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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115944/overview	Native American Residential Schools Assignment Overview This resource contains background information about Native American residential schools and a list of related sources. Attachments The attachment for this resource is a sample assignment about Native American residential schools. The document includes background information about these schools, additional sources for students to use, questions and guidelines for an article review assignment, and a grading rubric. About This Resource The sample assignment was submitted by a participant in a one-day workshop entitled “New Approaches to Frontier History” for world history teachers hosted by the Alliance for Learning in World History. This resource was contributed by Lesley Kauffman.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.407388	Alliance for Learning in World History	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115944/overview", "title": "Native American Residential Schools Assignment", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115018/overview	MAC – 141, Machining Applications I MAC-141 Questions and answers MAC-141, Machining Applications I Overview This course provides an introduction to a variety of material-working processes that are common to the machining industry. Topics include safety, process-specific machining equipment, measurement devices, set-up and layout instruments, and common shop practices. Upon completion, students should be able to safely demonstrate basic machining operations, accurately measure components, and effectively use layout instruments. MAC-141, Machining Applications I This course provides an introduction to a variety of material-working processes that are common to the machining industry. Topics include safety, process-specific machining equipment, measurement devices, set-up and layout instruments, and common shop practices. Upon completion, students should be able to safely demonstrate basic machining operations, accurately measure components, and effectively use layout instruments. Student Learning Outcomes: - Safe and competent performance of precision measurement, filing, drilling, sawing, turning and milling - Ability to anticipate, choose and troubleshoot the proper tooling based on manufacturing requirements - Ability to manufacture piece parts and assemblies to specification This product was funded by a grant awarded by the U.S. Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration. The product was created by the grantee and does not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Labor. The Department of Labor makes no guarantees, warranties, or assurances of any kind, express or implied, with respect to such information, including any information on linked sites and including, but not limited to, accuracy of the information or its completeness, timeliness, usefulness, adequacy, continued availability, or ownership.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.426912	04/09/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115018/overview", "title": "MAC-141, Machining Applications I", "author": "Bo Bunn" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114941/overview	Employability Crash Course Overview Employability Crash Course is presented as a self-directed, self-paced course to guide students in learning how to look for work, write a resume and interview for a job. The material is designed to allow students to follow their curiosity and percieved needs while holding them accountable for their learning. Instructors can use the material to prompt discussion and provide content for role-plays. Material Notes The objective of this self-directed, self-paced course is to guide students through a series of research and reflection activities concerning job search, resume writing, and job interviews. Students are directed to relevant and potentially valuable resources freely available on YouTube. They are free to select content based on their curiosity or relevance to their needs. The questionnaires associated with the video content aim to to hold students accountable and to encourage reflection on their chosen material. The only assignment for this course entails using insights from the video content to write a one-page resume, for which a template is provided. This template is formatted to ensure readability by Applicant Tracking Systems. Instructors have the discretion to present and assess student engagement with the course in a manner they deem appropriate. Below are some suggestions for interacting with the material: 1. Assign specific videos from each playlist instead of allowing students to choose their own. 2. Utilize the questionnaires to stimulate discussion about the content and facilitate further relevant research. 3. Employ the resume assignment as a basis for interview practice or role-playing. Course materials are attached.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.444652	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114941/overview", "title": "Employability Crash Course", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115949/overview	Proposed Program in US & Latin American History Overview The objective of this proposed program of study is to illustrate to students the similarities and differences between the history of North America and Latin America. Attachments The attachment for this resource includes the objective and content for a proposed program in U.S. and Latin American history. About This Resource The sample resource was submitted by a participant in a one-day workshop entitled “New Approaches to Frontier History” for world history teachers hosted by the Alliance for Learning in World History. This resource was contributed by Gilberto Morillo.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.462306	Alliance for Learning in World History	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115949/overview", "title": "Proposed Program in US & Latin American History", "author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93063/overview	ASTR 1020 - Lab 8: Cepheids - Part A Overview This laboratory consists of two parts. In part A, we will follow Hubble’s method of measuring distances. Using pulsation time periods, we will obtain the absolute magnitude of a Cepheid variable and convert this absolute magnitude into luminosity which will, in turn, give us the distance. In Part B, we will use spectral shift (the Doppler effect) to determine the Hubble Constant. --------------------------------------- Distant Nature: Astronomy Exercises 2016 by Stephen Tuttle under license "Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike". ASTR 1020 - Lab 8: Cepheids - Part A Download the attached zip file and install the website on a server or in your LMS course section. To place HTML website content in Brightspace: - Create an appropriate folder structure in Manage Files. This location is where files will be uploaded and unzipped. Each resource (website) should have a descriptively named independent folder. - Navigate to the appropriate folder and Upload the zip file. - Unzip the folder by clicking the pull-down arrow, and clicking Unzip on the submenu. A content folder will appear. It contains two folders and two HTML files. - Associate the index.html file to your Course Content topic. Perform this task in the Course Content area by clicking New and then clicking Add from Manage Files on the submenu. Next, navigate to the index.html file and Add the file. - Click the pull-down arrow by the new web page topic (currently named index). Next, click Edit Properties In-place on the submenu and rename the link to be descriptive. - Delete the extraneous zip file from the Manage Files folder.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.480911	05/26/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93063/overview", "title": "ASTR 1020 - Lab 8: Cepheids - Part A", "author": "Hollyanna White" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95082/overview	simple squamous epi_kidney_Bowmans capsule_400x, p000124 Overview simple squamous epi_kidney_Bowmans capsule_400x, p000124 simple squamous epi_kidney_Bowmans capsule_400x, p000124 simple squamous epi_kidney_Bowmans capsule_400x, p000124 simple squamous epi_kidney_Bowmans capsule_400x, p000124 simple squamous epi_kidney_Bowmans capsule_400x, p000124	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.496862	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95082/overview", "title": "simple squamous epi_kidney_Bowmans capsule_400x, p000124", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122258/overview	Student Assignment on digital literacy Information and critical digital literacy Overview A powerpoint with a case for social justice, problem-based learning and based on promoting students information and digital literacy skills. Although the case outlined is contextual, I think there are comparable cases globally, so the activities for students on the final slide for the problem-based approach can be adapted. This is a powerpoint I created about information literacy for students, which includes prompt information that is contextually related to an incident in the UK that encapsulates the need for students to think and read critically and challenge preconceptions. This is a powerpoint available for people to demonstrate a problem-based learning approac to information literacy. The students' task is on the final slides.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.514830	Howard Scott	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122258/overview", "title": "Information and critical digital literacy", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116997/overview	What if? Ethics cases using various philosophies (Vol. 2) Overview This OER is a collection of case studies for discussions on ethical decision-making. It uses a variety of philosophies to determine how and if outcomes might have differed. This volume provides updated cases for students to discuss. Table of Contents The OER begins with a short introduction and then case links below are organized by the philosophy used for analysis. Communitarianism Celebrity Influence and Medication Scarcity: An Ethical Examination through a Communitarian Lens Cosmpolitanism Towards Ethical and Effective Emergency Response: A Cosmopolitan Perspective on the Tragic Case of Debra Stevens in Arkansas Dialogic Ethics From Bamboo Bliss to Social Media Crisis: The Kyte Baby Maternity Leave Debacle She’s Drunk, But Should She Go Home? A Case Study Using Dialogic Ethics Ethics of Care The Case Study of the Withheld Sales Ethics of Trust Fallout of Alabama Baseball Coach Brian Bohannon's Gambling Scandal Using Ethics of Trust Unauthorized Use of Shubnum Khan's Headshots and Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust Analysis Rawl's Theory of Justice A Case Study of the Princess of Wales' Photoshop Manipulation Incident Ubuntu From Disappointment to Discovery: Ubuntu Ethics and the Rebirth of No Man's Sky Virtue Ethics Alyssa Milano’s GoFundMe Baseball Fundraiser A Case Study of a Mississippi Daycare Nightmare Introduction This OER is a collection of case studies for discussions on ethical decision-making. The case studies present what-if scenarios. What if decision-makers had used a different philosophy or prioritized values and stakeholders in another way? Cases move beyond a Utilitarian default and explore philosophies that are not as automatic for corporations in the U.S. A new crop of cases is added here to create volume 2. About Ethics (adapted from Vol. 1) Ethics is part of our everyday lives; we may have to slow down to see it, but we are making decisions at every turn. We weigh our principles and values against personal needs, desires, and potential consequences. Should I speed along this residential road to make it to work on time? Do I return to pay for the bread I missed scanning at the self-check out when I have already made it to my car? Do I tell my friend the truth when she asks about her new haircut? Do my answers change if I won't get caught? When I ask students to think about the first time they were confronted with ethics, many cite youth sports leagues where they witness parents and coaches cutting corners or maybe on the bright side, exhibiting strong morals. Others share how a desire to win or receive a prize altered how they would normally behave. I ask them to think about their development and those who have most influenced how they view good/bad and right/wrong. Our morals are the principles that guide us and ethics are typically our rules and actions. In our professions, we likely have a Code of Ethics, or list of acceptable behaviors. This in a nutshell is ethics. Alternative Philosophies In the United States, many of our decision-makers default to Utilitarianism — a philosophy that basically aims for the greatest good for the greatest number. There is nothing wrong with this philosophy. In a fast-paced corporate environment, it aims for a good outcome for the majority, and may be more efficient and time-conscious than other philosophies. The aim of this open education resource is to add other philosophies and a decision-making system to your toolkit. One philosophy may be better suited to a decision than another. Our environments are increasily more global and other philosophies entertain other viewpoints and stakeholders that Utilitarianism may overlook. Over the past few years, my students have modeled case studies after those in Contemporary Media Ethics by Land, Fuse, and Hornaday, which uses a Point-of-Decision Pyramid for decision-making. Of course, there are other ways to analyze the ethics of a situation. There's the Potter Box, Bok's model, Kidder's nine checkpoints, question-based decision trees and even ethics apps! My hope is that by broadening your view of decision-making tools and philosophies you can be the one person is a meeting that moves beyond a first gut reaction and says, "wait, have we considered...? Can we systematically think about this?" Point-of-decision Pyramid One advantage of the Point-of-Decision Pyramid (Land et al., 2014) is that you can pop any philosophy into the bottom of the pyramid to provide a foundation for decision-making. Yes, you can do the same the Potter Box and others, but an underlying philosophy is not part of the process. It almost feels assumed. The Point of Decision Pyramid is used to analyze the cases in this OER. But I challenge you to find a decision-making model or system that works for you and your organization. To work the pyramid for decision-making you being at the bottom ot the pyramid and work your way up and around the sides of the pyramid, using the philosophy as your foundation. The second layer consists of the facts that are pointed out in a case, as well as the principles, values, stakeholders, and loyalties that would lead to a decision (Land & Hornaday, 2006). Each panel of the pyramid focuses on these and you would wind around the pyramid addressing these. The facts of the case are details important to the decision; the stakeholders are those who could be affected by the decision,prioritized by the philosophy. The principles and values are truth, humaneness, justice/fairness, freedom/liberty, stewardship, harmony, and diversity. They are considered based on how they are prioritized by the foundational philosophy in the pyramid. Finally, the top of the pyramid is the point of the decision. You reach the top, or the decision, by working from the philosophy upward through the pyramid leads to making a decision based on the information that was examined in the other parts of the pyramid. How Cases are Arranged Case studies are grouped in the Table of Contents by the guiding philosophy used for the analysis. Each asks what would have been decided if {blank} philosophy had been used to analyze the situation. Cases represent actual events from recent years. The cases use the Point-of-decision Pyramid to review the cases' facts, stakeholders, and principles. Some outcomes remain the same when using an alternative philosophy, but others showcase how another philosophy offered a different outcome, and maybe a better one. Cases include a few discussion questions and references for follow-up readings and discussions. How to Prepare for a Discussion Using Case Studies Case studies are wonderful for igniting classroom discussions. Your professor may melt into the background to let you and your colleagues lead the chat. In order to prepare, be sure to read the case fully, making note of questions you have as you read. You might even plan what you could add to a class discussion. For each case ask yourself to - identify the main stakeholders - make a quick list of the facts - determine the main tenents of the philosophy introduced - consume additional background on the philosophy (see Stanford's Encyclopedia of Philosophy) - identify which of the principles/values (truth, justice/fairness, freedom/liberty, diversity, harmony, stewardship and humaneness) were actually honored and which could have been - attempt to find the original post, advertisement, video or document that started the ethical quandry - look up the company or individuals to see where they are now - decide if you think the alternative philosophy delivered a better/stronger decision - try to craft a better company response, policy, or decision tree to prevent a future mishap - locate the code of ethics that the industry likely uses and mine it for the principles/values reflected - think about similar cases that may have happened more recently or in your area References Land, M., Fuse, K., & Hornaday, B. W. (2014). Contemporary media ethics: A practical guide for students, scholars and professionals in a globalized world (2nd ed.). Spokane, WA: Marquette Books. Land, M., & Hornaday, B. W. (2006). Contemporary media ethics: A practical guide for students, scholars, and professionals. Spokane, WA: Marquette Books. Canadian government decision to not search landfill for the bodies of three murdered Indigenous Women By Arthur Sennett Abstract: Jeremy Skibicki, a Winnipeg resident, was charged with murdering four Indigenous women in 2022. The remains of Rebecca Contois, one of the murdered women was found in a Winnipeg landfill and it is believed by the local police and the Indigenous community that the other murdered women, Morgan Harris, Marcedes Myran, and Mashkode Bizhgiki’ikwe, are also buried in a Winnipeg landfill. The Indigenous Community wanted the authorities to search the landfill for the remains of the other three murdered women to bring closure to the families of the murdered women and the Indigenous community at large. The authorities in the form of the local police and the Provincial Government said they would not search the landfill for feasibility and safety reasons. The Indigenous community protested this decision based on the democratic idea of a government’s responsibility for the well-being of the citizenry. This case study analyzes the moral responsibility of a government to those being governed. Keywords: Ubuntu Philosophy, Humaneness, Identity, Solidarity Introduction Democratic governments are often referred to as the best form of government. This is because democracies are governments of the people by the people and for the people. Democracies as opposed to dictatorships have the well-being of the populace in mind (Paul, 2021). Democracies are also referred to as a responsible form of government. This refers to a government that is responsible to those they govern (McIntosh et al. 2006). This responsibility is reflected in the three roles democratic governments play. These roles are played out in American government as well as Canadian government. They reflect the type of responsiveness on the part of government that is expected in democratic societies. The first role of a responsible government is upholding the rights of individuals in a society. The rights of individuals in a society are one of the primary features of a democratic government. Without governmental protection of these rights citizens would be hard pressed to live productive lives. These rights also at times must be protested for in a democratic society. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 is an example of this. This piece of legislation motivated by racial tensions in the South would allow federal prosecution of anyone who tried to stop someone from voting (History Editors, 2009). This guarantees the fundamental right of all citizens to vote. This again is an example of how government is to protect the rights of the citizenry. A second role of responsible governments is to uphold the laws. This means that governmental activity should be guided by a constitution. Upholding the law means governments should lead by example (Paul, 2021). Governments not only make laws for the well-being of a society, but they must also live by those same laws. Not doing so would cause the emergence of conflict between the government and those being governed. A third role of responsible government is responding to the needs of the citizenry. This involves creating policies that would respond to those needs. These policies create programs for the disadvantaged persons in a society (Slaughter, 2017). This government aid in America is expressed in a variety of ways that includes food aid, housing help, Social Security, and health insurance to name a few. These types of government programs are crucial to the well-being of those in a society, who through no fault of their own, find themselves on the bottom rung socially and economically in society. This third responsibility of a democratic government, responding to the needs of the citizenry, will be the context in which the case study will be analyzed. This analyzation will be conducted within the ethical framework of The Ubuntu Philosophy. Therefore, we will analyze this case considering Ubuntu Philosophy. The goal is to see how the decision-making process would have been affected by using Ubuntu Philosophy to resolve an ethical dilemma. Background and Ethical Framework The word Ubuntu literally means humanness. Having Ubuntu is becoming one’s authentic self it is to truly live a human life (Metz, 2019). The Ubuntu philosophy originated and was developed throughout the African continent over thousands of years. It was known by different names in different areas of Africa, such as Gimuntu in Angola, Bato in Cameroon, or Bantu in the Congo to name a few but the dominant and current name for this philosophy is Ubuntu. Furthermore, “Different communities may emphasize different aspects of Ubuntu philosophy but there is a common foundation that shapes relations, knowledge, values and practices” (Mugumbate et al., 2023). There is unification in the core ideas of this philosophy. This common foundation focuses upon the individual and the community. The individual goal in Ubuntu philosophy is one of self-realization. This goal, however, cannot be achieved by self-determination or individual habit formation techniques. Such as, developing virtuous behavior as seen in Aristotle’s model of self-realization. By way of contrast in Ubuntu, self-realization is not an individual endeavor but a process whereby one comes to realize oneself through interaction with others (Metz, 2019). This is what is meant by the term humanness in Ubuntu Philosophy. This interaction furthermore should be characterized by excellence in thought and behavior towards others. This fact lends itself to the importance of communal relations in Ubuntu philosophy. Communal relations are described in two ways in Ubuntu Philosophy, identifying with others and showing solidarity with them (Metz, 2019). Identifying with others is treating oneself as a member of the same group. Having a “We” mentality instead of an “I” mentality. It is having a positive attitude towards those you interact with. Solidarity involves being helpful, acting in ways that help others, being positively oriented toward other’s good. Therefore, within the ethical framework of Ubuntu Philosophy we will analyze the case study within the context of communal relations as it relates to identity and solidarity. Method The method used to analyze the decision made by the Canadian authorities for this case study will be the Point of Decision Pyramid from Land et al. (2014). The bottom tier of the pyramid is the philosophical foundation upon which the elements of the case study will be analyzed. The second tier holds seven principles: truth, justice, humaneness, liberty, stewardship, harmony, and diversity. This second tier also holds the statement of facts in the case along with stakeholders and loyalties. The third tier is an informed decision which in this instance will reflect what would have happened if Ubuntu Philosophy was applied to this case. This method will be used to apply the seven principles of the Point of Decision Pyramid to the case within the framework of the Ubuntu Philosophy. Case Narrative The mystery of the murder of four Indigenous women began to unravel on June 15, 2022, when police uncovered partial human remains, found in the Brady Road Landfill (Gowriluk, 2023). The remains were identified as those of Rebecca Contois, a 24-year-old homicide victim. Jeremy Skibicki a 35-year-old Canadian was charged with the crime. Police believed also that when they found the partial human remains, that there was a possibility of other victims. These victims, the other three murdered Indigenous women, Police believed are buried in a landfill at the Prairie Green site (Deer, 2023). This fact led Cambria Harris, a daughter of one of the murdered victims, to ask police to search for her mother, Morgan Harris, and the other murdered victims in the Prairie Green landfill site. The Winnipeg Police responded to this request with a decision not to search the landfill because of feasibility of the search and low possibility of recovery (Deer, 2023). This response was responded to by the Manitoba’s leaders bringing a panel of experts together to see if the search could be done. The findings of the panel concluded that the search can be done at a cost of $184 million and could take up to three years but could be done safely (Unger, 2023). In addition to the findings of the panel, protests were formed against the decision to not search the landfill for the other three murdered women. A place called Camp Morgan was set up in front of the Prairie Green Landfill entrance to stop further dumping in the site (Gowriluk, 2023). These facts, however, did not sway the local police or governmental authorities from changing their decision. The moral argument on the part of the Indigenous community for searching the landfill for the murdered women along with the responsibility of the Canadian government to its citizens was seemingly ignored. The Canadian authority’s decision was alleged to be based on budget concerns and not the need of the Indigenous community. This brings us to what would have happened if Ubuntu Philosophy was used to make this decision considering the principles and values of the Point of Decision Pyramid. Principles and Values The Canadian Authorities decision not to search the Prairie Green landfill for the other three murdered Indigenous women, appears to be based on Utilitarian Philosophy, the greatest good for the greatest number. The search would cost 184 million dollars and take three years. The Canadian Authorities believe a better use of the money would be satisfying budget concerns. This would result in a greater number of people’s needs being met. The question, however, is could an alternate decision be arrived at by using a different philosophical base to make the decision. Therefore, we will look at the seven principles screened through the Ubuntu Philosophy concepts of identity and solidarity to see if an alternative decision could have been arrived at in this case study. The principles will be prioritized reflecting their individual importance to this case study. This prioritizing furthermore will also be the basis for making the final informed decision. We begin therefore with the seven principles in connection with the Canadian Authorities decision not to search the Prairie Green Landfill for the other three murdered Indigenous women. The first principle that should be looked at in connection with this case study is truth. Were the Canadian Authorities using truth as a basis for their decision making? A study done by a panel of experts to see if the search could be done concluded that the search was possible and could be done safely. The Ubuntu Philosophy would have the Canadian Authorities based their decision on what is true as a starting point for communal interaction. Following truth is stewardship. The Canadian Authorities as stewards of the populace had a responsibility to meet the needs of the community based on the idea of responsible government. The need in this instance was to search the Prairie Green landfill for the remains of the other three murdered Indigenous women. Stewardship requires care of those under your authority. The Canadian Authorities ignored this requirement and cited feasibility and safety reasons for doing so. These reasons, however, were shown to be without substance based on an expert study done that found the search could be done safely. The Ubuntu Philosophy would have the Canadian Authorities identifying with those they are stewards of as well as expressing solidarity with them. This identity should have been expressed by an attitude of empathy for the Indigenous community in their time of grief. Solidarity should have been expressed by responding to the genuine need for closure on the part of the relatives of the murdered women as well as the Indigenous community. Stewardship in turn should be based on humaneness. Humaneness is a central concept in Ubuntu Philosophy. It has to do with genuine care and concern for others. Care and concern for the Indigenous community was not being expressed through the decision to not search the landfill. Humaneness was a priority that should have been expressed through communal interactions of identifying with others and engaging in solidarity with others. The truth here is that humaneness gave way to self-interest. Humaneness, furthermore, should have been expressed through justice. Justice requires everyone to be treated fairly. Ubuntu Philosophy would have justice expressed in a balanced manner. This means not selecting who you will search for but identifying all victims as deserving of the same considerations. What is done for one member in a community should be done for all members in the community. This type of fairness expresses the identity and solidarity that is called for in Ubuntu Philosophy. Wherever justice fails, furthermore, the fall of humanness is not far behind. Justice in turn should result in harmony and diversity. When all things are equal there is no need for divisiveness. Harmony, however, was not present in this case study. The decision not to search for the other three murdered Indigenous women in the Prairie Green landfill sowed discord in the community. Harmony would result from, based on Ubuntu Philosophy, genuinely identifying with those in the community who in some respect are different from you. It is the idea of a “We’ mentality instead of an us and them attitude. Harmony is the result of communal relations that are bound together with an us mentality. Diversity plays two parts in this case study. First the acceptance of other possible decisions other than the one made by the Canadian Authorities. Secondly, the inclusion of everyone in the community regardless of race as part of the community. The idea of identifying with others in this matter should have been expressed by engaging the Indigenous community to take part in the decision that was made. This was not done by the Canadian Authorities. Instead, a decision was made without the Indigenous community input and when the Indigenous community did have something to say about the matter it was ignored. This means that in this instance the Indigenous community was not included as part of Canada’s national community but was excluded from it. This reality does not promote solidarity but separation in the national community. Stakeholders We now turn our attention to the stakeholders in this case. There are the Families of the murdered Indigenous women, the Indigenous community, the Canadian governmental officials, and the global community. Loyalty was not being expressed to the families of the murdered Indigenous women, the national community of Canada, or the global community. This is a result of not identifying with the Indigenous community which led to an us versus them mentality. The principle of stewardship, humaneness, and truth should have been paramount when screened through the Ubuntu Philosophy concept of identifying with others in the community. The Canadian Authorities loyalty was limited to themselves. They decided they had the liberty to make the decision they did because of their being stewards of the populace. The exercising of the principles of liberty and stewardship however by the Canadian Authorities ignored the crisis at hand which in turn created disharmony in the community. Focusing on the Ubuntu Philosophy concept of solidarity in the community would have enabled the Canadian Authorities to see the principles of liberty and stewardship in a different light. They would have seen their stewardship and liberty as an opportunity to respond to the genuine need of the Indigenous community in their time of grief. Considering what has just been said, the Ubuntu Philosophy offers a communal view of relationships instead of an individualistic one. This view focuses upon harmonious community relations based on identity and solidarity. This view would give the Canadian Authorities the ability to see themselves as the same as the Indigenous community. They would also have seen solidarity as a primary goal to be achieved considering the crisis they were dealing with. Case Resolution Currently the Federal and Manitoba governments in Canada are pledging 20 million dollars each toward a search for the remains of two of the murdered women in the Prairie Green landfill. In addition to this, “the Manitoba and federal governments have offered money for mental health supports for the families during the trial and the landfill search” (Hobson, 2024). This aligns nicely with the Ubuntu Philosophy concepts of identifying with others and engaging in solidarity with others. Conclusion The Ubuntu Philosophy applied to the case suggests that the search for the three murdered Indigenous women should have been done. Considering what has just been said, the Ubuntu Philosophy offers a communal view of relationships instead of an individualistic one. This view focuses upon harmonious community relations based on identity and solidarity. This view would give the Canadian Authorities the ability to see themselves as the same as the Indigenous community. They would also have seen solidarity as a primary goal to be achieved considering the crisis they were dealing with. The use of non-western moral philosophies as a foundation for ethical decision making is not a knock on moral western philosophies rather it is adding more tools to our moral toolbox. We must realize that truth is not limited to the west but that it can be found as well in other areas of the world. Discussion Questions - Do you think the concept of community solidarity can be applied to small group discussions to promote better discussion outcomes? - Do you think there is a limit to the moral responsibility of a government towards those being governed? References Deer, F. (2023). A moral argument to search the landfill in Winnipeg for murdered Indigenous women Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/a-moral-argument-to-search-the-landfill-in-winnipeg-for-murdered-indigenous-women-212594 Gowriluk, C. (2023). Call to search landfill for remains started in Winnipeg. Now, its coming from across the country Retrieved from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/landfill-search-calls-movement-momentum-1.691904 History. (2009). Civil Rights Movement. History. Retrieved from, https//www. History.com/Topics/Black/civil-rights-movement#civil-rights-act-of-1957 Hobson, B., Lambert, S. (2024). We have to try: Ottawa, Manitoba commit$40M to search landfill for slain women. The Canadian Press. Retrieved from https://ca.news.yahoo.com/families-slain-women-meet-governments-182827302.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuYmluZy5jb20v&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAALO547VgLVmpzq6svi3cV-DrQd5gB_m8gTY2YkKqs0sEeRD7rSsGArc0UA9AgNy Land, M., Fuse, K., & Hornaday, B.W. (2014). Contemporary media ethics: A practical guide for students, scholars and professionals in a globalized world, Spokane, WA: Marquette Books. Metz, T. (2019). The African Ethic of Ubuntu. 1000-Word Philosophy-An Introductory Anthology, Retrieved from https://1000wordphilosophy.com/2019/09/08/the-african-ethic-of-ubuntu/ Mclntosh, A., Maurice, J., Stockford, C. (2006). Responsible Government. Canadian Encyclopedia, Retrieved from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/responsible-government Mugumbate, J. R., Mupedziswa R., Twikirize J. M., Mthethwa, E., Desta, A. A., Olinlola, O. (2023). Understanding ubuntu and its contribution to social work education in Africa and other regions of the world, Social Work Education, DOI: 10.1080/02615479.2023.2168638 Paul, M. (2021). Role of Government in Democracy. Paypervids Media Company, Retrieved from, https://www.paypervids.com/role-government-democracy Slaughter, A. (2017). 3 responsibilities every government has toward its citizens. World Economic Forum. Retrieved from, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/02/government-responsibility-to-citizens-anne-marie-slaughter/ Thompson, S. (2022). Winnipeg homicide investigation uncovers human remains at Brady Road Landfill. Retrieved from https://globalnews.ca/news/8922166/winnipeg-police-landfill-body-found/ Unger, D. (2023). It can be done safely: Experts say method for landfill search has been successful in the past. CTVNews. Retrieved from https://winnipeg.ctvnews.ca/it-can-be-done-safely-experts-say-method-for-landfill-search-has-been-successful-in-the-past-1.6483156. No Man's Sky's Developmental Journey from Criticism to Commendation By John C. Johnson Abstract This case study examines the development of Hello Games' No Man's Sky, from its highly anticipated but disappointing launch to its significant post-release redemption through the lens of Ubuntu ethics. Ubuntu, an African philosophy emphasizing community, reciprocity, transparency, long-term commitment, and inclusivity provides a framework for analyzing the game's development, update contents, and Hello Games’ engagement with its audience. Despite facing an initial backlash due to unmet expectations at launch, the studio demonstrated a strong commitment to continuous improvement. Their transparent communication and efforts to foster a collaborative player community reflect core Ubuntu principles. This study highlights key milestones in the game's evolution, the developer's responsiveness to player feedback, and whether Hello Games’ continued support of the game is aligned with Ubuntu ethical principles. Keywords: Ubuntu ethics, game development, ethical game design, No Man’s Sky From Disappointment to Discovery: Ubuntu Ethics and the Rebirth of No Man's Sky In 2016, the release of No Man's Sky by Hello Games was met with significant controversy, stemming from a gap between player expectations and the game's initial state. This case study explores how Hello Games navigated the aftermath of the launch. It focuses on their efforts to address community concerns and continuously improve the game, specifically through the Ubuntu perspective. This ethical philosophy prioritizes community welfare, reciprocity, transparency, long-term commitment, and inclusivity. Keeping these principles in mind, we examine the developer's actions, reactions to backlash, major update contents, and how these align with Ubuntu ethical principles. Case Narrative The journey of No Man’s Sky is a tale of ambition, challenge, redemption, and community resilience that has unfolded over several years, starting with its initial announcement in 2013. Initial Hype and Expectation From the first teaser trailer, No Man's Sky captured the gaming community's imagination with promises of an expansive, procedurally generated universe teeming with planets, wildlife, and endless exploration possibilities. Sean Murray, founder and head of Hello Games, promised an unprecedented gaming experience within No Man's Sky, unlike anything the community had seen before. Every player enters No Man’s Sky in the same way: at the circumference of the galaxy with a barely functioning spaceship and hardly any money (McDonald, 2018). How they cope is up to them; they can become traders, touching down on planets and gathering rare resources to sell; they can be pirates, blasting space freighters to pieces to steal their stock; or just explore and catalogue the endless worlds, selling the data to friendly space stations. With money in hand, pilots can visit these stations to purchase upgrades like the hyperdrive, which allows their ship to more navigate to inhospitable systems; or they can buy better weapons and more durable spacesuits improving their chances of survival. There is no traditional mission structure to follow; only digital space and whatever goals the player sets for themselves. The planets within the game universe were designed to mirror the scale of actual planets, spaced apart by light-years within a digital realm, with some even populated with alien lifeforms of varying shapes and sizes (Khatchadourian, 2015). Hello Games’ small team of developers created this universe by defining its natural laws through its programming and then employing procedural generation for both the environments and the life forms inhabiting them. This method, where content is created algorithmically rather than manually, allowed for a multitude of unique and diverse structures, planetary landscapes, and organisms to emerge spontaneously, adding layers of unpredictability and variety to the in-game world (Ruffino, pp. 415-417). No Man’s Sky’s procedural nature means much of the game engine’s creations remain unknown, even to the developers themselves. This was by design: players are meant to traverse this vast universe, enhancing their weaponry and spacecraft, and uncovering new types of plants, animals, or entire planets, which they can catalogue and name. Once done so, these discoveries are recorded on the game's server, permanently associating the user's name with their find in No Man’s Sky’s history. “If a new planet in ‘No Man’s Sky’ was discovered every second, it would take 584 billion years for them all to be discovered,” Sean Murray said on in-game galaxy (Kharpal, 2016). The immense scale and the limitless possibilities of the procedurally generated universe captured the imaginations of a wide base of players and gaming enthusiasts, fueling wild speculations about the wonders this digital universe could hold. No Man’s Sky’s ambitious scope coupled with the small size of the Hello Games team fueled both anticipation and skepticism on whether the game could deliver. As its 2016 launch approached, the hype approached fever pitch, driven by extensive media coverage and the developers' hints of newly revealed, groundbreaking features, including multiplayer capabilities. According to Olivarez-Giles (2015) on No Man’s Sky debut at E3 2015, "The sci-fi game isn't only wowing gamers with its scale, it's wowing E3 attendees with its use of bright colors to create unique and foreign landscapes." As the anticipation built around No Man's Sky, driven by its promises of an unprecedented gaming experience, the game faced its moment of truth with its release. The transition from the imaginative conception to the reality of the game's vast, procedurally generated universe proved to be a pivotal moment that set the stage for a very complex reception. Launch and Backlash Upon its release in August 2016, No Man's Sky became embroiled in the center of gaming industry controversy. "Our release was one of the most intense and dramatic [launches] that I think the game’s industry has seen," Murray says (Crecente, 2019). Despite the promise of a universe teeming with limitless possibilities, players often found themselves struggling to feel connected to the expansive game environment of No Man's Sky (Ruffino, p. 421). While the game's universe was vast, encompassing an almost infinite expanse of planets and creatures, it paradoxically felt empty and devoid of the engaging details that players anticipated. The procedurally generated nature of the game, where elements were created through algorithms rather than handcrafted, contributed to this sense of emptiness. While this method allowed for an impressive scale, it often resulted in environments and life forms that lacked the richness and crafted diversity found in games where details are meticulously designed and placed by artists. This contrast highlighted a disconnect between the potential for endless exploration and the reality of unsatisfying, artificially drawn, homogenous landscapes. In a sense, No Man’s Sky delivered upon its promise of a vast universe of endless possibilities but failed to give players the experience they envisioned, akin more to a digital art project than a true gaming experience. Many players and critics noted a significant gap between the pre-launch promises, such as those seen in game trailers, and the game's reality. Key advertised features, particularly related to multiplayer interactions and the depth of gameplay, were found lacking or absent. For example, while it was possible to encounter another player, the odds of doing so were slim due to the randomized nature of where players spawned upon starting the game. Lifeforms and planets, though no two technically the same, were too haphazardly designed and due to the mechanical constraints of the programming, it was common to find planets and creatures that were too similar in characteristics to truly feel like the world was infinite in design. Not to mention that a majority of worlds, like in the galaxy we ourselves call home, were simply devoid of life and other interesting features. The backlash was swift and severe, with fans expressing their disappointment on message boards and harsh reviews. The intense scrutiny was compounded by the lack of communication from Hello Games, which initially went silent in the face of this criticism, believing the media hype leading up to the launch was the root of players’ disappointment with the game. Both Sean Murray and Hello Games recognized the urgency to shift their strategy towards recovery and improvement. This pivotal moment led them from dealing with disappointment to proactively shaping the game's future through substantial updates and direct community engagement, marking the beginning of an extensive path to redemption. Post-Launch Redemption Following the tumultuous launch of No Man's Sky, Hello Games embarked on a determined path to redemption, rolling out a series of significant updates that began reshaping the game and its community's experience. The journey started in November 2016 with the Foundation Update, which introduced base building, marking the game's first significant post-launch expansion (Hello Games, n.d.). This was followed by the Pathfinder Update in March 2017, which added new vehicles for planet exploration, improved graphics, and enabled base-sharing, further enriching the gameplay experience. By August 2017, the Atlas Rises update brought 30 hours of new story content, a rudimentary but improved form of multiplayer, and enhancements to the universe's diversity, beginning to reshape the narrative around the game. Hello Games' commitment continued with the NEXT update in July 2018, a transformative milestone that introduced true multiplayer gameplay where players could join one another, significant visual upgrades, and a host of new content, significantly improving public perception and fulfilling many of the original promises. The momentum was sustained with the Beyond update in August 2019, which expanded the multiplayer experience, added virtual reality support, and further enhanced the game’s social features, cementing its comeback. The series of updates culminated with version 3.0, the Origins update in September 2020, which continued to expand the universe by introducing more varied planets, new lifeforms, and weather systems, alongside a multitude of quality-of-life improvements. The April 2021 Expeditions update offered a new gameplay mode where players could start afresh with a friend, tackling unique challenges from the outset of their journeys. The game continued to expand with the Frontiers update in September 2021, which empowered players to oversee their own alien settlements. This update enhanced base building and allowed players to make pivotal decisions for their citizens, develop structures, and defend their communities. The Waypoint update followed in March 2023, enabling cross-platform save access, furthering the game’s accessibility. Most recently, the Orbital update, rolled out in April 2023, revolutionized starship customization and space station design, alongside improvements in trading dynamics with the introduction of guilds in some stations. Smaller updates and patches have continued since, with more planned for the future. Each update has been free with the original base game purchase, demonstrating Hello Games' commitment to both their audience and No Man’s Sky itself. The studio has communicated openly about their roadmap and the game's development process following the initial silence, engaging directly with their player base. At the heart of Hello Games' response was a concerted effort to foster a sense of community among No Man's Sky players by delivering on initial expectations. Recognizing the game's potential to bring people together through exploration and discovery, Sean Murray and the team dedicated themselves to creating a more inclusive and engaging player experience by making their seemingly empty universe feel less so. Through these updates, Hello Games expanded the game's lore, introducing new features that encouraged collaboration and shared adventures. This approach not only enriched the game but also strengthened the bonds within the player base, greatly adding to the connectivity that was initially missing from the game. Hello Games demonstrated a commitment to the principle of mutual benefit through these updates. The decision to offer substantial improvements and content updates at no additional cost to the players was a clear departure from the industry norm. Such major content changes are usually in the form of paid downloadable content, which often charges the player base for add-ons to the base game. This bold strategy served a dual purpose: enhancing the game for those who had initially invested in it and attracting new players to its ever-expanding universe. It succeeded on both fronts. By prioritizing the shared enjoyment and satisfaction of the player community over immediate financial gains, Hello Games worked towards the common good and mutual prosperity of all involved. Central to this strategy was the maintenance of an open and honest communication channel with the player base. In the face of criticism, Hello Games chose transparency, openly acknowledging the game's shortcomings and sharing their vision for its future. “We learned that the press wasn’t necessarily the right way to communicate with our players... So, if we wanted to talk to our players, we needed to do it directly” says Murray (Crecente, 2019). Regular updates, detailed blog posts, moderated message boards, and direct engagement with players became the norm, establishing a dialogue based on trust and transparency. Once players felt like effort was being put into fixing the game, criticism soon turned to praise. Hello Games’ open communication strategy was instrumental in rebuilding the relationship between the studio and its community. New players continue to join with every update. The community's response shifted from initial disappointment to growing appreciation and support as Hello Games continued to expand and improve No Man's Sky year after year. The steady stream of substantial, free updates won back many players and critics, transforming the narrative into one of the most compelling comeback stories in gaming history. The game fostered a dedicated player base, enthusiastic about exploring its growing universe and engaging in the continually evolving gameplay. Through these concerted efforts, Hello Games' approach to navigating the post-launch period of No Man's Sky has been a testament to ethical game development. By fostering community, ensuring mutual benefit, and maintaining open lines of communication, the team has not only significantly improved the game but also cultivated a loyal and engaged player base. Ubuntu Values Ubuntu is characterized as an African philosophy that emphasizes communal values over individualistic ones. It is often translated or interpreted in various ways, including as "African humanness," "humanity," "humanism or humaneness," or the process of becoming an ethical human being (West, 2014). The core principles of Ubuntu involve a deep sense of community, where an individual's well-being is intrinsically connected to the well-being of others. This philosophy stresses the importance of interpersonal relationships and values such as harmony, care, empathy for others, and respect. The concept of Ubuntu can be captured in the Nguni saying umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu, which means I am because we are; and because we are, thus I am, or it can be understood as individuals become individuals through other individuals. This interconnectedness of individuals within a community is held in high importance and suggests that one's humanity is affirmed through recognizing and fostering the humanity of others. Ubuntu can also reflect a particular action or state of being that signifies the interdependence and mutual support among individuals, again highlighting this importance of community over the individual. The ethical content of Ubuntu is often articulated through values or virtues consistent with, and required by, the philosophy, including social justice, righteousness, care, empathy for others, respect, and compassion (Lutz, 2009). Despite its roots in African philosophy, the principles of Ubuntu can offer valuable insights and contribute significantly to the development of business ethics globally. Community Welfare As mentioned, Ubuntu places a strong emphasis on the well-being of the community, valuing collective success over individual achievement. This principle asserts that an individual's identity and fulfillment are deeply intertwined with the welfare of others (West, 2014). Community welfare and unity under Ubuntu mean working towards the common good, where actions and decisions are made with consideration for their impact on the community. Personal well-being is viewed as contingent on the health and harmony of the community at large. In a business setting, a company could foster community welfare by creating a supportive work environment that prioritizes employee well-being and satisfaction. This could ultimately lead to higher productivity and improved customer service, which benefits the broader community of users and stakeholders. Reciprocity and Mutual Support The principle of reciprocity and mutual support in Ubuntu speaks to the importance of individuals supporting one another in a reciprocal manner. It's about giving and receiving in equal measure, ensuring that support flows both ways and contributes to the strengthening of communal bonds (Lutz, 2009). This principle fosters a culture of help and cooperation, where members of the community look out for each other, share resources, and aid when needed, creating a resilient and supportive social fabric. A business could enhance mutual support by implementing a profit-sharing program that rewards employees when the company succeeds, creating a sense of shared success and encouraging teamwork that ultimately benefits customers through better service and innovation. Transparency and Openness Transparency and openness are vital components of Ubuntu, advocating for honesty and clear communication within the community. This principle ensures that actions and intentions are transparent, fostering trust and understanding among community members. It encourages an environment where individuals feel comfortable sharing their thoughts, feelings, and concerns, knowing they will be received with openness and empathy. A company can promote transparency by adopting an open-door policy where employees are encouraged to share ideas and concerns directly with management, improving internal communications and trust, which in turn fosters a more transparent relationship with customers and other stakeholders. Long-term Commitment Ubuntu emphasizes sustainability and the importance of thinking about the long-term implications of actions on future generations. This principle encourages practices that ensure the community's enduring health and prosperity, advocating for decisions that are not solely based on immediate gains but on sustainable outcomes that benefit the community over time. It reflects a commitment to maintaining and enhancing the communal environment for the well-being of all. A software development firm, for example, could invest in employee growth through comprehensive training programs, regular skill-upgrade workshops, and ongoing educational opportunities. It could also foster a mentorship culture where experienced employees guide newer ones, enhancing job satisfaction and promoting a knowledge-sharing environment. This approach would ensure the long-term success of both the employees and the company, reflecting a commitment to the collective well-being of the corporate community. Inclusivity At the heart of Ubuntu is the principle of inclusivity, which promotes a sense of belonging and acceptance for everyone. It challenges exclusion and discrimination, advocating for an environment where diversity is celebrated, and every individual feels valued and included. Inclusivity under Ubuntu means actively working to ensure that all members of the community have equal opportunities to participate, contribute, and benefit from communal life. A business can practice inclusivity by ensuring that its hiring practices are designed to eliminate bias and that its workplace policies accommodate and respect diverse cultures, lifestyles, and backgrounds, creating a more inclusive environment that reflects positively on customer relations and stakeholder engagement. Stakeholders in No Man’s Sky In the narrative of No Man’s Sky, several key stakeholders emerge, each playing a crucial role in the game’s journey from its tumultuous launch to its status as a redemption story within the gaming industry. These stakeholders include Hello Games, the No Man’s Sky player community, and the broader gaming industry itself. An Ubuntu framework, which emphasizes communal success, mutual respect, and shared experiences, provides a rich context for understanding Hello Games’ commitment and loyalty to these stakeholders. Hello Games As the creator of No Man’s Sky, Hello Games is at the center of this narrative, bearing the brunt of initial criticisms and spearheading the efforts to redeem the game. Within an Ubuntu framework, the company’s dedication to continuous improvement and engagement with the community reflects a deep sense of responsibility and loyalty to their creation and its users. This is evident in their commitment to releasing substantial free updates, enhancing the game’s universe, and thereby ensuring its longevity and relevance. This approach mirrors Ubuntu principles by prioritizing the collective well-being of the player base and the game’s universe over short-term financial gains. No Man's Sky Player Community The No Man’s Sky player community, comprising both initial players disillusioned by the game’s launch and those who joined attracted by its improvements, represents a significant stakeholder. This community’s feedback and engagement have been crucial in shaping the game’s development trajectory. Hello Games’ responsiveness to this feedback, their efforts to incorporate community suggestions, and their commitment to transparent communication reflect an Ubuntu aligned respect for the community. By valuing the community’s voice and working towards mutual benefit, Hello Games reinforced a sense of loyalty to its players, acknowledging that their collective experience and satisfaction are paramount. Broader Gaming Industry The broader gaming industry, including other developers, critics, and potential players, serves as an extended stakeholder group. Hello Games’ journey with No Man’s Sky has offered valuable lessons on transparency, accountability, and the potential for redemption. Their dedication to rectifying the game’s issues and engaging with the community in an open and honest manner showcases a commitment to ethical practices and innovation. This, in turn, contributes to shaping industry standards and expectations, demonstrating loyalty to the broader gaming ecosystem by advocating for a more ethical, player-centric approach to game development. Examining Ubuntu Values in No Man’s Sky Post-Release Support To examine whether Hello Games' actions with No Man's Sky embody Ubuntu ethics, we must utilize the developed framework based on key Ubuntu principles including community welfare, reciprocity and mutual support, transparency, long term-commitment, and inclusivity. To start, Hello Games' approach to continuously updating No Man's Sky with free content releases, rather than paid downloadable content, is a significant action that embodies the Ubuntu principles of community welfare and unity. This strategy demonstrates a commitment to collective well-being over individual profit, aligning with Ubuntu's emphasis on mutual care and shared progress. In doing so, Hello Games not only enhances the game's value for existing players (and shareholders) but also encourages new players to join the community, fostering a growing player base. Players are likely to feel a stronger connection to a game that continues to evolve and improve based on their collective feedback, without segregating the player base through premium, paid-for content. The Foundation and Frontiers updates support this idea of community by enabling players to establish homes and communities within the vast universe, fostering a sense of belonging and shared space. The Pathfinder and Expeditions updates encouraged community collaboration and shared experiences, as players explore new updates together, share discoveries, and collectively navigate the expanded universe of No Man's Sky. This support reflects deep respect for the sense of community, showing Hello Games' commitment to the game's long-term success and the satisfaction of its players. Hello Games' ongoing commitment to No Man's Sky also significantly embodies the Ubuntu principle of reciprocity and mutual support. Hello Games has actively listened to their community, addressing concerns, and incorporating suggestions into the game's evolution. This iterative process of feedback and improvement demonstrates a reciprocal relationship between the developers and the player base, where each party contributes to the enrichment of the other. The developers enhance the game experience based on player input, while the players continue to engage with and support the game, fostering a symbiotic relationship. Likewise, the Pathfinder update enabled base-sharing, allowing players to share their creations with one another in-game. This fosters a culture of reciprocity and mutual support as players contribute to and benefit from the shared resources and creative efforts within the game community. The update also established community goals that could be accomplished at large. This mutual support extends beyond mere transactional interactions; it reflects a deeper care for the community's experience and enjoyment. By valuing the input of their players and treating them as partners in the game's development, Hello Games shows a commitment to not just the game itself but to the people who inhabit its universe. This approach has helped repair initial reputational damage and build a strong, supportive community around No Man's Sky. With these ongoing updates and patches were detailed notes explaining the changes, the reasoning behind them, and how they aligned with the broader vision for the game. This approach not only demonstrated their commitment to transparency but also highlighted their openness to community input. Hello Games has maintained this ethos of transparency, regularly updating the community on upcoming features, engaging with players across various platforms, and being candid about the challenges they face. Through their actions, Hello Games exemplifies the Ubuntu principle of transparency and openness, showing how honest communication and responsiveness to community feedback can foster a stronger, more united community. No Man's Sky underscores the importance of honesty in building and maintaining relationships, not just within the game's universe but also between the developers and the player community. This approach has not only enhanced the game's development but also cultivated a loyal and engaged community, anchored in mutual trust and respect. The Atlas Rises and Origins updates expanded the universe significantly by introducing new lifeforms and weather systems, showing a commitment to continuous improvement and sustainable development of the game’s environment and player experience. The Waypoint update introduced cross-platform save access, which significantly enhances the game's accessibility and player convenience. By allowing players to continue their saved game on different platforms, Hello Games demonstrated a commitment to accommodating their existing player base who might switch consoles or prefer to play on multiple devices. Hello Games has also introduced features that promote players sharing their experiences. No Man’s Sky’s now connected, but expansive, universe encourages exploration and discovery alike, allowing players from different backgrounds to share their experiences and stories. Added features like base building and the ability to leave messages for other explorers have fostered a sense of community and shared space, where players contribute to and benefit from an inclusive collective experience. The multiplayer updates like the added player hubs encourage players to collaborate, explore, and undertake missions together, transcending geographical and cultural barriers. This collaborative aspect of the game fosters a sense of unity and shared purpose, aligning with Ubuntu's principle of community and mutual support. By encouraging players to work together, Hello Games promotes an inclusive environment where diversity is not just accepted but celebrated through experiences and in-game creative expression. Conclusion Hello Games' journey with No Man's Sky is a compelling narrative of failure and redemption, underscored by a steadfast commitment to the game and its community. By applying Ubuntu ethics as an analytical framework, it becomes evident that the developer's strategies for engaging with players, addressing feedback, and providing continuous updates are deeply aligned with Ubuntu principles of community care, mutual support, and inclusivity. This case study not only sheds light on No Man's Sky's transformation but also offers valuable insights into the application of Ubuntu ethics within the gaming industry. It highlights the potential for ethical practices to drive meaningful change, underscoring the importance of community-centered approaches in overcoming challenges and achieving success. Exploring and interpreting lessons from Ubuntu ethics could lead to successful strategies of player engagement where developers continually seek and incorporate community feedback into game development. Proper application of these values could not only improve future game design but also foster a sense of ownership and belonging among players, enhancing their connection to the game world and to each other, leading to a newly established model of industry success. Discussion Questions 1. Do you agree or disagree with this statement: "Exploring and interpreting lessons from Ubuntu ethics could lead to successful strategies of player engagement where developers continually seek and incorporate community feedback into game development." 