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radio and film industry ) , underground theaters were created , primarily in warsaw and krakow , with shows presented in various underground venues . beginning in 1940 the theaters were coordinated by the secret theatrical council . four large companies and more than 40 smaller groups were active throughout the war , even in the gestapo ' s paw ##ia ##k prison in warsaw and in auschwitz ; underground acting schools were also created . underground actors , many of whom officially worked mundane jobs , included ka ##rol ad ##wen ##tow ##icz , el ##z ##bie ##ta bars ##zcz ##ew ##ska , henry ##k bo ##row ##ski , wo ##j ##cie ##ch br ##yd ##zin ##ski , w ##ła ##dy ##sław han ##cz ##a
| 203 |
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, stefan jar ##ac ##z , tad ##eus ##z kant ##or , mi ##ec ##zy ##sław ko ##tl ##ar ##cz ##yk , bo ##hd ##an ko ##rz ##eni ##owski , jan k ##re ##cz ##mar , adam mu ##lar ##cz ##yk , and ##rz ##ej pro ##nas ##zko , leon sc ##hill ##er , arnold s ##zy ##fm ##an , stanisław ##a um ##ins ##ka , edmund wi ##er ##cin ##ski , maria wi ##er ##cin ##ska , ka ##rol wo ##j ##ty ##ła ( who later became pope john paul ii ) , marian w ##yr ##zy ##kowski , je ##rzy za ##wi ##ey ##ski and others . theater was also active in the jewish ghetto ##s and in the camps for polish war prisoners
| 203 |
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. polish music , including orchestras , also went underground . top polish musicians and directors ( adam did ##ur , z ##bi ##gni ##ew dr ##ze ##wi ##eck ##i , jan eki ##er , barbara ko ##st ##rz ##ew ##ska , z ##y ##gm ##unt la ##tos ##ze ##wski , je ##rzy le ##feld , wit ##old lu ##tos ##ław ##ski , and ##rz ##ej pan ##uf ##nik , pi ##ot ##r per ##kowski , edmund ru ##d ##nick ##i , eugen ##ia um ##ins ##ka , je ##rzy waldo ##rf ##f , ka ##zi ##mie ##rz wi ##ł ##ko ##mir ##ski , maria wi ##ł ##ko ##mir ##ska , bo ##les ##ław wo ##yt ##ow ##icz , mira z ##imi ##nsk ##a ) performed
| 203 |
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] | 1,003 |
in restaurants , cafes , and private homes , with the most daring singing patriotic ballads on the streets while eva ##ding german patrols . patriotic songs were written , such as si ##eki ##era , mo ##ty ##ka , the most popular song of occupied warsaw . patriotic puppet shows were staged . jewish musicians ( e . g . w ##ła ##dy ##sław s ##z ##pi ##lman ) and artists likewise performed in ghetto ##s and even in concentration camps . although many of them died , some survived abroad , like alexandre tan ##sman in the united states , and eddie ro ##sner and henry ##k wars in the soviet union . visual arts were practiced underground as well . cafes , restaurants
| 62 |
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] | 1,004 |
and private homes were turned into galleries or museums ; some were closed , with their owners , staff and patrons harassed , arrested or even executed . polish underground artists included er ##yk lip ##inski , stanisław mi ##ed ##za @ - @ tomas ##ze ##wski , stanisław os ##to ##ja @ - @ ch ##ros ##tow ##ski , and ko ##nst ##ant ##y maria so ##po ##cko . some artists worked directly for the underground state , for ##ging money and documents , and creating anti @ - @ nazi art ( satirical posters and car ##ica ##tures ) or polish patriotic symbols ( for example ko ##t ##wi ##ca ) . these works were reprinted on underground presses , and those intended for
| 203 |
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] | 1,005 |
public display were plastered to walls or painted on them as graffiti . many of these activities were coordinated under the action n operation of arm ##ia k ##raj ##owa ' s bureau of information and propaganda . in 1944 three giant ( 6 m , or 20 ft ) puppets , car ##ica ##tures of hitler and benito mussolini , were successfully displayed in public places in warsaw . some artists recorded life and death in occupied poland ; despite german ban ##s on poles using cameras , photographs and even films were taken . although it was impossible to operate an underground radio station , underground auditions were recorded and introduced into german radios or loud ##sp ##eak ##er systems . underground postage stamps
| 365 |
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were designed and issued . since the germans also banned polish sport activities , underground sport clubs were created ; underground football matches and even tournaments were organized in warsaw , krakow and poznan , although these were usually dispersed by the germans . all of these activities were supported by the underground state ' s department of culture . = = = warsaw uprising = = = during the warsaw uprising ( august – october 1944 ) , people in polish @ - @ controlled territory endeavor ##ed to rec ##reate the former day @ - @ to @ - @ day life of their free country . cultural life was vibrant among both soldiers and the civilian population , with theaters , cinemas ,
| 245 |
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post offices , newspapers and similar activities available . the 10th underground tournament of poetry was held during the uprising , with prizes being weaponry ( most of the polish poets of the younger generation were also members of the resistance ) . headed by anton ##i bo ##hd ##zie ##wicz , the home army ' s bureau of information and propaganda even created three news ##ree ##ls and over 30 @ , @ 000 metres ( 98 @ , @ 425 ft ) of film documenting the struggle . eugen ##ius ##z lok ##aj ##ski took some 1 @ , @ 000 photographs before he died ; sy ##l ##west ##er braun some 3 @ , @ 000 , of which 1 @ , @
| 203 |
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500 survive ; je ##rzy tomas ##ze ##wski some 1 @ , @ 000 , of which 600 survived . = = culture in exile = = polish artists also worked abroad , outside of occupied europe . ark ##ady fi ##ed ##ler , based in britain with the polish armed forces in the west wrote about the 303 polish fighter squadron . mel ##chio ##r wan ##kow ##icz wrote about the polish contribution to the capture of monte cass ##ino in italy . other writers working abroad included jan le ##chon , anton ##i s ##ł ##oni ##ms ##ki , ka ##zi ##mie ##rz wi ##er ##zyn ##ski and julian tu ##wi ##m . there were artists who performed for the polish forces in the
| 203 |
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] | 1,009 |
west as well as for the polish forces in the east . among musicians who performed for the polish ii corps in a pol ##ska para ##da cabaret were henry ##k wars and ir ##ena anders . the most famous song of the soldiers fighting under the allies was the c ##zer ##won ##e ma ##ki na monte cass ##ino ( the red pop ##pies on monte cass ##ino ) , composed by fe ##lik ##s ko ##nar ##ski and alfred schultz in 1944 . there were also polish theaters in exile in both the east and the west . several polish painters , mostly soldiers of the polish ii corps , kept working throughout the war , including tad ##eus ##z pi ##ot ##r pot
| 955 |
[
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] | 1,010 |
##wo ##row ##ski , adam ko ##sso ##wski , marian k ##rat ##och ##wil , bo ##les ##ław lei ##t ##ge ##ber and stefan kn ##app . = = influence on postwar culture = = the wartime attempts to destroy polish culture may have strengthened it instead . norman davies wrote in god ' s playground : " in 1945 , as a prize for unto ##ld sacrifices , the attachment of the survivors to their native culture was stronger than ever before . " similarly , close @ - @ knit underground classes , from primary schools to universities , were renowned for their high quality , due in large part to the lower ratio of students to teachers . the resulting culture was ,
| 399 |
[
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"of",
"world",
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] | 1,011 |
however , different from the culture of inter ##war poland for a number of reasons . the destruction of poland ' s jewish community , poland ' s postwar territorial changes , and postwar migration ##s left poland without its historic ethnic minorities . the multicultural nation was no more . the experience of world war ii placed its stamp on a generation of polish artists that became known as the " generation of columbus ##es " . the term denotes an entire generation of poles , born soon after poland regained independence in 1918 , whose adolescence was marked by world war ii . in their art , they " discovered a new poland " – one forever changed by the atrocities of world war
| 203 |
[
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"germany",
",",
"ko",
"##rc",
"##zak"
] | 1,012 |
ii and the ensuing creation of a communist poland . over the years , nearly three @ - @ quarters of the polish people have emphasized the importance of world war ii to the polish national identity . many polish works of art created since the war have centered on events of the war . books by tad ##eus ##z bo ##row ##ski , adolf ru ##d ##nick ##i , henry ##k gr ##yn ##berg , mir ##on bi ##a ##ł ##os ##ze ##wski , hanna k ##ral ##l and others ; films , including those by and ##rz ##ej wa ##j ##da ( a generation , kan ##a ##ł , ashes and diamonds , lot ##na , a love in germany , ko ##rc ##zak
| 203 |
[
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] | 1,013 |
, katy ##n ) ; tv series ( four tank men and a dog and stakes larger than life ) ; music ( pow ##stan ##ie wars ##za ##wski ##e ) ; and even comic books – all of these diverse works have reflected those times . polish historian tomas ##z s ##zar ##ota wrote in 1996 : educational and training programs place special emphasis on the world war ii period and on the occupation . events and individuals connected with the war are ubiquitous on tv , on radio and in the print media . the theme remains an important element in literature and learning , in film , theater and the fine arts . not to mention that politicians constantly make use of it
| 825 |
[
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"23"
] | 1,014 |
. probably no other country marks ann ##iver ##sari ##es related to the events of world war ii so often or so solemnly . = ari ##han ##t @ - @ class submarine = the ari ##han ##t class ( sanskrit , for killer of enemies ) is a class of nuclear @ - @ powered ballistic missile submarines being built for the indian navy . they were developed under the us $ 2 @ . @ 9 billion advanced technology vessel ( atv ) project to design and build nuclear @ - @ powered submarines . the lead vessel of the class , ins ari ##han ##t was launched in 2009 and after extensive sea trials , was confirmed as ready for operations on 23
| 213 |
[
"february",
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".",
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"and",
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"missile",
"submarines",
"to"
] | 1,015 |
february 2016 . ari ##han ##t is the first ballistic missile submarine to have been built by a country other than one of the five permanent members of the united nations security council . in december 1971 , during the indo @ - @ pakistani war of 1971 , the us president richard nixon sent a carrier battle group named task force 74 , led by the nuclear @ - @ powered uss enterprise into the bay of bengal in an attempt to int ##imi ##date india . in response , the soviet union sent a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from vlad ##ivo ##sto ##k to trail the us task force . the event demonstrated the significance of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile submarines to
| 972 |
[
"then",
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"@",
"-"
] | 1,016 |
then prime minister indira gandhi . following the 1974 smiling buddha nuclear test , the director of marine engineering ( d ##me ) at naval headquarters initiated a technical feasibility study for an indigenous nuclear propulsion system ( project 93 ##2 ) . the indian navy ' s advanced technology vessel project to design and construct a nuclear submarine took shape in the 1990s . then defence minister george fern ##and ##es confirmed the project in 1998 . the initial intent of the project was to design nuclear @ - @ powered fast attack submarines , though following nuclear tests conducted by india in 1998 at po ##kh ##ran test range and the indian pledge of no first use , the project was re @ -
| 335 |
[
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] | 1,017 |
@ aligned towards the design of a ballistic missile submarine in order to complete india ' s nuclear triad . = = description = = the ari ##han ##t @ - @ class submarines are nuclear powered ballistic missile submarines built under the advanced technology vessel ( atv ) project . they will be the first nuclear submarines designed and built by india . the submarines are 112 m ( 36 ##7 ft ) long with a beam of 11 m ( 36 ft ) , a draught of 10 m ( 33 ft ) , displacement of 6 @ , @ 000 tonnes ( 5 @ , @ 900 long tons ; 6 @ , @ 600 short tons ) and a diving depth of
| 982 |
[
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] | 1,018 |
300 m ( 980 ft ) . the complement is about 95 , including officers and sailors . the boats are powered by a single seven blade propeller powered by an 83 mw ( 111 @ , @ 000 hp ) press ##uri ##sed water reactor and can achieve a maximum speed of 12 – 15 knots ( 22 – 28 km / h ) when surfaced and 24 knots ( 44 km / h ) when submerged . the submarines have four launch tubes in their hum ##p and can carry up to 12 k @ - @ 15 saga ##rika missiles with one war ##head each ( with a range of 750 km or 470 mi ) or 4 k @ - @ 4
| 981 |
[
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] | 1,019 |
missiles ( with a range of 3 @ , @ 500 km or 2 @ , @ 200 mi ) . the submarines are similar to the ak ##ula @ - @ class submarine of russia . the indian navy will train on ins cha ##kra , an ak ##ula @ - @ class submarine leased from russia in 2012 . = = development = = the submarines are powered by a press ##uri ##sed water reactor with highly enriched uranium fuel . the mini ##at ##urized version of the reactor was designed and built by the b ##hab ##ha atomic research centre ( bar ##c ) at the indira gandhi centre for atomic research ( i ##gc ##ar ) in ka ##lp ##ak ##kam .
