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Why do we need sunlight to make Vitamin D? Is it possible to make artificial light/ monitors/ screens that could perform the same role as sunlight in that process?
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You don't need sunlight specifically. You need ultraviolet light specifically. And sun exposure is the easiest way to get UV exposure that your body needs to synthesize vitamin D
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Not all animals get vitamin D from sunlight. Humans do, though. It is actually a complicated process. Basically, we can't make vitamin D ourselves alone. We make a precursor molecule and then it absorbs UV light (typically from sunshine) through our skin which gives it the right energy to change into another form which we can then use to actually build vitamin D. So it isn't that there's vitamin D *in* sunshine. It is just that sunlight has ultraviolet light which our bodies use the energy from.
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Why the people who were responsible for 2008 financial crisis are not behind bars? How did they beat the system?
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Because a financial crisis can happen without people doing things that are illegal. You can argue they were immoral or shortsighted, but that doesn't make it illegal. In fact, it was the government itself that originally changed the rules that led to this sort of thinking of 'a house for everybody!! a mortgage for everybody!!' Additionally, this crisis was the result of several groups of hundreds and hundreds of people all contributing to one final end result, so who are you going to hold responsible? Especially when most of those had absolutely no idea what they were contributing to and did not do so in malice.
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In the system that existed before the collapse banks were, strictly speaking, not entirely solvent. Day-to-day, they may have run multimillion dollar losses without the money to actually pay their bills. Other days, they would run multimillion dollar gains. In order to prevent each other from constantly going out of business, banks set up a system of loans where banks who had gains on the day would loan some of that to banks which did not to cover their losses, on the expectation that the money would be repaid and that those banks would return the favor in the future. On the day Lehman Brothers failed, they didn't get one of those loans. When they failed, everyone who had money with them lost it, including other banks which had previously loaned them their good day gains. Those banks failed as well, and then a massive cascade started with hundreds of banks failing one after the other as they could no longer get loans to cover daily losses.
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Why does single-serve water typically come in plastic bottles, single-serve soda typically come in aluminum cans, and single-serve beer come in either aluminum cans or glass bottles?
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Beer comes in glass bottles or cans because certain wavelengths of light can damage ingredients in the beer and make it taste bad, and plastic doesn't block those wavelengths like aluminum and glass. Aluminum cans could be used for water, but a bit of the aluminum does dissolve into the drink. Sodas typically have enough other flavorants that you don't notice the aluminum taste, but it would make plain water taste unpleasantly metallic. You'll notice that soda often gets stored in plastic bottles as well. Glass is more expensive than either, however, so you see that least often.
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Cans contain lining material that may or may not absorb flavor, plastic bottles have chemicals that can migrate (in very minute amounts) into the soda, glass bottles are inert and only really affected by light contamination and temperature changers. Though I find the difference almost non-existent from an objective standpoint when it's poured into a glass. Drinking directly from a can I can tell the difference though b.c. I can taste the aluminium. That all being said, I do think glass bottle coke is better than canned or plastic bottled. Ha
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Why is there so little religion in China?
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The other 75% isn't atheist, it's mostly [folk religion](_URL_1_)/[Taoist](_URL_0_). The Chinese generally don't consider them to be religions, which is why they're often not included - but they're definitely religi*ous*.
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For what it's worth, [there are several times more Christians in China than in Korea,](_URL_3_) (though obviously they represent a smaller percentage of the overall population). I think a reasonable inference was that Christianity was popularized in Korea largely due to the close cooperation between South Korea and The United States and the large number of Americans stationed in Korea during the Korean War and after. [According to Wikipedia, only 2% of Korea's population was Christian in 1945](_URL_2_), so it's a relatively new phenomenon, and one that correlates with US involvement on the peninsula. I don't think there's a way to answer the second part of your question one way or the other without resorting to stereotypes or speculation. There's some stuff in the above Wikipedia entry that supports the "Christianity leads to economic growth" idea, but the citation leads to a dead link, so I'm even more skeptical than I'd normally be about such an idea.
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Chemically, what happens when someone goes insane?
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There are a large variety of mental illnesses one might describe as "insanity", and the particular changes in brains depend hugely on what kind of mental illness is in question. Schizophrenia for example is a different mental illness with different etiology compared to bipolar disorder. And even schizophrenia isn't really a single condition, but rather a large spectrum of conditions with similarities. So the question is very much like "what happens in the body when you get sick?" Depends what you got.
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Realistically, if we're assuming this is in the United States, this condition would be brought forward and evaluated by a designated mental health official. If it was determined that the crime was committed as a result of these personalities, the individual would likely get to plead insanity and be admitted to a mental hospital for rehabilitation and treatment.
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The bearded ones in 1960's france.
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There was a pretty popular vocal group around this time called [Les Quatres Barbus](_URL_0_) . That does translate as The Four Bearded Ones. Definitely can not imagine them having anything to do with targeting OAS members for de Gaule!
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After returning from a trip throughout Europe Peter the Great personally trimmed the beards of his nobles. Previously Russian nobles had taken great pride in their beards, so this was a bit of an affront at the time. (Source: Massie.)
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Why do we get random nose bleeds
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There is possibly something wrong with the inside of your nose. See a doctor if it bothers you. Most common cause is a blood vessel too close to the surface of the nasal passage. It can be thermally or chemically cauterised.
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Exposure to allergens causes the release of histamine, which causes the capillaries of your nasal lining to widen and engorge with blood. The lining becomes thicker and the nasal airway shrinks, making breathing more difficult.
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Why do we capitalize two letters in names like McDonald
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Because the first part of the name originated as a prefix. In the case of Mc, it originally meant "son of". So Bill McDonald is actually "Bill Son Of Donald" if taken literally. The 'Mc' part just stuck with family names even after abandoning the language of origin. Many Western European family names have similar backgrounds.
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True ELI5 response: People used to write in all capitals. Over time people got lazy and found alternative ways to write letters, which we call lowercase. However, for important words and the beginning of a passage of writing, people still liked to make those parts stand out with capital letters. After enough time, it became conventional to have rules regarding what is capitalized and what isn't. In the end, we decided, as a community, on certain rules that we should all follow when writing.
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Why does water "dry" and evaporate at room temperature when it should, in theory, remain as a liquid at room temperature?
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> it should, in theory, remain as a liquid at room temperature [Theory tells us](_URL_0_) that water is most stable in the *gas* phase at room temperature and pressure, assuming < 100% humidity. As long as the air is not fully saturated, water spontaneously evaporates.
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There is a property of water called the [vapor pressure](_URL_0_). This determines how much water vapor can exist in the air at a given temperature. A room temperature, this is only 3%.but it is not zero. The percentage rises with temperature until it reaches 100% at 100 C. Back to room temperature... water in the bowl will evaporate until the air near the surface is 3% water vapor -- matching the vapor pressure at that temperature. On a humid day, the air surface may already be near saturation, so evaporation will be very slow. On a dry day, the new evaporated water will diffuse away from the surface quickly and evaporation will be faster.
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How to TV stations know how many viewers they have?
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There are companies which do surveys (for example Nielsen in the US and BARB in the UK). They pick a sample of households which they think matches the demographics of the country and give them a box which tracks what they watch. From there they estimate the total number of viewers.
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They use Nielsen ratings. Certain households, called Nielsen families, participate in a program where they log everything they watch. These statistics are extrapolated to the whole country. So the viewership numbers you hear are estimates based off the number of Nielsen families that watched that show.
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Could a Mud Volcano's displacement of earth cause or create the means necessary to cause a Tsunami in the future?
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Tsunamis are caused when the sea floor is displaced up or down within just a few seconds or minutes, this is typically caused by a megathrust earthquake, where oceanic plate is forced under continental plate, creating a violent earthquake and sea floor displacement. In the largest megathrust earthquakes, 10,000 to 100,000 km2 or more of sea floor can be displaced upwards several metres in only a few minutes, displacing vast quantities of ocean water. This displaced water radiates away and eventually hits land as a tsunami. Mud volcanoes, on the other hand, are much smaller and happen over a much longer time frame, days to even years. When the mud is erupted to the surface, the surrounding land surface or ocean bottom may subside slightly. But none of these changes are ever on a large enough scale or fast enough to create a tsunami.
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Seafloor displacement is a key element to tsunami formation. A vertical shift across a ruptured fault will certainly transmit energy into the water and create a tsunami. Also, if an earthquake triggers an underwater landslide or slump a more focused tsunami can be created. For example, the [1964 Alaska earthquake/tsunami](_URL_0_) is thought to have been so devastating to Hawaii because of the related mass wasting. It should be noted that the [Tsunami Warning System](_URL_1_) must rely on direct buoy observations to be effective, since it is impossible to determine either vertical displacement or mass wasting on a timescale to make it useful for tsunami prediction.
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Is the distance between stars in a galaxy more or less constant, or are their regions which have greater and lower concentrations of stars?
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The distance between stars is just a proxy for the stellar density, and this varies dramatically with galactic position. We normally model stars in a galaxy with a density profile that scales exponentially with radius. On top of that disk potential, there is an additional overconcentration of stars in the central bulge/bar, and there is also an angular dependence which is the source of spiral arms. On smaller scales there's even more dynamic range, the most extreme being globular clusters packing 10,000-100,000 stars into a sphere with a radius of a few tens of light years. Globular clusters are massive enough that they self-gravitate so remain bound together as a single clump. Stars like our Sun are produced in groups of a few dozen from the collapse of a single molecular gas cloud. These also start off close together, but their much weaker mutual gravity means they gradually spread out as they follow independent orbits round the galaxy.