2. Given the pacing and pressures of a deadline-driven industry, which philosophies besides Ubuntu might help create positive work environments in the gaming world? 3. Do you think in-game ethics match the ethics of developers creating games in the industry? References Crecente, B. (2019, March 20). ‘No Man’s Sky’s’ Disastrous, Wonderful, Amazing Journey. Variety. https://variety.com/2019/gaming/features/no-mans-skys-disastrous-wonderful-amazing-journey-1203168806/ Hello Games. (n.d.). Release log. No Man's Sky. Retrieved April 5, 2024, from https://www.nomanssky.com/release-log/ Kharpal, A. (2016, August 10). No Man's Sky release: Would you play a game that takes 584 billion years to explore? CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2016/08/10/no-mans-sky-release-would-you-play-a-game-that-takes-584-billion-years-to-explore.html Khatchadourian, R. (2015, May 11). World without end. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/05/18/world-without-end-raffi-khatchadourian Lutz, D. W. (2009). African “Ubuntu” Philosophy and Global Management. Journal of Business Ethics, 84, 313–328. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27749670 McDonald, K. (2018, July 20). No Man's Sky Next: Hello Games' Sean Murray on harassment, interview. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/games/2018/jul/20/no-mans-sky-next-hello-games-sean-murray-harassment-interview Olivarez-Giles, N. (2015, June 17). The sci-fi game isn't only wowing gamers with its scale, it's wowing E3 attendees with its use of bright colors to create unique and foreign landscapes. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-268B-1744 Ruffino, P. (2024). No Man’s Game: The Infinite Boredom of Procedurally Generated Environments. In L. op de Beke, J. Raessens, S. Werning, & G. Farca (Eds.), Ecogames: Playful Perspectives on the Climate Crisis (pp. 415–432). Amsterdam University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.10819591.22 West, A. (2014). Ubuntu and Business Ethics: Problems, Perspectives and Prospects. Journal of Business Ethics, 121(1), 47–61. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42921364 A Case Study of the Princess of Wales' Photoshop Manipulation Incident By Bethany Adcock Abstract After announcing she’d be out of the limelight for some time, the Princess of Wales, Kate Middleton, recently received many intense questions and assumptions concerning her whereabouts, health, and now photo editing abilities. What was meant to portray and showcase as a loving Mother’s Day post in the United Kingdom, turned miscommunicated, misunderstood, and hurtful within the same day. How is it that the Princess is left apologizing and giving her atonements to others? This study incorporates John Rawls’ Theory of Justice to highlight appropriate decision-making regarding Princess Catherine’s photo editing freedoms and the reactions of the public eye/media. Keywords: Royal Family, The Princess of Wales, Kensington Palace, Photoshop, Rawls’ Theory of Justice, Veil of Ignorance, Ethics Case Study Introduction Editing software and programs dates to the early 1900s and has since expanded into this ‘within a click of a button’ resource. Many individuals use platforms such as Adobe’s Photoshop, Lightroom, and Illustrator for different reasons. Whether that be for professional or personal use, everybody has free range to utilize the tool as they see fit. Regarding the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Royal Family does have a communication team that controls the monarchy website and social media channels that come from Kensington Palace (where the Prince and Princess reside). Head of Digital Engagement for the Royal Family Emma Goodey mentions, “One of the great, but also at times nerve-wracking things about working in communications for the Royal Family, is that the reaction to our work is always high-profile: announcements make front page news, and Facebook posts reach tens of millions of followers” (Royal Family, n.d.) With this type of industry and being at the universal level, the stakes are even higher when creating/posting content considering having the entire world as an audience. This case provides a critical analysis of events before, leading up to, and after the recent Princess of Wales’ photo manipulation, how all stakeholders reacted in consequence, and what circumstances could have occurred instead by using Rawls’ Theory of Justice as an ethical framework. Background In the United Kingdom, the government is based and dependent upon a constitutional monarchy. Here, the monarch acts as the Head of State and “undertakes constitutional and representational duties which have developed over one thousand years of history. In addition to these State duties, The Monarch has a less formal role as 'Head of Nation'” (The Royal Household, 2024, para. 4). A few members of the Royal Family include King Charles III, who became the King on September 8, 2022, when the passing of his mother Queen Elizabeth II occurred. The Queen, formerly known as Camilla Rosemary Shand, stands beside and supports the King in all matters. The Prince and Princess of Wales, William and Catherine (Kate), reside in Kensington Palace and conduct different duties in support of the King. Performing charitable work and maintaining the peace within the sector are the most important responsibilities for the Royal family. With this type of commitment, these individuals are constantly in the media and spotlight. In fact, Dr. Laura Clancy, a media lecturer at Lancaster University, states, “The monarchy’s survival relies upon this balance [the balance between visibility and invisibility]. It needs to be visible to be believed, otherwise it remains an intangible institution and the public won’t invest in it. But it can’t be too visible, or its operations are unmasked and questions raised about its purpose in contemporary Britain” (Clancy, 2022, para. 10). Therefore, both the Monarchy and media outlets need each other for survival, but where does the boundary lie when ‘too much’ is enough for the Royal Family? What goes ‘over the threshold’ in terms of privacy and transparency? Rawls’ Theory of Justice Overview Rawls’ Theory of Justice is used as the ethical philosophy for this specific case. Rawls’ ideology describes “a universal system of fairness and a set of procedures for achieving it. He advocated a practical, empirically verifiable system of governance that would be political, social, and economic in its effects” (Byars & Stanberry, 2023, para. 1). Rawls based this philosophy on three primary points which include an original position, a veil of ignorance, and unanimity of acceptance of the original position. With more insight on each of the elements later, the individual’s goal in creation of this framework is to bridge the obvious gap between liberty and equality. He focuses on limiting inherent biases to bring about more just and fairer decision- making. “His theory of justice as fairness describes a society of free citizens holding equal basic rights and cooperating within an egalitarian economic system” (Wenar, 2021, para. 5). Based on Rawls’ Theory of Justice, the philosophy prioritizes the seven principles/values of ethics in the order from most to least essential being: justice, freedom/liberty, harmony, humaneness, stewardship, truth, and diversity. As for which stakeholders are prioritized, Rawls’ doctrine protects the care, social security, and liberty of individuals who are less privileged. Rawls’ strived to build and construct a doctrine that would eliminate inequalities and imbalances amongst individuals and therefore communities. The philosopher states in a revised version of A Theory of Justice, “Now let us say that a society is well-ordered when it is not only designed to advance the good of its members but when it is also effectively regulated by a public conception of justice” (Rawls, 1999, p. 4). Rawls’ also provides two principles that serve as a basis for accomplishing a fair agreement. He states, “First: each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with similar liberty for others. Second: social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both (a) reasonably expected to be to everyone's advantage, and (b) attached to positions and offices open to all” (Iowa State, 1999, p. 7). John Rawls makes known the importance of bringing about an equal level playing field with these key principles as the foundation. Therefore, he also delivers three essential concepts for this system. First, to achieve a standard and basic consensus on what is fair and just for all, Rawls’ declares, “In order to do this, one must establish that, given the circumstances of the parties, and their knowledge, beliefs, and interests, an agreement on these principles is the best way for each person to secure his ends in view of the alternatives available” (Rawls, 1999, p. 102-103). By taking this approach, John Rawls’ makes known that as a society each person must first keep in mind what different backgrounds every individual comes from and base decisions on in this way and/or point of view. Essentially, he teaches the concept of taking everyone’s upbringing, values, and circumstances into consideration as the first step to reaching an equal and unbiased decision. In other words, Rawls’ compares the original position to a status quo amongst all parties involved and reached agreements that are fair. Each party is represented equally and not based on random or biased choices (Rawls’, 1999, p. 104). Continuing, as Rawls’ second component in his Theory of Justice, he establishes the idea of a ‘veil of ignorance’. “The Veil is meant to ensure that people’s concern for their personal benefit could translate into a set of arrangements that were fair for everyone, assuming that they had to stick to those choices once the Veil of Ignorance ‘lifts’, and they are given full information again” (Davies, 2019, para. 3). The thinking behind Rawls’ theory proposed that if everyone in a society had a ‘veil’ or shield to hide behind, nobody could tell the others’ status, degree, or hierarchy per say. Therefore, making decisions based on this common idea of placing the veil in front of us helps to bring about more of a fair-minded solution. By implementing the Veil of Ignorance as a solution, this allows for open discussion and consideration from different points of views (Davies, 2019, para. 5). The Veil of Ignorance is a benefactor in diminishing biased and prejudiced perceptions. Lastly, the unanimity of acceptance of the original position refers to the full acceptance and agreement on societal principles and basic rights. Ackerly (2006) makes a great point by stating how our personal and natural skills do not give us a free pass to implement them into society. They do not make us better than others and they shouldn’t be served as an expectation for others to meet. This type of system seems very diplomatic and one-sided, which is what Rawls’ intended to avoid (Ackerly, 2006, p. 75). By setting the first two elements in place, a society can achieve a more just and collective consensus which completes the third factor as mentioned above. By striving to reach and attain this ideology, John Rawls’ hope ultimately depends on individuals working together as a society to set aside pride/upbringings and view everyone on the same scale. This therefore could bring about an equal and fair standard for all involved. To support the philosopher’s claim, Davies mentions that when defining the word justice, individuals tend to think in biased ways and the choices that will benefit him and/or her personally. Therefore, by intending to ignore this feeling, Rawls’ believed that a society could reject any prejudice and mesh together more in terms of equality (Davies, 2019, para. 3). Case Narrative-Facts of Case On Christmas Day, 2023, the Princess of Wales is pictured walking with her three young children and husband to church as part of the royal system's traditions and duties. Meanwhile, she is seen healthy and content during this last public appearance of her. Soon after, on January 17, 2024, Kensington Palace reports that Catherine (commonly known as Kate) Middleton has been admitted to the London clinic. The Kensington Palace (2024), mentioned that same day: Her Royal Highness The Princess of Wales was admitted to hospital yesterday for planned abdominal surgery. The surgery was successful and it is expected that she will remain in hospital for ten to fourteen days, before returning home to continue her recovery. Based on the current medical advice, she is unlikely to return to public duties until after Easter. (Kensington Palace, 2024, para. 1) Kate is then announced to be discharged from the London hospital on January 29. “The Princess of Wales has returned home to Windsor to continue her recovery from surgery. She is making good progress” (Kindelan, 2024a, para. 2). A few days pass, and the Princess is then found pictured in a car with her mother Carole Middleton on March 4, 2024. The two are photographed with Kate’s mother driving in Windsor, England. (Kindelan, 2024b, para. 12). About a week later, on March 10, Kate shares a sentimental post of her three children and herself smiling to celebrate/commemorate Mother’s Day in the United Kingdom. With this being the first official photograph of the Princess spotted by the public and outside world, it received some major backlash, criticism, and speculation. In her social media post, Kate writes, “Thank you for your kind wishes and continued support over the last two months. Wishing everyone a Happy Mother’s Day. C” (Prince and Princess of Wales, 2024). Though intentionally meant to express her gratitude and appreciation for the good wishes regarding her health, many individuals, the press and media found Catherine’s post to be reproduced and dishonest. In fact, the Associated Press news agency investigated the technicalities behind the photo and found the image to be photoshopped and artificially edited. “The image has a range of clear visual inconsistencies that suggest it was doctored. A part of a sleeve on Charlotte’s cardigan is missing, a zipper on Catherine’s jacket and her hair is misaligned, and a pattern in her hair seems clearly artificial” (Landler, 2024, para. 11). From the list of possible edits above, numerous individuals were confused and questioning why Kate would alter this kind of image. Many speculated if she implemented these tools to showcase how she truly looked or hide how she felt health wise. CBS News contributor, Tina Brown comments, “She is indeed [entitled to privacy] and should have it. The problem is that when you released the picture, it is a health update. The picture is a health update saying, 'Look at me, look at us, I'm perfectly fine.' So, of course the world descends on that picture to dissect it” (Ott, 2024, para. 5). With those of the same mindset as Brown, the outside world became quickly skeptical about the Royal Family’s credibility, especially surrounding Kate’s health issues. Case Analysis Based on Rawls’ Theory of Justice-Principles/Values If Rawls’ Theory of Justice ethical framework, and specifically the Veil of Ignorance, was implemented in the case above surrounding the Princess of Wales, everyone would be on the same level, and nobody would consider a Royal (like Princess Kate) to be doing the photo manipulation. Or perhaps the opposite; if others did perceive that she was the editor, why should Princess Kate be treated differently than any other photographer? In this way, the value of Justice and Freedom/Liberty are prioritized because every person is treated with the same standards and equal expectations. Harmony, humaneness, and stewardship are each met next because all individuals involved would be making decisions together as one common and fair basis/standpoint. If this happened in the Royal Family’s situation, Catherine would not be scrutinized for just trying out her editing skills or feeling the need to apologize for it either. Coming from an equal and shared point of view, in terms of the veil, allows understanding and reasoning amongst society. Next, the principle of truth is prioritized due to the element of transparency and validity surrounding photo editing. Though Kate did apologize for her miscommunication on the family photo, there must be millions of other editors who implement Photoshop in pictures and do not clarify their usage of it or how much. Lastly, diversity comes secondary to Rawls’ philosophy because it is not immediately affected regarding seeking fairness and equality. Therefore, that leaves us with the question of, would all this chaos and assumptions of transparency be happening around the Royal Family, particularly Kate Middleton’s health? Looking at this situation from Rawls’ point of view, Kate would be perceived as just a common person wanting to experience the tools and editing techniques that Adobe’s Photoshop has to offer. Stakeholders and Loyalties The stakeholders in this case include The Prince and Princess of Wales (William and Kate), their three children (George, Charlotte, and Louis), the entire Royal Family, those who reside/work at Kensington Palace. Each one of these individuals is affected whether he and/or she were in the picture or not. Because of the backlash received, this puts each stakeholder’s past, present, and future status at risk in terms of validity and being truthful. Other loyalties considered would be the outside media and photo agencies, news sources, London locals, Getty Images, other photographers, the entire photography profession, and those who keep up to date with the Royal family. The media has an obligation to showcase the Royal family’s charitable services and functions of their life. Yes, the photograph did happen to be artificially edited, but was it ethically correct for these sources to bash and criticize Kate as they did? Even when initially showing gratitude for the good wishes regarding her abdominal surgery, the public and tabloids could not shy away from the flaws of the sweet family photo Kate posted. If decisions, attitudes, and solutions were based on the Veil of Ignorance, the matter would not be as huge of an outburst. Though each stakeholder has liberties and responsibilities to uphold, Rawls’ Theory takes this circumstance and allows every person involved to be on the same ranking. Without status, riches, or royalty, everyone is looked at in the same manner. Point of Decision When looking at this situation from the Land et al. (2014) point of decision model, the public and media should respect Kate’s boundaries and understand that she is just a person like us on the inside too. According to John Rawls, if each of us had a veil in front of us, blocking our own sight and others around us, nobody could tell who the other person is or what status they hold in a community. Rawls’ ethical framework of the Theory of Justice would allow the Princess of Wales not to apologize for simply enjoying, and possibly trying to improve upon, her Photoshop editing skills. Again, if this philosophy were used right from the beginning, no person would think or assume a royal would be the one to edit the family photograph. The veil allows us to avoid predisposed opinions and viewpoints. As Rawls once put it, “We should strive for a kind of moral geometry with all the rigor which this name connotes” (Rawls, 1999, p. 105). Case Resolution As a response to the skepticism from others, on March 11, 2024, Kate announces and makes a public apology about her most recent post commenting on Twitter, “Like many amateur photographers, I do occasionally experiment with editing. I wanted to express my apologies for any confusion the family photograph we shared yesterday caused. I hope everyone celebrating had a very happy Mother’s Day. C” (The Prince and Princess of Wales, 2024). With several media and press outlets requesting the original photo, Kensington Palace has declined to do so. This then causes questions such as, “I’m deeply skeptical that there was an ‘original’ and I think it’s a jigsaw of different pictures”, stated Brown (Ott, 2024, para. 7). She does state that the royal palace was amid a staffing transition which could have possibly caused the particular issue. This occurrence then led to multiple news agencies not trusting and confiding in Kensington Palace as a reliable source on March 14. Phil Chetwynd, a news director at Agence France-Presse mentioned in a BBC radio interview that, “No, absolutely not, like with anything when you’re let down by a source, the bar is raised, and we’ve got major issues internally as to how we validate that photo, we shouldn’t have done it, it violated our guidelines, and therefore we sent out notes to all of our team at the moment to be absolutely super more vigilant about the content coming across our desk, even from what we would call trusted sources” (Atkins & Richardson, 2024, para. 5). Continuing further, on March 19, Getty Images applies an editor's note to a photograph Kate took back in April 2022 of the late Queen Elizabeth II and a few of her great-grandchildren to mark what would have been the royal queen’s 97th birthday. Within the editor’s note, Getty Images states, “Image has been digitally enhanced at source” (Getty Images, 2024, para. 1). Almost instantly, news coverage outlets and agencies are immediately taking note and showcasing what edits are being made. Lastly, after all this turmoil, the Princes of Wales reveals on March 22 to the media and the entire world that she has been diagnosed with cancer. Without identifying what type of cancer, Kate does make known, “This of course came as a huge shock, and William and I have been doing everything we can to process and manage this privately for the sake of our young family” (Shapiro, & Kindelan, 2024, para. 4). As a result, the Royal Family has asked the media and outside world to respect their wishes and allow them this time of peace, privacy, and new reality. Conclusion Although being in the Royal Family comes with constant media exposure and surrounded by the public eye, in the end, Kate and her family are just human beings too. The concerns about Kate’s health and whereabouts for months have indeed created a stir. However, is it necessary to backlash and in some incidents mock her for meaning to make a sweet Mother's Day post with some edited details in Photoshop? Furthermore, once announcing her cancer diagnosis, those who gave such hurtful and callous remarks were soon apologetic over the Princess of Wales’ series of events. In fact, Blake Lively, public figure, actress, and entrepreneur serves as a living example. Back in the middle of March, Lively posted a photograph in promotion of her new Betty Buzz beverage brand. The edited photo showcases the individual sitting by the pool, holding her product drink with an irregular and enlarged thumb, and a floating lemon above her head. The once seen Instagram post read, “I’m so excited to share this new photo I just took today to announce our 4 new @bettybuzz & @bettybooze products! Now you know why I’ve been MIA” (Spangler, 2024, para. 3). In this case, the actress took (what was supposed to be Kate’s kindhearted and meaningful post) as a mockery and essentially poked fun at the Princess’ abilities and character. In a way, it all goes back to the common adage, ‘you never know what is going on in someone else’s life’. This truth is prominent surrounding Princess Kate and if only the outside world could look at the situation with a veil of ignorance, covering their biased, opinionated and partial views. Discussion Questions 1. To what extent should the public and media respect the privacy of celebrities, including their appearance, image or editing techniques? 2. How can the media practice implementing Rawls’ Veil of Ignorance within their type of work? 3. Are there other philosophies that would side with the photo agencies and many individuals’ views on Princess Kate’s Photoshop edited picture? 4. Should the ability to edit photographs be questioned by all, more than just important, wellknown, public figures? References Ackerly, B. (2006). John Rawls: An Introduction. Retrieved from https://www-jstororg.zeus.tarleton.edu/stable/3688627searchText=%28Rawls%27s+Theory+of+Justice%2 9+Chapman&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D%2528Rawls%25 27s%2BTheory%2Bof%2BJustice%2529%2BChapman%26so%3Drel&ab_segments=0 %2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastlydefault%3Aa46465e0dca4507dc1161f9727ca9052&seq=1 Atkins, R. & Richardson, S. (2024, March 13). Is seeing still believing? Retrieved from https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/m001x51p Byars, S. M., & Stanberry, K. (2023). Business Ethics 2.6 A Theory of Justice. Retrieved from https://openstax.org/books/business-ethics/pages/2-6-a-theory-ofjustice#:~:text=In%20A%20Theory%20of%20Justice,and%20economic%20in%20its%2 0effects Clancy, L. (2022, September 13). The Media is Central to the Monarchy’s Survival. Will it also be Its Undoing? Retrieved from https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/queen-elizabethking-charles-media-monarchy-survival/ Davies, B. (2019). John Rawls and the Veil of Ignorance. Retrieved from https://open.library.okstate.edu/introphilosophy/chapter/john-rawls-and-the-veil-ofignorance/ Getty Images. (n.d.). Copyright in the photograph is vested in the Prince and Princess of Wales. [Photograph]. Getty Images. Retrieved from https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/copyright-in-the-photograph-is-vested- in-the-prince-and-news-photo./1252045788 Kensington Palace. (2024, January 17). A statement from Kensington Palace. Retrieved from https://www.royal.uk/news-and-activity/2024-01-17/a-statement-from-kensington-palace Kindelan, K. (2024a, January 29). Princess Kate undergoes abdominal surgery, hospitalized for 1st time. Good Morning America. Retrieved from https://www.goodmorningamerica.com/culture/story/kate-middleton-released-hospitalafter-abdominal-surgery--106601970?userab=abcn_web_article_ts-208variant_b776%2Cabcn_mobileweb_article_ep-176variant_c-815 Kindelan, K. (2024b, March 25). Kate Middleton: A timeline of her cancer diagnosis, surgery and absence from public duties. ABC News. Retrieved from https://abcnews.go.com/amp/GMA/Culture/kate-middleton-surgery-phototimeline/story?id=108017783 Land, M., Fuse, K., & Hornaday, B.W. (2014). Contemporary media ethics: A practical guide for students, scholars and professionals in a globalized world (2nd ed.). Spokane, WA: Marquette Books. Landler, M. (2024, March 11). Even Photoshop Can’t Erase Royals’ Latest P.R. Blemish. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/11/world/europe/kate-middletonphoto-princess-wales.html Ott, H. (2024, March 12). Royal insider says Princess Kate photo scandal shows "wheels are coming off" Kensington Palace PR. CBS News. Retrieved from https://www.cbsnews.com/news/photo-kate-middleton-photo-editing-scandal-royalinsider/ Prince and Princess of Wales [@princeandprincessofwales]. (2024, March 10). “Thank you for your kind wishes and continued support over the last two months. Wishing everyone a Happy Mother’s Day. C The Prince of Wales, 2024 [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/C4U_IqTNaqU/?igsh=Z3FlYXZxbjRhaW94 Rawls, J. (1999). A Theory of Justice [PDF document]. Retrieved from https://giuseppecapograssi.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/rawls99.pdf Rawls, J. (1999). A Theory of Justice [PDF document]. Retrieved from https://www2.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ362/hallam/readings/rawl_justice.pdf Royal Family. (n.d.). The role of the monarchy. Retrieved from https://www.royal.uk/the-roleof-the-monarchy Royal Family. (n.d.). Meet Emma: Head of Digital Engagement. Retrieved from Royal Family Website. Retrieved from https://www.royal.uk/meet-our-peopleemma#:~:text=Emma%20is%20currently%20Head%20of,website%20and%20social%20 media%20channels Shapiro, E. & Kindelan, K. (2024, March 22). Kate Middleton says she was diagnosed with cancer, is undergoing chemotherapy. Good Morning America. Retrieved from https://www.goodmorningamerica.com/culture/story/kate-middleton-diagnosed-cancerundergoing-chemotherapy-108392563?userab=abcn_web_article_ts-208variant_b776%2Cabcn_mobileweb_article_ep-176variant_c-815&userab=abcn_web_article_ts208variant_b-776%2Cabcn_mobileweb_article_ep-176variant_c-815 Spangler, T. (2024, March 23). Blake Lively Apologizes for Mocking Kate Middleton ‘Photoshop Fails’ After Princess Reveals Cancer Diagnosis: ‘Silly Post’ Has ‘Me Mortified’. Variety. Retrieved from https://variety.com/2024/digital/news/blake-livelyapologizes-kate-middleton-photoshop-fails-cancer-1235950390/ The Prince and Princess of Wales. [@KensingtonRoyal]. (2024, March 11). Like many amateur photographers, I do occasionally experiment with editing. I wanted to express my apologies for any confusion the family photograph we shared yesterday caused. I hope everyone celebrating had a very happy Mother’s Day. C [Post]. X. https://twitter.com/KensingtonRoyal/status/1767135566645092616 Wenar, L. (2021). John Rawls. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rawls/ Celebrity Influence and Medication Scarcity: An Ethical Examination through a Communitarian Lens By Samantha B. Cortez The healthcare industry has entered uncharted territory in a time when social media and celebrity culture have unprecedented influence. The origins of Ozempic (Semaglutide), a drug that was first created to treat Type-2 diabetes but has recently gained attention for its unanticipated but dramatic weight loss effects, is one remarkable example of this trend (Shmerling, 2023). Celebrities hailing Ozempic's efficacy as a miracle weight-loss tool have taken it outside its initially intended use in medicine, making it a coveted tool for people attempting to fit in with society's standards of beauty and physical attractiveness (Joshu, 2024). In addition to producing a shortage of medications, the ensuing surge in demand has brought up major ethical issues about the rightful consumption of pharmaceuticals, access to healthcare, and the influence of notable individuals on public health. In light of this, the case seeks to analyze the decision-making process associated with celebrity endorsements of Ozempic for weight loss through offering a communitarian framework-based critical study of the ethical implications. People who depend on semaglutide had significant inconvenience in 2023 when they found themselves unable to refill their prescriptions due to a shortage triggered by an increasing demand for Ozempic, a drug that has been widely used as a diet by social media influencers and celebrities. Christine Blank noted in a February 2023 Drug Topics article that social media trends are reportedly at fault for increasing requests for common diabetes drugs recommended for weight loss. According to Blank, celebrities and influencers on TikTok are posting pictures of themselves before and after shedding pounds, and they attribute drugs like tirzepatide (Mounjaro) and semaglutide (Ozempic) for their achievements (Blank, 2022). In an interview with Drug Topics, Allison Schneider, Novo Nordisk's director of media relations, discussed this matter and emphasized the company's objection to the off-label usage of its drugs. Schneider stressed that Novo Nordisk does not support or encourage the use of semaglutide for weight loss, even if certain medical professionals may prescribe it for that particular reason. Schneider reiterated that semaglutide is not approved for long-term weight management, despite the fact that the FDA has approved it for the medical treatment of type 2 diabetes since 2017 (Blank, 2023). The paper examines how the decision-making process around celebrity endorsements of Ozempic for non-label use is influenced, as well as how this in turn impacts the medication's supply and demand. Additionally, social media's role in increasing off-label use and magnifying celebrity endorsements is examined, underscoring its important influence on public perceptions and behavior. For the purpose to study the broader implications for patient well-being and healthcare access, ethical questions are considered, particularly through a communitarian perspective. This study analyzes the conflict between the necessity for equal access to essential pharmaceuticals and individual vanity, focusing on the value of prioritizing community welfare and the common good when making healthcare choices from a communitarian perspective. In short, this research reveals the intricate ethical issues related to the influence of celebrities on healthcare and offers perspectives on potential methods to tackle drug scarcity and encourage ethical healthcare practices. Through their public personalities and media appearances, celebrities—often considered to be arbiters of beauty and fashion—played an essential role in sustaining a trend of a “slim” ideal. Famous people in the entertainment industry, such musicians, actors, and models, came to symbolize the idealized representation of thinness and created unattainable norms for physiques and proportion. Around this time, people started to pay greater attention to weight loss in popular culture, and a number of diet and workout fads achieved appeal. Celebrities, in particular, capitalized on these trends by endorsing products and services designed to help people achieve their desired physique, often emphasizing the importance of discipline, willpower, and self-control. “The result of their study also confirms the influence of celebrity credibility as a celebrity advertisement had a more significant impact on purchase intention of FMCG products than a non-celebrity advertisement. The attention and recognition that celebrities get from the public are said to be the reason why they are regarded as credible or more credible than noncelebrities” (Olaosebikan, 2020). Celebrities were able to showcase their seemingly perfect bodies on social media platforms like Instagram and Twitter, which sometimes encouraged extreme dieting and weight loss pills. Celebrity endorsements and social media influencers played a significant role in promoting the off-label use of Ozempic, further exacerbating the demand for the drug and contributing to medication shortages for individuals with genuine medical needs (Joshu, 2024). Overview of Communitarianism Communitarian ethics is an ethical framework which emphasizes the significance of the community and its principles in making ethical decisions (Wringe, 2006). In contrast to individualistic ethical views, that place priority on an individual's autonomy and rights, communitarianism emphasizes the dependent relationship of individuals within a society and their collective responsibilities (Callahan, 2003). The idea of the common good, according to which the best interests of the society as a whole comes before the interests of an individual, is central to communitarian ethics. Communitarianism additionally places a strong emphasis on people taking an active role in promoting the welfare of society while cultivating civic virtues. Communitarian ethics aims to set moral norms and principles which promote a feeling of community and shared accountability among its members through ethical training and socialization. “Both versions of communitarianism stress the link between community and morality” (Wringe, 2006). In general, communitarian ethics provide an extensive framework for considering the social context while promoting mutual respect, solidarity, and collaboration which contribute to the thriving of societies. Facts of the Case Despite not having FDA approval for this usage, Ozempic—originally approved in 2017 to treat diabetes—and Wegovy, its higher dose equivalent—approved in 2021 to treat obesity—have garnered popularity among influencers, tech leaders, and celebrities for their potential to aid users lose weight effectively (“What Is Ozempic," 2024). These medications have become increasingly common in part as a result of widely recognized endorsements and extensive discussion on social media platforms like TikTok. Drug shortages caused by off-label use have an effect on the individuals who require prescription drugs for permitted purposes. These medications mimic hormones that control hunger and reduce stomach emptying, thereby helping people shed weight. Nevertheless, they come with risks like nausea, dehydration, and more severe issues like pancreatitis and gallstone formation (“What Is Ozempic and Why Is It Getting so Much Attention? (Published 2022),” 2024). The FDA and medical professionals advise against using medications that are not prescribed without proper medical guidance, emphasizing the risks that come from using such powerful drugs without adequate supervision (“What Is Ozempic and Why Is It Getting so Much Attention? (Published 2022),” 2024). Overview of Ethical Egosim Ethical egoism is an ethical theory in which people put their own interests and welfare ahead of the well-being of others. According to this school of thought, people ought to prioritize their own happiness or well-being and act in the best interests of themselves, irrespective of the interests or welfare of others (Regis, 1980). According to ethical egoism, people have an ethical responsibility to pursue their own desires, even if doing so involves harming the well-being of others. Edward Regis said he "could not understand or have any insight into other human beings, grasp that they are in pain, and so forth, as ordinary persons, not entirely egoistic, can” (Regis, 1980). This perspective prioritizes individual autonomy and freedom, considering self-interest as the primary motivating factor of ethical behavior. However, ethical egoism has come under scrutiny since it can result in conflicts of interest and selfish behavior since it could disregard the needs of others in an attempt to accomplish personal objectives. Regis further adds: .... or its requirement of "exclusive" pursuit of self-interest is ambiguous. It may mean either (a) that the egoist ought to do those actions of which he is the sole beneficiary (thus he will be justified in taking those actions which will result in a benefit to himself alone), or (b) that he ought to do only those actions for which his motive is promotion of his interest (thus he is justified in doing actions which will benefit himself along with others, but his reason for acting must be to benefit himself). (Regis, 1980) Ethical Egoism in this Case In this particular case, celebrities appear to have predominantly adopted an ethical egoism that places their individual needs and interests above broader issues affecting the community. Celebrities that actively use Ozempic for off-label weight loss and endorse it may be influenced by personal goals like maintaining their public image or attaining a specific body image. Their behavior indicates that they believe their own goals of enhancing their appearance or dropping weight outweigh any possible harm to others, which includes drug shortages for individuals who rely on Ozempic for their management of diabetes (“What Is Ozempic," 2024). This displays a mindset that is more concerned with self-interest than the welfare of society as a whole and is consistent with the egoistic idea of following one's own interests irrespective of the impact on others. Case Analysis What if these famous people accepted the communitarian ethical theory instead of to the apparent ethical egoism philosophy? Celebrities who used Ozempic under a communitarian ethical framework would probably work in a way that put the well-being of the community before their personal requirements or interests. They would be mindful of their influence and the potential impact of their support on social norms and public health. Celebrities would think about the wider impact of their actions on the community, including the potential of medication shortages and the importance of keeping trust in healthcare institutions, rather than promoting off-label use for their own benefit. They can decide not to endorse or openly use Ozempic for unapproved purposes, realizing the value of responsible medical resource management and advancing equity and health in the community. Celebrities have the opportunity to align their actions with the values of society and the betterment of society by using their platform to support causes that prioritize drug access for those who need it most. Celebrities recognize their power and impact. The lives of those taking this prescription drug and those who continue to need it and affected by the shortage are being damaged by its advertising as a quick-fix weight-loss supplement. The ethical consequences of celebrity endorsements have grown more and more important in a world where they possess the capacity to change people's views and behaviors. The use of Ozempic by celebrities, a medication mainly prescribed for the treatment of diabetes but increasingly being taken off-label for weight loss, offers an interesting framework for analyzing ethical perspectives. Although celebrities have often supported self-interested drives, their encouragement and use of drugs such as Ozempic could shift significantly if they embrace a communitarian ethical theory. A strong dedication to the wellbeing of the community and the common good is at the foundation of communitarian ethics. In contrast with ethical egoism, that places focus on the self-interests of individuals, communitarianism emphasizes the dependent relationship of individuals within society and their shared responsibilities. If celebrities adopted a communitarian perspective, they would make their decisions about using Ozempics on how their behaviors impact society. Celebrities who embrace communitarian ethics would acknowledge their status as powerful people and consider the potential impact of what they do on the health of others, as opposed to placing their own interests like maintaining a particular body ideal or achieving particular objectives on the front burner. They would be mindful that promoting the off-label use of drugs like Ozempic could lead to a shortage of those treatments, preventing individuals who suffer from diabetes from receiving the required treatment. Celebrities might show their commitment to the well-being of society as a whole and align with their actions with social principles by refraining from promoting the use of pharmaceuticals beyond approved guidelines. A communitarian approach would also inspire famous people to make use of their influence to support initiatives which encourage fair access to medications and evidence-based medical practices. Instead of using their position to further their own interests, they would use their prominence to spread the word about the value of sensible consumption of medicines and the value of equitable access to treatment. Celebrities would be urged to play an active role in promoting the common good and acknowledge their contribution in establishing cultural standards by adopting this proactive method for ensuring community wellness. Celebrity behavior raises issues of ethics, but it is also vital to evaluate how their acts impact people who genuinely need medications like Ozempic. For individuals with diabetes, shortages of medications spurred on by a surge in off-label use may have serious repercussions and could jeopardize their health. Such shortages, from a communitarian viewpoint, indicate a failure to put community requirements ahead of one's own. Celebrities add to this problem by supporting off-label use without taking into account its broader implications, underlining the moral importance of communal stewardship of healthcare resources. Principles and Values From an ethical egoism viewpoint, the people who took the decisions, particularly the celebrities who promoted Ozempic's off-label use, likely gave more weight to individual freedoms and interests than to the values of the wider community. Ignoring the potential consequences for others, celebrities leveraged their freedom to promote and utilize Ozempic for unauthorized purposes, driven by their personal goals of dropping fat and enhancing their public image. They disregarded the stewardship concept in preference for their own self-interest, neglecting to take into account the appropriate use of medical resources or the effect their actions might have on pharmaceutical shortages. Celebrities may have disregarded the truth principle in their pursuit of personal goals, as evidenced by their endorsement of Ozempic for weight loss, which might have deceived the public about the medication's intended purpose. Even though there is not any evidence from research to back up Ozempic's off-label use for weight loss, celebrities might have given importance to their personal narratives and experiences and provided selective information to defend their behavior. Their egoistic aim is served by this information manipulation, which puts selfish interests above honesty and truth. Furthermore, because the celebrities neglected to take into account the possible harm to those who actually rely on Ozempic for the treatment of their diabetes, their conduct may have violated the notion of humanity. Celebrities showed a lack of empathy and compassion for those in need by using Ozempic for vanity and endorsing products that exacerbated the drug scarcity. Their self-centered desire of individual goals overshadowed concerns for justice and equity, as they perpetuated disparities in healthcare availability and threatened the welfare of the community. Celebrities' choices and behaviors would probably vary significantly from those motivated by ethical egoism if they approached the topic of Ozempic usage from a communitarian perspective. Celebrities would think about the community's overall well-being and acknowledge their influence on cultural norms and values rather than putting their own interests and personal gain foremost. They would act in line with values like stewardship and harmony since they would be mindful of the significance of safeguarding medical resources and promoting harmonious society and unity. Celebrities would, from a social perspective, put the humane ideal first, showing empathy and compassion for those who depend on Ozempic for the management of their diabetes. They would be aware of the possible harm—drug shortages and limited access to necessary treatments for vulnerable populations—caused through promoting off-label drug use. Celebrities would aim to reduce harm and promote fair access to healthcare by putting the greater good before their personal interests. This would connect their activities with their common values of justice and fairness. Even if communitarianism and ethical egoism have different ethical frameworks, there might be a few similarities between the behaviors of famous people who adhere to each philosophy. Even from a communitarian viewpoint, celebrities may nonetheless use their freedom and liberty to advocate specific behaviors or products. But the fundamental distinction can be observed in the fundamental reasons and factors that drive their actions. Various approaches to ethical decision-making and behavior result from communitarianism's commitment to communal well-being and individuals' responsibilities towards one another, while ethical egoism concentrates individual self-interest. Shareholders and Loyalties The stakeholders in this case are patients, celebrities accused of using Ozempic, healthcare providers/physicians, pharmaceutical companies, the FDA and other governmental regulatory agencies, and public health organizations. The decision makers of this case are the celebrities who use Ozempic and publicly endorse it for weight loss purposes. The pharmaceutical company, Novo Nordisk has publicly said they do not condone off-label usage (Blank, 2023). Health care providers are the ones who prescribe Ozempic to their patients. They may find themselves in an ethical dilemma when patients ask for prescriptions for drugs that are based on celebrity endorsements. Guided by the ethical egoism principle, decision-makers—like celebrities—probably put their personal wants and interests ahead of those of other stakeholders. Without taking into consideration the potential impact on other stakeholders, celebrities who are motivated by personal objectives like preserving their public persona or achieving a particular body image may promote or use Ozempic for off-label weight loss. Their behavior indicates that they value their own interests and autonomy over the health of patients who legitimately require Ozempic for the treatment of diabetes or the reputation of the pharmaceutical company which produces the drug. From a communitarian perspective, the decisions made by celebrities would differ significantly and align their actions with communal values of justice, fairness, and solidarity. Point of Decision The Land Point-of-Decision Pyramid (Land et al., 2014) guides decision-makers through a sequence of systematic processes to provide an organized method for making ethical decisions. The process starts with choosing of a philosophical framework, like communitarianism, and then continues on to the identification and ranking of stakeholders according to how important they are to this particular ethical issue. Afterwards, an in-depth examination of the issue's factual history is carried out in order for decision-makers to compile any relevant information. Decision-makers then weigh conflicting ethical principles, taking into consideration concepts like liberty, justice, truth, and stewardship. Ultimately, after considering all of this into consideration, a decision is made that respects the adopted ethical framework, solves the issues of ethics that have been identified, and puts stakeholder needs into consideration. Making sure that Ozempic is still accessible to people with Type-2 diabetes would be of the utmost importance for decision-makers adopting the Land model. The communitarian framework, which values responsible handling of resources and collective well-being, lends support to this conclusion. Stricter regulations on prescribing processes, outreach efforts to reduce the demand generated by celebrity endorsements, and research into non-traditional weight-loss regimens should all be taken to reduce the strain on Ozempic supplies. Case Resolution According to the American Society of Hospital Pharmacists’ (ASHP) website, there is still a semaglutide injection shortage. It states that the reason for the Ozempic shortage is, “due to increased demand.” It continues, “Novo Nordisk has discontinued Ozempic 0.25 mg and 0.5 mg dose strength in the 2 mg/1.5 mL presentation.” (Drug Shortage Detail: Semaglutide Injection, 2016) Conclusion A communitarian perspective provides an understanding regarding the ethical dilemmas surrounding the Ozempic scarcity resulting from off-label use and celebrity endorsements. It is ethically necessary to give equal access to healthcare resources as well as ethical utilization of medicines top priority, as communitarianism emphasizes the value of community welfare and the common good. Using this lens, it is clear that addressing drug shortages as well as promoting ethical healthcare practices are crucial factors in establishing a society that is simultaneously healthier and more just. The research presented here makes it abundantly apparent that social media and celebrity culture have an impact on healthcare practices. It also stresses the importance of increasing awareness of and thoroughly investigating the messages that influencers and celebrities convey. Furthermore, in order to strike a balance between individual autonomy and the well-being of the community, healthcare professionals and regulatory organizations need to keep being alert in addressing the ethical issues surrounding off-label usage of drugs and medication shortages. A healthcare system that puts justice, fairness, and the wellbeing of all citizens first can be developed among stakeholders implementing communitarian principles and encouraging a culture of ethical healthcare practices. We can address societal issues such as shortages of medicine and encourage beneficial social change in the health care sector by collaborating and taking collective action. This will ensure that healthcare resources are allocated fairly and that the most vulnerable members of society are not adversely affected by the acts of a wealthy individuals. Discussion Questions - Have you heard of any instances where celebrities or social media influencers have endorsed the use of off-label drugs for cosmetic purposes? What effect do you think that these endorsements have on public health? - In the context of off-label drug usage, how do you believe community well-being and personal autonomy intersect? Do one's own desires ever serve as justification for actions that might jeopardize the community as a whole? - What kind of an impact do you believe social media and peer pressure have on the choices individuals make about healthcare, especially when it comes to using off-label drugs for non-medical purposes? - How should regulatory agencies monitor and control the use of pharmaceuticals off-label, particularly in light of new trends caused by social media and celebrity culture? - What could be learned from previous instances of medication shortages and off-label drug use? References Blank, C. (2022). Major Diabetes Medications in Short Supply. Formulary Watch, NA. https://link-gale-com.zeus.tarleton.edu/apps/doc/A776680145/AONE?u=txshracd2559&sid=googleScholar&xid=59280d17. Blank, C. (2023, February). High Demand Keeps Some Diabetes Medications in Short Supply: Pharmaceutical companies are experiencing supply chain disruptions and shortages because of the popularity of diabetes drugs used for weight loss. Drug Topics, 167(2), 16. https://link-gale-com.zeus.tarleton.edu/apps/doc/A738088393/HRCA?u=txshracd2559&sid=googleScholar&xid=06aecc67. Callahan, D. (2003). Principlism and communitarianism. Journal of Medical Ethics, 29(5), 287–291. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.29.5.287. Joshu, E. (2024, March 13). REVEALED: The 16 celebs CONFIRMED to have used Ozempic. Mail Online. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-13192473/amp/ozempic-celebrities-use-weight-loss-diet.html. Land, M., Fuse, K., & Hornaday, B. W. (2014). Contemporary media ethics: A practical guide for students, scholars and professionals in a globalized world (2nd ed.). Spokane, WA: Marquette Books. Olaosebikan, V. (2020). Impact of Celebrity Endorsement in Advertising of High-Risk Products. RIT Digital Institutional Repository. https://repository.rit.edu/theses/10449/. Regis, E. (1980). What is Ethical Egoism? Ethics, 91(1), 50–62. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2380370. Shmerling, R. H. (2023, February 21). What happens when a drug goes viral? - Harvard Health. Harvard Health; Harvard Health. https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/what-happens-when-a-drug-goes-viral-202302212892#:~:text=Social%20media%20and%20celebrities%20helped,effect%20into%20a%20selling%20point.