| 219 |
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] | 1,020 |
it included a 42 @ - @ metre ( 138 ft ) section of the submarine ' s pressure hull containing the shielding tank with water and the reactor , a control room , as well as an auxiliary control room for monitoring safety parameters . the prototype reactor became critical on 11 november 2003 and was declared operational on 22 september 2006 . successful operation of the prototype for three years enabled the production version of the reactor for ari ##han ##t . the reactor sub ##systems were tested at the machinery test center in visa ##kha ##pa ##t ##nam . facilities for loading and replacing the fuel cores of the naval reactors in berth ##ed submarines were also established . the detailed engineering of
| 289 |
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] | 1,021 |
the design was implemented at larsen & to ##ub ##ro ' s submarine design center at their ha ##zi ##ra shipbuilding facility . tata power se ##d built the control systems for the submarine . the steam turbines and associated systems integrated with the reactor were supplied by wal ##chan ##dna ##gar industries . the lead vessel underwent a long and extensive process of testing after its launch in july 2009 . the propulsion and power systems were tested with high @ - @ pressure steam trials followed by harbor @ - @ acceptance trials that included sub ##mers ##ion tests by flooding its ballast tanks and controlled dive ##s to limited depths . ins ari ##han ##t ' s reactor went critical for the first
| 972 |
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] | 1,022 |
time on 10 august 2013 . on 13 december 2014 , the submarine set off for its extensive sea trials . exact number of planned submarines remains unclear , according to media reports about three to six submarines are planned to be built . the first boat of the class , ins ari ##han ##t is expected to be commissioned by 2016 . the first four vessels are expected to be commissioned by 202 ##3 . in december 2014 , the work on a second nuclear reactor began and the second boat , ins arid ##ham ##an is being prepared for sea trials . the next three ships in the class , after the lead ship , will be larger and have 8 missile launch tubes
| 972 |
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] | 1,023 |
to carry up to 8 k ##4 and a more powerful press ##urized water reactor than ins ari ##han ##t . a larger follow on class to the ari ##han ##t class is also planned , these new boats will be capable of carrying 12 to 16 ballistic missiles . = sms mark ##gra ##f = sms mark ##gra ##f was the third battleship of the four @ - @ ship ko ##nig class . she served in the imperial german navy during world war i . the battleship was laid down in november 1911 and launched on 4 june 1913 . she was formally commissioned into the imperial navy on 1 october 1914 , just over two months after the outbreak of war in europe
| 970 |
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] | 1,024 |
. mark ##gra ##f was armed with ten 30 @ . @ 5 @ - @ cent ##imeter ( 12 @ . @ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets and could steam at a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . mark ##gra ##f was named in honor of the royal family of baden . the name mark ##gra ##f is a rank of german nobility and is equivalent to the english mar ##grave , or marquess . along with her three sister ships , ko ##nig , gross ##er ku ##rf ##urst , and k ##ron ##pr ##in ##z , mark ##gra ##f took part in most of the fleet actions during the war ,
| 985 |
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] | 1,025 |
including the battle of ju ##tland on 31 may and 1 june 1916 . at ju ##tland , mark ##gra ##f was the third ship in the german line and heavily engaged by the opposing british grand fleet ; she sustained five large @ - @ caliber hits and her crew suffered 23 casualties . mark ##gra ##f also participated in operation albion , the conquest of the gulf of riga , in late 1917 . the ship was damaged by a mine while en route to germany following the successful conclusion of the operation . after germany ' s defeat in the war and the signing of the armistice in november 1918 , mark ##gra ##f and most of the capital ships of the high
| 968 |
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] | 1,026 |
seas fleet were interned by the royal navy in sc ##apa flow . the ships were di ##sar ##med and reduced to skeleton crews while the allied powers negotiated the final version of the treaty of versailles . on 21 june 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , rear admiral ludwig von re ##uter , ordered the fleet to be sc ##ut ##tled to ensure that the british would not be able to seize the ships . unlike most of the sc ##ut ##tled ships , mark ##gra ##f was never raised for scrap ##ping ; the wreck is still sitting on the bottom of the bay . = = construction and design = = mark ##gra
| 971 |
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##f was ordered under the provisional name er ##sat ##z weiss ##enburg and built at the ag wes ##er shipyard in bremen under construction number 186 . her keel was laid in november 1911 and she was launched on 4 june 1913 . at her launching ceremony , the ship was christ ##ened by frederick ii , grand duke of baden , the head of the royal family of baden , in honor of which the ship had been named . fitting @ - @ out work was completed by 1 october 1914 , the day she was commissioned into the high seas fleet . she had cost the imperial german government 45 million gold ##marks . mark ##gra ##f displaced 25 @ , @ 79
| 969 |
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| 982 |
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] | 1,029 |
450 kw ) and yielded a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . the ship had a range of 8 @ , @ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @ , @ 000 km ; 9 @ , @ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . the ship had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @ , @ 09 ##5 enlisted sailors . she was armed with ten 30 @ . @ 5 cm ( 12 @ . @ 0 in ) sk l / 50 guns arranged in five twin gun turrets : two super ##fi ##ring turrets each fore and aft and one
| 983 |
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] | 1,030 |
turret amid ##ship ##s between the two funnel ##s . her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @ . @ 9 in ) sk l / 45 quick @ - @ firing guns , six 8 @ . @ 8 cm ( 3 @ . @ 5 in ) sk l / 45 quick @ - @ firing guns and five 50 cm ( 20 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam . mark ##gra ##f ' s 8 @ . @ 8 cm guns were removed and replaced with four 8 @ . @ 8 cm anti @ - @ aircraft guns . the ship ' s main armored belt was 350 mill ##imeters
| 983 |
[
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] | 1,031 |
( 14 in ) thick . the deck was 30 mm ( 1 @ . @ 2 in ) thick ; the main battery turrets and forward con ##ning tower were armored with 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick steel plates . = = service history = = following her commissioning on 1 october 1914 , mark ##gra ##f conducted sea trials , which lasted until 12 december . by 10 january 1915 , the ship had joined iii battle squadron of the high seas fleet with her three sister ships . on 22 january 1915 , iii squadron was detached from the fleet to conduct maneuver , gunnery , and torpedo training in the baltic . the ships returned to the north sea on
| 976 |
[
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] | 1,032 |
11 february , too late to assist the i scouting group at the battle of dogg ##er bank . in the aftermath of the loss of sms blu ##cher at the battle of dogg ##er bank , kaiser wilhelm ii removed admiral friedrich von ing ##eno ##hl from his post as fleet commander on 2 february . admiral hugo von po ##hl replaced him as commander of the fleet ; von po ##hl carried out a series of sort ##ies with the high seas fleet throughout 1915 . the first such operation — mark ##gra ##f ' s first with the fleet — was a fleet advance to ter ##sche ##lling on 29 – 30 march ; the german fleet failed to engage any british warships
| 971 |
[
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] | 1,033 |
during the sort ##ie . another uneven ##tf ##ul operation followed on 17 – 18 april , and another three days later on 21 – 22 april . mark ##gra ##f and the rest of the fleet remained in port until 29 may , when the fleet conducted another two @ - @ day advance into the north sea . on 11 – 12 september , mark ##gra ##f and the rest of iii squadron supported a mine ##lay ##ing operation off tex ##el . another uneven ##tf ##ul fleet advance followed on 23 – 24 october . vice admiral rein ##hard sc ##hee ##r became commander in chief of the high seas fleet on 18 january 1916 when admiral von po ##hl became too ill
| 976 |
[
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] | 1,034 |
from liver cancer to continue in that post . sc ##hee ##r proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the british grand fleet ; he received approval from the kaiser in february . the first of sc ##hee ##r ' s operations was conducted the following month , on 5 – 7 march , with an uneven ##tf ##ul sweep of the ho ##of ##den . another sort ##ie followed three weeks later on the 26th , with another on 21 – 22 april . on 24 april , the battle ##cr ##uis ##ers of rear admiral franz von hip ##per ' s i scouting group conducted a raid on the english coast . mark ##gra ##f and the rest of the
| 971 |
[
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] | 1,035 |
fleet sailed in distant support . the battle ##cr ##uis ##er se ##yd ##litz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . the other battle ##cr ##uis ##ers bomb ##arded the town of lowest ##oft unopposed , but during the approach to yarmouth , they encountered the british cruisers of the ha ##r ##wich force . a short artillery duel ensued before the ha ##r ##wich force withdrew . reports of british submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the i scouting group . at this point , sc ##hee ##r , who had been warned of the sort ##ie of the grand fleet from its base in sc ##apa flow , also withdrew to safer german waters
| 971 |
[
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] | 1,036 |
. mark ##gra ##f was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the battle of ju ##tland which took place on 31 may and 1 june 1916 . the german fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the grand fleet and destroy it before the main british fleet could re ##tal ##iate . mark ##gra ##f was the third ship in the german line , behind her sisters ko ##nig and gross ##er ku ##rf ##urst and followed by k ##ron ##pr ##in ##z . the four ships made up the v division of the iii battle squadron , and they were the vanguard of the fleet . the iii battle squadron was the first of three battleship units ; directly
| 976 |
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] | 1,037 |
as ##tern were the kaiser @ - @ class battleships of the vi division , iii battle squadron . the iii squadron was followed by the he ##l ##gol ##and and nassau classes of the ii battle squadron ; in the rear guard were the ob ##sol ##es ##cent deutschland @ - @ class pre @ - @ dread ##no ##ught ##s of the i battle squadron . shortly before 16 : 00 the battle ##cr ##uis ##ers of i scouting group encountered the british 1st battle ##cr ##uis ##er squadron under the command of vice admiral david beatty . the opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of ind ##ef ##ati ##ga ##ble , shortly after 17 : 00 , and queen
| 976 |
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] | 1,038 |
mary , less than half an hour later . by this time , the german battle ##cr ##uis ##ers were steaming south to draw the british ships toward the main body of the high seas fleet . at 17 : 30 , ko ##nig ' s crew spotted both the i scouting group and the 1st battle ##cr ##uis ##er squadron approaching . the german battle ##cr ##uis ##ers were steaming to starboard , while the british ships steamed to port . at 17 : 45 , sc ##hee ##r ordered a two @ - @ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the british battle ##cr ##uis ##ers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
| 976 |
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"@",
"inch",
"("
] | 1,039 |
mark ##gra ##f opened fire on the battle ##cr ##uis ##er tiger at a range of 21 @ , @ 000 yards ( 19 @ , @ 000 m ) . mark ##gra ##f and her two sisters fired their secondary guns on british destroyers attempting to make torpedo attacks against the german fleet . mark ##gra ##f continued to engage tiger until 18 : 25 , by which time the faster battle ##cr ##uis ##ers managed to move out of effective gunnery range . during this period , the battleships wars ##pit ##e and valiant of the 5th battle squadron fired on the leading german battleships . at 18 : 10 , one of the british ships scored a 15 @ - @ inch (
| 976 |
[
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] | 1,040 |
38 cm ) shell hit on mark ##gra ##f . shortly thereafter , the destroyer more ##sby fired a single torpedo at mark ##gra ##f and missed from a range of about 8 @ , @ 000 yd ( 7 @ , @ 300 m ) . malaya fired a torpedo at mark ##gra ##f at 19 : 05 , but the torpedo missed due to the long range . around the same time , mark ##gra ##f engaged a cruiser from the 2nd light cruiser squadron before shifting her fire back to the 5th battle squadron for ten minutes . during this period , two more 15 @ - @ inch shells hit mark ##gra ##f , though the timing is unknown . the hit
| 976 |
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"simultaneously",
",",
"the",
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"iii"
] | 1,041 |
at 18 : 10 struck on a joint between two 8 @ - @ inch @ - @ thick side armor plates ; the shell burst on impact and hole ##d the armor . the main deck was buckled and approximately 400 t ( 390 long tons ; 440 short tons ) of water entered the ship . the other two shells failed to explode and caused ne ##gli ##gible damage . shortly after 19 : 00 , the german cruiser wi ##es ##bad ##en had become disabled by a shell from the british battle ##cr ##uis ##er invincible ; rear admiral paul be ##hn ##cke in ko ##nig attempted to position his four ships to cover the stricken cruiser . simultaneously , the british iii
| 987 |
[
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"credit",
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] | 1,042 |
and iv light cruiser squadrons began a torpedo attack on the german line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they sm ##oth ##ered wi ##es ##bad ##en with fire from their main guns . the ob ##sol ##es ##cent armored cruisers of the 1st cruiser squadron also joined in the melee . mark ##gra ##f and her sisters fired heavily on the british cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive them off . mark ##gra ##f fired both her 30 @ . @ 5 cm and 15 cm guns at the armored cruiser defence . under a hail of fire from the german battleships , defence exploded and sank ; credit is normally given to the battle
| 976 |
[
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"rico",
"##chet",
"##ed",
"upward",
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"coal",
"bunker"
] | 1,043 |
##cr ##uis ##er lu ##tz ##ow , though mark ##gra ##f ' s gunners also claimed credit for the sinking . mark ##gra ##f then fired on the battle ##cr ##uis ##er princess royal and scored two hits . the first hit struck the 9 @ - @ inch armor covering " x " bar ##bet ##te , was def ##le ##cted downward , and exploded after penetrating the 1 @ - @ inch deck armor . the crew for the left gun were killed , the turret was disabled , and the explosion caused serious damage to the upper deck . the second shell penetrated princess royal ' s 6 @ - @ inch belt armor , rico ##chet ##ed upward off the coal bunker
| 987 |
[
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",",
"capped",
"(",
"ap",
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")",
"shells",
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] | 1,044 |
, and exploded under the 1 @ - @ inch deck armor . the two shells killed 11 and wounded 31 . at the same time , mark ##gra ##f ' s secondary guns fired on the cruiser warrior , which was seriously damaged by 15 heavy shells and forced to withdraw . warrior founder ##ed on the trip back to port the following morning . around 19 : 30 , admiral john je ##lli ##coe ' s main force of battleships entered the battle ; orion began firing at mark ##gra ##f at 19 : 32 ; she fired four sal ##vos of 13 @ . @ 5 @ - @ inch armor @ - @ piercing , capped ( ap ##c ) shells and
| 984 |
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"31",
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"33",
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"/",
"h",
";",
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] | 1,045 |
scored a hit with the last sal ##vo . the shell exploded upon impact ##ing the armor protecting the no . 6 15 cm gun case ##mate . the shell failed to penetrate but hole ##d the armor and disabled the gun . the explosion seriously injured two and killed the rest of the gun crew . a heavy shell nearly struck the ship at the same time , and at 19 : 44 , a bent propeller shaft forced mark ##gra ##f ' s crew to turn off the port engine ; naval historian john campbell speculated that this shell was the one that damaged the shaft . her speed dropped to 17 or 18 kn ( 31 or 33 km / h ; 20
| 985 |
[
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] | 1,046 |
or 21 mph ) , though she remained in her position in the line . shortly after 20 : 00 , the german battleships engaged the 2nd light cruiser squadron ; mark ##gra ##f fired primarily 15 cm shells . in this period , mark ##gra ##f was engaged by ag ##in ##court ' s 12 @ - @ inch guns , which scored a single hit at 20 : 14 . the shell failed to explode and shattered on impact on the 8 @ - @ inch side armor , causing minimal damage . two of the adjoining 14 @ - @ inch plates directly below the 8 @ - @ inch armor were slightly forced inward and some minor flooding occurred . the heavy
| 984 |
[
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] | 1,047 |
fire of the british fleet forced sc ##hee ##r to order the fleet to turn away . due to her reduced speed , mark ##gra ##f turned early in an attempt to maintain her place in the battle line ; this , however , forced gross ##er ku ##rf ##urst to fall out of formation . mark ##gra ##f fell in behind k ##ron ##pr ##in ##z while gross ##er ku ##rf ##urst steamed ahead to return to her position behind ko ##nig . after successfully withdrawing from the british , sc ##hee ##r ordered the fleet to assume night cruising formation , though communication errors between sc ##hee ##r aboard friedrich der gross ##e and west ##fa ##len , the lead ship , caused delays
| 107 |
[
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] | 1,048 |
. several british light cruisers and destroyers stumbled into the german line around 21 : 20 . in the ensuing short engagement mark ##gra ##f hit the cruiser call ##io ##pe five times with her secondary guns . the fleet fell into formation by 23 : 30 , with gross ##er ku ##rf ##urst the 13th vessel in the line of 24 capital ships . around 02 : 45 , several british destroyers mounted a torpedo attack against the rear half of the german line . mark ##gra ##f initially held her fire as the identities of the destroyers were unknown . but gunners aboard gross ##er ku ##rf ##urst correctly identified the vessels as hostile and opened fire while turning away to avoid torpedoes ,
| 968 |
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",",
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"ag",
"vulcan",
"'",
"s",
"large",
"floating",
"dock",
".",
"repair"
] | 1,049 |
which prompted mark ##gra ##f to follow suit . heavy fire from the german battleships forced the british destroyers to withdraw . at 05 : 06 , mark ##gra ##f and several other battleships fired at what they thought was a submarine . the high seas fleet managed to punch through the british light forces without drawing the attention of je ##lli ##coe ' s battleships , and subsequently reached horns reef by 04 : 00 on 1 june . upon reaching wilhelm ##sha ##ven , mark ##gra ##f went into harbor while several other battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roads ##tead . the ship was transferred to hamburg where she was repaired in ag vulcan ' s large floating dock . repair
| 970 |
[
"work",
"was",
"completed",
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"july",
".",
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"19",
"august",
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"damage",
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"##yd",
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"ju",
"##tland",
",",
"the",
"only",
"battle",
"##cr",
"##uis",
"##ers"
] | 1,050 |
work was completed by 20 july . in the course of the battle , mark ##gra ##f had fired a total of 254 shells from her main battery and 214 rounds from her 15 cm guns . she was hit by five large @ - @ caliber shells , which killed 11 men and wounded 13 . = = = subsequent operations = = = following repairs in july 1916 , mark ##gra ##f went into the baltic for trials . the ship was then temporarily assigned to the i scouting group for the fleet operation on 18 – 19 august . due to the serious damage incurred by se ##yd ##litz and der ##ff ##linger at ju ##tland , the only battle ##cr ##uis ##ers
| 967 |
[
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"for",
"the",
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"der",
"tan",
"##n",
"and",
"mo",
"##lt",
"##ke",
",",
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",",
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",",
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"by",
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":",
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"and",
",",
"unwilling",
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"the",
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"of",
"the",
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"fleet",
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"11",
"weeks",
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"the",
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"ju",
"##tland",
",",
"turned",
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"forces",
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"and",
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".",
"mark",
"##gra",
"##f",
"was",
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"##tf",
"##ul",
"advance",
"in",
"the",
"direction",
"of",
"sunderland",
"on",
"18",
"–",
"20",
"october",
"."