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The range of the habitable zone depends on power output of the star. Stars with a high power output have a larger habitable zone than stars with a smaller one. It's important to note however, that the power output is not linked to size. Stars change dramatically over their lives, and their output is a delicate balance between their size, mass and composition.
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How do Government/Military teams and operations get named?
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I believe its just a random named picked by the person in charge. They usually make sense or are some sort of pun on operation. "Desert Storm" was a military operation in a desert releasing a veritable storm of firepower. "Desert Shield" was the deployment of forces to a desert to shield one country from another and so on
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World War 1 was the first major conflict in which large nations used smaller organic units to conduct combat operations. Now before WWI, there was battles and instances but on a larger scale and more broad perspective it was WWI. This is where we see platoons actually separating from the company being assigned warning orders and frag orders with a specific mission. Now in WWII is where we see the first employment of the fire team system. It was started by the US Marines in order to fight the Japanese pillboxes and hidden machine gun pits and it consisted of a Marine with a BAR, two marines with M1 Garands/M1903 Springfields and a flamethrower Marine. Source: USMC Officer Candidate's School, History 1 & 2. Minor in Naval Science.
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How can spammers leave comments on my blog without visiting it?
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Commenting on a web page is a different process from viewing it. In technical terms, commenting is done through a "POST" request, while viewing is done through a "GET" request. If the spammer knows your blog's URL, he can just send a POST request, sending the spam contents, without first viewing the comment page with a GET request. Your blog counts only GET requests as views. But if you were to examine the server logs, you would see the spammers' POST requests as well.
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Because spammers are far less likely to have a decent comment karma.
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shouldn't they just make phones tougher since most people end up buying an Otter Box or similar protective case anyway?
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Better question: why is there so much emphasis on the "thinness" of phones when the real determining factor of storage is its surface area? Assuming the phone isn't the thickness of a brick, a few extra millimeters isn't going to make it not fit into my pocket when it's already the size of a notecard. I'd gladly have a little bit thicker if that meant improved battery life and increased durability. These ultra-thin phones feel like they're just going to break.
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Most of all, it helps sell phones. What matters isn't how useful a feature is, it's whether it's eye catching and braggable. That's all that matters to the seller, that enough people part with their money.
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Why do US households have washing machine and dryer as two different appliances instead of a single appliance ?
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A combined unit isn’t as efficient as 2 individual ones. You can fit more in a washing load than a drying load, so you either need to do more, smaller loads, or take some clothes out before the drying cycle starts. Also, you can only do one load at a time. If you have separate units you can start a second wash whilst the first is in the dryer. And as previously mentioned, if something goes wrong, you can’t wash or dry anything
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Because it is produced in anticipation of you using it. And with a million people using it at the same time, you turning on your blender is balanced out by someone else turning off their blow dryer. Also, there is enough "slack" in the system that what one or two households so isn't going change how much total power needed to be used.
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Why are storage bin capacities measured in gallons?
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probably because cubic feet is too large of a measurement for the type of plastic, portable storage its used for. There's 7.5 gallons to one cubic foot. you can see how this would get clunky with too small a measurement. Also, gallons takes into account crevices, and non uniform formations. like containers that are tapered at the bottom, or have rounded edges.
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If you [enter "1300 gallons" into Google](_URL_1_), the fourth result is [a Wall Street Journal article](_URL_0_) that explains exactly what it means.
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Is there a speed at which my phone would not be able to maintain a call? Or is cell service not affected by speed?
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Well, there are a few approaches to this question, so it is sort of a yes and no. From a purely physics perspective, yes this speed exists, but you would never reach it realistically. You would have to reach a speed where the Doppler Shift would cause a shift into another channel or even beyond the receive capabilities of either the phone or the tower. The much more plausible situation would be due to the actual cellular network and its settings. If the situation for say a highway was not properly optimized it is possible for phenomena such as "too early" or "too late" handoffs. You may be connected to one tower and your phone tries to hand off "too early" to another tower before the connection can be properly established and thus could result in a drop. The exact opposite scenario is also possible and is known as "too late". So yes, speed does affect it, but generally not in realistic scenarios.
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Your phone (and all phones) were wired to the switching center, where a person would have to manually complete the circuit between the two phones and then manually disconnect when you were done. Long distance calls required switching at multiple locations, hence the added cost back in the day.
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Why are humans evolved to be scared of insects regardless of whether they're harmful or not?
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I seriously doubt that it is instinctual for humans to be afraid of insects or other creepy crawlies. To me, it seems that the fear is a learned behavior. As a kid, I was never afraid of ants, caterpillars, etc. Children do not seem to develop any fear of insects or other things until they are harmed by one or taught to avoid them by parents. I never cared much about bees or wasps until I was stung by one. My parents taught me to swat at flies so they don't land on food. Prior to then, I didn't really care where the flies were. There may be some instinctual aversion to some types of insects or spiders due to their shapes and coloration. For example - lady bugs are not very threatening. They are round, colorful, and kind of cute. On the other hand, [wheeler bugs](_URL_0_) do appear to be threatening. This is probably because they are spiky.
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Historically bugs have either carried diseases, eaten our food, given us horrific oozing bite wounds, or some combination of the three. Many bugs can make us quite ill, others are just pests that threaten our food supplies. In modern times there's probably less to fear from them, but thousands of years of aversion is a hard habit for us to break.
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why are commercial toilets so powerful when you flush?
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Several reasons: 1) Less likely to clog. They have a lot more people using the toilets and just one clogging puts it out of commission until someone notifies maintenance. 2) Pipe Size. The buildings in which commercial toilets are installed have larger pipes. They can handle the amount of water in the short amount of time for a commercial toilet. The pipes in your house are 1/2" pipes (usually) and the ones that go to the bathroom in commercial buildings are 1" (usually). 3) Water Pressure. With a larger pipe, you can utilize a "flushomatic" valve that will allow you to pressurize the water sufficiently to send jets of water into the bowl. Essentially, that pressure allows the commercial toilets to use the water pressure from the pipe instead of gravity (like a bowl-based toilet).
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Some toilets in the US flush like this but usually I see them in commercial buildings. Those usually dont have a basin and are connected to a direct water feed. There is piping, in the ceramic bowl, that feeds a portion of the high pressure water directly into the trap under the toilet bowl to help pull stuff down the drain. Most residential toilets have a basin that release the water into the bowl until the weight of the water overcomes the pressure created by the air in the trap under the bowl, allowing it to finally flow through. There are some residential toilets that function in manor like the commercials ones but do so in conjunction with a basin.
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Why do camera lenses cost so much and have such a wide variation in prices?
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Depending upon the lens fStop (how much light it allows in) and focal capabilities (magnification), there are potentially multiple layers of glass, and lots of highly accurate moving parts inside the lens. Then there is the quality of the construction of the lens and how well it keeps all of the light focused correctly. When you have a lot of lenses in the path, color separation begins to happen (chromatic abberation). Manufacturers spend a lot of money on research to minimize abberation, ensure the speed of the mechanism is as fast as possible for both auto-focus machinery as well as the shutter speed. The glass used is also manufactured to different tolerance levels and is more/less clear and accurate in their curvature. More R & D costs more - more accurate tooling costs more - more pieces and complex construction costs more. Cheaper lenses have cut costs in manufacturing, or don't have as much spent on R & D.
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Many of the materials with a higher index of refraction are very expensive, or may only be supplied by one supplier, driving up costs. It's fairly safe to assume that many people could not justify spending a lot more for those materials, and will accept a thicker lens that costs a lot less. In addition, some high index materials may result in a more fragile lens, or have notably worse issues with chromatic abberation, which are not desired by some.
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What was the state of Athens' architecture during the height of the Roman Empire? Did buildings like the Parthenon only start to fall into ruin after the fall of the Roman Empire, or was this happening already?
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Ditto to serverofjustice's post. Additionally, Athens did not remain stagnant during the Roman Empire. For example, the beautiful Odeon of Herodes Atticus was built during the second century CE. A cult complex was built by the brother of P. Clodius Pulcher to facilitate the Eleusinian Msyteries in the first century BCE. Perhaps most importantly, the emperor Hadrian is considered to be a new founder of Athens. He built the arch of Hadrian, the Library of Hadrian, and a number of other buildings.
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Interesting question, but you run into the Ship of Theseus problem. Off the top of my head, the Pantheon in Rome was built around 120 CE and has been in continuous use, first as a pagan temple, then a church, and now a museum. And then there is a question of how you define use. The Temple of Hephaestus in Athens was built in the fifth century BCE and seamlessly transitioned into a church until the 19th century. However, it hasn't been a museum for about a century, and is now just a monument (You can't go inside or use it for any purpose).
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As far as evolution goes, what does tongue bifurcation do?
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Reptiles, unlike mammals, smell using their tongue; a forked tongue increases the total surface area while not making it all that much more larger, (much like the folds in your brain give it larger surface area in the same amount of volume). It is also believed that the forked nature of the tongue allows the reptile to sense direction of smells, in much the same way you have two nostrils.
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It's false. Different regions on the tongue may take slightly longer to react to taste, or have slightly less intensity in general, but all parts of the tongue taste basically the same.
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why during football games do some cameras show weather so well (specifically rain) and other cameras seem like nothing is going on?
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It has to do with focal length, depth of field, lens size and other photography things (of which I am not an expert). But in short: a lens can only focus on one distance perfectly. In front of that, and beyond that point, things start to get blurry. You can have a lens that keeps a larger chunk of before and after the focus distance "in/near focus", but you'll sacrifice zoom capability (and other things). This is your sideline camera. The cameras shooting from the endzone need to be able to zoom in to magnify stuff happening at the other end of the field. These don't have a very deep depth of focus. So things like rain falling between the camera and the focal point are so blurry you don't see them very well. That and given how much field of view you see when you're zoomed in, the drops are in, and then out of frame so fast you don't see them. Dunno how well I explained that, you need to have a photography expert chime in.
