions based upon crimes occurring after the crime at issue are admissible for impeachment purposes under Rule 609. See State v. Gretzler, 126 Ariz. 60, 85, 612 P.2d 1023, 1048 (1980). The trial court’s statement that use of the other convictions was “imminently (sic) unfair,” but that he was bound by precedent, goes only to this narrow point and not to the broader proposition that it was appropriate to reweigh the probative value and prejudice of the felony convictions. Defendant is generalizing the trial court’s comment to encompass the broader proposition. We agree with the trial court’s conclusion: Arizona case law clearly holds that felony convictions imposed after the commission date of the crime at issue are admissible for impeachment. Gretzler, 126 Ariz. at 85, 612 P.2d at 1048; Segovia v. Indus. Comm’n, 119 Ariz. 231, 233, 580 P.2d 369, 371 (App. 1978); Owen, 101 Ariz. at 158, 416 P.2d at 591.
¶ 23 Defendant’s remaining contentions are unconvincing. The inherent reliability of the excited utterance and the danger that the jury would disregard the limiting instruction are considerations that applied with equal force to prospective impeachment of either in-court testimony or out-of-court statements. Accordingly, we fail to see how reweighing these factors would have altered the trial court’s initial decision.
¶24 The single remaining contention— that Defendant’s decision not to testify increased the prejudice arising out of the prior convictions — is purely speculative. It is equally logical to suggest that the prior convictions take on more importance when the defendant chooses to testify, a point implicit in the argument Defendant made regarding the first issue:
The Arizona authorities cited by the State clearly envision that only a witness who faces a jury and tells a story in the courtroom will have his credibility challenged by the fact that he is a felon....
He neglects to say why the prior convictions take on more importance when offered to impeach a hearsay statement by a non-testifying declarant. We decline to fill in the blanks.
¶ 25 The jury note shows only that the jury discussed the prior convictions; it says nothing about the weight they attached to the convictions or even whether the convictions affected their view of the 9-1-1 tape.
¶ 26 It was unnecessary to reweigh the probative value of Defendant’s felony convictions, and there is no sound reason to conclude that reweighing would have altered the trial court’s decision based on the record. There was no error.
3. The trial court properly admitted evidence that Defendant had two felony convictions.
¶ 27 On May 9, 1996, the Maricopa County Superior Court adjudged Defendant guilty of two felonies, second degree burglary and aggravated assault. The convictions apparently arose from acts committed on the same occasion against the same victim, defendant’s then girlfriend. Defendant asserts that the trial court erred by failing to treat both convictions as a single conviction “for purposes of impeaching credibility and suggesting defendant’s bad character.” We disagree.
¶ 28 Defendant’s failure to raise this issue below waived review for all but fundamental error. Defendant concedes the existence of two felony convictions. He offers no authority for the proposition that felony convictions arising from crimes committed on the same occasion must or should be treated as a single conviction when offered for impeachment purposes.
¶ 29 The State speculates that Defendant is confusing admissibility under Rule 609 with enhancement under A.R.S. section 13-604(M). A.R.S. section 13-604(M) requires that convictions for two or more offenses committed on the same occasion be counted as a single conviction for purposes of sentence enhancement. The statute is limited to sentencing and has no bearing on the use of felony convictions for impeachment purposes.
¶ 30 Defendant offers no policy reason for treating multiple convictions as a single conviction in the context of Rule 609. He simply concludes that the trial court’s admission of two felony convictions offended due process and the United States Constitution. However, he cites no supporting case law, and we are not aware of any. Defendant relies on Malloy for the proposition that all felony convictions bear on witness credibility because the willingness to commit a “major criminal act” demonstrates “such a lack of scruples as to show a willingness to give false testimony.” 131 Ariz. at 127, 639 P.2d at 317. We fail to see how that principle supports the conclusion that impeaching a witness with two felony convictions based on two crimes committed on the same occasion deprives a defendant of due process.
¶ 31 We further note that the trial court sanitized the nature of the convictions in an effort to minimize the danger of unfair prejudice. If Defendant felt that it would have been to his advantage to divulge further details on the nature and/or commission dates, he should have advised the trial court.
¶ 32 Defendant’s argument is conclusory. He offers no reasoning to support the notion that trial courts must treat multiple convictions as a single conviction under Rule 609 whenever the convictions arise from acts committed on one occasion. No such reasoning is readily apparent to us. Again, we decline to fill in the blanks.
4 . There was no fundamental error in the jury instructions or forms of verdict.
¶ 33 The trial court gave the jury three forms of verdict: guilty of first degree murder, guilty of second degree murder, and not guilty. Defendant did not object to the verdict forms, as he was required to do under Rule 21.3(c) of the Arizona Rules of Criminal Procedure to preserve his claim of error. Nevertheless, he now asserts the verdict forms gave rise to fundamental error because they “did not allow the jury to acquit of first degree murder, leaving this question unsettled in the event of a new trial.”
¶ 34 The problem is illusory, as there will be no new trial. In any event, a finding of guilt on the lesser-included offense implies an acquittal on the greater offense, and double jeopardy considerations bar Defendant’s retrial for first degree murder. See Green v. United States, 355 U.S. 184, 190-91, 78 S.Ct. 221, 2 L.Ed.2d 199 (1957); United States v. Paul, 37 F.3d 496, 501 (9th Cir.1994); State v. Maloney, 105 Ariz. 348, 356-57, 464 P.2d 793, 801-02 (1970). Accordingly, there was no prejudice in failing to provide separate “not guilty” forms of verdict for first and second degree murder.
¶ 35 Defendant also contends that the lack of separate “not guilty” verdict forms for each offense may have confused the jury and implied that they could not acquit Defendant of either offense “unless they were certain the evidence showed that ‘real possibility’ that (Defendant) lacked guilt completely.” We do not understand how the second proposition follows from the first.
¶ 36 The Arizona Rules of Criminal Procedure do not require separate “not guilty” forms for each offense. Rule 23.3 states, in relevant part, that “[f]orms of verdicts shall be submitted to the jury for all offenses necessarily included in the offense charged____” (Emphasis added.)
¶37 In State v. Intogna, 103 Ariz. 455, 457, 445 P.2d 431, 433 (1968), the Arizona Supreme Court stated that “[t]he proper procedure is to submit a separate verdict of ‘guilty’ as to each included offense, and only one verdict of ‘not guilty’ since the latter applies to all included offenses.” Later, in State v. Dippre, 121 Ariz. 596, 599, 592 P.2d 1252, 1255 (1979), the Supreme Court found that the submission of four verdict forms, two for “guilty” and two for “not guilty,” is “clearly permissible” under rule 23.3, but not mandatory. The court also stated that having separate “not guilty” forms “has the advantage of insuring that the jury will consider and reach a conclusion as to each offense separately.” Id.
¶ 38 Fundamental error occurs where neither the jury instructions nor the forms of verdict give the jury the choice of finding the defendant “not guilty” on the charged offense and all of the lesser included offenses. State v. Knorr, 186 Ariz. 300, 303, 921 P.2d 703, 706 (App.1996). The verdict forms “must show every choice of verdict that the jury could return.” Id. There were three choices of verdict in this case. The trial court issued a form for each choice. This case comports with the holding in Knorr. The vice in Knorr was the fact that the only “not guilty” form stated that the defendant was not guilty of manslaughter, the greater offense. This case does not suffer from that defect: the “not guilty” form was generic.
¶ 39 There were a limited number of scenarios in this case:
1st Degree Murder Result/Form of Verdict 2nd Degree Murder
Acquit Acquit Not guilty
Convict Guilty of 1st degree murder
Acquit Convict Guilty of 2nd degree murder
deadlock Convict Guilty of 2nd degree murder
deadlock deadlock Mistrial (no form signed)
The instructions and verdict forms were adequate to deal with any of the foregoing contingencies. We see nothing in the instructions or the verdict forms that could have led the jury to conclude under those circumstances that they had to “find him (Defendant) guilty of something,” and that contention flies in the face of the trial court’s instructions on the presumption of innocence, the burden of proof, and the reasonable doubt standard. There was no error in the instructions or forms of verdict.
CONCLUSION
¶ 40 For the foregoing reasons, we affirm Defendant’s convictions and sentences. We have not reviewed the record for fundamental error. State v. Smith, 184 Ariz. 456, 910 P.2d 1 (1996).
TOCI, C.J., concurs.
. On appeal, Defendant presumes his statements on the 9-1-1 tape were admissible under the excited utterance exception to the hearsay rule, and that appears to have been the trial court's rationale in admitting the 9-1-1 tape. Because the state did not raise the admission of the excited utterance as a cross-issue on appeal, we do not consider whether the trial court abused its discretion in admitting the 9-1-1 call.
. Ariz. R. Evid. 803(2).
. Rule 806 states:
When a hearsay statement, or a statement defined in Rule 801(d)(2)(C), (D), or (E), has been admitted in evidence, the credibility of the declarant may be attacked, and if attacked may be supported, by any evidence which would be admissible for those purposes if declarant had testified as a witness. Evidence of a statement or conduct by the declarant at any time, inconsistent with the declarant’s hearsay statement, is not subject to any requirement that the declarant may have been afforded an opportunity to deny or explain. If the party against whom a hearsay statement has been admitted calls the declarant as a witness, the party is entitled to examine the declarant on the statement as if under cross-examination.
. Defendant shot Perry Cota on January 22, 1994. Defendant was convicted of second degree burglary and aggravated assault on May 9, 1996.
. Defense counsel filed the same written motion in limine on three different dates. The record does not reflect any rationale for filing the same motion papers three separate times. We strongly disapprove of this wasteful and annoying practice.
. We acknowledge a split of authority in other jurisdictions as to whether excited utterances are impeachable generally or specifically by the declarant’s prior felony convictions. See People v. Johnson, 271 Ill.App.3d 962, 208 Ill.Dec. 730, 650 N.E.2d 1, 2 (1995) ("We do not consider a declarant of an excited utterance to be a witness capable of impeachment by a prior conviction.”); Carlson v. State, 695 S.W.2d 695, 699 (Tex.App. 1985) (“Res gestae declarations are not ordinarily subject to impeachment, since the law does not regard the res gestae declarant as the witness, but 'as merely the passive instrument through which the event itself speaks’ ”), quoting Jones v. State, 111 Tex.Crim. 172, 11 S.W.2d 798, 799 (1928); State v. Henderson, 362 So.2d 1358, 1363 (La. 1978) ("Impeachment of an excited utterance by conviction of a crime is certainly feasible and should be allowed”). The State cites numerous federal cases upholding the admission of prior convictions to impeach a non-testifying defendant who offers his own exculpatory, admissible hearsay statements, but none of these cases involves impeachment of an excited utterance. Accordingly, they are not useful in addressing the proposition, expressed in Johnson, Carlson and other cases, that the declarant of an excited utterance is “merely the passive instrument through which the event itself speaks.” Carlson, 695 S.W.2d at 699; Johnson, 208 Ill.Dec. 730, 650 N.E.2d at 2.
. For example, suppose the declarant is the intoxicated driver of an automobile involved in a serious collision. Seconds after the impact, the intoxicated driver gets out of the vehicle and says "I was not driving, it was the passenger.” If this statement is admitted in the driver’s DUI prosecution as an excited utterance, few would argue that the driver’s prior felony convictions are not relevant to judge the credibility of the driver’s statement.
. The note read, "Could we again hear the dates of the prior conviction that was stipulated? May 6 of what year?”
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OPINION
FIDEL, Presiding Judge.
This case arises from an intersection collision between Brian Tallsalt, an uninsured motorist, and Michael Larson, who carried uninsured motorist and property damage coverage with Farmers Insurance Company of Arizona (“Farmers”). Farmers paid Larson for personal injuries and property damage and filed a subrogation action against Tallsalt, who counterclaimed for personal injuries and property damage. There is evidence of fault on both sides.
After an arbitrator awarded no damages to either party, Farmers appealed to the superi- or court, Tallsalt cross-appealed, and the case proceeded to trial by jury. Farmers sought $30,392.30, which was stipulated to be the sum it had paid Larson, and Tallsalt sought $5,000.00, the stipulated value of his “totalled” car. The jury signed a form of verdict that set Farmers’ damages at $30,-392.30 and found Larson 91.25% at fault and Tallsalt 8.75% at fault. The jury did not sign a separate form of verdict with respect to Tallsalt’s damages. The trial court entered judgment awarding Farmers $2,500.00 on its claim and Tallsalt nothing on his counterclaim.
When an appellant from arbitration does not achieve a judgment “more favorable by at least 10% than the monetary relief, or more favorable than the other relief, granted by the arbitration award,” the appellee is entitled to an award of taxable costs and attorneys’ fees for services necessitated by the appeal from arbitration. Ariz.Unif. R.P.Arb. 7(f). Both parties requested such an award, Tallsalt in the amount of $6,757.00, and Farmers in the amount of $9,203.39. In the judgment, the trial court ruled that Farmers was entitled to taxable costs and reasonable attorneys’ fees. By separate minute entry, however, the trial court limited this recovery to $1,500.00.
Both sides appeal. Tallsalt attacks the award of costs and fees to Farmers, arguing that Farmers should have received none and, instead, should have been ordered to pay Tallsalt’s costs and fees. Farmers cross-appeals, arguing that the damage verdict was inadequate and that the trial court erred by awarding it only a reduced amount of costs and fees.
We will provide further facts and procedural history as they become relevant to the issues that we discuss.
IRREGULARITY OF VERDICT
A.
Tallsait and Larson collided at the intersection of Milton and Riordan Roads in Flagstaff. Tallsait, southbound on Milton, was turning left to travel eastward on Riordan. Larson, exiting a shopping center on the southwest corner of the intersection, accelerated diagonally across Milton to the northbound curb lane and into the intersection, attempting to make it past the traffic light before it turned red.
At trial, the parties disputed fault, including the causal significance of Larson’s diagonal passage across Milton, the color of the traffic light, and whether Tallsait should have seen and avoided Larson, whatever the color of the light.
Farmers does not deny that the evidence permitted the finding that Larson was 91.25% at fault and Tallsait 8.75% at fault. Farmers argues, however, that the record demonstrates that the jury did not apportion fault in this manner and that the verdict and judgment based on those percentages should not stand. This argument arises in part from the forms of verdict that the jury did and did not return.
The trial court gave the jury four forms of verdict. One was to be used if the jury found Tallsait 100% at fault; a second one was to be used if the jury found Larson 100% at fault. The jury used neither. The remaining two forms provided for the assessment of comparative fault if the jury found negligence on both sides. One provided a space to assess Tallsalt’s damages and provided additional spaces to assess the parties’ relative degrees of fault. The other provided a space to assess Farmers’ and Larson’s damages and provided additional spaces to assess the parties’ relative degrees of fault. Of these two forms, the jury returned only the latter.
The court questioned the foreman about a note which suggested that the jury had attempted to assign percentages that would provide Farmers $2,500.00 on its claim:
THE COURT: And also, for the record, there was a note that was passed to the Court recently that corresponds with the verdict, and it’s a matter of record now, but let me just ask the foreperson in regards to the percentages.
It appeared from the note that although the percentages are close, ... you didn’t have a calculator, and your intent was $2,500; is that what we are talking about? [FOREMAN]: Yes.
Neither counsel requested that the jury be questioned further regarding its method of calculating percentages of fault. Tallsalt’s attorney, however, asked the court to inquire whether the $2,500.00 award for Farmers meant that nothing was awarded on the counterclaim. The record proceeds as follows:
THE COURT: I could only assume that that’s exactly what that means, that the verdict is for the Plaintiff in the amount of $2500.
Is there anything I’ve just said that’s wrong, sir?
[FOREMAN]: As far as I’m concerned, no.
THE COURT: All right. Does anybody want the jury polled?
[PLAINTIFFS’ COUNSEL]: No, I don’t want the jury polled.
[DEFENDANT’S COUNSEL]: No, Your Honor.
The trial court ultimately entered judgment on the verdict, awarding Farmers $2,500.00.
B.
From this sequence of events, Farmers argues that the jury’s failure to award Tail-salt anything on his counterclaim demonstrates that it really believed Tallsalt to be 100% at fault for the accident. Building on this premise, Farmers argues that the jury should have awarded Farmers its full damages of $30,392.30. It attributes the jury’s actual fault percentages to a wrongful effort to manipulate the assessment of fault in order to drastically reduce Farmers’s damage award. These irregularities, according to Farmers, entitle it to a new trial.
We disagree. First, the jury demonstrably did not find Tallsalt 100% at fault. The jury had the option to return a verdict form that found him 100% at fault; it did not do so. The jury unambiguously assessed Farmers’ relative degree of fault to be 91.25% and Tallsalt’s relative degree of fault to be 8.75%. The suggestion that the jury really meant these numbers to be 0 and 100% is preposterous.
Further, Farmers is mistaken in urging that the jury returned a verdict against Tall-salt on his counterclaim. It failed to return any verdict pertaining to the counterclaim. A likely explanation is that the jury was confused by the forms of verdict that it received.
Farmers’ counsel recognized before the forms were submitted that the trial court risked confusing the jury by submitting two forms for the assessment of comparative fault instead of one. Counsel prudently suggested that it would be preferable to provide only one form of verdict for a finding that both sides were negligent — a form that would assess both parties’ damages and- their relative degrees of fault. The trial court unfortunately rejected this suggestion, and the jury failed to recognize that it needed to return both of the comparative fault forms of verdict in order to resolve both the claim and counterclaim.
Because the jury verdict failed to address the counterclaim, the verdict was “not responsive to [an] issue submitted to the jury.” Ariz. R. Civ. P. 49(c). Pursuant to Rule 49(c), either party might have asked the trial court to “call the jurors’ attention thereto, and send them back for further deliberation.” Neither party did so. Although Tallsalt’s attorney asked the trial court to question the jury about the counterclaim, the trial court’s question to the foreman was inadequate to resolve the matter. Both sides thereafter let the matter pass.
Tallsalt, who may have been aggrieved by this defect in the verdict, did not seek to remedy or appeal it. Farmers, which does appeal it, did not invoke the opportunity that Rule 49(c) provided in the trial court to clarify the verdict. If Farmers had indeed wished to find out whether the jury deliberately awarded Tallsalt nothing on his counterclaim because it found him totally at fault, Farmers’ counsel should have asked the trial court to require the jury to reach a verdict on the counterclaim pursuant to Rule 49(c). By doing so, however, Farmers would have risked that the jury would award Tallsalt 91.25% of his damages on the counterclaim. By avoiding this risk in the trial court, Farmers may have achieved a windfall. It has no basis for complaint upon appeal.
Farmers also argues that the jury improperly manipulated the verdict, as demonstrated by the foreman’s disclosure that the jury had selected a percentage that would yield a damage award of $2,500.00. We disagree. The jury apparently regarded a $2,500.00 recovery for Farmers on its stipulated $30,392.30 damage claim as proportionate to the parties’ relative degrees of fault and attempted to fine-tune the percentages accordingly. This was undoubtedly not the first jury to proceed in such a fashion. Its verdict was not disproportionate to the evidence, and we find no departure from substantial justice.