] | 1,051 |
available for the operation were von der tan ##n and mo ##lt ##ke , which were joined by mark ##gra ##f , gross ##er ku ##rf ##urst , and the new battleship bayern . the british were aware of the german plans , and sort ##ied the grand fleet to meet them . by 14 : 35 , sc ##hee ##r had been warned of the grand fleet ' s approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the grand fleet just 11 weeks after the decidedly close engagement at ju ##tland , turned his forces around and retreated to german ports . mark ##gra ##f was present for the uneven ##tf ##ul advance in the direction of sunderland on 18 – 20 october .
| 970 |
[
"unit",
"training",
"with",
"the",
"iii",
"squadron",
"followed",
"from",
"21",
"october",
"to",
"2",
"november",
".",
"two",
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"later",
",",
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"ship",
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"iii",
"squadron",
".",
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",",
"a",
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"@",
"-",
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".",
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"the",
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",",
"and",
"iii",
"squadron",
",",
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"wilhelm",
"##sha",
"##ven",
",",
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"ordered",
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".",
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"the",
"operation",
",",
"the",
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"submarine",
"j",
"##1",
"torpedo",
"##ed",
"both",
"gross",
"##er",
"ku",
"##rf",
"##urst",
"and",
"k",
"##ron",
"##pr",
"##in",
"##z",
"and",
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"moderate",
"damage",
".",
"for",
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"of",
"1917",
",",
"mark",
"##gra",
"##f",
"was",
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"with",
"guard",
"duties",
"in",
"the",
"north",
"sea",
",",
"interrupted",
"only",
"by",
"a",
"refit"
] | 1,052 |
unit training with the iii squadron followed from 21 october to 2 november . two days later , the ship formally rejoined iii squadron . on the 5th , a pair of u @ - @ boats grounded on the danish coast . light forces were sent to recover the vessels , and iii squadron , which was in the north sea en route to wilhelm ##sha ##ven , was ordered to cover them . during the operation , the british submarine j ##1 torpedo ##ed both gross ##er ku ##rf ##urst and k ##ron ##pr ##in ##z and caused moderate damage . for most of 1917 , mark ##gra ##f was occupied with guard duties in the north sea , interrupted only by a refit
| 976 |
[
"period",
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"january",
"and",
"periodic",
"unit",
"training",
"in",
"the",
"baltic",
".",
"=",
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"=",
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"=",
"=",
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"1917",
",",
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"of",
"riga",
",",
"the",
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"navy",
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"the",
"russian",
"naval",
"forces",
"that",
"still",
"held",
"the",
"gulf",
"of",
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".",
"the",
"admiral",
"##sta",
"##b",
"(",
"navy",
"high",
"command",
")",
"planned",
"an",
"operation",
"to",
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"the",
"baltic",
"island",
"of",
"os",
"##el",
",",
"and",
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"gun",
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"on",
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"sw",
"##or",
"##be",
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".",
"on",
"18",
"september",
",",
"the",
"order",
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"issued",
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"os",
"##el",
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"the",
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"to",
"comprise",
"the",
"flagship",
",",
"mo",
"##lt",
"##ke",
",",
"along",
"with"
] | 1,053 |
period in january and periodic unit training in the baltic . = = = operation albion = = = in early september 1917 , following the german conquest of the russian port of riga , the german navy decided to eliminate the russian naval forces that still held the gulf of riga . the admiral ##sta ##b ( navy high command ) planned an operation to seize the baltic island of os ##el , and specifically the russian gun batteries on the sw ##or ##be peninsula . on 18 september , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture os ##el and moon islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , mo ##lt ##ke , along with
| 971 |
[
"the",
"iii",
"and",
"iv",
"battle",
"squadrons",
"of",
"the",
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"seas",
"fleet",
".",
"the",
"ii",
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"@",
"-",
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",",
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".",
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"-",
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".",
"along",
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"nine",
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",",
"three",
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"boat",
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"##s",
",",
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",",
"supported",
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"over",
"100",
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"six",
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".",
"the",
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"force",
"amounted",
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"approximately",
"24",
"@",
",",
"@",
"600",
"officers",
"and",
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"men",
".",
"opposing",
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"@",
"-",
"@",
"dread",
"##no",
"##ught",
"##s",
"sl",
"##ava",
"and",
"ts",
"##esa"
] | 1,054 |
the iii and iv battle squadrons of the high seas fleet . the ii squadron consisted of the four ko ##nig @ - @ class ships , and was by this time augmented with the new battleship bayern . the iv squadron consisted of the five kaiser @ - @ class battleships . along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotilla ##s , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six zeppelin ##s . the invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @ , @ 600 officers and enlisted men . opposing the germans were the old russian pre @ - @ dread ##no ##ught ##s sl ##ava and ts ##esa
| 976 |
[
"##re",
"##vich",
",",
"the",
"armored",
"cruisers",
"bay",
"##an",
",",
"admiral",
"ma",
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",",
"26",
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",",
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".",
"three",
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"-",
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".",
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",",
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",",
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".",
"the",
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"14",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
"men",
",",
"though",
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"it",
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".",
"the",
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"12",
"october",
",",
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"@",
"-",
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"class",
"ships",
"covered",
"the",
"landing",
"of",
"ground",
"troops"
] | 1,055 |
##re ##vich , the armored cruisers bay ##an , admiral ma ##kar ##ov , and diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gun ##boats . three british c @ - @ class submarines where also stationed in the gulf . the ir ##ben strait , the main southern entrance to the gulf of riga , was heavily mined and defended by a number of coastal artillery batteries . the garrison on os ##el numbered nearly 14 @ , @ 000 men , though by 1917 it had been reduced to 60 to 70 percent strength . the operation began on 12 october , when mo ##lt ##ke and the four ko ##nig @ - @ class ships covered the landing of ground troops
| 971 |
[
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".",
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"##gra",
"##f",
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".",
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",",
"iii",
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",",
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",",
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"##gr",
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".",
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",",
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"19th",
".",
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",",
"mark",
"##gra",
"##f",
"steamed",
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"sound",
",",
"and",
"on"
] | 1,056 |
by suppress ##ing the shore batteries covering tag ##ga bay . mark ##gra ##f fired on the battery located on cape ni ##nna ##st . after the successful amphibious assault , iii squadron steamed to put ##zi ##ger wi ##ek , although mark ##gra ##f remained behind for several days . on the 17th , mark ##gra ##f left tag ##ga bay to rejoin her squadron in the gulf of riga , but early on the following morning she ran aground at the entrance to ka ##lk ##gr ##und . the ship was quickly freed , and she reached the iii squadron anchorage north of la ##rina bank on the 19th . the next day , mark ##gra ##f steamed to moon sound , and on
| 977 |
[
"the",
"25th",
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",",
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"##sha",
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",",
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"from",
"6",
"to",
"23",
"november",
".",
"after",
"repairs",
"were"
] | 1,057 |
the 25th participated in the bombardment of russian positions on the island of ky ##no . the ship returned to aren ##sburg on 27 october , and two days later was detached from operation albion to return to the north sea . mark ##gra ##f struck a pair of mines in quick succession while in the ir ##ben strait and took in 260 metric tons ( 260 long tons ; 290 short tons ) of water . the ship continued on to kiel via ne ##uf ##ah ##r ##was ##ser in danzig ; she then went on to wilhelm ##sha ##ven , where the mine damage was repaired . the work was completed at the imperial dockyard from 6 to 23 november . after repairs were
| 982 |
[
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",",
"mark",
"##gra",
"##f",
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"a",
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"fleet",
"action",
"at",
"the",
"end",
"of",
"october",
"1918",
",",
"days",
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"the",
"armistice",
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".",
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"sc",
"##hee",
"##r",
"—",
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"the",
"grand",
"admiral",
"(",
"gr",
"##o",
"##ß",
"##ad"
] | 1,058 |
completed , mark ##gra ##f returned to guard duty in the north sea . she missed an attempted raid on a british convoy on 23 – 25 april 1918 , as she was in dock in kiel from 15 march to 5 may for the installation of a new fore ##mas ##t . mark ##gra ##f and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of october 1918 , days before the armistice was to take effect . the bulk of the high seas fleet was to have sort ##ied from their base in wilhelm ##sha ##ven to engage the british grand fleet . sc ##hee ##r — by now the grand admiral ( gr ##o ##ß ##ad
| 971 |
[
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"the",
"british",
"navy",
"in",
"order",
"to",
"obtain",
"a",
"better",
"bargaining",
"position",
"for",
"germany",
",",
"despite",
"the",
"expected",
"casualties",
".",
"however",
",",
"many",
"of",
"the",
"war",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"weary",
"sailors",
"felt",
"the",
"operation",
"would",
"disrupt",
"the",
"peace",
"process",
"and",
"pro",
"##long",
"the",
"war",
".",
"on",
"the",
"morning",
"of",
"29",
"october",
"1918",
",",
"the",
"order",
"was",
"given",
"to",
"sail",
"from",
"wilhelm",
"##sha",
"##ven",
"the",
"following",
"day",
".",
"starting",
"on",
"the",
"night",
"of",
"29",
"october",
",",
"sailors",
"on",
"th",
"##uring",
"##en",
"and",
"then",
"on",
"several",
"other",
"battleships",
",",
"including",
"mark",
"##gra",
"##f",
",",
"mu",
"##tin",
"##ied",
".",
"the",
"unrest",
"ultimately",
"forced",
"hip",
"##per",
"and",
"sc",
"##hee",
"##r",
"to",
"cancel",
"the",
"operation"
] | 1,059 |
##mir ##al ) of the fleet — intended to in ##flict as much damage as possible on the british navy in order to obtain a better bargaining position for germany , despite the expected casualties . however , many of the war @ - @ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and pro ##long the war . on the morning of 29 october 1918 , the order was given to sail from wilhelm ##sha ##ven the following day . starting on the night of 29 october , sailors on th ##uring ##en and then on several other battleships , including mark ##gra ##f , mu ##tin ##ied . the unrest ultimately forced hip ##per and sc ##hee ##r to cancel the operation
| 970 |
[
".",
"informed",
"of",
"the",
"situation",
",",
"the",
"kaiser",
"stated",
",",
"\"",
"i",
"no",
"longer",
"have",
"a",
"navy",
".",
"\"",
"following",
"the",
"cap",
"##it",
"##ulation",
"of",
"germany",
"in",
"november",
"1918",
",",
"most",
"of",
"the",
"high",
"seas",
"fleet",
"ships",
",",
"under",
"the",
"command",
"of",
"rear",
"admiral",
"ludwig",
"von",
"re",
"##uter",
",",
"were",
"interned",
"in",
"the",
"british",
"naval",
"base",
"in",
"sc",
"##apa",
"flow",
".",
"prior",
"to",
"the",
"departure",
"of",
"the",
"german",
"fleet",
",",
"admiral",
"adolf",
"von",
"tr",
"##oth",
"##a",
"made",
"clear",
"to",
"von",
"re",
"##uter",
"that",
"he",
"could",
"not",
"allow",
"the",
"allies",
"to",
"seize",
"the",
"ships",
",",
"under",
"any",
"conditions",
".",
"the",
"fleet",
"rendezvous",
"##ed",
"with",
"the",
"british",
"light",
"cruiser",
"cardiff",
",",
"which",
"led",
"the",
"ships",
"to",
"the",
"allied",
"fleet",
"that",
"was",
"to",
"escort",
"the",
"germans",
"to",
"sc",
"##apa"
] | 1,060 |