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Imagine you have a grid of buckets, covered by a retractable roof. If you retract the roof while it's raining, the buckets will fill up with water. Suppose it's only raining over a very small region. Only the buckets under the rain will fill up, while the other buckets won't. Now, consider, what if that small region of rain is moving. If you open and close the roof very quickly, the rain won't have much time to move and only a few buckets will be filled. But if you open it, and leave it open, you'll see all the buckets it passes over will get filled. You'll end up with a trail of full buckets, even though the source was smaller than that area. This is more or less how cameras work, but with light instead of water, and sensors (or film) instead of buckets.
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Why do PC and monitors/TV still have a VGA port?
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VGA is pretty common with legacy equipment, especially in the business space. It's less common in the consumer space, however.
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First one, the 15 pin VGA cable can address 640x350 to 2048×1536 pixels (QXGA). Like TV signals, it does not send indvidual pixels but sends out a line of data which the monitor then interpret as individual pixels. At the end of the line, it will send a pulse on the horizontal sync pin for which the monitor knows to go back the to left hand side. So a VGA monitor is nothing more than a TV without a tuner.
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Why doesn't water just slide down our throats when it's in our mouths? What stops it?
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You have muscles in your throat that you instinctively control to keep the water in your mouth or to swallow it.
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Gravity is a big help. When we put liquid into our mouths, gravity wants it to go down. Air is air. It's floating there and needs to be forced down our windpipe. This is what our diaphragm muscle does. It pulls on our lungs to create low pressure which sucks air in.
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Are ancient religions extinct?
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Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism are all religions which were active (in one form or another) long before the "ancient religions" you mention had received their final form. They all have adherents today. (Now admittedly, the modern practice of these religions might well be unrecognizable to the founders. But they were as much in flux in antiquity as they are now.)
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Ancient civilizations were extremely serious about the religion, as are people today. People tend to denote them as "mythologies" due to their polytheistic nature, while calling cults that follow a single god "religion". These belief systems were just as real, just as intense, and just as deadly as your Catholicisms and your Islams. Whether you are looking at the Hellenic city-state of the Greek Peninsula, or the Egyptian cults of the Nile, or the spread of Hinduism through India, or the numerous polytheistic religions of the Native American tribes, etc. etc. These were taken just as seriously as the polytheistic religions through the later history of mankind. Rome, being the youngest of the ancient cultures, did transform into a polytheistic state during the reign of the Empire. So you may find this type of behavior in the later history of the Roman Empire.
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Why do we find cockroaches so disgusting ?
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I'm in pest control and I always enjoy the fact that people are disgusted by roaches. It's humorous to me since roaches are disgusted by us. If you touch one it will run away and start cleaning the oil from your skin off of itself.
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Your natural instincts are kicking in. Before technology, a single cockroach could be infected with any number of diseases. If you got influenza or something, you couldn't take medicine or rest it off. You just died.
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Q:Are transplanted organs immune from Cancer Metastasis? For example, someone has Liver cancer, Can that cancer metastasize to a kidney which was transplanted into the body?
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Yes it can. Metastasis is when a tumor accumulates enough mutations to release cancer cells into the bloodstream, which travel around the body and will start dividing to create new tumors wherever they wind up. I believe you might be operating under the impression that metastasis involves tumors developing independently of each other at distinct sites of the body, which is incorrect.
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Your immune system recognizes its own cells (including cancerous ones) and does not attack them. In general your immune system will attack cells from another person in your body. If you do have foreign cells in your body they need to match your cells (e.g. Blood type) to have a chance at not being rejected. Even then organ transplant recipients have to take anti-rejection drugs. So it's unlikely foreign cancer cells could survive in a human. There are [rare examples in other animals though](_URL_0_).
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why some people are "nightowls" even though humans a supposed to be active in the day time
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In addition to what others say about how there are fun screens and toys and gadgets keeping us awake (I consider myself a night owl if only because I'm terrible at going to bed on time. Gotta play one more game of Overwatch), there's also a theory I've seen floating around that there's supposedly a predisposition to being more active at night somewhere in our DNA as a result of us being hunter-gatherer tribes that needed *somebody* to stay up and watch for predators/rival tribes/etc.
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Why would we be? Humans don’t have senses particularly well-suited to functioning in the dark. We also have adaptations (like sweating and a lack of hair) that make us perform well during the day. All signs point to us working best as diurnal animals.
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to me and my son: How if his mum was to stay on earth and her twin sister was to travel in space, her sister would come back younger?
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Not younger. But will have aged less because of her speed. Time is relative to speed, so the faster you go the "slower," you age. There's a good example in Interstellar where due to the orbit of a planet around a black hole, one hour on that planet is 7 years on earth.
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You will experience a different amount of time than someone on Earth, but it depends on your velocity relative to Earth, and your proximity to a gravitational field. For an astronaut on the ISS, they age about 0.01 seconds less per year than someone on Earth. This means that if had a twin who lived on Earth and you spent your entire life on the ISS and you both lived to be 100, you'd be a whopping 1 second younger than your twin at the end of your lives. If you were on a futuristic spacecraft traveling close to the speed or light, or orbiting near a black hole, the difference could be a lot more.
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If neutrons are electrically neutral why isn't the universe filled with free neutrons?
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Free neutrons are unstable. A free neutron decays with a half-life of about 10 minutes, generally into a proton, an electron, and an electron antineutrino.
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Neutrons are made up of charged particles called quarks. A neutron has a valence quark content udd, where u is an "up" quark and d is a "down" quark. Up quarks have electric charge +2/3 *e* and down quarks have –1/3 *e*. An antineutron has a valence quark content u & #773;d & #773;d & #773;, where the bar indicates an anti-quark. "Valence quarks" are the permanent ones that give the particle its properties. Hadrons also contain gluons (the mediator of the strong force) which can spontaneously become temporary quark-antiquark pairs called "sea quarks".
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Are there any examples of when foreign intervention has prevented an internal conflict from becoming a global threat?
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I usually don't post in this sub, so I'm sorry if this is out of scope, but isn't this question impossible to answer? If a foreign sovereignty intervenes, there is no way to know if a conflict would have escalated without intervention. Short of having your own time machine. You can only speculate.
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Follow up: what is the first example we have of nominally sovereign (or, for sake of ease, capable of waging mutual war and with separate governing bodies) entities rendering such aid? What about during times of hostility?
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Why, if games are created on PC, do game developers (I'm looking at you Rockstar) make it seem like it's so costly in both time and money to "port" games to PC. (I want Red Dead on PC!)
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Just because games are coded using PC's that doesn't mean that it's easier to make a game for PC than it is to make it for the PS4 for example. To make a game compatible with a new platform, you have to pretty much write it from scratch to port it. The reason game developers prefer consoles over PC is that games generally sell more on consoles than they do on PC's. I feel your pain though as I'm a PC gamer and would really like to play RDR! On a side note I'm pretty sure Rockstar never said there wouldn't be a PC version of GTA V, they just tried to ignore the question as much as possible for a year or so until they finally announced it.
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PC ports have to run appropriately on many, many different types of hardware unlike when a game is developed for a console.
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Why does it seem like people go to jail longer for drug charges than murder?
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Because when people deal drugs they cost the government agencies profit, with murder it's just one more cadaver.
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The main cause, in my opinion, is "The War on Drugs". I say that, not because I'm some hippy pot-smoker and "the government should just chill, man", but because of the hardline enforcement of jail time associated with mere possession of virtually any class of drug. The same logic applies to many other lesser crimes, which have mandatory minimum jail times associated. In the grander scheme of things, the actual point of prison is to rehabilitate. Not, like many people want to believe, a sort of time-out type of punishment for bad behaviour. As such, judges send people to prison to actually help them. It's not only meant to give people time to consider their actions and the repercussions thereof, but have a chance to change and better themselves. In particular through education.
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Did the Confederate States of America exist long enough to develop their own Supreme Court? If so, did it hear any cases?
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The Confederate Constitution provided for a Supreme Court. In fact it's almost identical to the US Constitution in those passages. Once the permanent congress was elected and seated a judicial committee was formed recommendations were made, and bills were passed all regulating and defining the court. The primary bill to actually establish the court never passed. The Senate sent a final bill to the House on March 19th, 1863. A number of bill amendments were proposed, it went back and forth and in and out of committees at a very slow pace. Finally the Senate tabled the bill in March 14th 1865. So while *in theory* the CSA had a Supreme Court, in practice it was never organized, it never had justices, and never heard any cases.
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/u/the_alaskan has an [excellent comment on the history of Supreme Court confirmations](_URL_0_).
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Why didn't the Japanese get sick when Europeans started coming to Japan?
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However, syphilis did arrive in Japan, just as it did arrive in Europe through the Colombian exchange. And it killed many people, like Tokugawa Ieyasu's second eldest (at the time eldest surviving) son.
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Much of it had to do with economics- the US wanted the Japanese markets to be opened and exploited. Also, American merchants could blaze a trail for missionaries, who could convert the population to Christianity. Perhaps most importantly, American companies and the Navy had an interest in establishing reliable coal ports in Japan where ships could reliably re-fuel and re-provision in that part of the Pacific. Furthermore, Japan's closure was seriously straining relations; every few years some American sailors would wash up shipwrecked somewhere and the Japanese often would not let them return home immediately because they had violated Japan's territory. If I recall correctly, among Perry's demands was the release of a group of such prisoners.
