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astraeus hygrometricus commonly known as the hygroscopic earthstar the barometer earthstar or the false earthstar is a species of fungus in the diplocystaceae family young specimens resemble a puffball when young and unopened in maturity the mushroom displays the characteristic earthstar shape that is a result of the outer layer of fruit body tissue splitting open in a star @@ like manner the false earthstar is an ectomycorrhizal species that grows in association with various trees especially in sandy soils a hygrometricus has a cosmopolitan distribution and is common in temperate and tropical regions its common names refer to the fact that it is hygroscopic ( water @@ absorbing ) and can open up its rays to expose the spore sac in response to increased humidity and close them up again in drier conditions the rays have an irregularly cracked surface while the spore case is pale brown and smooth with an irregular slit or tear at the top the gleba is white initially but turns brown and powdery when the spores mature the spores are reddish @@ brown roughly spherical with minute warts measuring 7 @@ 5 11 micrometers in diameter
despite a similar overall appearance a hygrometricus is not related to the true earthstars of genus geastrum although historically they have been taxonomically confused the species was first described by christiaan hendrik persoon in 1801 as geastrum hygrometricus in 1885 andrew p morgan proposed that differences in microscopic characteristics warranted the creation of a new genus astraeus distinct from geastrum this opinion was not universally accepted by later authorities several asian populations formerly thought to be a hygrometricus were renamed in the 2000s once phylogenetic analyses revealed they were unique astraeus species including a asiaticus and a odoratus research has revealed the presence of several bioactive chemical compounds in the fruit bodies north american field guides typically rate a hygrometricus as inedible

= = taxonomy naming and phylogeny = =

because this species resembles the earthstar fungi of geastrum it was placed in that genus by early authors starting with christian hendrik persoon in 1801 ( as geaster an alternate spelling of geastrum ) according to the american botanist andrew p morgan however the species differed from those of geastrum in not having open chambers in the young gleba having larger and branched capillitium threads not having a true hymenium and having larger spores accordingly morgan set persoon 's geaster <unk> as the type species of his new genus astraeus in 1889 despite morgan 's publication some authorities in the following decades continued to classify the species in geastrum the new @@ zealand based mycologist gordon herriot cunningham explicitly transferred the species back to the genus geastrum in 1944 explaining
the treatment of this species by certain taxonomists well illustrates the pitfalls that lie in wait for those who worship at the shrine of <unk> classification the only feature of those outlined in which the species differs from others of geastrum is the somewhat primitive hymenium in the developing plant the glebal cavities are separated by tramal plates so tenuous as to be overlooked by the uncritical worker each cavity is filled with basidia somewhat irregularly arranged in clusters ( like those of scleroderma ) and not in the definite palisade of the species which have been studied this difference disappears as maturity is reached when plants resemble closely the fructification of any other member of the genus the taxonomist is then unable to indicate any point of difference by which astraeus may be separated from geastrum which indicates that the name should be discarded
cunningham 's treatment was not followed by later authorities who largely considered astraeus a distinct genus according to the taxonomical authority mycobank synonyms of astraeus hygrometricus include lycoperdon stellatus scop ( 1772 ) geastrum <unk> <unk> ( 1822 ) geastrum <unk> ( scop ) <unk> ( 1885 ) and astraeus stellatus efisch ( 1900 )
astraeus hygrometricus has been given a number of colloquial names that allude to its hygroscopic behavior including the hygrometer earthstar the hygroscopic earthstar the barometer earthstar and the water @@ measure earthstar the resemblance to geastrum species ( also known as true earthstars ) accounts for the common name false earthstar the specific name is derived from the greek words <unk> ( <unk> ) wet and <unk> ( <unk> ) measure the german mycological society selected the species as their mushroom of the year in 2005
studies in the 2000s showed that several species from asian collection sites labelled under the specific epithet hygrometricus were actually considerably variable in a number of macroscopic and microscopic characteristics molecular studies of the dna sequences of the its region of the ribosomal dna from a number of astraeus specimens from around the world have helped to clarify phylogenetic relationships within the genus based on these results two asian hygrometricus populations have been described as new species a asiaticus and a odoratus ( synonymous with <unk> 's a thailandicus described in 2003 ) preliminary dna analyses suggests that the european a hygrometricus described by persoon is a different species than the north american version described by morgan and that the european population may be divided into two distinct <unk> from france and from the mediterranean a 2010 study identified a japanese species previously identified as a hygrometricus as genetically distinct it has yet to be officially named
a form of the species found in korea and japan a hygrometricus var koreanus was named by <unk> <unk> in 1958 it was later ( 1976 ) published as a distinct species a koreanus by hanns kreisel as pointed out by <unk> and colleagues clarification of the proper name for this taxon must await analysis of a hygrometricus var koreanus specimens from the type locality in north korea