. informed of the situation , the kaiser stated , " i no longer have a navy . " following the cap ##it ##ulation of germany in november 1918 , most of the high seas fleet ships , under the command of rear admiral ludwig von re ##uter , were interned in the british naval base in sc ##apa flow . prior to the departure of the german fleet , admiral adolf von tr ##oth ##a made clear to von re ##uter that he could not allow the allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . the fleet rendezvous ##ed with the british light cruiser cardiff , which led the ships to the allied fleet that was to escort the germans to sc ##apa
| 971 |
[
"flow",
".",
"the",
"massive",
"flotilla",
"consisted",
"of",
"some",
"370",
"british",
",",
"american",
",",
"and",
"french",
"warships",
".",
"once",
"the",
"ships",
"were",
"interned",
",",
"their",
"guns",
"were",
"disabled",
"through",
"the",
"removal",
"of",
"their",
"bree",
"##ch",
"blocks",
",",
"and",
"their",
"crews",
"were",
"reduced",
"to",
"200",
"officers",
"and",
"enlisted",
"men",
".",
"the",
"fleet",
"remained",
"in",
"captivity",
"during",
"the",
"negotiations",
"that",
"ultimately",
"produced",
"the",
"treaty",
"of",
"versailles",
".",
"von",
"re",
"##uter",
"believed",
"that",
"the",
"british",
"intended",
"to",
"seize",
"the",
"german",
"ships",
"on",
"21",
"june",
"1919",
",",
"which",
"was",
"the",
"deadline",
"for",
"germany",
"to",
"have",
"signed",
"the",
"peace",
"treaty",
".",
"unaware",
"that",
"the",
"deadline",
"had",
"been",
"extended",
"to",
"the",
"23rd",
",",
"re",
"##uter",
"ordered",
"the",
"ships",
"to",
"be",
"sunk",
"at",
"the",
"first",
"opportunity",
".",
"on",
"the",
"morning",
"of",
"21",
"june",
","
] | 1,061 |
flow . the massive flotilla consisted of some 370 british , american , and french warships . once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their bree ##ch blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and enlisted men . the fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the treaty of versailles . von re ##uter believed that the british intended to seize the german ships on 21 june 1919 , which was the deadline for germany to have signed the peace treaty . unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , re ##uter ordered the ships to be sunk at the first opportunity . on the morning of 21 june ,
| 971 |
[
"the",
"british",
"fleet",
"left",
"sc",
"##apa",
"flow",
"to",
"conduct",
"training",
"maneuvers",
",",
"and",
"at",
"11",
":",
"20",
"re",
"##uter",
"transmitted",
"the",
"order",
"to",
"his",
"ships",
".",
"mark",
"##gra",
"##f",
"sank",
"at",
"16",
":",
"45",
".",
"the",
"british",
"soldiers",
"in",
"the",
"guard",
"detail",
"panicked",
"in",
"their",
"attempt",
"to",
"prevent",
"the",
"germans",
"from",
"sc",
"##ut",
"##tling",
"the",
"ships",
";",
"they",
"shot",
"and",
"killed",
"mark",
"##gra",
"##f",
"'",
"s",
"captain",
",",
"walter",
"schumann",
",",
"who",
"was",
"in",
"a",
"lifeboat",
",",
"and",
"an",
"enlisted",
"man",
".",
"in",
"total",
",",
"the",
"guards",
"killed",
"nine",
"germans",
"and",
"wounded",
"twenty",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"one",
".",
"the",
"remaining",
"crews",
",",
"totaling",
"some",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"86",
"##0",
"officers",
"and",
"enlisted",
"men",
",",
"were",
"imprisoned",
".",
"mark",
"##gra",
"##f",
"was",
"never",
"raised",
"for",
"scrap"
] | 1,062 |
the british fleet left sc ##apa flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 re ##uter transmitted the order to his ships . mark ##gra ##f sank at 16 : 45 . the british soldiers in the guard detail panicked in their attempt to prevent the germans from sc ##ut ##tling the ships ; they shot and killed mark ##gra ##f ' s captain , walter schumann , who was in a lifeboat , and an enlisted man . in total , the guards killed nine germans and wounded twenty @ - @ one . the remaining crews , totaling some 1 @ , @ 86 ##0 officers and enlisted men , were imprisoned . mark ##gra ##f was never raised for scrap
| 953 |
[
"##ping",
",",
"unlike",
"most",
"of",
"the",
"other",
"capital",
"ships",
"that",
"were",
"sc",
"##ut",
"##tled",
".",
"mark",
"##gra",
"##f",
"and",
"her",
"two",
"sisters",
"had",
"sunk",
"in",
"deeper",
"water",
"than",
"the",
"other",
"capital",
"ships",
",",
"which",
"made",
"any",
"salvage",
"attempt",
"more",
"difficult",
".",
"the",
"outbreak",
"of",
"world",
"war",
"ii",
"in",
"1939",
"put",
"a",
"halt",
"to",
"all",
"salvage",
"operations",
",",
"and",
"after",
"the",
"war",
"it",
"was",
"determined",
"that",
"sal",
"##va",
"##ging",
"the",
"deeper",
"wreck",
"##s",
"was",
"financially",
"imp",
"##rac",
"##tical",
".",
"the",
"rights",
"to",
"future",
"salvage",
"operations",
"on",
"the",
"wreck",
"##s",
"were",
"sold",
"to",
"britain",
"in",
"1962",
".",
"owing",
"to",
"the",
"fact",
"that",
"the",
"steel",
"that",
"composed",
"their",
"hull",
"##s",
"was",
"produced",
"before",
"the",
"advent",
"of",
"nuclear",
"weapons",
",",
"mark",
"##gra",
"##f",
"and",
"her",
"sisters",
"are",
"among",
"the",
"few"
] | 1,063 |
##ping , unlike most of the other capital ships that were sc ##ut ##tled . mark ##gra ##f and her two sisters had sunk in deeper water than the other capital ships , which made any salvage attempt more difficult . the outbreak of world war ii in 1939 put a halt to all salvage operations , and after the war it was determined that sal ##va ##ging the deeper wreck ##s was financially imp ##rac ##tical . the rights to future salvage operations on the wreck ##s were sold to britain in 1962 . owing to the fact that the steel that composed their hull ##s was produced before the advent of nuclear weapons , mark ##gra ##f and her sisters are among the few
| 134 |
[
"accessible",
"sources",
"of",
"low",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"background",
"steel",
",",
"which",
"has",
"occasionally",
"been",
"removed",
"for",
"use",
"in",
"scientific",
"devices",
".",
"mark",
"##gra",
"##f",
"and",
"the",
"other",
"vessels",
"on",
"the",
"bottom",
"of",
"sc",
"##apa",
"flow",
"are",
"a",
"popular",
"dive",
"site",
",",
"and",
"are",
"protected",
"by",
"a",
"policy",
"barr",
"##ing",
"divers",
"from",
"recovering",
"items",
"from",
"the",
"wreck",
"##s",
".",
"=",
"cold",
"##rum",
"long",
"barrow",
"=",
"the",
"cold",
"##rum",
"long",
"barrow",
",",
"also",
"known",
"as",
"the",
"cold",
"##rum",
"stones",
"and",
"the",
"ads",
"##combe",
"stones",
",",
"is",
"a",
"chamber",
"##ed",
"long",
"barrow",
"located",
"near",
"to",
"the",
"village",
"of",
"tr",
"##otti",
"##sc",
"##liffe",
"in",
"the",
"south",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"eastern",
"english",
"county",
"of",
"kent",
".",
"constructed",
"circa",
"4000",
"bce",
",",
"during",
"britain",
"'",
"s",
"early",
"neolithic",
"period",
",",
"today",
"it"
] | 1,064 |
accessible sources of low @ - @ background steel , which has occasionally been removed for use in scientific devices . mark ##gra ##f and the other vessels on the bottom of sc ##apa flow are a popular dive site , and are protected by a policy barr ##ing divers from recovering items from the wreck ##s . = cold ##rum long barrow = the cold ##rum long barrow , also known as the cold ##rum stones and the ads ##combe stones , is a chamber ##ed long barrow located near to the village of tr ##otti ##sc ##liffe in the south @ - @ eastern english county of kent . constructed circa 4000 bce , during britain ' s early neolithic period , today it
| 2 |
[
"survives",
"only",
"in",
"a",
"ruined",
"state",
".",
"archaeologists",
"have",
"established",
"that",
"the",
"monument",
"was",
"built",
"by",
"pastoral",
"##ist",
"communities",
"shortly",
"after",
"the",
"introduction",
"of",
"agriculture",
"to",
"britain",
"from",
"continental",
"europe",
".",
"although",
"representing",
"part",
"of",
"an",
"architectural",
"tradition",
"of",
"long",
"barrow",
"building",
"that",
"was",
"widespread",
"across",
"neolithic",
"europe",
",",
"the",
"cold",
"##rum",
"stones",
"belong",
"to",
"a",
"local",
"##ised",
"regional",
"variant",
"of",
"barrow",
"##s",
"produced",
"in",
"the",
"vicinity",
"of",
"the",
"river",
"med",
"##way",
",",
"now",
"known",
"as",
"the",
"med",
"##way",
"mega",
"##lit",
"##hs",
".",
"of",
"these",
",",
"it",
"is",
"in",
"the",
"best",
"surviving",
"condition",
",",
"and",
"lies",
"near",
"to",
"both",
"adding",
"##ton",
"long",
"barrow",
"and",
"chestnut",
"##s",
"long",
"barrow",
"on",
"the",
"western",
"side",
"of",
"the",
"river",
".",
"three",
"further",
"surviving",
"long",
"barrow",
"##s",
",",
"kit",
"'",
"s"
] | 1,065 |
survives only in a ruined state . archaeologists have established that the monument was built by pastoral ##ist communities shortly after the introduction of agriculture to britain from continental europe . although representing part of an architectural tradition of long barrow building that was widespread across neolithic europe , the cold ##rum stones belong to a local ##ised regional variant of barrow ##s produced in the vicinity of the river med ##way , now known as the med ##way mega ##lit ##hs . of these , it is in the best surviving condition , and lies near to both adding ##ton long barrow and chestnut ##s long barrow on the western side of the river . three further surviving long barrow ##s , kit ' s
| 352 |
[
"cot",
"##y",
"house",
",",
"the",
"little",
"kit",
"'",
"s",
"cot",
"##y",
"house",
",",
"and",
"the",
"coffin",
"stone",
",",
"are",
"located",
"on",
"the",
"med",
"##way",
"'",
"s",
"eastern",
"side",
".",
"built",
"out",
"of",
"earth",
"and",
"around",
"fifty",
"local",
"sar",
"##sen",
"mega",
"##lit",
"##hs",
",",
"the",
"long",
"barrow",
"consisted",
"of",
"a",
"sub",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"rectangular",
"earth",
"##en",
"tu",
"##mu",
"##lus",
"enclosed",
"by",
"ke",
"##rb",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"stones",
".",
"within",
"the",
"eastern",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"tu",
"##mu",
"##lus",
"was",
"a",
"stone",
"chamber",
",",
"into",
"which",
"human",
"remains",
"were",
"deposited",
"on",
"at",
"least",
"two",
"separate",
"occasions",
"during",
"the",
"early",
"neolithic",
".",
"os",
"##te",
"##oa",
"##rch",
"##ae",
"##ological",
"analysis",
"of",
"these",
"remains",
"has",
"shown",
"them",
"to",
"be",
"those",
"of",
"at",
"least",
"seventeen",
"individuals",
",",
"a",
"mixture",
"of",
"men",
","
] | 1,066 |
cot ##y house , the little kit ' s cot ##y house , and the coffin stone , are located on the med ##way ' s eastern side . built out of earth and around fifty local sar ##sen mega ##lit ##hs , the long barrow consisted of a sub @ - @ rectangular earth ##en tu ##mu ##lus enclosed by ke ##rb @ - @ stones . within the eastern end of the tu ##mu ##lus was a stone chamber , into which human remains were deposited on at least two separate occasions during the early neolithic . os ##te ##oa ##rch ##ae ##ological analysis of these remains has shown them to be those of at least seventeen individuals , a mixture of men ,
| 497 |
[
"women",
",",
"children",
"and",
"adults",
".",
"at",
"least",
"one",
"of",
"the",
"bodies",
"had",
"been",
"di",
"##sm",
"##em",
"##bered",
"prior",
"to",
"burial",
",",
"potentially",
"reflecting",
"a",
"fun",
"##era",
"##ry",
"tradition",
"of",
"ex",
"##car",
"##nation",
"and",
"secondary",
"burial",
".",
"as",
"with",
"other",
"barrow",
"##s",
",",
"cold",
"##rum",
"has",
"been",
"interpreted",
"as",
"a",
"tomb",
"to",
"house",
"the",
"remains",
"of",
"the",
"dead",
",",
"perhaps",
"as",
"part",
"of",
"a",
"belief",
"system",
"involving",
"ancestor",
"ve",
"##ner",
"##ation",
",",
"although",
"archaeologists",
"have",
"suggested",
"that",
"it",
"may",
"also",
"have",
"had",
"further",
"religious",
",",
"ritual",
",",
"and",
"cultural",
"con",
"##not",
"##ations",
"and",
"uses",
".",
"after",
"the",
"early",
"neolithic",
",",
"the",
"long",
"barrow",
"fell",
"into",
"a",
"state",
"of",
"ruined",
"dil",
"##ap",
"##ida",
"##tion",
",",
"perhaps",
"experiencing",
"deliberate",
"deposition",
"in",
"the",
"late",
"medieval",
"period",
",",
"either",
"by"
] | 1,067 |
women , children and adults . at least one of the bodies had been di ##sm ##em ##bered prior to burial , potentially reflecting a fun ##era ##ry tradition of ex ##car ##nation and secondary burial . as with other barrow ##s , cold ##rum has been interpreted as a tomb to house the remains of the dead , perhaps as part of a belief system involving ancestor ve ##ner ##ation , although archaeologists have suggested that it may also have had further religious , ritual , and cultural con ##not ##ations and uses . after the early neolithic , the long barrow fell into a state of ruined dil ##ap ##ida ##tion , perhaps experiencing deliberate deposition in the late medieval period , either by
| 370 |
[
"christian",
"ze",
"##alo",
"##ts",
"or",
"treasure",
"hunters",
".",
"local",
"folklore",
"grew",
"up",
"around",
"the",
"site",
",",
"ass",
"##oc",
"##iating",
"it",
"with",
"the",
"burial",
"of",
"a",
"prince",
"and",
"the",
"countless",
"stones",
"motif",
".",
"the",
"ruin",
"attracted",
"the",
"interest",
"of",
"anti",
"##qua",
"##rians",
"in",
"the",
"19th",
"century",
",",
"while",
"archaeological",
"excavation",
"took",
"place",
"in",
"the",
"early",
"20th",
".",
"after",
"limited",
"reconstruction",
",",
"in",
"1926",
"ownership",
"was",
"transferred",
"to",
"heritage",
"charity",
"the",
"national",
"trust",
".",
"it",
"is",
"open",
"without",
"charge",
"to",
"visitors",
"all",
"year",
"around",
".",
"=",
"=",
"name",
"and",
"location",
"=",
"=",
"the",
"cold",
"##rum",
"stones",
"are",
"named",
"after",
"a",
"nearby",
"farm",
",",
"cold",
"##rum",
"lodge",
",",
"which",
"has",
"since",
"been",
"demolished",
".",
"the",
"monument",
"lies",
"in",
"a",
"\"",
"rather",
"isolated",
"site",
"\"",
"north",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"east"
] | 1,068 |
christian ze ##alo ##ts or treasure hunters . local folklore grew up around the site , ass ##oc ##iating it with the burial of a prince and the countless stones motif . the ruin attracted the interest of anti ##qua ##rians in the 19th century , while archaeological excavation took place in the early 20th . after limited reconstruction , in 1926 ownership was transferred to heritage charity the national trust . it is open without charge to visitors all year around . = = name and location = = the cold ##rum stones are named after a nearby farm , cold ##rum lodge , which has since been demolished . the monument lies in a " rather isolated site " north @ - @ east
| 352 |
[
"of",
"the",
"nearby",
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"of",
"tr",
"##otti",
"##sc",
"##liffe",
",",
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"'",
"s",
"way",
".",
"the",
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"can",
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"reached",
"along",
"a",
"pathway",
"known",
"as",
"cold",
"##rum",
"lane",
",",
"which",