To justify reversal, trial error must be prejudicial to the substantial rights of the appealing party. Walters v. First Fed. Sav. & Loan Ass’n, 131 Ariz. 321, 326, 641 P.2d 235, 240 (1982). We find no reversible error here.
APPEALS FROM ARBITRATION; ATTORNEYS’ FEES AND COSTS
Arbitration Rule 7, which permits de novo appeal of arbitration awards to the trial court, provides in relevant part:
If the judgment on the trial de novo is not more favorable by at least 10% than the monetary relief, or more favorable than the other relief, granted by the arbitration award, the court shall order ... that the appellant pay ... the following costs and fees unless the Court finds on motion that the imposition of the costs and fees would create such a substantial economic hardship as not to be in the interests of justice:
(ii) To the appellee, those costs taxable in civil actions together with reasonable attorneys’ fees as determined by the trial judge for services necessitated by the appeal____
Ariz.Unif.R.P.Arb. 7(f) (emphasis added). Both parties claim entitlement to a fee award under this rule. Both parties are mistaken.
Under the express terms of Rule 7(f) (the “Rule”), one can only establish entitlement to a fee award upon appeal from arbitration if the arbitrator granted “monetary relief’ or “other type of relief.” In this case, the arbitrator granted neither. Instead, he denied both parties relief, finding that Farmers had “failed to carry [its] burden of proof on the Complaint” and that Tallsalt had “failed to carry his burden of proof on his Counter claim.” Because the award provides no predicate for the determination of fees under Rule 7(f), this case exposes a gap within the Rule.
Both parties make creative efforts to leap the gap. Farmers, for instance, presents itself as having bettered its “monetary relief’ by at least 10% by going from zero to $2,500.00 while Tallsalt failed to do so by going from zero to zero. The flaw in this argument is that only when an arbitrator provides some monetary or other type of relief does the award provide a means to measure what exceeds or falls short of a 10% improvement. It has no greater meaning to describe $2,500.00 as a better than 10% improvement over zero than to describe $1.00 as a better than 10% improvement over zero. Because one cannot calculate 10% of zero, it is meaningless to describe any amount as more or less than 10% of zero.
Farmers argues, alternatively, that, even if the Rule’s “monetary relief’ standard does not apply, Farmers is entitled to a fee award under the Rule’s “other type of relief’ standard. Farmers and Larson satisfied the “other type of relief’ standard, the argument continues, because the jury’s assessment of relative degrees of fault “improved [Farmers’ and Larson’s] position against [Tallsalt] from zero to 8.75 percent”; because the “other type of relief’ standard is not subject to a 10% requirement, this improvement in position sufficed to support a fee award.
There are two flaws in Farmers’ argument. First, assuming that the assessment of relative degrees of fault constitutes “other type of relief’ under the Rule, then Tallsalt improved his position from zero to 91.25%, which would exempt him from owing a fee award. Second, and more fundamentally, there was no “other type of relief’ in this award. Whatever “other type of relief’ means within the context of Rule 7(f), the arbitrator granted none. Just as there was no monetary relief, there was no other relief to serve as a predicate for determining entitlement to a fee award.
Farmers also argues that its superior entitlement to a fee award is supported by the principle that, in Arizona, “a party [is] ‘successful’ if he obtains judgment for an amount in excess of the set off or counterclaim allowed.” Sanborn v. Brooker & Wake Property Management, Inc., 178 Ariz. 425, 430, 874 P.2d 982, 987 (App.1994) (quoting Ocean West Contractors, Inc. v. Halec Constr. Co., 123 Ariz. 470, 473, 600 P.2d 1102, 1105 (1979)). We do not disagree that Farmers, by this measure, was the more successful party. Being the more successful party, however, does not establish entitlement to attorneys’ fees under Rule 7(f). The fee award to Farmers cannot stand.
We next consider two arguments that Tall-salt advances on cross appeal to establish his entitlement to a fee award under Rule 7(f). First, Tallsalt argues that “monetary relief’ should be interpreted to encompass “relative degree of fault” in cases involving comparative fault; because Farmers’ de novo appeal succeeded only in raising Tallsalt’s assessed level of fault from zero to 8.75%, Farmers did not better its “monetary relief’ by at least 10%. This argument, in addition to suffering from many of the flaws previously described, seeks to engraft onto the Rule what is not there. Rule 7(f) does not designate improving one’s relative degree of fault as a benchmark for entitlement to attorneys’ fees; it establishes “monetary relief.” The two are not the same.
Second, Tallsalt argues that, for lack of any benchmark in the arbitrator’s award, we should take our measure from what Farmers was seeking in its de novo appeal. Because $2,500.00 — the judgment Farmers achieved— is less than 10% of $30,392.30 — the judgment that it sought, Farmers did not improve its position by 10%, according to this argument, and therefore should be required to pay Tail-salt’s fees. This argument again attempts to engraft onto the Rule what is not there. Rule 7(f) does not provide for a fee award to an arbitration appellee when the appellant fails to obtain 10% of the relief it seeks.
As we have indicated, the parties’ arguments expose a gap within Rule 7(f). Whether that gap should be filled by amendment or revision is a subject we commend to the study of the Civil Practice and Procedure Committee of the State Bar of Arizona. We decline to fill the gap, however, by straining the language of the present rule. Because the arbitrator’s award granted neither “monetary relief’ nor “other type of relief,” it provided no basis for a Rule 7(f) assessment of attorneys’ fees against either party in this case.
CONCLUSION
The trial court’s damage judgment in favor of Farmers is affirmed; the trial court’s fee award to Farmers is reversed; both parties shall be responsible for their own attorneys’ fees in the trial court. Though both sides have requested attorneys’ fees on appeal, neither party has established a legal basis for such an award, and both requests are denied. Pursuant to Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated § 12-342 (1992), however, Farmers is entitled to taxable costs in the trial court, and Tallsalt is entitled to taxable costs on appeal.
RYAN and TOCI, JJ., concur.
. The signed judgment awards Farmers fees and costs but does not state the amount. The amount is contained in an unsigned minute entry that the court entered on the same date. We deem the omission of the amount from the judgment a clerical error correctable pursuant to Rule 60(a), Arizona Rules of Civil Procedure. However, our disposition obviates the need for a correction.
. Farmers also claims that various evidentiary errors entitle it to a new trial. We discuss and reject those arguments in a separate memorandum decision pursuant to Rule 28, Arizona Rules of Civil Appellate Procedure.
. The form that the jury returned provided:
We, the Jury, duly empaneled and sworn in the above-entitled action, upon our oaths do find in favor of plaintiff’s [sic] FARMERS INSURANCE CO., and MICHAEL LARSON, and find the' full damages to be $30,392.30
We find the relative degrees of fault to be:
Plaintiff 91.25%
Defendant 08.75%
Total 100%
. This was a rounded verdict; 8.75% of $30,-392.30 is $2,507.36.
. Among other omissions, the Rule does not explain what "other type of relief” than "monetary relief” an arbitrator might provide, given that compulsory arbitration is only available when "No party seeks affirmative relief other than a money judgment.” Ariz. Unif. R.P. Arb. 1(b)(1). Nor has either party offered a meaningful answer to that question.
. Because of this conclusion we need not consider Farmers' argument that the trial court lacked authority to reduce its fee award under Rule 7(f). Nor need we consider Tallsalt’s argument that he should be exempt from Rule 7(f) because he declared his willingness to accept the arbitrator’s award and made his cross appeal conditional to preserve his position in the event that Farmers proceeded with its appeal.
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OPINION
TOCI, Judge.
Melva Dawn Kizzar sought special action review of the respondent judge’s denial of her motion to dismiss a three-count complaint against her on the ground that it alleged as prior convictions two convictions that occurred after the complaint was filed. We issue this opinion to correct an erroneous interpretation of Ariz.Rev.Stat. Ann. (“A.R.S.”) section 13-604(E) governing allegations of prior misdemeanor convictions to enhance a defendant’s punishment for later having committed the same misdemeanor offense.
We accepted jurisdiction because the proper interpretation of the statute, not previously interpreted, is a pure question of law and is a matter of statewide importance. See Cardon v. Cotton Lane Holdings, Inc., 173 Ariz. 203, 210, 841 P.2d 198, 205 (1992); Sanchez v. Coxon, 175 Ariz. 93, 94, 854 P.2d 126, 127 (1993). The trial court adopted the state’s interpretation of A.R.S. section 13-604(E), and as a result, Kizzar has been charged with two felony offenses rather than misdemeanors. Further, denial of her motion to dismiss the complaint is not an appealable order under A.R.S. section 13-4033. Escalanti v. Superior Ct., 165 Ariz. 385, 386, 799 P.2d 5, 6 (App.1990) (after denial of motion to dismiss, special action jurisdiction is proper, especially when a statute needs immediate interpretation).
I. FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
A Navajo County Justice of the Peace granted an injunction against Kizzar prohibiting her harassment of one Lucio Reyes. The state cited her for violating that injunction, alleging that she did so on August 21 and on September 21, 1995. Pursuant to a plea agreement, she pled guilty on March 20, 1996, to two counts of interference with judicial proceedings, both class 1 misdemeanors, and received a suspended sentence.
Shortly before the guilty plea proceedings, in a complaint filed on March 6, 1996, the state charged Kizzar in justice court with three counts of interference with judicial proceedings for again violating the injunction. The first count alleged a misdemeanor committed on August 16, the second count a class 6 felony committed on November 17, and the third count a class 6 felony committed on December 12,1995. Kizzar waived a preliminary hearing, and the court scheduled an arraignment. In May 1996, the county attorney filed an information in superior court charging Kizzar with the same misdemeanor and felony offenses.
Kizzar moved to dismiss the complaint. On February 28, 1997, the trial court dismissed the misdemeanor count as encompassed by the March 20 plea agreement, but it denied the motion as to the felonies alleged in counts two and three because it found them “sufficient as a matter of law. The reasoning set forth in State v. Hannah, 126 Ariz. 575 [,617 P.2d 527] (1980), is applicable here.” The court also denied a motion for reconsideration but granted a motion for stay pending the outcome of this special action.
II. DISCUSSION
A. Summary Chronology
For clarity, we briefly set out the relevant events:
August 21,1995 and Sep- — Commission of first set of tember 21,1995 crimes
August 16,1995
November 17, 1995 and — Alleged commission of sec-
December 12,1995 ond set of crimes
March 6,1996 — Complaint filed on second set of crimes
March 20, 1996 — Conviction of first set of crimes
B. Interpretation of Hannah and Section 13-604(E)
The state argues by analogy to Hannah that as long as the first offenses were committed before the second offenses were committed, the court may enhance Kizzar’s sentence for the later offenses. The trial court found that Hannah’s interpretation of A.R.S. section 13-604(B), requiring only that a defendant be convicted once before being convicted of a second offense, applied to A.R.S. section 13-604(E). But the language of subsection (B) is different from that of subsection (E).
At the time our supreme court decided Hannah, A.R.S. section 13-604(B) provided that a person who is eighteen years old or has been tried as an adult
and who stands convicted of a class 2 or 3 felony, ... and who has previously been convicted of any felony shall be sentenced to imprisonment for not less than the sentence and not more than three times the sentence authorized by § 13-701 for the offense for which the person currently stands convicted____
Hannah, 126 Ariz. at 576, 617 P.2d at 528. The Hannah court concluded that because the statute refers to prior convictions and not prior offenses, as “long as the defendant was convicted of the other offense before the conviction in the principal offense, the enhanced punishment provisions of § 13-604(B) are applicable.” Id. Thus, section 13-604(B) “does not require that the conviction of the prior offense precede the commission of the principal offense ... [but] merely requires a defendant to have ‘previously been convicted.’ ” Id. at 577, 617 P.2d at 529.
On the other hand, A.R.S. section 13-604(E) requires that conviction of the pri- or precede commission of the later offense. Section 13-604(E) (Supp.1996) states:
A person who is at least eighteen years of age or who has been tried as an adult and who stands convicted of any misdemeanor or petty offense, other than a traffic offense, and has been convicted of one or more of the same misdemeanors or petty offenses within two years next preceding the date of the present offense shall be sentenced for the next higher class of offense than that for which such person currently stands convicted.
(Emphasis added). Thus, in contrast to section 13-604(B), which simply requires a prior conviction for sentence enhancement, section 13-604(E) requires that conviction of the same offense occur within two years preceding the date of the present offense. “[D]ate of the present offense” must mean commission of the present offense. Otherwise, the legislature would have said “within two years next preceding the date of conviction for the present offense.” See State v. Korzep, 165 Ariz. 490, 493, 799 P.2d 831, 834 (1990) (words have usual and ordinary meaning unless legislature clearly intended another meaning).
Therefore, as we read the plain language of section 13-604(E), it increases the punishment imposed on a person who has been convicted of a misdemeanor and within two years of that conviction recommits the same misdemeanor. Thus, one who fails to learn from a first conviction and punishment and who reoffends within two years following the date of the first conviction, shall be sentenced for the “next higher class of offense” when convicted for the second offense. The dates of Kizzar’s “present offenses” alleged in counts two and three are November 17 and December 12, 1995, respectively. She has no prior convictions in the two years next preceding the dates of these “present offenses”; her only conviction occurred on March 20, 1996. Therefore, A.R.S. section 13-604(E) does not apply, and the offenses she committed in November and December were not subject to the statute’s enhancement provisions. If she were to commit the same offense within the two years following her March 20, 1996 conviction, she would be subject to A.R.S. section 13-604(E).
III. CONCLUSION
The trial court erred in failing to dismiss counts two and three of the complaint. The prosecutor could not properly allege enhanced offenses based on convictions that had not yet occurred. Furthermore, even if the convictions had occurred, they could not have been used to enhance Kizzar’s punishment. Counts two and three alleged conduct that occurred in November and December of 1995; conviction on these counts would necessarily have occurred after August 21 and September 21,1995, the dates of the “present offenses.” We reverse the order denying the motion to dismiss and direct the trial court to dismiss the complaint without prejudice.
GERBER, P.J., and SULT, J., concur.
|
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OPINION
BRAMMER, Judge.
¶ 1 Empire American Bail Bonds, Inc., appeals from the trial court’s order forfeiting the appearance bond it posted for the defendant, Faustino Rivera-Melendrez, because Rivera failed to appear at his arraignment. Empire claims the court erred in ordering forfeiture because it failed promptly to notify Empire either of Rivera’s failure to appear or the court’s issuance of a bench warrant for his arrest. We affirm.
Facts and Procedural History
¶2 Rivera was charged with burglary, theft, and trafficking in stolen property. He was released from custody after Empire posted a $10,000 appearance bond on which Frontier Insurance Co. was surety. After Rivera twice failed to appear for arraignment, the court issued a bench warrant for his arrest. Neither Empire nor Frontier was given notice of Rivera’s failure to appear or the subsequent issuance of the bench warrant.
¶3 Approximately one year later, the state moved to forfeit the bond. The court set a hearing, ordering Rivera, Empire, and Frontier to appear and “show cause, if any they have, why the Defendant’s failure to appear [at the second arraignment] should be excused.” Empire appeared at the hearing, but Rivera did not. The state informed the court the bench warrant for his arrest was “still outstanding.” Following the hearing, Empire and the state filed memoranda supporting their positions. After reviewing the memoranda, the court ordered the bond forfeited, and this appeal followed.
Discussion
¶4 Empire argues the bond forfeiture order should be reversed because the court did not give it prompt notice of Rivera’s-failure to appear at his arraignment or of the subsequent issuance of a warrant for his arrest. It claims that the court had a nondelegable duty to provide such notice and that failure to do so precluded any subsequent bond forfeiture actions based upon Rivera’s failure to appear at arraignment, citing State v. Jackson, 184 Ariz. 296, 908 P.2d 1081 (App.1995), and State v. Martinez-Gonzales, 145 Ariz. 300, 701 P.2d 8 (App. 1985). Both cases construe Rule 7.6(d), Ariz. R.Crim.P., 17 A.R.S., which states:
If at any time it appears to the court that a condition of an appearance bond has been violated, it shall require the parties and any surety to show cause why the bond should not be forfeited, setting a hearing thereon within 10 days. If at the hearing, the violation is not explained or excused, the court may enter an appropriate order of judgment forfeiting all or part of the amount of the bond, which shall be enfore[ea]ble by the prosecutor as any civil judgment.
¶ 5 We first observe that, contrary to Empire’s argument, Rule 7.6(d) does not expressly require the trial court to give notice that it has issued an arrest warrant if it appears the defendant has violated a release condition. In fact, giving of such notice could well undermine efforts to serve the warrant. Moreover, not all breaches of the conditions of release necessitate the issuance of a warrant. Rule '7.5(a) specifically authorizes, the court to issue either a summons or warrant to secure the defendant’s presence.
¶ 6 We next observe that neither Martinez nor Jackson directly addressed whether the court has a nondelegable duty under Rule 7.6(d) to notify the surety promptly that the defendant has violated a condition of an appearance bond. Martinez held that Rule 7.6(d) requires notice of an impending forfeiture be given the person or entity posting the bond, as well as an “opportunity to explain the violation and offer any excuses which may be available.” 145 Ariz. at 302, 701 P.2d at 10. It further held that, because forfeiture proceedings are “ordinary civil aetion[s],” the bonding company bears the burden of excusing or explaining the defendant’s appearance bond violation by a preponderance of the evidence. Id.
¶ 7 In Jackson, although the trial court provided the surety with prompt notice that the defendant had failed to appear at his arraignment, it did not set a hearing on the matter within ten days of the appearance violation, as required by Rule 7.6(d). Division One of this court held that, although the rule requires the trial court to hold a bond forfeiture hearing within ten days of the day it learns that a condition of an appearance bond has been violated, the ten-day period is not jurisdictional and thus dismissal of the forfeiture action is not required so long as the surety is afforded the opportunity to contest the forfeiture and fails to establish prejudice resulting from the untimely hearing. Division One found the surety had not been prejudiced by the untimely hearing, noting that, because the surety had been notified immediately of the defendant’s failure to appear, the delay in holding the forfeiture hearing had accrued to the surety’s benefit, providing it “more time to locate the defendant to bring him to trial or to explain the defendant’s breach of the conditions of release.” 184 Ariz. at 301 n. 5, 908 P.2d at 1086 n. 5.
¶ 8 In this ease, Empire argues that it was substantially prejudiced by the one-year delay in receiving notice and a hearing on Rivera’s failure to appear. The record does not support the claim of prejudice, however. In its memorandum to the trial court, Empire stated: “The prejudice from the state’s violation of Rule 7.6(d), relating to its failure to timely notify [Empire], for over a year, undoubtedly prejudiced [Empire] and prevented it from ‘locating the defendant and surrendering him to the Court for trial’ {Jackson, at 13).” In its memorandum replying to the state’s responsive position, Empire said,
“Had the bonding agent been noticed of the bench warrant, it would have taken action to secure the defendant and surrender him to the court. The resulting prejudice was the fact that the bonding agent was denied the opportunity to secure the defendant. Until the Order to [S]how Cause was filed, the bonding agent had no notice of the defendant’s failure to appear.”
Neither of Empire’s memoranda were supported by affidavit, reference to depositions, or any other matter under oath, to support the conclusory statements they contained. Empire asked the trial court, and now asks us, to presume prejudice, while offering neither there nor here evidence that such has occurred. The trial court refused to indulge such a presumption, and we agree with that determination.