&text=The%20current%20shortage%20of%20semaglutide,without%20diabetes%20are%20taking%20it. What Is Ozempic and Why Is It Getting So Much Attention? (Published 2022). (2024). The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/22/well/ozempic-diabetes-weight-loss.html. Wringe, C. (2006). Communitarianism. Moral Education: Beyond the Teaching of Right and Wrong, 74-82. Fallout of Alabama Baseball Coach Brian Bohannon's Gambling Scandal Using Ethics of Trust By Nate Bural Abstract In one of the greatest baseball gambling scandals since Pete Rose earned a lifetime ban from Major League Baseball in 1989, the NCAA issued the largest ban to a college coach in its history. Former head coach of the University of Alabama baseball program, Brian Bohannon, was fired on May 4, 2023, and on February 1, 2024 received a 15-year show-cause order that – in theory – has ended his baseball coaching career. This case study focuses on the actions taken by Bohannon and how they violated Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust. The Ethics of Trust talks about the importance of interconnectedness between us as humans and the need for that trust for us to function in a social community. If that implied level of trust doesn’t exist, would families entrust the well-being of their children to head coaches? Without a level of trust between coaches, players, and their families, the entire landscape of college athletics would cease to exist. Bohannon’s actions violated that trust and put the future of the NCAA at risk. The NCAA responded with the harshest punishment in the history of the organization, but was it enough to restore the trust? Keywords: Baseball, NCAA, Bohannon, Neff, Alabama, gambling, Ethics of Trust Putting a Price on Trust: Analyzing the Fallout of Alabama Baseball Coach Brian Bohannon's Gambling Scandal Using Ethics of Trust America’s pastime. Baseball began in America in the 1840s and is as much a staple of our country as a bald eagle and apple pie. Baseball was painted as a uniquely American creation, free of influence from all other games and all other cultures. During its inception, baseball to an American was defined as being what cricket is to an Englishman (Nemec et al., 2005, p. 8). Baseball has a reputation of being a sport of nostalgia. Fathers and sons together eating hot dogs and Cracker Jack enjoying the beautiful sunshine watching their favorite players’ journey to etch their names alongside legendary figures. Players looking to be the next Babe Ruth, Joe DiMaggio, or Hank Aaron. James Earl Jones’ character, Terence Mann, in the movie Field of Dreams says (Robinson, 1989): They'll walk out to the bleachers and sit in short sleeves on a perfect afternoon. They'll find they have reserved seats somewhere along one of the baselines, where they sat when they were children and cheered their heroes. And they'll watch the game, and it'll be as if they'd dipped themselves in magic waters. The memories will be so thick, they'll have to brush them away from their faces… The one constant through all the years, has been baseball. America has rolled by like an army of steamrollers. It's been erased like a blackboard, rebuilt, and erased again. But baseball has marked the time. This field, this game -- it's a part of our past. It reminds us of all that once was good, and it could be again. According to the complete team statistics database (NCAA.com, 2024), there are 922 intercollegiate baseball teams in the U.S. and Canada, including 295 at the NCAA Division I level. After a regular season of no more than 56 games, NCAA Division I baseball teams who qualify for their respective conference championship tournaments can compete for the right to advance to the NCAA playoffs. Every conference has unique rules wherein the conference tournament champion will receive an automatic qualifying berth (AQ) in the national playoffs. Once the AQ teams are decided, an NCAA selection committee determines the at-large berths to bring the total playoff field to 64 teams. In 2023, the regional round was played at 16 various locations around the nation with four teams at each site. The winners from each region are reseeded for a Super Regional round to bring the total number of teams down to its final eight. Finally, those remaining eight teams are sent to Omaha, Nebraska for the Men’s College World Series – a double-elimination tournament to determine the NCAA Division I National Champion (NCAA, 2023). The 2023 NCAA Men’s College World Series (MCWS) marked the most-watched MCWS on ESPN platforms on record. The 16-game postseason averaged 1.65 million viewers across the platforms, up 48% from the 2022 MCWS (McKay, 2023, para. 1). The NCAA’s stance on gambling in any sport is very clear – #DontBetOnIt. Student-athletes, coaches, or athletic staff are not permitted to place wagers on any sport sponsored by the NCAA, including all levels from youth to professional. Even their state permits or promotes sports betting—it is not permitted by the NCAA. Those caught sports wagering in violation of the NCAA bylaws risk their eligibility as a student-athlete or position as a coach and/or administrator (NCAA.org, 2007, Bylaw 10.02.1). Just recently, baseball gambling reached out of the professional ranks and infiltrated the NCAA level with the first sanctioned penalty. Alabama Head Coach Brad Bohannon was terminated and given a 15-year show-cause order. Any NCAA institution that hires Bohannon must suspend him for "100% of the baseball regular season for the first five seasons of his employment" (Purdum, 2024, para. 3) The Bohannon gambling scandal begs the question of the NCAA’s power and authority, as well as the NCAA’s ethical commitment to doing what is in the best interest of student-athletes all around the country. The NCAA’s ethical judgment has been in serious question for some time, but choosing such a weak punishment for potentially the largest scandal in the history of one of its premier sports makes a powerful statement. Theoretical Discussion of Ethics of Truth Watsuji Tetsurō was a prominent Japanese philosopher in the early 20th century. Watsuji argued that focusing on individuals overlooks our connection as the human race. We exist within a network of social connections that shape who we are, and we will always be influenced by our cultural and social backgrounds (Carter & McCarthy, 2019a, sec. 3). Three key points about the Ethics of Trust are reliance on others, belief in other’s integrity, and reciprocity. Trust is a two-way street. The relationship between a head coach, the student-athlete, and their family needs this level of trust to be maintained in order for collegiate athletics to thrive. When a coach recruits a player, there is an implied sense of parental transfer of responsibility. A young person leaving home for the first time to learn adulthood while still under the care of this head coach, who makes an ethical commitment by NCAA standards to care for their well-being (NCAA, 2024, sec. 2). Watsuji’s view on ethics as the study of how we maintain and nurture our social connections, acknowledging the importance of both individuality and collective well-being in creating harmonious societies. Carter and McCarthy (2019b, sec. 3) states: (Watsuji) cautions that it is imperative to recognize that a human being is not just an individual but is also a member of many social groupings. We are individuals, and yet we are not just individuals, for we are also social beings; and we are social beings, but we are not just social beings, for we are also individuals. Many who interpret Watsuji forget the importance which he gave to this balanced and dual nature of a human being. The Japanese word for ethics is rinri, which is composed of two characters, rin and ri. Rin means ‘fellows,’ ‘company,’ and specifically refers to a system of relations guiding human association. Ri means ‘reason,’ or ‘principle,’ the rational ordering of human relationships. These principles are what make it possible for human beings to live in a cooperative community.” Trust between people serves as a basis for morality and creates, at least a one-way, appeal for the responsibility for that person’s well-being (Myska, 2008, p. 2). Especially regarding professionals and youths today. Beginning at a young age, there is a sense of trust when allowing your children to go into someone else’s care – starting with choosing the right babysitter or daycare and ultimately ending with college or even marriage. There is an instinctual drive in the parent for trust in the person to whom their child is entrusted. When an 18- to 22-year-old student-athlete commits themselves to a college or a program, they are putting their trust and the trust of their family into the leader of that program. It’s a one-way transfer of trust with blind faith of reciprocation. Using this example of principles, the values deeply rooted in this philosophy are stewardship, humaneness, and truth. Case Narrative The University of Alabama has a long history of excelling in NCAA competition. Their football team has won 18 national championships in their illustrious history, bringing fame and notoriety to all their NCAA programs. The baseball program is another program with a long history of success. Tide Baseball has won 14 SEC championships, second most in the league behind only Louisiana State University (LSU) and has qualified for the NCAA College World Series five times. In the mid 2010s, Alabama’s baseball program was in disarray. They had changed head coaches twice in a three-year period before tapping Brian Bohannon to bring their program back to prominence in 2017. Bohannon was an instant success. After making an eight-game improvement on the previous season, his second year saw the Tide return to 30 wins on the season for the first time since 2016. Bohannon and the Tide were off to an incredible 16-1 start in 2020 before the COVID-19 pandemic ended the season and the following year, Alabama made a triumphant return to the NCAA regional tournament for the first time since 2014. Bohannon would coach through the 2023 season with a total record of 178-128 with three SEC Tournament appearances, two regional showings, and a trip to the CWS Super Regional round in 2023 (Baseball Reference, 2024). On April 28, 2023, Alabama was scheduled to play in Baton Rouge against No. 1 LSU. This was arguably one of the most anticipated events of the day because of their prominent stature in the Southeastern Conference (SEC). However, suspicious activity close to game time would ultimately create a ripple effect around nation. The suspicious activity alerted the Ohio Casino Control Commission and U.S. Integrity, a Las Vegas-based company that identifies suspicious behavior by analyzing changes in betting data against a benchmark of normal betting activity. They monitor the data to see if discrepancies coincide with notable player or coaching events, reveal officiating abnormalities, or are indicative of the misuse of insider information (U.S. Integrity, 2024). On that day, the starting pitcher for Alabama was supposed to be sophomore Luke Holman. In 2023, Holman was in his second year with Alabama and was enjoying what would go on to be his best season. He finished the 2023 season 7-4 with a 3.67 earned run average and was a second-team all-region selection. Against LSU, however, he was a late scratch and replaced by relief pitcher Hagan Banks, who was told he was starting “an hour before” first pitch (University of Alabama Athletics, 2023, para. 5). Banks was a solid relief pitcher for the Tide who would finish the 2023 season with a 3.48 earned run average in 33.2 innings of work. Banks, however, was making only his fourth collegiate start and just the second of his career against an SEC opponent. Before that announcement was made official, an Ohio bettor attempted to make a large bet on Alabama to lose and told the staff at the BetMGM Sportsbook in Cincinnati, “If only you guys knew what I know” (Kelly, 2024, para. 10-13). After the game, the executive director of the Ohio Casino Control Commission stopped accepting all bets on Alabama baseball, U.S. Integrity sent communication to its clients to avoid betting on the team (Alvarez, 2023, para. 2-4), and two days later the New Jersey Division of Gaming Enforcement instructed all sportsbooks in the state to suspend wagering on all contests involving University of Alabama baseball (Alvarez, 2023). The states of Indiana and Pennsylvania would also follow suit. Less than a week later, on May 4, Bohannon was fired for “among other things, violating the standards, duties, and responsibilities expected of university employees" (Purdum, 2023, para. 3) The investigation showed that on the day of the April 28 game at LSU, Bohannon texted a man, later identified as Bert Neff, who he knew to be engaged in gambling on Alabama baseball. A text message from Bohannon revealed, “HAMMER … (Student-athlete) is out for sure … Lemme know when I can tell LSU… Hurry." Neff then proceeded to place a $100,000 bet on Alabama to lose the game (FOX Sports, 2024, para. 5). SEC Commissioner Greg Sankey said (Purdum, 2023, para. 15): The University of Alabama has taken swift action after information about baseball sports wagering activity was questioned by industry regulators. Ensuring the integrity of athletic competition is our highest priority, and for that purpose the SEC monitors gambling activity through its relationship with US Integrity and has done so since 2018. There must be zero tolerance for activity that puts into question the integrity of competition. We will remain in communication with the University throughout its ongoing review and will have no further comment at this time. Ethics of Trust Approach Several factors are at play here in regard to ethics of trust. There’s a level of trust between university and head coach, there’s a level of trust between Conference/NCAA and the university, and there’s a level of trust between coach and player (NCAA, 2024, sec. 2). Bohannon’s actions created a clear breach of trust between all the relationships in question. He disregarded his moral responsibility of integrity to put the success of his student-athletes above himself, which in turn violates an inherent responsibility all head coaches make to the families of their players. Using the ethics of trust model, the key values involved those that bring a level of human connection such as stewardship, humaneness, and truth. Principles/Values Initially, the first value Bohannon put at risk is stewardship. As the head coach of a program, you have been entrusted with a lot of responsibility: the well-being of your players and staff, as well academics, budget, and administrative duties. Being named the head coach of a program, much less one as prestigious at the University of Alabama, comes with an inherent responsibility to the program. After scratching his starting pitcher and reverting to the reliever for the game, Bohannon showed a blatant disregard for stewardship with a lack of faith in his new pitcher. The definition of humaneness is the quality of compassion or consideration for others. Bohannon violated this value with self-serving actions. The decision to allow one man in on his professional decision making, with the potential (because the intent has not been revealed) for personal gains, undermined his respect and integrity for his players, fans, and the entire university. It also showed a complete disregard for compassion for his new pitcher. By waiting until an hour before the game to decide, shows a lack of empathy for the original starter’s injury as well as the success of the new pitcher by not having someone prepared in the instance the starter is unable to pitch. When adopting an Ethics of Trust approach, it's crucial to instill a strong belief in the locker room. The main goal should always be to put student-athletes in the best position to win. Knowing that Holman was dealing with back tightness and could potentially be unavailable, the staff could have been prepared internally with a backup plan – even if that plan was Banks all along. Bohannon stating that Banks only knew “an hour before” seemed like a failed attempt to push Holman beyond his physical limitations. Stakeholders Several stakeholders are at risk in this situation, beginning with Bohannon. The choice ultimately ended his collegiate coaching career, and because the cause of his punishment is a global issue that affects college and professional levels, likely his baseball career entirely. The players on his team, who were enjoying renewed success during his tenure, that now found themselves without a head coach. All the players on the team suffered a betrayal of trust, as did their families who entrusted the care of their sons to Bohannon and the coaching staff. Also, the team and university staff whose careers will forever be tied to this scandal, primarily from a direct affiliation such as assistant coaches and administrators. The university as a whole also suffered damage to its reputation and ultimately took multiple punishments from the NCAA despite dismissing Bohannon. Fans of baseball and all other sports from around the world who will forever question the integrity of coaches and players competing at the highest level. For sports alone, betting on games has become a phenomenon. In 2022, the market size of the sports betting and lottery sector worldwide was valued at over $235 billion. This figure shows a decrease from the previous year's total of $242.82 billion. By 2023, the market was forecast to increase to $242 billion (Statista, 2023). With this much action happening all around the world, there will inevitably be a lost sense of trust between fans, players, and coaches moving forward. When coaches make questionable calls in a game that seem odd, will there forever be a black cloud associated with the move that could lead to gambling? Social media evidence shows, even now, 18- to 22-year-old student-athletes, using basketball for example, choose to take the game into their own hands and miss a game-winning shot instead of passing to a teammate and are now berated online by bettors. Now more than ever, it’s a coach’s responsibility to protect student-athletes from these situations whenever possible. Decision After a near eight-month investigation by the NCAA, Bohannon received the harshest penalty ever sanctioned by league, becoming the third person ever to receive a 15-year show-cause order. NCAA.org, 2023, Bylaw 19.02.03 states: A show-cause order is an order that requires a member institution to demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Committee on Infractions why it should not be subject to a penalty or additional penalty for not taking appropriate disciplinary or corrective action with regard to an institutional staff member or representative of the institution's athletics interests found by the Committee on Infractions as having been involved in a violation of NCAA bylaws. This also means that any employing NCAA member institution shall restrict Bohannon from any athletically related position. If Bohannon becomes employed during the show-cause period, he will be suspended for 100% of the baseball regular season for the first five seasons of his employment. In addition to Bohannon’s personal show-cause, the University of Alabama received three years’ probation, a $5,000 fine, and is required to retain a firm to provide comprehensive gambling education to student-athletes, coaches and athletics administrators (Cahill, 2024, para. 3). Neff has been charged with obstructing a federal grand jury investigation and faces up to 10 years in prison (Purdum, 2024, para. 12). Under a philosophy of trust, Bohannon would have avoided this situation entirely because his trust would belong solely to the team and their well-being. With the student-athlete’s well-being at the forefront of his decision making, there likely would have been a stronger plan in place that would have inspired confidence in their ability to win the game – as opposed to a kneejerk negative reaction of defeat shared outside the two-way street of trust between the players and staff under his care. Had the NCAA levied punishment with student-athletes in mind, there should have been a larger precedent to never allow Bohannon the opportunity to work with NCAA student-athletes again. Through the ultimate betrayal of trust, yes the punishment is harsh on paper, but ultimately it’s nothing more than a five-year suspension from actual coaching. Conclusion The Brad Bohannon gambling scandal will go down as one of the clumsiest mistakes in the history of the NCAA and will be on the NCAA’s radar for the next 15 years (through 2039). But what happens in the year 2040? Bohannon is 48 years old so after 15 years, assuming he remains in good health, he’s 63 years old. Due to the slow pace of baseball, it’s common for head coaches to continue well into their 70s before retiring. Should Brad Bohannon ever be allowed to coach again? Time will tell if the NCAA’s punishment fit the crime and he could be back coaching again after five years. Due to the definition of his penalty, if he is employed any time in the next 15 years, he is suspended for 100% of regular season baseball games. In theory, Bohannon could take a job at minimal pay for a lower-level program (Division II or III) and serve as an advisor for five years then be back coaching immediately after that under the shadow of a show-cause. Looking at some of Major League Baseball’s punishments against gambling, Bohannon’s punishment is nothing more than a slap on the wrist. According to History.com, 2024: In the early 20th century, some of baseball’s most talented and well-known players, such as “Turkey” Mike Donlin and Hal Chase, as well as manager John McGraw, who publicly won $400 when his New York Giants won the World Series in 1905, were often suspected of gambling on their own games. Chase was considered a dangerous man to have on a team because of his willingness to make extra money by dropping fly balls or misplaying first base. It was common then for players and coaches to make money, betting on themselves to win games. If players were willing to bet against themselves, they likely just weren’t signed to play. All things came to a head in 1919 with the infamous, Black Sox Scandal. In August 1915, “Shoeless” Joe Jackson was traded to the Chicago White Sox for $31,500 cash and three players. The White Sox were a talented team, winning the World Series in 1917 and the American League pennant in 1919. They were the heavy favorites to beat Cincinnati in the 1919 World Series, but the Reds ultimately won the series. In response to suspicions that the White Sox were under the influence of sports bookies, Joe Jackson and seven other White Sox players, were accused of conspiring to throw the 1919 World Series (The Shoeless Joe Jackson Museum and Baseball Library, 2024). This led Major League Baseball to hire its first commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, a former federal judge. In the late 1980s, a major scandal rocked major league baseball again when one of the greatest hitters of all-time, Pete Rose, who was now the manager of the Cincinnati Reds was accused of gambling on his own team. It was known in baseball circles since the 1970s that Pete Rose had a gambling problem. Although, at first, he bet only on horse races and football games, allegations surfaced in early 1989 that Rose was not only betting on baseball, but on his own team. Major League Baseball Commissioner A. Bartlett Giamatti began an inquiry and hired Washington lawyer John Dowd to head the investigation. Dowd compiled hundreds of hours of testimony from numerous sources that detailed Rose’s history of gambling on baseball while serving as the manager of the Cincinnati Reds, including betting on his own team. Although Rose continued to proclaim his innocence, he was eventually persuaded to accept a settlement that included a lifetime ban from the game. At a subsequent press conference, Giamatti characterized Rose’s acceptance of the ban as a no-contest plea to the charges against him. In 2004, after years of repeated denials, Rose published My Prison Without Bars, in which he finally confessed to gambling on the Reds, though he added that had always bet on the Reds to win. Because of the lifetime ban, Rose cannot work in Major League Baseball, and, despite his stellar playing career, he is not eligible for the Hall of Fame (History.com, 2024). Bohannon’s punishment is the largest sanction against a baseball coach in the history of the NCAA, but compared to the sport, the punishment does not fit the crime. He cast aside his integrity, his compassion, and his morals for cash despite earning a salary of a half-million per year from Alabama. The SEC and the University of Alabama should be commended for their treatment and swift action towards the coach. In a league and at a school with such an immense reputation, neither the school nor the conference could afford such a dark cloud to hang over one of its programs – especially heading into the College World Series. With their head coach being 30-15 at the time of his firing, the decision would not have been an easy one for an athletic director. Greg Byrne, the AD for Alabama, certainly would have passed the Ethics of Trust for this decision. However, the NCAA’s weak punishment for a potentially earth-shattering scandal is a prime example of “me greater than we” mentality. After the White Sox scandal in 1919, trust in Major League Baseball was restored with the implementation of a commissioner. This position is someone solely dedicated to the game of baseball, bringing a new standard for the commitment of trust between players, coaches, and fans. The NCAA could stand to take a page from the professional playbook and reevaluate how they reignite trust at the collegiate ranks. References Alvarez, N. (2023, May 4). Ohio sportsbooks halts bets on Alabama baseball, looking into suspicious activity. AL.com. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.al.com/alabama/2023/05/report-ohio-sportsbooks-to-halt-bets-on-alabama-baseball-citing-suspicious-activity.html Alvarez, N. (2023, May 4). New Jersey joins Ohio in preventing bets on Alabama baseball; SEC issues first statement. AL.com. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.al.com/alabama/2023/05/new-jersey-joins-ohio-in-preventing-bets-on-alabama-baseball-per-espn.html Baseball Reference (2024, January 21). University of Alabama. Baseball Reference. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.baseball-reference.com/bullpen/University_of_Alabama Cahill, T. (2024, February 1). NCAA Announces Penalties For Ex-Alabama Coach Brad Bohannon In Betting Scandal. BaseballAmerica.com. Retrieved March 30, 2024, from https://www.baseballamerica.com/stories/ncaa-announces-penalties-for-ex-alabama-coach-brad-bohannon-in-betting-scandal/#:~:text=The%20penalties%20are%20much%20harsher,for%20the%20first%20five%20seasons. Carter, Robert and Erin McCarthy, "Watsuji Tetsurō", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/watsuji-tetsuro/ FOX Sports (2024, February 1). Ex-Alabama baseball coach Brad Bohannon banned after gambling scandal. FOXSports.com. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.foxsports.com/stories/other/ex-alabama-baseball-coach-brad-bohannon-banned-after-gambling-scandal Kelly, N. (2024, February 1). Wildest details from betting scandal that got Brad Bohannon fired as Alabama baseball coach. Tuscaloosa News. https://www.tuscaloosanews.com/story/sports/college/baseball/2024/02/01/brad-bohannon-gambling-scandal-alabama-baseball-coach-sportsbook/72437839007/ McKay, J. (2023, June 27). 2023 NCAA Men’s College World Series Marks Most-Watched MCWS on ESPN Platforms on Record. ESPN Press Room. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://espnpressroom.com/us/press-releases/2023/06/2023-ncaa-mens-college-world-series-marks-most-watched-mcws-on-espn-platforms-on-record/ Myskja, B. K. (2008). The categorical imperative and the ethics of trust. Ethics and Information Technology, 10, 213-220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-008-9173-7 NCAA (2023, May 30). Sixteen regional sites selected for 2023 NCAA Division I Baseball Championship. NCAA.com. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.ncaa.com/news/baseball/article/2023-05-28/sixteen-regional-sites-selected-2023-ncaa-division-i-baseball-championship NCAA (2024). The 16 Principles for Conduct of Intercollegiate Athletics. NCAA.org. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2016/7/6/the-16-principles-for-conduct-of-intercollegiate-athletics.aspx NCAA.com (2024, March 29). NCAA Team Statistics. NCAA.com. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.ncaa.com/stats/baseball/d1/current/team/486 NCAA.org (2007, August 1). Sports Wagering, Bylaw 10.02.1. NCAA.org. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://web3.ncaa.org/lsdbi/search/bylawView?id=19453#result NCAA.org (2023, January 1). Show-Cause Order, Bylaw 19.02.3. NCAA.org. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://web3.ncaa.org/lsdbi/search/bylawView?id=11781 Nemec, D., Shea, S., Hanks, S., Johnson, D., Raskin, D., Gilbert, T. W., Cohen, A., Glickman, J., & Green, D. (2005). The Baseball Chronicle (p. 8). Publications International, Ltd. Purdum, D. (2023, May 4). Alabama baseball coach Brad Bohannon fired after link to suspicious bets, sources say. ESPN.com. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.espn.com/college-baseball/story/_/id/37409279/alabama-fires-baseball-coach-brad-bohannon-amid-betting-probe Purdum, D. (2024, February 1). Brad Bohannon, ex-Alabama coach, sanctioned in betting scandal. ESPN.com. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.espn.com/espn/betting/story/_/id/39436918/brad-bohannon-ex-alabama-baseball-coach-sanctioned-betting-scandal Robinson, P. A. (Director). (1989). Field of Dreams [Film]. Gordon Company. Statista (2023, September 7). Market size of the sports betting and lottery sector worldwide from 2013 to 2022, with a forecast for 2023. Statista.com. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/1186240/sports-betting-and-lottery-industry-market-size-global/ The History Channel (n.d.). This Day in History: Pete Rose gets booted from baseball. History.com. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/pete-rose-gets-booted-from-baseball The Shoeless Joe Jackson Museum And Baseball Library (n.d.). Joe’s Story. ShoelessJoeJackson.org. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.shoelessjoejackson.org/joe U.S. Integrity (2024). About U.S. Integrity. USintegrity.com. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://www.usintegrity.com/about University of Alabama Athletics (2023, April 28). Ninth-Inning Rally Comes Up Short in Baseball’s 8-6 Loss at Top-Ranked LSU. RollTide.com. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://rolltide.com/news/2023/4/28/ninth-inning-rally-comes-up-short-in-baseballs-8-6-loss-at-top-ranked-lsu She’s Drunk, But Should She Go Home? A Case Study Using Dialogic Ethics By Jenna Petrohoy Abstract Elle King was drunk and did not want to go home. This is what began the evening of Dolly Parton’s 78th birthday celebration at the Grand Ole Opry in the Ryman Auditorium when King got on stage to perform. The purpose of this case study is to critique the Opry’s decision using dialogic ethics as a framework to provide further insight. Dialogic ethics is an ethical philosophy where there is a conversation between two or more parties to come to a point of a decision. Using Land’s model, humaneness, truth, and harmony have been identified as major principles and values of dialogic ethics. Under dialogic ethics, all stakeholders would engage in conversation face-to-face, to come to a decision regarding the situation. The Opry would apologize and ask for understanding of the situation by explaining that King is human and makes mistakes. They would still apologize to the audience members for a performance sub-par of their expectations but encourage empathy towards all stakeholders. Studying this case can provide a reminder that conversation through social media and the internet is not necessarily dialogue. Human qualities such as facial expressions, body language, and intonation are missed from the medium resulting in a lack of connection, deeper meaning, and thorough resolution. Keywords: Elle King, Dolly Parton, Grand Ole Opry, Musician, Dialogical Ethics Introduction Elle King was drunk and did not want to go home. This is what began the evening of Dolly Parton’s 78th birthday celebration at the Grand Ole Opry in the Ryman Auditorium, when King got on stage to perform. Her inebriation was obvious as expletives boomed off the walls. She received major backlash for her behavior as audience members and online fans were upset. The purpose of this case study is to critique the Opry’s decision using dialogic ethics as a framework to provide further insight. Elle King Elle King is a pop, country, and rock artist who has blazed genres (Opry). She is the daughter of Rob Schneider and London King and grew up in the limelight (Opry). She is best known for her songs “Ex’s & Oh’s” and “Drunk (And I Don’t Wanna Go Home).” Her personality is loud and vivacious, and her music represents this as well. King is a multi-platinum and award-winning artist in both rock and country genres (Red Light Management). Dolly Parton Dolly Parton is an icon, for both her music, fashion, and acting. She came to fame in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and her career only exploded upwards (Opry). Parton’s looks have been a major part of her brand as she continues to empower others using her platform. Her iconic songs such as “Jolene” and “I Will Always Love You” alongside her performances in 9 to 5 and Rhinestone have brought her name to millions of households across the world (Country Music Hall of Fame 2023). Her accomplishments in music also align with her business accomplishments, in the opening of her theme park Dollywood, and record label Dolly Records (Country Music Hall of Fame 2023). As of the present, she has won thirteen Academy of Country Music Awards, nine Country Music Awards, and ten Grammys (Country Music Hall of Fame 2023). Dialogic Ethics Dialogic ethics is an ethical philosophy established by Martin Buber, Emmanuel Levinas, Jurgen Habermas, and Mikhail Bakhtin (Arnett, 2008; Nealson, 1997). Each philosopher adds various pieces to the dialogic theory, and how it should be used in practice. Overall, the practice of dialogic ethics is in the name – dialogue. There is a conversation between two or more parties to come to a point of a decision. However, dialogic ethics goes much deeper than merely a conversation. According to Jeffrey Nealson (1997, p. 131), “it is precisely in the movements of seeking, listening, and answering that intersubjective ethics of response might be born.” In these “movements,” deeper understanding can be created between two parties. The dialogue must be deeper than a light conversation or small talk, in order to provide this meaning. Arnett (2008) dives deeper into dialogic ethics by stating it is “a historically responsive answer to differing ethical backgrounds that situate contrary and contrasting senses of the ‘good’” (p. 79). These different backgrounds could be two parties disagreeing on the right answer, or the answer that will provide the best outcome for all. In order to provide a responsive answer to the dilemma at hand, the dialogue must deepen beyond a conversation. Imre Ungvári-Zrínyi (2003) describes how this dialogue “consists in the transcendence of the ego’s isolation and the instrumentalist character of their connections by emphasizing the elements of encounter, the recognition of otherness, and the cooperation in carrying their interests into effect” (p. 237). In other words, both parties must recognize the humanity in one another and that no one person is considered better than the other. The discussion must revolve around speaking one’s truth, listening to that truth, and then responding. Gurvetich (1990) suggests thinking of one another as an alien in another universe, attempting to find understanding between one another. Deep explanation and thought into one’s words will help transform a conversation into dialogue. Land Decision Pyramid The Point of Decision Pyramid (Land et al., 2014) is the method used in this case analysis to provide deeper insight into the ethical decisions made on a public scale. It allows the analyst to remove any preconceived biases or judgments and view the situation through a new lens. It starts at the base by identifying an ethical philosophy to follow. Next, it establishes the facts of the case, the values and principles aligned with the base philosophy, and any stakeholders or loyalties. Finally, it determines a decision based on processes identified previously (Johnson, n.d.). Facts of Case Our case begins at the Opry’s birthday celebration for Dolly Parton, at the Ryman Auditorium. To celebrate Parton’s 78th birthday, the Opry invited several artists to play some of her best hits. The event was ticketed, allowing a live audience to share in the celebrations. Elle King was one of the artists set to play. During her time on stage, she performed Parton’s song, “Marry Me” along with her bandmates. As she was performing the tribute, she began to sing the incorrect lyrics (Farthing, 2024). King appeared inebriated on stage while performing due to her movements and not knowing the words. She then confirmed her state when she told the audience “Hi my name is Elle King. I’m fcking hammered” (Farthing, 2024). She continuously asked the audience to not tell Dolly, that they paid for her poor performance but were not getting their money back (Farthing, 2024). A few videos of the performance went viral on social media, with a wave of backlash for the singer’s performance on X (Farthing 2024). One audience member, Judas Belmont shared on X “I wish she would’ve been there because Elle King ruined the night with her horrible, drunk, and profane performance. Dolly Parton would’ve been mortified. For our first time at The Opry, it was a shame we all had to witness that” that gained major attention by the Opry (Belmont, 2024; TMX & Van de Riet, 2024). Case Analysis Principles and Values Using Land’s model, three principles and values have been identified as major aspects of dialogic ethics (Land et. al. 2014). Humaneness takes the most precedence since dialogic ethics is comprised of connecting to the human qualities in each other. Under humaneness, the Opry would sit down with King and have a conversation as to why she behaved the way she did. They would try to gain a deeper understanding of her human emotions, qualities, and behaviors through conversation. The Opry would also contact the audience members and try to have a dialogue regarding their feelings toward the performance. Focusing on meeting people face-to-face and discussing the matters at hand with the notion of humaneness would help solidify a decision. Truth is the second principle and value with utmost weight in this case. For true dialogue and human connection to proceed, there must be a level of trust instated that will allow each person to feel comfortable speaking their truth. In dialogic ethics, there is no superior or seniority, every person is human which levels this playing field. This can allow people to feel comfortable speaking the truth about their actions and feelings. The Opry also needs to tell their stakeholders the truth regarding the situation and be honest if providing a statement to the public. The last value is Harmony. In dialogue, there may be arguments or debates, but remaining harmonious will allow for thorough discussion to be held. It may seem contradictory to hold harmony as a principle when people may hold back their thoughts to keep the peace. However, in true dialogue, people can share their truth without being disrespectful or demeaning to the other person. Emotions may be expressed, but keeping harmony between the parties will allow for truth to be shared comfortably and accurately. Stakeholders and Loyalties In this case, there are several shareholders due to the presence of social media. To begin, Elle King is the primary shareholder, due to her performance and public presence in the music industry. Next, there is the Opry, renowned for its presentations of country artists. They are who invited King to perform during Parton’s birthday celebration. The audience members during the performance are also shareholders in this case since they purchased tickets to witness the event in person. They spent their money to witness an enjoyable and entertaining performance celebrating Dolly Parton. Parton is also a shareholder in this case since the performance was in celebration of her birthday. The entire evening was about Parton, including the artists performing her songs. Due to the performance going viral on the internet and social media, fans of King, the Opry, and Parton were able to voice their opinions on the matter. Once a video of this caliber goes viral, it’s hard, or even nearly impossible to stop its spread. This means viewers of the performance online, who may not be included as fans, can be considered shareholders. In a sense, they were audience members too of King’s performance due to their ability to partake in the conversation regarding the controversy. Point of Decision Under dialogic ethics, all stakeholders would engage in conversation face-to-face. They would follow the obligation to speak, listen, and respond (Gurvetich, 1990). This would be difficult to achieve in reality since so many stakeholders are involved. Keeping dialogic ethics in mind, the key stakeholders, King, Parton, and the Opry would meet to discuss the performance. Each would come to a meeting with the understanding that each person is human, in order to recognize deeply why the behavior took place (Ungvári-Zrínyi, 2003). The Opry, King, and Elle could conduct a meeting with the audience members as well, to recognize their thoughts on the matter, and gain more understanding between all parties. Should the Opry apologize on behalf of King’s behavior to the public? Yes, but their apology will take into consideration humaneness, harmony, and truth regarding the dialogue that occurred. Ticketholders and audience members are large stakeholders so their voices would need to be recognized. However, a dialogue between the Opry, King, and the audience would allow for more understanding of why King made the choices she did. The Opry would ask for understanding of the situation by explaining that King is human and makes mistakes. They would still apologize to the audience members for a performance sub-par of their expectations but encourage empathy towards all stakeholders. Case Resolution On January 20, the Opry responded to Belmont’s tweet apologizing. They said, “Hi Judas, we deeply regret and apologize for the language that was used during last night’s second Opry performance” (Grand Ole Opry, 2024). Then on January 25, King announces she is rescheduling 5 shows on her Instagram (Lenthang, 2024). She does not explain why, but her followers assume it is due to the scandal surrounding her performance. During this time people are questioning why she has not made a statement. They also are questioning Parton’s feelings on the matter. On February 13, Parton commented on the situation in an interview with Extra (Brito, 2024). She says King had a little too much to drink and is human (Brito, 2024). She asks for folks to forgive King for her mistakes and mentions she has been going through a tough time (Brito, 2024). Finally, on March 10, King comments about the situation. Over a month later, she says “To everyone sending me love because I’m human and already talked to Dolly…I love you. To everyone who told me to kll myself I love you too” (Caldwell, 2024; King, 2024). This caption is very apropos to King’s personality and brand, as well as her behavior during the performance. Discussion Dialogic ethics provides an interesting lens to view the decision made by the Opry. Especially in today’s world where musicians and celebrities are constantly surrounded by film, photography, and social media, they are scrupulously watched and judged for their decisions. Dialogic ethics emphasizes leaving this world behind and focusing on the humanity between individuals through discourse. While discourse may happen online, an in-person dialogue can create a connection and remove people from their egos (Gurvetich, 1990). Social media can be a great place to connect and discuss ideas with thousands of people across the globe. It allows for the average Joe to peek into celebrities’ lives, or even become a celebrity themselves. Social media has its drawbacks as well. Tone can be misconstrued through text easily, and with millions of people online, posts can go viral in minutes. This can turn a bad situation into a worse one at lightning speed. Studying this case can provide a reminder that conversation through social media and the internet is not necessarily dialogue. Human qualities such as facial expressions, body language, and intonation are missed from the medium. Instead of resolving conflict or making important decisions through an online source, in-person connections can provide a deeper meaning and more thorough resolution. As long as the values and principles found in dialogic ethics are followed, a thorough and meaningful discussion can be held to find a resolution. Questions for Further Discussion - What other ethical frameworks could provide a different outcome for this case? - Do you agree with the Opry’s decision to apologize for Elle King’s performance? Why or why not? - How would the decision change if we focused on a different stakeholder’s decision? Explain. Extra Resources for Consideration Below are links to multimedia resources to provide extra context for this case. Video of King’s performance (NSFW): https://www.tiktok.com/@auctioneergirl/video/7326552459944545578?_t=8lQSQpsVLkV&_r=1 Video of Dolly Parton’s interview with Extra: References Arnett, R. C., Harden Fritz, J. M., & Bell, L. M. (2009). Communication ethics literacy: Dialogue and difference. SAGE Publications, Inc., https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452204048 Belmont, J. [@JudasBellmont]. (2024, Jan. 20). I wish she would’ve been there because Elle King ruined the night with her horrible, drunk, and profane performance. Dolly [Tweet]. X. https://twitter.com/JudasBellmont/status/1748587976081182865?s=20 Brito, C. (2024, February 13). Dolly Parton says to forgive singer Elle King after Grand Ole Opry Performance. CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/dolly-parton-elle-king-performance-grand-ole-opry/ Caldwell, S. (2024, March 10). Elle king addresses controversial Dolly Parton tribute in New Post: “I’m human.” TODAY.com. https://www.today.com/popculture/music/elle-king-dolly-parton-grand-ole-opry-controversy-rcna135239 Dolly Parton. Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum. (2023, April 27). https://www.countrymusichalloffame.org/hall-of-fame/dolly-parton Farthing, L. (2024, January 23). What happened to Elle King at the grand ole opry?. Holler. https://holler.country/news/breaking/what-happened-to-elle-king-at-the-grand-ole-opry/ Grand Ole Opry [@opry]. (2024, Jan. 20). Hi Judas, we deeply regret and apologize for the language that was used during last night’s second Opry performance. [Tweet]. X. https://twitter.com/opry/status/1748781674521895343?s=20 Gurevitch, Z. D. (1990). The Dialogic Connection and the Ethics of Dialogue. The British Journal of Sociology, 41(2), 181–196. https://doi.org/10.2307/590869 Johnson, J. (n.d.). What if? ethics cases using various philosophies for decision-making. OER Commons. https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100659/student/389534?section=1 Land, M., Fuse, K., & Hornaday, B. W. (2014). Contemporary media ethics: A practical guide for students, scholars and professionals in a globalized world (2nd ed.). Spokane, WA: Marquette Books. Lenthang, M. (2024, January 25). Elle King reschedules 5 concerts after her “hammered” grand ole opry performance. NBCNews.com. https://www.nbcnews.com/pop-culture/pop-culture-news/elle-king-reschedules-5-concerts-hammered-grand-ole-opry-performance-rcna135708 Nealon, J. T. (1997). The Ethics of Dialogue: Bakhtin and Levinas. College English, 59(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.2307/378545 Opry. (n.d.-a). Dolly Parton. https://www.opry.com/artists/dolly-parton Opry. (n.d.-b). Elle King. https://www.opry.com/artists/elle-king TMX staff, & Van de Riet, E. (2024, January 22). Grand Ole opry apologizes for Elle King’s profane performance during Dolly Parton’s birthday show. https://www.wlbt.com. https://www.wlbt.com/2024/01/22/grand-ole-opry-apologizes-elle-kings-profane-performance-during-dolly-partons-birthday-show/ Ungvári-Zrínyi, I. (2003). Dialogic Ethics for Business. Society and Economy, 25(2), 235–248. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41471974 A Cosmopolitan Perspective on the Tragic Case of Debra Stevens in Arkansas By Kerri Ellison Abstract The tragic drowning of Debra Stevens in Arkansas, amid a flood emergency, has sparked scrutiny over the management of third-shift dispatching centers. Donna Marie Reneau's contentious handling of Stevens' distress call, captured in a widely discussed recording, underscores systemic failures in emergency response. Key stakeholders, including Governor Asa Hutchinson and the Fort Smith Police Department, have called for reforms, echoing the principles of cosmopolitanism, emphasizing empathy, justice, and accountability. Act 660's relevance in establishing standards for dispatch centers and accountability mechanisms adds urgency to discussions surrounding training, staffing, and ethical governance. Keywords: Emergency Response, Third-Shift Dispatching, Cosmopolitanism, Accountability, Systemic Failures. Towards Ethical and Effective Emergency Response: A Cosmopolitan Perspective on the Tragic Case of Debra Stevens in Arkansas In tragedy lies a stark reminder of the critical importance of effective emergency response systems and the ethical responsibilities they entail. The case study surrounding the untimely death of Debra Stevens in Arkansas serves as a poignant illustration of the repercussions that can arise from mismanagement within third-shift dispatching centers. As floodwaters engulfed Stevens' vehicle during her routine newspaper route, her distress call to 911 revealed not only the dire circumstances she faced but also the alarming inadequacies in the response she received. The conversation between Stevens and the dispatcher, Donna Marie Reneau, captured the public's attention, igniting discussions about the ethical implications of Reneau's actions and the broader systemic failures within the emergency response infrastructure. Through the lens of cosmopolitanism, which advocates for universal principles of empathy, justice, and accountability, this case study prompts critical inquiry into the management practices of third-shift dispatching centers and calls for urgent reforms to ensure the safety and well-being of individuals in times of crisis. Background A tragic incident in Arkansas involving the death of Debra Stevens, a woman who drowned after floodwaters swept away her SUV, has garnered attention due to the response of the 911 dispatcher during her distress call. The dispatcher's response, captured in a recording of the call, included scolding Stevens for panicking and not offering advice on navigating the floodwaters, which was against policy. Debra was on her regular newspaper route when a flash flood swept up her car near “5801 Kinkead Ave in Smith County, Arkansas” (Clara Turnage, 2019). Stevens told the dispatcher she was worried the floodwaters would ruin her “brand new phone,” preventing responders from finding her (Andrew, 2019). The dispatcher's response to Stevens's concern was, “Do you really care about your brand-new phone?” “I mean, you’re over there crying for your life. Who cares about your phone?” The dispatcher also told Stevens to “shut up” and scolded her for driving into the water shortly before the call cut out (Andrew, 2019). The 911 call documenting Stevens' final moments revealed Reneau's contentious interactions, including admonishments and assertions that exacerbated the distressing situation. Despite efforts from first responders, Stevens “tragically succumbed to the rising floodwaters,” sparking public scrutiny and calls for accountability surrounding Reneau's conduct during the call (Andrew, 2019). Donna Marie Reneau, previously honored as 'dispatcher of the year' at the Fort Smith Police Department, found herself at the center of “controversy following her resignation on August 23, 2019.” (KTVE-myarlamiss.com, 2019) This resignation coincided with a tragic incident involving a 911 call from Debra Stevens, a drowning victim. During the harrowing 22-minute call, Reneau faced criticism for her handling of the situation. In discussions about improving work conditions at the police department, Reneau emphasized “the importance of sincerity and accountability, citing a desire for better support structures for third-shift dispatchers like herself.” She noted “a lack of immediate supervision during her shift, spanning five years,” leading to concerns about self-care and distress management after handling high-stress calls (KTVE-myarlamiss.com, 2019). The incident drew widespread attention, prompting Governor Asa Hutchinson to address the need for “enhanced telecommunication training, emphasizing the importance of compassion and clear-headedness in emergency response situations” (KTVE-myarlamiss.com, 2019). In one report it said “Had a supervisor been in the room -- as Pitts suggested one always should be -- the supervisor could have noticed that Reneau was in distress” (Clara Turnage, 2019). The tragic outcome of Stevens' call underscores the urgency for improved training and investment in 911 systems to ensure efficient and effective emergency response. Cosmopolitanism The Cosmopolitanism philosophy will be applied to this case study. Cosmopolitanism, as a philosophy, “emphasizes the idea that all individuals are part of a single, global community, and it promotes the idea of treating others with respect, dignity, and empathy regardless of their background or circumstances” (Finlayson & Rees, 2023, 112). Habermas emphasizes “the importance of universal moral principles, such as those related to democracy, human rights, and the rule of law, as the foundation of cosmopolitan politics.” These principles serve as the “legitimizing political institutions and guiding decision-making process” They are considered to be “universal in nature” and apply to all individuals regardless of their nationality or cultural background (Finlayson & Rees, 2023, 111-115). Habermas advocates for the “constitutionalization of international law, wherein these universal moral principles are codified into legal norms and institutions at the global level” (Finlayson & Rees, 2023, 141). This process involves establishing a framework of laws and regulations that govern the behavior of states and individuals in the international arena, to promote peace, justice, and human rights. Central to Habermas's cosmopolitanism is the “deliberative discourse, in which individuals engage in rational and inclusive discussions to reach a consensus on matters of public concern” (Finlayson & Rees, 2023, 142). In this process, different perspectives and values are considered, and decisions are made through reasoned argumentation rather than coercion or domination. While Habermas acknowledges the importance of democratic governance at both the national and international levels, he recognizes the challenges of implementing full-fledged democracy in a global context. Instead, he proposes a model of "constitutional patriotism" wherein democratic principles are embedded in the constitutional framework of political institutions, ensuring accountability, transparency, and the protection of individual rights ( Finlayson & Rees, 2023, 161). Kwame Anthony Appiah was another philosopher who gave another great insight into Cosmopolitanism philosophy. To expand our knowledge of other cultures, Appiah's main goal in his work was to “have conversations about cultures, beliefs, and values without having the excuse of labeling another culture's belief right or wrong” (Mirgani, 2024). Using Cosmopolitanism, he argues, we can create a more united community. Case Analysis The principles and values for this case consist of (justice, truth/trust, humane, stewardship, diversity, and loyalty), and are viewed as essential components of cosmopolitan politics, providing the moral and normative foundation for a more just and inclusive global order. Through the application of universal moral principles, the constitutionalization of international law, and the promotion of deliberative discourse and civic solidarity, Habermas seeks to “reconcile the tensions between national sovereignty and global governance while advancing the cause of cosmopolitan democracy” ( Finlayson & Rees, 2023, 178). The concept of justice is inherent in the discussion of accountability and responsibility, particularly regarding Donna Marie Reneau's handling of the distress call. In a cosmopolitan framework, justice involves treating individuals fairly and ensuring that actions have consequences within the broader global community. Trust is crucial in emergency response situations, and implicitly emphasizes the importance of truthfulness and trustworthiness. This is evident in Governor Asa Hutchinson's call for clear-headedness and compassion, highlighting the necessity of honest and reliable communication in serving the common good. It underscores the need for empathy and sensitivity in emergency response, aligning with the cosmopolitan principle of recognizing the humanity and vulnerability of all individuals. Reneau's contentious interactions are contrasted with the values of compassion and dignity, emphasizing the importance of humane treatment even in high-stress situations. The discussion on improving work conditions and support structures for third-shift dispatchers reflects a sense of stewardship towards the well-being of individuals in the profession. This aligns with cosmopolitan ideals of care and solidarity, emphasizing the responsibility to safeguard the dignity and welfare of all members of society. While not explicitly mentioned in the provided excerpt, the cosmopolitan philosophy inherently values diversity and inclusivity. The call for enhanced telecommunication training and investment in 911 systems suggests a “recognition of the diverse needs and vulnerabilities within society, emphasizing the importance of inclusive approaches to emergency response.” (Holcroft, 2018). Loyalty, in a cosmopolitan context, extends beyond narrow loyalties to one's immediate community to encompass a broader commitment to the common good of humanity. This is reflected in the advocacy for improved training and infrastructure, highlighting a loyalty to the principles of justice, compassion, and solidarity that underpin cosmopolitanism. The Pyramid model of Analysis, which is “a model for comparing decisions” was developed by Mitch Land and is used during the process to help guide to a point of decision (Land et al, 2014). The stakeholders include Debra Stevens, Donna Reneau, Governor Asa Hutchinson, first responders, the Fort Smith Police Department, third-shift dispatchers, the local community, and the media and the public’s opinion. Debra Stevens is the primary victim of the incident, whose life was tragically lost. She represents the individual directly impacted by the emergency response system's actions or lack thereof. Donna Marie Reneau, the 911 dispatcher at the center of the controversy, is a key actor in the emergency response system. Her actions and decisions directly influenced the outcome of the situation and subsequently attracted public scrutiny. The governor's response to the incident highlights the role of government and policymakers as stakeholders. Their actions in addressing the need for enhanced telecommunication training and investment in 911 systems impact the overall effectiveness and fairness of emergency response protocols. This includes the emergency personnel who were involved in the response efforts to Debra Stevens's distress call. Their actions and capabilities are crucial in determining the effectiveness of emergency response systems. As Reneau's employer, the police department bears responsibility for its employee's actions and the effectiveness of its emergency response protocols. Reneau's advocacy for better support structures highlights the concerns and needs of third-shift dispatchers, who are directly impacted by work conditions and stress management practices within the emergency response system. The community in Fort Smith, Arkansas, where the incident occurred, is also a stakeholder. Their trust in local emergency services and perceptions of safety are influenced by the effectiveness and compassion of emergency response efforts. Lastly, media coverage and public opinion play a significant role in shaping perceptions of the incident and influencing subsequent actions and policies related to emergency response systems. Given the distressing circumstances surrounding the tragic loss of Debra Stevens' life due to a mismanagement third-shift 911 dispatching center, it raises significant questions about the accountability of the Fort Smith Police Department management. Should they be held responsible for failing to provide adequate support for the third-shift operations, thereby hindering the ability of dispatchers and first responders to respond to emergencies like the one involving Debra Stevens effectively? Discussion Governor Asa Hutchinson's response to the incident highlights the importance of compassion and clear-headedness in emergency response situations. These values align with cosmopolitan ideals of empathy and rationality. Cosmopolitanism encourages individuals, including emergency responders like dispatchers, to approach their duties with sensitivity and a clear mind, recognizing the humanity and vulnerability of those in distress. Reneau's emphasis on improving work conditions for third-shift dispatchers reflects a concern for the well-being and dignity of individuals in her profession. Cosmopolitanism promotes the idea of solidarity and mutual support among all members of society, regardless of their roles or backgrounds. By advocating for better support structures and addressing issues such as self-care and distress management, Reneau demonstrates a commitment to the welfare of herself and her colleagues, aligning with cosmopolitan principles of care and solidarity. The incident prompts discussions about the need for enhanced telecommunication training and investment in 911 systems. From a cosmopolitan perspective, such investments are essential for promoting the common good and ensuring the safety and well-being of all individuals within society. By improving training and infrastructure for emergency response, society can better fulfill its obligations to protect and assist those in need, fostering a more just and compassionate global community. Act 660 in Arkansas pertains to emergency services and communications. Specifically, it “addresses issues related to 911 emergency call systems, emergency medical services, and dispatch procedures” (Rains, 2024). Act 660, known as the Public Safety Act of 2019, “requires nearly every Arkansas city and county emergency dispatch center to consolidate into one 911 call center per county” (Bucker, 2023). The distress call involving the drowning of Debra Stevens and an understaffed dispatch center, Act 660 may be relevant in several ways. “Standards for the training and staffing of dispatching centers to ensure they have an adequate number of trained personnel to handle emergencies effectively” is the main priority of Act 660 (9-1-1, 2022). If the dispatch center involved in the incident was understaffed, it might violate the requirements outlined in Act 660. Act 660 may establish mechanisms for accountability and oversight of emergency dispatch centers to ensure they are operating under state regulations and providing timely and effective responses to emergency calls. If the dispatch center failed to respond appropriately to the distress call involving Debra Stevens due to understaffing or other issues, there could be “implications for accountability under the provisions of the act” (9-1-1, 2022). In conclusion, the tragic case study surrounding the untimely death of Debra Stevens in Arkansas serves as a stark reminder of the critical importance of effective emergency response systems and the ethical responsibilities they entail. The distressing circumstances of Stevens' final moments, captured in the harrowing 911 call, shed light on the alarming inadequacies within third-shift dispatching centers and the broader systemic failures in emergency response infrastructure. Through the lens of cosmopolitanism, which advocates for universal principles of empathy, justice, and accountability, this case study prompts critical inquiry into the management practices of third-shift dispatching centers and calls for urgent reforms to ensure the safety and well-being of individuals in times of crisis. The principles of justice, truth, humanity, stewardship, diversity, and loyalty, inherent in cosmopolitan politics, provide a moral and normative foundation for addressing the shortcomings revealed in this case. Governor Asa Hutchinson's response underscores the need for enhanced telecommunication training and investment in 911 systems, aligning with cosmopolitan ideals of compassion and clear-headedness in emergency response situations. Donna Marie Reneau's advocacy for better support structures for third-shift dispatchers reflects a commitment to the welfare of emergency personnel and the broader community, echoing cosmopolitan principles of care and solidarity. Moreover, Act 660 in Arkansas, which addresses issues related to emergency services and communications, may provide avenues for accountability and oversight to ensure that dispatch centers operate following state regulations and provide timely and effective responses to emergency calls. In essence, the tragic loss of Debra Stevens's life serves as a poignant reminder of the urgent need for systemic reforms and investments in emergency response infrastructure to uphold the universal values of justice, compassion, and solidarity within our global community. Through concerted efforts to address the shortcomings highlighted in this case, we can strive towards building a more just, inclusive, and responsive emergency response system that honors the dignity and humanity of all individuals in times of crisis. Discussion questions Three questions to stimulate conversation or the case would be: how might the principles of cosmopolitanism, such as empathy, justice, and accountability, inform an analysis of Donna Marie Reneau's handling of the distress call from Debra Stevens? Considering the stakeholders involved, including Debra Stevens, Donna Marie Reneau, Governor Asa Hutchinson, and the Fort Smith Police Department, how could the application of cosmopolitan ideals lead to better support structures for third-shift dispatchers and improvements in emergency response systems? In light of Act 660 in Arkansas, which addresses issues related to emergency services and communications, how might the incident involving Debra Stevens prompt discussions about the need for accountability, training, and staffing within emergency dispatch centers, aligning with cosmopolitan principles of justice and fairness? References 9-1-1 legislation in Arkansas - 911 board. 911. (2022, January 14). https://911board.arkansas.gov/regulations/legislation/ Andrew, S. (2019, December 23). A 911 dispatcher who told a drowning woman to “shut up” will not face charges. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2019/12/23/us/arkansas-woman-drowned-911-responder-not-charged -trnd/index.html Buckner, B. (10AD). Arkansas 911 dispatch centers to consolidate \| thv11.com. THV11.com. https://www.thv11.com/article/news/local/arkansas-911-dispatch-consolidating/91-fb69369 f-c218-4050-b39f-f611d356f6c3 Clara Turnage, T. S. (2019, December 21). Review by Fort Smith Police urges 911 changes; August drowning wake-up call, it says. Arkansas Democrat Gazette. https://www.arkansasonline.com/news/2019/dec/21/review-by-police-urges-911-changes-2 019/ Finlayson, J. G., & Rees, D. H. (2023, September 15). Jürgen Habermas. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/habermas/ Holcroft, C. (2018, March). APCO Institute Public Safety Telecommunicator 1, Seventh Edition. https://www.dps.arkansas.