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"only",
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"foot",
".",
"the",
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"park",
"to",
"cold",
"##rum",
"lane",
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"off",
"of",
"pines",
"##field",
"lane",
"in",
"tr",
"##otti",
"##sc",
"##liffe",
".",
"another",
"nearby",
"village",
"is",
"adding",
"##ton",
",",
"which",
"is",
"located",
"one",
"and",
"a",
"quarter",
"miles",
"away",
".",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"early",
"neolithic",
"britain",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"the",
"early",
"neolithic",
"was",
"a",
"revolutionary",
"period",
"of",
"british",
"history",
".",
"beginning",
"in",
"the",
"fifth",
"millennium",
"bce",
",",
"it",
"saw",
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"widespread",
"change",
"in",
"lifestyle",
"as",
"the",
"communities",
"living",
"in",
"the",
"british"
] | 1,069 |
of the nearby village of tr ##otti ##sc ##liffe , about 500 metres from a prehistoric track known as the pilgrim ' s way . the tomb can be reached along a pathway known as cold ##rum lane , which is only accessible on foot . the nearest car park to cold ##rum lane can be found off of pines ##field lane in tr ##otti ##sc ##liffe . another nearby village is adding ##ton , which is located one and a quarter miles away . = = = early neolithic britain = = = the early neolithic was a revolutionary period of british history . beginning in the fifth millennium bce , it saw a widespread change in lifestyle as the communities living in the british
| 597 |
[
"isles",
"adopted",
"agriculture",
"as",
"their",
"primary",
"form",
"of",
"subsistence",
",",
"abandoning",
"the",
"hunter",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"gather",
"##er",
"lifestyle",
"that",
"had",
"characterised",
"the",
"preceding",
"me",
"##sol",
"##ith",
"##ic",
"period",
".",
"archaeologists",
"have",
"been",
"unable",
"to",
"prove",
"whether",
"this",
"adoption",
"of",
"farming",
"was",
"because",
"of",
"a",
"new",
"influx",
"of",
"migrants",
"coming",
"in",
"from",
"continental",
"europe",
"or",
"because",
"the",
"indigenous",
"me",
"##sol",
"##ith",
"##ic",
"brit",
"##ons",
"came",
"to",
"adopt",
"the",
"agricultural",
"practices",
"of",
"continental",
"societies",
".",
"either",
"way",
",",
"it",
"certainly",
"emerged",
"through",
"contact",
"with",
"continental",
"europe",
",",
"probably",
"as",
"a",
"result",
"of",
"centuries",
"of",
"interaction",
"between",
"me",
"##sol",
"##ith",
"##ic",
"people",
"living",
"in",
"south",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"east",
"britain",
"and",
"linear",
"pottery",
"culture",
"(",
"lb",
"##k",
")",
"communities",
"in",
"north",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"eastern",
"france",
".",
"the"
] | 1,070 |
isles adopted agriculture as their primary form of subsistence , abandoning the hunter @ - @ gather ##er lifestyle that had characterised the preceding me ##sol ##ith ##ic period . archaeologists have been unable to prove whether this adoption of farming was because of a new influx of migrants coming in from continental europe or because the indigenous me ##sol ##ith ##ic brit ##ons came to adopt the agricultural practices of continental societies . either way , it certainly emerged through contact with continental europe , probably as a result of centuries of interaction between me ##sol ##ith ##ic people living in south @ - @ east britain and linear pottery culture ( lb ##k ) communities in north @ - @ eastern france . the
| 149 |
[
"region",
"of",
"modern",
"kent",
"would",
"have",
"been",
"a",
"key",
"area",
"for",
"the",
"arrival",
"of",
"continental",
"european",
"settlers",
"and",
"visitors",
",",
"because",
"of",
"its",
"position",
"on",
"the",
"estuary",
"of",
"the",
"river",
"thames",
"and",
"its",
"proximity",
"to",
"the",
"continent",
".",
"between",
"450",
"##0",
"and",
"380",
"##0",
"bce",
",",
"all",
"of",
"the",
"british",
"isles",
"came",
"to",
"abandon",
"its",
"former",
"me",
"##sol",
"##ith",
"##ic",
"hunter",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"gather",
"##er",
"lifestyle",
",",
"to",
"be",
"replaced",
"by",
"the",
"new",
"agricultural",
"subsistence",
"of",
"the",
"neolithic",
"age",
".",
"although",
"a",
"common",
"material",
"culture",
"was",
"shared",
"throughout",
"most",
"of",
"the",
"british",
"isles",
"in",
"this",
"period",
",",
"there",
"was",
"great",
"regional",
"variation",
"regarding",
"the",
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"and",
"distribution",
"of",
"settlement",
",",
"architectural",
"styles",
",",
"and",
"the",
"use",
"of",
"natural",
"resources",
".",
"throughout",
"most",
"of",
"britain",
","
] | 1,071 |
region of modern kent would have been a key area for the arrival of continental european settlers and visitors , because of its position on the estuary of the river thames and its proximity to the continent . between 450 ##0 and 380 ##0 bce , all of the british isles came to abandon its former me ##sol ##ith ##ic hunter @ - @ gather ##er lifestyle , to be replaced by the new agricultural subsistence of the neolithic age . although a common material culture was shared throughout most of the british isles in this period , there was great regional variation regarding the nature and distribution of settlement , architectural styles , and the use of natural resources . throughout most of britain ,
| 149 |
[
"there",
"is",
"little",
"evidence",
"of",
"cereal",
"or",
"permanent",
"dwellings",
"from",
"this",
"period",
",",
"leading",
"archaeologists",
"to",
"believe",
"that",
"the",
"early",
"neolithic",
"economy",
"on",
"the",
"island",
"was",
"largely",
"pastoral",
",",
"relying",
"on",
"herd",
"##ing",
"cattle",
",",
"with",
"people",
"living",
"a",
"nomadic",
"or",
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"@",
"-",
"@",
"nomadic",
"way",
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".",
"although",
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"some",
"land",
"clearance",
",",
"britain",
"was",
"largely",
"forested",
"in",
"this",
"period",
",",
"and",
"it",
"is",
"unclear",
"what",
"level",
"of",
"def",
"##orestation",
"the",
"area",
"of",
"kent",
"had",
"experienced",
"in",
"the",
"early",
"neolithic",
";",
"widespread",
"forest",
"clearance",
"only",
"took",
"place",
"on",
"the",
"chalk",
"##lands",
"of",
"south",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"east",
"britain",
"in",
"the",
"late",
"bronze",
"age",
".",
"environmental",
"data",
"from",
"the",
"area",
"around",
"the",
"white",
"horse",
"stone",
"supports",
"the",
"idea",
"that",
"the",
"area",
"was",
"still",
"largely"
] | 1,072 |
there is little evidence of cereal or permanent dwellings from this period , leading archaeologists to believe that the early neolithic economy on the island was largely pastoral , relying on herd ##ing cattle , with people living a nomadic or semi @ - @ nomadic way of life . although witnessing some land clearance , britain was largely forested in this period , and it is unclear what level of def ##orestation the area of kent had experienced in the early neolithic ; widespread forest clearance only took place on the chalk ##lands of south @ - @ east britain in the late bronze age . environmental data from the area around the white horse stone supports the idea that the area was still largely
| 329 |
[
"forested",
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"early",
"neolithic",
",",
"covered",
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"of",
"oak",
",",
"ash",
",",
"hazel",
"/",
"al",
"##der",
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"##oid",
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"##e",
".",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"the",
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"=",
"=",
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",",
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"period",
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"structures",
"in",
"the",
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".",
"these",
"were",
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"that",
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"the",
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"of",
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"dead",
",",
"and",
"though",
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"out",
"of",
"timber",
",",
"many",
"were",
"built",
"using",
"large",
"stones",
",",
"now",
"known",
"as",
"\"",
"mega",
"##lit",
"##hs",
"\"",
".",
"individuals",
"were",
"rarely",
"buried",
"alone",
"in",
"the",
"early",
"neolithic",
",",
"instead",
"being",
"interned",
"in",
"collective",
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"with",
"other",
"members",
"of",
"their",
"community",
".",
"the",
"construction",
"of",
"these",
"collective",
"burial",
"monumental",
"tombs",
",",
"both",
"wooden"
] | 1,073 |
forested in the early neolithic , covered by a woodland of oak , ash , hazel / al ##der and mal ##oid ##ea ##e . = = = the tomb building tradition = = = across western europe , the early neolithic marked the first period in which humans built monumental structures in the landscape . these were tombs that held the physical remains of the dead , and though sometimes constructed out of timber , many were built using large stones , now known as " mega ##lit ##hs " . individuals were rarely buried alone in the early neolithic , instead being interned in collective burials with other members of their community . the construction of these collective burial monumental tombs , both wooden
| 511 |
[
"and",
"mega",
"##lithic",
",",
"began",
"in",
"continental",
"europe",
"before",
"being",
"adopted",
"in",
"britain",
"in",
"the",
"first",
"half",
"of",
"the",
"fourth",
"millennium",
"bce",
".",
"the",
"early",
"neolithic",
"people",
"of",
"britain",
"placed",
"far",
"greater",
"emphasis",
"on",
"the",
"ritual",
"##ised",
"burial",
"of",
"the",
"dead",
"than",
"their",
"me",
"##sol",
"##ith",
"##ic",
"fore",
"##be",
"##ars",
"had",
"done",
".",
"many",
"archaeologists",
"have",
"suggested",
"that",
"this",
"is",
"because",
"early",
"neolithic",
"people",
"adhere",
"##d",
"to",
"an",
"ancestor",
"cult",
"that",
"ve",
"##ner",
"##ated",
"the",
"spirits",
"of",
"the",
"dead",
",",
"believing",
"that",
"they",
"could",
"inter",
"##cede",
"with",
"the",
"forces",
"of",
"nature",
"for",
"the",
"benefit",
"of",
"their",
"living",
"descendants",
".",
"archaeologist",
"robin",
"ho",
"##lga",
"##te",
"stressed",
"that",
"rather",
"than",
"simply",
"being",
"tombs",
",",
"the",
"med",
"##way",
"mega",
"##lit",
"##hs",
"were",
"\"",
"communal",
"mo",
"##umen",
"##ts",
"fulfilling",
"a"
] | 1,074 |
and mega ##lithic , began in continental europe before being adopted in britain in the first half of the fourth millennium bce . the early neolithic people of britain placed far greater emphasis on the ritual ##ised burial of the dead than their me ##sol ##ith ##ic fore ##be ##ars had done . many archaeologists have suggested that this is because early neolithic people adhere ##d to an ancestor cult that ve ##ner ##ated the spirits of the dead , believing that they could inter ##cede with the forces of nature for the benefit of their living descendants . archaeologist robin ho ##lga ##te stressed that rather than simply being tombs , the med ##way mega ##lit ##hs were " communal mo ##umen ##ts fulfilling a
| 274 |
[
"social",
"function",
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"the",
"communities",
"who",
"built",
"and",
"used",
"them",
".",
"\"",
"thus",
",",
"it",
"has",
"furthermore",
"been",
"suggested",
"that",
"early",
"neolithic",
"people",
"entered",
"into",
"the",
"tombs",
"–",
"which",
"doubled",
"as",
"temples",
"or",
"shrines",
"–",
"to",
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"that",
"would",
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"and",
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"for",
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".",
"for",
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",",
"historian",
"ronald",
"hutton",
"termed",
"these",
"monuments",
"\"",
"tomb",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"shrines",
"\"",
"to",
"reflect",
"their",
"dual",
"purpose",
".",
"in",
"britain",
",",
"these",
"tombs",
"were",
"typically",
"located",
"on",
"prominent",
"hills",
"and",
"slopes",
"overlooking",
"the",
"surrounding",
"landscape",
",",
"perhaps",
"at",
"the",
"junction",
"between",
"different",
"territories",
".",
"archaeologist",
"caroline",
"malone",
"noted",
"that",
"the",
"tombs",
"would",
"have",
"served",
"as",
"one",
"of",
"a",
"variety",
"of",
"markers",
"in",
"the",
"landscape",
"that",
"conveyed",
"information",
"on",
"\"",
"territory",
",",
"political"
] | 1,075 |
social function for the communities who built and used them . " thus , it has furthermore been suggested that early neolithic people entered into the tombs – which doubled as temples or shrines – to perform rituals that would honour the dead and ask for their assistance . for this reason , historian ronald hutton termed these monuments " tomb @ - @ shrines " to reflect their dual purpose . in britain , these tombs were typically located on prominent hills and slopes overlooking the surrounding landscape , perhaps at the junction between different territories . archaeologist caroline malone noted that the tombs would have served as one of a variety of markers in the landscape that conveyed information on " territory , political
| 370 |
[
"allegiance",
",",
"ownership",
",",
"and",
"ancestors",
".",
"\"",
"many",
"archaeologists",
"have",
"sub",
"##scribe",
"##d",
"to",
"the",
"idea",
"that",
"these",
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"@",
"-",
"@",
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"groups",
",",
"although",
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"have",
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"that",
"such",
"markers",
"would",
"be",
"of",
"little",
"use",
"to",
"a",
"nomadic",
"herd",
"##ing",
"society",
".",
"instead",
"it",
"has",
"been",
"suggested",
"that",
"they",
"represent",
"markers",
"along",
"herd",
"##ing",
"pathways",
".",
"many",
"archaeologists",
"have",
"suggested",
"that",
"the",
"construction",
"of",
"such",
"monuments",
"reflects",
"an",
"attempt",
"to",
"stamp",
"control",
"and",
"ownership",
"over",
"the",
"land",
",",
"thus",
"representing",
"a",
"change",
"in",
"minds",
"##et",
"brought",
"about",
"by",
"neolithic",
"##isation",
".",
"others",
"have",
"suggested",
"that",
"these",
"monuments",
"were",
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"on",
"sites",
"already",
"deemed",
"sacred",
"by",
"me",
"##sol",
"##ith",
"##ic",
"hunter",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"gather",
"##ers",
"."