¶ 9 Although, as Jackson notes, prompt and adequate notice to the surety may enhance its chances of curing a release condition violation, including locating the defendant and surrendering him or her to the court for trial, this result is not inevitable and, thus, cannot be presumed. Moreover, even if the surety does quickly locate and surrender the errant defendant to the court, or cure another release condition violation, this accomplishment does not necessarily obviate the surety’s affirmative obligation to explain or excuse the release condition violation. See Rule 7.6(d); Martinez.
¶ 10 We conclude the surety must demonstrate that it was, in fact, prejudiced by the court’s failure promptly to inform it of the defendant’s failure to appear before a bond forfeiture order may be reversed on this ground. Empire does not attempt to do so. Indeed, it provides no evidence of the circumstances surrounding Rivera’s disappearance; when it became aware of this fact; its subsequent attempts, if any, to locate him; or any prejudice it claims to have suffered resulting from the alleged untimely notice of Rivera’s failure to appear.
¶ 11 The judgment forfeiting the bond is affirmed.
DRUKE, C.J., and FLÓREZ, P.J., concur.
. For example, by the time the court becomes aware that a defendant has violated a condition of the bond, the defendant may already be beyond reach. Conversely, the surety may independently learn of the defendant's failure to appear, notwithstanding the court’s failure promptly to provide this information. In fact, there was some evidence presented here to that effect. At the forfeiture hearing, the state presented an affidavit from Rivera’s alleged victim, stating that he had informed Empire's agent soon after Rivera’s scheduled arraignment that Rivera had failed to appear and that a bench warrant had been issued and that the agent had responded "that he believed that he knew the whereabouts for the defendant in Portolo, California and would have him picked up."
|
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OPINION
HATHAWAY, Judge.
Appellant was charged with five counts of child molestation, one count of sexual abuse and one count of sexual conduct with a minor, all dangerous crimes against children. Pursuant to a plea agreement, he pled no contest to one count of attempted sexual abuse. He was sentenced to the maximum prison term of 15 years, but in post-conviction proceedings, the trial court vacated the sentence and has set the matter for resentencing. Appellant has not been resentenced because it is his contention that the conviction should be vacated. The petition for review and the appeal have been consolidated.
The state argues that this court need not address the claims raised in the opening brief because they relate to his first and second petitions for post-conviction relief and that this court dismissed the petition for review for lack of jurisdiction based on appellant’s failure to file motions for rehearing in the trial court. However, after the state filed its answering brief, on December 24, 1992, appellant filed a motion for reconsideration of the dismissal of the petition which this court granted on January 20, 1993, because a delayed motion for rehearing and petition for review were filed in the trial court. We will, therefore, address the claims raised.
Appellant’s first contention relates to the trial court’s granting of a resentencing but its refusal to vacate the plea or set a new change-of-plea hearing. Judge Hantman had presided over the change-of-plea proceeding and sentenced appellant. In his Rule 32 petition, appellant pointed out that Judge Hantman had been an attorney at the Pima County Public Defender’s Office at the time the charges against appellant were pending. Judge Hantman recused himself from the post-conviction proceedings^ Following an evidentiary hearing in June 1991, during which Judge Hantman testified, the trial court denied relief. Following appellant’s motion for rehearing, Judge Miller granted appellant resentencing.
We cannot say the trial court erred in refusing to vacate the plea or order a new change-of-plea proceeding. We do not believe that Canon 3(C) of the Code of Judicial Conduct, Ariz.R.S.Ct. 81,17A A.R.S. or State ex rel. Corbin v. Superior Court, 155 Ariz. 560, 748 P.2d 1184 (1987), require otherwise. The relevant portion of Canon 3(C) provides as follows:
C. Disqualification.
(1) A judge should disqualify himself in a proceeding in which his impartiality might reasonably be questioned, including but not limited to instances where:
* * * * * *
(b) he knows that he served as a lawyer in the matter in controversy, or he knows that a lawyer with whom he previously practiced law served during such association as a lawyer concerning the matter----
In State ex rel. Corbin, our supreme court considered this Canon. The defendant in that case challenged his resentencing by a judge who had been a member of the prosecuting attorney’s staff when the case was pending. The supreme court held that under such circumstances, the judge should recuse himself or herself, noting that the same would be true if the case were assigned to another judge who was a member of the staff of the office which had defended the case.
We note at the outset that the posture of that case differed significantly from this one. The special action was taken from an order entered before the resentencing took place, after the conflict was pointed out to the court. The record in this case shows that Judge Hantman was unaware of the conflict and the issue was not brought to his attention until after the change-of-plea proceeding and sentencing. Unlike State ex rel. Corbin, a remedy was granted by vacating the sentence and assigning a different judge for resentencing. By not raising this issue before, it was waived.
Assuming the issue cannot be waived because of its nature, that is, because it relates to ethical conflicts and is one which the court should have raised sua sponte, we do not believe appellant is entitled to additional relief. The supreme court’s primary concern in State ex rel. Corbin, was not whether there would be actual impropriety but whether the judge’s impartiality could reasonably be questioned. We believe the supreme court’s goal of avoiding that possibility has been served here. A sentencing proceeding necessarily requires that the sentencing judge exercise his or her discretion. Thus, impartiality is crucial. A change-of- plea proceeding is ministerial in nature; it merely requires the satisfaction of objective criteria under Ariz.R.Crim.P. 17, 17 A.R.S., and requires little, if any, exercise of discretion by the judge in doing so. In any given case, the record would show whether the trial court adequately advised a defendant of his or her rights and whether the defendant, based on questioning by the court, understood and waived those rights. The record would also show whether there was a sufficient factual basis to support the plea. The record in this case shows that Judge Hantman complied with the rules and appellant does not contend otherwise. Moreover, there is no basis for concluding that, even assuming bias, it could reasonably have influenced the change-of-plea proceeding. We conclude that the trial court correctly denied additional post-conviction relief.
Appellant’s second contention is that the trial court erred when it summarily dismissed his claim of ineffective assistance of counsel which was based on counsel’s failure to seek special action relief from the trial court’s denial of his motion to dismiss or for a new finding of probable cause under Ariz. R.Crim.P. 12.9. In that motion, appellant had contended that the grand jury was presented with false or misleading information because a police officer had misstated certain matters relating, among other things, to the size and shape of the dog house in which the victim was allegedly molested. Appellant contended that the opening in the dog house was too small for an adult and perhaps even the victim, an eight-year-old child, to have entered. Appellant concedes that the entry of a plea waives all non-jurisdietional defects, State v. Reed, 121 Ariz. 547, 592 P.2d 381 (App.1979), but, citing State v. Anderson, 147 Ariz. 346, 710 P.2d 456 (1985), he claims that this rule does not apply to a claim of ineffective assistance in entering a plea. Appellant fails to see the distinction' between counsel who is ineffective in connection with matters directly relating to the entry of a guilty plea and allegedly deficient performance as to other aspects of the representation. Under the circumstances of this case, we believe the claim has been waived.
In any event, even assuming the issue was not waived, and assuming also that counsel’s performance was deficient because of his failure to seek appellate review of the denial of the Rule 12.9 motion, appellant has not raised a colorable claim that he was prejudiced. See State v. Nash, 143 Ariz. 392, 694 P.2d 222, cert. denied, 471 U.S. 1143, 105 S.Ct. 2689, 86 L.Ed.2d 706 (1985). The factual basis for the plea established at the change-of-plea proceeding shows that there was sufficient evidence to establish probable cause. Moreover, based on the record before us, this court would not have reversed the trial court’s denial of the motion.
We have reviewed the entire record for fundamental error. We have found none. We therefore affirm the conviction and deny post-conviction relief. The matter is remanded for resentencing.
DRUKE, P.J., and FERNANDEZ, J., concur.
. Although appellant filed a motion to have Judge Hantman removed before sentencing and after the change-of-plea hearing, it was based on the allegation that he was generally biased and had access to purportedly prejudicial information in the pre-sentence report, not on the conflict; that motion was denied.
. We note that Judge Hantman could not have been expected to disqualify himself since he was apparently unaware of the conflict. Indeed, the Canon is couched in terms of the judge’s knowledge.
|
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OPINION
SCHAFER, Judge.
The main issue in this case is whether the county assessor may audit a taxpayer’s prior years’ personal property statements and assess taxes that were not paid because of the taxpayer’s failure to properly report its property. If he may, there are further issues to answer: (1) may taxes be assessed for those years when the assessor did not demand the list of personal property provided for in A.R.S. § 42-222 but the taxpayer filed one anyway (though incorrect); (2) when personal property is exempt from sales tax may a sales tax nevertheless be imputed in determining the value of the property; and (3) what is the definition of “year of discovery” in A.R.S. § 42-236(D), which allows the assessor to recapture all escaped taxes for the three years preceding the discovery.
The taxpayer, Aleasco, Inc., rented construction equipment used in the construction of the Waddell Dam. It began business in Maricopa County in 1987 and hired Ralph Klein, a professional, experienced Arizona property tax consultant, to prepare and file its Arizona personal property tax statements. Mr. Klein prepared and filed personal property tax lists, Form 82520s, for tax years 1988 through 1991. The property lists for years 1988, 1989 and 1991 were voluntarily filed by Aleasco without a demand from the Maricopa County Assessor (the Assessor). Aleasco received a demand from the Assessor to file a list for tax year 1990. Each year Aleasco improperly reported its property for tax purposes by prorating only the depreciated cost of each item according to the number of days it was actually used on the job site during the year.
On October 25, 1990, and November 6, 1990, Dan McGuire, an auditor/appraiser for the Valuation Audit Division of the Assessor’s office, visited the Waddell Dam site in order to determine whether any of Aleasco’s property had not been reported for property tax purposes. On November 7, 1990, the Assessor sent an audit demand letter to Aleasco informing it of the Assessor’s intention to audit Aleasco’s property lists for the years 1987, 1988, 1989 and 1990. The letter also made a formal demand for all books and records containing information regarding Aleasco’s property located in Maricopa County.
From November 1990 through April 1992, Mr. McGuire made several attempts to contact Mr. Gene Sacco, the individual Aleasco listed as the person to contact regarding the audit. Unsuccessful in his attempts to obtain the necessary information in Arizona, Mr. McGuire eventually conducted the audit May 27 through 29, 1992, in Washington. The audit was completed in August of 1992. The Assessor assessed, and Aleasco timely paid under protest, additional taxes of $606,-926.87 for years 1988 through 1991, and penalties and interest of $861,836.16, for a total of $1,468,763.03. The tax portion of the assessment was based upon (1) the difference between the taxes paid on the prorated value of the assets and the taxes due on the value of the assets without any proration, and (2) the taxes on the value of assets either not included on the property lists or improperly listed as non-assessable motor vehicles.
Aleasco claims the Assessor had no authority to audit the prior years’ property lists filed voluntarily and to impose additional taxes on property reported in those prior years. ' Alternatively, Aleasco argues that if the additional assessment is allowed to stand, the Assessor made several errors in calculating the amount of tax, penalties and interest due, and erred by including amounts from 1988 in the assessment. The Assessor disagrees, arguing that it had authority to both audit the prior years’ lists and to assess the taxes not paid, including those for 1988.
This Court agrees with the Assessor so far as the Assessor’s authority to audit and assess past taxes, and as to the inclusion of 1988. However, the Court finds the Assessor erred in its imputation of sales tax into the valuation of certain equipment and in its imposition of certain penalties and interest. Additionally, the Assessor erred by including 1991 in the audit and additional assessment.
ANALYSIS
I. Authority to Audit and Assess Back Taxes
A. Authority to Audit
Section 42-223 gives the Assessor the power to audit.
Every list filed with the assessor may be subject to audit. Upon completion of an audit or upon discovery of property which has not been reported, any property found to have escaped taxation shall be liable for the amount of taxes due determined pursuant to § 42-236, subsection D, plus a penalty equal to ten per cent of such amount.
AR.S. § 42-223(C) (emphasis added).
When interpreting a statute, this Court will first look at the language to be interpreted; when that language is clear the Court need look no further for guidance. Rio Rico Properties v. Santa Cruz County, 172 Ariz. 80, 834 P.2d 166 (1992). Here, the statute is clear.
Aleasco argues two things to show that the Assessor has no authority to audit past years’ property lists and assess additional taxes. First, it relies on the Court of Appeals decision in In re Westward Look Development Corp., 138 Adz. 88, 673 P.2d 26 (1983) for the proposition that “the Assessor may impose back taxes only where property has wholly escaped assessment and taxation in any amount.” Aleasco argues Westward Look applies to personal property and therefore, bars any assessment of back taxes even where the taxpayer improperly reported its property resulting in an underpayment of taxes.
This Court need not decide whether Westward Look applies to personal property. Westward Look dealt with whether an assessor may correct its own omission or error by revaluing property and assessing taxes on improvements the assessor failed to value in prior years. That is not this case. This case involves an audit and additional assessment to remedy an omission or error by the taxpayer, not the assessor. Thus, Westward Look is inapposite.
Second, Aleasco argues an assessor’s power to audit should not extend to those lists filed voluntarily without a request. But there is no support for such a limitation in the statutes. Section 42-223, subsection C, expressly allows the Assessor to audit “every list filed” with the Assessor. The only requirement is that the list have been filed. Here, Aleasco admits it filed property lists each year from 1988 through 1991. Consequently, the Assessor had authority to audit them.
B. Authority to Assess Back Taxes
Arizona’s unsecured personal property tax scheme does not require self-reporting like the' income tax scheme or privilege tax scheme. Tucson Mechanical Construction, Inc. v. Arizona Department of Revenue, 175 Ariz. 176, 177, 854 P.2d 1162, 1163 (App. 1992); A.R.S. § 43-301. However, once the assessor requests a list of property or the taxpayer voluntarily files a list, there is a duty to correctly report all personal property subject to taxation. AR.S. §§ 42-223(A), 236(A) and (D). Then, as previously noted, the Assessor has the power to audit any lists to ascertain whether property was correctly reported and that no property escaped taxation. AR.S. § 42-223.
Once an audit is completed, and property is found to have escaped taxation, an assessor may collect back taxes in accordance with section 42-236(D) or (E). AR.S. § 42-223(C). The applicable subsection here is D which provides:
Except as provided in subsection E any property found by the assessor to have escaped assessment in any year is liable for the taxes for the year in which the discovery was made and for any escaped taxes in the three years immediately preceding the year of discovery____
AR.S. § 42-236(D).
Aleasco argues that once property has been listed and reported (at any value), and taxes assessed and paid, the property has not “escaped taxation.” If that were correct a taxpayer could systematically undervalue its property, pay the taxes assessed on the improper value, and escape any liability for the proper amount of taxes. That is clearly not the design of the statutes.
Both sections 42-223(C) and 42-236(D) use the term “escaped” to define what property the assessor is looking for when performing an audit. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (1971) at page 893 defines the word “escape” as “to succeed in avoiding (anything painful or unwelcome).” Using that plain definition, when property is either undervalued by the taxpayer or not reported such property has “escaped” taxation since either the whole or a portion of its value succeeded in avoiding taxation.
Here, Aleasco improperly prorated the value of its personal property and reported the properties’ values at only a portion of their true values. For those days the equipment was not rented, no value was attributed to the equipment and therefore, no value was reported on Aleasco’s property lists, causing a significant portion of the properties’ values to be left unreported—and thus “escaped.” The Assessor is entitled to assess back taxes on that portion which escaped taxation. In addition, Aleasco had items of property not listed at all or improperly listed as non-assessable. The Assessor is also entitled to assess back taxes on the value of those escaped items.
C. Year of Discovery
Once an assessor has determined that property has escaped taxation, taxes may be imposed for the year of discovery and back taxes may be imposed for “any escaped taxes in the three years immediately preceding the year of discovery.” In determining the years for which back taxes may be imposed, the parties offer different definitions of “year of discovery.” The Assessor argues the year of discovery is the year the Assessor became cognizant of the escape. Aleasco argues it is the year the taxpayer is notified that property has escaped. The Court agrees with the Assessor.
Applying a plain reading of the statute, section 42-236(D), “discovery” means nothing more than obtaining knowledge for the first time. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, 745 (1971). The Assessor may obtain knowledge of or discover an escape in any number of ways, including an audit. The Assessor may later verify the escape through various means, including an audit. However, the year of discovery is not necessarily the year of the audit since the Assessor may have knowledge of the escape prior to the actual audit. Such is the case here.
Here, the Assessor admits it “initially discovered” Aleasco was improperly prorating its leased property in 1990. More to the point, the Assessor states that it was “cognizant” of the escape in November 1990 when it sent its audit demand letter. Additionally, the Assessor acknowledges that completion of the audit field work in 1992 does not change its year of initial discovery. The plain reading of the statute, when coupled with the Assessor’s admission that it was cognizant of the escape in 1990, pinpoints 1990 as “the year of discovery.” Therefore, the Assessor could properly impose taxes for 1990 (as the year of discovery) and back taxes for 1989, 1988 and 1987 as the three years preceding the year of discovery. As to the 1991 tax year, section 42-236(D) does not provide an avenue for the Assessor to impose taxes for years after the year of discovery. Consequently, since 1991 was after the year of discovery, those portions of the back tax assessment attributable to 1991 are improper and must be refunded.
II. Valuation Including Sales Tax Figures
In calculating values for Aleasco’s property, the Assessor imputed sales tax on those items of equipment which were tax exempt when purchased. This was improper.
To support its argument that sales tax must be added to the mix of factors in determining the value of the property, the Assessor principally relies on the California case of Xerox Corp. v. County of Orange, 66 Cal. App.3d 746, 136 Cal.Rptr. 583 (1977). However, by relying on the Xerox case the Assessor ignores two pertinent facts: First, this Court recently issued an opinion declining to follow Xerox and determined the imputation of sales tax is improper in determining value when a sale was tax exempt. See Waddell v. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education & Research, 176 Ariz. 178, 180, 859 P.2d 801, 803 (Tax 1993). Second, the Xerox court noted that it was dealing with a “normal sale in a normal market situation” and not with a sale with a “special circumstance,” like “immunity from state taxation” which is the situation in this case. Ibid. Therefore, the Xerox case is inapplicable.
When the purchase of property is exempt from sales tax, as is the case here, adding a sales tax figure to the taxpayer’s original cost when valuing the property is improper. Mayo, supra, 176 Ariz. at 180, 859 P.2d at 803. Thus, Aleasco is entitled to a revaluation of its property and a recalculation of the resulting tax for years 1988, 1989 and 1990, using the properties’ original cost or purchase price which might not include sales tax.
III. Penalties
The Assessor imposed four separate penalties against Aleasco under section 42-223, subsections C and D, section 42-236(C), and section 42-252(B). The propriety of each of those penalties will be reviewed separately.
A. A.R.S. § 42-223(0
The Assessor imposed a 10% penalty under subsection C of section 42-223 which states:
Every list filed with the assessor may be subject to audit. Upon completion of an audit or upon discovery of property which has not been reported, any property found to have escaped taxation shall be liable for the amount of taxes due determined pursu ant to § 42-236, subsection D, plus a penalty equal to ten per cent of such amount.