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/LESSON-PLAN-CHAPTER-5. pdf KTVE - myarklamiss.com. (2019, September 5). Update: Arkansas dispatcher who scolded drowning victim tells interim police chief she liked to “help people in a time of an emergency.” https://www.myarklamiss.com/news/911-dispatcher-mocks-drowning-victim/ Land, M., Fuse, K., & Hornaday, B. W. (2014). Contemporary Media Ethics: A practical guide for students, scholars and professionals in a Globalized World. Marquette Books. Mirgani, S. (2024, March 14). Anthony Appiah Lectures on ideas of Cosmopolitanism. Center for International and Regional Studies. https://cirs.qatar.georgetown.edu/event/anthony-appiah-lectures-ideas-cosmopolitanism/ Rains, B. (2024, March 15). Construction complete on new consolidated 911 Dispatch Center in Crawford County. KHBS. https://www.4029tv.com/article/construction-complete-on-new-consolidated-911-dispatch- center-in-crawford-county/60217448#:~:text=all%20the%20services.%22-,Act%20660%2 C%20known%20as%20the%20Public%20Safety%20Act%20of%202019,911%20call%20c enter%20per%20county. A Communitarianism Approach to the Government’s Implementation of Advanced Drunk and Impaired Driving Technology By Ethan A. Bratton Abstract In November of 2021, Congress passed the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. Hidden in this bill was a section about Advanced Impaired Driving Technology. This technology would have a huge impact on not only car buyers, but also car manufacturers after 2026 by requiring them to include Advanced Impaired Driving Technology as standard equipment in new vehicles. This study suggests that buy using the communitarianism approach and Land Point of Decision Pyramid to combat drunk driving, the government came up with a solution that is just and fair to the community. Keywords: Communitarianism, NHTSA, kill switch, automobiles, drunk driving, congress, freedom, driving Your New Backseat Driver: A Communitarianism Approach to the Government’s Implementation of Advanced Drunk and Impaired Driving Technology Americans love their cars and they love their freedom. Almost as much as the enjoy having a car, they love the feeling of getting a new car. Most Americans own their vehicle for only five years before swapping it for a new one (Safane, 2024). Cars have become a necessity in the lives of many people. They use it to get to work, go to school, or take a trip to visit family. Cars provide a sense of freedom not offered by many other things out there. The government, however, does have a say in this freedom. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) proposes bills to keep the roadways as safe as possible. The American people give up some of their liberties to enable to NHTSA to keep them safer on the road.. The recent Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act form 2021 proposed a bill that proves to be a perfect example of that, Americans giving up some freedom for the protection of the community. The purpose of this case study is to provide critical analysis of the NHTSA’s Advanced Impaired Driving Technology using Communitarianism as an ethical framework. Background The Kill Switch The automotive community is no stranger to governmental restrictions. Going back to the late 1960s auto manufacturers have been required to implement certain things on their vehicles by the federal government. The governmental restriction at hand, however, involved more personal liberties than most prior restrictions. To fully understand the scope of this case, it is important to understand some key phrases. First and foremost, it is important to understand what a “kill switch” is and what it does. A kill switch is device that, when activated, prevents a vehicle from starting (Wawanesa Insurance, 2023). These switches come in many different styles from fuel system relays, battery disconnects, remote car battery switches, ignition wire switch, and fuse box switches. Fuel system relays keep fuel from getting to the engine, keeping it from running. Battery disconnects and remote battery switches prevent power from getting to the starter. Ignition wire switches put a break in the car’s ignition wire preventing it from starting. Fuse box switches blocks power at the fuse box so it can’t get to the rest of the vehicle (Wawanesa Insurance, 2023). All of these switches prevent the vehicle from being driven as intended. It is important to note that the phrase “kill switch” often refers to technologies like ignition and transmission interlocks which can prevent motor vehicle’s from being operated if alcohol is detected (NHTSA, 2024). The NHTSA has not officially released what technology will be instated, but they have said that it will limit one’s ability to operate their vehicle if impairment is detected. Driver Alcohol Detection System The Driver Alcohol Detection System for Safety (DADDS) is the primary agent in detecting driver impairment. DADDS is a cooperative research program between the NHTSA and Automotive Coalition for Traffic Safety (ACTS) that aims to develop minimally invasive methods for testing one’s level of impairment (Federal Register, 2024). Two methods are being researched that could detect BAC through touch sensors on the steering wheel and breath sensors that capture exhaled breath. Both of these methods would actively monitor the operator of the motor vehicle and their BAC to make sure they are fit to drive. If the system deems them unfit to drive, Advanced Impaired Driving Technology would take over to prevent the operator from driving. The NHTSA has made it clear on multiple occasions that neither the government would have access to the information gained by DADSS. All information would be kept internally in the vehicle. But, there are still security concerns regarding the potential misuse of data. Communitarianism This case will be evaluated using the communitarianism ethical framework. Communitarianism focusses mainly on what is best for the community. Since the community at large is considered, some freedoms of the individual may need to be limited. Communities of people shape the moral and political judgements people in the community feel obligated to support (Bell, 2020). Communitarians value working with their fellow community members to bring about changes in values, policies and habits that improve the lives of the most people in the community (The Arthur W. Page Center, n.d.). As can be seen in Arneson’s interview with Clifford Christian in Exploring Communication Ethics, communitarianism contradicts the normal individualistic lifestyle that is so prevalent in America. Instead, it suggests that the people of the community have a social responsibility to others in the community (Arneson, 2007). This social responsibility may require one to sacrifice their personal opinions and wishes for the betterment of the community. This framework is particularly applicable to this case because it affects the entire community of drivers. Anyone looking to buy a car after 2026 will have to adhere to this ruling and will have Advanced Impaired Driving Technology in their car. This brings about the question, does this technology do the most good for the community? Analysis Facts of Case Drunk driving has been an ongoing problem in the United States. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), in 2021 approximately 12,600 traffic fatalities were directly cause by alcohol impairment, making it one of the leading causes of traffic deaths (Federal Register, 2024). While alcohol related deaths have decreased over the last 30 years, they are still higher than many deem acceptable. The NHTSA was posed with a question, what is the best way to minimize the amount of traffic deaths caused by alcohol? To combat the drunk driving problem in the country (and traffic crashes in general), the NHTSA introduced a section in the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act about Advanced Impaired Driving Technology. This section proposed Advanced Drunk and Impaired Driving technology that would become standard equipment in all new motor vehicles after 2026 (DeFazio, 2021). This equipment would have two purposes, accurately determine when someone is impaired and prevent or limit the use of the motor vehicle if impairment is detected. The bill states that the level of impairment will be based on blood alcohol content (BAC). The prevention of motor vehicle operation could happen in multiple different ways: fuel system relays, battery disconnects, fuse box kill switches, ignition wire kill switches, remote control car battery switches (Palermo, 2022). These methods do different things, but all accomplish the same goal, restrict one’s ability to operate their motor vehicle. This bill was signed into law in November 2021 but won’t go into effect until 2026. Principles and Values Truth was not openly offered up regarding the Advanced Impaired Driving Technology being included into the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. It was hidden in the bill so the average person who does not read the entire bill would not see it. The government itself has not said much about the proposed driver impairment technology. It is clear that truth isn’t the top priority of the government in this situation. Truth is, however, extremely important to a communitarian. If a person is to give up some freedom for the harmony of the community, they should know what they are giving up and how it will affect them. In addition to truth, harmony is very important when considering something in the scope of communitarianism. While it may require the sacrifice of some freedoms, this bill is interested in creating harmony on the roadways. People in the community have a social responsibility, this responsibility could require some sacrifice for the good of the community. The implementation of Advanced Impaired Driving Technology does just that, take away some freedoms to create a better environment for the community. The government and NHTSA partially used communitarianism while creating this bill. On one hand they are looking out for what is best for the community as small personal liberties are being sacrificed to build a safer community. On the other hand, they were not very upfront about their plan and methodology. Telling the public why this bill is beneficial to the community would have eased the minds of many concerned Americans. This bill does bring about the question, is this a positive change for the community of car drivers? Are the liberties sacrificed for the safety of the community Constitutional and just? Stakeholders/Loyalties Due to the complexity of the automotive industry, there are many stakeholders in this case. Auto manufacturers have a huge stake in the case presented. If the bill is carried out, they will be required to change the way they make vehicles. This change may have impact on sales which would in turn impact suppliers. Suppliers responsible for providing parts to auto manufacturers may have to alter the production of parts to adjust to the possible change in demand for new vehicles. This change would of course be driven by car drivers, the largest group of stakeholders, who drive the demand for both auto manufacturers and suppliers. These changes will impact every new car buyer from 2026 on. How these changes will influence their buying preferences is yet to be seen but could have a positive or negative impact. Some drivers love more technology and would welcome the new tech. Others want a more simplistic vehicle. This technology may also have an impact on the price of vehicle, further influencing customer’s buying preferences. Lastly, pedestrians make up an important group of stakeholders as their lives may be directly impacted by this bill. A large reason for this legislation is to mitigate deaths from drunk driving, some of which are pedestrians. Therefore, this bill could play a huge role in saving the lives of pedestrians. Decision The NHTSA has repeatedly denied requests for comments on the recent bill. This silence speaks volumes to the concern they have for what the public thinks. A communitarian would likely be much more concerned with the thoughts of the community. Since the basis of the communitarianism approach revolves around what is best for the community, it is important to see what the community is feeling. If the community feels that drink driving is a serious issue and wants the government to play a role in decreasing it, then this bill is great. Some freedoms are sacrificed, but it is for the greater good. The Point of Decision Pyramid (Land et al., 2014) puts the theory of communitarianism first, followed by the principles and values, stakeholders, and facts of the case. Through that lens, the community comes first. The government would analyze the problem, drunk driving, and assess that in order to prevent drunk drivers, some freedoms would need to be restricted. This is clearly the approach the NHTSA took when writing this bill. Harmony on the roadways took precedence over some freedoms of the individual, just as it should according to communitarianism. While these new technologies do restrict some freedoms, they do so in a way that is beneficial to the community. Case Resolution While many do support this proposed law, there are also many who strongly disprove of it. There have been movements among Congress to defund this proposed mandate. However, this amendment to defund the “kill switch” bill did not pass as only 199 Republicans and two Democrats voted for it (Office of the Clerk, 2023). This did not keep some members of Congress from voicing their concerns. Congresswomen Harriet Hageman of Wyoming said in an interview that “this is a massively and likely unconstitutional rule and and invasion of privacy on a greater scale than we are used to seeing from our government” (McFarland, 2023). These concerns are shared among many other members of Congress and the country. Some, however, like Wasserman Schulz state that “you don’t have the right to engage in potentially fatal behavior” (McFarland, 2023). This case is still ongoing as the threshold for manufacturers to implement these systems is years out. There are many factors that are still yet to be determined such as what these systems will look like and how they will limit one’s ability to drive their vehicle. In their report to congress, the NHTSA stated a few reasons that could lead to a delay in implementation of this bill. Primarily, as stated above, there is a lot of research required to implement such a major change. Secondly, they must determine what the “safe state” of a vehicle is when driver monitoring technology detects impairment (NHTSA, 2024). Discussion/Conclusion This case both shows both how the government can use communitarianism in a positive way, and how it can miss some key aspects of it. One of the main purposes of government is to provide protection to its people. This protection is provided by the citizens willingly giving up some freedoms. This case requires the community to give up some freedoms but does so in the name of harmony, one of the most important principles of communitarianism. However, the government did not do a great job at making the whole truth known to the public, causing some concerns. To better handle this situation the government could have made their position and reasoning clear. For government to exist, citizens must give up a certain degree of power and freedom. The community is much more willing to give up those freedoms when the intentions of the government is plainly known. The extensiveness of the action needed for this bill does raise some questions. There is still much research and development left to do before these technologies are ready to be implemented in vehicles. Is this use of taxpayer dollars the most effective solution to drunk driving? Are there any alternatives to this bill that prevent people from trying to drive impaired? Does the problem of drunk driving start in the home? At school? As a kid? The problem of drunk driving is quite complex, but the government is taking a first step in ending it. Looking at this case through the lens of communitarianism, the government is on the right track, looking into what is best for the harmony of the community. References Arneson, P. (2007). Exploring communication ethics: interviews with influential scholars in the field. P. Lang. Bell, D. (2020, May 15). Communitarianism. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/communitarianism/ DeFazio, P. A. (2021, October 1). Text - H.R.3684 - 117th Congress (2021-2022): Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. Www.congress.gov. https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/3684/text Department of Transportation. (2023). Advanced Impaired Driving Prevention Technology. https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.gov/files/2023-12/anprm-advanced-impaired-driving-prevention-technology-2127-AM50-web-version-12-12-23.pdf Federal Register. (2024, January 5). Advanced Impaired Driving Prevention Technology. Unblock.federalregister.gov. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/01/05/2023-27665/advanced-impaired-driving-prevention-technology Mcfarland, C. (2023, November 8). Hageman Fights Law That Mandates Government-Controlled “Kill Switch” In All Cars \| Congresswoman Harriet Hageman. Hageman.house.gov. https://hageman.house.gov/media/in-the-news/hageman-fights-law-mandates-government-controlled-kill-switch-all-cars NHTSA. (2024). Advanced Impaired Driving Prevention Technology. https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.gov/files/2023-07/Report-to-Congress-Advanced-Impaired-Driving-Prevention-Technology_07-17-23.pdf Office of the Clerk. (2023, November 7). Roll Call 616 Roll Call 616, Bill Number: H. R. 4820, 118th Congress, 1st Session. Office of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives. https://clerk.house.gov/Votes/2023616 Palermo, M. (2022, April 21). What You Need to Know About the Vehicle Kill Switch Law. Www.palermolawgroup.com. https://www.palermolawgroup.com/blog/vehicle-kill-switch-law Posky, M. (2023, November 7). Editorial: Why Are People Worried About Automotive “Kill Switch” Mandates? Thetruthaboutcars.com. https://www.thetruthaboutcars.com/cars/editorials/why-are-people-worried-about-automotive-kill-switch-mandates-44503639 Rawls, J. (1971). A Theory of Justice. Harvard University Press. Rivers, S. (2023, December 3). Here Are The Facts About The “Kill Switch” Mandate For Cars That’s Already Passed \| Carscoops. Carscoops. https://www.carscoops.com/2023/12/here-are-the-facts-about-the-kill-switch-mandate-for-cars-thats-already-passed/ Safane, J. (2024, January 7). Here’s How Often Americans Replace Their Cars — and How Much They Spend. Nasdaq.com. https://www.nasdaq.com/articles/heres-how-often-americans-replace-their-cars-and-how-much-they-spend The Arthur W. Page Center. (n.d.). Ethical Orientations: Communitarianism - Courses. Www.pagecentertraining.psu.edu. Retrieved April 11, 2024, from https://www.pagecentertraining.psu.edu/public-relations-ethics/ethical-decision-making/lesson-1-where-do-ethics-come-from/ethical-orientations-communitarianism Ushistory.org. (n.d.). The Purposes of Government [ushistory.org]. Www.ushistory.org. https://www.ushistory.org/gov/1a.asp Wawanesa Insurance. (2023, July 25). Preventing Car Theft: How Kill Switches Deter Criminals. Wawanesa Insurance. https://www.wawanesa.com/us/blog/preventing-car-theft-how-kill-switches-deter-criminals From Bamboo Bliss to Social Media Crisis: The Kyte Baby Maternity Leave Debacle By Kirsten B. Valle Abstract This case looks at how one company branded in family values and women’s rights makes a hasty decision not to allow a mother additional maternity leave time for her adopted son. The owner of Kyte Baby was under fire for her decision which resulted in multiple customers denouncing the brand and vowing to never purchase their products. Dialogic ethics are used to examine how this case may have unfolded had this philosophical framework been applied initially. Keywords: dialogic ethics, unpaid maternity leave, women-owned businesses, cancel culture, corporate compassion From Bamboo Bliss to Social Media Crisis: The Kyte Baby Maternity Leave Debacle Parents are notably the most loyal to their children and the lengths they will go to protect their own typically knows no bounds. Most of the time we think of parents as the biological mother or father though we must acknowledge that there are adoptive parents, step-parents, and foster parents who love their children just as much as their counterparts. Usually, dilemmas arise from being a parent such as taking care of sick kids, doctor’s appointments, and attending school events during the workday. Typically parents receive compassion and grace from other parents who can relate. You might expect the same grace from a company whose values stemmed from being parent-owned and operated if you needed to take extra time to care for your sick child. However, this was not the case for the company Kyte Baby. In January 2024, Kyte Baby, a well-known company that sold clothes for babies and toddlers denied an employee the opportunity to work remotely to care for her adopted son who was born prematurely. The purpose of this case is to provide a critical analysis of Kyte Baby’s decision using Dialogic ethics as an ethical framework. Background Kyte Baby is a company that makes pajamas, and loungewear for children and adults entirely out of bamboo fabric. One of the first of its kind, Kyte Baby was founded by Ying Liu in 2014 after she saw the need for a more breathable fabric for children who suffered from eczema like her youngest daughter at the time (Kyte Baby, n.d.). Liu, originally from Guangzhou, China, saw the potential to create a clothing brand that was eco-friendly and sustainable. She reached out to a family member in China who already owned and operated a garment factory who agreed to make bamboo onesies to sell in the U.S. What started as just baby pajamas and sleep sacks soon blossomed into toddler, and adult clothing, as well as blankets, crib sheets, car seat covers and much more. Kyte Baby skyrocketed the untapped material into recognition, motivating others to jump on the bamboo bandwagon. Kyte Baby prides itself on being family-run and operated as well as being eco-friendly by reducing waste and creating long-lasting products (Kyte Baby, n.d.). Liu saw the opportunity to educate consumers on the benefits of the material and create a space where all mothers felt heard and understood regarding their children’s comfort at night (Kyte Baby, n.d.). Newer companies are beginning to pride themselves on being woman-led, inclusive, and family-oriented as well as having great work culture. In earlier generations, this was not the case as most companies thought that work should be put before family and put heavy emphasis on the value of hard work (Rook, 2019). Millennials and GenZ have begun to shed light on the unhealthy relationship this causes with work as well as inducing stress and high tensions in the workplace (Granger, 2023). This has also affected maternity as well as paternity leave policies. Only seven countries globally do not mandate paid maternity leave for employees, with the U.S. being one of them (Watson, 2023). On a broader scale, the U.S. is decades behind when compared to its counterparts concerning paid maternity leave policies (Vu, 2023). This debate falls into a larger conversation about parents and the governmental support they receive when bearing children or those who are forced to bring a child into this world. On a smaller scale, companies that esteem themselves as being woman-owned have this expectation of being accommodating to families in times of crisis (Quotah, 2023). What should’ve been a well-thought-out accommodating response by Kyte Baby, turned into an ugly online chain of events. Dialogic Ethics Dialogic ethics was spearheaded by philosophers, Martin Buber (1878-1965) and Emmanuel Levinas (1906-1995) (Holba, n.d.). Dialogic ethics is a derivative of the word dialogue (Arthur W. Page Center, n.d.) which emphasizes open communication and relationships between people rather than personal ethical beliefs (Ballard et al., 2016). Most of the philosophies that exist are rooted in virtue, duty, and consequence (Ballard et al. 2016) although Dialogic ethics is not obligatory to these and rather involves itself in the relationship people have to one another (Holba, n.d.). Dialogic ethics transpires within dialogue, it is a process in which the ethics are judged based on the interaction, attitudes, and behaviors of both parties (Holba, n.d.). Dialogic ethics stipulates that you must be willing to limit your ethical standpoints, self-interests, and judgment of the other character (Buber, 1970). In Martin Buber’s I & Thou (1923) he outlines the different modes of relationships between individuals that are principles in his philosophy. We must first evaluate the premise of I-It where individuals see others as objects or a means to an end rather than unique whole beings. Individuals treat others as someone who can be manipulated, used, or controlled for the needs of themselves. We then put a limit on their dignity and value rather than human beings worthy of respect and consideration (Smith, 1958). When a subject is viewed as an object, they become an It, but when they are viewed as a whole being they are viewed as a Thou (Buber, 1923). A major term used within this philosophy is reciprocity. Reciprocity is the practice of exchanging goods, services, emotions, or ideas for mutual benefit between individuals or groups. This creates trust, cooperation, and mutual respect which helps foster harmonious relationships. Reciprocity plays a fundamental role in Dialogic ethics and is a requisite when discussing the other portion of Buber’s philosophy, I-Thou (Buber, 1923). In an I-Thou relationship, individuals participate in communication in a reciprocal manner. They acknowledge each other's existence as human beings and connect on a level of mutuality without opinions. Buber goes so far as to relate Dialogic ethics to connecting spiritually and gives examples of ways that a person and a living object can connect on a deeper level without using words (Holba, n.d.). His fellow philosopher Levinas who succeeded Buber in his ideas was supportive yet disparaging in nature (Morgan, 2005). Emmanuel Levinas (1984) argued that communication can be seen as a form of violence because it involves imposing our thoughts and ideas on others. In turn, this created an obligation for them to respond. However, he believed in the ethical responsibility of treating others with care and respect, suggesting that we should be attentive to their needs and invite genuine dialogue. This emphasis on the importance of interpersonal encounters led Levinas to prioritize ethics as the foundational principle of philosophy. Levinas coined the term "I am my Brother's Keeper," while still recognizing that this sentiment cannot be forced upon others (Levinas, 1984). While the concept of Dialogic ethics is easy to understand it’s not the easiest to implement in our daily lives. This involves prioritizing genuine encounters with others that are characterized by active listening, empathy, and openness (Carrión et al., 2020). It requires acknowledging their autonomy, background, and cultural dissimilarities all while remaining indifferent to the other party. We must refrain from imposing our own ideas and judgments and inviting open dialogue. Dialogic ethics maintain that by cultivating genuine connections and respectful interactions in our daily exchanges, we can promote a more ethical and compassionate way of living. (Carrión et al., 2020) Facts of Case In early 2024, a woman-owned, family-based company, Kyte Baby, was under fire for denying one of their employee’s additional maternity leave time. The employee, Marissa Hughes, and her husband, who had previously had issues conceiving a child, opted for adoption. The young couple was soon delighted to find an unborn child to adopt after years of infertility and miscarriages. This quickly turned into distress for the soon-to-be parents when the child was born at just 22 weeks of gestation, prompting a long stay at the NICU in a hospital nine hours away (Hamasaki & Valinsky, 2024; Sultan, 2024). Kyte Baby’s maternity leave policy states that women will receive two weeks of maternity leave if the employee has been at the company for at least six months; an employee will receive four weeks if they’ve been there for at least a year, both of these with the caveat of signing a contract to return to work at the company for at least six months. Marissa took her two weeks but upon completion could not promise to come back for another six months due to the need to care for her child but offered to work remotely. During her meetings with HR to discuss her tentative work schedule to work from home, comments had been made about Hughes not being a “real mother” to the child because she was not the biological mom (Thompson, 2024). The owner of the company Ying Lui, ultimately decided against allowing Marissa to work remotely because she believed that the nature of the job was primarily on-site. This eventually resulted in Marissa’s termination at Kyte Baby (Thompson, 2024). The story was shared on the popular social media platform TikTok by Hughes’ sister who also worked for Kyte Baby (Rothenberg, 2024). Outrage among mothers spread like wildfire and a weeks-long debate on social media ensued on how this situation should have been handled. The widespread controversy was covered by multiple media news outlets as well as shared thousands of times resulting in calls for the owner to step down. In the age of cancel culture, this scenario contains all the ingredients necessary for mass disapproval and boycotting of a company. Case Analysis Principles and Values The principles and values from an outsider’s perspective can be seen primarily as justice and truth as well as stewardship. Justice is a factor in Ying’s decision-making process because the policies of maternity leave had already been outlined and explained to all employees. If Marissa had been given what others may have deemed as special treatment, this could have been seen as unjust to the other employees. The second principle, truth, comes into play when Ying relays the maternity leave policy that had been in place prior to Marissa’s unfortunate situation with her adopted son as well as her overall arrival into the company. Liu takes Hughes’ consideration of working remotely but comes to the conclusion that she would not be able to do her job accurately. The third principle that Liu used was stewardship, and how she is a steward to all the employees who work for her so they must all be treated fairly with one employee not getting special provisions regardless of the circumstances. If Liu had used Dialogic ethics as the framework in her verdict, humaneness, diversity, and harmony would have been at the forefront of her decision. Ying would have taken into consideration that the more compassionate decision would have been to allow Marissa to stay with her adopted son but also fulfill her duties at work because there was a human life at stake. Marissa’s adopted son Judah was born with a multitude of health issues as well as only being born at 22 weeks. Liu would have considered this human life and the need for his mother by his side, who could also provide for him financially when he came home from the hospital. If Liu had contemplated diversity and recognized that all situations are unique and there can be no one option for everyone then she would have realized that allowing Marissa to work remotely would have been the proper thing to do. Liu who is a mother to five would have considered that Marissa had a difficult time trying to conceive a child. Marissa had multiple miscarriages, with one failed IVF attempt that landed her in the hospital where she almost lost her life. Had Liu considered that every person is different with varying backgrounds, medical histories, and desires then her decision could have been different. The last principle of harmony would have made Liu look at this from an outsider’s perspective and realize that this decision could cause an uproar from other mothers who hear this story and cause discord for her customers and in turn her business. Stakeholders Ying Liu prioritized her primary stakeholders as her customers. She believed that if Marissa was unable to do her job because it was primarily on-site then this would affect productivity in the workplace. Liu decided that Marissa should not return to work if she could not do so by the expected date. This would allow Liu to find a replacement quickly so as to not interrupt output. If Liu had prioritized her stakeholders as her employees, she would have had a deep and meaningful conversation with Marissa without allowing her opinion of what it means to be a mother to affect her judgment. She then would have listened to Marissa’s struggles and made a decision based on that rather than her need to continue to make money. Liu would have seen this as a way to build some trust with her current employees by inviting an open dialogue into the workplace, in turn boosting employee morale. Liu also should have considered Marissa’s family as they were affected by her decision to terminate Marissa. This was a financial hit to the new parents, especially a stressful one with a baby in the hospital for the foreseeable future. Had Liu reflected on her decision she would have also contemplated the implications of what this could do to her current customer base as well as her potential customers. Being that Liu owned a company that catered to mostly mothers she could have seen the complications that would arise from her decision. Point of Decision If Liu had used the Dialogic ethics philosophy and put the principles and values of humanness, diversity, and harmony as well as prioritized her stakeholders as employees first, then she would’ve taken the facts of the case which were: Employee Marissa was going through infertility struggles; her adopted son was now in the NICU; Liu owns a business centered around family and empowering women; and Marissa needed to be by her son’s side but still needed a stable job that she could come back to. Ying’s point of decision, per the Point of Decision Pyramid (Land et al., 2014) would have been to allow Marissa to work remotely and return to her job once her adopted son was out of the hospital and back in their hometown. Liu could have also used this opportunity to continue the conversation as the philosophy of Dialogic ethics infers and create discussions with her current staff to get feedback on what she could have done differently. This would result in potential policy changes and could have aided the overall fallout from this dilemma. Case Resolution Liu faced extensive backlash for her decision not to allow Marissa to work from home for the duration of her adopted son’s hospital stay. Influencers who were deemed as ambassadors for the Kyte Baby brand shared their thoughts on TikTok and ultimately condemned the owner for their decision as well as cut all ties to the brand and deleted all affiliate links. Influencers who did not denounce the brand were chastised by their followers. Loyal customers took to social media to video themselves setting their Kyte Baby clothing ablaze, while other smaller bamboo companies used this as an opportunity to promote themselves as a baby baboo manufacturer that supported women and mothers of all types. (Cohen, 2024). The owner issued two apology videos on the brand’s TikTok page. The first was a scripted apology that was very evident it was being read from a laptop and the other was a more “personal and unscripted” apology that took accountability for their actions. However, many commented, “too little too late” (Cohen, 2024). Marissa was reached out to after most of the drama had subsided to see if Kyte Baby had reached out to her personally. Marissa said they did, and they offered her the job back if she wanted it, but she declined (Sultan, 2024). Discussion/Conclusion While the outrage against this small company is valid, this is part of a much larger discussion about the inadequate paid parental leave that companies are required to give to employees. While Kyte Baby ultimately decided not to allow their employee additional leave time this could potentially not have been an issue if parental leave was mandated at a federal or state level. If lawmakers (who are disproportionately male) used Dialogic ethics, then they would be more open and understanding of the struggles women, and all parents, face after having children and the expectations of returning to work immediately for the need to care for their families financially. This would allow lawmakers to put their opinions aside and look at these issues through the lens of a woman. Discussion Questions - Do you think Liu’s decision was also influenced because this was not Hughes’ biological son? How could this have affected her decision in any way? - Can you think of any real-world scenarios in which Dialogic ethics are fully applied between two parties? - If this had happened at another organization that was a larger corporation like Target, Apple, or Ford do you think they would have received the same amount of online criticism? - If Liu made the same decision and received the same backlash before issuing two apology videos, is there anything she could have done that could have made the situation better? Extra Resources: Ying Liu’s first apology video. Ying Liu’s second apology video. References Atterton P., Calarco M., and Friedman M. (eds.) (2005). Levinas and Buber: Dialogue and Difference, Duquesne University Press, 2004, 320pp, $24.95 (pbk), ISBN 0820703516. https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/levinas-and-buber-dialogue-and-difference/ Cohen, D. (2024, January 19). Why Are TikTok Moms Mad at Kyte Baby? The Cut. https://www.thecut.com/2024/01/kyte-baby-drama-marissa-hughes.html Ethical Orientations: Dialogue. (n.d.). Archive.pagecentertraining.psu.edu. García-Carrión R., López de Aguileta G., Padrós M. and Ramis-Salas M. (2020) Implications for Social Impact of Dialogic Teaching and Learning. Front. Psychol. 11:140. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00140 Granger, J. (2023, November 10). The “Always-On” Work Culture: Relieving the Stress Faced by Gen Z and Millennials. Medium. https://medium.com/@janet_99437/the-always-on-work-culture-relieving-the-stress-faced-by-gen-z-and-millennials-351507fe1032 Holba, A. (n.d.). Dialogic Ethics. Cmsseniors.press.plymouth.edu. https://cmsseniors.press.plymouth.edu/chapter/chapter-7-dialogic-ethics/ Martin Buber’s I and Thou. (n.d.). Www.angelfire.com. https://www.angelfire.com/md2/timewarp/buber.html Philosophy Texts - Levinas: Ethics as First Philosophy. (n.d.). Sites.google.com. Retrieved April 7, 2024, from https://sites.google.com/view/philosophy-texts/20th-century/phenomenology/emmanuel-levinas/levinas-ethics-as-first-philosophy Rook, D. (2019). The Multi-Generational Definition of Work-Life Balance. Www.griffinbenefits.com. https://www.griffinbenefits.com/blog/changing-definition-work-life-balance Rothenberg, E. (2024, January 21). Kyte Baby in controversy after Marissa Hughes’ remote work request was denied, CEO apologizes \| CNN Business. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/21/business/kyte-baby-ceo-apology-marissa/index.html Sultan, K. (2024, January 24). Mom fired from Kyte Baby when her son was hospitalized breaks silence. Daily Mail Online. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-13001823/kyte-baby-ying-liu-ceo-mom-breaks-silence.html Thompson, S. (2024, January 28). Why It Matters That Consumers Are So Enraged By The Kyte Baby Debacle. Forbes. Retrieved April 7, 2024, from Vu, L. (2023, March 6). Maternity Leave in the US as Compared to Other Countries [Review of Maternity Leave in the US as Compared to Other Countries]. Mila’s Keeper. https://milaskeeper.com/blogs/news/maternity-leave-in-the-us-as-compared-to-other-countries Watson, J. (2023, December 26). Countries with Paid Maternity Leave: How the US Compares [Review of Countries with Paid Maternity Leave: How the US Compares]. The Case Study of the Withheld Sales By Vera Worthy Abstract On November 11, 2023, top Kia executives had a conference call with over 100 dealership representatives explaining their decision to withhold inventory and store cars on various compounds throughout Canada because they had already reached the 2023 sales quota. The executives determined this would ensure they received marketing funds for 2024 if they did not appear too successful in 2023. Should the cars have been released to dealerships across the country to meet the commitments to customers who had been waiting months and some even years for their automobiles to arrive? In this ethics case study, Ethics of care will be used as a philosophical basis. The case study will show that had the executives used ethics of care as their philosophical basis, the decision to withhold inventory from dealerships across the country would have had a different outcome. Keywords: Ethics, case study, ethics of care, Kia executives, withholding inventory, compounds, dealerships, headquarters Introduction Kia Canada, having already hit the annual sales target for 2023 of 84,000 vehicles, was planning to deliberately withhold the delivery of any further inventory to long-waiting customers out of fear of being penalized by Kia HQ in Korea with a reduced marketing budget for 2024. In a leaked video with Ontario dealer reps, Kia Regional Manager Vince Capicotto, said: "With the global slow down, Kia Canada wants to control wholesale and retail performance in 2023 to not show high over-achievement. There's a high risk with over performance that Kia headquarters will not provide Kia Canada resources necessary in our budget for 2024 to have a successful year if we over perform for the balance of 2023 at too high a rate" (Johnson & Ivany, 2023). The conference call that was later leaked was held via Zoom on November 17, 2023. The call was led by executive Vince Capicotti, who stated there was concern that if sales continued to go well after meeting their 2023 quota, headquarters would decide Canada didn’t need marketing support in the new year and would cut back on the 2024 budget. Capicotti was aware customers had paid deposits for vehicles that had been waiting months and some even years to receive cars (Lefko, 2023). As Capicotti delivered the news, the dealership employees began writing comments into the chat box as their microphones were muted. Some of the comments were: - "I've been with the brand since 2004," wrote one person. "This is the first time I've seen the dealer body penalized for selling too many vehicles." - "This shows a complete lack of respect for every dealer in Canada … and our customers," wrote another. "No sold units should ever be held, they should be expedited." - Another employee dismissed the scheme to secure more marketing support in 2024. "We don't need marketing," he wrote. "We need cars." - One Ontario Kia manager Go Public spoke to said the squeeze on car inventory right before the holidays is a tough financial burden for all kinds of staff at dealerships. - Franchise owners will make less money, and sales staff heavily rely on commissions — which only materialize once a customer receives the vehicle and pays in full. People working in the parts and service departments, he says, will also feel the ripple effect. - Dealerships had customers who've paid a deposit walk away when they learned of the additional delays (Johnson & Ivany, 2023). One of the car dealers recorded the entire call. When Capicotti was asked what they were to tell their customers who had waited for months and some even years to receive their new automobile Capicotti stated: It is up to the dealers to decide what you want to tell the customers, but Capicotti then gave them some wording to use that did not include the internal strategy. “Mr. Customer, we’ve just been communicated that there’s been delivery delays and logistic delays at Kia Canada” (Johnson & Ivany, 2023). Background Incoming shipments of vehicles arrive at car compounds from various sources. Once the shipments are received quality inspection and processing take place to ensure the vehicles meet required standards. Once the vehicles are processed into the system they are stored in designated areas. Car compounds use inventory management systems to know the exact location of each vehicle to ensure efficient retrieval and distribution when the vehicle is needed. Vehicles are distributed based on demand or pre-determined schedules from various dealerships. Once a request is received for outbound distribution the process can take anywhere from one day to two weeks depending on the mode of transportation. When the vehicles arrive at the dealerships, they handle the final preparations for delivery to the customer (Oracle, 1995). Kia's structure and business operation are based on the company's core values, which are: “care for people and chase excellence every day.” Kia's management philosophy outlines the reason for the company's existence, which entails an unlimited sense of responsibility and respect for mankind. The core values of Kia's code of conduct state first and foremost that the customer is first. Kia states: “We promote a customer-driven corporate culture by providing the best quality and impeccable service, with all values centered on our customers" (Kia, n.d.). Ethics of Care Ethics of care implies that there is moral significance in the fundamental elements of relationships and dependencies in human life. Normatively, care ethics seeks to maintain relationships by contextualizing and promoting the well-being of caregivers and care receivers in a network of social relations (Fieser & Dowden 1985). Most often defined as a practice or virtue rather than a theory as such, “care” involves maintaining the world of, and meeting the needs of, us and others. It builds on the motivation to care for those who are dependent and vulnerable, and it is inspired by both memories of being cared for and the idealizations of self. Following in the sentimentalist tradition of moral theory, care ethics affirms the importance of caring motivation, emotion, and the body in moral deliberation, as well as reasoning from particulars. The ethics of care is a moral framework that emphasizes empathy, relationships, and interconnectedness as central to ethical decision-making. The philosophy was founded by Carol Gilligan (1982) who challenged traditional ethical theories, such as deontology, consequentialism, and utilitarianism, which tend to prioritize abstract principles or outcomes over the particular needs and experiences of individuals. Instead of asking the moral decision-maker to be unbiased, the caring moral agent will consider that one’s duty may be greater to those they have particular bonds with, or to others who are powerless rather than powerful (D’Olimpio, 2023). American philosopher Nel Noddings provided one of the first comprehensive theories of care and argued that caring is the foundation of morality. She saw relationships as ontologically basic to humanity, where identity is defined by the set of relationships individuals have with other humans. In suggesting that caring is a universal human attribute, Noddings asserted that a caring relation (a relationship in which people act in a caring manner) is ethically basic to humans. Since the impulse to care is universal, caring ethics is freed from the charge of moral relativism to the same degree as is virtue ethics (Burton, 2023). Virginia Held is the editor and author of many books about care ethics. In much of her work, she seeks to move beyond ideals of liberal justice, arguing that they are not as much flawed as limited, and examines how social relations might be different when modeled after mothering persons and children. Premised on a fundamental non-contractual human need for care, Held construes care as the most basic moral value (Fieser & Dowden, 1995). Eva Feder Kittay is another prominent care ethicist. Her book, Women and Moral Theory (1987), co-edited with Diana T. Meyers, is one of the most significant anthologies in care ethics to date. In this work, they map conceptual territory inspired by Gilligan’s work, both critically and supportively, by exploring major philosophical themes such as self and autonomy, ethical principles and universality, feminist moral theory, and women and politics. In Love’s Labor (1999), Kittay develops a dependency-based account of equality rooted in the activity of caring for the seriously disabled. Kittay holds that the principles in egalitarian theories of justice, such as those of John Rawls, depend upon more fundamental principles and practices of care, and that without supplementation such theories undermine themselves (Fieser & Dowden, 1995). Ethics of care emphasizes the importance of relationships, empathy, and compassion in ethical decision-making. Ethics of care places importance on the needs and interests of all stakeholders involved in a particular situation. Ethics of care emphasizes the relational aspects of morality, recognizing the interconnectedness of individuals and the moral significance of their interdependence. In the ethics of care, truth is valued as it fosters trust and enhances the quality of caring relationships. However, the emphasis is placed on how truth is communicated and its impact on the well-being of those involved in the relationship. Stewardship, or the responsible management and care of resources and relationships, is highly valued in the ethics of care. Care ethicists emphasize the interconnectedness of individuals and the importance of considering the impact of one's actions on others and the broader community. Principles/Values This cases looks at seven principles and values used in the Point of Decision Pyramid (Land et al., 2014). Truth – The Kia executives did not display any honesty or integrity when dealing with the dealership owners, Kia headquarters, and the consumers. Stewardship – The Kia executives showed no responsibility to headquarters, the dealerships and no care to the customers who trusted Kia. Justice – Fairness was not shown in the executive’s decision to withhold inventory. The domino effect of their decision affected so many lives. Humaneness – The Kia executives only cared for themselves when deciding to withhold inventory. Harmony and Diversity – Neither of these principles came into play because the executives knew the dealerships were disgruntled by their comments, but the executives still proceeded with the plan to withhold sales. The decision made by the Canadian office is opposite from the Kia website which states the core value of “customer first” is shared by everyone at Kia. Freedom and Liberty are the only principles that would vaguely apply to the case study because the executives used their rights to make the decision and stuck with their decision regardless of the consequences or ethics of care. Stakeholders In this case study there are several stakeholders: - The employees of Kia from the dealerships to the sales, - The families of employees - The headquarters of Kia in Korea, - The customers, creditors, and retailers. Point of Decision Drawing upon the Point-of-Decision Pyramid Model and guided by the ethics of care philosophy, Kia executives would have attentively considered the feedback and anxieties voiced by the dealerships. Grounded in the ethics of care, which places great emphasis on interpersonal deliberation in their decision to defer inventory release until the new year. By embracing any of the principles and values previously discussed, Kia's reputation and integrity would have remained unscathed. Instead of solely adhering to their strategic vision, the executives should have acknowledged the stewardship, truth, and compassion that the stakeholders rightfully deserved. The Kia executives must summon the courage to engage in challenging negotiations with Kia headquarters regarding their budgeting practices. This collaborative effort should pivot away from solely focusing on sales figures and instead prioritize aligning with local market conditions. To initiate this shift, executives and headquarters ought to discontinue incentivizing sales through commissions and transition to a compensation structure comprising a base salary supplemented by an average of past commissions. Case Resolution Due to the Kia executives' disregard for the feedback and concerns expressed by the dealerships, the video conference call was recorded and subsequently leaked to Go Public, a local investigative news segment on CBC-TV (CBC News, 2023). Following the broadcast of the story, Kia executives faced severe backlash. Numerous consumers promptly canceled their vehicle orders placed with the dealerships, while others penned letters to Vince Capicotti expressing their discontent. Despite interview requests from Go Public, Kia Canada declined to participate and refused to address any inquiries. In a written statement, a Kia Canada spokesperson cited an inability to comment on "confidential internal business matters," including the accuracy of the information (Chapman, 2023). Moreover, the spokesperson reaffirmed the company's commitment to ensuring "timely delivery" of customer orders "in 2023 and beyond," without elaborating on how this pledge aligned with the deliberate withholding of vehicles from sale. Similarly, a spokesperson for Kia headquarters in Korea, via email, stated that the company's official stance "has been shared" by its Canadian counterparts (Chapman, 2023). References Burton, B., & Dunn, C.P. (2023, June 8). Ethics of Care. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-of-care CBC News. (2023, December 19). Kia delaying vehicle deliveries in controversial strategy, internal video reveals. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WTouasVsNQQ&t=47s Chapman, C. R. (2023, December 19). Mini case study: The case of the withheld sales. Mini Case Study: The Case of the Withheld Sales. https://digestibledeming.substack.com/p/mini-case-study-the-case-of-the-withheld D’Olimpio, D. L. (2023, October 26). Ethics Explainer: Ethics of Care. THE ETHICS CENTRE. https://ethics.org.au/ethics-explainer-ethics-of-care/ Europe, K. (2023, January 1). The Kia Compliance & Integrity Code. SUVs, Sedans, Sports Cars, Hybrids, EVs & Luxury Cars. https://www.kia.com/eu/about-kia/kia-company/compliance/the-kia-compliance-and-integrity-code/ Fieser, J., & Dowden, B. (Eds.). (1995, January 1). Care Ethics. Internet encyclopedia of philosophy. https://iep.utm.edu/care-ethics/#:~:text=Joan%20Tronto%20is%20most%20known,activities%20that%20legitimize%20shared%20power. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Harvard University Press. Johnson, E., & Ivany, K. (2023, December 19). Leaked sales scheme by Kia Canada reveals customers waiting even longer for new vehicles \| CBC News. CBC news. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kia-canada-car-sales-1.7063216 Kia. (n.d.). Philosophy. Kia Philosophy \| About Kia \| Kia Malta. https://www.kia.com/mt/about-kia/kia-company/philosophy/ Kittay, E. F., & Meyers, D. T. (Eds.). (1997). Women and moral theory. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Lefko, P. (2023, December 22). Kia Canada under fire for inventory practices. Canadian Auto Dealer. https://canadianautodealer.ca/2023/12/kia-canada-under-fire-for-inventory-practices/ Macaluso, G. (2023, December 19). Kia allegedly withholding Canadian deliveries, CBC Reports. Kia allegedly withholding Canadian deliveries. https://canada.autonews.com/retail/kia-allegedly-withholding-canadian-deliveries-cbc-reports McIntosh, J. (2023, December 19). Waiting for your new Kia? it might be here, stashed in storage ... Waiting for your New Kia? https://winnipegsun.com/auto-news/industry/new-kia-canada-not-delivered-storage-compound-2024 Oracle Corporation, (1995, March 1). Vehicle Distribution Centers. https://www.oracle.com/webfolder/s/assets/process-map/automotive-oem/vehicle-distribution/index.html Patel, J. (2023, December 20). Kia Hiding Inventory from Canadian buyers - CarsDirect. Kia Hiding Inventory From Canadian Buyers. https://www.carsdirect.com/automotive-news Alyssa Milano’s GoFundMe Baseball Fundraiser By Dr. Melissa Musser Abstract Celebrities are held at a higher caliber than every day individuals. Whatever they eat, whoever they date, the person they marry, the work roles they choose, the children they have, the clothes, and more are all under scrutiny. On the money of celebrities, there are all levels from those that make millions a year to someone scraping by financially due to their lavish lifestyle. Money is a hush-hush term in many groups and that is no different with celebrities. Even though someone can afford to share their wealth, it does not mean they are required to give any amount away. Alyssa Milano is no different than any other celebrity. She is a millionaire, but should she be expected to share her money? Was is appropriate for her to start a GoFundMe crowdfunding fundraiser for her son’s baseball team and also sharing that with her million follower on her social media account, X? Keywords: Alyssa Milano, Fundraiser, Baseball, GoFundMe, Virtue Ethics Introduction Alyssa Milano, who is known for Who's the Boss, Charmed, Commando, and more decided to help raise money for her son's baseball team by creating the team's GoFundMe account. She shared it to her X account (formally Twitter), where friends, family, and the public could see it. It was created under her husband's last name of Bugliari instead of her famous last name of Milano. Many people criticized her actions since she is a multi-millionaire (and so is her husband). The purpose of this case study is to use virtue ethics to analyze Milano’s decision to tweet her GoFundMe crowdfunding account for a fundraiser for her son’s baseball team trip. Background When every day individuals use the for-profit program called GoFundMe, they share their link through social media to friends, family, and community. Crowdfunding started in the 1700’s because loans were given to low-income Irish families in Ireland, but it was not called crowdfunding at that time. Modern day crowdfunding’s first occurrence on social media was in 1997, when a British rock band asked for online donations for the reunion tour. Starting in 2005, online companies such as Kiva, indiegogo, Kickstarter, Fundable, Artist Share, Prosper, peerbackers, and Startup America Partnerships were created as online crowdfunding platforms (The history of crowdfunding). Anyone can start a GoFundMe fundraiser that assists with funeral costs, hospital bills, books for college, rent, counseling, food shortage, local emergencies, and much more. When a celebrity like Alyssa Milano decided to open a GoFundMe fundraiser for her son’s baseball team trip, she was met with mixed (but mainly negative) reactions. Many people scratched their heads and wondered why a celebrity worth millions of dollars did not just fund the whole trip, but this was not the first crowdfunded celebrity fundraiser. Current Celebrity Culture While Milano was criticized for her actions for the GoFundMe fundraiser and share on X, this was not the first instance of celebrity crowdfunding. Rob Thomas, Veronica Mars TV show creator, decided to start a crowdfunding campaign for a Veronica Mars movie on Kickstarter with the help of the Veronica Mars lead actress, Kristen Bell. The campaign raised two million dollars in less than 10 hours. A total of 5.7 million were raised. After the Veronica Mars crowdfunding campaign, actor Zach Braff decided to also use crowdfunding on Kickstarter for his movie, Wish I Was here, where he raised 3.1 million. Other celebrities such as Don Cheadle, James Franco, Whitney Port, Melissa Joan Hart, Zosia Mamet, and LaVar Burton, joined the crowdfunding bandwagon (Dukanovic, 2013). While these celebrities also created a crowdfunding campaign, Milano was judged across social media for her crowdfunding GoFundMe account and personal account tweet on X. Overview of Virtue Ethics Virtue ethics was created by the Greek philosopher, Aristotle and explained in further details in the book, Nicomachean Ethics (Aristotle & Natali, 2009). When it comes to virtue ethics, the focus is on someone’s character and qualities of courage, compassion, honesty, generosity, and moral living. Instead of making sure someone is always a good and moral person, virtue ethics relies more on the decisions that person decides to make. In most cases, a virtuous person tends to make honorable decisions. When deciding between what is a virtue ethic and what is not, virtue ethics can occur in an everyday situation. While everyday people are not in the public eye, they can follow or choose not to follow virtue ethics in everyday life, but unlike celebrities, they are not praised or criticized on social media. By choosing the path of virtue ethics on a normal basis, many people will lead a straight and virtuous life (Virtue ethics, 2022). GoFundMe’s focus is avoiding fundraisers that have a misuse of donations. While more users mean more profit, GoFundMe has set limitations about what they will not allow such as vaccine mandates, white supremacist causes, violet insurgencies, and conspiracy theories. While Alyssa Milano did nothing illegal or immoral when she created a GoFundMe fundraiser for her son’s baseball team trip fundraiser, was that a virtuous ethical decision based on her celebrity and financial status? Virtue ethics and a GoFundMe fundraiser are often intertwined together. The goal of GoFundMe is to ensure “the service appeals to a wide audience without inviting controversy that polarises and erodes the potential user base” (ABC Religion & Ethics, 2002). Facts of Case The stakeholders for Alyssa Milano’s GoFundMe fundraiser were GoFundMe, Alyssa Milano, David Bugliari (her husband), Milo (her son), Elizabella (her daughter), Birds 12U baseball team, Birds 12U baseball players, Birds 12U baseball families, Birds 12U coaches, The GoFundMe fundraiser was originally posted on X (previously Twitter) and then shared to Instagram (NBCUniveral News Group, 2024). She posted under the last name of Bugliari, which she also occasionally uses in her community and among friends. Case Analysis Alyssa Milano created a GoFundMe fundraiser and shared it to her X account that has 3.4 million followers, it was not illegal or against any GoFundMe fundraiser guidelines. As virtue ethics are important for any individual to have, Alyssa Milano is a role model to her fans and followers. The term “virtuous” is viewed differently between individuals. While her fundraiser may seem virtuous to some, it could also be seen as a vice to others. Milano posted the GoFundMe fundraiser under her husband’s lase name at first. It was not until she shared it on X that is “blew up” and showed up suddenly all-over various news outlets such as NBC News, People, USA Today, Parents, Los Angeles Times, Daily Mail, Today, Los Angeles Times, Us Weekly, TMZ, ABC News, and many more. It not only was posted to legitimate and accredited news sources, but gossip sites and international outlets. Point of Decision Land et.al (2006) relate media decisions based on the utmost contribution for the highest number. While in the public eye for their actions, celebrities are required to justify their actions in life and on social media (p. 4). Moral development consists of six stages of development, which include obedience to authority, separates self interest with the interest of others, guidance from authority figures, societal rules, and legal and moral issues (p. 5). “Few things are more interesting---and important---to journalists than how news media change, apparently successfully, to meet the severe challenges of increasing competition and market pressures” (pp. 10-11). Throughout communication and journalism, value ethics are the principles that are lived and shown in personal actions (p.26). Milano’s actions did not relate to Land et. al, since she chose self-interest by posting on X, although hidden through the initial GoFundMe fundraiser showing interest of others, her son’s baseball team trip. Conclusion The outcome of all of the press came when Milano thanked all of the GoFundMe donors after they surpassed the fundraising goal. She defended her decision and said that she has contributed to the team financially. After the scrutiny of Milano’s GoFundMe fundraiser, she was further criticized for attending the 2024 Super Bowl with her son, Milo. USA Today did not know if Milano paid for the Super Bowl tickets, but the ticket price ranged from $5,795 to $9,365 per ticket (Stahl, 2004). John Steinbeck once said in Travels with Charley: In Search of America, “We value virtue but do not discuss it. The honest bookkeeper, the faithful wife, the earnest scholar get little of our attention compared to the embezzler, the tramp, the cheat” (Pt. 3, 1962). When any celebrity creates a crowdsource of some kind, they are walking a fine line between virtuous and unfitting. While Milano did not cause any personal or mental harm with the GoFundMe fundraiser, celebrities are judged more than everyday people. Discussion Questions - Why did Alyssa Milano not donate the money herself instead of creating a GoFundMe account? - Is she expected to pay the way for all of the players since she's a multi-millionaire? - Would any celebrity be criticized for posting a GoFundMe fundraiser? - Did people donate to Alyssa Milano’s GoFundMe only because of her celebrity status? - Do the principles of virtue ethics always separate right from wrong? - Are the rule breakers happier than the virtuous? - Does wealth lead to corruption of virtue ethics? - Can bad decisions affect future decisions toward virtuous actions? Extra Resources Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics. (n.d.). https://people.ucsc.edu/~jbowin/virtue.pdf Virtue ethics and professional roles. (n.d.). https://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam033/2001025236.pdf YouTube. (2018). Virtue ethics \| ethics defined. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NMblKpkKYao YouTube. (2020). Virtue ethics. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qs9QiczZvdU References ABC Religion & Ethics. (2022). The ethical dilemmas of GoFundMe. https://www.abc.net.au/religion/the-ethical-dilemmas-of-gofundme/13750230 Aristotle, & Natali, C. (2009). Nicomachean ethics: Symposium aristotelicum. Oxford University Press. Dukanovic, I. (2013). Crowdfunding is making your pop culture dreams come true. Popsugar. https://www.popsugar.com/celebrity/Celebrities-Who-Use-Crowdfunding-30648109 Land, M., & Hornaday, B. W. (2006). Contemporary Media Ethics: A practical guide for students, scholars, and professionals. Marquette Books. Stahl, J. (2024). Alyssa Milano slammed for attending Super Bowl after asking for donations for son’s baseball team. USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/2024/02/14/alyssa-milano-attending-super-bowl-after-asking-donations/72603231007/ Steinbeck, J. (1962). Travels with Charley: In Search of America. Watts. The history of crowdfunding. Fundable. https://www.fundable.com/crowdfunding101/history-of-crowdfunding Virtue ethics. Ethics Unwrapped. (2022). https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/virtue-ethics Unauthorized Use of Shubnum Khan's Headshots and Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust Analysis By Veronica N. Rodriguez Abstract This case study examines the ethical dilemmas derived from the unauthorized use of Shubnum Khan's headshots as stock photos, focusing on issues of consent, privacy, and intellectual property rights in the digital age. Khan, a South African author and artist, inadvertently allowed her images to be used without explicit consent, leading to their widespread distribution with fabricated narratives. Using Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust as the ethical framework, this study critiques the decisions made and analyzes the case's implications, emphasizing the importance of autonomy, informed consent, and privacy in digital media. Keywords: Shubnum Khan, stock photos, consent, privacy, intellectual property rights, digital age, Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust Introduction This case study dives into the ethical dilemmas surrounding the unauthorized use of headshots as stock photos, shedding light on issues of consent, privacy, and intellectual property rights in the digital age. Shubnum Khan, a South African author and artist, unknowingly found herself in a situation where her headshots were used without her explicit permission. This led to her images being circulated widely across various platforms with false stories, blurring the line between reality and fiction, not only affecting her image digitally, but through personal matters too. The purpose of this case is to critique the decisions that led up to this situation, and use Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust as an ethical framework to determine an end result or point-of-decision. Background Shubnum Khan is a fun-loving, adventurous author and artist. Back in 2018, she tagged along with a friend to a photo shoot, thinking she would get some free headshots (Khan, 2018). It was not that she assumed they were free, that is how they were advertised. So of course, looking for headshots (that can be expensive) to use for jobs, it looked like a wonderful opportunity. The photographer handed her a form to sign quickly. It happened fast and she did not give it much thought since the shoot was starting soon. The photographer just said to quickly sign the form and to not be a burden in any sense, she did. Later on the photographer, “explained he was sorry I felt hard done by but it was all legal & explained to us beforehand (I really don't remember anyone telling me my pic would become a stockphoto & that it could be distorted)” (Khan’s Twitter, 2018). She assumed that this little signature was a liability form, or just something saying he could use it for his headshot portfolio since that is the detail he gave, but that was far from the truth. Little did Khan know, by scribbling her name on that form, she accidentally gave permission to the photographer, allowing them to sell her headshots as stock photos without asking her first or even giving her credit. She signed away all the rights to those images, and had no idea because this “fast/rushed” form signing only had the information in fine print. Fast forward and Khan's face is plastered everywhere online. Each picture comes with made-up stories and all sorts of weird scenarios. From being an immigrant in Canada to selling rugs in NYC, leading hikes in Cambodia, and even looking for love in France, her face was used in ways she never agreed to. Even advertisements that give a false narrative on her health, ethnicity, and political choices. A editor on the website PhotographyTalk wrote about some places her face had been featured: “And on one website, her photo is used in conjunction with the name Phoebe Lopez, a campaign manager from San Francisco that clearly does not actually exist. Other sites have promoted alter egos of Shubnum as being a tour guide, a tutor, and a foster care worker.” (Editor, 2018) This whole mess brings up ethical questions about who gets to control your image and how much say you should have in it, especially in the digital age. Was it okay for the photographer to use Shubnum Khan’s headshots without her say-so, and will look at it through an ethical lens to figure out what is right and wrong. Central to this analysis are the principles of autonomy and informed consent. These are vital aspects of ethical decision-making. Autonomy emphasizes an individual's right to informed choices, free from manipulation, while informed consent requires adequate information and understanding for decision-making. Khan's case raises concerns about the lack of transparency and respect for her autonomy and right to informed consent. Autonomy is the idea that you should get to make choices about yourself without someone else messing with it. Khan didn’t really get that chance since the whole signing thing happened super fast and without all the info. There was important information left out and by rushing her and using her signature, this photographer took advantage of her. Plus, we will discuss informed consent, which is just a fancy way of saying you should know what you are agreeing to before you agree to it. Khan did not quite get that luxury either. Autonomy Autonomy is a fundamental aspect of personal agency, emphasizing an individual's right to make decisions about themselves without influence or coercion. In the context of digital media ethics, autonomy becomes a very critical concern, as demonstrated in the case of Shubnum Khan's unauthorized use of headshots. Khan found herself unwittingly entangled in a web of ethical complexities when her signed consent was exploited without her full understanding. It is apparent that the narrative of autonomy in this case is multifaceted. First, there is the issue of the rushed signing process, where Khan was presented with a form under time pressure, leading to incomplete information disclosure. This lack of clarity deprived Khan of the opportunity to exercise informed consent, a key component of autonomy. The photographer's actions, although legally permissible due to the signed agreement, raise ethical questions about the ethical responsibility to ensure full understanding and agency in such transactions. Furthermore, the subsequent use of Khan's images in various contexts without her explicit consent further eroded her autonomy. The fabricated narratives and false testimonies associated with her photos not only misrepresented her identity but also infringed upon her right to control her own image and reputation. This highlights the ethical imperative of respecting individuals' autonomy in the digital realm, where information can spread rapidly and be manipulated with far-reaching consequences. Informed Consent Informed consent emerges as a critical ethical concept in the context of Khan's case. Again, the rushed signing process and lack of comprehensive information provided to Khan exemplify the challenges individuals face in making fully informed decisions about their personal data and image rights. Informed consent demands transparency, clear communication, and a thorough understanding of the implications of consent. This was not given to Khan. Her experience underscores the ethical imperative of ensuring that individuals have access to sufficient information and agency in consenting to how their data and images are used, reinforcing the need for ethical frameworks that prioritize informed decision-making and respect individuals. Privacy Privacy is a large concern in the digital age, as demonstrated by Shubnum Khan's case. This incident underscores the ease with which personal information and images can be disseminated online without individuals' knowledge or consent. Khan's experience highlights the importance of having control over one’s own information and the need for robust privacy protections in digital spaces. It also raises broader questions about data security, consent mechanisms, and the ethical responsibilities of platforms and users in safeguarding privacy rights. When navigating the complexities of digital media ethics, preserving privacy becomes a foundational principle that requires continuous attention and ethical awareness. The Digital Era In regards to the digital era, the landscape of media ethics is constantly evolving, presenting new challenges and opportunities. Shubnum Khan's case shows the complexities that arise in the digital age, where information can be disseminated rapidly and extensively across various platforms. The unauthorized use of her headshots highlights the potential risks individuals face in terms of privacy, autonomy, and control over their digital identities. Moreover, the interconnected nature of digital platforms raises questions about accountability, transparency, and ethical responsibilities among stakeholders, including photographers, websites hosting content, and consumers. This era necessitates a heightened ethical awareness and a proactive approach to addressing emerging ethical dilemmas. By fostering ethical frameworks and promoting ethical literacy, we can navigate the digital landscape responsibly and uphold ethical standards that respect individuals' rights and dignity in the digital realm. Ethics of Trust In analyzing this case through Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust, autonomy emerges as a central ethical principle that demands transparency, respect, and agency in all interactions involving personal data and image rights. The ethical framework underscores the need for clear communication, informed decision-making processes, and mechanisms to safeguard individuals' autonomy in an increasingly interconnected and digitized society. Ultimately, this case serves as a poignant reminder of the ethical responsibilities inherent in digital media practices, urging stakeholders to prioritize autonomy and informed consent to uphold ethical standards and protect individuals' rights. Watsuji's Ethics of Trust, rooted in Japanese philosophy, emphasizes the importance of trust, of course, interpersonal relationships, and communal ethics in ethical decision-making. At its core, this framework prioritizes values such as empathy, reciprocity, and mutual understanding, aiming to truly foster harmonious relationships within communities. Trust is a central idea or belief of Watsuji's ethics, highlighting the significance of trustworthiness and reliability in interpersonal interactions. Trust is not a transactional aspect but the foundational element that underpins ethical conduct and societal unity, or harmony. Watsuji emphasizes the cultivation of trust through sincere communication, ethical behavior, and a genuine concern for the well-being of others. All things that were not really taken into consideration with Khan’s situation. In his work "Climate and Culture," Watsuji discusses how the cultural climate shapes ethical norms and values within a society (Watsuji, 2011). For example, in a culture that prioritizes collectivism and harmony, trust is often based on interpersonal relationships and group cohesion rather than individualistic achievements. Interpersonal relations play a crucial role in Watsuji's Ethics of Trust, emphasizing what connects an individual to its community. Watsuji argues that ethical actions are shaped by the dynamics of social interactions. Respect for others' perspectives, active listening, and empathetic engagement are essential when trying to build positive interpersonal relationships within an ethical framework. Watsuji advocates for ethical decision-making that considers the broader impact on the community, prioritizing the common good over individual interests. In Watsuji's Ethics of Trust, values and stakeholders are typically prioritized based on their contribution to trust-building, harmonious relationships, and communal welfare. The framework encourages ethical behavior that promotes trustworthiness, empathy, and cooperation, benefiting both individuals and the larger community. By prioritizing values that foster trust and emphasizing the interconnectedness of all stakeholders, Watsuji's Ethics of Trust provides a holistic approach to ethical decision-making that resonates in diverse cultural contexts. A study by Mayer et al. (1995) highlights the importance of integrity in trust, stating that individuals trust those who demonstrate integrity by adhering to ethical standards and values. Throughout this case there is not mugh integrity shown through the photographer and websites, but we will get more into the stakeholders later. Trust also involves a sense of responsibility and accountability. Noddings (2013) suggests that ethical trust requires individuals to take responsibility for their actions and the impact of those actions on others, which all parties did end up eventually doing in this case. Facts of the Case Shubnum Khan's experience of her headshots being used without her authorization as stock photos traces back to a free photoshoot she participated in during her university days. Here are the facts of the case based on credible sources including what happened before this incident, during, and after: In 2010, Shubnum Khan participated in a free photoshoot with a photographer during her time at university. The photographer promised professional portraits in exchange for Khan's participation, without any monetary compensation. As part of the photoshoot, Khan signed a release form. However, she admits that she did not read the fine print of the contract thoroughly. This release form essentially granted the photographer the rights to use her images as stock photos, including allowing for the "distortion of character," as stated in Khan's own Twitter thread about the incident (Editor, 2018). Two years after the photoshoot “a friend of Shubnum noticed an advertisement for immigration halfway around the world in Canada. The woman in the advertisement looked a lot like Shubnum” (Editor, 2018). This discovery led Khan to investigate further and she found numerous instances of her image being used in various contexts around the world without her knowledge or consent. Khan claims to have seen her image used over 50 times, appearing in ads for different products and services globally. These uses ranged from promoting immigration in Canada to portraying roles like a tour leader in Cambodia and a teacher in California. One concerning aspect of the unauthorized use was the misleading representations associated with Khan's image. Some ads included fabricated testimonials claiming she had used certain products or services, which could potentially mislead consumers. When Khan confronted the photographer about the unauthorized use of her images, she was informed that she had signed away the rights to the images, which were now being sold as stock photos. The photographer mentioned that everything was legal from his end but agreed to remove the photo from his website, although it could still be used by those who had purchased it. Following this experience, Khan took to social media, particularly Twitter, to share her story as a cautionary tale. She warned others to be cautious about signing contracts without fully understanding the implications, especially regarding the use of their images and the potential for misrepresentation. Case Analysis - What If Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust Had Been Used Principles and Values In Shubnum Khan's case, several principles and values come into play, both on the side of decision-makers (such as the photographer and potentially those who purchased the stock images, aka, the stakeholders) and in the ethical considerations raised by Khan herself. Truth, the decision-makers in this case did not fully uphold the principle of truth. While legally permissible, the use of Khan's image without her explicit consent or full understanding of the consequences lacked transparency and honesty. The inclusion of fabricated testimonials further distorted the truth in advertising. This was something that Khan particularly was upset about, above most things. Next, diversity. Khan's image being used in various contexts without her permission raises concerns about diversity and representation. Decision-makers should have considered the diverse backgrounds and identities of individuals whose images they use, ensuring respectful and accurate representation. Onto humaneness, the unauthorized use of Khan's image, including potential distortion and misrepresentation, lacks humaneness. Decision-makers should prioritize empathy and respect for individuals' rights and dignity, especially in commercial contexts involving personal images. What seems to be the most inhumane about this situation is that not only were websites using the information lying but they were also altering her face and making additions to it like a bindi, which can be seen as racially motivated and wrong for assuming her ethnicity. Not only that but in some ads she is being advertised as the face of a brand for melasma after pregnancy and other conditions that she herself does not have. There are justice implications in this case concerning fairness and the balance of power. Khan, as the individual whose image was used, should have had more control and understanding of how her image would be used. Decision-makers should ensure fair and just treatment of individuals in contractual agreements involving image rights. The principle of freedom and liberty suggests that individuals should have the freedom to control their own image and how it is used. In this case, Khan's freedom to make informed decisions about the use of her image was compromised due to lack of transparency and understanding. Stewardship is another value at play here. Decision-makers, including the photographer and those using the stock images, have a responsibility for the ethical stewardship of individuals' images. This includes ensuring informed consent, respectful representation, and transparency in commercial practices involving personal images. Finally, harmony, is an important factor in Ethics of Trust. The principle of harmony emphasizes the need for balance and mutual understanding in human interactions. In this case, there was a lack of harmony between the rights and responsibilities of decision-makers and the individual whose image was used. Ethical harmony would involve respecting individual rights while also engaging in fair and transparent commercial practices. Overall, applying these ethical principles reveal how decision-makers handled the unauthorized use of Shubnum Khan's headshots as stock photos, highlighting the importance of ethical considerations such as truth, diversity, humaneness, justice, freedom/liberty, stewardship, and harmony in commercial and contractual agreements involving personal images. Stakeholders and Loyalties This case considers various stakeholders involved, including the photographer, Khan, her friends and family, the companies buying from the photographer, the communities using the advertisements, the companies profiting from the images, the customers of the false ads, and the communities funding the ads (billboards, benches, etc.). The photographer prioritized stakeholders (in this case, potentially himself or/and his business) by selling the stock images for profit. Loyalties, however, were not fully aligned with ethical standards as there was a lack of transparency and accountability regarding the use of Khan's image. Shubnum Khan’s loyalty lies with herself and her values, including the right to control her own image. However, she was unaware of the extent to which her image would be used, and she would not have willingly put herself in this situation. The friends and family of Khan also play a role. Their loyalty would be primarily to Khan's well-being and interests. But they were really affected by this whole situation when it came to ethical, political, and religious beliefs. They saw Khan differently in the beginning, not knowing her images were being used with false testimonies that did not truly represent her own voice. Additionally, the communities using the advertisements may have been persuaded by the ads but were potentially misled due to the false representations associated with Khan's image. The companies involved prioritized their shareholders by leveraging Khan's images to attract customers and drive revenue. However, if these companies were aware of the deceptive nature of the advertisements, their commitment to ethical practices would be called into question. Customers who were exposed to the false advertisements may have been influenced by the fabricated testimonials or representations associated with Khan's image. Loyalties were potentially exploited if customers were deceived into making purchases based on false information presented in the ads. Communities that unknowingly founded the ads, such as through billboards or benches, might not have been fully aware of the deceptive nature of the advertisements. In supporting these ads, their loyalty to promoting legitimate and ethical advertising practices may have been compromised. In the context of Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust, decision-makers should prioritize building trust and mutual understanding among stakeholders. This includes transparent and ethical practices in image usage, truthful representations in advertising, and accountability for the impact of advertisements on communities and consumers. The lack of transparency, misrepresentation, and potential exploitation of stakeholders' trust in Khan's case highlights the importance of ethical considerations in commercial and advertising practices. Point of Decision The Point-of-Decision model (Land et al.), an all-encompassing framework for ethical decision-making, explores the intricate dimensions of ethics in our everyday lives. It navigates the challenges of aligning personal values, principles, and potential outcomes. By incorporating various philosophical viewpoints such as Communitarianism and Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust, alongside the usual Utilitarianism, this model expands the ethical discourse and promotes a more inclusive decision-making process. When exploring Shubnum Khan's unauthorized use of headshots, the Point-of-Decision model provides an approach that examines different decision points. An essential factor is the ethical assessment of the photographer's behavior, raising concerns about meeting obligations related to autonomy and informed consent. Moreover, the model encourages reflection on the duties of platforms that display the images, emphasizing transparency and accountability in digital media operations. Furthermore, the case sparks conversations about consumer awareness and ethical consumption, highlighting the significance of authenticity and ethical portrayal in digital content. It also brings to light the legal and ethical consequences of misrepresentation, underscoring the importance of integrity and precision in digital media representation. The model emphasizes the need for ethical guidelines and frameworks regarding future consent and usage. It highlights the significance of informed consent, rights protection, and ethical awareness in addressing the intricate landscape of digital media ethics. In essence, the case resonates with the core tenets of the model by illustrating ethical challenges, decision-making processes, and philosophical viewpoints within digital media ethics. Case Resolution Despite signing a release form, Khan was unaware of the extensive commercial use her images would undergo. This situation raises ethical concerns about informed consent, transparency, and respect for individual rights, especially regarding the use of personal images in advertising. “On the bright side, after talking with the photographer, he agreed to remove Shubnum's photos from his website, though he did note that everything he did was perfectly legal” (Editor, 2018). Through the lens of Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust, the case highlights the importance of trust, mutual understanding, and respect in commercial agreements. Decision-makers should prioritize transparency, informed consent, and ethical advertising practices to avoid exploiting individuals and misrepresenting them for commercial gain. Khan's response to the situation, although resilient and advocacy-driven, underscores the ongoing challenges individuals face in protecting their image rights in the digital age. The case serves as a reminder of the need for ethical frameworks and practices to safeguard individual rights and dignity in commercial and contractual agreements. “So, if anything, use my story as a cautionary tale," she writes. "Don’t sign up for free photoshoots, read what you sign and also don’t believe most of the things you read on the internet” (Khan, 2018). Discussion Questions - How does Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust prioritize values and stakeholders differently compared to other ethical frameworks? - In what ways could Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust guide decision-making in digital media ethics to prevent similar unauthorized use of individuals' images? - How do trust, interpersonal relations, and communal ethics intersect in digital media ethics, as demonstrated in this case using Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust? - Should individuals like Khan receive compensation for the unauthorized use of their images, even if they initially agreed to the terms? What ethical principles should guide such compensation decisions? - What responsibilities do photographers, companies purchasing stock images, and advertisers have in ensuring ethical practices and transparency in using individuals' images? - How can individuals protect their image rights and navigate ethical considerations in contractual agreements, especially in the digital age where images can circulate widely without control? - How do cultural and societal norms influence perceptions of image rights and ethical practices in digital media, and how can ethical frameworks like Watsuji’s Ethics of Trust address these complexities? - What role does informed consent play in digital media ethics, particularly concerning the use of personal images, and how can it be strengthened to uphold ethical standards and respect individual autonomy? References Alexander, J. Author Signs Free Photoshoot Contract without Proofing, Finds Her Portrait Used All over the World. Fstoppers, 3 Aug. 2018, fstoppers.com/legal/author-signs-free-photoshoot-contract-without-proofing-finds-her-portrait-us ed-274877. Baker, S. (n.d.). A woman posed for a free photoshoot, and found years later her image had been twisted in ways she couldn’t imagine, all around the world. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/woman-finds-her-face-around-the-world-after-posing-for-free-p hotoshoot-2018-8 Bowen, S. (2005). A Practical Model for Ethical Decision Making in Issues Management and Public Relations. Journal of Public Relations Research, 17, 191-216. 10.1207/s1532754xjprr1703_1. “Code of Ethics for Visual Journalists.” NPPA, nppa.org/resources/code-ethics#. Accessed 21 Mar. 2024. Unknown. (2018, August 3). She didn’t read the fine print, and now her photo is being used in ads all over the world. PhotographyTalk. https://www.photographytalk.com/photography-articles/8735-she-didn-t-read-the-fine-print-andnow-her-photo-is-being-used-in-ads-all-over-the-world#:~:text=Then%2C%20about%20six%20 years%20ago,looked%20a%20 lot%20like%20Shubnum.text=As%20it%20turns%20out%2C%20the,being%20used%20for%20the%20ad. Land, M., Fuse, K., & Hornaday, B. W. (2014). Contemporary media ethics: A practical guide for students, scholars and professionals in a globalized world (2nd ed.). Spokane, WA: Marquette Books. Mcleod, S. (2015, February 5). Case Study Method. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/case-study.html Mayer, R. C., Davis, J. H., & Schoorman, F. D. (1995). An integrative model of organizational trust. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 709-734. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1995.9508080335 Noddings, N. (2013). Caring: A relational approach to ethics and moral education (2nd ed.). University of California Press. Shubnum Khan \| Order the Djinn Waits (@shubnumkhan) · x, twitter.com/ShubnumKhan. Accessed 21 Mar. 2024. Watsuji, T. (2011). Climate and culture: A philosophical study. Translated by Geoffrey Bownas. Greenwood Publishing Group. Zhang, M. (2023, Feb. 1). She Posed for a Free Photo Shoot, Now Her Face Is Showing Up Everywhere. PetaPixel. petapixel.com/2018/08/02/she-posed-for-a-free-photo-shoot-now-her-face-is-misused-everywhere/. A Case Study of a Mississippi Daycare Nightmare By Aspen Owen Abstract The Lil' Blessings Child Care and Learning Center case in Hamilton, Mississippi, serves as a crucial reminder of the importance of accountability, professionalism, and ethical behavior in childcare settings. In October 2022, disturbing videos were displayed online showing daycare workers terrorizing young children while wearing a mask that resembles the "Scream" horror films. The incident resulted in the termination of the employees involved and criminal charges for child abuse and related offenses. This case exemplifies the need for stronger regulatory oversight, comprehensive staff training, and a culture of ethical behavior within childcare facilities. It also highlights the role of parents, guardians, and the larger community in protecting the safety and well-being of children in daycare environments. By examining this case, we can take valuable insights into the importance of prioritizing child safety and advocating for professional accountability in childcare settings, using virtue ethics as our philosophical framework. Keywords: Child abuse, daycare negligence, professional misconduct, child safety, childcare provider ethics, virtue ethics Introduction In October 2022, a disturbing incident occurred at a local daycare center in Hamilton, Mississippi. This case raised concerns about the child’s safety within the daycare and questioned the appropriate care they were supposed to be given, five employees were fired after a video recording went viral across the web, showing daycare workers wearing scary masks and attempting to yell while chasing the children in the daycare. This case study dives deep into the ethical framework that this daycare displayed and the consequences that not only the daycare workers face, but the children and parents of the incident, forced to overcome a horribly traumatic fear. The purpose of this case is to critique the decision that these daycare workers have chosen to execute, using virtue ethics as the framework. Background Five daycare workers were charged with child abuse in Hamilton, Mississippi. The daycare workers were facing charges from their tortuous behavior to the children within the daycare, the workers who had on Halloween masks and purposefully scaring the children. The masks worn resembled from the moving ‘Scream’. Videos surfaced all throughout the internet of the daycare employees just inches away from the children’s faces, while the children were screaming in fear and complete terror. One of the five daycare workers was video recording the whole scene and presumed to record even after the recognizable fear on these children's faces, “Several people who viewed the video said online that they were disturbed by what they saw” (Diaz, 2022). Throughout this case, virtue ethics was a huge factor within the daycare and the community itself. Virtue ethics is based around the concept of good morals, being a good person with good moral duties to society. Virtue ethics is one of the biggest factors when it comes to creating healthy and successful relationships. Videos surfaced the internet of this horrific scene, “Children can be seen and heard crying and, at times, running away from the employee wearing the mask while another employee gives directions about which children acted good or bad. The employee in the mask is shown screaming inches away from children’s faces at times” (Associated Press, 2022). Alyssa Hayes, mother of a young girl at the daycare center, stated to ABC News, "I want them to see the terror on her face because that is what I see every night" (2022). As a daycare organization, the parents of the children are putting their utmost trust into the hands of the employees, hoping that they will care for their children just as much as their parents do. Unfortunately, this is a case where the trust was completely lost and it resulted in major consequences. For this case, the stakeholders include the parents of the children/family, the children affected themselves, the daycare workers, the other daycare workers who were not involved, the owner of the daycare, and the community/town in which it is located within. When looking at this case, the stakeholders are prioritized to the top of the Point-of-Decision (Land et al., 2014) pyramid, leaving the daycare employees in the same category as the victims and their families. Of course, it is evident to see the conclusion and decide that the choice that the owner of the daycare made, to fire the daycare workers was ethically and morally correct. However, this is now a consequence that will stick with these previous workers forever. A statement was released from the one of the daycare workers who was involved within the incident, earlier this month, McCandless released an apology saying the incident ‘wasn't meant to harm anybody’ or ‘ill-intentioned’. "The teachers asked me if I would do it or if they could use [the mask] to get their class to listen or clean up… I'm not a child abuser," McCandless previously said (Sen, 2022). Virtue Ethics When applying virtue ethics to this case, it is all about what is morally right and wrong. It goes in the same category of asking yourself, “Is this good or bad, should I do it or should not do it?” Trianosky (1990) proposes the question of ‘What is right or obligatory to do?’ (1990). In this specific daycare situation, when looking at the morally correct choice to make, is to fire and terminate the employees who were involved from the organization as a whole. Virtue ethics is based around the concept of good character and fulfilling an ethically positive life, some examples of these types of traits would include honesty, courage, loyalty, justice, respect, etc. Throughout this type of framework is a way to reflect on good character, if a person has virtuous actions. It is argued that virtue ethics is most relevant because it specifies the nature of social goods, and provides a relevant framework of thinking about good practice (Bessent, 2009). As far as the daycare, virtue ethics through the employees involved, did not display morally ethical traits. The employees should have considered the well-being and emotional needs of the children, instead of behaving in a manner that gave children traumatic distress. The idea of virtue ethics is also a way to create or, once created to preserve one’s virtue, and thus to keep oneself in equilibrium (Gottlieb, 2009). Virtue ethics emphasizes treating others fairly and with equal dignity, this action was not displayed when choosing to treat the children in a manner of punishment. Facts of Case In October 2022, a horrific video surfaced online showing several daycare workers at Lil' Blessings Child Care and Learning Center in Hamilton, Mississippi, scaring young children by wearing a mask resembling the one from the "Scream" horror films. The footage displayed the children crying, screaming, and trying to run away from the masked employee, while other workers were heard laughing and encouraging the behavior. Shortly after the incident, “The suspects were arrested Wednesday, and the four facing felony charges made their initial court appearances Thursday, according to the timeline laid out in the release” (Turnbull & Babineau, 2022). The daycare's owner confirmed that the employees involved had been fired, and the incident resulted in a criminal investigation. To conclude, five former daycare workers were charged with child abuse and related offenses for their participation on the scene. Case Analysis Principles and Values - The decision makers in this case defined principles and values in the most unethical way possible. The owner of the daycare had run the daycare for over 20 years during the time of the incident and had never condoned such behavior. The owner, Sheila Sanders, did not know that this incident occurred until it surfaced throughout the internet. By firing the employees who were participating in this disturbing case, it showed the value that the daycare holds for itself. Of course, many parents were terribly frustrated and mad once it was brought to their attention while their child was at daycare. "I was in complete shock of what I witnessed," Katelyn Johnson, mother of a child who attends Lil' Blessings, told ABC News. "Whether they had a mask on or a mask off, their behavior was unacceptable. My blood pressure was raised. It broke my heart for my child. I was angry." (2022). Virtue ethics is about doing good acts, that eventually leads to human flourishing. In this case it is the trust put into the childcare providers of the daycare, who failed everyone immensely from their poor behavior. Stakeholders and Loyalties - The decision of firing the employees involved showed the loyalty within the children, their families and the people of the community. However, with the legal charges that face the five employees, the consequences will be difficult to disappear. Making the decision to fire and press charges against the employees was the ethical and morally correct choice to make. However, this type of behavior will follow these five workers forever. When it comes to future jobs, being accepted into organizations/companies, future relationships are all factors that might be inflicted from this incident. As for the parents and the future daycare children of the school, the owners' loyal commitment to terminate anyone or any behavior that is going against the school’s code of ethics and morals, is being treated properly. Point of Decision Looking at the Land Model, developed by Mitch Land, the point of decision is at the very top of the pyramid model of analysis (Land et al., 2014). The final decision to fire the employees was a decision that was appropriate to everyone involved, including the community. The traumatic distress left on the children and their families was enough to press charges against these daycare women. What really took this case to an unethical level, was that after moments of this behavior, the daycare employees did not stop. It was clearly evident from video footage that the children were screaming for help right away, however this did not slow down the employees from taunting the children. Case Resolution This case resulted in a firing of all five of the daycare workers. Originally, they were all charged with felony child abuse. However, instead they each received a misdemeanor charge, after the grand jury declined to indict the women. As for the owner of the daycare, Sheila Sanders, is not facing charges. She has said that at least four of the employees were fired after the video came to light (NBC, 2022). One of the five employees was previously charged with a misdemeanor and failure to report an abuse assault against a minor, leading her to eventually receive termination from the organization as well. There is no evidence that the daycare had permanently shut down, so as far as the public knows, it is still open for business. We do know that all five participants involved in this case have been terminated from the organization. From research, the daycare did recover from this incident. A statement from the Washington Post shared that the videos have infuriated some residents in the tiny community of Hamilton, an unincorporated area 50 miles south of Tupelo where Lil’ Blessings is the town’s only daycare in business listings. Two days after the incident, Crook urged residents to be patient and let the investigation unfold, while at the same time acknowledging that the videos were “hard to watch.” (Bellware, 2022). According to People Magazine (2022), "The people that did those acts are no longer with us. They were fired. I wasn't here at the time and wasn't aware they were doing that. I don't condone that and never have. I just want to say it's been taken care of," Sanders told the outlet. Discussion/conclusion This case brings awareness to child care provider facilities and organizations. For any parent or guardian, leaving your child in the hands of another care provider is such a vulnerable and sacred spot. Parents would always expect that their child is being cared for properly within a daycare situation, so an incident this traumatizing for some many people is completely unacceptable and consequences are well deserved for the participants. When it comes to someone taking care of your child or watching your child, having a good moral compass is a must. For this case, the virtuous actions were completely lost and it not only affected the families of the children, but the community as a whole. A large takeaway from this case study in Hamilton, Mississippi, was the importance of true ethics. To ask yourself, what does good morals mean to you? Does this act do more harm than good, am I hurting others around me? It is about creating the greatest good for the greatest quality. Discussion questions - What ethical principles and values should guide the behavior of childcare providers, and how can these principles be promoted and upheld within childcare settings? - How can parents, guardians, and the wider community ensure that childcare facilities maintain high standards of safety and care for the children they serve? Are there specific measures that can be taken to prevent abuse and mistreatment in these settings? - Should there be stricter regulations and monitoring systems for childcare facilities to ensure compliance with safety standards and prevent abuse? Extra Resources/Link References Balagtas, T. (2022, October 20). Daycare Workers Arrested After Video Allegedly Shows Them Scaring Kids with Mask from 'Scream' People Magazine. https://people.com/crime/daycare-workers-scream-mask-scaring-kids-charged/ Bellware, K. (2022, October 21). Day-care workers charged with child abuse after scaring kids with masks. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2022/10/21/daycare-mask-child-abuse/ Bessant, J. (2009). Aristotle meets youth work: a case for virtue ethics. Journal of Youth Studies, 12(4), 423–438. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676260902866843 Day care workers charged with child abuse after scaring kids with ‘Scream’ mask. (2022, October 21). NBC New York. https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/national-international/day-care-workers-charged-after-scaring-kids-with-scream-mask/3917104/ Diaz, J. (2022, October 21). Ex-Day care workers charged after scaring children with ‘Scream’ mask. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/20/us/mississippi-day-care-abuse-charges.html Five Mississippi daycare workers charged with child abuse for terrifying toddlers Halloween mask. (2022, October 21). Meaw. https://meaww.com/five-mississippi-daycare-workers-charged-with-child-abuse-for-terrifying-toddlers-halloween-mask Land, M., Fuse, K., & Hornaday, B. (2014). Contemporary Media Ethics (2nd Ed.) Marquette Books: Spokane. Gottlieb, P. (2009). The virtue of Aristotle's ethics. Cambridge University Press. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=XeI0c4o1LuEC&oi=fnd&pg=PA19&dq=aristotle+virtue+ethics&ots=asC2uvqaAX&sig=4YrEbQPlZyIWBi2WZ9tflPu-Eeg#v=onepage&q=aristotle%20virtue%20ethics&f=false Haworth, J. (2022, October 20). Day care workers who used horror mask to scare children charged with felony child abuse. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/day-care-workers-horror-mask-scare-children-charged/story?id=91790564 Mississippi day care employees fired over viral videos \| AP News. (2022, October 9). AP News. https://apnews.com/article/social-media-mississippi-child-care-7b419e0d04b330cb6c0f089c89d7b774 Trianosky, G. (1990). What Is Virtue Ethics All about? American Philosophical Quarterly, 27(4), 335–344. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20014344 Turnbull, S., & Babineau, A. (2022, October 21). Video shows an adult at a Mississippi daycare wearing a mask and terrifying young children. Child abuse charges have now been filed. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2022/10/21/us/mississippi-daycare-charges-mask-scare-children/index.html	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.900027	Textbook	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116997/overview", "title": "What if? Ethics cases using various philosophies (Vol. 2)", "author": "Case Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97607/overview	Open Textbooks for Rural AZ Publishing Template Overview Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona participants are invited to remix this template to share their courses, textbooks, and other OER material on our Hub. How To Remix This Template (DELETE THIS ENTIRE SECTION AFTER ADDING YOUR MATERIALS) Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona participants are invited to remix this template to share their courses, textbooks, and other OER material on our Hub. Please follow the steps below: - Login to the OER Commons platform. - Click the "REMIX" button on this resource to create your own version. (It is the green Remix" button on the resource description page or under the vertical ellipsis if you are viewing the resource.) - Change the title to describe your specific material. - Insert a description of the material(s) into Section Two below. This will provide context about what you are sharing and your recommendation of how other faculty can adapt and use in their class. - Insert a public link to access the material into Section Three below. Please be sure the settings are for public access so others can view and/or download the material. For example, if sharing through Canvas, be sure the material is shared through the Canvas Commons. - Attach the file in the native format of the software program that you used. For example: - If you are creating ancillary materials using Google slides or MS Word then you would upload the .odp file or a MS Word .docx file. - If you are creating a Canvas or Moodle course, you would upload the common cartidge file. - Please note, the more course files formats you can provide, the easier it will be for all users to access it. - Attach the file in the native format of the software program that you used. For example: - Delete this section and instructions in other sections before publishing. - When ready to publish, click "Next" (at the top in green) to update the overview, license, and description of your resource. Please add "Open Textbooks for Rural AZ" as a tag in the "Keywords" section towatds the bottom. - Now click "Publish". Material Description Material Description (Add your material description here including the course name and number, and learning outcomes. Then delete this text.) Context for sharing: (Explain why you are choosing this resource to share with other Arizona educators. Then delete this text.) Additional information about the resource: (What else would you like to share about this resource. Example: "For additional resources, including an assessment bank, contact me at _______________." Then delete this text.) Material Attachment It is preferred if you include the material in multiple formats, such as a public link and an attachment. Add a public link to the material by including the text here. Please be sure the setting are for public access so others can view and/or download the material. For example, if sharing through Canvas, be sure the material is shared through the Canvas Commons. If you need help finding how to import from Canvas - here is a resource. Attach the resource by clicking the "Attach Section" paperclick image below, then choose the correct file from your computer, name your material(s), and save.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.939797	09/30/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97607/overview", "title": "Open Textbooks for Rural AZ Publishing Template", "author": "Joanna Schimizzi" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85899/overview	The Scientific Method and Psychology Overview This is a lecture which breaks down the scientific method and how it can relate to psychology. Scientific method and psychology lecture Learning objective: 1. The students will learn the steps of the scientific method 2. The students will learn how the scientific method can apply in psychology Format: Video lecture	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.952879	09/17/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85899/overview", "title": "The Scientific Method and Psychology", "author": "Michele Corgiat" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56674/overview	6.3 Metabolism (Laws of Thermodynamics) 6.3 Laws of Thermodynamics This animated video is the third part of the lecture series that corresponds with Biology 2e Openstax Chapter 6. Discusses the first and second laws of thermodynamics. This animated video is the third part of the lecture series that corresponds to Biology 2e Openstax Chapter 6. Discusses the first and second laws of thermodynamics.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.965085	08/05/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56674/overview", "title": "6.3 Metabolism (Laws of Thermodynamics)", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116075/overview	How to Navigate a Career Fair Handout: How to Navigate a Career Fair Overview Career fairs are great places to learn about job openings, to network, and more -- but job-seekers need to be prepared. Career fairs can be critical tools for job search success -- whether job-seekers use them to get an internship or job, or, whether job-seekers use them as a networking tool. Regardless of how you plan to take advantage of your next job expo or career fair, here are some key resources to help you make the most of the experience -- as well as key resources for finding your next career or career fair. Handout See attachment for handout.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.982863	Aujalee Moore	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116075/overview", "title": "Handout: How to Navigate a Career Fair", "author": "Student Guide" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116074/overview	PowerPoint about Cover Letters Overview A slide show that can be used to teach students about cover letter basics. Slide Show Please see the attached file.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:46.999408	05/15/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116074/overview", "title": "PowerPoint about Cover Letters", "author": "Aujalee Moore" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116076/overview	Internships and Interviewing Workshop Internships and Interviewing Workshop Internships and Interviewing Workshop Overview Slides to be used during a workshop around internships and/or interviews Presentation Slides for workshop are attached.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.017007	05/15/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116076/overview", "title": "Internships and Interviewing Workshop", "author": "Aujalee Moore" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66546/overview	Fertilizer Lesson 1 Packet Practice Exam Fertilizer Lesson 1 Packet Practice Exam Key Fertilizer Lesson 2 Packet Practice Exam OER Fertilizer Overview - Fertilizer Lesson 1A Video - Complete Fertilizer Packet Lesson 1A - Class study session for help or a workday - Fertilizer Lesson 1B Video - Complete Fertilizer Packet Lesson 1B - Class study session for help or a workday - Complete Fertilizer Lesson 1A & 1B Packet Practice Exam - Fertilizer Lesson 2 Video - Complete Fertilizer Packet Lesson 2 - Class study session for help or a workday - Complete Fertilizer Lesson 2 Packet Practice Exam - Pesticide Lesson 1A, 1B, and 2 Exam (30 pts) Fertilizer Lesson 1 Fertilizer Lesson 1A Packet Part I: Powerpoint or Lecture Based Lesson 1. Conversions to memorize (optional) 2. Four basic methods of application 3. Name and analysis of common fertilizers 4. Reading analysis of fertilizer Part II: Video 1A - Remember how to write fertilizer percent from analysis as a number 1. How much nutrients are in fertilizer 2. How much fertilizer to apply given nutrient amount 3. Cost of nutrient in a fertilizer 4. Complete Practice Packet Problems: a. How much nutrients are in fertilizer b. How much fertilizer to apply give nutrients c. Cost of nutrient in a fertilizer Some Helpful Steps for finding $/lb of nutrient in a fertilizer when there are two nutrients (like in MAP or DAP) 1. Assign a value to the nitrogen fertilizer usually in $/lb - (for dry fertilizer we use value of Urea) 2. Find the value of nitrogen in one ton of the selected fertilizer (answer will be in $/ton of fertilizer) 3. Take the total price of the fertilizer ($/ton of fertilizer) and subtract the value of nitrogen in one ton of fertilizer (answer from 2: $/ ton of fertilizer) 4. Find $/ lb of second nutrient that is NOT nitrogen using your adjusted price per ton ($/ton of fertilizer) from number three. Usually we are finding $/lb P2O5. Fertilizer Lesson 1B Packet Remember fertilizers are made of nutrients and inert matter. Nutrient analysis tells us how much nutrient (by %) is in the fertilizer 1. Review a price for each nutrient (NPKS) in a fertilizer (urea, MAP, DAP, AMS, Potash) --> $/lb nutrient 2. Liquid Fertilizers --> print chart for test! à https://fluidfertilizer.