] | 1,076 |
allegiance , ownership , and ancestors . " many archaeologists have sub ##scribe ##d to the idea that these tomb @ - @ shrines served as territorial markers between different tribal groups , although others have argued that such markers would be of little use to a nomadic herd ##ing society . instead it has been suggested that they represent markers along herd ##ing pathways . many archaeologists have suggested that the construction of such monuments reflects an attempt to stamp control and ownership over the land , thus representing a change in minds ##et brought about by neolithic ##isation . others have suggested that these monuments were built on sites already deemed sacred by me ##sol ##ith ##ic hunter @ - @ gather ##ers .
| 370 |
[
"archaeologists",
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"early",
"neolithic",
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"into",
"a",
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",",
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".",
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",",
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",",
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"and",
"southern",
"and",
"central",
"ireland",
".",
"alternately",
",",
"across",
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"ireland",
"and",
"central",
"britain",
"long",
"chamber",
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"mounds",
"pre",
"##dom",
"##inated",
",",
"while",
"in",
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"east",
"and",
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"@",
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"@",
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",",
"earth",
"##en",
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".",
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"stone",
"was",
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"in",
"southern",
"britain",
";",
"archaeologist",
"aubrey",
"bu"
] | 1,077 |
archaeologists have differentiated these early neolithic tombs into a variety of different architectural styles , each typically associated with a different region within the british isles . passage graves , characterised by their narrow passage made of large stones and one or multiple burial chambers covered in earth or stone , were predominantly located in northern britain and southern and central ireland . alternately , across northern ireland and central britain long chamber ##ed mounds pre ##dom ##inated , while in the east and south @ - @ east of britain , earth ##en long barrow ##s represented the dominant architectural trend . these earth ##en long barrow ##s were typically constructed of timber because building stone was scarce in southern britain ; archaeologist aubrey bu
| 367 |
[
"##rl",
"argued",
"that",
"these",
"timber",
"tombs",
"might",
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"\"",
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"\"",
"than",
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",",
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"poles",
",",
"fl",
"##am",
"##boy",
"##antly",
"painted",
"\"",
",",
"but",
"that",
"evidence",
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"such",
"sculptures",
"has",
"not",
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".",
"the",
"med",
"##way",
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"building",
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".",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"the",
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"##way",
"mega",
"##lit",
"##hs",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"although",
"now",
"all",
"in",
"a",
"ruin",
"##ous",
"state",
"and",
"not",
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"their",
"original",
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",",
"at",
"the",
"time",
"of",
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"the",
"med",
"##way",
"mega",
"##lit",
"##hs",
"would",
"have",
"been",
"some",
"of",
"the",
"largest",
"and",
"most",
"visually",
"imposing",
"early",
"neolithic",
"fun"
] | 1,078 |
##rl argued that these timber tombs might have been " even more eye @ - @ catching " than their stone counterparts , perhaps consisting of " towering carved poles , fl ##am ##boy ##antly painted " , but that evidence of such sculptures has not survived . the med ##way mega ##lit ##hs represent just one of these regional groups within the wider west european tradition of tomb building in this period . = = = the med ##way mega ##lit ##hs = = = although now all in a ruin ##ous state and not retaining their original appearance , at the time of construction the med ##way mega ##lit ##hs would have been some of the largest and most visually imposing early neolithic fun
| 370 |
[
"##era",
"##ry",
"monuments",
"in",
"britain",
".",
"grouped",
"along",
"the",
"river",
"med",
"##way",
"as",
"it",
"cuts",
"through",
"the",
"north",
"downs",
",",
"they",
"constitute",
"the",
"most",
"south",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"easter",
"##ly",
"group",
"of",
"mega",
"##lithic",
"monuments",
"in",
"the",
"british",
"isles",
",",
"and",
"the",
"only",
"mega",
"##lithic",
"group",
"in",
"eastern",
"england",
".",
"archaeologists",
"brian",
"phil",
"##p",
"and",
"mike",
"du",
"##tto",
"deemed",
"the",
"med",
"##way",
"mega",
"##lit",
"##hs",
"to",
"be",
"\"",
"some",
"of",
"the",
"most",
"interesting",
"and",
"well",
"known",
"\"",
"archaeological",
"sites",
"in",
"kent",
",",
"while",
"archaeologist",
"paul",
"ash",
"##bee",
"described",
"them",
"as",
"\"",
"the",
"most",
"grand",
"##ios",
"##e",
"and",
"impressive",
"structures",
"of",
"their",
"kind",
"in",
"southern",
"england",
"\"",
".",
"they",
"can",
"be",
"divided",
"into",
"two",
"separate",
"clusters",
":",
"one",
"to",
"the",
"west",
"of",
"the",
"river",
"med",
"##way",
"and"
] | 1,079 |
##era ##ry monuments in britain . grouped along the river med ##way as it cuts through the north downs , they constitute the most south @ - @ easter ##ly group of mega ##lithic monuments in the british isles , and the only mega ##lithic group in eastern england . archaeologists brian phil ##p and mike du ##tto deemed the med ##way mega ##lit ##hs to be " some of the most interesting and well known " archaeological sites in kent , while archaeologist paul ash ##bee described them as " the most grand ##ios ##e and impressive structures of their kind in southern england " . they can be divided into two separate clusters : one to the west of the river med ##way and
| 352 |
[
"the",
"other",
"on",
"blue",
"bell",
"hill",
"to",
"the",
"east",
",",
"with",
"the",
"distance",
"between",
"the",
"two",
"clusters",
"measuring",
"at",
"between",
"8",
"and",
"10",
"km",
".",
"the",
"western",
"group",
"includes",
"cold",
"##rum",
"long",
"barrow",
",",
"adding",
"##ton",
"long",
"barrow",
",",
"and",
"the",
"chestnut",
"##s",
"long",
"barrow",
".",
"the",
"eastern",
"group",
"consists",
"of",
"kit",
"'",
"s",
"cot",
"##y",
"house",
",",
"little",
"kit",
"'",
"s",
"cot",
"##y",
"house",
",",
"the",
"coffin",
"stone",
",",
"and",
"several",
"other",
"stones",
"which",
"might",
"have",
"once",
"been",
"parts",
"of",
"chamber",
"##ed",
"tombs",
".",
"it",
"is",
"not",
"known",
"if",
"they",
"were",
"all",
"built",
"at",
"the",
"same",
"time",
",",
"or",
"whether",
"they",
"were",
"constructed",
"in",
"succession",
",",
"while",
"similarly",
"it",
"is",
"not",
"known",
"if",
"they",
"each",
"served",
"the",
"same",
"function",
"or",
"whether",
"there",
"was",
"a",
"hierarchy"
] | 1,080 |
the other on blue bell hill to the east , with the distance between the two clusters measuring at between 8 and 10 km . the western group includes cold ##rum long barrow , adding ##ton long barrow , and the chestnut ##s long barrow . the eastern group consists of kit ' s cot ##y house , little kit ' s cot ##y house , the coffin stone , and several other stones which might have once been parts of chamber ##ed tombs . it is not known if they were all built at the same time , or whether they were constructed in succession , while similarly it is not known if they each served the same function or whether there was a hierarchy
| 366 |
[
"in",
"their",
"usage",
".",
"the",
"med",
"##way",
"long",
"barrow",
"##s",
"all",
"conform",
"##ed",
"to",
"the",
"same",
"general",
"design",
"plan",
",",
"and",
"are",
"all",
"aligned",
"on",
"an",
"east",
"to",
"west",
"axis",
".",
"each",
"had",
"a",
"stone",
"chamber",
"at",
"the",
"eastern",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"mound",
",",
"and",
"they",
"each",
"probably",
"had",
"a",
"stone",
"facade",
"flanking",
"the",
"entrance",
".",
"the",
"chambers",
"were",
"constructed",
"from",
"sar",
"##sen",
",",
"a",
"dense",
",",
"hard",
",",
"and",
"durable",
"stone",
"that",
"occurs",
"naturally",
"throughout",
"kent",
",",
"having",
"formed",
"out",
"of",
"si",
"##lic",
"##ified",
"sand",
"from",
"the",
"e",
"##ocene",
".",
"early",
"neolithic",
"builders",
"would",
"have",
"selected",
"blocks",
"from",
"the",
"local",
"area",
",",
"and",
"then",
"transported",
"them",
"to",
"the",
"site",
"of",
"the",
"monument",
"to",
"be",
"erected",
".",
"such",
"common",
"architectural",
"features",
"among",
"these",
"tomb",
"@",
"-"
] | 1,081 |
in their usage . the med ##way long barrow ##s all conform ##ed to the same general design plan , and are all aligned on an east to west axis . each had a stone chamber at the eastern end of the mound , and they each probably had a stone facade flanking the entrance . the chambers were constructed from sar ##sen , a dense , hard , and durable stone that occurs naturally throughout kent , having formed out of si ##lic ##ified sand from the e ##ocene . early neolithic builders would have selected blocks from the local area , and then transported them to the site of the monument to be erected . such common architectural features among these tomb @ -
| 370 |
[
"@",
"shrines",
"indicate",
"a",
"strong",
"regional",
"co",
"##hesion",
"with",
"no",
"direct",
"parallels",
"elsewhere",
"in",
"the",
"british",
"isles",
".",
"for",
"instance",
",",
"they",
"would",
"have",
"been",
"taller",
"than",
"most",
"other",
"tomb",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"shrines",
"in",
"britain",
",",
"with",
"internal",
"heights",
"of",
"up",
"to",
"10",
"ft",
".",
"nevertheless",
",",
"as",
"with",
"other",
"regional",
"grouping",
"##s",
"of",
"early",
"neolithic",
"tomb",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"shrines",
"(",
"such",
"as",
"the",
"cot",
"##sw",
"##old",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"severn",
"group",
")",
",",
"there",
"are",
"also",
"various",
"id",
"##ios",
"##yn",
"##cr",
"##asi",
"##es",
"in",
"the",
"different",
"monuments",
",",
"such",
"as",
"cold",
"##rum",
"'",
"s",
"rec",
"##ti",
"##line",
"##ar",
"shape",
",",
"the",
"chestnut",
"long",
"barrow",
"'",
"s",
"facade",
",",
"and",
"the",
"long",
",",
"thin",
"mounds",
"at",
"adding",
"##ton",
"and",
"kit",
"'",
"s",
"cot",
"##y"
] | 1,082 |
@ shrines indicate a strong regional co ##hesion with no direct parallels elsewhere in the british isles . for instance , they would have been taller than most other tomb @ - @ shrines in britain , with internal heights of up to 10 ft . nevertheless , as with other regional grouping ##s of early neolithic tomb @ - @ shrines ( such as the cot ##sw ##old @ - @ severn group ) , there are also various id ##ios ##yn ##cr ##asi ##es in the different monuments , such as cold ##rum ' s rec ##ti ##line ##ar shape , the chestnut long barrow ' s facade , and the long , thin mounds at adding ##ton and kit ' s cot ##y
| 370 |
[
".",
"this",
"variation",
"might",
"have",
"been",
"caused",
"by",
"the",
"tomb",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"shrines",