A. R.S. § 42-223(C) (emphasis added).
Under subsection C of section 42-223, once an audit has been performed and property is found to have escaped taxation, imposition of a 10% penalty is appropriate. Here, it is undisputed that an audit was performed by the Assessor and that it discovered certain property listed by Aleasco had wholly or partially escaped taxation in prior years. Therefore, imposition of the 10% penalty pursuant to subsection C of A.R.S. § 42-223 was proper.
B. A.R.S. § 42-223(D)
The second penalty the Assessor asserts as a proper penalty was imposed under subsection D of section 42-223. That subsection provides:
The assessor shall require a list to be prepared by the taxpayer for property valued pursuant to §§ 42-601 and 42-601.01. The taxpayer must file the list within forty-five days after the receipt thereof. Failure to prepare and deliver the list shall result in a penalty of an additional ten per cent added to the value of the property for the property tax year.
A.R.S. § 42-223(D) (emphasis added).
The penalty imposed by subsection D of section 42-223 is applicable only if the taxpayer fails to prepare and deliver a list of property within forty-five days after such is required by the assessor. Here, the Assessor only “required” or requested a list in 1990. It is undisputed that Aleasco prepared and delivered the 1990 list within the forty-five day period. Those lists voluntarily filed in 1988 and 1989 were not requested by the Assessor and therefore, not subject to the late filing penalty under the statute. Thus, Aleasco is entitled to a full refund of the penalty amount assessed under this subsection.
C. A.R.S. § 42-236(0
The third penalty the Assessor imposed was pursuant to subsection C of section 42-236 which provides:
If the assessor believes that any person has not returned a full and complete list of all property in his possession or control, he may make such investigation as he deems necessary to ascertain the extent and value of the property. The cost of the investigation shall be a charge against the county, but if the assessor finds more property than is returned in the list, the cost shall be assessed as a penalty against the property so found and shall be collected at the time the tax is collected.
A.R.S. § 42-236(C) (emphasis added).
It is undisputed the Assessor audited Aleasco and found property which was not fully and completely listed on Aleasco’s property lists. Not only was property reported at a fraction of its actual value, some properly was left off the lists entirely or improperly classified as non-assessable. Thus, the imposition of the investigation costs under section 42-236(0 was proper.
D. A.R.S. § 42-252(B)
The Assessor also assessed a penalty of $606,927.00 under section 42-252(B).
That section provides:
Any property knowingly concealed, removed, transferred or misrepresented by the owner or agent thereof to evade taxation shall, upon discovery, be liable for the amount of taxes due determined pursuant to section 42-236, subsection D, plus a penalty equal to the amount of taxes due for the year in which the discovery was made.
AR.S. § 42-252(B) (emphasis added).
Section 42-252(B) requires the Assessor to establish: (1) Aleasco or its agent, here Mr. Klein, (2) acted “knowingly,” (3) with an intent to “evade” taxes. Summary judgment is not appropriate when an issue raised involves a person’s intent or motives. Hay v. Duskin, 9 Ariz.App. 599, 455 P.2d 281 (App.1969); Christy v. Hoke, 127 Ariz. 169, 618 P.2d 1095 (App.1980). Here, the facts are in dispute as to the knowledge and reliance of Aleasco and Mr. Klein. Summary judgment is not appropriate on this penalty.
IY. Interest
The Assessor calculated interest due at the rate of 16% under section 42-608, which provides for the imposition of interest on delinquent taxes. That assessment was improper.
Section 42-608 provides:
Not later than the second Monday in each month the county treasurer shall have the unsecured personal property tax roll of the preceding month available, at which time the taxes spread on the roll shall be due and payable. Such taxes shall be considered delinquent thirty days thereafter. Delinquent taxes shall bear interest at the rate of sixteen per cent per year simple____
When the Assessor assesses escaped taxes and adds them to the tax roll the taxes will be delinquent thirty days after the county treasurer publishes the unsecured personal property roll. AR.S. § 42-608. Even though additional taxes are owed, however, there are no “delinquent” taxes until the taxes are added to the roll, the roll is published and the taxpayer fails to pay the taxes within thirty days.
Here, the additional assessment was made in November of 1992. According to the tax bill, the delinquent date for the additional assessment was December 9, 1992. Aleasco paid the taxes on December 1, 1992, prior to the delinquency date. Thus, the delinquency rate of 16% is not applicable.
CONCLUSION
The legislature placed the onus upon the taxpayer to correctly list his property. A taxpayer who improperly values his property may not avoid his true tax liability merely because the assessor did not audit the list prior to the taxpayer paying those taxes assessed using the taxpayer’s improper list. Rather, the Assessor has the power to audit those lists filed in prior years in order to determine if property has escaped and the extent of such property. Further, once the Assessor discovers escaped property, back taxes may be assessed for the three years preceding the year of discovery—the year the Assessor becomes cognizant of the escape.
The imposition of penalties comprised of both the cost of investigation and ten per cent of the amount determined to have escaped taxation are proper when a taxpayer improperly lists its property. However, for the Assessor to properly impose a ten per cent late filing penalty under section 42-223(D) the Assessor must have actually requested or demanded a list of property; such a penalty may not be based on a voluntary filing. The imposition of the delinquency rate of 16% interest is proper only where the taxes listed on the rolls are not timely paid. The delinquency rate may not be utilized simply because taxes are assessed as “escaped” taxes.
IT IS ORDERED granting in part and denying in part Plaintiffs Motion for Summary Judgment.
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED denying Defendants’ Cross-Motion for Summary Judgment.
This opinion is not a final, appealable judgment; other orders will follow. See Devenir Associates v. City of Phoenix, 169 Ariz. 500, 821 P.2d 161 (1991).
. Although Aleasco offers no explanation for its failure to make the requested information available in Arizona prior to Mr. McGuire's travelling to Washington to conduct the audit, the Court was not presented with any evidence which would indicate any guile on Aleasco’s part.
. In a letter confirming the Washington audit dates, the Assessor confirmed that the audit would cover the 1988 through 1991 tax years. The record contains no explanation of when the audit period was changed from the 1987 through 1990 period originally given to Aleasco in the November 7, 1990, audit notice. The parties do not raise an issue regarding the change in audit period, but the Court notes this so the record is clear as to the period actually audited.
. The Arizona Department of Revenue was also named as a defendant in this action and has responded to Aleasco’s motion for summary judgment mainly by incorporating those arguments made by Maricopa County. For clarity in this opinion, both the Department and the Maricopa County Assessor will be referred to as "the Assessor” since their positions are virtually identical.
. A.R.S. § 42-601.01 allows retailers or wholesalers to report personal property which is periodically leased or rented from their inventory on a prorated basis for ad valorem tax purposes. A.R.S. i 42-601.01(A). The property taxes are levied by prorating the value of the property for the number of days the property is leased or rented. A.R.S. § 42-601.01(B). However, persons primarily engaged in the business of renting personal property are expressly prohibited from using section 42-601.01 A.R.S. § 42-601.01(E). It is not disputed that Aleasco falls within the class of persons expressly prohibited from using the proration method of reporting since Aleasco’s primary business in Arizona is renting equipment.
. In the November 7, 1990, audit notice, 1987 was included in the Assessor's audit list. However, it does not appear that any back taxes were imposed for 1987, or even that 1987 was actually audited.
. In its moving papers Aleasco discusses the penalty for failure to file imposed under subsection A of section 42-223. However, it appears to the Court that the penalty was actually imposed under subsection D, not subsection A, of section 42-223.
. Due to the Court’s ruling that 1991 was improperly included in the additional assessment, only the timeliness of the 1988 and 1989 lists are relevant.
. The Assessor argues that when Mr. Klein picked up the personal property forms, Form 82520s, in 1989, 1990 and 1991 the Assessor "expected” them to be filled out and filed. Therefore, the Assessor argues, it had made a demand for the personal property lists. The Court does not find that merely because a taxpayer chooses to pick up blank forms from the Assessor that the Assessor has then made a “demand” or "request” sufficient for a late filing penalty to be assessed.
. The Assessor imposed the cost of investigation penalty authorized by A.R.S. § 42-236(C) in the amount of $3,860.00, computed as follows:
Fixed fee $ 40.00
191 Hours at $20/hr $3,820.00
$3,860.00
. If the imposition of the penalty under this section is determined to be proper, the penalty is only allowable up to the amount of taxes due for "the year in which the discovery was made,” not for the entire amount of taxes due under section 42-236(D). The Assessor improperly imposed a penalty equal to the entire amount of escaped taxes, $606,927.00, rather than limiting it to the amount of those taxes due for 1990, the year of discovery.
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OPINION
SCHAFER, Judge.
This case requires the Court to determine whether a previous Tax Court judge erred in dismissing a single appeal to the Tax Court filed jointly by two separate taxpayers to contest the valuations of two unrelated properties.
On October 15, 1992, Tye Smoole and Cliff Smoole filed a single appeal to the Tax Court contesting the 1992 valuations of two apartment complexes. 23One of the complexes, which at one time was owned by Cliff Smoole, is located at 6031 North 61st Street, Glendale, Arizona. The other complex, at one time owned by Tye Smoole, is located at 1110 East Highland, Phoenix, Arizona.
In June of 1992, several months prior to the filing of the appeal, both complexes were sold to Cotterkey Investments, Ltd., an Arizona Corporation (Cotterkey). The Smooles were directors of Cotterkey. Thus, on the date the joint appeal to the Tax Court was filed neither Tye nor CM Smoole was an actual owner of either of the subject properties.
In March of 1993, Maricopa County (the County) filed a motion to dismiss the joint appeal on the ground that the valuation appeals of two separate properties could not be joined in a single suit. In their response to the motion to dismiss, the Smooles argued that the court should take jurisdiction over the case and sever the two claims rather than dismiss the appeal. Also, in their response, it was revealed for the first time the two properties were actually owned by Cotter-key, not the Smooles. Upon learning that the named plaintiffs in the appeal (the Smooles) did not own either of the subject properties, the County promptly filed a supplemental motion to dismiss on the additional ground that since the record owner is the only one allowed to bring a tax appeal, the Tax Court lacked jurisdiction over the joint appeal.
On April 1, 1993, a second amended complaint was filed (without seeking permission of the court) adding Cotterkey as a plaintiff. The second amended complaint was filed five months after the November 1, 1992, statutory deadline for timely filing an appeal to the Tax Court of a 1992 valuation.
On May 6, 1992, Commissioner Robert Murphy, sitting as a Judge Pro Tem of the Tax Court, granted the motions to dismiss finding that the Tax Court lacked jurisdiction over the case. Judge Pro Tem Murphy’s ruling was based upon several findings. First, two separate taxpayers owning two separate parcels cannot bring a single joint appeal unless there is one discernable common cause which devalued the properties (there is no discernable common cause here). Second, severance of the two cases is properly considered only where some commonality exists between the parties to begin with (and there is no sufficient commonality here). Finally, the statutes governing tax appeals require that the property owner bring the appeal (the owner did not bring the appeal here).
Now, after entry of a final judgment dismissing the case, the Smooles bring a motion for a new' trial arguing that Judge Pro Tem Murphy erred in finding the Tax Court had no jurisdiction over the case and in dismissing the case. This Court declines the plaintiffs’ invitation to overturn Judge Pro Tem Murphy’s previous order of dismissal.
ANALYSIS
Article 6, section 31, of the Arizona Constitution provides for the appointment of judges pro tempore of all courts inferior to the Supreme Court. When a lawyer serves as a pro tem judge he (or she) has all the powers of a regularly elected judge; he is, in every sense of the word, a judge. Commissioner Murphy was appointed a superior court judge pro tem in this case.
The practice of one superior court judge reviewing or changing what another superior court has done is referred to as a “horizonal appeal.” It is frowned upon and is appropriate only in limited situations. Even though a superior court judge may disagree with another superior court judge’s decision, he (or she) may not review that decision unless the party requesting review demonstrates “new circumstances” equal to new evidence or previously unavailable evidence. Hibbs v. Calcot, Ltd., 166 Ariz. 210, 214, 801 P.2d 445, 449 (App.1990). See also Chanay v. Chittenden, 115 Ariz. 32, 34, 563 P.2d 287, 289 (1977); Union Rock & Materials Corp. v. Scottsdale Conference Center, 139 Ariz. 268, 272, 678 P.2d 453, 457 (App. 1983).
Here the arguments and evidence presented by the Smooles are virtually identical to what they presented to Judge Pro Tem Murphy. There is nothing new. The only variation from the previous argument is the citation of two cases, decided months after Judge Pro Tem Murphy dismissed the case and after the motion for new trial was filed. Not only are the cases inapposite, they do not constitute “new circumstances.”
The first of the two cases is Parsons v. Maricopa County, 176 Ariz. 307, 860 P.2d 1360 (Tax 1993). The Parsons case stands for the limited proposition that a single taxpayer may join all tax related claims he has against the Arizona Department of Revenue and a county in a single appeal to the Tax Court. This proposition was recognized by Judge Pro Tem Murphy in dismissing the original action brought. by the Smooles. Judge Pro Tem Murphy noted “where one taxpayer owns several parcels ... the Court will take jurisdiction because of the commonality of ownership.” The Smooles do not fit within the holding of Parsons because they are two separate individuals (non-owners) who attempted to bring a single, joint tax appeal for two separate and unrelated properties.
The second case relied on by the plaintiffs is 7200 Scottsdale Road Partners v. Maricopa County, 176 Ariz. 414, 861 P.2d 699 (Tax 1993). The Scottsdale Road Partners case provides that when a plaintiffs attorney makes an innocent mistake and names a non-party owner as plaintiff in a timely-filed tax appeal, and upon discovering the mistake immediately makes a motion to amend to name the proper plaintiff, and the government can articulate no prejudice, the Court will allow the amendment. That is not this case.
Judge Pro Tem Murphy addressed the question of whether Cotterkey should be belatedly admitted as a plaintiff. In response to the argument that the amendment should be allowed because counsel did not know the Smooles had transferred the properties to Cotterkey, Judge Pro Tem Murphy found it “extremely strange that the individuals did not inform counsel of such when the transfer of title was only a few months prior to the filing of the original appeal in October.”
Additionally, plaintiffs never made a motion to amend in order to properly add Cotterkey. Instead, they merely mentioned that Cotterkey is the owner in response to the County’s motion to dismiss and then waited nearly two weeks before filing a second amended complaint attempting to add Cotterkey as a plaintiff. Further, Cotterkey was never actually added as a plaintiff because the second amended complaint was filed without permission of the court and without “written consent of the adverse party.” Rule 15(a), Rules of Civil Procedure. From all the facts presented to this Court it appears the Smooles never attempted to follow proper procedures to add Cotterkey as a plaintiff. The findings of Judge Pro Tem Murphy on the mistaken identity as to the properties’ ownership and the plaintiffs’ failure to appropriately add Cotterkey takes this case outside the Scottsdale Road Partners case.
CONCLUSION
When a motion for new trial or a “horizontal appeal” is brought before a judge other than the judge who previously dismissed the case, the second judge will not grant the motion in the absence of new evidence or circumstances established by the moving party. The Smooles have presented no new evidence or circumstances warranting relief.
IT IS ORDERED denying plaintiffs’ motion for new trial.
This opinion is not a final, appealable judgment; other orders will follow. See Devenir Associates v. City of Phoenix, 169 Ariz. 500, 821 P.2d 161 (1991).
. On October 29, 1992, plaintiffs filed a first amended complaint. The first amended complaint named as plaintiffs only Tye and Cliff Smoole and contained no material changes from the original complaint.
|
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ORDER
A “Stipulated Motion to Dismiss Appeal” (Petition for Review) having been filed by the parties,
IT IS ORDERED granting the motion and dismissing Defendant-Appellant’s Petition for Review with prejudice, each party to bear its own fees and costs.
/s/ James Moeller
JAMES MOELLER
Vice Chief Justice
|
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OPINION
FIDEL, Judge.
James Hughes (husband) appeals from the trial court’s order that he pay $2100 per month in spousal maintenance until the death or remarriage of Aurora Hughes (wife). Husband argues that the award was excessive in duration and asks that we limit it to thirty months. We remand because the trial court did not make findings sufficient to sustain an award of indefinite duration. We leave it to the trial court to redetermine an appropriate award in light of the circumstances at the time of remand.
I
James and Aurora Hughes were married in 1982. Their marriage lasted seven years. They had no children together, and the children of previous marriages are grown. Wife, forty-four at dissolution, is a college graduate, but her employment experience was limited to two and a half years before this marriage as a social worker and director of a Head Start preschool program. During the marriage, wife held no job, but accompanied her husband in business-related travel and devoted considerable time and energy to entertaining business clients, who frequently stayed at the parties’ home on business trips. Wife testified that she is diabetic, suffers from a thyroid condition, and often does not feel well, but offered no medical evidence that illness restricts her ability to work. She did not testify that she was unwilling to seek some work, but stated she did not know what she could do or where to start.
Under a post-nuptial agreement, husband transferred the Hughes Cattle Company, his separate property, to the community. The trial court enforced this agreement and awarded each party a 50% share. Finding nonetheless that wife lacked sufficient property and capacity to meet her reasonable living expenses, the trial court awarded her $2100 per month in spousal maintenance until “she either dies or remarries.” The court offset this sum, however, against any dividends paid to wife as a Hughes shareholder.
II
Husband neither contests wife’s entitlement to maintenance nor the monthly amount that the trial court chose. Rather, husband argues that indefinite spousal maintenance violates public policy in this case because it gives wife no incentive to attempt to meet her reasonable needs from her own labors or, indeed, to seek employment at all.
We will not disturb a maintenance award absent an abuse of discretion. Hardin v. Hardin, 163 Ariz. 501, 502, 788 P.2d 1252, 1253 (App.1990). Under appropriate circumstances, a trial court has discretion to award maintenance until “death or remarriage.” See In re Marriage of Hinkston, 133 Ariz. 592, 594, 653 P.2d 49, 51 (App.1982). In Rainwater v. Rainwater, 177 Ariz. 500, 869 P.2d 176 (Ariz.App.1993), we recently rejected the argument that indefinite maintenance can only be awarded when the receiving spouse is “permanently unable to be self-sustaining.” Id. at 503, 869 P.2d at 179. We recognized that public policy favors fixed-term, transitional maintenance as a means to promote a diligent effort to become financially independent. Id. at 503, 869 P.2d at 179; see also Schroeder v. Schroeder, 161 Ariz. 316, 321, 778 P.2d 1212, 1217 (1989) (the aim of spousal maintenance “is to achieve independence for both parties and to require an effort toward independence by the party requesting maintenance”). Yet we also recognized, as in earlier decisions, that this goal “must be balanced with some realistic ap praisal of the probabilities that the receiving spouse will in fact subsequently be able to support herself in some reasonable approximation of the standard of living established during the marriage.” Rainwater, 177 Ariz. at 503, 869 P.2d at 179 (quoting Sommerfield v. Sommerfield, 121 Ariz. 575, 578, 592 P.2d 771, 774 (1979)).