= = description = =

young specimens of a hygrometricus have roughly spherical fruit bodies that typically start their development partially embedded in the substrate a smooth whitish mycelial layer covers the fruit body and may be partially encrusted with debris as the fruit body matures the mycelial layer tears away and the outer tissue layer the exoperidium breaks open in a star @@ shaped ( stellate ) pattern to form 4 20 irregular rays this simultaneously pushes the fruit body above ground to reveal a round spore case enclosed in a thin papery endoperidium the rays open and close in response to levels of moisture in the environment opening up in high humidity and closing when the air is dry this is possible because the exoperidium is made of several different layers of tissue the innermost fibrous layer is hygroscopic and curls or <unk> the entire ray as it loses or gains moisture from its surroundings this adaptation enables the fruit body to disperse spores at times of optimum moisture and reduce evaporation during dry periods further dry fruit bodies with the rays curled up may be readily blown about by the wind allowing them to scatter spores from the pore as they roll
the fruit body is 1 8 cm ( 0 @@ 4 3 @@ 1 in ) in diameter from tip to tip when expanded the exoperidium is thick and the rays are typically areolate ( divided into small areas by cracks and crevices ) on the upper surface and are dark grey to black the spore case is sessile ( lacking a stalk ) light gray to tan color and 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @@ 4 to 1 @@ 2 in ) broad with a felt @@ like or scurfy ( coated with loose scaly crust ) surface the top of the spore case is opened by an irregular slit tear or pore the interior of the spore case the gleba is white and solid when young and divided into oval locules a characteristic that helps to distinguish it from geastrum the gleba becomes brown and powdery as the specimen matures small dark hairlike threads ( rhizomorphs ) extend from the base of the fruit body into the substrate the rhizomorphs are fragile and often break off after maturity
the spores are spherical or nearly so reddish @@ brown thick @@ walled and verrucose ( covered with warts and spines ) the spores ' dimensions are 7 11 µm the warts are about 1 µm long the spores are non @@ amyloid and will not stain with iodine from melzer 's reagent the use of scanning electron microscopy has shown that the spines are 0 @@ 90 1 @@ 45 µm long rounded at the tip narrow tapered and sometime joined together at the top the capillitia ( masses of thread @@ like sterile fibers dispersed among the spores ) are branched 3 @@ 5 6 @@ 5 µm in diameter and hyaline ( translucent ) the basidia ( spore @@ bearing cells ) are four to eight @@ spored with very short sterigmata the basidia are arranged in long strings of clusters individual basidia measure 11 15 by 18 24 µm the threads of the capillitia arise from the inner surface of the peridium and are thick @@ walled long interwoven and branched measuring 3 5 @@ 5 µm thick the exoperidium ( the outer layer of tissue comprising the rays ) is made of four distinct layers of tissue the mycelial layer contains branched hyphae that are 4 6 μm in diameter the hyphae of the fibrous layer are 6 8 μm diameter and branched the <unk> @@ type layer has branched hyphae of 3 4 μm diameter the soft layer contains hyphae that are 3 6 μm in diameter

= = = edibility = = =

north american sources describe a hygrometricus as being of either unknown edibility or too tough to be edible however they are regularly consumed in asia including nepal and south bengal where local people consume them as delicious food they are collected from the wild and sold in the markets of india
a study of a closely related southeast asian astraeus species concluded that the fungus contained an abundance of volatile eight @@ carbon compounds ( including 1 @@ octanol 1 @@ octen @@ 3 @@ ol and 1 @@ octen @@ 3 @@ one ) that imparted a mushroom @@ like earthy and pungent odor that was evident as an oily and moss @@ like smell upon opening the caps the study 's authors further noted that the fruit bodies after cooking have a roasted <unk> herbal and oily flavor volatile compounds detected after cooking the mushroom samples included furfural benzaldehyde <unk> and <unk> compounds the regional differences in opinions on edibility are from sources published before it was known that north american and asian versions of a hygrometricus were not always the same in some cases asian specimens have been identified as new species such as a asiaticus and a odoratus