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How can data (files and photos) be recovered from a damaged or deleted hard drive?
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Most often, "deleted" data isn't actually gone. The computer simply removes its reference to it -- like scratching out a chapter in the Table of Contents without actually tearing those pages from the book. Similarly, when new data is written over old data, it may not be enough new data to completely fill the space of the old data. Back to the book & chapter analogy; imagine now writing one page of text into that "deleted" chapter. Because the other 15 pages are still there, you can continue to make decent sense of that chapter.
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You can think of the hard drive as a book. Data is written on the pages, and when you want to find a particular part, you look at the table of contents (the registry). When you need pages to write on, your computer will check the table of contents, and find a block of pages that are unused. It will then go to those pages, and write the data. If there's something already there, the computer doesn't care, it whites out the previous text and writes over it. When you delete something, your computer just goes to the table of contents, crosses out the chapter, and marks those pages as unused. The words are still there, but next time the computer needs pages to write on, they'll get overwritten.
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howthe old trans am with a 400 cubic inch engine only had 220hp and a top speed of 92mph?
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In the early 70s they had more horsepower from the same engine. The mid to late 70s engines had less horsepower due to the removal of leaded fuel. This led to the engines being redesigned to run on the unleaded fuel. Which included lowering the compression of the engine. So there were big engines with big booms happening inside, then there were big engines with little booms happening inside. And the change from leaded to unleaded fuel was due to the introduction of catalytic converters which further lowered engine horsepower by restricting the exhaust, it's like trying to run while breathing through a straw. I'm also wondering about the 92mph limit, I doubt that is true.
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200 Newtons for what mass engine? 200 Newtons alone is not useful information.
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How much does cattle feeding contribute to climate change?
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It's significant, but not huge. Methane is the second-most-important greenhouse gas, amounting to [11% of the US's share of global warming](_URL_1_). Cows' [unusual digestive system](_URL_0_) produces methane: it's emitted both directly from the cow and from their manure: these two together amount to about [30% of US methane emissions.](_URL_1_#methane) (Other livestock produce methane too, but cows are the most important.) So taken together, about 11% * 30% = 3% of the US share of global warming is caused by cattle. There's also the carbon dioxide emitted in growing and transporting cattle feed, but that's much harder to calculate.
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Cattle being bred for meat eat and fart and poop. That's a lot of fart and poop. The gases get released into the atmosphere and add to the greenhouse gases.
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How can Antarctic ice melting cause localized sea level to fall?
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The reason sea level falls locally is explained (or at least briefly described, maybe explained is too generous for the level of detail) in the previous paragraph, the gravitational attraction decreasing (less attraction between ice and nearby ocean water means sea level goes down) and the isostatic response (less mass pushing down on land means land goes up, which looks like sea going down), both of which would result in a **local** sea level fall. [This paper](_URL_0_) discusses both of these in a lot of detail, though its main focus is on describing how both processes can be modeled. Figure 1 of that paper is a pretty simple cartoon, that might help visualize both processes and how they produce both a true local sea level fall (i.e. the elevation of the ocean surface relative to a fixed datum drops near the coast because of the gravitational attraction decrease) and apparent local sea level fall (i.e. the isostatic response of the solid Earth increases land elevation so sea level appears to fall).
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There’s a little extra water coming from melting glaciers but most is from the volumetric expansion as the ocean warms. In some areas where they like to show local sea level rise it’s from the sinking land. An example is the disappearing wetlands of Louisiana
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Why are Verizon and Comcast the only cable/internet options in most of the USA?
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Mostly because it's extremely expensive to get into the business of providing internet. Other ones used by a lot of people are Time Warner Cable, Cox, AT & T, Charter, Frontier, Sudden Link, and Century Link. All have > a million customers in the US
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Because its too expensive. Internet and cable are not carried by magical pixies that fly through the air. They are carried through cables, fucking big bunches of cables that crisscross the country. The big names (TWC, Comcast etc.) have invested **literally billions of dollars** in creating the infrastructures to support internet and cable. A smaller provider simply cannot compete. They can't build the network, and even if they do they won't be price competitive because the big guys are so far ahead.
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The difference between an Empire, Kingdom, Duchy and Republic.
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A republic is not like the other three at all. They are not ruled by a monarch, but rather by elected officials. Now that that's out of the way, the other three are very similar but of different ranks. Emperor is as high as you can get as a monarch, and usually but not always is a collection of nations ruled by one nation, which is not to be confused with one person being a king of multiple nations. An emperor might have kings under his command. A kingdom is lesser than that, with a king as the leader and generally has dukes under the king's rule. One person can be king of multiple kingdoms without being an emperor though because the kingdoms are still technically independent and only linked by their king. A duchy is less than a kingdom, and usually not an independent state. Most duchies are parts of larger kingdoms with dukes listening to kings. That being said, there is an absolute ton of overlap, it's complicated, and the differences are mostly in the name.
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The primary distinction would be that a kingdom, by definition, has a monarch. The United Kingdom has the Queen. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has the king, and so on and so forth. Empires, on the other hand, do not necessarily have an emperor, rather, their defining feature is a single polity controlling other polities. So for example, the Roman Republic, before the time of Augustus, had already been an empire, just without an emperor, for centuries. The same thing applies to, say, the French Empire during the Third Republic, or American Empire. This also tends to apply to monarchies, so you have the German Empire, which was conceived of as an empire over and above its constituent kingdoms, or the British Empire, in which the United Kingdom ruled over various territories. The one thing I'm not qualified to speak to is translations. So why is *tenno* in Japanese translated as Emperor while other terms are translated as king.
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Why would a software require the use of IE instead of other browsers?
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Web browsers read code (usually HTML, CSS, and JavaScript for web applications) and displays it for you. Different web browsers are produced by different organizations and are slightly different when it comes to reading and executing code. Even something pretty universal like HTML will be read and executed in slightly different ways. Web developers can probably tell you more about having to modify their code to make it work in different browsers. The software your company uses probably has sections of code that only IE knows how to interpret, and it might be too specialized of a case for other browser developers to bother with. Many companies use IE because they have deals or contracts with Microsoft, and Microsoft can even modify the browser to work for whatever special case they need. Developers of other browsers focus more on the general public.
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In addition to the other answers here, the newer versions of IE actually *have* gotten a lot better, especially in terms of layout standards and efficiency. Five years ago you essentially had to create an entirely separate stylesheet just to make your website look presentable at all in IE compared to Chrome, Firefox, Safari, or others, but now IE works just as well as the other major browsers. [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)
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Which is louder? 2 speakers at 100% volume or 4 speakers at 50%?
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You'll actually get both louder and quieter with 2 speakers vs 4 speakers. The thing is it depends on where you listen and the dimensions of your room. Assuming the same sound is coming out of the speakers of course. If you set up one stereo in front and one in back and play the left chanel through one pair and right channel through the other you'll get patterns of interference that depend on how far apart the speakers are placed and the frequency of the source. More speakers generally gets you better high frequency coverage, meaning the highs will be clearer and louder but can cause total or partial cancellation of lows as well as boosts at different "nodes" in the room. This is why you generally have a single speaker (sub) playing the lows and the multiple speakers play the highs. When you see multiple subs they are usually playing different things The other comment is completely wrong. Sound absolutely adds with more sources. It just gets complicated.
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This is a surprisingly difficult question to answer because there's multiple ways of describing "loud" If you want to simply double the energy, then two speakers is sufficient. This doesn't double the pressure of the sound wave though, you need four speakers for that. Neither of those are sufficient to make your brain register double the loudness though, you need a whopping ten speakers for that. This may sound counterintuitive, but sound is a wave limited by many physical properties of air and our ability to perceive it is non-linear. Actually registering double intensity requires significantly more than double the energy, just think about how speakers at concerts carry enough power to literally vibrate you, and yet you can also hear a fly buzz with the same ears. They have tremendous absolute range. For practical examples, think of traffic. Two cars driving past is not twice as loud as one car. They're outputting double the energy but the sound you perceive is only marginally higher
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Can smoking related diseases be noticed before becoming full blown?
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Most smoking-related diseases develop over many months or years, so their warning signs can be caught early if anything on a regular checkup of your vital signs, weight, blood gases, blood component tests, respiratory sounds, heart sounds, heart function, or lung volumes is abnormal. Your body will also tell you that your smoking habit is hurting it through things like coughing, shortness of breath, increased heart rate/blood pressure, prolonged bleeding time, pallor, accelerated aging, etc. so that you have a chance to stop smoking and let it heal long before a serious disease actually develops. It's just up to you to listen to it.
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Long term smoking can lead to COPD (Bronchitis + Emphysema), but smoking anything will most likely lead to this. Anyone who says it is harmless should be ignored, regardless of the method of intake. Realistically, I don't think there is enough long term study done to be able to say anything concrete.
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What is so special about petroleum oils that we can't just simply use most other kinds of oil (vegetable, animal) as a fuel substitute?
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Petroleum oils are hydrocarbon chains, links of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms hooked to them. Vegetable oils have links of carbon atoms with some hydrogen atoms, but also some oxygen-hydrogen units attached to them. You can absolutely use these as a fuel supplement, in the US almost all cars run on 10% Ethanol (mostly derived from corn oil). Some cars can run on 85% Ethanol, and others run on pure oil (which is usually called bio-diesel when used for fuel). When it comes to why petroleum, the answer is very simple. It's cheaper. People buy fuel from the lowest cost source.