Looking to the first side of the balance, we find no explanation for the trial court’s failure to require some “effort toward independence by the party requesting maintenance.” Schroeder, 161 Ariz. at 321, 778 P.2d at 1217. The trial court gave wife no incentive to attempt employment, yet made no finding that she could not be employed. It built in no offset for anticipated earnings, yet made no finding that she lacked ability, through appropriate employment, to meet some part of her reasonable needs. Cf. Rainwater, 177 Ariz. at 502, 869 P.2d at 178 (the trial court not only offset wife’s present earnings but also, in anticipation of a coming increase in her earning capacity, provided for a lowering of maintenance after passage of sufficient time to achieve college degree).
Wife testified in this case that she often felt unwell and was uncertain where to start back into the work force. But she offered no medical evidence that her illness is wholly disabling; nor did she testify that she feels unable to work at least part time. Indeed, wife indicated that she had put considerable time and effort into entertaining business clientele and that both she and her husband regarded these activities as beneficial to the family business. From such evidence we cannot imply a finding that wife would be unable, after a reasonable transitional period, to generate some earnings toward her own support.
On the other side of the balance, this trial court, unlike the court in Rainwater, recited no counterweights to the goal of promoting mutual financial independence. Our spousal maintenance statute contains many such counterweights, including marital standard of living, marital duration, contribution of the receiving spouse to the earning ability of the other, and reduction of income or career opportunities by the receiving spouse for the benefit of the other. See Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. (“A.R.S.”) § 25-319(B)(l), (2), (6), and (7) (1991).
In Rainwater, we said of these considerations that “there will be case-to-case variance in the degree to which the marital standard of living may be seen as a product of the marriage. For this reason, such factors as length of the marriage, the receiving spouse’s contributions to the education and earning capacity of the paying spouse, and the receiving spouse’s reduction in income or career opportunities for the benefit of the family home and children bear heavily on the trial court’s effort to establish an equitable award. See A.R.S. § 25-319(B)(2), (6), and (7).” Rainwater, at 504, 869 P.2d at 180.
Here, in the absence of any explanation by the trial court, we cannot find in this constellation of factors a reasonable basis for the trial court’s award. The parties were of mature years when they married, their marriage was of relatively short duration, and there is no evidence that their standard of living increased, through their common efforts or otherwise, during its term. Wife made no contribution to the husband’s education or earning capacity. And although she left a job that paid $16,000 annually and took no pay during the marriage for her efforts in support of her husband’s business, she received a half interest in the business when the marriage reached its end. Accordingly, the record does not suggest, and the trial court did not find, that countervailing factors subordinate the objective of requiring an effort toward independence by the receiving spouse.
Had either party requested findings of fact or conclusions of law in this case, the trial court would have been obliged to specifically address each section 25-319(B) factor that the parties placed at issue. A.R.S. Rules of Civ.P., Rule 52(a); Elliott v. Elliott, 165 Ariz. 128, 134, 796 P.2d 930, 936 (App.1990). In the absence of such a request, such detailed findings are not required. Id. We conclude, however, that the trial court, at a minimum, was obliged to explain what, if any, factors in this case outweigh the public policy that ordinarily requires some effort toward independence by the party requesting maintenance. In the absence of such an explanation, the trial court’s exercise of discretion is essentially unreviewable; and we have been unable to supply the missing explanation from our independent review.
For the foregoing reasons, we vacate the trial court’s award of indefinite spousal maintenance, and remand for proceedings consistent with this opinion.
EHRLICH, P.J., and TAYLOR, J., concur.
. Because the trial court awarded each party a half interest in the corporation, it did not resolve an evidentiary dispute over its value. In post-trial memoranda, wife argued that the corporation was worth at least 1.2 million dollars, and husband argued that it was worth no more than $532,000.
. A.R.S. § 25-319(B) provides:
The maintenance order shall be in such amounts and for such periods of time as the court deems just, without regard to marital misconduct, and after considering all relevant factors, including:
1. The standard of living established during the marriage.
2. The duration of the marriage.
3. The age, employment history, earning ability and the physical and emotional condition of the spouse seeking maintenance.
4. The ability of the spouse from whom maintenance is sought to meet his or her needs while meeting those of the spouse seeking maintenance.
5. The comparative financial resources of the spouses, including their comparative earning abilities in the labor market.
6. The contribution of the spouse seeking maintenance to the earning ability of the other spouse.
7. The extent to which the spouse seeking maintenance has reduced his or her income or career opportunities for the benefit of the other spouse.
8. The ability of both parties after the the dissolution to contribute to the future educational costs of their mutual children.
9. The financial resources of the party seeking maintenance, including marital property apportioned to such party, and such party’s ability to meet his or her needs independently.
10. The time necessary to acquire sufficient education or training to enable the party seeking maintenance to find appropriate employment and whether such education or training is readily available.
11. Excessive or abnormal expenditures, destruction, concealment or fraudulent disposition of community, joint tenancy and other property held in common.
|
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OPINION
TOCI, Presiding Judge.
Deborah Garrison (“Garrison”), a friend of Charles L. Shano (“decedent”), was a named beneficiary in a holographic will executed two days before decedent’s death. At the time of decedent’s death, he was married to his surviving spouse, Thelma Shano (“Thelma”), although dissolution proceedings were pending. Garrison’s attorney, Ronald L. Maksym (“Maksym”), filed the holographic will for probate and obtained informal appointment of Garrison as the special administrator for decedent’s estate. Later, when Thelma requested probate of an earlier will of decedent, the court suspended Garrison’s powers because of the potential conflict between Thelma’s interests and those of Garrison. After the parties agreed to appointment of an independent special administrator for decedent’s estate, Maksym associated as co-counsel with the attorney for the special administrator.
Maksym appeals from the probate court’s order disqualifying him as counsel for the special administrator and the court’s judgment rejecting his request for payment of his attorney’s fees from the estate and from Thelma’s half of the community property. We must decide: (1) whether an attorney who represents the beneficiary of a holo graphic will disinheriting decedent’s surviving spouse may later represent the personal representative of decedent’s estate and oppose the surviving spouse’s claims against the estate; (2) whether a probate court may reject a request for fees by a special administrator’s attorney who, because of a conflict of interest, has violated his fiduciary duty; and (3) whether such attorney may recover for services rendered to the estate before such violations occurred.
We hold that the probate court did not abuse its discretion in disqualifying Maksym as the special administrator’s attorney. Garrison’s interests were clearly adverse to those of Thelma. The record establishes that Maksym violated both his ethical duty to Garrison and his fiduciary obligation to Thelma when, after representing Garrison, he undertook representation of the estate and opposed Thelma’s claims against the estate. We also hold that the probate court did not abuse its discretion when it denied Maksym’s application for compensation. The record contains substantial evidence that Maksym’s inability to exercise independent judgment on behalf of the estate caused excessive cost and delay in administering decedent’s estate. Thus, we affirm the probate court’s order and judgment.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
Decedent died on February 24, 1989. He was survived by his wife, Thelma, and three adult sons, David, Michael and Steven. In 1986, the decedent had executed a will that left his estate to his wife and to the Shano Family Trust. Under that will, Thelma was to be the personal representative of the estate, and if she did not serve, David and Michael were to serve jointly.
At the time of his death, however, the decedent was separated from his wife and involved in dissolution proceedings. Two days before he died, the decedent drafted a holographic will leaving 25% of his estate to Garrison; 25% to his sister, Lillian Lapin; 25% to his son, Michael; 15% to Michael’s infant son, Jason; and 10% to various educational institutions and charities. The decedent did not name a personal representative in the holographic will.
On March 2, 1989, Garrison, through her attorney, Maksym, filed the holographic will with the court. Alleging a need to protect the estate pending appointment of a personal representative, Garrison also sought informal appointment as special administrator pursuant to Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. (“AR.S.”) section 14-3614. The probate registrar granted the application and appointed Garrison as special administrator.
In June 1989, the probate court granted Garrison’s motion for summary judgment, filed by Maksym, to have the holographic will admitted to probate as the last will and testament of decedent. The following day, however, David and Michael filed a petition, which Thelma later joined, seeking suspension of Garrison’s powers as special administrator. They also requested probate of the will that decedent had executed in 1986 and sought appointment as special administrators and personal representatives of the estate.
After observing that the Shanos’ pleadings disputed the validity of the holographic will, the probate court suspended Garrison’s powers as special administrator. The court also ruled that neither David nor Michael should be appointed and advised the parties that, in the absence of their agreement, it would appoint a third party as special administrator.
Later, pursuant to the parties’ agreement, the probate court appointed Fiduciary Services, Inc. (“Fiduciary”) as special administrator of the estate. Fiduciary signed letters of special administration on September 21, 1989, and with Charles J. Dyer (“Dyer”) as its attorney, Fiduciary began to administer the estate. Approximately six weeks later, Dyer filed a notice that Maksym would appear in association with him on behalf of Fiduciary.
Thelma then asserted several claims against the estate. First, she requested that the estate pay her attorney’s fees incurred in the dissolution action pending at decedent’s death. Second, she asked reimbursement for certain community debts paid by her from separate funds. Third, she claimed the proceeds from several life insurance policies on decedent’s life. Finally, she asked for pay ment of certain statutory allowances to which she was entitled as surviving spouse.
After approximately three months passed without any response to her claims, Thelma filed a petition asking the court to order the special administrator to pay her claims against the estate. Thelma also filed a petition asking the probate court to order payment of the statutory allowances authorized by A.R.S. sections 14-2401 through -2403. Maksym and Dyer, acting on behalf of Fiduciary, opposed Thelma’s claims.
Next, Thelma moved for summary judgment to have one of the insurance policies declared to be her separate property. Maksym, appearing on behalf of the special administrator, filed a response opposing the motion. During the hearing, Thelma submitted evidence showing that she.had paid the premiums on that policy solely from her separate funds and that the decedent had agreed to keep the policy in force for her benefit if she made these payments. The probate court determined that Thelma was entitled to summary judgment and awarded her the insurance policy as her separate property.
In the meantime, Michael filed a motion, in which Thelma joined, to disqualify Maksym as counsel for Fiduciary because of a conflict of interest. Maksym filed Fiduciary’s response opposing the motion, claiming that his association with Fiduciary was proper. In his affidavit in support of Fiduciary’s response, Maksym stated “[subsequent to October 31, 1989, [he] had no contractual basis for billing [his] services to Garrison.” After a hearing, the probate court, without making findings or conclusions, entered an order disqualifying Maksym as counsel for the special administrator. Maksym no longer appeared for Fiduciary, except to file an unsuccessful motion for a new trial on the issue of his disqualification.
On November 21, 1990, Thelma’s remaining claims proceeded to trial. Fiduciary, represented by Dyer, lost on all issues. Thelma was granted judgment against the estate for the attorney’s fees she had incurred in the dissolution proceedings. She was awarded the proceeds of all of the other insurance policies as her sole and separate property. She also obtained favorable rulings on her requests for the statutory allowances authorized by A.R.S. sections 14-2401 through -2403.
Fiduciary entered into a stipulation with Thelma for division and distribution of most of the community debts and assets. The stipulation authorized the estate to pay for all the fees and costs incurred in connection with administration of the estate. The probate court signed an order, approved by all of the attorneys who had appeared in the case except Maksym. The court mailed a copy of the stipulation to each of the attorneys, including Maksym.
On March 5, 1991, Maksym filed an application for compensation for the legal services he had provided to both Garrison and Fiduciary. He claimed approximately $10,000 in fees for his representation of Garrison and approximately $10,000 for his services to Fiduciary. He requested that one-half of his fees be paid from the decedent’s share of the community property and one-half be paid from Thelma’s share of the community property. Without making findings or conclusions, the probate court entered a judgment denying Maksym’s application for compensation.
Maksym timely filed two notices of appeal: one from the order disqualifying his association with the special administrator and the other from the judgment denying his request for compensation. This court consolidated the two appeals.
DISCUSSION
1. Maksym’s Derivative Fiduciary Duty To Thelma
We conclude that because Maksym represented conflicting interests, the probate court did not abuse its discretion in disqualifying Maksym. As attorney for the special administrator, Maksym owed a derivative fiduciary duty to the successors to decedent’s estate, including the surviving spouse, Thelma. Maksym’s representation of Garrison, one of the beneficiaries named in decedent’s holographic will, materially limited Maksym’s ability to carry out his fiduciary duty to Thelma.
We begin by observing that the special administrator has a fiduciary duty to those who succeed to decedent’s estate. A.R.S. § 14r-3703(A) (“A personal representative is a fiduciary” and “shall use the authority conferred upon him ... for the best interests of successors to the estate.”); A.R.S. § 14-1201(32) (personal representative includes special administrator). An estate’s successors are “those persons, other than creditors, who are entitled to property of a decedent under his will or [Title 14].” A.R.S. § 14-1201(45). Under Title 14, Thelma was entitled, as surviving spouse, to receive from the estate an allowance in lieu of homestead, an exempt property allowance, and a family allowance. A.R.S. §§ 14r-2401, -2402, and - 2403. Thus, although Thelma was not a named beneficiary in decedent’s holographic will, she was by definition a successor to decedent’s estate.
Furthermore, probating the surviving spouse’s interest in the community property creates a special relationship between the personal representative and the surviving spouse. According to A.R.S. section 14-3101(A), the special administrator was entitled to possess and administer Thelma’s interest in the community property to pay the community debts, at least until the time for filing creditors’ claims had expired. Because Fiduciary was entitled to manage Thelma’s interest in the community property, Fiduciary clearly owed Thelma a fiduciary duty. See § 14-3703(A). See also § 14-3712 (personal representative is liable to interested persons for damages from breach of fiduciary duty) and § 14-1201(22) (surviving spouse is an “interested person”). Consequently, we reject Maksym’s argument that the special administrator’s duty extended only to the beneficiaries of the estate under the holographic will and that the special administrator satisfied its duty by protecting only the interests of those beneficiaries.
The parties have not cited, and we have not found, any case that holds that the attorney for a personal representative has a fiduciary duty to successors to the estate. This court held, however, in Fickett v. Superior Court of Pima County, 27 Ariz.App. 793, 795-96, 558 P.2d 988, 990-91 (1976), that the attorney for a guardian owes a duty of reasonable care to the guardian’s ward. In deciding Fickett, we relied in part upon a California case extending an attorney’s duty of reasonable care beyond his client, the testator, to the intended beneficiary of a will drawn by the attorney. We said, ‘“public policy requires that the attorney exercise his position of trust and superior knowledge responsibly so as not to affect adversely persons whose rights and interests are certain and foreseeable.” ’ Id., at 795, 558 P.2d at 990 (citation omitted).
We conclude that, at least where the surviving spouse is concerned, similar considerations apply to an attorney employed to represent the personal representative of an estate. First, “[t]he lawyer is being compensated from the estate or trust, not by the fiduciary personally. His duty of loyalty and competence thus runs beyond the fiduciary to those whose property is being managed by the fiduciary.” Jeanette K Geiser, et al, Arizona Probate Code Practice Manual, § 1.6 at 5 (3rd ed. 1989). As discussed above, the surviving spouse is one whose interest in the community property is managed by the personal representative. Second, in Fickett, although the guardian and not the attorney controlled the affairs of the guardianship, we held that the attorney for the guardianship owed a fiduciary duty to the ward. A stronger ease exists for imposing a similar duty on the personal representative’s attorney, who generally has some control over the administration of the decedent’s estate. Because of his superior knowledge and position of trust, the attorney for the personal representative is in an excellent position to exert a positive influence on the personal representative to properly discharge the latter’s fiduciary duty to the surviving spouse. The attorney representing the personal representative is more likely to exert such influence if the attorney’s duty to the surviving spouse is congruent with that of his employer, the personal representative.
We turn now to the question of whether Maksym represented conflicting interests. We begin with the principle that the attorney for the personal representative of an estate must be neutral and should not favor the interests of any claimant to the estate. Ronald E. Mallen and Jeffrey M. Smith, 2 Legal Malpractice, § 26.5 at 602 (3rd ed. 1989). Thus, Maksym owed the same duty of fairness and impartially to Thelma as he owed to all the beneficiaries of decedent’s holographic will, including Garrison. But, because Maksym also represented Garrison in probating the holographic will, he owed to her as a client a duty of undeviating and single allegiance. See Parsons v. Continental National American Group, 113 Ariz. 223, 227, 550 P.2d 94, 98 (1976). Consequently, when Maksym undertook the representation of Fiduciary, and with such representation the corresponding duty to Thelma of fairness and impartiality, he undertook the representation of conflicting interests.
The litigation over the life insurance policy aptly demonstrates the conflict between Thelma’s interests and those of Garrison. A policy insuring decedent’s life named Thelma as beneficiary, but in his holographic will the decedent attempted to change the beneficiary from Thelma to his estate. As attorney for Fiduciary, Maksym advocated that the insurance policy proceeds be paid to the estate. Had Maksym been successful, Garrison would have increased her share of the estate at Thelma’s expense.
Other positions taken by Maksym on behalf of the estate also involved actual conflicts between Garrison’s interests and those of Thelma. For example, Garrison would have directly benefitted through an increased share of the estate if the estate had successfully denied Thelma the statutory allowances authorized by A.R.S. sections 14-2401 through -2403. Similarly, Garrison’s share of the estate would have increased had the estate prevailed against Thelma’s claim for attorney’s fees in the divorce action. Finally, Garrison would have benefitted and Thelma would have suffered a detriment if Maksym had successfully assessed part of his attorney’s fees to Thelma’s share of the community property rather than to the decedent’s estate.
Generally, attorneys must avoid representing clients whose interests conflict. Bicas v. Superior Court In and For Pima Cty., 116 Ariz. 69, 73, 567 P.2d 1198, 1202 (App.1977); 17 A.R.S. Rules of the Supreme Court of Arizona, Rules of Professional Conduct, Rule 42, ER (“ER”) 1.7. Specifically, “[a] lawyer is prohibited from representing a client if ... [that] representation would be ‘materially limited’ by the lawyer’s other interests or responsibilities.” Charles W. Wolfram, Modem Legal Ethics, § 7.1.5 at 323-24 (1986); ER 1.7(b).
The competing interests between Garrison and Thelma prevented Maksym from exercising the independent judgment necessary to discharge his fiduciary duty to Thelma as surviving spouse. See ER 1.7 comment (“Loyalty to a client is ... impaired when a lawyer cannot consider, recommend or carry out an appropriate course of action for the client because of the lawyer’s other responsibilities or interests.”). Because Maksym owed undeviating loyalty to his client, Garrison, he could not discharge the duty of fairness and impartiality he owed to Thelma.
In the very nature of things such must be the law. The old proverb, “No man can serve two masters,” or, as the Spanish put it, “He who has two masters to serve must lie to one of them,” is as true now as it ever was, and is as applicable in the administration .of estates as elsewhere.
Farnsworth v. Hatch, 47 Utah 62, 151 P. 537, 541 (1915) (court properly removed administrator whose claim the estate resisted and which resulted in a lawsuit). Thus, Mak sym’s relationship with Garrison materially limited his representation of Thelma. ER 1.7(b). Consequently, Maksym should not have associated with Fiduciary.