= = similar species = =

although a hygrometricus bears a superficial resemblance to member of the true earthstars geastrum it may be readily differentiated from most by the hygroscopic nature of its rays <unk> earthstars include g <unk> g <unk> g <unk> g <unk> and g <unk> unlike geastrum the young fruit bodies of a hygrometricus do not have a columella ( sterile tissue in the gleba at the base of the spore sac ) geastrum tends to have its spore sac opening surrounded by a peristome or a disc in contrast with the single <unk> slit of a hygrometricus there are also several microscopic differences in a hygrometricus the basidia are not arranged in parallel columns the spores are larger and the threads of the capillitia are branched and continuous with the hyphae of the peridium despite these differences older specimens can be difficult to distinguish from geastrum in the field one species of geastrum g <unk> does have thick and brittle rays that are moderately hygroscopic and could be confused with a hygrometricus however its spores are smaller than a hygrometricus typically about 4 µm in diameter
astraeus <unk> is larger 5 to 15 cm ( 2 @@ 0 to 5 @@ 9 in ) or more when expanded and often has a more pronounced areolate pattern on the inner surface of the rays it is found in north america and the canary islands a asiaticus and a odoratus are two similar species known from throughout asia and southeast asia respectively a odoratus is distinguished from a hygrometricus by a smooth outer mycelial layer with few adhering soil particles 3 9 broad rays and a fresh odor similar to moist soil the spore ornamentation of a odoratus is also distinct from a hygrometricus with longer and narrower spines that often joined together a asiaticus has an outer peridial surface covered with small granules and a gleba that is purplish @@ chestnut in color compared to the smooth peridial surface and brownish gleba of a hygrometricus the upper limit of the spore size of a asiaticus is larger than that of its more common relative ranging from 8 @@ 75 15 @@ 2 μm a koreanus ( sometimes named as the variety a hygrometricus var koreanus see taxonomy ) differs from the more common form in its smaller size paler fruit body and greater number of rays microscopically it has smaller spores ( between 6 @@ 8 and 9 μm in diameter ) and the spines on the spores differ in length and morphology it is known from korea and japan

= = habitat distribution and ecology = =

astraeus hygrometricus is an ectomycorrhizal fungus and grows in association with a broad range of tree species the mutualistic association between tree roots and the mycelium of the fungus helps the trees extract nutrients ( particularly phosphorus ) from the earth in exchange the fungus receives carbohydrates from photosynthesis in north america associations with oak and pine are usual while in india it has been noted to grow commonly with <unk> pine ( pinus <unk> ) and sal ( shorea robusta ) the false earthstar is found on the ground in open fields often scattered or in groups especially in nutrient @@ poor sandy or loamy soils it has also been reported to grow on rocks preferring acid substrates like slate and granite while avoiding substrates rich in lime in nepal fruit bodies have been collected at elevations of 3 @@ 000 m ( 9 @@ 800 ft ) fruit bodies typically appear in autumn although the dry fruit bodies are persistent and may last up to several years <unk> <unk> is a <unk> fungus with minute gelatinous pulvinate ( cushion @@ shaped ) apothecia known to grow only on the inner surface of the rays of dead astraeus species including a hygrometricus
the species has a cosmopolitan distribution except for arctic alpine and cold temperate regions it is common in temperate and tropical regions of the world it has been collected in africa asia australia europe north america and south america