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We use petroleum-based fuels because they are a highly concentrated fuel (matter which holds chemical energy) that just happened to exist in the ground, in great quantities, in a form that can be processed. And petroleum was created over millions of years from organic matter which absorbed sunlight. There simply are no other sources of such concentrated energy on the planet that we can just dig out. Most other flammable chemicals have to be created - i.e., we have to put the chemical energy into them, and it's kind of pointless to create a fuel that requires as much energy to create as we can extract from it.
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If every person on earth were to fall from 1 mile high, is it likely anyone would survive?
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Almost certainly yes. People [have survived falls from much longer distances](_URL_0_), and though it is extremely rare, 7 billion is a huge number of chances.
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Generally, falling from more than 3 stories is considered usually lethal. That said, there are cases of people falling from 30,000 feet and surviving, as they landed on soft ground and fell spread - eagle, spreading the impact out over the maximum area possible. This is doable because once you are falling at 120 mph, you stop falling faster due to air resistance.
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What's the difference between an EP, LP, and album other than the name?
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Back in the days of records, in the 1940s/1950s, a record could hold maybe one song. Eventually you had the ability to have 10 or 20 minutes per side. An LP would be a record with 20 minutes per side so you could expect about 40 total minutes of music. An EP typically would be one with 10 minutes per side and allow for maybe about 20 minutes total of music. By the 1960s, the format for new music started to change. Instead of just making singles then eventually making a best of album, bands started making full "albums" where the entire LP or EP would be filled with new songs. Now, since the 1980s, a CD can fit about 80 minutes on one disc, so the limitations of a single, EP, LP, or double album mean nothing. Now single will mean a release with one or two songs, EP with about 3 or 4 songs. and a LP with about 10 songs for a total of 40 minutes.
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I think it's probably mostly tradition. The LP has a maximum playing time of 45 minutes. _URL_0_ The CD has a maximum playing time of 74 minutes. So it makes sense that most studio albums would be within those ranges. But since vinyl is making a comeback, it would make sense for albums to be in that length.
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When I go for a long walk in jeans, why do my legs start to itch?
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Possibly friction. Alternatively, allergic reaction to the fabric softeners and washing powder that was left from the machine. A long walk makes you sweat slightly, this dissolves these chemicals, your skin absorbs them slightly.
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Usually itching is caused by dead skin cells needing removed, vibrations shake them loose quicker than normal so they cause itching.
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why does slouching feel comfortable if it is a bad position for our backs
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It isn't. What really is bad for you is being still for long periods of time. The human body was designed to be moving almost constantly. There are very few movements or positions that are actually harmful to you, but being stationary for too long strains muscles and tissues and that's what develops into painful injuries or ailments. Sitting on your butt and slouching all day makes use of some muscles but neglects other and that develops into an imbalance. Source: physiotherapy student.
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Standing in place is actually way harder for your body. The muscles in your lower back are always tense when you stand. Where as when walking, they get relaxed and then tense up again. Imagine doing 20 pushups in 5 minutes. Now imagine doing 1 pushup in 5 minutes (staying low)
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Question about cancer survival statistics relative to time of diagnosis
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This is an excellent question, and it makes the interpretation of cancer screening studies difficult. The problem is called lead-time bias. The best way to get information about whether a cancer screen is actually useful (prolongs life) is to do a randomized controlled trial, where you split people in to two groups and screen only 1 group. If you look at how long people survive after diagnosis, then the data will be affected by lead time bias, so that's not the ideal comparison. What you need to do is look at how long people survived from the date they entered the study. If the overall survival is the same, but the survival since cancer diagnosis is longer by a few months, then you know that you just found the cancer a few months earlier, and that was the only benefit. Basically we want people to live longer overall, not live longer with cancer.
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The doctors don't calculate much, they look at statistics on the average survival time/rate of people at similar stages of the disease in the past. With experience doctors get quite good at estimating the situation and guessing somewhat precisely but that does not mean the estimate is exactly the time a person has left. If a doctor says you have 3 months left you could still die next week or live another year.
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Which is Shakespeare's most historically accurate play?
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Most of Shakespeare's plays are based on Holofernes. However, Julius Caesar is based a lot on Suetonius' lives of the twelve caesars (particuarly the scene with 'eh tu brute' where in Suetonius Caesar shifts from latin to greek with 'kai su teknon' (and you my son?) so Shakespeare retains this linguistic shift). While Suetonius is by no means a definitive account of Caesar's reign, he's definitely more accurate than some of them. I just thought this was interesting. (Shakespeare the thinker by Anthony Nuttall covers a lot of this) Other than that probably the history cycles.
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hi! there are a few Shakespeare experts here, but it might be worth x-posting this to /r/AskLiteraryStudies
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Will the forces that is expanding the universe ever get strong enough to expand the space between atoms atoms?
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There isn't a force expanding the Universe, there is a force making the expansion accelerate, and it's due to dark energy. This force acting between two objects a given distance apart (such as nucleus and electrons) is a constant in time, it does not get bigger. It's very small.
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No. The size of atoms depends on a few fundamental physical constants. You can look at the formula for the [Bohr radius](_URL_0_) to see this: a*_0_* = hbar/(m*_e_*\*c\*alpha) On the right hand side you have the Planck constant, the mass of the electron, the speed of light, and the fine structure constant. To the best that we can determine, none of those constants have changed since the beginning of the universe (and there have been serious attempts to look for these changes by observing very distant objects). So atoms were the same size for as long as the four fundamental interactions (strong, weak, E & M, and gravity) have existed. The expanding universe just provides more space for the matter to move around in.
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Why is plastic always still wet after going through the dishwasher?
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Glass and ceramic hold the heat so moisture will evaporate off. Plastic cools quite quickly so moisture will not have the opportunity to evaporate.
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A lot of the plastic is from fishing nets/equipment. It's used in the ocean so when it's discarded or lost it obviously ends up in the ocean.
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What language did the people of Britannia speak prior to Roman annexation of the region?
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Britain was Brythonic Celtic speaking at the time of the Roman invasion. Gaelic speakers came to dominate Ireland, and then Gaelic-speaking Irish raiders - or "Scots" - invaded western Caledonia after the Roman departure, leaving the Highlands and Islands Gaelic speaking. There is always the question of pockets of indigenous, non-Celtic speakers surviving in Britain at the time of the Roman invasion, but that is a matter of debate. edit: for clarification - Welsh is Brythonic as was Cornish, which is enjoying a revival. The language of Brittany is also Brythonic, which is also called "P" Celtic, because a consonant shift caused a difference in the language of the "Q" Celts or Gaelic speakers of Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Mann (and formally of Galicia in Northern Spain).
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England owned a pretty substantial amount of the entire globe not particularly long ago. The idea their language is spoken widely isn't especially surprising. It's the same reason a huge percent of the globe speaks languages that descend from latin. (or from ancient chinese in the east)
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With the popularity of high powered telescopes, can't moon landing deniers be easily proven wrong by seeing leftovers from the landings?
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Moon landing deniers aren't interested in seeing proof. There is ample proof available already, and there has been for decades. Anyone actually curious about it could find definitive proof quite quickly. New proof is irrelevant if someone is already ignoring the existing proof.
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/u/booweesy is correct, but I'd also like to add that I don't think anybody who has control of those sorts of things gives a rats ass about the moon landing deniers. They definitly aren't going to take time and money away from research to attempt to satisfy conspiracy theorists (especially when they can just say "you Photoshoped it").
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What's the difference between a granuloma and a cyst?
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A cyst is a closed, fluid filled structure. They can occur in any organ or tissue and can be macroscopic (visible with the naked eye) or microscopic (only visible under the microscope). A granuloma is a result of the body's attempt to contain an injurious agent that is difficult to eradicate. Their typical microscopic appearance is a central necrotic core with a surrounding ring of activated macrophages or 'epithelioid cells' Classically, the term 'granuloma' relates to a tuberculosis infection however they can occur in other disease processes also. The prototypical diseases that cause granulomas are Tuberculosis, Leprosy, Crohns, Sarcoidosis, Syphillis and Cat-Scratch disease.
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The contents of cysts are mostly dead cells, and proteins, they build up and have no where to go, that's what builds up the pressure.
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A question about the book 1177 B.C. The Year Civilisation Collapsed by Eric H Cline
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He did an [AMA a year ago](_URL_1_) if you're curious. 1. Yes insofar as theories about what happened 3000 years ago can be 'correct'. At some level it's still quite vague - the collapse happens due to a number of reasons- but that is significant in that earlier studies tended to singular causes for the collapse. 2. Joseph Tainter has a general book on the collapse of societies, Richard Drews has a couple around the LBA and collapse, and at the risk of suggesting Wikepedia's list of books, it's actually a reasonable [list of papers and books on the matter](_URL_0_), but you might want to wait for someone with a speciality in Mycenaean/Aegean matters, as I can only cover the Levant.
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117 CE was the year of the death of Trajan, which means that it was planted in that brief period after Rome had broken Parthian power and annexed Mesopotamia, but before Hadrian withdrew. It is essentially a geographic measure, at that was the farthest Rome ever extended. Generally speaking, the second century as a whole was the time of greatest prosperity for the Roman Empire, although I would personally rather live in the reign of Hadrian or Antoninus Pius. Particularly in the Eastern provinces, when you think of massive, imposing ruins like Baalbek, the remains at Ephesus, or the massive odeon of Athens are from the second century. 117 CE is just a convenient date for it.
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How does the crease-free setting of a dryer work?
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All the most common "crease-free" setting does is keep the temperature up in the dryer and spins the drum back and forth once a minute or so - in order to stop the clothes from settling in one spot and forming creases. It just buys you some extra time between when the clothes are dried (i.e the main cycle) and when you need to take them out the drier. It is a terrible waste of electricity though.