In an effort to justify his dual representation, Maksym gives the example of the beneficiary of an estate who, after being appointed personal representative, hires his personal lawyer to represent the estate. Maksym’s example assumes no conflict among the persons interested in the estate. Common representation of persons having similar interests is proper if the risk of adverse effect on those persons is minimal and the attorney complies with the provisions of ER 1.7(b). ER 1.7 comment (Conflicts in Litigation). Here, however, no evidence exists that Maksym complied with E.R. 1.7(b)(2) by consulting with Thelma and obtaining her consent to common representation. Furthermore, given the contrary interests of Thelma and Garrison, obtaining Thelma’s consent would avail Maksym nothing because he could not have reasonably believed that his representation of Garrison did not have a substantial risk of an adverse effect on Thelma. See ER 1.7(b)(1).
Finally, Maksym seems to argue that because the attorney-client relationship with Garrison had terminated before Fiduciary employed him, he is not barred from representing the estate. The only support for this claim is Maksym’s affidavit that states that seven days before associating with Dyer as co-counsel for Fiduciary, Maksym had no basis on which to bill Garrison for legal services. This ambiguous statement does not negate an attorney-client relationship between Maksym and Garrison.
But even if Maksym had terminated his relationship with Garrison, he had a continuing duty of loyalty to her. A lawyer’s overriding duty of loyalty to a client is a basic tenet of the attorney-client relationship. Inherent in this principle is the concept that no other interest or consideration should be permitted to interfere with the lawyer’s loyalty to his client. E.R. 1.7 comment (Loyalty to a Client); see also § Wolfram 7.1.3. at 316-17. Because the duty of loyalty is founded on the influence created by the attorney-client relationship, rather than the relationship itself, the duty of loyalty may continue after the relationship is terminated. Estate of Richards, 4 Kan.App.2d 26, 602 P.2d 122, 127 (1979); see also Unified Sewerage Agency v. Jelco, 646 F.2d 1339, 1345 n. 4 (9th Cir.1981) (duty of loyalty to former client continues even though attorney withdraws from representation of former client after motion to disqualify is filed).
In attempting to protect the confidentiality and loyalty interests of a former client, a lawyer’s representation of a new client may be hobbled. Wolfram, § 7.4.2. at 362. For this reason, ER 1.7 prohibits the representation of the second client when that representation would be materially limited by the lawyer’s responsibilities to the first client. Here, Maksym’s actions on behalf of Fiduciary in denying Thelma’s legitimate claims for statutory allowances give rise to an inference that his loyalty to Garrison tainted his representation of the estate and Thelma.
2. Standard of Review
A trial court may disqualify an attorney who represents conflicting interests. Gos-A-Tron of Ariz. v. Union Oil Co. of California, 534 F.2d 1322, 1324 (9th Cir. 1976), cert. denied, 429 U.S. 861, 97 S.Ct. 164, 50 L.Ed.2d 139 (1976). Unless there is an abuse of discretion, we will not disturb a trial court’s decision in a disqualification proceeding. William H. Raley Co. v. Superior Court, 149 Cal.App.3d 1042, 197 Cal.Rptr. 232, 237 (4 Dist.1983). No abuse of discretion occurs if there is a reasonable basis in the record to support the trial court’s judgment. Grand Real Estate, Inc. v. Sirignano, 139 Ariz. 8, 14, 676 P.2d 642, 648 (App.1983). Although no request was made by either party for express findings and conclusions regarding Maksym’s disqualification, and the court did not make its own findings and conclusions, we will imply the necessary findings and conclusions, supported by the rec ord, to sustain the judgment. Coronado Co., Inc. v. Jacome’s Dept. Store, 129 Ariz. 137, 139, 629 P.2d 553, 555 (App.1981). Here, the record establishes that Maksym breached his derivative fiduciary duty of neutrality and impartiality to the surviving spouse, and thus a reasonable basis exists for the probate court’s decision. We will not disturb the probate court’s judgment.
. 3. Maksym’s Fees For Services Rendered the Special Administrator
Maksym contends that he is entitled to $10,000 in compensation for his representation of Garrison and an additional $10,000 for services rendered to the special administrator. He argues that Thelma’s portion of the community property should pay half of these fees and that the estate should pay the other half. We disagree.
Because “[e]xpenses of administration shall be charged against separate property and decedent’s half of the community property,” AR.S. section 14—3902(C)(3), the probate court had no authority to award fees from Thelma’s half of the community. See AR.S. § 14-3101(A) (community property is subject to administration only to extent necessary to pay community claims). Maksym’s entitlement to compensation in this case must come solely from the decedent’s estate.
We conclude, however, that the probate court properly denied Maksym’s request that the estate compensate him for his services to Fiduciary. Although a personal representative or special administrator who acts in good faith may receive reasonable fees from the estate, A.R.S. section 14-3720, the estate will not be required to pay fees caused by malfeasance of the personal representative. Tindall v. State By & Through Tex. Dept., etc., 671 S.W.2d 691, 693 (Tex. App.1984). We believe a similar rule should apply to an attorney for the special administrator who has violated his ethical and legal duty to a successor to decedent’s estate.
The probate court could have reasonably inferred from the record that Maksym’s divided loyalty and lack of independent judgment on behalf of the special administrator caused much of the litigation involving the estate. The probate court also could have reasonably inferred from the favorable resolution of Thelma’s claims against the estate that Maksym’s opposition to such claims on behalf of the special administrator was merit-less. Under these circumstances, the estate should not have been required to pay Maksym for services arising after he undertook the representation of Fiduciary. Coronado, 129 Ariz. at 139, 629 P.2d at 555 (absent express findings, we imply findings which are reasonably supported by the record).
4. Maksym’s Entitlement To Attorney’s Fees For Services Performed For the Estate While He was Representing Garrison
We also conclude that the probate court did not abuse its discretion in rejecting Maksym’s request that the estate pay him for legal services rendered to Garrison in connection with probate of the holographic will. In re Estate of Brown v. First Nat’l Bank of Ariz., 137 Ariz. 309, 670 P.2d 414 (App.1983), this court departed from the established rule that the only attorney’s fees payable from the assets of the estate are those of lawyers hired by the personal representative. Id. at 311-12, 670 P.2d at 416-17. We found that the provisions of AR.S. section 14-1103 had expanded the jurisdiction of the probate court over the granting of fees. We concluded that the general rule of equity, that persons who employ attorneys for the preservation of a common fund may be entitled to have their attorney’s fees paid out of that fund, was applicable in the probate setting. Id. at 312, 670 P.2d at 417.
Athough Maksym’s legal services in obtaining admission of the holographic will to probate arguably benefitted the estate pursuant to the common fund doctrine, nothing in Brown requires the estate to pay attorney’s fees in this situation. To the contrary, Brown states, “[w]hether and to what extent such fees should be allowed is a question best left to the probate court to decide in the sound exercise of its discretion on a case-by-case basis.” Id. at 313, 670 P.2d at 418 (emphasis added); see also Id. at 314, 670 P.2d at 419 (“We do not hold that as a matter of fact and law [that an attorney is] entitled to an award of fees in [a probate case].”).
Had Maksym’s claim for fees resulted exclusively from having the holographic will admitted to probate, the probate court’s denial of Maksym’s fee may have constituted an abuse of discretion. Maksym, however, chose to associate as counsel for the special administrator after first representing Garrison. The resulting conflict of interest between Garrison and Thelma contributed to waste and delay in the handling of the estate and caused Thelma to incur unnecessary attorney’s fees. Under these circumstances, the probate court’s refusal to impose on the estate those fees was not an abuse of discretion. The court’s decision is supported by the record. See Coronado, 129 Ariz. at 139, 629 P.2d at 555.
CONCLUSION
For the reasons set forth in this opinion, we affirm the probate court. Appellees request attorney’s fees on the basis that this appeal was frivolous. Because appellees do not substantiate their request, however, we find no basis for awarding attorney’s fees.
CLABORNE and GRANT, JJ., concur.
. ER 1.7 provides in part:
(a) A lawyer shall not represent a client if the representation of that client will be directly adverse to another client, unless:
(1) The lawyer reasonably believes that the representation will not adversely affect the relationship with the other client; and
(2) each client consents after consultation.
(b) A lawyer shall not represent a client if the representation of that client may be materially limited by the lawyer's responsibilities to another client or to a third person, or by the lawyer’s own interest, unless:
(1) The lawyer reasonably believes the representation will not be adversely affected; and
(2) the client consents after consultation____
. See also Barth v. Platt, 52 Ariz. 33, 37, 78 P.2d 995, 996-97 (1938) (court properly removed administrator whose private interests conflicted with his official duties); In re Bogert’s Estate, 76 Utah 566, 290 P. 947, 949-50 (1930) (court properly removed administrator who hired attorney to administer estate and litigate administrator’s personal claim against estate).
. Section 1103 states: "Unless displaced by the particular provisions of this title, the principles of law and equity supplement its provisions."
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OPINION
NOYES, Judge.
The question presented is whether an out-of-state DWI conviction is a conviction within the meaning of Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. (A.R.S.) section 28-445(A)(7), which provides for mandatory revocation of a driver’s license on conviction of “a second charge of violating [A.R.S.] § 28-692, within a period of sixty months.” We agree with the trial court’s conclusion that an out-of-state DWI conviction is not a conviction of “section 28-692.” We express disagreement with Parker v. Prins, 157 Ariz. 15, 17, 754 P.2d 344, 346 (App.1988), the sole case relied on by Appellant Department of Transportation (Department).
I.
In April 1991, Appellee (Goulder) pleaded guilty to a charge of driving while under the influence of intoxicating liquor (DWI) in violation of A.R.S. section 28-692. A few days later, the Department notified Goulder by mail that his driver’s license was revoked pursuant to AR.S. section 28-445(A)(7), which provides:
A The department shall, in addition to the grounds for mandatory revocation provided for in the uniform act regulating traffic on highways, forthwith revoke the license of a driver upon receiving a record of the driver’s conviction of any of the following offenses, when the conviction has become final:
7. Conviction, or forfeiture of bail not vacated, upon a second or subsequent charge of violating § 28-692, within a period of sixty months.
(emphasis added).
The Department’s theory was that the Arizona DWI conviction qualified as a “second or subsequent charge of violating § 28-692” because Goulder had been convicted of DWI in Nebraska in 1987.
Goulder filed a complaint in superior court for judicial review of the revocation pursuant to AR.S, sections 28-451 and 12-901 to -914. The superior court reversed the mandatory revocation and remanded to the Department for a hearing pursuant to A.R.S. section 28-446, the permissive revocation statute. The Department appealed. We have jurisdiction pursuant to AR.S. sections 12-120.21(A) and -901 to -914.
II.
The Department argues that the Nebraska DWI conviction is a conviction of violating “§ 28-692” because AR.S. section 28-443(A) provides:
The department may suspend or revoke the license of a resident of this state ... upon receiving notice of the conviction of the person in another state of an offense therein which, if committed in this state, would be grounds for the suspension or revocation of the person’s driver’s license.
This statute relates to a permissive license revocation; it has no applicability to the mandatory license revocation provisions of AR.S. section 28-445(A)(7). The Department’s failure to distinguish between the permissive and the mandatory license revocation statutes gains support from Parker v. Prins, in which Division Two of this Court held that a conviction from Wyoming was a “DWI conviction” for purposes of AR.S. section 28-445(A)(7). 157 Ariz. at 17, 754 P.2d at 346. The Court stated in Parker:
Wyoming convicted Parker of DWI based on aiding and abetting. AR.S. § 28-443 provides for license revocation for an offense which, “if committed in this state, would be grounds for ... revocation ...”; AR.S. § 28-05 provides for mandatory revocation for conviction of a second or subsequent DWI conviction within a 60-month period. The Wyoming conviction constituted such an event, mandating revocation of Parker’s license. AR.S. § 28-1051.
Id. (emphasis added).
We conclude from the legislative history and from the plain language of relevant Ari zona statutes that Parker’s interpretation of AR.S. section 28-445 is erroneous for the following four reasons.
A.
The first duty in interpreting a statute is to determine and give effect to the legislature’s intent. See Chaparral Dev. v. RMED Int'l, Inc., 170 Ariz. 309, 311, 823 P.2d 1317, 1319 (App.1991). “If the language is plain and unambiguous, then no construction is necessary and our duty is simply to apply that plain and unambiguous language.” Id. We must follow the language of a statute if its clear meaning does not lead to an absurdity. See Arizona Civil Rts. Div. v. Hughes Air Corp., 139 Ariz. 309, 311, 678 P.2d 494, 496 (App.1983).
Parker interprets A.R.S. section 28-445(A)(7) generically, to include any DWT conviction, but the statute refers specifically to an Arizona DWI conviction. “A recognized rule of statutory construction holds' that an expression of one or more items of a class indicates the intent of the legislature to exclude all items of the same class not included.” Greves v. Ohio State Life Ins. Co., 170 Ariz. 66, 74, 821 P.2d 757, 765 (App.1991) (citing Pima County v. Heinfeld, 134 Ariz. 133, 134, 654 P.2d 281, 282 (1982)). That the statute includes Arizona’s DWT statute specifically is indication of legislative intention to exclude out-of-state DWI convictions from that statute.
B.
Statutes relating to the same subject matter should be read in pari materia to determine legislative intent and to maintain harmony. See State v. Thomason, 162 Ariz. 363, 366, 783 P.2d 809, 812 (App.1989). Other Arizona motor vehicle statutes clearly indicate an intention to include DWI convictions from other states. For example, AR.S. section 28-443(A) confers on the Department discretionary authority to revoke a resident’s license on notification of “the conviction of the person in another state of an offense therein which, if committed in this state, would be grounds for the suspension or revocation of the person’s driver’s license.” (emphasis added). Similarly, A.R.S. section 28-446(A)(7) confers on the Department discretionary authority to revoke a driver’s license on evidence that the driver “[h]as committed an offense in another state which if committed in this state would be grounds for suspension or revocation.” (emphasis added).
Another example is A.R.S. section 28-692.-01(E), which provides enhanced punishment “[i]f a person is convicted of a second violation of § 28-692 or is convicted of a violation of § 28-692 and has previously been convicted of an act in another state which if committed in this state would be a violation of § 28-692 within a period of sixty months.” (emphasis added). There is no such language in AR.S. section 28-445(A)(7).
C.
When construing a statute, this Court may consider prior statutes relating to the same subject matter, as well as the development of a statute. See State v. Sweet, 143 Ariz. 266, 271, 693 P.2d 921, 926 (1985). The historical notes to A.R.S. section 28-445(A)(7) indicate that a 1982 amendment substituted the words “violating § 28-692” for the words “driving or being in actual physical control of a vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor.” Laws 1982, Ch. 234, § 2. This amendment is further evidence of a legislative intention to limit the mandatory revocation statute to violations of AR.S. section 28-692 and to leave out-of-state DWT convictions for consideration under the permissive revocation statute, AR.S. section 28-446.
D.
Statutory provisions are to be read in the context of related provisions and of the overall statutory scheme. See Grant v. Board of Regents, 133 Ariz. 527, 529, 652 P.2d 1374, 1376 (1982). The goal is to achieve consistency among the related statutes. See State v. Wilhite, 160 Ariz. 228, 230, 772 P.2d 582, 584 (App.1989). Construing AR.S. section 28-445(A)(7) in the manner argued by the Department, and in the manner summarily stated in Parker, would result in statutory redundancy: A person with an out-of-state DWI conviction within sixty months of an Arizona DWI conviction, or vice versa, would become subject to both the mandatory revocation provisions of A.R.S. section 28-445 and the permissive revocation provisions of A.R.S. section 28-446. It makes more sense to read these statutes as applying to different situations.
One reason the legislature may have limited mandatory driver’s license revocation to a second or subsequent violation of A.R.S. “§ 28-692” is that, when the Department considers official records of an Arizona DWI conviction, there is no need for inquiry beyond the face of the records themselves. On the other hand, determining whether an out-of-state conviction is the same as an Arizona DWI conviction could involve questions of fact about other state laws and records. Because the Department must at times engage in factual inquiry regarding out-of-state convictions, it makes sense that the legislature gave the Department permissive authority to exercise discretion based on the facts and, where warranted, revoke a driver’s license based on an out-of-state DWI conviction.
The statute with applicability to Goulder’s Arizona DWI conviction is the permissive revocation statute, A.R.S. section 28-446, not the mandatory revocation statute, A.R.S. section 28-445.
III.
A.R.S. section 28-445(A)(7) does not include an out-of-state DWI conviction. It includes only what it says it includes: “[c]onviction, or forfeiture of bail not vacated, upon a second or subsequent charge of violating § 28-692, within a period of sixty months.”
The judgment of the trial court is affirmed.
GARBARINO, P.J., and McGREGOR, J., concur.
. A.R.S. section 28-445(A)(7) was amended, effective September 21, 1991, to delete the words “or subsequent” from the statute. See Laws 1991, Ch. 104, § 8.
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OPINION
VOSS, Presiding Judge.
The sole issue for our review is whether the trial court erred when it dismissed, with prejudice, certain delinquency petitions filed against the juvenile. We hold that the juvenile court may only dismiss a case with prejudice if the interests of justice require it. Here, the trial court made no finding that justice required a dismissal with prejudice. Accordingly, the court’s order is vacated and the matter is remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
FACTS
The state filed delinquency petitions alleging that the juvenile had committed several delinquent acts. The state subsequently requested a transfer hearing to determine if the matters should be transferred and the juvenile prosecuted as an adult.
Rule 14, Rules of Procedure for the Juvenile Court (R.P.J.C.), provides that a transfer hearing shall be conducted in two phases—a probable cause determination and a transfer determination. During the probable cause phase of the transfer hearing, the state moved to dismiss several counts because witnesses needed to establish probable cause on those counts had failed to appear at the hearing. The trial court asked the state to provide it with proof of service indicating that the witnesses were properly served. The court stated that it would grant the dismissals without prejudice if the prosecutor had properly served the witnesses.
The prosecutor later informed the court that one of the witnesses was never served a subpoena and the other two were served but thought the hearing was on another date. The court dismissed with prejudice the count involving the witness who was never served and gave the prosecutor additional time to file proof of service for the other two witnesses. The prosecutor subsequently responded that he could not file a proof of service for the two witnesses because the subpoenas were mailed to them. The trial court then dismissed the remaining counts with prejudice.
In reaching its decision to dismiss with prejudice, the court found that dismissing the petitions without prejudice would have the same effect as granting a motion to continue for an indefinite period of time. The court found that because the prosecutor failed to prove service, there were no extraordinary circumstances as required by Rule 6.1, R.P.J.C., for a continuance.
DISCUSSION
The question before us is when may a juvenile court dismiss a case with prejudice? The juvenile rules and case law do not provide us with a clear answer to this question. Rule 6.1(j) directs the trial court to dismiss with or without prejudice if it finds that a time limit has been violated. Rule 14, the only other juvenile rule that refers to a dismissal, does not state whether dismissal should be with or without prejudice.
This court has recently addressed this issue in the adult setting. We stated that the trial court could only dismiss a case with prejudice if the interests of justice require it. State v. Gilbert, 172 Ariz. 402, 837 P.2d 1137 (App.1991). The primary consideration must be whether delay in prosecution will prejudice the defendant. Id. We also stated that the need for finality alone is not a sufficient reason to dismiss a case with prejudice as that need was served by the applicable statute of limitation. Id. Nor can the state’s attempt to avoid the running of a time limit justify a dismissal with prejudice. Id. However, “if the defendant can show that the state delayed for the purpose of gaining a tactical advantage over him or to harass him, and if he can show that he actually suffered prejudice as a result of the state’s conduct, a dismissal with prejudice would be justified.” State v. Garcia, 170 Ariz. 245, 248, 823 P.2d 693, 696 (App.1991).