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Fluid-Fertilizer-Density-1.pdf 3. Fertilizer Analysis --> make a blend what is the new analysis --> make a chart 4. Soil Test Nutrient Amount --> Applied Fertilizer Amount to Blend - Work from right to left when going from nutrient to apply to fertilizer amount to blend--> start with sulfur - potassium - phosphorus - nitrogen - If a fertilizer answer from step a. has multiple nutrients, you need to find how much nitrogen is in applied amount of fertilizer from step a - Nitrogen recommendation subtract any found amounts from letter b. - Find new nitrogen recommendation from c. with the fertilizer urea (dry and N) 5. Given a nutrient analysis and weight total; how much of each fertilizer do you blend 6. Complete Practice Packet Problems: a. Liquid Fertilizers determining volumes b. Fertilizer Analysis Questions c. Soil Test Nutrient Amount --> Applied Fertilizer Amount to Blend d. Analysis to Blend Lesson 1A Part I 1. Ag Math Conversions Length \| 1ft = 12 in \| 1 inch = 2.54 cm \| Area \| 1 section = 1 sq mile = 640 acres \| 1 acre = 43560 sq ft \| Capacity \| 1 gal = 4 qt = 8 pts = 16 cups = 128 fl oz \| Weight \| 1 ton = 2000 lbs \| 1lb = 16 oz \| Crop \| Standard bushel weight \| Standard grain moisture content \| Barley \| 48 \| 14.50% \| Oats \| 32 \| 14% \| Rye \| 56 \| 14% \| Wheat \| 60 \| 13.50% \| Corn \| 56 \| 15.50% \| Soybean \| 60 \| 13% \| 2. Four Application Methods – found at https://courses.cit.cornell.edu/css412/mod5/ext_m5_pg3.htm - Band applications - Pop-up/starter applications - Broadcast or topdress applications - Sidedress applications 3. Name and analysis of common fertilizers Fertilizer Name \| Fertilizer Analysis \| Liquid or Granular \| Anhydrous Ammonia \| 82-0-0 \| Liquid under pressure, gas at reduced pressure \| Urea \| 46-0-0 \| Granular \| UAN \| 28-0-0 to 32-0-0 \| Liquid \| AMS \| 21-0-0-24S \| Granular \| Ammonium Polyphosphate \| 10-34-0 \| Liquid \| MAP \| 11-52-0 \| Granular \| DAP \| 18-46-0 \| Granular \| Potash \| 0-0-60 \| Granular \| 4. Reading Analysis of Fertilizer Fertilizer Practice Packet Name: _____________________________________ References: Fertilizer Grade \| Fertilizer Name \| 46-0-0 \| Urea (dry or liquid) \| 82-0-0 \| Anhydrous Ammonia \| 11-52-0 \| MAP – Mono-Ammonium Phosphate (Dry) \| 10-34-0 \| Liquid Ammonium Polyphosphate \| 18-46-0 \| DAP – Di-Ammonium Phosphate (Dry) \| 0-0-60 \| Potash (Dry or liquid) \| 21-0-0-24 (S) \| AMS – Ammonium Sulfate \| Fertilizer \| Price \| Anhydrous Ammonia \| $598 per ton \| Urea \| $380 per ton \| UAN (28 – 0 – 0) \| $215 per 1000 gallons \| DAP \| $490 per ton \| Potash \| $378 per ton \| MAP (Monoammonium phosphate) \| $505 per ton \| AMS (Ammonium sulfate) \| $350 per ton \| How much nutrients are in fertilizer? - Jeff has a ton of UAN. How many pounds of nitrogen are in it? - How much K20 is in a 75 pound bag of 10 – 20 – 20? - Sally has 45 tons of AMS. How much sulfur is in 100 pounds of AMS? - . How much sulfur is in 3 tons of AMS? (Give answer in pounds) - How much P2O5 is in 4 tons of MAP? (Give answer in pounds) How much fertilizer to apply given nutrients - You want 150 pounds on nitrogen applied per acre. - How much anhydrous would you have to apply to hit this goal (lbs/acre)? - How much does this anhydrous cost per acre? - How much urea would you have to apply to hit this goal (lbs/acre)? - How much does this urea cost per acre? - How much DAP would you have to apply to hit this goal (lbs/acre)? - How much does this DAP cost per acre? - How much MAP do you have to apply to get 45 pounds of P2O5 per acre? How much will it cost for this MAP? - You want to put down 55 pounds of sulfur per acre. How much AMS do you apply? How much will it cost for this AMS? Liquid Fertilizers determining volumes – use linked chart on liquid fertilizer densities - You want to apply 10 pounds of UAN per acre. How many gallons is this? - You want to apply 75 pounds of Liquid Ammonium Polyphosphate per acre. How many gallons is this? - You want to apply 30 pounds of nitrogen per acre. How many gallons of UAN should you apply per acre? How much will it cost to apply this to 1000 acres? - You want to apply 30 pounds of phosphorus (P2O5) per acre. How many gallons of Liquid Ammonium Polyphosphate do you put down per acre? - How much nitrogen is in 3000 gallons of UAN? - How much P2O5 is in 40 gallons of Liquid Ammonium Polyphosphate? - You want to apply 30 pounds of nitrogen per acre. How many gallons of UAN plus sulfur (28-0-0- 5S) should you apply per acre? NOTE: Sometimes liquid fertilizer rate should be adjusted on temperature – you will just refigure density Cost of nutrient in a fertilizer - What is the cost for 1 pound of nitrogen in: - Urea - Anhydrous - What is the cost for 1 pound of phosphorus in. Given the price of urea in the above problem. - MAP - Assign a value to the nitrogen fertilizer usually in $/lb - (for dry fertilizer we use value of Urea) - Find the value of nitrogen in one ton of the selected fertilizer (answer will be in $/ton of fertilizer) - Take the total price of the fertilizer ($/ton of fertilizer) and subtract the value of nitrogen in one ton of fertilizer (answer from 2: $/ ton of fertilizer) - Find $/ lb of second nutrient that is NOT nitrogen using your adjusted price per ton ($/ton of fertilizer) from number three. Usually we are finding $/lb P2O5. - MAP - DAP - Assign a value to the nitrogen fertilizer usually in $/lb - (for dry fertilizer we use value of Urea) - Find the value of nitrogen in one ton of the selected fertilizer (answer will be in $/ton of fertilizer) - Take the total price of the fertilizer ($/ton of fertilizer) and subtract the value of nitrogen in one ton of fertilizer (answer from 2: $/ ton of fertilizer) - Find $/ lb of second nutrient that is NOT nitrogen using your adjusted price per ton ($/ton of fertilizer) from number three. Usually we are finding $/lb P2O5. - DAP - Repeat number two put adjust the prices of MAP to $450/ton and DAP to $400/ton and a urea price of $0.50 per 1 pound of nitrogen - MAP - Assign a value to the nitrogen fertilizer usually in $/lb - (for dry fertilizer we use value of Urea) - Find the value of nitrogen in one ton of the selected fertilizer (answer will be in $/ton of fertilizer) - Take the total price of the fertilizer ($/ton of fertilizer) and subtract the value of nitrogen in one ton of fertilizer (answer from 2: $/ ton of fertilizer) - Find $/ lb of second nutrient that is NOT nitrogen using your adjusted price per ton ($/ton of fertilizer) from number three. Usually we are finding $/lb P2O5. - MAP - DAP - Assign a value to the nitrogen fertilizer usually in $/lb - (for dry fertilizer we use value of Urea) - Find the value of nitrogen in one ton of the selected fertilizer (answer will be in $/ton of fertilizer) - Take the total price of the fertilizer ($/ton of fertilizer) and subtract the value of nitrogen in one ton of fertilizer (answer from 2: $/ ton of fertilizer) - Find $/ lb of second nutrient that is NOT nitrogen using your adjusted price per ton ($/ton of fertilizer) from number three. Usually we are finding $/lb P2O5. - DAP - How much will it cost you to apply 20 pounds of P2O5 per acre on 1000 acres using DAP? Fertilizer Analysis Questions - What is the analysis/grade of a mix of 2000 pounds of urea and 500 pounds of DAP? - What is the analysis/grade of a mix of 1000 pounds of urea, 200 pounds of AMS, and 200 pounds of MAP - What is the analysis/grade of a mix of 1000 pounds of urea, 200 pounds of potash, 200 pounds of AMS, and 100 pounds of DAP? Soil Test Nutrient Amount --> Applied Fertilizer Amount to Blend - You want to apply 100 pounds of nitrogen and 20 pounds of P2O5 using Urea and DAP. How much of each fertilizer to you blend? - You want to apply 120 pounds of nitrogen, 10 pounds of P2O5, and 10 pounds of K20 using Urea, potash, and DAP. How much of each fertilizer to you blend? - You want to apply 90 pounds of nitrogen, 15 pounds of P2O5, and 10 pounds of sulfur using Urea, AMS, and DAP. How much of each fertilizer to you blend? - You want to apply 80 pounds of nitrogen, 9 pounds of P2O5, and 9 pounds of K2O using Urea, potash, and DAP. How much of each fertilizer to you blend? Analysis to Blend - Katherine wants a blend of 34 -0 – 0 – 18 (S). You will blend urea and AMS to get this. She wants 10 tons of the mix. How much of each fertilizer do you blend? - Brittney wants to make a blend of 5 – 8 – 8 . She will use Urea potash and MAP. She wants 4 tons of the mix. How much of each fertilizer do you blend for her? Fertilizer Lesson 2 Fertilizer Lesson 2 Packet Main Idea --> Go from a soil test to a fertilizer recommendation Ways that fertilizer recommendations are done: 1. Soil Testing company gives recommendation 2. Agronomist gives recommendation (many of you will be the agronomist) 3. You use resources from NDSU or your company and give a fertilizer recommendation based on soil test 4. Based on estimated removal or standard rate We will use the NDSU method --> New and Traditional 1. Traditional - Print ND Pre 2018 Soil Recs - https://www.haifa-group.com/sites/default/files/article/sf882.pdf - Use - Formulas from table to find amount of NPK to apply - Refer to soil test to find any nutrient in soil (N) - Repeat steps from lesson 1B Soil Test Nutrient Amount --> Applied Fertilizer Amount to Blend 2. New Method - Print ND Fertility Packet 2018 - https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/crops/north-dakota-fertilizer-recommendation-tables-and-equations/sf882.pdf - Use NO formulas - just a baseline number to find how much nutrient to apply - Use chart to find how much nutrient to apply - Refer to soil test to find any nutrient in soil (N) - Repeat steps from lesson 1B Soil Test Nutrient Amount --> Applied Fertilizer Amount to Blend Soil Test Nutrient Amount --> Applied Fertilizer Amount to Blend - Work from right to left when going from nutrient to apply to fertilizer amount to blend--> start with sulfur - potassium - phosphorus - nitrogen - If a fertilizer answer from step a. has multiple nutrients, you need to find how much nitrogen is in applied amount of fertilizer from step a - Nitrogen recommendation subtract any found amounts from letter b. - Find new nitrogen recommendation from c. with the fertilizer urea (dry and N) Complete Soil Test Values to Nutrient to Fertilizer Recommendations Fertilizer Lesson 2 Packet Soil Test Values to Nutrient to Fertilizer Recommendations Name: ________________________ Answer the following using both ND Soil Fertility Packets – old and new (charts found at links above) and the soil test below each problem. Problems 1-2 will be done as examples. Complete problems 3-5 as homework to bring to class. Grades of fertilizer (the 46-0-0) are given on last page. The soil test is found beneath the problem. - Find how much N, P, K, and potentially S are needed given – Yield Potential 100 bushels/acre: - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much nitrogen would you have to apply for malting grade barley in warmer drier climates if you have done no-till for greater than 10 years? - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much P2O5 would you have to apply for malting grade barley in warmer drier climates if you have done no-till for greater than 10 years? - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much K2O would you have to apply for malting grade barley in warmer drier climates if you have done no-till for greater than 10 years? - Create a blend from answers a-c using urea, DAP, and potash. - Find how much N, P, K, and potentially S are needed- Yield Potential 2200 lbs/acre: - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much nitrogen would you have to apply for canola in a cooler and moister environment? - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much P2O5 would you have to apply for canola in a cooler and moister environment? - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much K2O would you have to apply for canola in a cooler and moister environment? - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much sulfur would you have to apply for canola in a cooler and moister environment? - Create a blend from answers a-c using urea, DAP, AMS, and potash. - Find how much N, P, K, and potentially S are needed given soil test below values – Yield Potential 16 tons/acre: - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much nitrogen would you have to apply for tilled ground planted in silage corn? - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much P2O5 would you have to apply for tilled ground planted in silage corn? - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much K2O would you have to apply for tilled ground planted in silage corn? - Create a blend from answers a-c using urea, DAP, and potash. - Find how much N, P, K, and potentially S are needed given – Yield Potential 1400 lbs/acre: - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much nitrogen would you have to apply for no-till safflower? - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much P2O5 would you have to apply for no-till safflower? - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much K2O would you have to apply for no-till safflower? - Create a blend from answers a-c using urea, DAP, and potash. - Find how much N, P, K, and potentially S are needed given below soil test values – 33 bu/acre: - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much nitrogen would you have to apply for tilled ground planted in buckwheat? - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much P2O5 would you have to apply for tilled ground planted in buckwheat? - Using the NDSU soil guide, how much K2O would you have to apply for tilled ground planted in buckwheat? - Create a blend from answers a-c using urea, DAP, and potash. Fertilizer Grade \| Fertilizer Name \| 46-0-0 \| Urea (dry or liquid) \| 82-0-0 \| Anhydrous Ammonia \| 11-52-0 \| MAP – Mono-Ammonium Phosphate (Dry) \| 10-34-0 \| Liquid Ammonium Polyphosphate \| 18-46-0 \| DAP – Di-Ammonium Phosphate (Dry) \| 0-0-60 \| Potash (Dry or liquid) \| 21-0-0-24 (S) \| AMS – Ammonium Sulfate \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.128188	05/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66546/overview", "title": "Fertilizer", "author": "Kenan Layden" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54520/overview	VSEPR and possible shapes Molecular Shapes: VSEPR Overview This module is an introduction to using VSEPR to predict molecular shape based on Lewis structures. It is limited to steric numbers of 6 or less. How to go from Lewis structure to Geometry The YouTube video is from UT Austin. This module is limited to a steric number of 6 or less. The specific examples in the mini-lecture are PCl3, XeF4, and CO2. We have to talk about the possible geometries before we can predict the shape of a molecule based on its Lewis structure. First, we step into geometry and bond angles with Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion and the possible shapes we encounter in general chemistry. Next, we explore how to go from a Lewis Structure to a VSEPR geometry in the mini-lecture.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.147057	05/20/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54520/overview", "title": "Molecular Shapes: VSEPR", "author": "Amy Petros" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104187/overview	Physiology Laboratory: Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Overview The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Action Plan How OER and open pedagogy helped the class to be antiracist: OER and open padagogy facilitated student reflection of ones own identity through the use of the Identitiy Wheel. Students were taught about race, racism and anti-racism with emphasis that to be anti-racist is more than just being a non-racist individual. A combination of OER and other reliable resources such as CDC.gov, medical journals and others. Collaboration were encouraged among students of different backgrounds and their individual voices were heard with the use of open pedagogy. As a group, students performed a self-reflection of the anti-racism project including how to becaome an anti-racist individual and an anti-racism medical professional in particular. Physiology Laboratory Physiology Laboratory Bio-6L Course Description: Human Physiology deals with the study of the function of the human body. It focuses on the importance of maintaining homeostasis. Students who take human physiology courses are those going into the medical field. Racism is everywhere and the medical system is not immune to it. Student Learning Outcome: Given the results of a standard laboratory cardiovascular system tests (including blood tests), the student will demonstrate the ability to analyze and interpret the results. Given the name of a biological molecule, students will describe the functions and locations of the molecule in the human body. Antiracist Assignment / Module LESSON - RACE What is RACE? According to American Association of Physical Anthropologists, the "Western concept of race must be understood as a classification system that emerged from, and in support of, European colonialism, oppression, and discrimination. It thus does not have its roots in biological reality, but in policies of discrimination." It is important to note that, biologically, race doesn't exist. There is only one race, the human race. Race centers whiteness as the norm. Despite its biological insignificance, the cultural and social significance of race is very real (Guess, 2006). A society's understanding of race is centered on whiteness and "others" non-white, people of color. "Whiteness, therefore, is the standard by which systems and policies are designed which reaffirms the significance and impact of race on society (OFAR, 2022). What is RACISM? What is Systemic Racism in America? What is RACISM in MEDICINE? Let's go back to history --- Nowadays --- How American Health Care Is Defined By Systemic Racism Combating Racism and Place-ism in Medicine How to become an ANTI-RACIST? What does it mean to be anti-racist? Attributions - Guess, T. J. (2006). The social construction of whiteness: Racism by intent, racism by consequenceLinks to an external site.. Critical Sociology, 32(4), 649–673. - For more readings about race, whiteness, and talking race, visit the OFAR Bibliography. RESEARCH about MEDICAL RACISM / RACISM IN MEDICINE on the ASSIGNED TOPIC for your TEAM. Team 1 - Medical Racism / Racism in Medicine + HYPERTENSION Team 2 - Medical Racism / Racism in Medicine + DIABETES Team 3 - Medical Racism / Racism in Medicine + CHRONIC RENAL DISEASE (& KIDNEY TRANSPLANT) Team 4 -Medical Racism / Racism in Medicine + STROKE COLLABORATE with your TEAM MATES. Make a POWERPOINT PRESENTATION on your FINDINGS & DISCUSSIONS PRESENTING your REPORT in class. REFLECTIONS	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.171765	05/24/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104187/overview", "title": "Physiology Laboratory: Open For Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Ver Marie Myr Panggat" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14936/overview	Introduction Viewed from space, Earth offers no clues about the diversity of life forms that reside there. The first forms of life on Earth are thought to have been microorganisms that existed for billions of years in the ocean before plants and animals appeared. The mammals, birds, and flowers so familiar to us are all relatively recent, originating 130 to 200 million years ago. Humans have inhabited this planet for only the last 2.5 million years, and only in the last 200,000 years have humans started looking like we do today.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.187401	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14936/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14937/overview	The Science of Biology Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify the shared characteristics of the natural sciences - Summarize the steps of the scientific method - Compare inductive reasoning with deductive reasoning - Describe the goals of basic science and applied science What is biology? In simple terms, biology is the study of living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments. This is a very broad definition because the scope of biology is vast. Biologists may study anything from the microscopic or submicroscopic view of a cell to ecosystems and the whole living planet (Figure). Listening to the daily news, you will quickly realize how many aspects of biology are discussed every day. For example, recent news topics include Escherichia coli (Figure) outbreaks in spinach and Salmonella contamination in peanut butter. Other subjects include efforts toward finding a cure for AIDS, Alzheimer’s disease, and cancer. On a global scale, many researchers are committed to finding ways to protect the planet, solve environmental issues, and reduce the effects of climate change. All of these diverse endeavors are related to different facets of the discipline of biology. The Process of Science Biology is a science, but what exactly is science? What does the study of biology share with other scientific disciplines? Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning “knowledge”) can be defined as knowledge that covers general truths or the operation of general laws, especially when acquired and tested by the scientific method. It becomes clear from this definition that the application of the scientific method plays a major role in science. The scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that include experiments and careful observation. The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail later, but one of the most important aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses by means of repeatable experiments. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for an event, which can be tested. Although using the scientific method is inherent to science, it is inadequate in determining what science is. This is because it is relatively easy to apply the scientific method to disciplines such as physics and chemistry, but when it comes to disciplines like archaeology, psychology, and geology, the scientific method becomes less applicable as it becomes more difficult to repeat experiments. These areas of study are still sciences, however. Consider archeology—even though one cannot perform repeatable experiments, hypotheses may still be supported. For instance, an archeologist can hypothesize that an ancient culture existed based on finding a piece of pottery. Further hypotheses could be made about various characteristics of this culture, and these hypotheses may be found to be correct or false through continued support or contradictions from other findings. A hypothesis may become a verified theory. A theory is a tested and confirmed explanation for observations or phenomena. Science may be better defined as fields of study that attempt to comprehend the nature of the universe. Natural Sciences What would you expect to see in a museum of natural sciences? Frogs? Plants? Dinosaur skeletons? Exhibits about how the brain functions? A planetarium? Gems and minerals? Or, maybe all of the above? Science includes such diverse fields as astronomy, biology, computer sciences, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics (Figure). However, those fields of science related to the physical world and its phenomena and processes are considered natural sciences. Thus, a museum of natural sciences might contain any of the items listed above. There is no complete agreement when it comes to defining what the natural sciences include, however. For some experts, the natural sciences are astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth science, and physics. Other scholars choose to divide natural sciences into life sciences, which study living things and include biology, and physical sciences, which study nonliving matter and include astronomy, geology, physics, and chemistry. Some disciplines such as biophysics and biochemistry build on both life and physical sciences and are interdisciplinary. Natural sciences are sometimes referred to as “hard science” because they rely on the use of quantitative data; social sciences that study society and human behavior are more likely to use qualitative assessments to drive investigations and findings. Not surprisingly, the natural science of biology has many branches or subdisciplines. Cell biologists study cell structure and function, while biologists who study anatomy investigate the structure of an entire organism. Those biologists studying physiology, however, focus on the internal functioning of an organism. Some areas of biology focus on only particular types of living things. For example, botanists explore plants, while zoologists specialize in animals. Scientific Reasoning One thing is common to all forms of science: an ultimate goal “to know.” Curiosity and inquiry are the driving forces for the development of science. Scientists seek to understand the world and the way it operates. To do this, they use two methods of logical thinking: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. This type of reasoning is common in descriptive science. A life scientist such as a biologist makes observations and records them. These data can be qualitative or quantitative, and the raw data can be supplemented with drawings, pictures, photos, or videos. From many observations, the scientist can infer conclusions (inductions) based on evidence. Inductive reasoning involves formulating generalizations inferred from careful observation and the analysis of a large amount of data. Brain studies provide an example. In this type of research, many live brains are observed while people are doing a specific activity, such as viewing images of food. The part of the brain that “lights up” during this activity is then predicted to be the part controlling the response to the selected stimulus, in this case, images of food. The “lighting up” of the various areas of the brain is caused by excess absorption of radioactive sugar derivatives by active areas of the brain. The resultant increase in radioactivity is observed by a scanner. Then, researchers can stimulate that part of the brain to see if similar responses result. Deductive reasoning or deduction is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive reason, the pattern of thinking moves in the opposite direction as compared to inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to forecast specific results. From those general principles, a scientist can extrapolate and predict the specific results that would be valid as long as the general principles are valid. Studies in climate change can illustrate this type of reasoning. For example, scientists may predict that if the climate becomes warmer in a particular region, then the distribution of plants and animals should change. These predictions have been made and tested, and many such changes have been found, such as the modification of arable areas for agriculture, with change based on temperature averages. Both types of logical thinking are related to the two main pathways of scientific study: descriptive science and hypothesis-based science. Descriptive (or discovery) science, which is usually inductive, aims to observe, explore, and discover, while hypothesis-based science, which is usually deductive, begins with a specific question or problem and a potential answer or solution that can be tested. The boundary between these two forms of study is often blurred, and most scientific endeavors combine both approaches. The fuzzy boundary becomes apparent when thinking about how easily observation can lead to specific questions. For example, a gentleman in the 1940s observed that the burr seeds that stuck to his clothes and his dog’s fur had a tiny hook structure. On closer inspection, he discovered that the burrs’ gripping device was more reliable than a zipper. He eventually developed a company and produced the hook-and-loop fastener popularly known today as Velcro. Descriptive science and hypothesis-based science are in continuous dialogue. The Scientific Method Biologists study the living world by posing questions about it and seeking science-based responses. This approach is common to other sciences as well and is often referred to as the scientific method. The scientific method was used even in ancient times, but it was first documented by England’s Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) (Figure), who set up inductive methods for scientific inquiry. The scientific method is not exclusively used by biologists but can be applied to almost all fields of study as a logical, rational problem-solving method. The scientific process typically starts with an observation (often a problem to be solved) that leads to a question. Let’s think about a simple problem that starts with an observation and apply the scientific method to solve the problem. One Monday morning, a student arrives at class and quickly discovers that the classroom is too warm. That is an observation that also describes a problem: the classroom is too warm. The student then asks a question: “Why is the classroom so warm?” Proposing a Hypothesis Recall that a hypothesis is a suggested explanation that can be tested. To solve a problem, several hypotheses may be proposed. For example, one hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm because no one turned on the air conditioning.” But there could be other responses to the question, and therefore other hypotheses may be proposed. A second hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm because there is a power failure, and so the air conditioning doesn’t work.” Once a hypothesis has been selected, the student can make a prediction. A prediction is similar to a hypothesis but it typically has the format “If . . . then . . . .” For example, the prediction for the first hypothesis might be, “If the student turns on the air conditioning, then the classroom will no longer be too warm.” Testing a Hypothesis A valid hypothesis must be testable. It should also be falsifiable, meaning that it can be disproven by experimental results. Importantly, science does not claim to “prove” anything because scientific understandings are always subject to modification with further information. This step—openness to disproving ideas—is what distinguishes sciences from non-sciences. The presence of the supernatural, for instance, is neither testable nor falsifiable. To test a hypothesis, a researcher will conduct one or more experiments designed to eliminate one or more of the hypotheses. Each experiment will have one or more variables and one or more controls. A variable is any part of the experiment that can vary or change during the experiment. The control group contains every feature of the experimental group except it is not given the manipulation that is hypothesized about. Therefore, if the results of the experimental group differ from the control group, the difference must be due to the hypothesized manipulation, rather than some outside factor. Look for the variables and controls in the examples that follow. To test the first hypothesis, the student would find out if the air conditioning is on. If the air conditioning is turned on but does not work, there should be another reason, and this hypothesis should be rejected. To test the second hypothesis, the student could check if the lights in the classroom are functional. If so, there is no power failure and this hypothesis should be rejected. Each hypothesis should be tested by carrying out appropriate experiments. Be aware that rejecting one hypothesis does not determine whether or not the other hypotheses can be accepted; it simply eliminates one hypothesis that is not valid (Figure). Using the scientific method, the hypotheses that are inconsistent with experimental data are rejected. While this “warm classroom” example is based on observational results, other hypotheses and experiments might have clearer controls. For instance, a student might attend class on Monday and realize she had difficulty concentrating on the lecture. One observation to explain this occurrence might be, “When I eat breakfast before class, I am better able to pay attention.” The student could then design an experiment with a control to test this hypothesis. In hypothesis-based science, specific results are predicted from a general premise. This type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning: deduction proceeds from the general to the particular. But the reverse of the process is also possible: sometimes, scientists reach a general conclusion from a number of specific observations. This type of reasoning is called inductive reasoning, and it proceeds from the particular to the general. Inductive and deductive reasoning are often used in tandem to advance scientific knowledge (Figure). Art Connection In the example below, the scientific method is used to solve an everyday problem. Order the scientific method steps (numbered items) with the process of solving the everyday problem (lettered items). Based on the results of the experiment, is the hypothesis correct? If it is incorrect, propose some alternative hypotheses. - Observation - Question - Hypothesis (answer) - Prediction - Experiment - Result - There is something wrong with the electrical outlet. - If something is wrong with the outlet, my coffeemaker also won’t work when plugged into it. - My toaster doesn’t toast my bread. - I plug my coffee maker into the outlet. - My coffeemaker works. - Why doesn’t my toaster work? Art Connection Decide if each of the following is an example of inductive or deductive reasoning. - All flying birds and insects have wings. Birds and insects flap their wings as they move through the air. Therefore, wings enable flight. - Insects generally survive mild winters better than harsh ones. Therefore, insect pests will become more problematic if global temperatures increase. - Chromosomes, the carriers of DNA, separate into daughter cells during cell division. Therefore, DNA is the genetic material. - Animals as diverse as humans, insects, and wolves all exhibit social behavior. Therefore, social behavior must have an evolutionary advantage. The scientific method may seem too rigid and structured. It is important to keep in mind that, although scientists often follow this sequence, there is flexibility. Sometimes an experiment leads to conclusions that favor a change in approach; often, an experiment brings entirely new scientific questions to the puzzle. Many times, science does not operate in a linear fashion; instead, scientists continually draw inferences and make generalizations, finding patterns as their research proceeds. Scientific reasoning is more complex than the scientific method alone suggests. Notice, too, that the scientific method can be applied to solving problems that aren’t necessarily scientific in nature. Two Types of Science: Basic Science and Applied Science The scientific community has been debating for the last few decades about the value of different types of science. Is it valuable to pursue science for the sake of simply gaining knowledge, or does scientific knowledge only have worth if we can apply it to solving a specific problem or to bettering our lives? This question focuses on the differences between two types of science: basic science and applied science. Basic science or “pure” science seeks to expand knowledge regardless of the short-term application of that knowledge. It is not focused on developing a product or a service of immediate public or commercial value. The immediate goal of basic science is knowledge for knowledge’s sake, though this does not mean that, in the end, it may not result in a practical application. In contrast, applied science or “technology,” aims to use science to solve real-world problems, making it possible, for example, to improve a crop yield, find a cure for a particular disease, or save animals threatened by a natural disaster (Figure). In applied science, the problem is usually defined for the researcher. Some individuals may perceive applied science as “useful” and basic science as “useless.” A question these people might pose to a scientist advocating knowledge acquisition would be, “What for?” A careful look at the history of science, however, reveals that basic knowledge has resulted in many remarkable applications of great value. Many scientists think that a basic understanding of science is necessary before an application is developed; therefore, applied science relies on the results generated through basic science. Other scientists think that it is time to move on from basic science and instead to find solutions to actual problems. Both approaches are valid. It is true that there are problems that demand immediate attention; however, few solutions would be found without the help of the wide knowledge foundation generated through basic science. One example of how basic and applied science can work together to solve practical problems occurred after the discovery of DNA structure led to an understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing DNA replication. Strands of DNA, unique in every human, are found in our cells, where they provide the instructions necessary for life. During DNA replication, DNA makes new copies of itself, shortly before a cell divides. Understanding the mechanisms of DNA replication enabled scientists to develop laboratory techniques that are now used to identify genetic diseases, pinpoint individuals who were at a crime scene, and determine paternity. Without basic science, it is unlikely that applied science would exist. Another example of the link between basic and applied research is the Human Genome Project, a study in which each human chromosome was analyzed and mapped to determine the precise sequence of DNA subunits and the exact location of each gene. (The gene is the basic unit of heredity; an individual’s complete collection of genes is his or her genome.) Other less complex organisms have also been studied as part of this project in order to gain a better understanding of human chromosomes. The Human Genome Project (Figure) relied on basic research carried out with simple organisms and, later, with the human genome. An important end goal eventually became using the data for applied research, seeking cures and early diagnoses for genetically related diseases. While research efforts in both basic science and applied science are usually carefully planned, it is important to note that some discoveries are made by serendipity, that is, by means of a fortunate accident or a lucky surprise. Penicillin was discovered when biologist Alexander Fleming accidentally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria open. An unwanted mold grew on the dish, killing the bacteria. The mold turned out to be Penicillium, and a new antibiotic was discovered. Even in the highly organized world of science, luck—when combined with an observant, curious mind—can lead to unexpected breakthroughs. Reporting Scientific Work Whether scientific research is basic science or applied science, scientists must share their findings in order for other researchers to expand and build upon their discoveries. Collaboration with other scientists—when planning, conducting, and analyzing results—are all important for scientific research. For this reason, important aspects of a scientist’s work are communicating with peers and disseminating results to peers. Scientists can share results by presenting them at a scientific meeting or conference, but this approach can reach only the select few who are present. Instead, most scientists present their results in peer-reviewed manuscripts that are published in scientific journals. Peer-reviewed manuscripts are scientific papers that are reviewed by a scientist’s colleagues, or peers. These colleagues are qualified individuals, often experts in the same research area, who judge whether or not the scientist’s work is suitable for publication. The process of peer review helps to ensure that the research described in a scientific paper or grant proposal is original, significant, logical, and thorough. Grant proposals, which are requests for research funding, are also subject to peer review. Scientists publish their work so other scientists can reproduce their experiments under similar or different conditions to expand on the findings. The experimental results must be consistent with the findings of other scientists. A scientific paper is very different from creative writing. Although creativity is required to design experiments, there are fixed guidelines when it comes to presenting scientific results. First, scientific writing must be brief, concise, and accurate. A scientific paper needs to be succinct but detailed enough to allow peers to reproduce the experiments. The scientific paper consists of several specific sections—introduction, materials and methods, results, and discussion. This structure is sometimes called the “IMRaD” format. There are usually acknowledgment and reference sections as well as an abstract (a concise summary) at the beginning of the paper. There might be additional sections depending on the type of paper and the journal where it will be published; for example, some review papers require an outline. The introduction starts with brief, but broad, background information about what is known in the field. A good introduction also gives the rationale of the work; it justifies the work carried out and also briefly mentions the end of the paper, where the hypothesis or research question driving the research will be presented. The introduction refers to the published scientific work of others and therefore requires citations following the style of the journal. Using the work or ideas of others without proper citation is considered plagiarism. The materials and methods section includes a complete and accurate description of the substances used, and the method and techniques used by the researchers to gather data. The description should be thorough enough to allow another researcher to repeat the experiment and obtain similar results, but it does not have to be verbose. This section will also include information on how measurements were made and what types of calculations and statistical analyses were used to examine raw data. Although the materials and methods section gives an accurate description of the experiments, it does not discuss them. Some journals require a results section followed by a discussion section, but it is more common to combine both. If the journal does not allow the combination of both sections, the results section simply narrates the findings without any further interpretation. The results are presented by means of tables or graphs, but no duplicate information should be presented. In the discussion section, the researcher will interpret the results, describe how variables may be related, and attempt to explain the observations. It is indispensable to conduct an extensive literature search to put the results in the context of previously published scientific research. Therefore, proper citations are included in this section as well. Finally, the conclusion section summarizes the importance of the experimental findings. While the scientific paper almost certainly answered one or more scientific questions that were stated, any good research should lead to more questions. Therefore, a well-done scientific paper leaves doors open for the researcher and others to continue and expand on the findings. Review articles do not follow the IMRAD format because they do not present original scientific findings, or primary literature; instead, they summarize and comment on findings that were published as primary literature and typically include extensive reference sections. Section Summary Biology is the science that studies living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments. Science attempts to describe and understand the nature of the universe in whole or in part by rational means. Science has many fields; those fields related to the physical world and its phenomena are considered natural sciences. Science can be basic or applied. The main goal of basic science is to expand knowledge without any expectation of short-term practical application of that knowledge. The primary goal of applied research, however, is to solve practical problems. Two types of logical reasoning are used in science. Inductive reasoning uses particular results to produce general scientific principles. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that predicts results by applying general principles. The common thread throughout scientific research is the use of the scientific method, a step-based process that consists of making observations, defining a problem, posing hypotheses, testing these hypotheses, and drawing one or more conclusions. The testing uses proper controls. Scientists present their results in peer-reviewed scientific papers published in scientific journals. A scientific research paper consists of several well-defined sections: introduction, materials and methods, results, and, finally, a concluding discussion. Review papers summarize the research done in a particular field over a period of time. Art Connections Figure In the example below, the scientific method is used to solve an everyday problem. Order the scientific method steps (numbered items) with the process of solving the everyday problem (lettered items). Based on the results of the experiment, is the hypothesis correct? If it is incorrect, propose some alternative hypotheses. - Observation - Question - Hypothesis (answer) - Prediction - Experiment - Result - There is something wrong with the electrical outlet. - If something is wrong with the outlet, my coffeemaker also won’t work when plugged into it. - My toaster doesn’t toast my bread. - I plug my coffee maker into the outlet. - My coffeemaker works. - Why doesn’t my toaster work? Hint: Figure 1: C; 2: F; 3: A; 4: B; 5: D; 6: E. The original hypothesis is incorrect, as the coffeemaker works when plugged into the outlet. Alternative hypotheses include that the toaster might be broken or that the toaster wasn't turned on. Figure Decide if each of the following is an example of inductive or deductive reasoning. - All flying birds and insects have wings. Birds and insects flap their wings as they move through the air. Therefore, wings enable flight. - Insects generally survive mild winters better than harsh ones. Therefore, insect pests will become more problematic if global temperatures increase. - Chromosomes, the carriers of DNA, separate into daughter cells during cell division. Therefore, DNA is the genetic material. - Animals as diverse as humans, insects, and wolves all exhibit social behavior. Therefore, social behavior must have an evolutionary advantage. Hint: Figure 1: inductive; 2: deductive; 3: deductive; 4: inductive. Review Questions The first forms of life on Earth were ________. - plants - microorganisms - birds - dinosaurs Hint: B A suggested and testable explanation for an event is called a ________. - hypothesis - variable - theory - control Hint: A Which of the following sciences is not considered a natural science? - biology - astronomy - physics - computer science Hint: D The type of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion is called ________. - deductive reasoning - the scientific method - hypothesis-based science - inductive reasoning Hint: D The process of ________ helps to ensure that a scientist’s research is original, significant, logical, and thorough. - publication - public speaking - peer review - the scientific method Hint: C A person notices that her houseplants that are regularly exposed to music seem to grow more quickly than those in rooms with no music. As a result, she determines that plants grow better when exposed to music. This example most closely resembles which type of reasoning? - inductive reasoning - deductive reasoning - neither, because no hypothesis was made - both inductive and deductive reasoning Hint: A Free Response Although the scientific method is used by most of the sciences, it can also be applied to everyday situations. Think about a problem that you may have at home, at school, or with your car, and apply the scientific method to solve it. Hint: Answers will vary, but should apply the steps of the scientific method. One possibility could be a car which doesn’t start. The hypothesis could be that the car doesn’t start because the battery is dead. The experiment would be to change the battery or to charge the battery and then check whether the car starts or not. If it starts, the problem was due to the battery, and the hypothesis is accepted. Give an example of how applied science has had a direct effect on your daily life. Hint: Answers will vary. One example of how applied science has had a direct effect on daily life is the presence of vaccines. Vaccines to prevent diseases such polio, measles, tetanus, and even influenza affect daily life by contributing to individual and societal health. Name two topics that are likely to be studied by biologists, and two areas of scientific study that would fall outside the realm of biology. Hint: Answers will vary. Topics that fall inside the area of biological study include how diseases affect human bodies, how pollution impacts a species’ habitat, and how plants respond to their environments. Topics that fall outside of biology (the “study of life”) include how metamorphic rock is formed and how planetary orbits function. Thinking about the topic of cancer, write a basic science question and an applied science question that a researcher interested in this topic might ask Hint: Answers will vary. Basic science: What evolutionary purpose might cancer serve? Applied science: What strategies might be found to prevent cancer from reproducing at the cellular level?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.234246	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14937/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14938/overview	Themes and Concepts of Biology Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify and describe the properties of life - Describe the levels of organization among living things - Recognize and interpret a phylogenetic tree - List examples of different sub disciplines in biology Biology is the science that studies life, but what exactly is life? This may sound like a silly question with an obvious response, but it is not always easy to define life. For example, a branch of biology called virology studies viruses, which exhibit some of the characteristics of living entities but lack others. It turns out that although viruses can attack living organisms, cause diseases, and even reproduce, they do not meet the criteria that biologists use to define life. Consequently, virologists are not biologists, strictly speaking. Similarly, some biologists study the early molecular evolution that gave rise to life; since the events that preceded life are not biological events, these scientists are also excluded from biology in the strict sense of the term. From its earliest beginnings, biology has wrestled with three questions: What are the shared properties that make something “alive”? And once we know something is alive, how do we find meaningful levels of organization in its structure? And, finally, when faced with the remarkable diversity of life, how do we organize the different kinds of organisms so that we can better understand them? As new organisms are discovered every day, biologists continue to seek answers to these and other questions. Properties of Life All living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order, sensitivity or response to the environment, reproduction, adaptation, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, energy processing, and evolution. When viewed together, these nine characteristics serve to define life. Order Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures that consist of one or more cells. Even very simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably complex: inside each cell, atoms make up molecules; these in turn make up cell organelles and other cellular inclusions. In multicellular organisms (Figure), similar cells form tissues. Tissues, in turn, collaborate to create organs (body structures with a distinct function). Organs work together to form organ systems. Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli Organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can bend toward a source of light, climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch (Figure). Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process called chemotaxis) or light (phototaxis). Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive response, while movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response. Link to Learning Watch this video to see how plants respond to a stimulus—from opening to light, to wrapping a tendril around a branch, to capturing prey. Reproduction Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA, and then dividing it equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells. Multicellular organisms often produce specialized reproductive germline cells that will form new individuals. When reproduction occurs, genes containing DNA are passed along to an organism’s offspring. These genes ensure that the offspring will belong to the same species and will have similar characteristics, such as size and shape. Growth and Development Organisms grow and develop following specific instructions coded for by their genes. These genes provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that a species’ young (Figure) will grow up to exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents. Regulation Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to coordinate internal functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with environmental stresses. Two examples of internal functions regulated in an organism are nutrient transport and blood flow. Organs (groups of tissues working together) perform specific functions, such as carrying oxygen throughout the body, removing wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell, and cooling the body. Homeostasis In order to function properly, cells need to have appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and appropriate concentration of diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change from one moment to the next. Organisms are able to maintain internal conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite environmental changes, through homeostasis (literally, “steady state”)—the ability of an organism to maintain constant internal conditions. For example, an organism needs to regulate body temperature through a process known as thermoregulation. Organisms that live in cold climates, such as the polar bear (Figure), have body structures that help them withstand low temperatures and conserve body heat. Structures that aid in this type of insulation include fur, feathers, blubber, and fat. In hot climates, organisms have methods (such as perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess body heat. Energy Processing All organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some organisms capture energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy in food; others use chemical energy in molecules they take in as food (Figure). Levels of Organization of Living Things Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that can be examined on a scale from small to large. The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Atoms form molecules. A molecule is a chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by one or more chemical bonds. Many molecules that are biologically important are macromolecules, large molecules that are typically formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule that is made by combining smaller units called monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules). An example of a macromolecule is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Figure), which contains the instructions for the structure and functioning of all living organisms. Link to Learning Watch this video that animates the three-dimensional structure of the DNA molecule shown in Figure. Some cells contain aggregates of macromolecules surrounded by membranes; these are called organelles. Organelles are small structures that exist within cells. Examples of organelles include mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out indispensable functions: mitochondria produce energy to power the cell, while chloroplasts enable green plants to utilize the energy in sunlight to make sugars. All living things are made of cells; the cell itself is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms. (This requirement is why viruses are not considered living: they are not made of cells. To make new viruses, they have to invade and hijack the reproductive mechanism of a living cell; only then can they obtain the materials they need to reproduce.) Some organisms consist of a single cell and others are multicellular. Cells are classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are single-celled or colonial organisms that do not have membrane-bound nuclei; in contrast, the cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles and a membrane-bound nucleus. In larger organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which are groups of similar cells carrying out similar or related functions. Organs are collections of tissues grouped together performing a common function. Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants. An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related organs. Mammals have many organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system transports blood through the body and to and from the lungs; it includes organs such as the heart and blood vessels. Organisms are individual living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an organism. Single-celled prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes are also considered organisms and are typically referred to as microorganisms. All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively called a population. For example, a forest may include many pine trees. All of these pine trees represent the population of pine trees in this forest. Different populations may live in the same specific area. For example, the forest with the pine trees includes populations of flowering plants and also insects and microbial populations. A community is the sum of populations inhabiting a particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and other populations in a forest form the forest’s community. The forest itself is an ecosystem. An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a particular area together with the abiotic, non-living parts of that environment such as nitrogen in the soil or rain water. At the highest level of organization (Figure), the biosphere is the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on earth. It includes land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent. Art Connection Which of the following statements is false? - Tissues exist within organs which exist within organ systems. - Communities exist within populations which exist within ecosystems. - Organelles exist within cells which exist within tissues. - Communities exist within ecosystems which exist in the biosphere. The Diversity of Life The fact that biology, as a science, has such a broad scope has to do with the tremendous diversity of life on earth. The source of this diversity is evolution, the process of gradual change during which new species arise from older species. Evolutionary biologists study the evolution of living things in everything from the microscopic world to ecosystems. The evolution of various life forms on Earth can be summarized in a phylogenetic tree (Figure). A phylogenetic tree is a diagram showing the evolutionary relationships among biological species based on similarities and differences in genetic or physical traits or both. A phylogenetic tree is composed of nodes and branches. The internal nodes represent ancestors and are points in evolution when, based on scientific evidence, an ancestor is thought to have diverged to form two new species. The length of each branch is proportional to the time elapsed since the split. Evolution Connection Carl Woese and the Phylogenetic TreeIn the past, biologists grouped living organisms into five kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria. The organizational scheme was based mainly on physical features, as opposed to physiology, biochemistry, or molecular biology, all of which are used by modern systematics. The pioneering work of American microbiologist Carl Woese in the early 1970s has shown, however, that life on Earth has evolved along three lineages, now called domains—Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The first two are prokaryotic cells with microbes that lack membrane-enclosed nuclei and organelles. The third domain contains the eukaryotes and includes unicellular microorganisms together with the four original kingdoms (excluding bacteria). Woese defined Archaea as a new domain, and this resulted in a new taxonomic tree (Figure). Many organisms belonging to the Archaea domain live under extreme conditions and are called extremophiles. To construct his tree, Woese used genetic relationships rather than similarities based on morphology (shape). Woese’s tree was constructed from comparative sequencing of the genes that are universally distributed, present in every organism, and conserved (meaning that these genes have remained essentially unchanged throughout evolution). Woese’s approach was revolutionary because comparisons of physical features are insufficient to differentiate between the prokaryotes that appear fairly similar in spite of their tremendous biochemical diversity and genetic variability (Figure). The comparison of homologous DNA and RNA sequences provided Woese with a sensitive device that revealed the extensive variability of prokaryotes, and which justified the separation of the prokaryotes into two domains: bacteria and archaea. Branches of Biological Study The scope of biology is broad and therefore contains many branches and subdisciplines. Biologists may pursue one of those subdisciplines and work in a more focused field. For instance, molecular biology and biochemistry study biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated. Microbiology, the study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of single-celled organisms. It is quite a broad branch itself, and depending on the subject of study, there are also microbial physiologists, ecologists, and geneticists, among others. Career Connection Forensic ScientistForensic science is the application of science to answer questions related to the law. Biologists as well as chemists and biochemists can be forensic scientists. Forensic scientists provide scientific evidence for use in courts, and their job involves examining trace materials associated with crimes. Interest in forensic science has increased in the last few years, possibly because of popular television shows that feature forensic scientists on the job. Also, the development of molecular techniques and the establishment of DNA databases have expanded the types of work that forensic scientists can do. Their job activities are primarily related to crimes against people such as murder, rape, and assault. Their work involves analyzing samples such as hair, blood, and other body fluids and also processing DNA (Figure) found in many different environments and materials. Forensic scientists also analyze other biological evidence left at crime scenes, such as insect larvae or pollen grains. Students who want to pursue careers in forensic science will most likely be required to take chemistry and biology courses as well as some intensive math courses. Another field of biological study, neurobiology, studies the biology of the nervous system, and although it is considered a branch of biology, it is also recognized as an interdisciplinary field of study known as neuroscience. Because of its interdisciplinary nature, this subdiscipline studies different functions of the nervous system using molecular, cellular, developmental, medical, and computational approaches. Paleontology, another branch of biology, uses fossils to study life’s history (Figure). Zoology and botany are the study of animals and plants, respectively. Biologists can also specialize as biotechnologists, ecologists, or physiologists, to name just a few areas. This is just a small sample of the many fields that biologists can pursue. Biology is the culmination of the achievements of the natural sciences from their inception to today. Excitingly, it is the cradle of emerging sciences, such as the biology of brain activity, genetic engineering of custom organisms, and the biology of evolution that uses the laboratory tools of molecular biology to retrace the earliest stages of life on earth. A scan of news headlines—whether reporting on immunizations, a newly discovered species, sports doping, or a genetically-modified food—demonstrates the way biology is active in and important to our everyday world. Section Summary Biology is the science of life. All living organisms share several key properties such as order, sensitivity or response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy processing. Living things are highly organized parts of a hierarchy that includes atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Organisms, in turn, are grouped as populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere. The great diversity of life today evolved from less-diverse ancestral organisms over billions of years. A diagram called a phylogenetic tree can be used to show evolutionary relationships among organisms. Biology is very broad and includes many branches and subdisciplines. Examples include molecular biology, microbiology, neurobiology, zoology, and botany, among others. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements is false? - Tissues exist within organs which exist within organ systems. - Communities exist within populations which exist within ecosystems. - Organelles exist within cells which exist within tissues. - Communities exist within ecosystems which exist in the biosphere. Hint: Figure Communities exist within populations which exist within ecosystems. Review Questions The smallest unit of biological structure that meets the functional requirements of “living” is the ________. - organ - organelle - cell - macromolecule Hint: C Viruses are not considered living because they ________. - are not made of cells - lack cell nuclei - do not contain DNA or RNA - cannot reproduce Hint: A The presence of a membrane-enclosed nucleus is a characteristic of ________. - prokaryotic cells - eukaryotic cells - living organisms - bacteria Hint: B A group of individuals of the same species living in the same area is called a(n) ________. - family - community - population - ecosystem Hint: C Which of the following sequences represents the hierarchy of biological organization from the most inclusive to the least complex level? - organelle, tissue, biosphere, ecosystem, population - organ, organism, tissue, organelle, molecule - organism, community, biosphere, molecule, tissue, organ - biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organism Hint: D Where in a phylogenetic tree would you expect to find the organism that had evolved most recently? - at the base - within the branches - at the nodes - at the branch tips Hint: D Free Response Select two items that biologists agree are necessary in order to consider an organism “alive.” For each, give an example of a non-living object that otherwise fits the definition of “alive,” Hint: Answers will vary. Layers of sedimentary rock have order but are not alive. Technology is capable of regulation but is not, of itself, alive. Consider the levels of organization of the biological world, and place each of these items in order from smallest level of organization to most encompassing: skin cell, elephant, water molecule, planet Earth, tropical rainforest, hydrogen atom, wolf pack, liver. Hint: Smallest level of organization to largest: hydrogen atom, water molecule, skin cell, liver, elephant, wolf pack, tropical rainforest, planet Earth You go for a long walk on a hot day. Give an example of a way in which homeostasis keeps your body healthy. Hint: During your walk, you may begin to perspire, which cools your body and helps your body to maintain a constant internal temperature. You might also become thirsty and pause long enough for a cool drink, which will help to restore the water lost during perspiration. Using examples, explain how biology can be studied from a microscopic approach to a global approach. Hint: Researchers can approach biology from the smallest to the largest, and everything in between. For instance, an ecologist may study a population of individuals, the population’s community, the community’s ecosystem, and the ecosystem’s part in the biosphere. When studying an individual organism, a biologist could examine the cell and its organelles, the tissues that the cells make up, the organs and their respective organ systems, and the sum total—the organism itself.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.276834	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14938/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14939/overview	Introduction Elements in various combinations comprise all matter, including living things. Some of the most abundant elements in living organisms include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus. These form the nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids that are the fundamental components of living matter. Biologists must understand these important building blocks and the unique structures of the atoms that make up molecules, allowing for the formation of cells, tissues, organ systems, and entire organisms. All biological processes follow the laws of physics and chemistry, so in order to understand how biological systems work, it is important to understand the underlying physics and chemistry. For example, the flow of blood within the circulatory system follows the laws of physics that regulate the modes of fluid flow. The breakdown of the large, complex molecules of food into smaller molecules—and the conversion of these to release energy to be stored in adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—is a series of chemical reactions that follow chemical laws. The properties of water and the formation of hydrogen bonds are key to understanding living processes. Recognizing the properties of acids and bases is important, for example, to our understanding of the digestive process. Therefore, the fundamentals of physics and chemistry are important for gaining insight into biological processes.