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The fibers stay clumped together and form little points when air drying, rather than being fluffed apart in the dryer.
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I created a new facebook account with a completely fake name, and temporary email address. That is all the info I gave. How does facebook suggest people I actually know as 'friends'?
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You gave a lot more than just a fake name and fake email, I'm afraid. For starters your IP address and possibly also your location would have been collected. There's also your browser fingerprint, cookies, advertising ID etc. I don't know for sure though Plus if you used the Facebook app to sign up, your contacts are among the permissions granted when you use the app; along with a bunch of other stuff..
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Perhaps that person has you in a virtual address book on their email, phone etc which they have given permission for FB to link through. You gave FB your name, it sees your name on his contact list and suggests the connection.
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If humans as a species have less genetic variance than some small chimpanzee populations, how come we look so different from each other?
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We're very good at recognizing differences between humans, and we have many traits (coloration) that are genetically small but visually striking.
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[Ape vs Monkey](_URL_0_) comparison chart. Hope this helps.
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Why don't airplanes fly lower? Wouldn't it save time, and have less turbulence? Is it for the sole purpose of less air resistance?
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generally there is less turbulence the higher you go. It would not save time because it's much harder to fly fast at lower altitudes.
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Because the lower the altitude the thicker the air so in order to keep up speed the plane would need to burn more fuel so it's cheaper to fly higher. Also the FAA sets the minimum altitudes commercial planes can fly at so they don't have a chance to collide with a smaller private plane or helicopter.
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how do turbo diesel motors create such insane amounts of torque with such low horsepower whereas petrol/gas engines are pretty much within realm of each other in terms of hp/torque
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HP = torq * rpm / 5252 Diesels run at much lower RPMs than gasoline engines. Most diesels don't rev past 3k.
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The difference between the two items is this.... Gasoline burns via a combustion based ignition, I.e. Gasoline burns because a spark ignites it. Diesel fuel is a compression based ignition, I.e. Diesel burns because there is so much pressure that the diesel ignites. So if you put gasoline in a diesel engine, the engine is trying to burn it using pressure, and it's not designed to do that. If you put diesel in a gasoline engine it's trying to burn it using combustion and it's not designed to do that.
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How is it that almost every little conversation, meeting, search, etc has been filmed in Making a Murderer?
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Any conversation, meeting, search, or event that was NOT filmed is obviously not in the TV show. So there you go.
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American sitcoms like the ones you listed are typically shot in front of a live studio audience with a multiple camera set-up and a higher frame rate than films. They shoot with several cameras at once so they can get all the shots they need from a single performance of a given scene and that also means they have to light the whole set evenly, which doesn't look natural at all. It's more like recording a play than making a movie.
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Why are pigeons so much more successful in urban environments than any other species of bird?
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Pigeons are ~~cliff doves~~ feral domesticated [rock doves](_URL_0_). The ledges of urban buildings are just like cliffs as far as they are concerned, so they have lots of nesting sites. Few predators, hawks and owls don't really like urban areas. And people are slobs, so there is food for them almost everywhere. Ravens are also doing well in cities, they've learned how to eat road kill, human garbage and hunt small rodents and pigeons.
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The volume of pigeons far outweighs the predatory ability of birds of prey. That said, there are plenty of good examples of predatory birds making a living off of pigeons. [From wikipedia](_URL_0_) [One example: Pale Male in NYC](_URL_1_)
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Why does rubbing alcohol expire but alcohol for drinking does not?
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Drinking alcohol (ethanol) absolutely expires. Beer and wine have limited shelf lives, where proteins and many of the complex molecules within it break down. This leads to musty beer and sour wine. Most wine is not meant to be aged but drank, only certain wines benefit *at all* from aging. 10-buck-chuck from the local grocery or liquor store is not it. Beer typically peaks at 13 weeks, but that's only if it's unpasteurized bottle conditioned beers, Bud-lite does not mature in the can. But also notice most beers and wines are in dark bottles, or beer in cans. This is because all alcohols are light sensitive, and will break down when exposed. Same thing with isopropyl alcohol, which is why rubbing alcohol is in an opaque plastic bottle. It's best to store any alcohol in a cool, dark place. Put that stuff in clear glass in sunlight, and I don't even know what you're going to get...
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Rubbing Alcohol gets broken down by your body and turned into poison. Due to having a different chemical structure, Liquor is broken down differently by the body, and is relatively safe to consume in moderate quantities. tl;dr: They are different substances. Alcohol is a family of similar molecules that have a similar structure.
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How do sports commentators come up with ridiculous stats on the fly?
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They are being fed the information by stat guys. They are being talked to in their earpieces constantly. There are people in the background whose whole job is providing this information. The announcer does little or none of it himself.
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Sports commentators do a lot of preparation before a game. A lot. They try to memorize all sorts of stuff about each team and players, as well as memorizing all the players, positions and numbers. They don't just show up in the booth and wing it. They prepare. They have also been around the sport for a long time, are professionals, and are very good at what they do. While they are broadcasting, they often have computers and sheets printed out with all of this info as well to reference.
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Why are famous psychologists and sociologists almost always white men from America or Europe?
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They came from the uh 'best' historical countries. Europe tended to own the world and make the decisions. So they sorta had the smartest people driving the world. Not being racist, thats just how history played out. Basically blame how events in history played out for how things are now.
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For the same reason white South African's who emigrate aren't called "African-American." Unfortunately people are still classified by their outward appearance.
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As both world wars progressed, did the quality of soldiers drop as reserves got depleted?
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My follow up question would be to ask exactly the opposite. As the conflict progressed, wouldn't soldiers be more proficient, on average, as they would be more battle hardened and experienced? Sure, a certain percentage would be killed, incapacitated, captured, fled, a minority even earned (in different ways) a safer 'desk' position, and all these would be substitited by greener and, eventually, lower standard recruits; but wouldn't the majority (barring exceptional circumstances, such as much higher than normal mortality rates) just survive to become veteran? Doesn't this factor (field experience) affect performance much more than younger age / etc?
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Yes, the Wehrmacht soldiers were drafted. A law was passed 1935. The length of duty was 1 year at first, 2 years since 1936. Basic training of 8 to 12 weeks. Source: _URL_0_
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Why aren't UN Peacekeeping Forces deploying in Syria?
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Well, UN Peacekeepers have to be neutral in the countries they go in. This is why they can't shoot anyone. They can literally not take a side. As someone else wrote, some of the UN Security Council, like Russia, want to keep Assad in power because Russia in particular has sold some weapons to Syria in the past. On Iraq: That was to remove someone who was thought to have weapons of mass destruction. Weapons that would be used *against other nations*. Assad hasn't shown any interest in attacking any other countries. Saddam actually launched missiles into Israel as a rally cry during the Iraq War. He hoped to get other Arab nations involved, but failed. Afghanistan: The US went in to kick out a group that *had attacked another nation*. It wasn't necessarily to save the Afghan people (otherwise the US would have invaded other oppressive countries like China and Russia), but rather to make sure the free world wouldn't be threatened by terrorists.
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Countries who contribute troops to UN peacekeeping get paid a whole bunch of money to do so. When the cost of your troops is very low, the risk is low, and you don't really need them for military operations, it becomes a really great way to earn a shit ton of money for your country. Cost of troops, low. Amount to get paid to be UN Peacekeepers, high. Just math.
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How to MP3-To-Cassette Adapters work?
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The "cassette" has a head in it (instead of tape) that makes contact with the head in the cassette player and transmits the sound that way.
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Cassettes use magnetic tape, so this converts the signal from your iPod into a magnetic signal (like cassettes) so it will work just like a normal cassette. It's a really simple device, actually.
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Does a concentration gradient only refer to a single unique substance?
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It is the 1:0, 0:1 scenario. The universe doesn't need to know the difference for diffusion to work. We consider it two concentration gradients because it is modeled and measured that way. In the system it self you have particles leaving and returning to each cell. In your example it will overwhelmingly be magnesium leaving one side and calcium moving back in to replace it, just because those are the abundant ions in the given sides. If you set up a system of 1:1 potassium salt, you would still have transfer of ions, they would just be leaving at the same rate they're replaced from the other side, so the two cells are at equilibrium.
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If you're mixing two of the same substance in the same phase, then yes, it is that simple. If you're mixing different things, then it gets more complicated, and you have to take things like specific heat capacity into account.
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What makes alochlic drinks such as whiskey and vodka feel 'warm' when they go down?
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Your blood vessels expand resulting in more heat escaping. This in turn leads to the warmth you may feel when you drink.
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Alcohol will cause vasodilation and this can make your extremities feel warm. This is why the avalanche rescue dogs used to carry a small amount of Sherry in a flask or Cask around their necks. While the consumption of alcohol will help warm the extremities and in some cases help to keep frost-bite from doing more damage, the effects are short lived as the "warmth" experienced will result in a lower core body temperature. This lower core body temperature is the fast route to hypothermia.
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What the genes we have got from the Neandertals and Denisovans code for?
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Well it depends on how much Neanderthal DNA you have, most people have approximately 2% (depedning on your ancestry) but not everyone has the same 2%, others have more or less. As far as the functional genes we possess that come from Neanderthal DNA, a study addressing this was published just a few weeks ago [Synopsis](_URL_1_) and [link to actual article](_URL_0_). According to these data it seems that there is a association between current day humans and variants of Neanderthal DNA that encode for keratin related genes as well as genes associated with disease, however, they do not know if they association is positive or negative
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Follow-up question : as a roman myself (ie born in Rome from a mostly roman family), I would be very interested in some DNA research on the lineage of the roman inhabitants through the ages. For instance, how much did the great invasions of Italy during the 4th and 5th centuries altered the "original" genome (already a mix of greek- italic and etruscan people) ?