Although generally “procedure[s] followed in adult prosecution[s] [are] not applicable to juvenile proceedings,” State ex rel. Dandoy v. Superior Court, 127 Ariz. 184, 187, 619 P.2d 12, 15 (1980), adult procedures have been made applicable to the juvenile system in several areas. Id. (adult procedure followed to determine mental competency); Matter of Maricopa County Juvenile Action No. J-72804, 18 Ariz.App. 560, 504 P.2d 501 (1972) (standards for adult pleas applicable to juvenile). We believe that dismissals in the juvenile system are one of those areas where the procedures followed in adult prosecutions should apply to juvenile cases.
In both the juvenile and the adult system, the decision to file charges and maintain the action is within the sound discretion of the prosecutor. State v. Tsosie, 171 Ariz. 683, 685, 832 P.2d 700, 702 (App.1992); Matter of Maricopa County Juvenile Action No. J-81405-S, 122 Ariz. 252, 594 P.2d 506 (1979). Allowing the trial court to dismiss cases with prejudice without a finding that the interests of justice so required would impinge on “the broad latitude traditionally afforded prosecutors in this regard.” Tsosie, 171 Ariz. at 685, 832 P.2d at 702. Thus, a dismissal in the juvenile court should be without prejudice unless the court finds that the interests of justice require otherwise.
Our conclusion is consistent with the Arizona Rules of Procedure for the Juvenile Court. Rule 6.1, relied upon by the trial court, requires the court to dismiss a delinquency petition “[i]f the court determines, after hearing, that a time limit established [by the rules] has been violated----” The rule permits the court to dismiss the petition with or without prejudice. The trial court held that the motion to dismiss was, in effect, a motion for a continuance, apparently on the theory that the case could be refiled. Of course all dismissals without prejudice will have that effect. Noting that the court would not grant a continuance in this case because there was no showing of extraordinary circumstances, the court made the dismissal with prejudice. This reasoning if carried to its logical conclusion would nullify the provision in Rule 6.1 that allows for dismissals without prejudice.
Here, the court never determined that a time limit had been violated, which is the only avenue allowing dismissal pursuant to the rule. Rule 6.1 does not permit the court to dismiss a case in lieu of denying a continuance. Rather the court must deny the request for a continuance and then dismiss a case if time limits are violated as a result. In any event, such an action would be inappropriate here, where it is undisputed that the prosecutor did not request a continuance and no time limits were violated. Thus, the dismissal of these petitions may not be sustained under Rule 6.1.
Rule 14 is the only other juvenile rule that provides for dismissal of a petition. Rule 14 governs how a transfer hearing is conducted. Under Rule 14, the court shall dismiss a petition if, at the transfer hearing, it finds that probable cause does not exist. The rule does not state whether the dismissal is to be with or without prejudice.
Rule 14, however, directs that the probable cause phase of the transfer hearing shall be conducted in accordance with Rules 5.3 and 5.4(c), Ariz.R.Crim.P. Rule 5.3 and 5.4(c) pertain to preliminary hearings in superior court. The adult preliminary hearing is analogous to the probable cause phase of a transfer hearing in juvenile court. Matter of Maricopa County Juvenile Action No. J-72804, 18 Ariz.App. 560, 564, 504 P.2d 501, 505 (1972). Rule 5.4(d), Ariz.R.Crim.P., like Rule 14, directs the trial court to dismiss a case if it appears there is no probable cause to believe an offense has been committed or that defendant committed the offense. In the adult setting, dismissal for lack of probable cause is always without prejudice. See Comment Rule 5.4(b).
Again, we see no reason not to adopt the procedure followed in the adult system.' We recognize the need for speed and finality in the juvenile court system; however, this need, without more, cannot override the state’s interest in prosecution and rehabilitation of delinquent youths. Thus, if this dismissal was solely pursuant to Rule 14, it must be without prejudice.
To summarize, the court may not dismiss a juvenile prosecution with prejudice unless the court finds that justice requires it. To dismiss with prejudice under Rule 6.1, the trial court must find that a time limit has been violated and that justice requires dismissal with prejudice. Lastly, Rule 14 only allows for dismissal without prejudice.
GERBER and LANKFORD, JJ., concur.
|
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OPINION
LIVERMORE, Chief Judge.
For many years defendant Greenlee County maintained a county road providing access to an area twenty-two miles north of Clifton containing a county park, the Clifton water pumping station, and several ranches and residences. A portion of the county road was washed out in 1983. In order to get around the washout it was necessary to cross private property on a dirt road (“the Potter Road”) constructed some twenty years before to provide access to a highway construction project. The Potter Road was roughly one-quarter mile in length and connected the county road to a six-mile stretch of state road (proposed 666) that had been constructed as part of a Duncan-Alpine highway. Although the highway project had been abandoned some years ago, the state nonetheless maintained this six-mile roadbed it had created. Since 1983, therefore, those seeking to get to this northern portion of the county had to use Potter Road and at least a part of proposed 666.
The accident in this case occurred in 1988 when a group of men were returning in a truck from a party. They were going south on proposed 666 and then onto Potter Road. Approximately 700 feet down Potter Road, the driver of the truck failed to negotiate a turn and left the road. Plaintiff, a passenger in the bed of the truck, was severely injured. Suit was brought against, among others, Greenlee County and the State. The State prevailed by way of summary judgment. The County successfully moved for a directed verdict at the close of the plaintiff’s case. This appeal questions both rulings. We reverse.
Both the County and the State owe a duty to those using their roads to keep them reasonably safe for travel. Dunham v. Pima County, 161 Ariz. 304, 778 P.2d 1200 (1989); Cobum v. City of Tucson, 143 Ariz. 50, 691 P.2d 1078 (1984). In this case each governmental entity disclaims any duty on the ground that the Potter Road was the responsibility of neither of them. We view that claim by the County as wrong. Indeed, the County engineer testified that he believed there was a legal duty under A.R.S. § 28-1908 for the county to provide access across the Potter Road. Whether or not that is true, and recognizing that the land on which the road was located was owned by the Potter family, we believe the record clearly demonstrates that over a period of years the county maintained the Potter Road by grading it so as to permit its use by county residents to bypass the washed out area of the preexisting road. Having assumed a duty to keep this road passable for county residents, the County assumed the additional duty to make that road reasonably safe for travel. See Olsen v. Mading, 45 Ariz. 423, 45 P.2d 23 (1935); Papastathis v. Beall, 150 Ariz. 279, 723 P.2d 97 (App.1986). There being evidence of breach of that duty by failure to warn drivers of a dangerous curve, the trial judge erred in directing a verdict in favor of the County.
The State’s argument is initially more attractive. The actual state road, proposed 666, is so far as this record discloses safe for travel. The dangerous curve is 700 feet south of the end of the state road. How then, it is argued, can it be said that the State has failed to maintain its road in a reasonably safe condition? Plaintiff answers that part of maintaining a safe road is advising drivers on it when danger lies ahead and that the duty to warn of forthcoming danger embraces not only danger on the state road but danger on immediately leaving the state road. We are persuaded that a jury could conclude that the failure to warn was a breach of duty. Few would dispute that if the state road ended in a precipice, the State would have an obligation to warn. City of Phoenix v. Mayfield, 41 Ariz. 537, 20 P.2d 296 (1933). Whether maintaining a reasonably safe state highway would require, as plaintiff’s expert contended, that drivers be warned that the next quarter mile of road was less well maintained, contained dangerous curves, and required lower speeds presents a jury question, not one to be resolved by summary judgment. See Bach v. State, 152 Ariz. 145, 730 P.2d 854 (App.1986).
Reversed.
LACAGNINA, P.J., and ESPINOSA, J., concur.
. We deal summarily with the County’s objections to this analysis. That fee title was in the Potter family is irrelevant. A county cannot escape its duty to maintain its roads as safe by trespassing in creating its roads. Nor can the County maintain that it had no notice of the dangerous nature of the curve on the road its employees maintained. The County’s arguments concerning causation are jury questions.
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OPINION
EHRLICH, Judge.
Raymond Ayres Harper (“defendant”) appeals from his convictions for theft and money laundering, and from the consecutive sentences imposed. For the following reasons, we affirm the judgment.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
Pursuant to a written agreement, the defendant pled guilty to one count of theft and one count of money laundering, each a class 3 felony. The factual basis for the pleas was that the defendant was president of Harbor Financial Group, Inc., a corporation which solicited investors to fund real-estate loans secured by mortgages in exchange for a share of the return on the loans. Between February and September 1987, the defendant sold stock in Harbor Financial while concealing from investors the fact that most of its loans increasingly were non-performing and that numerous entities in which investors had placed loans were “shell” entities which he controlled in part. The defendant also diverted approximately one million dollars of investor money to a mining venture. From July 1987 through 1989, when Harbor Financial was near collapse, the defendant further diverted approximately $1,244,860.46 in investor money to offshore and foreign locations to hide the money for personal use. He subsequently returned the money to the United States as investments in mining ventures and as cash. His activity contributed to a loss to investors of approximately ten million dollars.
The trial court sentenced the defendant to a mitigated four-year prison term for the theft conviction and the presumptive five-year term for money laundering, to be served consecutively. It further ordered the defendant to pay restitution of $10,000,000 and two $100 felony assessments. The defendant timely appealed.
DISCUSSION
The only issue we are asked to decide on appeal is whether the trial court erred in ordering that the defendant’s sentences for theft and money laundering be served consecutively. The defendant relies on State v. Gordon, 161 Ariz. 308, 778 P.2d 1204 (1989), to insist that, because the offenses are indistinguishable, concurrent sentences are required by Arizona Revised Statutes Annotated (“A.R.S.”) section 13-116, which prohibits double punishment. The state responds with its own analysis of Gordon to argue that the consecutive sentences do not violate section 13-116.
Multiple prison terms imposed on a defendant at the same time must run consecutively unless the court directs otherwise. A.R.S. § 13-708. However, section 13-116 provides that “[a]n act or omission which is made punishable in different ways by different sections of the laws may be punished under both, but in no event may sentences be other than concurrent.” The Arizona Supreme Court has formulated an analysis to determine whether a defendant’s punishment for multiple crimes violates section 13-116. Gordon, 161 Ariz. 308, 778 P.2d 1204; see also State v. Alexander, 175 Ariz. 535, 536, 858 P.2d 680, 681 (App.1993) (Gordon is definitive on whether a single criminal episode can result in multiple punishments).
In Gordon, after being invited by the victim into her apartment, the defendant forcibly restrained and sexually assaulted her. He received concurrent sentences for second-degree burglary and kidnapping and a consecutive sentence for sexual assault. On appeal, the supreme court determined that the burglary and sexual assault constituted a single act within the meaning of section 13-116 and remanded for resentencing. 161 Ariz. at 315, 778 P.2d at 1211. In so determining, the court reiterated a test first articulated in State v. Tinghitella, 108 Ariz. 1, 3, 491 P.2d 834, 836 (1971), which instructs us to eliminate the evidence necessary to convict on the ultimate charge and then determine if the remaining evidence satisfies the elements of the other charge, in which case consecutive sentences are permissible. 161 Ariz. at 312, 315, 778 P.2d at 1208, 1211. The court elaborated on this “identical elements” test, adding that if it was factually impossible for the defendant to have committed the ultimate crime without also committing the secondary crime, it is more likely that the offenses are a single act for sentencing purposes requiring concurrent terms. Id. at 315, 778 P.2d at 1211. Further, we weigh whether the defendant’s conduct in committing the lesser crime caused the victim to suffer a risk of harm beyond that inherent in the ultimate crime. Id. If so, consecutive sentences should be imposed. Id.
In discussing the identical-elements portion of the analysis under Gordon, the defen dant asserts that because the theft charge was based on his and his co-defendant’s diversion from investors of $2,289,720.92 and the money-laundering charge was based on his diversion of his portion of this amount or $1,244,860.46, subtracting from the evidence the elements of theft leaves facts insufficient to support money laundering. The defendant further asserts that concurrent sentences are appropriate because, under the second level of inquiry, he could not have committed money laundering without also having committed theft. Finally, as directed by the final inquiry of Gordon, he claims that the victims were under no additional risk of harm than that created by the theft when he laundered the money.
In Gordon, the defendant could not have committed kidnapping and sexual assault in the victim’s home without also having committed burglary. In this case, the commission of one offense did not intrinsically involve the other offense and the two offenses did not constitute a single criminal act. The defendant committed theft when he fraudulently sold stock and solicited investor money for loans while concealing that most were non-performing. See A.R.S. § 13-1802(A)(1), (3) (1989). The elements of theft were satisfied upon the defendant’s receipt of the investors’ funds. State v. Shearer, 164 Ariz. 329, 341, 793 P.2d 86, 98 (App.1989) (theft completed when defendant removed money from storage lockers with intent to steal). While this scheme provided the funds that subsequently were laundered, the defendant committed a distinct criminal act when he then proceeded to utilize the money, knowing that it resulted from a criminal offense, theft in this case. A.R.S. § 13-2317(A) (1985); cf. Shearer, 164 Ariz. at 341, 793 P.2d at 98 (fraudulent schemes separate criminal act from theft when defendant used stolen money to purchase property).
Contrary to the defendant’s assertion, money laundering does not require proof of the underlying offense of theft; the state need only prove that the perpetrator knew, or had reason to know, that the proceeds were stolen. A.R.S. § 13-2317(A). It is incidental that it is the same person who commits both offenses, in this case stealing the funds which later were laundered, because, unlike the sexual assault and burglary in Gordon, the defendant could have stolen investor funds without laundering them; he also could have transported criminal proceeds to offshore locations and then transferred them to shell entities, knowing that the funds were stolen, without having committed the theft.
We have searched the record on appeal for fundamental error pursuant to A.R.S. section 13-4035 and have found none.
The convictions and consecutive sentences are affirmed.
TOCI, P.J., and NOYES, J., concur.
. The plea agreement provided that the defendant would not receive a prison term greater than the five-year presumptive sentence for each count; it made no stipulation as to whether the sentences would be concurrent or consecutive. The state agreed, however, that if the defendant were convicted in federal court of any offense concerning conduct described in the factual basis attached to the plea agreement, any sentence imposed in the present case would be concurrent with any sentence imposed by the federal court.
. "Theft” occurs when a person "without lawful authority ... knowingly: (1) Controls property of another with the intent to deprive him of such property; or ... (3) Obtains property or services of another by means of any material misrepresentation with intent to deprive him of such property or services; ____" Although the defendant also committed theft by diverting to a personal venture investor funds, see A.R.S. § 13— 1802(A)(2), and these facts also were used to support the charge of money laundering, the defendant committed theft in alternative manners, the facts of which were exclusive to those of. theft.
. The statute provided that "[a] person who acquires or maintains an interest in, transfers, transports, receives or conceals the existence or nature of racketeering proceeds knowing or having reason to know that they are the proceeds of an offense is guilty of money laundering in the second degree.” “Racketeering” then is defined in A.R.S. § 13-2301(D)(4) (1988) as "any act, including any preparatory or completed offense, committed for financial gain, which is chargeable or indictable under the laws of the state in which the act occurred ... regardless of whether such act is charged or indicted, involving: ...(e) Theft.”
. Similarly, the state asserts mistakenly that theft is a predicate offense under A.R.S. § 13-2301(C)(4)(e). While theft is listed as a predicate offense for racketeering, see A.R.S. § 13— 2301(D)(4)(e) (1989) (emphasis added), this definitional subsection only applies to sections 13-2312 through 13-2315; money laundering is defined in section 13-2317. Thus a defendant need not have committed the theft in order to launder funds procured-by theft.
|
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OPINION
SCHAFER, Judge.
The issue the parties raised in this case is whether a mandatory late filing penalty may be waived if the taxpayer shows that he made reasonable efforts to meet the deadline, but missed it by inadvertent error. The Court, however, disposes of the case on a different point.
U.S. Xpress, Inc. and Southwest Motor Freight, Inc. are motor carriers required to file Motor Carrier Tax Reports (tax reports) in Arizona. The tax reports were due on January 25,1992. Both companies hired Advantage Financial Group (Advantage) in Columbia, Missouri, to file several required motor carrier documents, including the tax reports required by Arizona.
Both U.S. Xpress and Southwest Freight timely prepared the tax reports and sent them, with checks drawn in the appropriate amount, to Advantage. Advantage received the completed tax reports on January 24, 1992, but it set them aside, believing they were to be mailed with other documents due on January 31, 1992. The tax reports were not forwarded to the Arizona Department of Transportation (the Department) until January 31, 1992, six days after the due date. The Department imposed a late filing penalty on each plaintiff.
Both plaintiffs administratively appealed the assessment of the late fees and penalties. An administrative hearing was held June 23, 1992, before the Motor Vehicle Division hearing officer. On October 14,1992, the hearing officer denied relief to the plaintiffs. Plaintiffs requested a rehearing which was denied on October 28, 1992.
U.S. Xpress and Southwest Motor Freight appealed to the Tax Court on June 2, 1993, over seven months after the administrative decision was final. On June 22, 1993, the Department filed a Motion to Dismiss. The Department argued that the complaint filed in the Tax Court did not state a claim for which relief could be given. In response, the plaintiffs filed a Motion for Summary Judgment arguing that an “inadvertent error” caused the late filing and, as a matter of law, the mandatory late filing penalty should not be imposed when such an error results in a late filing. The Motion for Summary Judgment was submitted on stipulated facts.
The plaintiffs seek a refund of the late filing penalties arguing that the imposition of the penalties is discretionary and the Department has discretion to waive the penalty when the late filing is due to an “inadvertent error.” The Department counters that the imposition of the late filing penalty is mandatory and may not be waived.
Without reaching the merits of the arguments of the parties, the Court on its own motion is dismissing the appeal filed by plaintiffs due to its untimeliness.
ANALYSIS
The Tax Court has jurisdiction over all questions of law and fact relating to disputes about taxes involving the imposition, assessment or collection of a tax. A.R.S. § 12-163(A). This jurisdiction expressly encompasses, among others, taxes imposed under Title 28, including disputes regarding the Motor Carrier Tax found in AR.S. §§ 28-1599 to -1599.13. Ibid. All proceedings brought in the Tax Court are “original, independent proceedings” that “shall be tried de novo.” A.R.S. § 12-168(A). The Department is mistaken when it argues that this Court must review the Department’s actions under an abuse of administrative discretion standard. As is made clear by the pertinent statutes, this proceeding is de novo.