= = bioactive compounds = =

mushroom polysaccharides from a number of species have attracted research interest for their <unk> and antitumor properties extracts from a hygrometricus containing the polysaccharide named ae2 were found to inhibit the growth of several tumor cell lines in laboratory tests and stimulated the growth of <unk> <unk> and bone marrow cells from mice the extract also stimulated mouse cells associated with the immune system specifically it enhanced the activity of mouse natural killer cells stimulated macrophages to produce nitric oxide and enhanced production of cytokines the activation of macrophages by ae2 might be mediated by a mitogen @@ activated protein kinase pathway of signal transduction ae2 is made of the simple sugars mannose glucose and <unk> in a 1 2 1 ratio
in addition to the previously known steroid compounds ergosta @@ 7 @@ 22 @@ diene @@ 3 @@ ol acetate and ergosta @@ <unk> ( 14 ) 22 @@ tetraene @@ 3 @@ one three unique triterpenes derivatives of 3 @@ hydroxy @@ <unk> have been isolated from fruit bodies of a hygrometricus the compounds named <unk> 3 @@ epi @@ <unk> and <unk> ( 3 @@ oxo @@ 25s @@ <unk> @@ 8 @@ <unk> @@ 26 @@ 22 @@ lactone ) have δ @@ lactone ( a six @@ membered ring ) in the side chain a chemical feature previously unknown in the basidiomycetes a previously unknown <unk> ester ( 3β 5α @@ <unk> ( 22e 24r ) <unk> @@ 7 @@ 22 @@ dien @@ <unk> @@ yl palmitate ) has been isolated from mycelia grown in liquid culture the compound has a <unk> <unk> @@ type nucleus
ethanol extracts of the fruit body are high in antioxidant activity and have been shown in laboratory tests to have anti @@ inflammatory activity comparable to the drug diclofenac studies with mouse models have also demonstrated <unk> ( liver @@ protecting ) ability possibly by restoring diminished levels of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase caused by experimental exposure to the liver @@ damaging chemical carbon tetrachloride

= = traditional beliefs = =

this earthstar has been used in traditional chinese medicine as a hemostatic agent the spore dust is applied externally to stop wound bleeding and reduce chilblains two indian forest tribes the <unk> and the <unk> of madhya pradesh have been reported to use the fruit bodies medicinally the spore mass is blended with mustard seed oil and used as a salve against burns the blackfoot of north america called the fungus fallen stars considering them to be stars fallen to the earth during supernatural events


= paul thomas anderson =

paul thomas anderson ( born june 26 1970 ) also known as pt anderson is an american film director screenwriter and producer interested in film @@ making at a young age anderson was encouraged by his father ernie anderson ( a disc jockey and television and radio announcer / voiceover artist ) to become a filmmaker
in 1993 he wrote and directed a short film titled cigarettes & coffee on a budget of $ 20 @@ 000 after he attended the sundance institute anderson had a deal with rysher entertainment to direct his first feature film a neo @@ noir crime thriller titled hard eight in 1996 anderson received critical and commercial success for his film boogie nights ( 1997 ) set during the golden age of porn in the 1970s and 1980s his third feature magnolia ( 1999 ) received wide acclaim despite struggling at the box office
in 2002 the romantic comedy @@ drama punch @@ drunk love anderson 's fourth feature was released to generally favorable reviews after a five @@ year absence the epic drama there will be blood was released to critical acclaim in 2007 in 2012 anderson 's sixth film the drama the master was released to critical acclaim his seventh film the crime comedy @@ drama inherent vice based on the novel of the same name by thomas pynchon was released in 2014 to general acclaim
anderson has been nominated for six academy awards over the course of his career while his films have earned a further fourteen academy award nominations for cast and crew

= = early life = =

anderson was born june 26 1970 in studio city california to edwina ( née gough ) and ernie anderson ernie was an actor who was the voice of abc and a cleveland television late @@ night horror movie host known as <unk> ( after whom anderson later named his production company ) anderson grew up in the san fernando valley he is third youngest of nine children and had a troubled relationship with his mother but was close with his father who encouraged him to become a writer or director anderson attended a number of schools including buckley in sherman oaks john thomas dye school campbell hall school cushing academy and montclair prep
anderson was involved in filmmaking at a young age and never really had an alternative plan to directing films he made his first movie when he was eight years old and started making movies on a betamax video camera which his dad bought in 1982 when he was twelve years old he later started using 8 mm film but realized that video was easier he began writing in adolescence and at 17 years old he began experimenting with a bolex sixteen millimeter camera after years of experimenting with standard fare he wrote and filmed his first real production as a senior in high school at montclair prep using money he earned cleaning cages at a pet store the film was a thirty @@ minute mockumentary shot on video called the dirk diggler story ( 1988 ) about a pornography star the story was inspired by john holmes who also served as a major inspiration for boogie nights

= = career = =


= = = early career = = =

anderson spent two semesters as an english major at emerson college and only two days at new york university before he began his career as a production assistant on television films music videos and game shows in los angeles and new york city feeling that the material shown to him at film school turned the experience into homework or a chore anderson decided to make a twenty @@ minute film that would be his college
for $ 20 @@ 000 made up of gambling winnings his girlfriend 's credit card and money his father set aside for him for college anderson made cigarettes & coffee ( 1993 ) a short film connecting multiple story lines with a twenty @@ dollar bill the film was screened at the 1993 sundance festival shorts program he decided to expand the film into a feature @@ length film and was subsequently invited to the 1994 sundance feature film program at the sundance feature film program michael caton @@ jones served as anderson 's mentor he saw anderson as someone with talent and a fully formed creative voice but not much hands @@ on experience and gave him some hard and practical lessons