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How do we know that atoms in distant astral bodies are anything the atoms here on Earth?
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As far as we know, there are only a few different quarks and a finite way of arranging them into baryons like protons and neutrons that could form nuclei. Protons and neutrons are the only baryons we know of that exist for more than a tiny fraction of a second. The fact that we see spectra around us in the universe that correspond to the spectra we observe on Earth strongly suggests that those distant atoms are made of the same stuff as our atoms. It's not technically impossible that there could be some completely unknown form of matter that exists in different parts of the universe that just so happens to behave like the matter we have on earth in every measurable way, but that's not a falsifiable claim. Someone could always just say "well yes it *looks* exactly like hydrogen but I think it's something that's actually different but we just can't tell." Unless a claim like that is part of a theory that can be tested and potentially proven false, there's really no point.
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We don't see very distant molecules so much as we see the light emitted by the reactions of atomic and subatomic particles. Light does not have molecular structure; it has what is known as a dual nature: beam and particle.
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Why don't we have something to permanently remove hair.
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We can permanently remove it, it just has bad side effects. Set your scalp on fire and you'll have no more hair up there. Or, get on a chemotherapy regimen. Joking aside, it's hard to permanently stop hair growth *safely*. Your body has a blueprint it wants to fulfill, and if you muck around with it then there are unintended consequences. It's much safer and easier to just shave your head.
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At the base of the follicle is something called the papilla which has cells that divide faster than any other cells in the body. The papilla is still there after the hair has been plucked out so it forms a new follicle where a new hair forms to replace the plucked one. To permanently remove a hair the papilla must be destroyed, this is done with lasers I guess to fry the shit out of it.
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Boiling water with lid halfway on, will this increase the rate of water boiling, or should I keep the lid off to vaporize as much water as possible?
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Keep the lid on completely when bringing water to a boil. You are effectively keeping more energy in your system and will allow it to boil sooner. With the lid off or ajar water is evaporating and vaporizing but then carrying all that energy out into the room/ environment. It is probably a small loss but one which is apparent in the kitchen.
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As the water is heating up, the most energetic water molecules are able to evaporate and travel away from the water. If there is no lid, these hottest molecules escape, and the energy used to heat them is lost. If the lid is on, then this heat can stay in the pot, and the water will boil faster. You can try this yourself if you have two identical pans. The lid may increase the pressure slightly, but not enough to noticeably affect the boiling point. At some point, some steam will start to escape the the pot by pushing up the lid slightly, so the pressure can't climb very high.
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Why does it seem like the latest generation (Gen X it is I think) is more conservative again, more secretive, more relying on safety than Millennials??
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Generation X is generally considered people born from the late 60's to very early 80's. I believe you're referring to what they have temporarily dubbed "Generation Z" until a more definitive name can be established.
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You're already seeing it, you have certain business reports freaking out about "the cheapest generation", when the reality is we're broke! Millenials are not buying houses or cars en-mass at the same demographic point our parents did because we're saddled with SL debt. That extra couple hundred a month could go to a mortgage or a house down payment, is going to the government or bank. Boomers are going to be in for a surprise when no one buys their house, which they've been banking on for retirement. They'll either have to heavily subsidize their kids or go broke. _URL_1_
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How invested in Nazi ideology was the average German soldier?
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Well, the British and Americans were very interested in exactly this question, so they asked the POWs. These surveys showed, that an average of about 15% of the soldiers were die-hard nazis, but 50% were loyal to Hitler. Interestingly, both the Allies and Nazi-Germany had interest in showing the Germans as totally nazified people - The Nazis to show their controll over the German people, the Allies to portrait the Germans as evil, so the soldiers wouldn't hesitate in fighting. Zagovec, Rafael A.: Gespräche mit der "Volksgemeinschaft". In: Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg 9,2.
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The militia movement you are referring to was the [Volksstrum](_URL_1_), which was essentially a home-guard. The Volksstrum mostly comprised of elderly men, members of both the Hitler Youth (boys aged 14-18) and the Deutshes Jungvolk (boys aged 10-14), and girls from the Bund Deutsher Madel (girls aged 10-18). The film 'Der Untergang' (english: Downfall) is a very well done German film about the final days of the war. If you are interested in reading more about the Volksstrum, Osprey Publishing has a good introduction book called [Hitler's Home Guard: Volksstrumman](_URL_0_).
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Why is it popular to yell "Play Freebird!" at concerts
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I's a song by Lynyrd Skynyrd. It is far and away their biggest song. Like really their only actual popular song besides Sweet Home Alabama. The joke is that at a concert if they played Free Bird, half the audience would just leave because it's the reason that everyone is there. So at a Skynyrd concert, everyone is just waiting for that song, and nobody cares about the other songs, so they would just be chanting to hear Freebird.
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No, many birds (especially parrots) like to dance and sing. Some sing better than others, but a lot of them do it anyway.
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What checks are in place to prevent news organizations from just lying and saying they have an 'unnamed source' that gave them damning information, when no source existed? Is there any way to check that there was actually a source, and that it's not just something the news agency made up?
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Nothing stops journalists from just making things up. It happens, and when they get caught it's usually a little scandal. Of course if they make up a story that is damaging to someone's business they could be sued for libel, but it's tough to make a successful libel case.
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Basically, its illegal to steal that information but its not illegal to report that information to the public, if the news agencies themselves did the hacking it would be a very different story (a la the rupert murdoch phone hacking scandal in the UK). Publishing the ashley madison leaks is no different than an agency publishing the wikileaks files for instance, though its obviously of far less consequence.
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According to the last episode of Chernobyl, there is still a man buried inside reactor 4. Would his body have decomposed normally or would the excessive radiation not allow for any substantial bacterial activity?
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I haven't seen any of the chernobyl shows, but have read about [radiotropic fungus](_URL_2_) growing in the reactor core areas of Chernobyl. These fungi literally feed on radiation. There is no information though about where they get the nutrients and mass needed to grow. Although radiation can drive ATP synthesis, the organisms still need a source of organic matter. It is entirely possible the body is being consumed by the radiotropic fungi species that are thriving in the high radiation enviornment
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nuclear bombs and nuclear reactors are pretty different beasties, despite both relying on nuclear material to do their thing. In the atomic bomb blast, almost all of the nuclear material was destroyed at the atomic level, releasing a tremendous amount of energy. It resulted in only trace amounts of radioactive material actually being left over. In the case of the chernobyl disaster, the leak meant the material didn't explode or evaporate, it just stayed put, being radioactive.
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"The Soviet Bloc dissolved because Gorbachev let it." How accurate is this statement?
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Follow-up question: What role did the US have in the fall of the Soviet Union? Because i've heard some people claim that the United States intervention was the main cause for it's dissolution, by the use of covert operations and support of its internal opposition, and i would like to know if there is any truth in that statement.
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According to 'Stalin, Soviet Policy, and the Consolidation of a Communist' Bloc _URL_1_ : "The experiences of the interwar years, most notably with Poland, Romania, and Hungary, and Stalin’s feelings of betrayal and humiliation when Hitler broke the Nazi-Soviet Pact and launched an all-out war against the USSR, had further convinced the Soviet leader that he must prevent the reemergence of hostile regimes anywhere along the Soviet Union’s western flank" ... I think it also mention Stalin's desire to be in full control of setting up the political apparatus on his western front.
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Why does America vote on a Tuesday?
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> In 1845, the United States was largely an agrarian society. Farmers often needed a full day to travel by horse-drawn vehicles to the county seat to vote. Tuesday was established as election day because it did not interfere with the Biblical Sabbath or with market day, which was on Wednesday in many towns.
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It was in 1845 that Congress decided Election Day would be the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. At that time, first of all, there was no weekend. Sunday was the Sabbath, and the other 6 days were work days. People were not supposed to travel on the Sabbath, so the election had to be held on a day that would allow people to not need to travel on the Sabbath. Since sometimes the polling place was a ways away from people and they might have to travel on foot or by horse, Tuesday allows them to travel Monday and vote Tuesday. Travel Wednesday, and return home that day or the next. Then the subesquent days of the week could be used for counting up the votes.
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What would happen to Earth if it had no moon?
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Yes, you are correct that tides would be affected by the disappearance of the moon ([source](_URL_1_)). However, the tides would still be affected by the presence of the sun ([source](_URL_3_)). I wasn't able to find much more beyond that on what would happen if the moon were to suddenly disappear. There is a lot out there on what Earth would be like if it had no moon. For example, the earth's day would be much shorter: 6 hours ([source](_URL_1_)). The moon also affects earth's axis ([source](_URL_2_)). This source also mentions a study that argues against the notion of a moon required for the evolution of life. So, one could ask "how does the moon affect the evolution of life?" There is also this [podcast](_URL_0_) which you can listen to that discusses earth-no-moon question. Edit: Contrary to my username I am not an astronomer or space expert in any form.
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Most likely a few big pieces (at least 10 km diameter) would be projected towards earth, enter the atmosphere and the impact would kill all life on earth. If that doesn't happen (unlikely) a large moon dust cloud would form around earth, block the sunlight for thousands/millions of years and therefore also destroy all life on earth.
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What's happening when my TV'S randomly (seemingly atleast) make the clicking sounds like they're about to turn on but don't?
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I get the same sound every day from my old plasma tv. Its the exact same sound as pressing the power button.