A motor carrier may either appeal an adverse ruling by the Department by filing a complaint directly in the superior court or pursuing an administrative appeal, then appealing to the superior court. A.R.S. §§ 28-1599.10 and -1559.11. Specific requirements are set forth in Title 28 regarding appeals to the superior court. The carrier may sue the director in superior court if it:
1. Pays the tax stating it is paid under protest.
2. Verifies and states the grounds for objection to the legality of the payment.
3. Pays the tax within three months after becoming due.
AR.S. § 28-1599.11(B)(l)-(3). The motor carrier generally has one year after the payment under protest is made in which to initiate an appeal in the superior court. AR.S. § 28-1599.11(B). However, when the motor carrier has pursued its administrative appeals and an administrative hearing was held, the motor carrier has only thirty days from the date of the director’s decision in which to appeal to the superior court. A.R.S. §§ 28-1599.10(0) and -1599.11(E).
Here, the plaintiffs clearly failed to file a timely appeal to this Court. Both plaintiffs pursued administrative appeals; therefore, their appeal rights are governed by section 28-1599.11(E), not section 28-1599.11(B). An administrative hearing was held on June 23,1992. A decision in favor of the Department was rendered upholding the penalties. Administrative findings of fact and conclusions of law and a formal decision were issued October 14, 1992. Plaintiffs’ request for rehearing was denied on October 28, 1992. The administrative decision became final 10 days after the denial of rehearing, on or about November 9, 1992. A.R.S. § 28-1599.10(0.
Plaintiffs were required by section 28-1599.11(E) to file an appeal of the administrative decision within thirty days of its becoming final. However, plaintiffs did not file an appeal to this Court until June 2, 1993, some six months after the thirty day appeal period expired.
CONCLUSION
Once an administrative hearing is held and a final decision rendered in a case involving the motor carrier tax, plaintiffs have only thirty days to file an appeal to the superior court in Maricopa County. Here, plaintiffs’ appeal was filed six months late. The untimeliness of the appeal requires this Court to dismiss the appeal.
IT IS ORDERED dismissing plaintiffs’ appeal.
This opinion is not a final, appealable judgment; other orders will follow. See Devenir Associates v. City of Phoenix, 169 Ariz. 500, 821 P.2d 161 (1991).
. At the hearing of this matter plaintiffs orally requested the Court to make findings of fact and conclusions of law. Not only was that request untimely, this Court is not required to make such findings and conclusions in this matter. Rule 52(a) of the Arizona Rules of Civil Procedure requires a trial court, upon the filing of a timely request, to find facts and state its conclusions of law only in actions "tried upon the facts.” Here, because the Motion for Summary Judgment was submitted on stipulated facts, there were no disputed facts requiring a Rule 52(a) determination. Willow Creek Leasing, Inc. v. Bartzen, 154 Ariz. 339, 341, 742 P.2d 840, 842 (App.1987). Therefore, plaintiffs’ request for a formal findings of fact and conclusions of law is denied. This Court will, however, articulate its reasons for its ruling.
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OPINION
HATHAWAY, Judge.
This is an appeal from a judgment against appellant, Maricopa County, in favor of appellees, Howard and Virginia Morton and their eight living children (sometimes referred to collectively as “Mortons”), following a jury verdict for damages arising from the alleged negligence of the Maricopa County Sheriff’s Office and the Maricopa County Medical Examiner’s Office in identifying and disposing of human remains. We affirm the judgment of liability against Maricopa County, we reverse the judgment for damages, and we remand for a new trial, with directions, to determine damages only.
FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
Eighteen-year-old Guy Morton (Guy), the eldest son of Howard and Virginia Morton, was apparently murdered in Arizona and his body dumped in the desert near New River sometime after his disappearance on June 23, 1975. Guy’s then-unidentified, incomplete skeletal remains were found by hunters in November 1975. Homicide was suspected and the remains were kept by the Medical Examiner until 1984, when they were incinerated, the Medical Examiner explained, due to space needs and lack of hope of discovering the decedent’s identity.
Guy had suffered a head injury in a motorcycle accident in 1973, which reduced his mental capacity. In April 1975, Guy had hitchhiked from Iowa to Florida. A convenience store clerk telephoned Guy’s parents to inform them that Guy was broke and did not know where he was. In early May 1975, the Mortons sent Guy a bus ticket to return to Iowa. On May 10, 1975, Guy wanted to leave home again and his father drove him to the interstate and gave him $4, all the money in his wallet, so he could hitchhike west. Guy went to Colorado, then to Arizona where he visited a cousin in Phoenix. Guy’s family never saw him again.
Andrew Maisano, a landscaper in Flagstaff who had employed Guy, dropped him off at the 1-17 freeway outside of Flagstaff on June 23, 1975, to hitchhike to Phoenix to obtain a refund of a deposit he had made to purchase a used car. When he did not return, Maisano called Guy’s father to report his disappearance. Upon recommendation of the Coconino County Sheriff’s Office, Howard Morton filed a missing persons report with the Marion, Iowa Police Department in June 1975. Howard Morton testified that he called the Maricopa County Sheriff’s Office for information in June or July 1975, but the Mortons filed no report there. He did not call the sheriff’s office for information again until 1984. The next time Howard Morton had contact with the sheriffs office was in August 1987. The Mortons never communicated with the medical examiner’s office.
In June 1987, 12 years after Guy’s disappearance and three years after incineration of the unidentified remains, Guy’s parents made a trip to Arizona to search for him. The Mortons maintained that they could not afford to look for him earlier. Howard and Virginia Morton spoke to the media and stories of Guy’s disappearance permeated the news. Articles reported that Guy had a serious head injury from a motorcycle accident in 1973, resulting in mental slowness. A July 29, 1987, front page article in the Arizona Republic reported, “[bjecause of the injury, Guy frequently was unable to use or understand words, Virginia Morton said.”
By chance, this article was read by Sterling Hillebert, an investigator for the Navajo County Attorney’s Office, formerly a sheriffs deputy who had previously attempted to identify the partial remains found in the desert in 1975. Hillebert contacted Detective Jeff Green in the Coconino County Sheriff’s Office and suggested that Green request Guy’s dental records for comparison. Detective Green obtained the records and they matched. Guy’s parents, who then lived in Colorado, were notified of the identification on August 6, 1987. In October 1987, the homicide investigation was reopened by the sheriffs office. Guy’s case remains an active, unsolved homicide.
On September 22, 1988, the Mortons filed this lawsuit. The Mortons contended that the Maricopa County Sheriff’s Office was negligent in not identifying the partial skeletal remains before 1987, and the Maricopa County Medical Examiner was negligent in unceremoniously and disrespectfully incinerating Guy’s then-unidentified remains. After a two-week trial, the jury found for the Mortons against the Maricopa County Sheriff’s Office, the Maricopa County Medical Examiner’s Office, and the Maricopa County Medical Examiner. The jury awarded each parent $250,000, Alex Morton $100,000, and the other seven siblings $50,000 each, for a total of $950,000. All post-trial motions were denied. This appeal was timely filed on December 18, 1990.
ISSUES ON APPEAL
Maricopa County argues on appeal that the trial court erred in denying its motion for: (1) judgment because the evidence presented was insufficient regarding any element of the alleged negligence to support the verdict; (2) a new trial under Ariz.R.Civ.P. 59(a)(8), 16 AR.S., because the verdict was not justified by the evidence and was contrary to law; (3) a new trial under Ariz. R.CivP. 59(a)(7), because the verdict was a result of passion and prejudice; and, (4) a new trial or remittitur under Ariz.R.Civ.P. 59(a)(5), because the damages awarded were excessive. We affirm in part and reverse in part.
DUTY TO IDENTIFY DEAD BODIES
Maricopa County contends that the trial court erred in denying its motion for judgment because the evidence presented was insufficient to support the jury’s verdict, including evidence to prove a violation of duty. Whether there is a duty is an issue for the court. Markowitz v. Arizona Parks Bd., 146 Ariz. 352, 354, 706 P.2d 364, 366 (1985). In Markowitz, the court stated:
We have previously explained that we disapprove of attempts to equate the concept of duty with specific details of conduct. Coburn v. City of Tucson, 143 Ariz. 50, 52, 691 P.2d 1078, 1080 (1984). We there approved Dean Prosser’s postulate that it is “better to reserve ‘duty1 for the problem of the relation between individuals which imposes upon one a legal obligation for the benefit of the other ...” Id., quoting W. Prosser & W. Keeton, THE LAW OF TORTS, § 53 at 356 (5th ed.1984). We again point out that the existence of a duty is not to be confused with.details of the standard of conduct____ These details of conduct bear upon the issue of whether the defendant who does have a duty has breached the applicable standard of care and not whether such a standard of care exists in the first instance.
Id. at 355, 706 P.2d at 367.
Maricopa County cites Shelton v. City of Westminster, 138 Cal.App.3d 610, 188 Cal. Rptr. 205 (1982), as authority for the proposition that no “special relationship” exists to create a legal duty between Maricopa County and the Mortons. We find Shelton instructive and persuasive. The Sheltons filed a missing person’s report with the Westminster Police Department in October 1979, after their son had been missing two months. The Sheltons claimed the defendant police department told them that the report would be investigated completely and fully. The Sheltons’ son’s body had been found in August 1979, a week after he had disappeared. California Penal Code § 11114 requires an investigating sheriff, after 30 days and consultation with the coroner or medical examin-' er, to file a missing person report and the dental records of any unidentified person with the Department of Justice for identification purposes. Dental records were not filed with the Department of Justice and the Sheltons were not advised that their son’s body was being held by the medical examiner until April 1980. The Sheltons brought suit against the city for not filing dental records sooner, as they alleged the statute required. The trial court dismissed the suit and the California Court of Appeals affirmed. The Shelton court stated:
The police failure to act here is at best only in a remote causal relationship to the damage suffered. The prime cause, the direct and immediate cause of plaintiff’s [sic] suffering is the murderous act of the person who killed a beloved son. The failure to request dental records with resultant delay in identification is not even a remote, tangential, cause of this wrongful act.
Id. at 618-619, 188 CaLRptr. at 210-211.
The Sheltons claimed that the city was negligent and “allege[d] there was a ‘special relationship’ when the City represented the missing person report would be fully and completely investigated.” Id. at 621, 188 Cal. Rptr. at 212. In conclusion on this issue, the Shelton court said:
Here there are no facts alleged to give rise to such “special relationship” between Sheltons and the City. Sheltons alleged only a failure to comply with Penal Code section 11114. This does not create a special relationship.
Many duties are imposed in connection with investigating a missing person report including the dental record process. The request for such police aid, or the undertaking by the police to make a report and assure appropriate action will be taken does not create a “special relationship” from which “duty” is born. The grasp of that doctrine does not reach so far. The trial court properly sustained the City’s demurrer to the second cause of action.
Id. at 621-622, 188 Cal.Rptr. at 213 (emphasis in original).
Arizona has no comparable statute requiring a medical examiner to submit dental records to another state agency. Neither the sheriff’s office nor the Medical Examiner made any representations to the Mortons regarding their investigations. The state’s interest in identifying human remains is primarily to foster public safety through the investigation of suspected homicides. The identification of remains, of course, incidentally benefits friends and relatives. Because this is not the primary purpose, however, no relationship is created which would give rise to a duty to the Mortons.
Arizona requires the submission of fingerprints, but not dental records, to the Department of Public Safety. A.R.S. §§ 11-593(D), 41-1750(B), and 41-2411, et seq. Whether to impose a special duty on a sheriffs office and a medical examiner’s office to file dental records, rather than, or in addition to, fingerprints of unidentified missing persons, we consider a matter for the legislature to decide. We deem it inappropriate to create such duty by judicial fiat. We hold that Maricopa County owed no legal duty to the Mortons either to submit dental records to the Department of Public Safety or to solve a homicide within any specific time frame.
INTERFERENCE WITH DEAD BODIES
The Mortons also alleged that Maricopa County had a legal duty through its medical examiner’s office to not negligently prevent the proper interment or cremation of Guy’s dead body. We agree.
Arizona has recognized common law interference with dead bodies as actionable. Tomasits v. Cochise Memory Gardens, Inc., 150 Ariz. 39, 721 P.2d 1166 (App.1986). According to the Restatement (Second) of Torts § 868 at 274 (1979):
One who intentionally, recklessly or negligently removes, withholds, mutilates or operates upon the body of a dead person or prevents its proper interment or cremation is subject to liability to a member of the family of the deceased who is entitled to the disposition of the body.
The Arizona statutes in force at the time Guy Morton’s remains were incinerated required the interment or cremation of dead bodies. A.R.S. §§ 11-251(27), 11-599 and 11-600. In 1984, AR.S. § 36-831 established the following order for who had the duty of burial:
A The duty of burying the body of a dead person devolves in the following order:
1. If the dead person was married, upon the surviving spouse.
2. If the dead person was not married but left kindred, upon the persons in the same degree, nearest of kin to the dead person, of adult age and within the state and of sufficient means to defray the necessary expenses of burial.
We believe that Guy’s parents, as the “nearest of kin,” had a cause of action for mental distress and suffering against the medical examiner’s office. Guy’s siblings would have been second in line, after his parents or children if he had any, to receive Guy’s remains for interment or cremation. See AR.S. § 36-831(A)(4), which was revised by the legislature in 1986, so not applicable here, now includes “any person” in certain situations. We hold that Guy’s brothers and sisters did not have standing to claim damages from the medical examiner’s office for interference with the dead body. Moreover, none established a claim for negligent infliction of emotional distress damages, absent evidence the emotional distress was “manifested as a physical injury.” Keck v. Jackson, 122 Ariz. 114, 115, 593 P.2d 668, 669 (1979). See also Ball v. Prentice, 162 Ariz. 150, 781 P.2d 628 (App.1989); Rowland v. Union Hills Country Club, 157 Ariz. 301, 757 P.2d 105 (App.1988); and Quinn v. Turner, 155 Ariz. 225, 745 P.2d 972 (App.1987). Although there was testimony that at least one brother received counselling about concerns over Guy’s disappearance, there was no evidence showing the Morton children suffered any physical symptoms from their alleged emotional distress. Hence, Guy’s siblings could not recover damages under negligent infliction of emotional distress.
Maricopa County argues that Guy’s incomplete skeleton is not a dead body, but just a body part. “Dead body” is not defined in the statutes above or elsewhere. Accordingly, we will construe the phrase “according to the common and approved use of language.” A.R.S. § 1-213. Historically, because human bones endure after other body parts disappear, bones have warranted special treatment, e.g., the removal and transfer of bones from one burial site to another calls for appropriate handling. History, literature, culture, and universal religious attitudes regularly regard human skeletal remains with respect. A few of many examples follow:
And Moses took Joseph’s bones with him: for he had adjured the children of Israel, saying: God will visit you; carry out my bones from hence with you.
Exodus 13:19
Good friend, for Jesu’s sake forebear To dig the dust enclosed here.
Blest be the man that spares these stones, Cursed be he that moves my bones.
Shakespeare’s Epitaph
Familiar Quotations,
J. Bartlett, p. 212 (13th ed.1967)
We believe that a substantial set of human bones, as in this case, constitutes a dead body and that Guy Morton’s skeletal remains were equivalent to a “dead body.” Since 1986, there has been a statutory duty to inter or cremate such skeletal remains. A.R.S. § 36-83RB).
There was substantial evidence at trial to support a finding that the medical examiner’s office negligently incinerated Guy Morton’s dead body.
BY MR. PIATT: (On direct examination)
Q: In the case of remains that have not been identified, that are malodorous and not easily storable, if they are sent to—if they are sent to a funeral home and thereafter interred in a pauper’s grave, are those remains made available to transfer— for transfer to the next of kin or whoever wants them?
BY DR. KARNITSCHNIG:
A: Yes.
Q: And in the process of your work, is there ever a professional reason or need to incinerate or destroy the remains of an identifiable skeleton or identifiable remains? Is there ever a professional reason or need to do that?
A: Well, professional reason perhaps not. A logistical reason. When you run out of space, and they are also running out of space at two county cemeteries. In fact, they were run—in fact, they were talking about burying them up right and in multiple layers because they are out of space.
That is why we—that is why we cremated or incinerated some things.
Q: All right. Well, customarily, the preservation of unidentified remains could be accomplished by interment, and when the remains were a skeleton, until such time as identification is made; right?
A: That’s right.
Q: So if interment is available to you and interment is provided by law, and the county has to provide it, then what purpose would incineration serve?
A: Oh, merely to make space ...
:Jj # * % %
Q: Okay. Do you feel in retrospect that it would have been better in this case to have had these remains interred rather than to have incinerated them as occurred?
A: Well, the retroscope is always really clear. And we wouldn’t be here if that had been the case. And as I pointed out to you in the deposition, it was not my intent to have the skull cremated also. I had planned to keep the skull not for necessarily the reason—the purpose of identification, because I had lost hope. But for teaching purposes.
Q: All right. Now, I think there was a— I think there was a time in 1984 that these remains came to be incinerated along with numerous other bits of material; correct?
A; Yes.
* * * * * *
Q: There is a difference between incineration and disposition in a crematory, isn’t there?
A: Well, the effect is very similar.
Q: I realize the effect is they all end up in ashes, did you say, and did you say and smoke?
A: Yes.
Q: But isn’t there a difference in disposing in a crematory and disposing in an incinerator?
A: Well, I suppose—it’s a difference that has some emotional impact on some people. But as I said, the end effect is the same.
If you have a body, and you subject it to sufficient heat, you will render it into dust, into unidentifiable fine grade ashes.
And if you crank the temperature up even further, you will just have white, grayish white dust with nothing identifiable as part of a human. And that includes teeth.
Dr. Thomas H. Henry, a deputy Pima County medical examiner, testified that he was not aware of any Pima County cremations of homicide victims, without a relative’s permission, and that he had never seen a whole body skeleton incinerated in an unauthorized noncrematorium in Pima County.
Mr. Eloy Ysasi, formerly an investigator for the Maricopa County Medical Examiner’s Office, testified that homicide victims were kept 100 per cent of the time, because “that is your evidence.” He further stated at trial, “I do not know of any case that was incinerated, certainly not a complete skeleton that you know is a homicide.”
We affirm the judgment of liability against Maricopa County as to Howard and Virginia Morton for negligence of the medical examiner’s office and vacate the judgment in favor of their eight living children.
In view of our conclusions that the claim of negligence based on conduct of the sheriff’s office is unsupportable and because of the impossibility of allocating the amount of damages attributable to those activities, the issue of damages for acts of the medical examiner’s office must be retried.
CONCLUSION
In view of our holding, we do not address the other issues raised by Maricopa County. We affirm the judgment for liability against Maricopa County, reverse as to damages, and remand for a new trial on damages only for Howard and Virginia Morton for negligence of the medical examiner’s office.
DRUKE, P.J., and FERNANDEZ, J., concur.
. The notice of appeal provides that "defendants” appeal the judgment. However, by stipuIation the judgment is solely against Maricopa County, the only appellant.
. We note that comment (a) of the Restatement (Second) of Torts at 275 provides, "[tjhere is no need to show physical consequences of the mental distress” for emotional damages resulting from negligent interference with dead bodies. This Restatement principle has been followed in Arizona. Tomasits v. Cochise Memory Gardens, Inc., supra.
. See A.R.S. § 36-931(A)(4), revised by the legislature in 1986 so not applicable here, which now includes "any person" in certain circumstances.
. We note that at least two other statutes, which address permits for disinterment and transport for burial, specifically refer to "dead human remains” rather than "dead bodies.” A.R.S. §§ 36-331 and 36-346.
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