"being",
"altered",
"and",
"adapted",
"over",
"the",
"course",
"of",
"their",
"use",
";",
"in",
"this",
"scenario",
",",
"the",
"monuments",
"would",
"represent",
"composite",
"structures",
".",
"it",
"seems",
"apparent",
"that",
"the",
"people",
"who",
"built",
"these",
"monuments",
"were",
"influenced",
"by",
"pre",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"existing",
"tomb",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"shrines",
"that",
"they",
"were",
"already",
"aware",
"of",
".",
"whether",
"those",
"people",
"had",
"grown",
"up",
"locally",
",",
"or",
"moved",
"into",
"the",
"med",
"##way",
"area",
"from",
"elsewhere",
"is",
"not",
"known",
".",
"based",
"on",
"a",
"stylistic",
"analysis",
"of",
"their",
"architectural",
"designs",
",",
"stuart",
"pig",
"##go",
"##tt",
"thought",
"that",
"they",
"had",
"originated",
"in",
"the",
"area",
"around",
"the",
"low",
"countries",
",",
"while",
"g",
"##lyn",
"daniel",
"instead",
"believed",
"that",
"the",
"same",
"evidence",
"showed",
"an"
] | 1,083 |
. this variation might have been caused by the tomb @ - @ shrines being altered and adapted over the course of their use ; in this scenario , the monuments would represent composite structures . it seems apparent that the people who built these monuments were influenced by pre @ - @ existing tomb @ - @ shrines that they were already aware of . whether those people had grown up locally , or moved into the med ##way area from elsewhere is not known . based on a stylistic analysis of their architectural designs , stuart pig ##go ##tt thought that they had originated in the area around the low countries , while g ##lyn daniel instead believed that the same evidence showed an
| 370 |
[
"influence",
"from",
"scandinavia",
".",
"john",
"h",
".",
"evans",
"instead",
"suggested",
"an",
"origin",
"in",
"germany",
",",
"and",
"ronald",
"f",
".",
"jess",
"##up",
"thought",
"that",
"their",
"origins",
"could",
"be",
"seen",
"in",
"the",
"cot",
"##sw",
"##old",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"severn",
"mega",
"##lithic",
"group",
".",
"ash",
"##bee",
"noted",
"that",
"their",
"close",
"cluster",
"##ing",
"in",
"the",
"same",
"area",
"was",
"reminiscent",
"of",
"the",
"mega",
"##lithic",
"tomb",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"shrine",
"traditions",
"of",
"continental",
"northern",
"europe",
",",
"and",
"emphasis",
"##ed",
"that",
"the",
"med",
"##way",
"mega",
"##lit",
"##hs",
"were",
"a",
"regional",
"manifestation",
"of",
"a",
"tradition",
"widespread",
"across",
"early",
"neolithic",
"europe",
".",
"he",
"nevertheless",
"stressed",
"that",
"a",
"precise",
"place",
"of",
"origin",
"was",
"\"",
"impossible",
"to",
"indicate",
"\"",
"with",
"the",
"available",
"evidence",
".",
"=",
"=",
"design",
"and",
"construction",
"=",
"=",
"the",
"monument",
"originally",
"consisted",
"of",
"a"
] | 1,084 |
influence from scandinavia . john h . evans instead suggested an origin in germany , and ronald f . jess ##up thought that their origins could be seen in the cot ##sw ##old @ - @ severn mega ##lithic group . ash ##bee noted that their close cluster ##ing in the same area was reminiscent of the mega ##lithic tomb @ - @ shrine traditions of continental northern europe , and emphasis ##ed that the med ##way mega ##lit ##hs were a regional manifestation of a tradition widespread across early neolithic europe . he nevertheless stressed that a precise place of origin was " impossible to indicate " with the available evidence . = = design and construction = = the monument originally consisted of a
| 352 |
[
"sar",
"##sen",
"stone",
"chamber",
",",
"covered",
"by",
"a",
"low",
"earth",
"##en",
"mound",
",",
"which",
"was",
"bounded",
"by",
"pro",
"##stra",
"##te",
"slabs",
".",
"as",
"such",
",",
"the",
"archaeologist",
"paul",
"ash",
"##bee",
"asserted",
"that",
"the",
"monument",
"could",
"be",
"divided",
"into",
"three",
"particular",
"features",
":",
"the",
"chamber",
",",
"the",
"barrow",
",",
"and",
"the",
"sar",
"##sen",
"stone",
"surround",
".",
"it",
"is",
"located",
"on",
"the",
"edge",
"of",
"a",
"large",
"lynch",
"##et",
"scar",
"##p",
",",
"although",
"it",
"is",
"difficult",
"to",
"as",
"##cer",
"##tain",
"what",
"views",
"would",
"have",
"been",
"possible",
"from",
"the",
"monument",
"at",
"the",
"time",
"of",
"construction",
",",
"due",
"to",
"a",
"lack",
"of",
"information",
"on",
"how",
"densely",
"forested",
"the",
"vicinity",
"was",
".",
"however",
",",
"if",
"the",
"area",
"was",
"not",
"highly",
"wooded",
",",
"then",
"360",
"°",
"views",
"of",
"the",
"surrounding",
"landscape",
"would",
"have"
] | 1,085 |
sar ##sen stone chamber , covered by a low earth ##en mound , which was bounded by pro ##stra ##te slabs . as such , the archaeologist paul ash ##bee asserted that the monument could be divided into three particular features : the chamber , the barrow , and the sar ##sen stone surround . it is located on the edge of a large lynch ##et scar ##p , although it is difficult to as ##cer ##tain what views would have been possible from the monument at the time of construction , due to a lack of information on how densely forested the vicinity was . however , if the area was not highly wooded , then 360 ° views of the surrounding landscape would have
| 364 |
[
"been",
"possible",
".",
"the",
"monument",
"'",
"s",
"axis",
"points",
"toward",
"both",
"the",
"north",
"downs",
"and",
"the",
"med",
"##way",
"valley",
",",
"which",
"is",
"similar",
"to",
"the",
"other",
"med",
"##way",
"mega",
"##lit",
"##hs",
".",
"archaeologist",
"si",
"##an",
"kill",
"##ick",
"suggested",
"that",
"the",
"cold",
"##rum",
"long",
"barrow",
"might",
"have",
"been",
"built",
"within",
"view",
"of",
"a",
"nearby",
"settlement",
",",
"and",
"that",
"this",
"\"",
"may",
"have",
"been",
"a",
"key",
"factor",
"in",
"the",
"experience",
"of",
"ceremonies",
"and",
"rituals",
"taking",
"place",
"at",
"the",
"tombs",
"and",
"may",
"also",
"have",
"defined",
"a",
"link",
"between",
"the",
"tomb",
"builders",
"and",
"the",
"landscape",
".",
"\"",
"it",
"had",
"been",
"built",
"using",
"about",
"50",
"stones",
".",
"the",
"barrow",
"is",
"sub",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"rectangular",
"in",
"plan",
",",
"and",
"about",
"20",
"meters",
"(",
"64",
"feet",
")",
"in",
"length",
".",
"at",
"its"
] | 1,086 |
been possible . the monument ' s axis points toward both the north downs and the med ##way valley , which is similar to the other med ##way mega ##lit ##hs . archaeologist si ##an kill ##ick suggested that the cold ##rum long barrow might have been built within view of a nearby settlement , and that this " may have been a key factor in the experience of ceremonies and rituals taking place at the tombs and may also have defined a link between the tomb builders and the landscape . " it had been built using about 50 stones . the barrow is sub @ - @ rectangular in plan , and about 20 meters ( 64 feet ) in length . at its
| 370 |
[
"broader",
",",
"eastern",
"end",
",",
"where",
"the",
"chamber",
"is",
"located",
",",
"the",
"monument",
"measures",
"15",
"metres",
"(",
"50",
"feet",
")",
",",
"while",
"at",
"the",
"narrower",
",",
"western",
"end",
",",
"it",
"is",
"12",
"metres",
"(",
"40",
"feet",
")",
"in",
"breadth",
".",
"as",
"such",
",",
"the",
"barrow",
"is",
"a",
"\"",
"truncated",
"wedge",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"shape",
"\"",
".",
"the",
"mega",
"##lithic",
"builders",
"responsible",
"for",
"the",
"cold",
"##rum",
"stones",
"positioned",
"it",
"on",
"the",
"top",
"of",
"a",
"small",
"ridge",
"adjacent",
"to",
"the",
"north",
"downs",
",",
"and",
"constructed",
"it",
"facing",
"eastward",
",",
"towards",
"the",
"river",
"med",
"##way",
".",
"the",
"chamber",
"of",
"the",
"monument",
"measures",
"4",
"@",
".",
"@",
"5",
"metres",
"(",
"13",
"feet",
")",
"in",
"length",
",",
"and",
"1",
"@",
".",
"@",
"7",
"metres",
"(",
"5",
"feet",
"6",
"inches",
")",
"in"
] | 1,087 |
broader , eastern end , where the chamber is located , the monument measures 15 metres ( 50 feet ) , while at the narrower , western end , it is 12 metres ( 40 feet ) in breadth . as such , the barrow is a " truncated wedge @ - @ shape " . the mega ##lithic builders responsible for the cold ##rum stones positioned it on the top of a small ridge adjacent to the north downs , and constructed it facing eastward , towards the river med ##way . the chamber of the monument measures 4 @ . @ 5 metres ( 13 feet ) in length , and 1 @ . @ 7 metres ( 5 feet 6 inches ) in
| 609 |
[
"width",
",",
"although",
"it",
"was",
"potentially",
"much",
"larger",
"when",
"originally",
"constructed",
".",
"the",
"chamber",
"'",
"s",
"internal",
"height",
"would",
"have",
"been",
"at",
"least",
"2",
"metres",
"(",
"6",
"feet",
"6",
"inches",
")",
".",
"in",
"its",
"current",
"state",
",",
"the",
"northern",
"side",
"of",
"the",
"chamber",
"is",
"made",
"up",
"of",
"two",
"slabs",
",",
"one",
"being",
"8",
"feet",
"long",
",",
"7",
"feet",
",",
"6",
"inches",
"deep",
",",
"and",
"1",
"foot",
",",
"9",
"inches",
"thick",
",",
"and",
"the",
"other",
"5",
"feet",
"long",
",",
"6",
"feet",
"deep",
",",
"and",
"2",
"feet",
"thick",
".",
"conversely",
",",
"the",
"chamber",
"'",
"s",
"southern",
"side",
"consists",
"of",
"a",
"single",
"slab",
",",
"measuring",
"11",
"feet",
",",
"4",
"inches",
"in",
"length",
",",
"7",
"feet",
",",
"3",
"inches",
"in",
"depth",
",",
"and",
"1",
"foot",
",",
"9",
"inches",
"in",
"depth"
] | 1,088 |
width , although it was potentially much larger when originally constructed . the chamber ' s internal height would have been at least 2 metres ( 6 feet 6 inches ) . in its current state , the northern side of the chamber is made up of two slabs , one being 8 feet long , 7 feet , 6 inches deep , and 1 foot , 9 inches thick , and the other 5 feet long , 6 feet deep , and 2 feet thick . conversely , the chamber ' s southern side consists of a single slab , measuring 11 feet , 4 inches in length , 7 feet , 3 inches in depth , and 1 foot , 9 inches in depth
| 987 |
[
"at",
"its",
"thicker",
",",
"eastern",
"end",
".",
"the",
"western",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"chamber",
"is",
"closed",
"off",
"with",
"a",
"slab",
"measuring",
"about",
"14",
"feet",
",",
"6",
"inches",
"wide",
",",
"with",
"a",
"thickness",
"of",
"1",
"foot",
"and",
"a",
"depth",
"of",
"around",
"8",
"feet",
".",
"a",
"collapsed",
",",
"broken",
"slab",
"lies",
"at",
"the",
"opening",
"eastern",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"chamber",
".",
"it",
"is",
"also",
"possible",
"that",
"a",
"largely",
"rectangular",
"slab",
"at",
"the",
"bottom",
"of",
"the",
"slope",
"had",
"once",
"been",
"part",
"of",
"the",
"eastern",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"chamber",
".",
"excavation",
"has",
"revealed",
"that",
"flint",
"masonry",
"was",
"used",
"to",
"pack",
"around",
"the",
"chamber",
"and",
"support",
"its",
"sar",
"##sen",
"##s",
";",
"twentieth",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"century",
"renovation",
"has",
"seen",
"this",
"largely",
"replaced",
"with",
"cement",
",",
"allowing",
"the",
"stones",
"to",
"continue",
"standing",
"upright",
"."
] | 1,089 |
at its thicker , eastern end . the western end of the chamber is closed off with a slab measuring about 14 feet , 6 inches wide , with a thickness of 1 foot and a depth of around 8 feet . a collapsed , broken slab lies at the opening eastern end of the chamber . it is also possible that a largely rectangular slab at the bottom of the slope had once been part of the eastern end of the chamber . excavation has revealed that flint masonry was used to pack around the chamber and support its sar ##sen ##s ; twentieth @ - @ century renovation has seen this largely replaced with cement , allowing the stones to continue standing upright .