= = = 1990s = = =


= = = = hard eight = = = =

while at the sundance feature film program anderson already had a deal with rysher entertainment to direct his first feature in 1996 anderson made his first full @@ length feature sydney which was retitled hard eight ( 1996 ) upon completion of the film rysher re @@ edited it anderson who still had the workprint of his original cut submitted the film which was accepted and screened in the un certain regard section at the 1996 cannes film festival anderson was able to get his version released but only after he retitled the film and raised the $ 200 @@ 000 necessary to finish it he philip baker hall gwyneth paltrow and john c reilly contributed the funding the version that was released was anderson 's and the acclaim from the film launched his career

= = = = boogie nights = = = =

anderson began working on the script for his next feature film during his troubles with hard eight completing the script in 1995 the result was anderson 's breakout for the drama film boogie nights ( 1997 ) which is based on his short the dirk diggler story the script was noticed by new line cinema 's president michael de luca who felt totally gaga reading it it was released on october 10 1997 and was a critical and commercial success the film revived the career of burt reynolds and provided breakout roles for mark wahlberg and julianne moore at the 70th academy awards ceremony the film received three academy award nominations including for best supporting actor ( burt reynolds ) best supporting actress ( julianne moore ) and best original screenplay

= = = = magnolia = = = =

after the success of boogie nights new line told anderson that he could do whatever he wanted for his next film and granted him creative control though anderson initially wanted to make a film that was intimate and small @@ scale the script kept blossoming the resulting film was the ensemble piece magnolia ( 1999 ) which tells the story of the peculiar interaction of several individuals in the san fernando valley anderson used the music of aimee mann as a basis and inspiration for the film commissioning her to write eight new songs at the 72nd academy awards magnolia received three nominations for best actor in a supporting role ( tom cruise ) best original song for save me by aimee mann and best original screenplay anderson stated after the film 's release that what i really feel is that magnolia is for better or worse the best movie i 'll ever make

= = = 2000s = = =


= = = = punch @@ drunk love = = = =

after the release of magnolia anderson stated that he would like to work with comedic actor adam sandler in the future and that he was determined to make his next film 90 minutes long his next feature was the romantic comedy @@ drama film punch @@ drunk love ( 2002 ) starring sandler with emily watson portraying his love interest the story centers on a beleaguered small @@ business owner ( sandler ) with anger issues and seven emasculating sisters a subplot in the film was partly based on david phillips ( also called the pudding guy ) sandler received critical praise for his role in his first major departure from the mainstream comedies that had made him a star at the 2002 cannes film festival anderson won the best director award and was nominated for the palme d 'or

= = = = there will be blood = = = =

there will be blood ( 2007 ) was loosely based on the upton sinclair novel oil the budget of the film was $ 25 million and it earned $ 76 @@ 1 million worldwide daniel day @@ lewis starred and won an oscar for best leading actor for his role the film received eight nominations overall at the 80th academy awards paul dano received a bafta nomination for best supporting actor anderson was nominated for best director from the directors guild of america the film also received eight academy award nominations tying with no country for old men for the most nominations anderson received nominations for best picture best director and best adapted screenplay losing all three to the coen brothers for no country for old men there will be blood was regarded by some critics as one of the greatest films of the decade some parties further declaring it one of the most accomplished american films of the modern era david denby of the new yorker wrote the young writer @@ director paul thomas anderson has now done work that bears comparison to the greatest achievements of griffith and ford while richard schickel proclaimed it one of the most wholly original american movies ever made

= = = 2010s = = =


= = = = the master = = = =

in december 2009 anderson was working on a new script tentatively titled the master about a charismatic intellectual who starts a new religion in the 1950s an associate of anderson stated that the idea for the film had been in anderson 's head for about twelve years though the film makes no reference to the movement it has long been widely assumed to be based on scientology the master was released on september 14 2012 by the weinstein company in the united states and canada to critical acclaim the film received three nominations at the 85th academy awards joaquin phoenix for best leading actor philip seymour hoffman for best supporting actor and amy adams for best supporting actress

= = = = inherent vice = = = =

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