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Apparently about < 1% of the white noise on your TV comes from cosmic microwave background radiation. The majority of the signal, however, originates from earth - and a large portion of that, from actual VHF/UHF transmissions, which (IMHO) greatly reduces the randomness. You may find that patterns or cycles start emerging after a while.
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Why is the Arctic melting so much faster than the Antarctic?
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The arctic is mainly icebergs swimming in water. The antarctic is a solid land mass, covered in ice. Warm water is constantly flowing towards the north, mixing with the cold water and warm it up. Warm water flowing to the south is is (I think) much less and since it is mostly land under the ice, it can't reach the ice directly, but only heats up the ground. Imagine an ice cube and a frozen steak. Put them in water. The ice cube has melted, long before the steak is completely unfrozen.
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The reason is Declining Arctic Sea Ice Cover This was predicted 10 years ago - [Study 1](_URL_1_) [Study 2](_URL_0_)
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What does the electric shock therapy do in a mental hospital?
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I worked in mental health for 5 years and did some clinicals at a psych floor while in nursing school. I did even get to interview a patient prior to ECT, then watch the procedure, then talk to her again afterward. It really is *nothing* like to see in the movies. She was very depressed prior. Couldn't even get out of bed. During the procedure, the only thing that moved was her toes, twitching a little bit. Afterward, she was a little tired for a few hours, and then was back to normal. It really was amazing how much it helped her.
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I don't understand your question. Are you talking about people getting electrocuted? When high voltages flow through your body, they cause your muscles to contract. Your muscles are controlled by your nervous system, which uses electricity to signal your muscles to open and close. Since there's so much electricity, it sets your muscles to "close as much as possible", and people cannot pull away. That's why if for some reason you needed to touch an electrified cable, you touch it with the back of your hand, so your arm can easily be jerked away.
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Why did William land at Pevensey and not Hastings?
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Looking at a modern map, it's hard to imagine why an invasion force would have chosen a featureless spot like Pevensey to land at. We need to look at a map of the coastline as it existed in 1066, before generations of silting, coastal erosion and land reclamation works fundamentally changed the outline of Britain. There are dramatic differences. The sea - and brackish coastal marshes - reached as far inland as Cambridge; much of Somerset was also an arm of the sea. And Pevensey was a substantial, sheltered bay, [as this close-up, with the modern coastline in lighter tone, and the contemporary one in a darker shade, shows](_URL_0_). **Source** David Hill, *An Atlas of Anglo-Saxon England, 700-1066* (1981)
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Can't comment on the others, but I can talk about the Norman conquest. William, duke of Normandy, was born in 1028. He was an illegitimate son, therefore he had the nickname of "the bastard". Anyways, William's claim to the English throne was based on the claim that in 1051 the English king Edward "the Confessor" had promised him the throne,. Edward was childless and thus succession was kinda up in the air. However, when Edward was on his deathbed he gave the throne to Harold Godwine, the head of one of the most, if not the most powerful noble family in England ( even more powerful than the king). It was also said by William that Harold had sworn on a holy relic to support William's kingship. This usurping outraged William who invaded while Harold was distracted by Harald Hardrada and his brother Tostig. Sources: 1066: The Year of the Conquest William the Conqueror by David Bates
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Why do nuclear smoke or steam stacks have their specific iconic shape?
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These sorts of cooling towers aren't exclusive to nuclear power plants, but the gist of the reason for the shape is > The hyperboloid shape aids in accelerating the upward convective air flow, improving cooling efficiency. Also, strength and fewer materials to build. Basically the shape has better flow due to hot gas physics than if it were a straight tube and is stronger and less expensive. Here's some further reading: _URL_0_ **Edit:** added more info
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Those are the trails from sounding rockets fired from the ground near the blast, nothing to do with the nuclear blast itself. By launching those rockets shortly before the blast, the initially vertical smoke trails will be deformed by the shock front of the explosion which gives visual evidence of the fluid motion going on around the explosion.
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Why are we just learning about Michael Jackson's child porn and animal torture collection now? Shouldn't he have been charged for that stuff a long time ago?
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Because its not child porn or animal torture, its just a bunch of art books and the like that you could buy at Barnes & Noble. Basically, anything with a nude picture in it was used as 'pornography'. It was all legal.
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Michael Jackson reportedly had a large collection of 'paedophilic' content at his Neverland Ranch in 2003, according to police reports cataloging the property following a search. This info was released to the public just recently.
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When we eat take in a substantially low number of calories in a day, our bodies go into "starvation mode", which causes the body to burn far fewer calories over time, without necessarily decreasing activity and a person's energy. Why isn't the body always in this mode to conserve energy?
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There isn't really a starvation mode. At most your drop 15% in metabolism alone. The remaining reductions come from weight loss, less energy expenditure from general activity, reduction of muscle mass. What you don't use you lose. The body does this regularly. Its pretty darn efficient day to day. You lose muscle pretty fast once you stop lifting weights and that is a direct result of efficiency in action.
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Eating many small meals stimulates the metabolism; once you go 4-5 hours without eating your body enters a sort of "starvation mode". Layman
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Was carving your name into a bullet widespread practise throughout any major conflict? How was the practise viewed?
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The phrase 'A bullet with your name on it' is the idea that out there somewhere, sitting in a box or a rifle, is the bullet that will kill you. This is an idea that has been around for a while, beginning with the phrase 'Every bullet has it's billet' first seen in print in 'E Cobhams Dictionary of Phrase and Fable 1898'. As for carving your name into a bullet, the only reference to this tradition I can find is in the TV series Blackadder Goes Forth, where the lovable idiot Baldrick interprets this phrase to mean that if he carves his name into a bullet, then he will own 'the bullet with his name on it' and thus be able to survive the war. I am afraid that I can't turn up any other references to a tradition of carving your name into a bullet. Where have you come across this as a common practice?
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Not the American West but in Australia there was a bushranger (Australian highwayman) named [Ned Kelly](_URL_1_) who wore a suit of [armour](_URL_0_) to protect himself from bullets.
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Why is there a speed limit on high explosives?
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Could you elaborate? Do you mean when transporting high explosives there is a speed limit on the truck doing the transportation and so why does it exist, or are you referring to the propagation of the reaction front during the actual explosion?
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High explosives propagate faster than the speed of sound, and the detonation is due to shock waves. Low explosives deflagrate, which means the combustion propagates thermally. Propellants are generally low explosives because their combustion is much easier to control. Accelerants speed up reactions. Sometimes they are consumed, sometimes they are catalysts.
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How do bullets fired into the air come down fast enough to do damage?
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Bullets are propelled by gases from a gunpowder charge. Once it leaves the barrel traveling up, eventually the round reaches an apex, and heads back toward gravity. It will reach terminal velocity falling back down, which is much less than muzzle velocity firing up, but still enough to do damage. Case in point, a stray round coming back down in this manner took out the back window of my friends car a few 4th of Julys ago, it was found in the trunk after passing through the seat back.
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Depends if you fire it up or _straight up_ If you fire it straight up, the bullet will go up for a while and then start falling. It will loose its ballistic trajectory and fall at its [terminal velocity](_URL_0_) which is about [90 meters/second](_URL_1_). With 60 m/s being enough to break skin, it could do damage if it hits the right part of you but probably wouldn't get through bone. Now - if it isn't fired _exactly_ straight up, then it can maintain its spin and ballistic trajectory - traveling in an arc rather than straight up and down. Those bullets travel much faster; they can and have killed people.
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I feel dumb for asking this... but how come using air to move a turbine to generate energy doesn't eliminate the energy from the system (i.e., less "wind")?
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To answer your title: **Turbines do remove energy from the wind.** Here's a cool simulation by Stanford that shows offshore wind farms could stop hurricanes! _URL_1_ Video from researchers: _URL_0_ Ultimately, solar energy creates wind. The sun heats up air in one area, and the hot air then migrates to cooler regions. It's not really driven primarily by temperature differences, but instead by "pressure gradients" 0 literally, gradual differences in pressure. Air moves from high pressure (like in your bicycle tire) to low pressure.
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This has been answered well by other people, and as has been pointed out, it's all to do with aerodynamics and efficiency, but there is something they havn't mentioned: Some aircraft actually DO have a wind turbine onboard. Its an emergency device to provide power to the cockpit in the event of a total power loss from all other sources.
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How water pressure in houses is maintained
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Generally water pressure to your house is maintained by your local water company. Depending on city and country they could be a government or private enterprise. Water pressure is maintained by way of a pump station or simply gravity. It varies depending on a lot of factors, Depending on your distance to your local pump station or plant, your relative elevation, what storey you're on and who else you share it with. Where I used to work potable water is supplied around 400 to 800 kPa. Reducers and valves bring down the pressure inside the house. I'm not actually sure what the maximum pressure at the tap is. Perhaps someone else can fill you in.
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By storing the water high, we get to create water pressure throughout the entire system through gravity. As long as the source of the water is higher than the users of the water, there will be water pressure to the homes and businesses. You just have to have some electric pumps to put water into the tank.
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How much would the value of a dollar change if we were to add the national deficit, in dollars, to the money we currently have
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You haven't provided enough information. Where is a number of dollars equal to the national deficit coming from? Why is it being dumped into the money supply, and how is that being done?
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Probably not as much as you think. The dollar isn't based on gold anymore, it hasn't been in a long time.
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Did Julius Caesar plan to make himself dictator from the beginning or was his hand forced?
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What is the "beginning" you refer to in your question? I think a better formulation would be: "At what point did Julius Caesar decide to make himself dictator in perpetuity and why?"
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Could you expand your question? What do you want to know about Julius Caesar?
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