| 366 |
[
"it",
"is",
"possible",
"that",
"there",
"was",
"a",
"facade",
"in",
"front",
"of",
"the",
"chamber",
",",
"as",
"is",
"evident",
"at",
"other",
"chamber",
"##ed",
"tombs",
"in",
"britain",
",",
"such",
"as",
"west",
"ken",
"##net",
"long",
"barrow",
"and",
"way",
"##land",
"'",
"s",
"smith",
"##y",
".",
"it",
"is",
"also",
"possible",
"that",
"there",
"was",
"a",
"portal",
"stone",
"atop",
"the",
"chamber",
",",
"as",
"was",
"apparent",
"at",
"kit",
"'",
"s",
"cot",
"##y",
"house",
"and",
"lower",
"kit",
"'",
"s",
"cot",
"##y",
"house",
".",
"many",
"of",
"the",
"larger",
"slabs",
"of",
"stone",
"that",
"have",
"fallen",
"down",
"the",
"slope",
"on",
"the",
"eastern",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"monument",
"may",
"have",
"been",
"parts",
"of",
"this",
"facade",
"or",
"portal",
".",
"the",
"earth",
"##en",
"mound",
"that",
"once",
"covered",
"the",
"tomb",
"is",
"now",
"visible",
"only",
"as",
"an",
"und",
"##ulation",
"approximately",
"1",
"foot",
",",
"6",
"inches"
] | 1,090 |
it is possible that there was a facade in front of the chamber , as is evident at other chamber ##ed tombs in britain , such as west ken ##net long barrow and way ##land ' s smith ##y . it is also possible that there was a portal stone atop the chamber , as was apparent at kit ' s cot ##y house and lower kit ' s cot ##y house . many of the larger slabs of stone that have fallen down the slope on the eastern end of the monument may have been parts of this facade or portal . the earth ##en mound that once covered the tomb is now visible only as an und ##ulation approximately 1 foot , 6 inches
| 370 |
[
"in",
"height",
".",
"in",
"the",
"nineteenth",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"century",
",",
"the",
"mound",
"was",
"higher",
"on",
"the",
"western",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"tomb",
",",
"although",
"this",
"was",
"removed",
"by",
"excavation",
"to",
"reveal",
"the",
"sar",
"##sen",
"##s",
"beneath",
"during",
"the",
"1920s",
".",
"it",
"is",
"likely",
"that",
"in",
"the",
"early",
"neolithic",
",",
"the",
"mound",
"had",
"a",
"quarry",
"ditch",
"surrounding",
"it",
",",
"and",
"it",
"is",
"inside",
"this",
"ditch",
"that",
"the",
"ke",
"##rb",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"stones",
"now",
"sit",
".",
"the",
"ke",
"##rb",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"stones",
"around",
"the",
"tomb",
"display",
"some",
"pattern",
"##ing",
";",
"those",
"on",
"the",
"northern",
"side",
"are",
"mostly",
"rec",
"##ti",
"##line",
"##ar",
",",
"while",
"those",
"on",
"the",
"southern",
"side",
"are",
"smaller",
"and",
"largely",
"irregular",
"in",
"shape",
".",
"it",
"is",
"probable",
"that",
"there",
"was",
"an",
"an",
"##ci",
"##llary"
] | 1,091 |
in height . in the nineteenth @ - @ century , the mound was higher on the western end of the tomb , although this was removed by excavation to reveal the sar ##sen ##s beneath during the 1920s . it is likely that in the early neolithic , the mound had a quarry ditch surrounding it , and it is inside this ditch that the ke ##rb @ - @ stones now sit . the ke ##rb @ - @ stones around the tomb display some pattern ##ing ; those on the northern side are mostly rec ##ti ##line ##ar , while those on the southern side are smaller and largely irregular in shape . it is probable that there was an an ##ci ##llary
| 370 |
[
"dry",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"stone",
"wall",
"constructed",
"using",
"blocks",
"of",
"iron",
"##stone",
"from",
"the",
"geological",
"folk",
"##est",
"##one",
"beds",
",",
"as",
"is",
"evident",
"at",
"chestnut",
"##s",
"long",
"barrow",
".",
"given",
"that",
"such",
"blocks",
"of",
"stone",
"rarely",
"occur",
"naturally",
",",
"it",
"may",
"have",
"been",
"qu",
"##ar",
"##ried",
".",
"a",
"con",
"##cave",
"line",
"of",
"ab",
"##ras",
"##ion",
"and",
"polish",
"##ing",
"can",
"be",
"found",
"on",
"both",
"one",
"of",
"the",
"central",
"ke",
"##rb",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"stones",
"on",
"the",
"western",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"monument",
"and",
"a",
"ke",
"##rb",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"stone",
"on",
"the",
"south",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"east",
"of",
"the",
"monument",
".",
"these",
"have",
"been",
"attributed",
"to",
"the",
"sharpe",
"##ning",
"of",
"flint",
"and",
"other",
"stone",
"axe",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"blades",
"on",
"these",
"sar",
"##sen",
"##s",
".",
"it",
"is",
"possible"
] | 1,092 |
dry @ - @ stone wall constructed using blocks of iron ##stone from the geological folk ##est ##one beds , as is evident at chestnut ##s long barrow . given that such blocks of stone rarely occur naturally , it may have been qu ##ar ##ried . a con ##cave line of ab ##ras ##ion and polish ##ing can be found on both one of the central ke ##rb @ - @ stones on the western end of the monument and a ke ##rb @ - @ stone on the south @ - @ east of the monument . these have been attributed to the sharpe ##ning of flint and other stone axe @ - @ blades on these sar ##sen ##s . it is possible
| 364 |
[
"that",
"these",
"tools",
"were",
"sharpened",
"for",
"use",
"in",
"cutting",
"and",
"carving",
"the",
"timber",
"lever",
"##s",
"and",
"st",
"##rut",
"##s",
"which",
"would",
"have",
"been",
"used",
"in",
"erect",
"##ing",
"the",
"stones",
"and",
"constructing",
"the",
"tomb",
".",
"similar",
"evidence",
"for",
"the",
"sharpe",
"##ning",
"of",
"tools",
"has",
"been",
"found",
"at",
"west",
"ken",
"##net",
"long",
"barrow",
",",
"as",
"well",
"as",
"later",
"prehistoric",
"monuments",
"such",
"as",
"stone",
"##hen",
"##ge",
".",
"cold",
"##rum",
"long",
"barrow",
"is",
"comparatively",
"isolated",
"from",
"the",
"other",
"med",
"##way",
"mega",
"##lit",
"##hs",
";",
"in",
"this",
"it",
"is",
"unique",
",",
"given",
"that",
"the",
"other",
"surviving",
"examples",
"are",
"clustered",
"into",
"two",
"groups",
".",
"however",
",",
"it",
"is",
"possible",
"that",
"another",
"chamber",
"##ed",
"tomb",
"was",
"located",
"nearby",
";",
"a",
"ra",
"##zed",
",",
"elongated",
"earth",
"##en",
"mound",
"with",
"an",
"east",
"@",
"-",
"@"
] | 1,093 |
that these tools were sharpened for use in cutting and carving the timber lever ##s and st ##rut ##s which would have been used in erect ##ing the stones and constructing the tomb . similar evidence for the sharpe ##ning of tools has been found at west ken ##net long barrow , as well as later prehistoric monuments such as stone ##hen ##ge . cold ##rum long barrow is comparatively isolated from the other med ##way mega ##lit ##hs ; in this it is unique , given that the other surviving examples are clustered into two groups . however , it is possible that another chamber ##ed tomb was located nearby ; a ra ##zed , elongated earth ##en mound with an east @ - @
| 370 |
[
"west",
"orientation",
"is",
"located",
"in",
"a",
"hollow",
"at",
"the",
"foot",
"of",
"the",
"downs",
"just",
"under",
"a",
"quarter",
"of",
"a",
"mile",
"to",
"the",
"north",
"of",
"the",
"cold",
"##rum",
"stones",
".",
"it",
"may",
"be",
"that",
"this",
"represents",
"the",
"remnants",
"of",
"another",
"such",
"monument",
"which",
"has",
"had",
"its",
"stones",
"removed",
"or",
"buried",
".",
"several",
"large",
"sar",
"##sen",
"##s",
"to",
"the",
"south",
"of",
"the",
"cold",
"##rum",
"##s",
"might",
"represent",
"the",
"remnants",
"of",
"a",
"further",
"such",
"tomb",
",",
"since",
"destroyed",
".",
"=",
"=",
"human",
"remains",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"demographics",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"ash",
"##bee",
"suggested",
"that",
"given",
"its",
"size",
"and",
"comparisons",
"with",
"other",
"long",
"barrow",
"##s",
",",
"such",
"as",
"fuss",
"##ell",
"'",
"s",
"lodge",
",",
"the",
"cold",
"##rum",
"tomb",
"could",
"have",
"housed",
"the",
"remains",
"of",
"over",
"a",
"hundred",
"individuals"
] | 1,094 |
west orientation is located in a hollow at the foot of the downs just under a quarter of a mile to the north of the cold ##rum stones . it may be that this represents the remnants of another such monument which has had its stones removed or buried . several large sar ##sen ##s to the south of the cold ##rum ##s might represent the remnants of a further such tomb , since destroyed . = = human remains = = = = = demographics = = = ash ##bee suggested that given its size and comparisons with other long barrow ##s , such as fuss ##ell ' s lodge , the cold ##rum tomb could have housed the remains of over a hundred individuals
| 352 |
[
".",
"excavations",
"conducted",
"in",
"the",
"early",
"20th",
"century",
"have",
"led",
"to",
"the",
"method",
"##ical",
"discovery",
"and",
"removal",
"of",
"what",
"was",
"believed",
"to",
"be",
"the",
"remains",
"of",
"twenty",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"two",
"human",
"individuals",
".",
"these",
"remains",
"were",
"examined",
"by",
"sir",
"arthur",
"keith",
",",
"the",
"con",
"##ser",
"##vat",
"##or",
"of",
"the",
"museum",
"at",
"the",
"royal",
"college",
"of",
"surgeons",
".",
"he",
"published",
"his",
"results",
"in",
"1913",
",",
"in",
"a",
"paper",
"largely",
"concerned",
"with",
"disc",
"##ern",
"##ing",
"racial",
"characteristics",
"of",
"the",
"bodies",
".",
"a",
"subsequent",
"re",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"analysis",
"of",
"the",
"bones",
"was",
"conducted",
"in",
"the",
"early",
"21st",
"century",
",",
"and",
"published",
"in",
"the",
"proceedings",
"of",
"the",
"prehistoric",
"society",
"in",
"2013",
":",
"the",
"project",
"presented",
"\"",
"os",
"##te",
"##ological",
"analysis",
",",
"bay",
"##esian",
"modelling",
"of",
"radio",
"##carbon",
"dates"
] | 1,095 |
. excavations conducted in the early 20th century have led to the method ##ical discovery and removal of what was believed to be the remains of twenty @ - @ two human individuals . these remains were examined by sir arthur keith , the con ##ser ##vat ##or of the museum at the royal college of surgeons . he published his results in 1913 , in a paper largely concerned with disc ##ern ##ing racial characteristics of the bodies . a subsequent re @ - @ analysis of the bones was conducted in the early 21st century , and published in the proceedings of the prehistoric society in 2013 : the project presented " os ##te ##ological analysis , bay ##esian modelling of radio ##carbon dates
| 548 |
[
",",
"and",
"carbon",
"and",
"nitrogen",
"stable",
"isotope",
"analysis",
"to",
"inform",
"on",
"the",
"demo",
"##graphy",
",",
"burial",
"practices",
",",
"diet",
"and",
"subsistence",
",",
"and",
"chronology",
"of",
"the",
"cold",
"##rum",
"population",
"\"",
".",
"di",
"##sp",
"##uting",
"earlier",
"conclusions",
",",
"it",
"stated",
"that",
"the",
"minimum",
"number",
"of",
"individuals",
"was",
"seventeen",
".",
"these",
"were",
"then",
"further",
"identified",
"as",
"probably",
"belonging",
"to",
"nine",
"adults",
"(",
"probably",
"five",
"males",
"and",
"four",
"females",
")",
",",
"two",
"sub",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"adults",
",",
"four",
"older",
"children",
",",
"and",
"two",
"younger",
"children",
"(",
"one",
"around",
"five",
"years",
"old",
",",
"the",
"other",
"between",
"24",
"and",
"30",
"months",
"old",
")",
".",
"keith",
"had",
"suggested",
"that",
"the",
"cr",
"##ania",
"he",
"examined",
"displayed",
"similar",
"features",
",",
"which",
"he",
"attributed",
"to",
"the",
"different",
"individuals",
"belonging",
"to",
"\"",
"one",
"family",
"-"
] | 1,096 |
, and carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis to inform on the demo ##graphy , burial practices , diet and subsistence , and chronology of the cold ##rum population " . di ##sp ##uting earlier conclusions , it stated that the minimum number of individuals was seventeen . these were then further identified as probably belonging to nine adults ( probably five males and four females ) , two sub @ - @ adults , four older children , and two younger children ( one around five years old , the other between 24 and 30 months old ) . keith had suggested that the cr ##ania he examined displayed similar features , which he attributed to the different individuals belonging to " one family -
| 541 |
[
"or",
"several",
"families",
"united",
"by",
"common",
"descent",
".",
"\"",
"similar",
"observations",
"had",
"been",
"made",
"regarding",
"the",
"cr",
"##ania",
"from",
"other",
"long",
"barrow",
"##s",
"in",
"britain",
",",
"although",
"os",
"##te",
"##oa",
"##rch",
"##ae",
"##ologists",
"martin",
"smith",
"and",
"megan",
"brick",
"##ley",
"noted",
"that",
"this",
"was",
"not",
"necessarily",
"representative",
"of",
"a",
"family",
"group",
".",
"instead",
",",
"they",
"stated",
"that",
"it",
"would",
"also",
"be",
"consistent",
"with",
"\"",
"a",
"population",
"that",
"was",
"still",
"relatively",
"small",
"and",
"scattered",
"\"",
",",
"in",
"which",
"most",
"individuals",
"were",
"inter",
"##rel",
"##ated",
".",
"w",
"##ys",
"##ock",
"##i",
"'",
"s",
"team",
"noted",
"that",
"in",
"all",
"but",
"one",
"case",
",",
"the",
"fracture",
"mor",
"##ph",
"##ologies",
"are",
"consistent",
"with",
"dry",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"bone",
"break",
"##age",
".",
"three",
"of",
"the",
"skulls",
"exhibited",
"evidence",
"that",
"they",
"had",
"experienced",
"violence",
";"
] | 1,097 |
or several families united by common descent . " similar observations had been made regarding the cr ##ania from other long barrow ##s in britain , although os ##te ##oa ##rch ##ae ##ologists martin smith and megan brick ##ley noted that this was not necessarily representative of a family group . instead , they stated that it would also be consistent with " a population that was still relatively small and scattered " , in which most individuals were inter ##rel ##ated . w ##ys ##ock ##i ' s team noted that in all but one case , the fracture mor ##ph ##ologies are consistent with dry @ - @ bone break ##age . three of the skulls exhibited evidence that they had experienced violence ;
| 505 |
[
"a",
"probable",
"adult",
"female",
"had",
"an",
"un",
"##hea",
"##led",
"injury",
"on",
"the",
"left",
"frontal",
",",
"while",
"an",
"adult",
"of",
"ind",
"##eter",
"##minate",
"sex",
"had",
"an",
"un",
"##hea",
"##led",
"fracture",
"on",
"the",
"left",
"frontal",
",",
"and",
"a",
"second",
"adult",
"female",
"had",
"a",
"healed",
"depressed",
"fracture",
"on",
"the",
"right",
"frontal",
".",
"isotope",
"analysis",
"of",
"the",
"remains",
"revealed",
"δ",
"##13",
"##c",
"values",
"that",
"were",
"typical",
"of",
"those",
"found",
"at",
"many",
"other",
"southern",
"british",
"neolithic",
"sites",
",",
"albeit",
"with",
"significantly",
"higher",
"values",
"of",
"δ",
"##15",
"##c",
",",
"which",
"grew",
"over",
"time",
".",
"although",
"this",
"data",
"is",
"difficult",
"to",
"interpret",
",",
"it",
"was",
"identified",
"as",
"probably",
"reflecting",
"a",
"terrestrial",
"diet",
"high",
"in",
"animal",
"protein",
"that",
"over",
"time",
"was",
"increasingly",
"supplemented",
"with",
"freshwater",
"river",
"or",
"est",
"##ua",
"##rine",
"foods",
".",
"in",
"the"
] | 1,098 |
a probable adult female had an un ##hea ##led injury on the left frontal , while an adult of ind ##eter ##minate sex had an un ##hea ##led fracture on the left frontal , and a second adult female had a healed depressed fracture on the right frontal . isotope analysis of the remains revealed δ ##13 ##c values that were typical of those found at many other southern british neolithic sites , albeit with significantly higher values of δ ##15 ##c , which grew over time . although this data is difficult to interpret , it was identified as probably reflecting a terrestrial diet high in animal protein that over time was increasingly supplemented with freshwater river or est ##ua ##rine foods . in the
| 506 |
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] | 1,099 |
case of the older individuals whose remains were interned in the tomb , the tooth enamel was worn away and the dent ##ine had become exposed on the chewing area of the crowns . radio ##carbon dating of the remains suggested early neolithic activity began at the site during 39 ##80 – 380 ##0 cal ##ib ##rated bce ( 95 % probability ) or 39 ##60 – 38 ##80 cal bce ( 68 % probability ) , when the first human remains were buried at the site . it then suggested that after an interval of either 60 – 350 years ( 95 % probability ) or 140 – 290 years ( 68 % probability ) , further deposition ##s of human remains were made inside
| 509 |
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