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.294678	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14939/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14940/overview	Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define matter and elements - Describe the interrelationship between protons, neutrons, and electrons - Compare the ways in which electrons can be donated or shared between atoms - Explain the ways in which naturally occurring elements combine to create molecules, cells, tissues, organ systems, and organisms At its most fundamental level, life is made up of matter. Matter is any substance that occupies space and has mass. Elements are unique forms of matter with specific chemical and physical properties that cannot be broken down into smaller substances by ordinary chemical reactions. There are 118 elements, but only 92 occur naturally. The remaining elements are synthesized in laboratories and are unstable. Each element is designated by its chemical symbol, which is a single capital letter or, when the first letter is already “taken” by another element, a combination of two letters. Some elements follow the English term for the element, such as C for carbon and Ca for calcium. Other elements’ chemical symbols derive from their Latin names; for example, the symbol for sodium is Na, referring to natrium, the Latin word for sodium. The four elements common to all living organisms are oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N). In the non-living world, elements are found in different proportions, and some elements common to living organisms are relatively rare on the earth as a whole, as shown in Table. For example, the atmosphere is rich in nitrogen and oxygen but contains little carbon and hydrogen, while the earth’s crust, although it contains oxygen and a small amount of hydrogen, has little nitrogen and carbon. In spite of their differences in abundance, all elements and the chemical reactions between them obey the same chemical and physical laws regardless of whether they are a part of the living or non-living world. \| Approximate Percentage of Elements in Living Organisms (Humans) Compared to the Non-living World \| \|\|\| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Element \| Life (Humans) \| Atmosphere \| Earth’s Crust \| \| Oxygen (O) \| 65% \| 21% \| 46% \| \| Carbon (C) \| 18% \| trace \| trace \| \| Hydrogen (H) \| 10% \| trace \| 0.1% \| \| Nitrogen (N) \| 3% \| 78% \| trace \| The Structure of the Atom To understand how elements come together, we must first discuss the smallest component or building block of an element, the atom. An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical properties of an element. For example, one gold atom has all of the properties of gold in that it is a solid metal at room temperature. A gold coin is simply a very large number of gold atoms molded into the shape of a coin and containing small amounts of other elements known as impurities. Gold atoms cannot be broken down into anything smaller while still retaining the properties of gold. An atom is composed of two regions: the nucleus, which is in the center of the atom and contains protons and neutrons, and the outermost region of the atom which holds its electrons in orbit around the nucleus, as illustrated in Figure. Atoms contain protons, electrons, and neutrons, among other subatomic particles. The only exception is hydrogen (H), which is made of one proton and one electron with no neutrons. Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, about 1.67 × 10-24 grams. Scientists arbitrarily define this amount of mass as one atomic mass unit (amu) or one Dalton, as shown in Table. Although similar in mass, protons and neutrons differ in their electric charge. A proton is positively charged whereas a neutron is uncharged. Therefore, the number of neutrons in an atom contributes significantly to its mass, but not to its charge. Electrons are much smaller in mass than protons, weighing only 9.11 × 10-28 grams, or about 1/1800 of an atomic mass unit. Hence, they do not contribute much to an element’s overall atomic mass. Therefore, when considering atomic mass, it is customary to ignore the mass of any electrons and calculate the atom’s mass based on the number of protons and neutrons alone. Although not significant contributors to mass, electrons do contribute greatly to the atom’s charge, as each electron has a negative charge equal to the positive charge of a proton. In uncharged, neutral atoms, the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus is equal to the number of protons inside the nucleus. In these atoms, the positive and negative charges cancel each other out, leading to an atom with no net charge. Accounting for the sizes of protons, neutrons, and electrons, most of the volume of an atom—greater than 99 percent—is, in fact, empty space. With all this empty space, one might ask why so-called solid objects do not just pass through one another. The reason they do not is that the electrons that surround all atoms are negatively charged and negative charges repel each other. \| Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons \| \|\|\| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Charge \| Mass (amu) \| Location \| \| \| Proton \| +1 \| 1 \| nucleus \| \| Neutron \| 0 \| 1 \| nucleus \| \| Electron \| –1 \| 0 \| orbitals \| Atomic Number and Mass Atoms of each element contain a characteristic number of protons and electrons. The number of protons determines an element’s atomic number and is used to distinguish one element from another. The number of neutrons is variable, resulting in isotopes, which are different forms of the same atom that vary only in the number of neutrons they possess. Together, the number of protons and the number of neutrons determine an element’s mass number, as illustrated in Figure. Note that the small contribution of mass from electrons is disregarded in calculating the mass number. This approximation of mass can be used to easily calculate how many neutrons an element has by simply subtracting the number of protons from the mass number. Since an element’s isotopes will have slightly different mass numbers, scientists also determine the atomic mass, which is the calculated mean of the mass number for its naturally occurring isotopes. Often, the resulting number contains a fraction. For example, the atomic mass of chlorine (Cl) is 35.45 because chlorine is composed of several isotopes, some (the majority) with atomic mass 35 (17 protons and 18 neutrons) and some with atomic mass 37 (17 protons and 20 neutrons). Art Connection How many neutrons do carbon-12 and carbon-13 have, respectively? Isotopes Isotopes are different forms of an element that have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. Some elements—such as carbon, potassium, and uranium—have naturally occurring isotopes. Carbon-12 contains six protons, six neutrons, and six electrons; therefore, it has a mass number of 12 (six protons and six neutrons). Carbon-14 contains six protons, eight neutrons, and six electrons; its atomic mass is 14 (six protons and eight neutrons). These two alternate forms of carbon are isotopes. Some isotopes may emit neutrons, protons, and electrons, and attain a more stable atomic configuration (lower level of potential energy); these are radioactive isotopes, or radioisotopes. Radioactive decay (carbon-14 decaying to eventually become nitrogen-14) describes the energy loss that occurs when an unstable atom’s nucleus releases radiation. Evolution Connection Carbon Dating Carbon is normally present in the atmosphere in the form of gaseous compounds like carbon dioxide and methane. Carbon-14 (14C) is a naturally occurring radioisotope that is created in the atmosphere from atmospheric 14N (nitrogen) by the addition of a neutron and the loss of a proton because of cosmic rays. This is a continuous process, so more 14C is always being created. As a living organism incorporates 14C initially as carbon dioxide fixed in the process of photosynthesis, the relative amount of 14C in its body is equal to the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere. When an organism dies, it is no longer ingesting 14C, so the ratio between 14C and 12C will decline as 14C decays gradually to 14N by a process called beta decay—the emission of electrons or positrons. This decay gives off energy in a slow process. After approximately 5,730 years, half of the starting concentration of 14C will have been converted back to 14N. The time it takes for half of the original concentration of an isotope to decay back to its more stable form is called its half-life. Because the half-life of 14C is long, it is used to date formerly living objects such as old bones or wood. Comparing the ratio of the 14C concentration found in an object to the amount of 14C detected in the atmosphere, the amount of the isotope that has not yet decayed can be determined. On the basis of this amount, the age of the material, such as the pygmy mammoth shown in Figure, can be calculated with accuracy if it is not much older than about 50,000 years. Other elements have isotopes with different half lives. For example, 40K (potassium-40) has a half-life of 1.25 billion years, and 235U (Uranium 235) has a half-life of about 700 million years. Through the use of radiometric dating, scientists can study the age of fossils or other remains of extinct organisms to understand how organisms have evolved from earlier species. Link to Learning To learn more about atoms, isotopes, and how to tell one isotope from another, run the simulation. The Periodic Table The different elements are organized and displayed in the periodic table. Devised by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907) in 1869, the table groups elements that, although unique, share certain chemical properties with other elements. The properties of elements are responsible for their physical state at room temperature: they may be gases, solids, or liquids. Elements also have specific chemical reactivity, the ability to combine and to chemically bond with each other. In the periodic table, shown in Figure, the elements are organized and displayed according to their atomic number and are arranged in a series of rows and columns based on shared chemical and physical properties. In addition to providing the atomic number for each element, the periodic table also displays the element’s atomic mass. Looking at carbon, for example, its symbol (C) and name appear, as well as its atomic number of six (in the upper left-hand corner) and its atomic mass of 12.11. The periodic table groups elements according to chemical properties. The differences in chemical reactivity between the elements are based on the number and spatial distribution of an atom’s electrons. Atoms that chemically react and bond to each other form molecules. Molecules are simply two or more atoms chemically bonded together. Logically, when two atoms chemically bond to form a molecule, their electrons, which form the outermost region of each atom, come together first as the atoms form a chemical bond. Electron Shells and the Bohr Model It should be stressed that there is a connection between the number of protons in an element, the atomic number that distinguishes one element from another, and the number of electrons it has. In all electrically neutral atoms, the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons. Thus, each element, at least when electrically neutral, has a characteristic number of electrons equal to its atomic number. An early model of the atom was developed in 1913 by Danish scientist Niels Bohr (1885–1962). The Bohr model shows the atom as a central nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with the electrons in circular orbitals at specific distances from the nucleus, as illustrated in Figure. These orbits form electron shells or energy levels, which are a way of visualizing the number of electrons in the outermost shells. These energy levels are designated by a number and the symbol “n.” For example, 1n represents the first energy level located closest to the nucleus. Electrons fill orbitals in a consistent order: they first fill the orbitals closest to the nucleus, then they continue to fill orbitals of increasing energy further from the nucleus. If there are multiple orbitals of equal energy, they will be filled with one electron in each energy level before a second electron is added. The electrons of the outermost energy level determine the energetic stability of the atom and its tendency to form chemical bonds with other atoms to form molecules. Under standard conditions, atoms fill the inner shells first, often resulting in a variable number of electrons in the outermost shell. The innermost shell has a maximum of two electrons but the next two electron shells can each have a maximum of eight electrons. This is known as the octet rule, which states, with the exception of the innermost shell, that atoms are more stable energetically when they have eight electrons in their valence shell, the outermost electron shell. Examples of some neutral atoms and their electron configurations are shown in Figure. Notice that in this Figure, helium has a complete outer electron shell, with two electrons filling its first and only shell. Similarly, neon has a complete outer 2n shell containing eight electrons. In contrast, chlorine and sodium have seven and one in their outer shells, respectively, but theoretically they would be more energetically stable if they followed the octet rule and had eight. Art Connection An atom may give, take, or share electrons with another atom to achieve a full valence shell, the most stable electron configuration. Looking at this figure, how many electrons do elements in group 1 need to lose in order to achieve a stable electron configuration? How many electrons do elements in groups 14 and 17 need to gain to achieve a stable configuration? Understanding that the organization of the periodic table is based on the total number of protons (and electrons) helps us know how electrons are distributed among the outer shell. The periodic table is arranged in columns and rows based on the number of electrons and where these electrons are located. Take a closer look at the some of the elements in the table’s far right column in Figure. The group 18 atoms helium (He), neon (Ne), and argon (Ar) all have filled outer electron shells, making it unnecessary for them to share electrons with other atoms to attain stability; they are highly stable as single atoms. Their non-reactivity has resulted in their being named the inert gases (or noble gases). Compare this to the group 1 elements in the left-hand column. These elements, including hydrogen (H), lithium (Li), and sodium (Na), all have one electron in their outermost shells. That means that they can achieve a stable configuration and a filled outer shell by donating or sharing one electron with another atom or a molecule such as water. Hydrogen will donate or share its electron to achieve this configuration, while lithium and sodium will donate their electron to become stable. As a result of losing a negatively charged electron, they become positively charged ions. Group 17 elements, including fluorine and chlorine, have seven electrons in their outmost shells, so they tend to fill this shell with an electron from other atoms or molecules, making them negatively charged ions. Group 14 elements, of which carbon is the most important to living systems, have four electrons in their outer shell allowing them to make several covalent bonds (discussed below) with other atoms. Thus, the columns of the periodic table represent the potential shared state of these elements’ outer electron shells that is responsible for their similar chemical characteristics. Electron Orbitals Although useful to explain the reactivity and chemical bonding of certain elements, the Bohr model of the atom does not accurately reflect how electrons are spatially distributed surrounding the nucleus. They do not circle the nucleus like the earth orbits the sun, but are found in electron orbitals. These relatively complex shapes result from the fact that electrons behave not just like particles, but also like waves. Mathematical equations from quantum mechanics known as wave functions can predict within a certain level of probability where an electron might be at any given time. The area where an electron is most likely to be found is called its orbital. Recall that the Bohr model depicts an atom’s electron shell configuration. Within each electron shell are subshells, and each subshell has a specified number of orbitals containing electrons. While it is impossible to calculate exactly where an electron is located, scientists know that it is most probably located within its orbital path. Subshells are designated by the letter s, p, d, and f. The s subshell is spherical in shape and has one orbital. Principal shell 1n has only a single s orbital, which can hold two electrons. Principal shell 2n has one s and one p subshell, and can hold a total of eight electrons. The p subshell has three dumbbell-shaped orbitals, as illustrated in Figure. Subshells d and f have more complex shapes and contain five and seven orbitals, respectively. These are not shown in the illustration. Principal shell 3n has s, p, and d subshells and can hold 18 electrons. Principal shell 4n has s, p, d and f orbitals and can hold 32 electrons. Moving away from the nucleus, the number of electrons and orbitals found in the energy levels increases. Progressing from one atom to the next in the periodic table, the electron structure can be worked out by fitting an extra electron into the next available orbital. The closest orbital to the nucleus, called the 1s orbital, can hold up to two electrons. This orbital is equivalent to the innermost electron shell of the Bohr model of the atom. It is called the 1s orbital because it is spherical around the nucleus. The 1s orbital is the closest orbital to the nucleus, and it is always filled first, before any other orbital can be filled. Hydrogen has one electron; therefore, it has only one spot within the 1s orbital occupied. This is designated as 1s1, where the superscripted 1 refers to the one electron within the 1s orbital. Helium has two electrons; therefore, it can completely fill the 1s orbital with its two electrons. This is designated as 1s2, referring to the two electrons of helium in the 1s orbital. On the periodic table Figure, hydrogen and helium are the only two elements in the first row (period); this is because they only have electrons in their first shell, the 1s orbital. Hydrogen and helium are the only two elements that have the 1s and no other electron orbitals in the electrically neutral state. The second electron shell may contain eight electrons. This shell contains another spherical s orbital and three “dumbbell” shaped p orbitals, each of which can hold two electrons, as shown in Figure. After the 1s orbital is filled, the second electron shell is filled, first filling its 2s orbital and then its three p orbitals. When filling the p orbitals, each takes a single electron; once each p orbital has an electron, a second may be added. Lithium (Li) contains three electrons that occupy the first and second shells. Two electrons fill the 1s orbital, and the third electron then fills the 2s orbital. Its electron configuration is 1s22s1. Neon (Ne), on the other hand, has a total of ten electrons: two are in its innermost 1s orbital and eight fill its second shell (two each in the 2s and three p orbitals); thus, it is an inert gas and energetically stable as a single atom that will rarely form a chemical bond with other atoms. Larger elements have additional orbitals, making up the third electron shell. While the concepts of electron shells and orbitals are closely related, orbitals provide a more accurate depiction of the electron configuration of an atom because the orbital model specifies the different shapes and special orientations of all the places that electrons may occupy. Link to Learning Watch this visual animation to see the spatial arrangement of the p and s orbitals. Chemical Reactions and Molecules All elements are most stable when their outermost shell is filled with electrons according to the octet rule. This is because it is energetically favorable for atoms to be in that configuration and it makes them stable. However, since not all elements have enough electrons to fill their outermost shells, atoms form chemical bonds with other atoms thereby obtaining the electrons they need to attain a stable electron configuration. When two or more atoms chemically bond with each other, the resultant chemical structure is a molecule. The familiar water molecule, H2O, consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom; these bond together to form water, as illustrated in Figure. Atoms can form molecules by donating, accepting, or sharing electrons to fill their outer shells. Chemical reactions occur when two or more atoms bond together to form molecules or when bonded atoms are broken apart. The substances used in the beginning of a chemical reaction are called the reactants (usually found on the left side of a chemical equation), and the substances found at the end of the reaction are known as the products (usually found on the right side of a chemical equation). An arrow is typically drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction; this direction is not always a “one-way street.” For the creation of the water molecule shown above, the chemical equation would be: An example of a simple chemical reaction is the breaking down of hydrogen peroxide molecules, each of which consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded to two oxygen atoms (H2O2). The reactant hydrogen peroxide is broken down into water, containing one oxygen atom bound to two hydrogen atoms (H2O), and oxygen, which consists of two bonded oxygen atoms (O2). In the equation below, the reaction includes two hydrogen peroxide molecules and two water molecules. This is an example of a balanced chemical equation, wherein the number of atoms of each element is the same on each side of the equation. According to the law of conservation of matter, the number of atoms before and after a chemical reaction should be equal, such that no atoms are, under normal circumstances, created or destroyed. Even though all of the reactants and products of this reaction are molecules (each atom remains bonded to at least one other atom), in this reaction only hydrogen peroxide and water are representatives of compounds: they contain atoms of more than one type of element. Molecular oxygen, on the other hand, as shown in Figure,consists of two doubly bonded oxygen atoms and is not classified as a compound but as a mononuclear molecule. Some chemical reactions, such as the one shown above, can proceed in one direction until the reactants are all used up. The equations that describe these reactions contain a unidirectional arrow and are irreversible. Reversible reactions are those that can go in either direction. In reversible reactions, reactants are turned into products, but when the concentration of product goes beyond a certain threshold (characteristic of the particular reaction), some of these products will be converted back into reactants; at this point, the designations of products and reactants are reversed. This back and forth continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products occurs—a state called equilibrium. These situations of reversible reactions are often denoted by a chemical equation with a double headed arrow pointing towards both the reactants and products. For example, in human blood, excess hydrogen ions (H+) bind to bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) forming an equilibrium state with carbonic acid (H2CO3). If carbonic acid were added to this system, some of it would be converted to bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. In biological reactions, however, equilibrium is rarely obtained because the concentrations of the reactants or products or both are constantly changing, often with a product of one reaction being a reactant for another. To return to the example of excess hydrogen ions in the blood, the formation of carbonic acid will be the major direction of the reaction. However, the carbonic acid can also leave the body as carbon dioxide gas (via exhalation) instead of being converted back to bicarbonate ion, thus driving the reaction to the right by the chemical law known as law of mass action. These reactions are important for maintaining the homeostasis of our blood. Ions and Ionic Bonds Some atoms are more stable when they gain or lose an electron (or possibly two) and form ions. This fills their outermost electron shell and makes them energetically more stable. Because the number of electrons does not equal the number of protons, each ion has a net charge. Cations are positive ions that are formed by losing electrons. Negative ions are formed by gaining electrons and are called anions. Anions are designated by their elemental name being altered to end in “-ide”: the anion of chlorine is called chloride, and the anion of sulfur is called sulfide, for example. This movement of electrons from one element to another is referred to as electron transfer. As Figure illustrates, sodium (Na) only has one electron in its outer electron shell. It takes less energy for sodium to donate that one electron than it does to accept seven more electrons to fill the outer shell. If sodium loses an electron, it now has 11 protons, 11 neutrons, and only 10 electrons, leaving it with an overall charge of +1. It is now referred to as a sodium ion. Chlorine (Cl) in its lowest energy state (called the ground state) has seven electrons in its outer shell. Again, it is more energy-efficient for chlorine to gain one electron than to lose seven. Therefore, it tends to gain an electron to create an ion with 17 protons, 17 neutrons, and 18 electrons, giving it a net negative (–1) charge. It is now referred to as a chloride ion. In this example, sodium will donate its one electron to empty its shell, and chlorine will accept that electron to fill its shell. Both ions now satisfy the octet rule and have complete outermost shells. Because the number of electrons is no longer equal to the number of protons, each is now an ion and has a +1 (sodium cation) or –1 (chloride anion) charge. Note that these transactions can normally only take place simultaneously: in order for a sodium atom to lose an electron, it must be in the presence of a suitable recipient like a chlorine atom. Ionic bonds are formed between ions with opposite charges. For instance, positively charged sodium ions and negatively charged chloride ions bond together to make crystals of sodium chloride, or table salt, creating a crystalline molecule with zero net charge. Certain salts are referred to in physiology as electrolytes (including sodium, potassium, and calcium), ions necessary for nerve impulse conduction, muscle contractions and water balance. Many sports drinks and dietary supplements provide these ions to replace those lost from the body via sweating during exercise. Covalent Bonds and Other Bonds and Interactions Another way the octet rule can be satisfied is by the sharing of electrons between atoms to form covalent bonds. These bonds are stronger and much more common than ionic bonds in the molecules of living organisms. Covalent bonds are commonly found in carbon-based organic molecules, such as our DNA and proteins. Covalent bonds are also found in inorganic molecules like H2O, CO2, and O2. One, two, or three pairs of electrons may be shared, making single, double, and triple bonds, respectively. The more covalent bonds between two atoms, the stronger their connection. Thus, triple bonds are the strongest. The strength of different levels of covalent bonding is one of the main reasons living organisms have a difficult time in acquiring nitrogen for use in constructing their molecules, even though molecular nitrogen, N2, is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere. Molecular nitrogen consists of two nitrogen atoms triple bonded to each other and, as with all molecules, the sharing of these three pairs of electrons between the two nitrogen atoms allows for the filling of their outer electron shells, making the molecule more stable than the individual nitrogen atoms. This strong triple bond makes it difficult for living systems to break apart this nitrogen in order to use it as constituents of proteins and DNA. The formation of water molecules provides an example of covalent bonding. The hydrogen and oxygen atoms that combine to form water molecules are bound together by covalent bonds, as shown in Figure. The electron from the hydrogen splits its time between the incomplete outer shell of the hydrogen atoms and the incomplete outer shell of the oxygen atoms. To completely fill the outer shell of oxygen, which has six electrons in its outer shell but which would be more stable with eight, two electrons (one from each hydrogen atom) are needed: hence the well-known formula H2O. The electrons are shared between the two elements to fill the outer shell of each, making both elements more stable. Link to Learning View this short video to see an animation of ionic and covalent bonding. Polar Covalent Bonds There are two types of covalent bonds: polar and nonpolar. In a polar covalent bond, shown in Figure, the electrons are unequally shared by the atoms and are attracted more to one nucleus than the other. Because of the unequal distribution of electrons between the atoms of different elements, a slightly positive (δ+) or slightly negative (δ–) charge develops. This partial charge is an important property of water and accounts for many of its characteristics. Water is a polar molecule, with the hydrogen atoms acquiring a partial positive charge and the oxygen a partial negative charge. This occurs because the nucleus of the oxygen atom is more attractive to the electrons of the hydrogen atoms than the hydrogen nucleus is to the oxygen’s electrons. Thus oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen and the shared electrons spend more time in the vicinity of the oxygen nucleus than they do near the nucleus of the hydrogen atoms, giving the atoms of oxygen and hydrogen slightly negative and positive charges, respectively. Another way of stating this is that the probability of finding a shared electron near an oxygen nucleus is more likely than finding it near a hydrogen nucleus. Either way, the atom’s relative electronegativity contributes to the development of partial charges whenever one element is significantly more electronegative than the other, and the charges generated by these polar bonds may then be used for the formation of hydrogen bonds based on the attraction of opposite partial charges. (Hydrogen bonds, which are discussed in detail below, are weak bonds between slightly positively charged hydrogen atoms to slightly negatively charged atoms in other molecules.) Since macromolecules often have atoms within them that differ in electronegativity, polar bonds are often present in organic molecules. Nonpolar Covalent Bonds Nonpolar covalent bonds form between two atoms of the same element or between different elements that share electrons equally. For example, molecular oxygen (O2) is nonpolar because the electrons will be equally distributed between the two oxygen atoms. Another example of a nonpolar covalent bond is methane (CH4), also shown in Figure. Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs four more to fill it. It gets these four from four hydrogen atoms, each atom providing one, making a stable outer shell of eight electrons. Carbon and hydrogen do not have the same electronegativity but are similar; thus, nonpolar bonds form. The hydrogen atoms each need one electron for their outermost shell, which is filled when it contains two electrons. These elements share the electrons equally among the carbons and the hydrogen atoms, creating a nonpolar covalent molecule. Hydrogen Bonds and Van Der Waals Interactions Ionic and covalent bonds between elements require energy to break. Ionic bonds are not as strong as covalent, which determines their behavior in biological systems. However, not all bonds are ionic or covalent bonds. Weaker bonds can also form between molecules. Two weak bonds that occur frequently are hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions. Without these two types of bonds, life as we know it would not exist. Hydrogen bonds provide many of the critical, life-sustaining properties of water and also stabilize the structures of proteins and DNA, the building block of cells. When polar covalent bonds containing hydrogen form, the hydrogen in that bond has a slightly positive charge because hydrogen’s electron is pulled more strongly toward the other element and away from the hydrogen. Because the hydrogen is slightly positive, it will be attracted to neighboring negative charges. When this happens, a weak interaction occurs between the δ+of the hydrogen from one molecule and the δ– charge on the more electronegative atoms of another molecule, usually oxygen or nitrogen, or within the same molecule. This interaction is called a hydrogen bond. This type of bond is common and occurs regularly between water molecules. Individual hydrogen bonds are weak and easily broken; however, they occur in very large numbers in water and in organic polymers, creating a major force in combination. Hydrogen bonds are also responsible for zipping together the DNA double helix. Like hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions are weak attractions or interactions between molecules. Van der Waals attractions can occur between any two or more molecules and are dependent on slight fluctuations of the electron densities, which are not always symmetrical around an atom. For these attractions to happen, the molecules need to be very close to one another. These bonds—along with ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds—contribute to the three-dimensional structure of the proteins in our cells that is necessary for their proper function. Career Connection Pharmaceutical Chemist Pharmaceutical chemists are responsible for the development of new drugs and trying to determine the mode of action of both old and new drugs. They are involved in every step of the drug development process. Drugs can be found in the natural environment or can be synthesized in the laboratory. In many cases, potential drugs found in nature are changed chemically in the laboratory to make them safer and more effective, and sometimes synthetic versions of drugs substitute for the version found in nature. After the initial discovery or synthesis of a drug, the chemist then develops the drug, perhaps chemically altering it, testing it to see if the drug is toxic, and then designing methods for efficient large-scale production. Then, the process of getting the drug approved for human use begins. In the United States, drug approval is handled by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and involves a series of large-scale experiments using human subjects to make sure the drug is not harmful and effectively treats the condition it aims to treat. This process often takes several years and requires the participation of physicians and scientists, in addition to chemists, to complete testing and gain approval. An example of a drug that was originally discovered in a living organism is Paclitaxel (Taxol), an anti-cancer drug used to treat breast cancer. This drug was discovered in the bark of the pacific yew tree. Another example is aspirin, originally isolated from willow tree bark. Finding drugs often means testing hundreds of samples of plants, fungi, and other forms of life to see if any biologically active compounds are found within them. Sometimes, traditional medicine can give modern medicine clues to where an active compound can be found. For example, the use of willow bark to make medicine has been known for thousands of years, dating back to ancient Egypt. It was not until the late 1800s, however, that the aspirin molecule, known as acetylsalicylic acid, was purified and marketed for human use. Occasionally, drugs developed for one use are found to have unforeseen effects that allow these drugs to be used in other, unrelated ways. For example, the drug minoxidil (Rogaine) was originally developed to treat high blood pressure. When tested on humans, it was noticed that individuals taking the drug would grow new hair. Eventually the drug was marketed to men and women with baldness to restore lost hair. The career of the pharmaceutical chemist may involve detective work, experimentation, and drug development, all with the goal of making human beings healthier. Section Summary Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It is made up of elements. All of the 92 elements that occur naturally have unique qualities that allow them to combine in various ways to create molecules, which in turn combine to form cells, tissues, organ systems, and organisms. Atoms, which consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons, are the smallest units of an element that retain all of the properties of that element. Electrons can be transferred, shared, or cause charge disparities between atoms to create bonds, including ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds, as well as van der Waals interactions. Art Connections Figure An atom may give, take, or share electrons with another atom to achieve a full valence shell, the most stable electron configuration. Looking at this figure, how many electrons do elements in group 1 need to lose in order to achieve a stable electron configuration? How many electrons do elements in groups 14 and 17 need to gain to achieve a stable configuration? Hint: Figure Elements in group 1 need to lose one electron to achieve a stable electron configuration. Elements in groups 14 and 17 need to gain four and one electrons, respectively, to achieve a stable configuration. Review Questions If xenon has an atomic number of 54 and a mass number of 108, how many neutrons does it have? - 54 - 27 - 100 - 108 Hint: A Atoms that vary in the number of neutrons found in their nuclei are called ________. - ions - neutrons - neutral atoms - isotopes Hint: D Potassium has an atomic number of 19. What is its electron configuration? - shells 1 and 2 are full, and shell 3 has nine electrons - shells 1, 2 and 3 are full and shell 4 has three electrons - shells 1, 2 and 3 are full and shell 4 has one electron - shells 1, 2 and 3 are full and no other electrons are present Hint: C Which type of bond represents a weak chemical bond? - hydrogen bond - atomic bond - covalent bond - nonpolar covalent bond Hint: A Free Response What makes ionic bonds different from covalent bonds? Hint: Ionic bonds are created between ions. The electrons are not shared between the atoms, but rather are associated more with one ion than the other. Ionic bonds are strong bonds, but are weaker than covalent bonds, meaning it takes less energy to break an ionic bond compared with a covalent one. Why are hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions necessary for cells? Hint: Hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions form weak associations between different molecules or within different regions of the same molecule. They provide the structure and shape necessary for proteins and DNA within cells so that they function properly.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.347647	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14940/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14941/overview	Water Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the properties of water that are critical to maintaining life - Explain why water is an excellent solvent - Provide examples of water’s cohesive and adhesive properties - Discuss the role of acids, bases, and buffers in homeostasis Why do scientists spend time looking for water on other planets? Why is water so important? It is because water is essential to life as we know it. Water is one of the more abundant molecules and the one most critical to life on Earth. Approximately 60–70 percent of the human body is made up of water. Without it, life as we know it simply would not exist. The polarity of the water molecule and its resulting hydrogen bonding make water a unique substance with special properties that are intimately tied to the processes of life. Life originally evolved in a watery environment, and most of an organism’s cellular chemistry and metabolism occur inside the watery contents of the cell’s cytoplasm. Special properties of water are its high heat capacity and heat of vaporization, its ability to dissolve polar molecules, its cohesive and adhesive properties, and its dissociation into ions that leads to the generation of pH. Understanding these characteristics of water helps to elucidate its importance in maintaining life. Water’s Polarity One of water’s important properties is that it is composed of polar molecules: the hydrogen and oxygen within water molecules (H2O) form polar covalent bonds. While there is no net charge to a water molecule, the polarity of water creates a slightly positive charge on hydrogen and a slightly negative charge on oxygen, contributing to water’s properties of attraction. Water’s charges are generated because oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, making it more likely that a shared electron would be found near the oxygen nucleus than the hydrogen nucleus, thus generating the partial negative charge near the oxygen. As a result of water’s polarity, each water molecule attracts other water molecules because of the opposite charges between water molecules, forming hydrogen bonds. Water also attracts or is attracted to other polar molecules and ions. A polar substance that interacts readily with or dissolves in water is referred to as hydrophilic (hydro- = “water”; -philic = “loving”). In contrast, non-polar molecules such as oils and fats do not interact well with water, as shown in Figure and separate from it rather than dissolve in it, as we see in salad dressings containing oil and vinegar (an acidic water solution). These nonpolar compounds are called hydrophobic (hydro- = “water”; -phobic = “fearing”). Water’s States: Gas, Liquid, and Solid The formation of hydrogen bonds is an important quality of the liquid water that is crucial to life as we know it. As water molecules make hydrogen bonds with each other, water takes on some unique chemical characteristics compared to other liquids and, since living things have a high water content, understanding these chemical features is key to understanding life. In liquid water, hydrogen bonds are constantly formed and broken as the water molecules slide past each other. The breaking of these bonds is caused by the motion (kinetic energy) of the water molecules due to the heat contained in the system. When the heat is raised as water is boiled, the higher kinetic energy of the water molecules causes the hydrogen bonds to break completely and allows water molecules to escape into the air as gas (steam or water vapor). On the other hand, when the temperature of water is reduced and water freezes, the water molecules form a crystalline structure maintained by hydrogen bonding (there is not enough energy to break the hydrogen bonds) that makes ice less dense than liquid water, a phenomenon not seen in the solidification of other liquids. Water’s lower density in its solid form is due to the way hydrogen bonds are oriented as it freezes: the water molecules are pushed farther apart compared to liquid water. With most other liquids, solidification when the temperature drops includes the lowering of kinetic energy between molecules, allowing them to pack even more tightly than in liquid form and giving the solid a greater density than the liquid. The lower density of ice, illustrated and pictured in Figure, an anomaly, causes it to float at the surface of liquid water, such as in an iceberg or in the ice cubes in a glass of ice water. In lakes and ponds, ice will form on the surface of the water creating an insulating barrier that protects the animals and plant life in the pond from freezing. Without this layer of insulating ice, plants and animals living in the pond would freeze in the solid block of ice and could not survive. The detrimental effect of freezing on living organisms is caused by the expansion of ice relative to liquid water. The ice crystals that form upon freezing rupture the delicate membranes essential for the function of living cells, irreversibly damaging them. Cells can only survive freezing if the water in them is temporarily replaced by another liquid like glycerol. Link to Learning Click here to see a 3-D animation of the structure of an ice lattice. (Image credit: Jane Whitney. Image created using Visual Molecular Dynamics VMD software.W. Humphrey W., A. Dalke, and K. Schulten, “VMD—Visual Molecular Dynamics,” Journal of Molecular Graphics 14 (1996): 33-38.) Water’s High Heat Capacity Water’s high heat capacity is a property caused by hydrogen bonding among water molecules. Water has the highest specific heat capacity of any liquids. Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat one gram of a substance must absorb or lose to change its temperature by one degree Celsius. For water, this amount is one calorie. It therefore takes water a long time to heat and long time to cool. In fact, the specific heat capacity of water is about five times more than that of sand. This explains why the land cools faster than the sea. Due to its high heat capacity, water is used by warm blooded animals to more evenly disperse heat in their bodies: it acts in a similar manner to a car’s cooling system, transporting heat from warm places to cool places, causing the body to maintain a more even temperature. Water’s Heat of Vaporization Water also has a high heat of vaporization, the amount of energy required to change one gram of a liquid substance to a gas. A considerable amount of heat energy (586 cal) is required to accomplish this change in water. This process occurs on the surface of water. As liquid water heats up, hydrogen bonding makes it difficult to separate the liquid water molecules from each other, which is required for it to enter its gaseous phase (steam). As a result, water acts as a heat sink or heat reservoir and requires much more heat to boil than does a liquid such as ethanol (grain alcohol), whose hydrogen bonding with other ethanol molecules is weaker than water’s hydrogen bonding. Eventually, as water reaches its boiling point of 100° Celsius (212° Fahrenheit), the heat is able to break the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules, and the kinetic energy (motion) between the water molecules allows them to escape from the liquid as a gas. Even when below its boiling point, water’s individual molecules acquire enough energy from other water molecules such that some surface water molecules can escape and vaporize: this process is known as evaporation. The fact that hydrogen bonds need to be broken for water to evaporate means that a substantial amount of energy is used in the process. As the water evaporates, energy is taken up by the process, cooling the environment where the evaporation is taking place. In many living organisms, including in humans, the evaporation of sweat, which is 90 percent water, allows the organism to cool so that homeostasis of body temperature can be maintained. Water’s Solvent Properties Since water is a polar molecule with slightly positive and slightly negative charges, ions and polar molecules can readily dissolve in it. Therefore, water is referred to as a solvent, a substance capable of dissolving other polar molecules and ionic compounds. The charges associated with these molecules will form hydrogen bonds with water, surrounding the particle with water molecules. This is referred to as a sphere of hydration, or a hydration shell, as illustrated in Figure and serves to keep the particles separated or dispersed in the water. When ionic compounds are added to water, the individual ions react with the polar regions of the water molecules and their ionic bonds are disrupted in the process of dissociation. Dissociation occurs when atoms or groups of atoms break off from molecules and form ions. Consider table salt (NaCl, or sodium chloride): when NaCl crystals are added to water, the molecules of NaCl dissociate into Na+ and Cl– ions, and spheres of hydration form around the ions, illustrated in Figure. The positively charged sodium ion is surrounded by the partially negative charge of the water molecule’s oxygen. The negatively charged chloride ion is surrounded by the partially positive charge of the hydrogen on the water molecule. Water’s Cohesive and Adhesive Properties Have you ever filled a glass of water to the very top and then slowly added a few more drops? Before it overflows, the water forms a dome-like shape above the rim of the glass. This water can stay above the glass because of the property of cohesion. In cohesion, water molecules are attracted to each other (because of hydrogen bonding), keeping the molecules together at the liquid-gas (water-air) interface, although there is no more room in the glass. Cohesion allows for the development of surface tension, the capacity of a substance to withstand being ruptured when placed under tension or stress. This is also why water forms droplets when placed on a dry surface rather than being flattened out by gravity. When a small scrap of paper is placed onto the droplet of water, the paper floats on top of the water droplet even though paper is denser (heavier) than the water. Cohesion and surface tension keep the hydrogen bonds of water molecules intact and support the item floating on the top. It’s even possible to “float” a needle on top of a glass of water if it is placed gently without breaking the surface tension, as shown in Figure. These cohesive forces are related to water’s property of adhesion, or the attraction between water molecules and other molecules. This attraction is sometimes stronger than water’s cohesive forces, especially when the water is exposed to charged surfaces such as those found on the inside of thin glass tubes known as capillary tubes. Adhesion is observed when water “climbs” up the tube placed in a glass of water: notice that the water appears to be higher on the sides of the tube than in the middle. This is because the water molecules are attracted to the charged glass walls of the capillary more than they are to each other and therefore adhere to it. This type of adhesion is called capillary action, and is illustrated in Figure. Why are cohesive and adhesive forces important for life? Cohesive and adhesive forces are important for the transport of water from the roots to the leaves in plants. These forces create a “pull” on the water column. This pull results from the tendency of water molecules being evaporated on the surface of the plant to stay connected to water molecules below them, and so they are pulled along. Plants use this natural phenomenon to help transport water from their roots to their leaves. Without these properties of water, plants would be unable to receive the water and the dissolved minerals they require. In another example, insects such as the water strider, shown in Figure, use the surface tension of water to stay afloat on the surface layer of water and even mate there. pH, Buffers, Acids, and Bases The pH of a solution indicates its acidity or alkalinity. litmus or pH paper, filter paper that has been treated with a natural water-soluble dye so it can be used as a pH indicator, to test how much acid (acidity) or base (alkalinity) exists in a solution. You might have even used some to test whether the water in a swimming pool is properly treated. In both cases, the pH test measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a given solution. Hydrogen ions are spontaneously generated in pure water by the dissociation (ionization) of a small percentage of water molecules into equal numbers of hydrogen (H+) ions and hydroxide (OH-) ions. While the hydroxide ions are kept in solution by their hydrogen bonding with other water molecules, the hydrogen ions, consisting of naked protons, are immediately attracted to un-ionized water molecules, forming hydronium ions (H30+). Still, by convention, scientists refer to hydrogen ions and their concentration as if they were free in this state in liquid water. The concentration of hydrogen ions dissociating from pure water is 1 × 10-7 moles H+ ions per liter of water. Moles (mol) are a way to express the amount of a substance (which can be atoms, molecules, ions, etc), with one mole being equal to 6.02 x 1023 particles of the substance. Therefore, 1 mole of water is equal to 6.02 x 1023 water molecules. The pH is calculated as the negative of the base 10 logarithm of this concentration. The log10 of 1 × 10-7 is -7.0, and the negative of this number (indicated by the “p” of “pH”) yields a pH of 7.0, which is also known as neutral pH. The pH inside of human cells and blood are examples of two areas of the body where near-neutral pH is maintained. Non-neutral pH readings result from dissolving acids or bases in water. Using the negative logarithm to generate positive integers, high concentrations of hydrogen ions yield a low pH number, whereas low levels of hydrogen ions result in a high pH. An acid is a substance that increases the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution, usually by having one of its hydrogen atoms dissociate. A base provides either hydroxide ions (OH–) or other negatively charged ions that combine with hydrogen ions, reducing their concentration in the solution and thereby raising the pH. In cases where the base releases hydroxide ions, these ions bind to free hydrogen ions, generating new water molecules. The stronger the acid, the more readily it donates H+. For example, hydrochloric acid (HCl) completely dissociates into hydrogen and chloride ions and is highly acidic, whereas the acids in tomato juice or vinegar do not completely dissociate and are considered weak acids. Conversely, strong bases are those substances that readily donate OH– or take up hydrogen ions. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and many household cleaners are highly alkaline and give up OH– rapidly when placed in water, thereby raising the pH. An example of a weak basic solution is seawater, which has a pH near 8.0, close enough to neutral pH that marine organisms adapted to this saline environment are able to thrive in it. The pH scale is, as previously mentioned, an inverse logarithm and ranges from 0 to 14 (Figure). Anything below 7.0 (ranging from 0.0 to 6.9) is acidic, and anything above 7.0 (from 7.1 to 14.0) is alkaline. Extremes in pH in either direction from 7.0 are usually considered inhospitable to life. The pH inside cells (6.8) and the pH in the blood (7.4) are both very close to neutral. However, the environment in the stomach is highly acidic, with a pH of 1 to 2. So how do the cells of the stomach survive in such an acidic environment? How do they homeostatically maintain the near neutral pH inside them? The answer is that they cannot do it and are constantly dying. New stomach cells are constantly produced to replace dead ones, which are digested by the stomach acids. It is estimated that the lining of the human stomach is completely replaced every seven to ten days. Link to Learning Watch this video for a straightforward explanation of pH and its logarithmic scale. So how can organisms whose bodies require a near-neutral pH ingest acidic and basic substances (a human drinking orange juice, for example) and survive? Buffers are the key. Buffers readily absorb excess H+ or OH–, keeping the pH of the body carefully maintained in the narrow range required for survival. Maintaining a constant blood pH is critical to a person’s well-being. The buffer maintaining the pH of human blood involves carbonic acid (H2CO3), bicarbonate ion (HCO3–), and carbon dioxide (CO2). When bicarbonate ions combine with free hydrogen ions and become carbonic acid, hydrogen ions are removed, moderating pH changes. Similarly, as shown in Figure, excess carbonic acid can be converted to carbon dioxide gas and exhaled through the lungs. This prevents too many free hydrogen ions from building up in the blood and dangerously reducing the blood’s pH. Likewise, if too much OH– is introduced into the system, carbonic acid will combine with it to create bicarbonate, lowering the pH. Without this buffer system, the body’s pH would fluctuate enough to put survival in jeopardy. Other examples of buffers are antacids used to combat excess stomach acid. Many of these over-the-counter medications work in the same way as blood buffers, usually with at least one ion capable of absorbing hydrogen and moderating pH, bringing relief to those that suffer “heartburn” after eating. The unique properties of water that contribute to this capacity to balance pH—as well as water’s other characteristics—are essential to sustaining life on Earth. Link to Learning To learn more about water. Visit the U.S. Geological Survey Water Science for Schools All About Water! website. Section Summary Water has many properties that are critical to maintaining life. It is a polar molecule, allowing for the formation of hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonds allow ions and other polar molecules to dissolve in water. Therefore, water is an excellent solvent. The hydrogen bonds between water molecules cause the water to have a high heat capacity, meaning it takes a lot of added heat to raise its temperature. As the temperature rises, the hydrogen bonds between water continually break and form anew. This allows for the overall temperature to remain stable, although energy is added to the system. Water also exhibits a high heat of vaporization, which is key to how organisms cool themselves by the evaporation of sweat. Water’s cohesive forces allow for the property of surface tension, whereas its adhesive properties are seen as water rises inside capillary tubes. The pH value is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution and is one of many chemical characteristics that is highly regulated in living organisms through homeostasis. Acids and bases can change pH values, but buffers tend to moderate the changes they cause. These properties of water are intimately connected to the biochemical and physical processes performed by living organisms, and life would be very different if these properties were altered, if it could exist at all. Review Questions Which of the following statements is not true? - Water is polar. - Water stabilizes temperature. - Water is essential for life. - Water is the most abundant molecule in the Earth’s atmosphere. Hint: D When acids are added to a solution, the pH should ________. - decrease - increase - stay the same - cannot tell without testing Hint: A A molecule that binds up excess hydrogen ions in a solution is called a(n) ________. - acid - isotope - base - donator Hint: C Which of the following statements is true? - Acids and bases cannot mix together. - Acids and bases will neutralize each other. - Acids, but not bases, can change the pH of a solution. - Acids donate hydroxide ions (OH–); bases donate hydrogen ions (H+). Hint: B Free Response Discuss how buffers help prevent drastic swings in pH. Hint: Buffers absorb the free hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions that result from chemical reactions. Because they can bond these ions, they prevent increases or decreases in pH. An example of a buffer system is the bicarbonate system in the human body. This system is able to absorb hydrogen and hydroxide ions to prevent changes in pH and keep cells functioning properly. Why can some insects walk on water? Hint: Some insects can walk on water, although they are heavier (denser) than water, because of the surface tension of water. Surface tension results from cohesion, or the attraction between water molecules at the surface of the body of water (the liquid-air/gas interface).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.388311	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14941/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14942/overview	Carbon Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain why carbon is important for life - Describe the role of functional groups in biological molecules Cells are made of many complex molecules called macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids (RNA and DNA), carbohydrates, and lipids. The macromolecules are a subset of organic molecules (any carbon-containing liquid, solid, or gas) that are especially important for life. The fundamental component for all of these macromolecules is carbon. The carbon atom has unique properties that allow it to form covalent bonds to as many as four different atoms, making this versatile element ideal to serve as the basic structural component, or “backbone,” of the macromolecules. Individual carbon atoms have an incomplete outermost electron shell. With an atomic number of 6 (six electrons and six protons), the first two electrons fill the inner shell, leaving four in the second shell. Therefore, carbon atoms can form up to four covalent bonds with other atoms to satisfy the octet rule. The methane molecule provides an example: it has the chemical formula CH4. Each of its four hydrogen atoms forms a single covalent bond with the carbon atom by sharing a pair of electrons. This results in a filled outermost shell. Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting entirely of carbon and hydrogen, such as methane (CH4) described above. We often use hydrocarbons in our daily lives as fuels—like the propane in a gas grill or the butane in a lighter. The many covalent bonds between the atoms in hydrocarbons store a great amount of energy, which is released when these molecules are burned (oxidized). Methane, an excellent fuel, is the simplest hydrocarbon molecule, with a central carbon atom bonded to four different hydrogen atoms, as illustrated in Figure. The geometry of the methane molecule, where the atoms reside in three dimensions, is determined by the shape of its electron orbitals. The carbons and the four hydrogen atoms form a shape known as a tetrahedron, with four triangular faces; for this reason, methane is described as having tetrahedral geometry. As the backbone of the large molecules of living things, hydrocarbons may exist as linear carbon chains, carbon rings, or combinations of both. Furthermore, individual carbon-to-carbon bonds may be single, double, or triple covalent bonds, and each type of bond affects the geometry of the molecule in a specific way. This three-dimensional shape or conformation of the large molecules of life (macromolecules) is critical to how they function. Hydrocarbon Chains Hydrocarbon chains are formed by successive bonds between carbon atoms and may be branched or unbranched. Furthermore, the overall geometry of the molecule is altered by the different geometries of single, double, and triple covalent bonds, illustrated in Figure. The hydrocarbons ethane, ethene, and ethyne serve as examples of how different carbon-to-carbon bonds affect the geometry of the molecule. The names of all three molecules start with the prefix “eth-,” which is the prefix for two carbon hydrocarbons. The suffixes “-ane,” “-ene,” and “-yne” refer to the presence of single, double, or triple carbon-carbon bonds, respectively. Thus, propane, propene, and propyne follow the same pattern with three carbon molecules, butane, butane, and butyne for four carbon molecules, and so on. Double and triple bonds change the geometry of the molecule: single bonds allow rotation along the axis of the bond, whereas double bonds lead to a planar configuration and triple bonds to a linear one. These geometries have a significant impact on the shape a particular molecule can assume. Hydrocarbon Rings So far, the hydrocarbons we have discussed have been aliphatic hydrocarbons, which consist of linear chains of carbon atoms. Another type of hydrocarbon, aromatic hydrocarbons, consists of closed rings of carbon atoms. Ring structures are found in hydrocarbons, sometimes with the presence of double bonds, which can be seen by comparing the structure of cyclohexane to benzene in Figure. Examples of biological molecules that incorporate the benzene ring include some amino acids and cholesterol and its derivatives, including the hormones estrogen and testosterone. The benzene ring is also found in the herbicide 2,4-D. Benzene is a natural component of crude oil and has been classified as a carcinogen. Some hydrocarbons have both aliphatic and aromatic portions; beta-carotene is an example of such a hydrocarbon. Isomers The three-dimensional placement of atoms and chemical bonds within organic molecules is central to understanding their chemistry. Molecules that share the same chemical formula but differ in the placement (structure) of their atoms and/or chemical bonds are known as isomers. Structural isomers (like butane and isobutene shown in Figure a) differ in the placement of their covalent bonds: both molecules have four carbons and ten hydrogens (C4H10), but the different arrangement of the atoms within the molecules leads to differences in their chemical properties. For example, due to their different chemical properties, butane is suited for use as a fuel for cigarette lighters and torches, whereas isobutene is suited for use as a refrigerant and a propellant in spray cans. Geometric isomers, on the other hand, have similar placements of their covalent bonds but differ in how these bonds are made to the surrounding atoms, especially in carbon-to-carbon double bonds. In the simple molecule butene (C4H8), the two methyl groups (CH3) can be on either side of the double covalent bond central to the molecule, as illustrated in Figure b. When the carbons are bound on the same side of the double bond, this is the cis configuration; if they are on opposite sides of the double bond, it is a trans configuration. In the trans configuration, the carbons form a more or less linear structure, whereas the carbons in the cis configuration make a bend (change in direction) of the carbon backbone. Art Connection Which of the following statements is false? - Molecules with the formulas CH3CH2COOH and C3H6O2 could be structural isomers. - Molecules must have a double bond to be cis-trans isomers. - To be enantiomers, a molecule must have at least three different atoms or groups connected to a central carbon. - To be enantiomers, a molecule must have at least four different atoms or groups connected to a central carbon. In triglycerides (fats and oils), long carbon chains known as fatty acids may contain double bonds, which can be in either the cis or trans configuration, illustrated in Figure. Fats with at least one double bond between carbon atoms are unsaturated fats. When some of these bonds are in the cis configuration, the resulting bend in the carbon backbone of the chain means that triglyceride molecules cannot pack tightly, so they remain liquid (oil) at room temperature. On the other hand, triglycerides with trans double bonds (popularly called trans fats), have relatively linear fatty acids that are able to pack tightly together at room temperature and form solid fats. In the human diet, trans fats are linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, so many food manufacturers have reduced or eliminated their use in recent years. In contrast to unsaturated fats, triglycerides without double bonds between carbon atoms are called saturated fats, meaning that they contain all the hydrogen atoms available. Saturated fats are a solid at room temperature and usually of animal origin. Enantiomers Enantiomers are molecules that share the same chemical structure and chemical bonds but differ in the three-dimensional placement of atoms so that they are mirror images. As shown in Figure, an amino acid alanine example, the two structures are non-superimposable. In nature, only the L-forms of amino acids are used to make proteins. Some D forms of amino acids are seen in the cell walls of bacteria, but never in their proteins. Similarly, the D-form of glucose is the main product of photosynthesis and the L-form of the molecule is rarely seen in nature. Functional Groups Functional groups are groups of atoms that occur within molecules and confer specific chemical properties to those molecules. They are found along the “carbon backbone” of macromolecules. This carbon backbone is formed by chains and/or rings of carbon atoms with the occasional substitution of an element such as nitrogen or oxygen. Molecules with other elements in their carbon backbone are substituted hydrocarbons. The functional groups in a macromolecule are usually attached to the carbon backbone at one or several different places along its chain and/or ring structure. Each of the four types of macromolecules—proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids—has its own characteristic set of functional groups that contributes greatly to its differing chemical properties and its function in living organisms. A functional group can participate in specific chemical reactions. Some of the important functional groups in biological molecules are shown in Figure; they include: hydroxyl, methyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, and sulfhydryl. These groups play an important role in the formation of molecules like DNA, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. Functional groups are usually classified as hydrophobic or hydrophilic depending on their charge or polarity characteristics. An example of a hydrophobic group is the non-polar methane molecule. Among the hydrophilic functional groups is the carboxyl group found in amino acids, some amino acid side chains, and the fatty acids that form triglycerides and phospholipids. This carboxyl group ionizes to release hydrogen ions (H+) from the COOH group resulting in the negatively charged COO- group; this contributes to the hydrophilic nature of whatever molecule it is found on. Other functional groups, such as the carbonyl group, have a partially negatively charged oxygen atom that may form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, again making the molecule more hydrophilic. Hydrogen bonds between functional groups (within the same molecule or between different molecules) are important to the function of many macromolecules and help them to fold properly into and maintain the appropriate shape for functioning. Hydrogen bonds are also involved in various recognition processes, such as DNA complementary base pairing and the binding of an enzyme to its substrate, as illustrated in Figure. Section Summary The unique properties of carbon make it a central part of biological molecules. Carbon binds to oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen covalently to form the many molecules important for cellular function. Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell and can form four bonds. Carbon and hydrogen can form hydrocarbon chains or rings. Functional groups are groups of atoms that confer specific properties to hydrocarbon (or substituted hydrocarbon) chains or rings that define their overall chemical characteristics and function. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements is false? - Molecules with the formulas CH3CH2COOH and C3H6O2 could be structural isomers. - Molecules must have a double bond to be cis-trans isomers. - To be enantiomers, a molecule must have at least three different atoms or groups connected to a central carbon. - To be enantiomers, a molecule must have at least four different atoms or groups connected to a central carbon. Hint: Figure C Review Questions Each carbon molecule can bond with as many as________ other atom(s) or molecule(s). - one - two - six - four Hint: D Which of the following is not a functional group that can bond with carbon? - sodium - hydroxyl - phosphate - carbonyl Hint: A Free Response What property of carbon makes it essential for organic life? Hint: Carbon is unique and found in all living things because it can form up to four covalent bonds between atoms or molecules. These can be nonpolar or polar covalent bonds, and they allow for the formation of long chains of carbon molecules that combine to form proteins and DNA. Compare and contrast saturated and unsaturated triglycerides. Hint: Saturated triglycerides contain no double bonds between carbon atoms; they are usually solid at room temperature. Unsaturated triglycerides contain at least one double bond between carbon atoms and are usually liquid at room temperature.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.419379	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14942/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14943/overview	Introduction Food provides the body with the nutrients it needs to survive. Many of these critical nutrients are biological macromolecules, or large molecules, necessary for life. These macromolecules (polymers) are built from different combinations of smaller organic molecules (monomers). What specific types of biological macromolecules do living things require? How are these molecules formed? What functions do they serve? In this chapter, these questions will be explored.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.436362	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14943/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14944/overview	Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand the synthesis of macromolecules - Explain dehydration (or condensation) and hydrolysis reactions As you’ve learned, biological macromolecules are large molecules, necessary for life, that are built from smaller organic molecules. There are four major classes of biological macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids); each is an important cell component and performs a wide array of functions. Combined, these molecules make up the majority of a cell’s dry mass (recall that water makes up the majority of its complete mass). Biological macromolecules are organic, meaning they contain carbon. In addition, they may contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and additional minor elements. Dehydration Synthesis Most macromolecules are made from single subunits, or building blocks, called monomers. The monomers combine with each other using covalent bonds to form larger molecules known as polymers. In doing so, monomers release water molecules as byproducts. This type of reaction is known as dehydration synthesis, which means “to put together while losing water.” In a dehydration synthesis reaction (Figure), the hydrogen of one monomer combines with the hydroxyl group of another monomer, releasing a molecule of water. At the same time, the monomers share electrons and form covalent bonds. As additional monomers join, this chain of repeating monomers forms a polymer. Different types of monomers can combine in many configurations, giving rise to a diverse group of macromolecules. Even one kind of monomer can combine in a variety of ways to form several different polymers: for example, glucose monomers are the constituents of starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Hydrolysis Polymers are broken down into monomers in a process known as hydrolysis, which means “to split water,” a reaction in which a water molecule is used during the breakdown (Figure). During these reactions, the polymer is broken into two components: one part gains a hydrogen atom (H+) and the other gains a hydroxyl molecule (OH–) from a split water molecule. Dehydration and hydrolysis reactions are catalyzed, or “sped up,” by specific enzymes; dehydration reactions involve the formation of new bonds, requiring energy, while hydrolysis reactions break bonds and release energy. These reactions are similar for most macromolecules, but each monomer and polymer reaction is specific for its class. For example, in our bodies, food is hydrolyzed, or broken down, into smaller molecules by catalytic enzymes in the digestive system. This allows for easy absorption of nutrients by cells in the intestine. Each macromolecule is broken down by a specific enzyme. For instance, carbohydrates are broken down by amylase, sucrase, lactase, or maltase. Proteins are broken down by the enzymes pepsin and peptidase, and by hydrochloric acid. Lipids are broken down by lipases. Breakdown of these macromolecules provides energy for cellular activities. Link to Learning Visit this site to see visual representations of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis. Section Summary Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids are the four major classes of biological macromolecules—large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules. Macromolecules are made up of single units known as monomers that are joined by covalent bonds to form larger polymers. The polymer is more than the sum of its parts: it acquires new characteristics, and leads to an osmotic pressure that is much lower than that formed by its ingredients; this is an important advantage in the maintenance of cellular osmotic conditions. A monomer joins with another monomer with the release of a water molecule, leading to the formation of a covalent bond. These types of reactions are known as dehydration or condensation reactions. When polymers are broken down into smaller units (monomers), a molecule of water is used for each bond broken by these reactions; such reactions are known as hydrolysis reactions. Dehydration and hydrolysis reactions are similar for all macromolecules, but each monomer and polymer reaction is specific to its class. Dehydration reactions typically require an investment of energy for new bond formation, while hydrolysis reactions typically release energy by breaking bonds. Review Questions Dehydration synthesis leads to formation of - monomers - polymers - water and polymers - none of the above Hint: C During the breakdown of polymers, which of the following reactions takes place? - hydrolysis - dehydration - condensation - covalent bond Hint: A Free Response Why are biological macromolecules considered organic? Hint: Biological macromolecules are organic because they contain carbon. What role do electrons play in dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis? Hint: In a dehydration synthesis reaction, the hydrogen of one monomer combines with the hydroxyl group of another monomer, releasing a molecule of water. This creates an opening in the outer shells of atoms in the monomers, which can share electrons and form covalent bonds.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.458759	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14944/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14945/overview	Carbohydrates Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the role of carbohydrates in cells and in the extracellular materials of animals and plants - Explain the classifications of carbohydrates - List common monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides Most people are familiar with carbohydrates, one type of macromolecule, especially when it comes to what we eat. To lose weight, some individuals adhere to “low-carb” diets. Athletes, in contrast, often “carb-load” before important competitions to ensure that they have enough energy to compete at a high level. Carbohydrates are, in fact, an essential part of our diet; grains, fruits, and vegetables are all natural sources of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates provide energy to the body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar that is a component of starch and an ingredient in many staple foods. Carbohydrates also have other important functions in humans, animals, and plants. Molecular Structures Carbohydrates can be represented by the stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbons in the molecule. In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate molecules. This formula also explains the origin of the term “carbohydrate”: the components are carbon (“carbo”) and the components of water (hence, “hydrate”). Carbohydrates are classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides Monosaccharides (mono- = “one”; sacchar- = “sweet”) are simple sugars, the most common of which is glucose. In monosaccharides, the number of carbons usually ranges from three to seven. Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix -ose. If the sugar has an aldehyde group (the functional group with the structure R-CHO), it is known as an aldose, and if it has a ketone group (the functional group with the structure RC(=O)R'), it is known as a ketose. Depending on the number of carbons in the sugar, they also may be known as trioses (three carbons), pentoses (five carbons), and or hexoses (six carbons). See Figure for an illustration of the monosaccharides. The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6. In humans, glucose is an important source of energy. During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose, and that energy is used to help make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water, and glucose in turn is used for energy requirements for the plant. Excess glucose is often stored as starch that is catabolized (the breakdown of larger molecules by cells) by humans and other animals that feed on plants. Galactose (part of lactose, or milk sugar) and fructose (found in sucrose, in fruit) are other common monosaccharides. Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6), they differ structurally and chemically (and are known as isomers) because of the different arrangement of functional groups around the asymmetric carbon; all of these monosaccharides have more than one asymmetric carbon (Figure). Art Connection What kind of sugars are these, aldose or ketose? Glucose, galactose, and fructose are isomeric monosaccharides (hexoses), meaning they have the same chemical formula but have slightly different structures. Glucose and galactose are aldoses, and fructose is a ketose. Monosaccharides can exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions they are usually found in ring forms (Figure). Glucose in a ring form can have two different arrangements of the hydroxyl group (OH) around the anomeric carbon (carbon 1 that becomes asymmetric in the process of ring formation). If the hydroxyl group is below carbon number 1 in the sugar, it is said to be in the alpha (α) position, and if it is above the plane, it is said to be in the beta (β) position. Disaccharides Disaccharides (di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction (also known as a condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis). During this process, the hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide combines with the hydrogen of another monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of water and forming a covalent bond. A covalent bond formed between a carbohydrate molecule and another molecule (in this case, between two monosaccharides) is known as a glycosidic bond (Figure). Glycosidic bonds (also called glycosidic linkages) can be of the alpha or the beta type. Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose (Figure). Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of the monomers glucose and galactose. It is found naturally in milk. Maltose, or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed by a dehydration reaction between two glucose molecules. The most common disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar, which is composed of the monomers glucose and fructose. Polysaccharides A long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds is known as a polysaccharide (poly- = “many”). The chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of monosaccharides. The molecular weight may be 100,000 daltons or more depending on the number of monomers joined. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are primary examples of polysaccharides. Starch is the stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of a mixture of amylose and amylopectin (both polymers of glucose). Plants are able to synthesize glucose, and the excess glucose, beyond the plant’s immediate energy needs, is stored as starch in different plant parts, including roots and seeds. The starch in the seeds provides food for the embryo as it germinates and can also act as a source of food for humans and animals. The starch that is consumed by humans is broken down by enzymes, such as salivary amylases, into smaller molecules, such as maltose and glucose. The cells can then absorb the glucose. Starch is made up of glucose monomers that are joined by α 1-4 or α 1-6 glycosidic bonds. The numbers 1-4 and 1-6 refer to the carbon number of the two residues that have joined to form the bond. As illustrated in Figure, amylose is starch formed by unbranched chains of glucose monomers (only α 1-4 linkages), whereas amylopectin is a branched polysaccharide (α 1-6 linkages at the branch points). Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates and is made up of monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells. Whenever blood glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down to release glucose in a process known as glycogenolysis. Cellulose is the most abundant natural biopolymer. The cell wall of plants is mostly made of cellulose; this provides structural support to the cell. Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in nature. Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers that are linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds (Figure). As shown in Figure, every other glucose monomer in cellulose is flipped over, and the monomers are packed tightly as extended long chains. This gives cellulose its rigidity and high tensile strength—which is so important to plant cells. While the β 1-4 linkage cannot be broken down by human digestive enzymes, herbivores such as cows, koalas, and buffalos are able, with the help of the specialized flora in their stomach, to digest plant material that is rich in cellulose and use it as a food source. In these animals, certain species of bacteria and protists reside in the rumen (part of the digestive system of herbivores) and secrete the enzyme cellulase. The appendix of grazing animals also contains bacteria that digest cellulose, giving it an important role in the digestive systems of ruminants. Cellulases can break down cellulose into glucose monomers that can be used as an energy source by the animal. Termites are also able to break down cellulose because of the presence of other organisms in their bodies that secrete cellulases. Carbohydrates serve various functions in different animals. Arthropods (insects, crustaceans, and others) have an outer skeleton, called the exoskeleton, which protects their internal body parts (as seen in the bee in Figure). This exoskeleton is made of the biological macromolecule chitin, which is a polysaccharide-containing nitrogen. It is made of repeating units of N-acetyl-β-d-glucosamine, a modified sugar. Chitin is also a major component of fungal cell walls; fungi are neither animals nor plants and form a kingdom of their own in the domain Eukarya. Career Connections Registered DietitianObesity is a worldwide health concern, and many diseases such as diabetes and heart disease are becoming more prevalent because of obesity. This is one of the reasons why registered dietitians are increasingly sought after for advice. Registered dietitians help plan nutrition programs for individuals in various settings. They often work with patients in health care facilities, designing nutrition plans to treat and prevent diseases. For example, dietitians may teach a patient with diabetes how to manage blood sugar levels by eating the correct types and amounts of carbohydrates. Dietitians may also work in nursing homes, schools, and private practices. To become a registered dietitian, one needs to earn at least a bachelor’s degree in dietetics, nutrition, food technology, or a related field. In addition, registered dietitians must complete a supervised internship program and pass a national exam. Those who pursue careers in dietetics take courses in nutrition, chemistry, biochemistry, biology, microbiology, and human physiology. Dietitians must become experts in the chemistry and physiology (biological functions) of food (proteins, carbohydrates, and fats). Benefits of Carbohydrates Are carbohydrates good for you? People who wish to lose weight are often told that carbohydrates are bad for them and should be avoided. Some diets completely forbid carbohydrate consumption, claiming that a low-carbohydrate diet helps people to lose weight faster. However, carbohydrates have been an important part of the human diet for thousands of years; artifacts from ancient civilizations show the presence of wheat, rice, and corn in our ancestors’ storage areas. Carbohydrates should be supplemented with proteins, vitamins, and fats to be parts of a well-balanced diet. Calorie-wise, a gram of carbohydrate provides 4.3 Kcal. For comparison, fats provide 9 Kcal/g, a less desirable ratio. Carbohydrates contain soluble and insoluble elements; the insoluble part is known as fiber, which is mostly cellulose. Fiber has many uses; it promotes regular bowel movement by adding bulk, and it regulates the rate of consumption of blood glucose. Fiber also helps to remove excess cholesterol from the body: fiber binds to the cholesterol in the small intestine, then attaches to the cholesterol and prevents the cholesterol particles from entering the bloodstream, and then cholesterol exits the body via the feces. Fiber-rich diets also have a protective role in reducing the occurrence of colon cancer. In addition, a meal containing whole grains and vegetables gives a feeling of fullness. As an immediate source of energy, glucose is broken down during the process of cellular respiration, which produces ATP, the energy currency of the cell. Without the consumption of carbohydrates, the availability of “instant energy” would be reduced. Eliminating carbohydrates from the diet is not the best way to lose weight. A low-calorie diet that is rich in whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and lean meat, together with plenty of exercise and plenty of water, is the more sensible way to lose weight. Link to Learning For an additional perspective on carbohydrates, explore “Biomolecules: the Carbohydrates” through this interactive animation. Section Summary Carbohydrates are a group of macromolecules that are a vital energy source for the cell and provide structural support to plant cells, fungi, and all of the arthropods that include lobsters, crabs, shrimp, insects, and spiders. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides depending on the number of monomers in the molecule. Monosaccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds that are formed as a result of dehydration reactions, forming disaccharides and polysaccharides with the elimination of a water molecule for each bond formed. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are common monosaccharides, whereas common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Starch and glycogen, examples of polysaccharides, are the storage forms of glucose in plants and animals, respectively. The long polysaccharide chains may be branched or unbranched. Cellulose is an example of an unbranched polysaccharide, whereas amylopectin, a constituent of starch, is a highly branched molecule. Storage of glucose, in the form of polymers like starch of glycogen, makes it slightly less accessible for metabolism; however, this prevents it from leaking out of the cell or creating a high osmotic pressure that could cause excessive water uptake by the cell. Art Connections Review Questions An example of a monosaccharide is ________. - fructose - glucose - galactose - all of the above Hint: D Cellulose and starch are examples of: - monosaccharides - disaccharides - lipids - polysaccharides Hint: D Plant cell walls contain which of the following in abundance? - starch - cellulose - glycogen - lactose Hint: B Lactose is a disaccharide formed by the formation of a ________ bond between glucose and ________. - glycosidic; lactose - glycosidic; galactose - hydrogen; sucrose - hydrogen; fructose Hint: B Free Response Describe the similarities and differences between glycogen and starch. Hint: Glycogen and starch are polysaccharides. They are the storage form of glucose. Glycogen is stored in animals in the liver and in muscle cells, whereas starch is stored in the roots, seeds, and leaves of plants. Starch has two different forms, one unbranched (amylose) and one branched (amylopectin), whereas glycogen is a single type of a highly branched molecule. Why is it impossible for humans to digest food that contains cellulose? Hint: The β 1-4 glycosidic linkage in cellulose cannot be broken down by human digestive enzymes. Herbivores such as cows, koalas, and buffalos are able to digest grass that is rich in cellulose and use it as a food source because bacteria and protists in their digestive systems, especially in the rumen, secrete the enzyme cellulase. Cellulases can break down cellulose into glucose monomers that can be used as an energy source by the animal.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.491042	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14945/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14946/overview	Lipids Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the four major types of lipids - Explain the role of fats in storing energy - Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids - Describe phospholipids and their role in cells - Define the basic structure of a steroid and some functions of steroids - Explain the how cholesterol helps to maintain the fluid nature of the plasma membrane Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are largely nonpolar in nature. This is because they are hydrocarbons that include mostly nonpolar carbon–carbon or carbon–hydrogen bonds. Non-polar molecules are hydrophobic (“water fearing”), or insoluble in water. Lipids perform many different functions in a cell. Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of fats. Lipids also provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals (Figure). For example, they help keep aquatic birds and mammals dry when forming a protective layer over fur or feathers because of their water-repellant hydrophobic nature. Lipids are also the building blocks of many hormones and are an important constituent of all cellular membranes. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Fats and Oils A fat molecule consists of two main components—glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is an organic compound (alcohol) with three carbons, five hydrogens, and three hydroxyl (OH) groups. Fatty acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which a carboxyl group is attached, hence the name “fatty acid.” The number of carbons in the fatty acid may range from 4 to 36; most common are those containing 12–18 carbons. In a fat molecule, the fatty acids are attached to each of the three carbons of the glycerol molecule with an ester bond through an oxygen atom (Figure). During this ester bond formation, three water molecules are released. The three fatty acids in the triacylglycerol may be similar or dissimilar. Fats are also called triacylglycerols or triglycerides because of their chemical structure. Some fatty acids have common names that specify their origin. For example, palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid, is derived from the palm tree. Arachidic acid is derived from Arachis hypogea, the scientific name for groundnuts or peanuts. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. In a fatty acid chain, if there are only single bonds between neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, the fatty acid is said to be saturated. Saturated fatty acids are saturated with hydrogen; in other words, the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized. Stearic acid is an example of a saturated fatty acid (Figure) When the hydrocarbon chain contains a double bond, the fatty acid is said to be unsaturated. Oleic acid is an example of an unsaturated fatty acid (Figure). Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are called oils. If there is one double bond in the molecule, then it is known as a monounsaturated fat (e.g., olive oil), and if there is more than one double bond, then it is known as a polyunsaturated fat (e.g., canola oil). When a fatty acid has no double bonds, it is known as a saturated fatty acid because no more hydrogen may be added to the carbon atoms of the chain. A fat may contain similar or different fatty acids attached to glycerol. Long straight fatty acids with single bonds tend to get packed tightly and are solid at room temperature. Animal fats with stearic acid and palmitic acid (common in meat) and the fat with butyric acid (common in butter) are examples of saturated fats. Mammals store fats in specialized cells called adipocytes, where globules of fat occupy most of the cell’s volume. In plants, fat or oil is stored in many seeds and is used as a source of energy during seedling development. Unsaturated fats or oils are usually of plant origin and contain cis unsaturated fatty acids. Cis and trans indicate the configuration of the molecule around the double bond. If hydrogens are present in the same plane, it is referred to as a cis fat; if the hydrogen atoms are on two different planes, it is referred to as a trans fat. The cis double bond causes a bend or a “kink” that prevents the fatty acids from packing tightly, keeping them liquid at room temperature (Figure). Olive oil, corn oil, canola oil, and cod liver oil are examples of unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats help to lower blood cholesterol levels whereas saturated fats contribute to plaque formation in the arteries. Trans Fats In the food industry, oils are artificially hydrogenated to make them semi-solid and of a consistency desirable for many processed food products. Simply speaking, hydrogen gas is bubbled through oils to solidify them. During this hydrogenation process, double bonds of the cis- conformation in the hydrocarbon chain may be converted to double bonds in the trans- conformation. Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and shortening are examples of artificially hydrogenated trans fats. Recent studies have shown that an increase in trans fats in the human diet may lead to an increase in levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol, which in turn may lead to plaque deposition in the arteries, resulting in heart disease. Many fast food restaurants have recently banned the use of trans fats, and food labels are required to display the trans fat content. Omega Fatty Acids Essential fatty acids are fatty acids required but not synthesized by the human body. Consequently, they have to be supplemented through ingestion via the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids (like that shown in Figure) fall into this category and are one of only two known for humans (the other being omega-6 fatty acid). These are polyunsaturated fatty acids and are called omega-3 because the third carbon from the end of the hydrocarbon chain is connected to its neighboring carbon by a double bond. The farthest carbon away from the carboxyl group is numbered as the omega (ω) carbon, and if the double bond is between the third and fourth carbon from that end, it is known as an omega-3 fatty acid. Nutritionally important because the body does not make them, omega-3 fatty acids include alpha-linoleic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), all of which are polyunsaturated. Salmon, trout, and tuna are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Research indicates that omega-3 fatty acids reduce the risk of sudden death from heart attacks, reduce triglycerides in the blood, lower blood pressure, and prevent thrombosis by inhibiting blood clotting. They also reduce inflammation, and may help reduce the risk of some cancers in animals. Like carbohydrates, fats have received a lot of bad publicity. It is true that eating an excess of fried foods and other “fatty” foods leads to weight gain. However, fats do have important functions. Many vitamins are fat soluble, and fats serve as a long-term storage form of fatty acids: a source of energy. They also provide insulation for the body. Therefore, “healthy” fats in moderate amounts should be consumed on a regular basis. Waxes Wax covers the feathers of some aquatic birds and the leaf surfaces of some plants. Because of the hydrophobic nature of waxes, they prevent water from sticking on the surface (Figure). Waxes are made up of long fatty acid chains esterified to long-chain alcohols. Phospholipids Phospholipids are major constituents of the plasma membrane, the outermost layer of animal cells. Like fats, they are composed of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or sphingosine backbone. Instead of three fatty acids attached as in triglycerides, however, there are two fatty acids forming diacylglycerol, and the third carbon of the glycerol backbone is occupied by a modified phosphate group (Figure). A phosphate group alone attached to a diaglycerol does not qualify as a phospholipid; it is phosphatidate (diacylglycerol 3-phosphate), the precursor of phospholipids. The phosphate group is modified by an alcohol. Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine are two important phospholipids that are found in plasma membranes. A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule, meaning it has a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic part. The fatty acid chains are hydrophobic and cannot interact with water, whereas the phosphate-containing group is hydrophilic and interacts with water (Figure). The head is the hydrophilic part, and the tail contains the hydrophobic fatty acids. In a membrane, a bilayer of phospholipids forms the matrix of the structure, the fatty acid tails of phospholipids face inside, away from water, whereas the phosphate group faces the outside, aqueous side (Figure). Phospholipids are responsible for the dynamic nature of the plasma membrane. If a drop of phospholipids is placed in water, it spontaneously forms a structure known as a micelle, where the hydrophilic phosphate heads face the outside and the fatty acids face the interior of this structure. Steroids Unlike the phospholipids and fats discussed earlier, steroids have a fused ring structure. Although they do not resemble the other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also hydrophobicand insoluble in water. All steroids have four linked carbon rings and several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail (Figure). Many steroids also have the –OH functional group, which puts them in the alcohol classification (sterols). Cholesterol is the most common steroid. Cholesterol is mainly synthesized in the liver and is the precursor to many steroid hormones such as testosterone and estradiol, which are secreted by the gonads and endocrine glands. It is also the precursor to Vitamin D. Cholesterol is also the precursor of bile salts, which help in the emulsification of fats and their subsequent absorption by cells. Although cholesterol is often spoken of in negative terms by lay people, it is necessary for proper functioning of the body. It is a component of the plasma membrane of animal cells and is found within the phospholipid bilayer. Being the outermost structure in animal cells, the plasma membrane is responsible for the transport of materials and cellular recognition and it is involved in cell-to-cell communication. Link to Learning For an additional perspective on lipids, explore the interactive animation “Biomolecules: The Lipids” .Section Summary Lipids are a class of macromolecules that are nonpolar and hydrophobic in nature. Major types include fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Fats are a stored form of energy and are also known as triacylglycerols or triglycerides. Fats are made up of fatty acids and either glycerol or sphingosine. Fatty acids may be unsaturated or saturated, depending on the presence or absence of double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. If only single bonds are present, they are known as saturated fatty acids. Unsaturated fatty acids may have one or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. Phospholipids make up the matrix of membranes. They have a glycerol or sphingosine backbone to which two fatty acid chains and a phosphate-containing group are attached. Steroids are another class of lipids. Their basic structure has four fused carbon rings. Cholesterol is a type of steroid and is an important constituent of the plasma membrane, where it helps to maintain the fluid nature of the membrane. It is also the precursor of steroid hormones such as testosterone. Review Questions Saturated fats have all of the following characteristics except: - they are solid at room temperature - they have single bonds within the carbon chain - they are usually obtained from animal sources - they tend to dissolve in water easily Hint: D Phospholipids are important components of ________. - the plasma membrane of animal cells - the ring structure of steroids - the waxy covering on leaves - the double bond in hydrocarbon chains Hint: A Free Response Explain at least three functions that lipids serve in plants and/or animals. Hint: Fat serves as a valuable way for animals to store energy. It can also provide insulation. Waxes can protect plant leaves and mammalian fur from getting wet. Phospholipids and steroids are important components of animal cell membranes, as well as plant, fungal, and bacterial membranes. Why have trans fats been banned from some restaurants? How are they created? Hint: Trans fats are created artificially when hydrogen gas is bubbled through oils to solidify them. The double bonds of the cis conformation in the hydrocarbon chain may be converted to double bonds in the trans configuration. Some restaurants are banning trans fats because they cause higher levels of LDL, or “bad”cholesterol.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.521308	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14946/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14947/overview	Proteins Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the functions proteins perform in the cell and in tissues - Discuss the relationship between amino acids and proteins - Explain the four levels of protein organization - Describe the ways in which protein shape and function are linked Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the most diverse range of functions of all macromolecules. Proteins may be structural, regulatory, contractile, or protective; they may serve in transport, storage, or membranes; or they may be toxins or enzymes. Each cell in a living system may contain thousands of proteins, each with a unique function. Their structures, like their functions, vary greatly. They are all, however, polymers of amino acids, arranged in a linear sequence. Types and Functions of Proteins Enzymes, which are produced by living cells, are catalysts in biochemical reactions (like digestion) and are usually complex or conjugated proteins. Each enzyme is specific for the substrate (a reactant that binds to an enzyme) it acts on. The enzyme may help in breakdown, rearrangement, or synthesis reactions. Enzymes that break down their substrates are called catabolic enzymes, enzymes that build more complex molecules from their substrates are called anabolic enzymes, and enzymes that affect the rate of reaction are called catalytic enzymes. It should be noted that all enzymes increase the rate of reaction and, therefore, are considered to be organic catalysts. An example of an enzyme is salivary amylase, which hydrolyzes its substrate amylose, a component of starch. Hormones are chemical-signaling molecules, usually small proteins or steroids, secreted by endocrine cells that act to control or regulate specific physiological processes, including growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction. For example, insulin is a protein hormone that helps to regulate the blood glucose level. The primary types and functions of proteins are listed in Table. \| Protein Types and Functions \| \|\| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Type \| Examples \| Functions \| \| Digestive Enzymes \| Amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin \| Help in digestion of food by catabolizing nutrients into monomeric units \| \| Transport \| Hemoglobin, albumin \| Carry substances in the blood or lymph throughout the body \| \| Structural \| Actin, tubulin, keratin \| Construct different structures, like the cytoskeleton \| \| Hormones \| Insulin, thyroxine \| Coordinate the activity of different body systems \| \| Defense \| Immunoglobulins \| Protect the body from foreign pathogens \| \| Contractile \| Actin, myosin \| Effect muscle contraction \| \| Storage \| Legume storage proteins, egg white (albumin) \| Provide nourishment in early development of the embryo and the seedling \| Proteins have different shapes and molecular weights; some proteins are globular in shape whereas others are fibrous in nature. For example, hemoglobin is a globular protein, but collagen, found in our skin, is a fibrous protein. Protein shape is critical to its function, and this shape is maintained by many different types of chemical bonds. Changes in temperature, pH, and exposure to chemicals may lead to permanent changes in the shape of the protein, leading to loss of function, known as denaturation. All proteins are made up of different arrangements of the same 20 types of amino acids. Amino Acids Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins. Each amino acid has the same fundamental structure, which consists of a central carbon atom, also known as the alpha (α) carbon, bonded to an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), and to a hydrogen atom. Every amino acid also has another atom or group of atoms bonded to the central atom known as the R group (Figure). The name "amino acid" is derived from the fact that they contain both amino group and carboxyl-acid-group in their basic structure. As mentioned, there are 20 amino acids present in proteins. Ten of these are considered essential amino acids in humans because the human body cannot produce them and they are obtained from the diet. For each amino acid, the R group (or side chain) is different (Figure). Art Connection Which categories of amino acid would you expect to find on the surface of a soluble protein, and which would you expect to find in the interior? What distribution of amino acids would you expect to find in a protein embedded in a lipid bilayer? The chemical nature of the side chain determines the nature of the amino acid (that is, whether it is acidic, basic, polar, or nonpolar). For example, the amino acid glycine has a hydrogen atom as the R group. Amino acids such as valine, methionine, and alanine are nonpolar or hydrophobic in nature, while amino acids such as serine, threonine, and cysteine are polar and have hydrophilic side chains. The side chains of lysine and arginine are positively charged, and therefore these amino acids are also known as basic amino acids. Proline has an R group that is linked to the amino group, forming a ring-like structure. Proline is an exception to the standard structure of an animo acid since its amino group is not separate from the side chain (Figure). Amino acids are represented by a single upper case letter or a three-letter abbreviation. For example, valine is known by the letter V or the three-letter symbol val. Just as some fatty acids are essential to a diet, some amino acids are necessary as well. They are known as essential amino acids, and in humans they include isoleucine, leucine, and cysteine. Essential amino acids refer to those necessary for construction of proteins in the body, although not produced by the body; which amino acids are essential varies from organism to organism. The sequence and the number of amino acids ultimately determine the protein's shape, size, and function. Each amino acid is attached to another amino acid by a covalent bond, known as a peptide bond, which is formed by a dehydration reaction. The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of the incoming amino acid combine, releasing a molecule of water. The resulting bond is the peptide bond (Figure). The products formed by such linkages are called peptides. As more amino acids join to this growing chain, the resulting chain is known as a polypeptide. Each polypeptide has a free amino group at one end. This end is called the N terminal, or the amino terminal, and the other end has a free carboxyl group, also known as the C or carboxyl terminal. While the terms polypeptide and protein are sometimes used interchangeably, a polypeptide is technically a polymer of amino acids, whereas the term protein is used for a polypeptide or polypeptides that have combined together, often have bound non-peptide prosthetic groups, have a distinct shape, and have a unique function. After protein synthesis (translation), most proteins are modified. These are known as post-translational modifications. They may undergo cleavage, phosphorylation, or may require the addition of other chemical groups. Only after these modifications is the protein completely functional. Link to Learning Click through the steps of protein synthesis in this interactive tutorial. Evolution Connection The Evolutionary Significance of Cytochrome cCytochrome c is an important component of the electron transport chain, a part of cellular respiration, and it is normally found in the cellular organelle, the mitochondrion. This protein has a heme prosthetic group, and the central ion of the heme gets alternately reduced and oxidized during electron transfer. Because this essential protein’s role in producing cellular energy is crucial, it has changed very little over millions of years. Protein sequencing has shown that there is a considerable amount of cytochrome c amino acid sequence homology among different species; in other words, evolutionary kinship can be assessed by measuring the similarities or differences among various species’ DNA or protein sequences. Scientists have determined that human cytochrome c contains 104 amino acids. For each cytochrome c molecule from different organisms that has been sequenced to date, 37 of these amino acids appear in the same position in all samples of cytochrome c. This indicates that there may have been a common ancestor. On comparing the human and chimpanzee protein sequences, no sequence difference was found. When human and rhesus monkey sequences were compared, the single difference found was in one amino acid. In another comparison, human to yeast sequencing shows a difference in the 44th position. Protein Structure As discussed earlier, the shape of a protein is critical to its function. For example, an enzyme can bind to a specific substrate at a site known as the active site. If this active site is altered because of local changes or changes in overall protein structure, the enzyme may be unable to bind to the substrate. To understand how the protein gets its final shape or conformation, we need to understand the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Primary Structure The unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is its primary structure. For example, the pancreatic hormone insulin has two polypeptide chains, A and B, and they are linked together by disulfide bonds. The N terminal amino acid of the A chain is glycine, whereas the C terminal amino acid is asparagine (Figure). The sequences of amino acids in the A and B chains are unique to insulin. The unique sequence for every protein is ultimately determined by the gene encoding the protein. A change in nucleotide sequence of the gene’s coding region may lead to a different amino acid being added to the growing polypeptide chain, causing a change in protein structure and function. In sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin β chain (a small portion of which is shown in Figure) has a single amino acid substitution, causing a change in protein structure and function. Specifically, the amino acid glutamic acid is substituted by valine in the β chain. What is most remarkable to consider is that a hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha chains and two beta chains that each consist of about 150 amino acids. The molecule, therefore, has about 600 amino acids. The structural difference between a normal hemoglobin molecule and a sickle cell molecule—which dramatically decreases life expectancy—is a single amino acid of the 600. What is even more remarkable is that those 600 amino acids are encoded by three nucleotides each, and the mutation is caused by a single base change (point mutation), 1 in 1800 bases. Because of this change of one amino acid in the chain, hemoglobin molecules form long fibers that distort the biconcave, or disc-shaped, red blood cells and assume a crescent or “sickle” shape, which clogs arteries (Figure). This can lead to myriad serious health problems such as breathlessness, dizziness, headaches, and abdominal pain for those affected by this disease. Secondary Structure The local folding of the polypeptide in some regions gives rise to the secondary structure of the protein. The most common are the α-helix and β-pleated sheet structures (Figure). Both structures are the α-helix structure—the helix held in shape by hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen bonds form between the oxygen atom in the carbonyl group in one amino acid and another amino acid that is four amino acids farther along the chain. Every helical turn in an alpha helix has 3.6 amino acid residues. The R groups (the variant groups) of the polypeptide protrude out from the α-helix chain. In the β-pleated sheet, the “pleats” are formed by hydrogen bonding between atoms on the backbone of the polypeptide chain. The R groups are attached to the carbons and extend above and below the folds of the pleat. The pleated segments align parallel or antiparallel to each other, and hydrogen bonds form between the partially positive nitrogen atom in the amino group and the partially negative oxygen atom in the carbonyl group of the peptide backbone. The α-helix and β-pleated sheet structures are found in most globular and fibrous proteins and they play an important structural role. Tertiary Structure The unique three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide is its tertiary structure (Figure). This structure is in part due to chemical interactions at work on the polypeptide chain. Primarily, the interactions among R groups creates the complex three-dimensional tertiary structure of a protein. The nature of the R groups found in the amino acids involved can counteract the formation of the hydrogen bonds described for standard secondary structures. For example, R groups with like charges are repelled by each other and those with unlike charges are attracted to each other (ionic bonds). When protein folding takes place, the hydrophobic R groups of nonpolar amino acids lay in the interior of the protein, whereas the hydrophilic R groups lay on the outside. The former types of interactions are also known as hydrophobic interactions. Interaction between cysteine side chains forms disulfide linkages in the presence of oxygen, the only covalent bond forming during protein folding. All of these interactions, weak and strong, determine the final three-dimensional shape of the protein. When a protein loses its three-dimensional shape, it may no longer be functional. Quaternary Structure In nature, some proteins are formed from several polypeptides, also known as subunits, and the interaction of these subunits forms the quaternary structure. Weak interactions between the subunits help to stabilize the overall structure. For example, insulin (a globular protein) has a combination of hydrogen bonds and disulfide bonds that cause it to be mostly clumped into a ball shape. Insulin starts out as a single polypeptide and loses some internal sequences in the presence of post-translational modification after the formation of the disulfide linkages that hold the remaining chains together. Silk (a fibrous protein), however, has a β-pleated sheet structure that is the result of hydrogen bonding between different chains. The four levels of protein structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary) are illustrated in Figure. Denaturation and Protein Folding Each protein has its own unique sequence and shape that are held together by chemical interactions. If the protein is subject to changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to chemicals, the protein structure may change, losing its shape without losing its primary sequence in what is known as denaturation. Denaturation is often reversible because the primary structure of the polypeptide is conserved in the process if the denaturing agent is removed, allowing the protein to resume its function. Sometimes denaturation is irreversible, leading to loss of function. One example of irreversible protein denaturation is when an egg is fried. The albumin protein in the liquid egg white is denatured when placed in a hot pan. Not all proteins are denatured at high temperatures; for instance, bacteria that survive in hot springs have proteins that function at temperatures close to boiling. The stomach is also very acidic, has a low pH, and denatures proteins as part of the digestion process; however, the digestive enzymes of the stomach retain their activity under these conditions. Protein folding is critical to its function. It was originally thought that the proteins themselves were responsible for the folding process. Only recently was it found that often they receive assistance in the folding process from protein helpers known as chaperones (or chaperonins) that associate with the target protein during the folding process. They act by preventing aggregation of polypeptides that make up the complete protein structure, and they disassociate from the protein once the target protein is folded. Link to Learning For an additional perspective on proteins, view this animation called “Biomolecules: The Proteins.” Section Summary Proteins are a class of macromolecules that perform a diverse range of functions for the cell. They help in metabolism by providing structural support and by acting as enzymes, carriers, or hormones. The building blocks of proteins (monomers) are amino acids. Each amino acid has a central carbon that is linked to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and an R group or side chain. There are 20 commonly occurring amino acids, each of which differs in the R group. Each amino acid is linked to its neighbors by a peptide bond. A long chain of amino acids is known as a polypeptide. Proteins are organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and (optional) quaternary. The primary structure is the unique sequence of amino acids. The local folding of the polypeptide to form structures such as the α helix and β-pleated sheet constitutes the secondary structure. The overall three-dimensional structure is the tertiary structure. When two or more polypeptides combine to form the complete protein structure, the configuration is known as the quaternary structure of a protein. Protein shape and function are intricately linked; any change in shape caused by changes in temperature or pH may lead to protein denaturation and a loss in function. Art Connections Figure Which categories of amino acid would you expect to find on the surface of a soluble protein, and which would you expect to find in the interior? What distribution of amino acids would you expect to find in a protein embedded in a lipid bilayer? Hint: Figure Polar and charged amino acid residues (the remainder after peptide bond formation) are more likely to be found on the surface of soluble proteins where they can interact with water, and nonpolar (e.g., amino acid side chains) are more likely to be found in the interior where they are sequestered from water. In membrane proteins, nonpolar and hydrophobic amino acid side chains associate with the hydrophobic tails of phospholipids, while polar and charged amino acid side chains interact with the polar head groups or with the aqueous solution. However, there are exceptions. Sometimes, positively and negatively charged amino acid side chains interact with one another in the interior of a protein, and polar or charged amino acid side chains that interact with a ligand can be found in the ligand binding pocket. Review Questions The monomers that make up proteins are called ________. - nucleotides - disaccharides - amino acids - chaperones Hint: C The α helix and the β-pleated sheet are part of which protein structure? - primary - secondary - tertiary - quaternary Hint: B Free Response Explain what happens if even one amino acid is substituted for another in a polypeptide chain. Provide a specific example. Hint: A change in gene sequence can lead to a different amino acid being added to a polypeptide chain instead of the normal one. This causes a change in protein structure and function. For example, in sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin β chain has a single amino acid substitution—the amino acid glutamic acid in position six is substituted by valine. Because of this change, hemoglobin molecules form aggregates, and the disc-shaped red blood cells assume a crescent shape, which results in serious health problems. Describe the differences in the four protein structures. Hint: The sequence and number of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is its primary structure. The local folding of the polypeptide in some regions is the secondary structure of the protein. The three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide is known as its tertiary structure, created in part by chemical interactions such as hydrogen bonds between polar side chains, van der Waals interactions, disulfide linkages, and hydrophobic interactions. Some proteins are formed from multiple polypeptides, also known as subunits, and the interaction of these subunits forms the quaternary structure.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.556115	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14947/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14948/overview	Nucleic Acids Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the structure of nucleic acids and define the two types of nucleic acids - Explain the structure and role of DNA - Explain the structure and roles of RNA Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions for the functioning of the cell. DNA and RNA The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals. It is found in the nucleus of eukaryotes and in the organelles, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. In prokaryotes, the DNA is not enclosed in a membranous envelope. The entire genetic content of a cell is known as its genome, and the study of genomes is genomics. In eukaryotic cells but not in prokaryotes, DNA forms a complex with histone proteins to form chromatin, the substance of eukaryotic chromosomes. A chromosome may contain tens of thousands of genes. Many genes contain the information to make protein products; other genes code for RNA products. DNA controls all of the cellular activities by turning the genes “on” or “off.” The other type of nucleic acid, RNA, is mostly involved in protein synthesis. The DNA molecules never leave the nucleus but instead use an intermediary to communicate with the rest of the cell. This intermediary is the messenger RNA (mRNA). Other types of RNA—like rRNA, tRNA, and microRNA—are involved in protein synthesis and its regulation. DNA and RNA are made up of monomers known as nucleotides. The nucleotides combine with each other to form a polynucleotide, DNA or RNA. Each nucleotide is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose (five-carbon) sugar, and a phosphate group (Figure). Each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide is attached to a sugar molecule, which is attached to one or more phosphate groups. The nitrogenous bases, important components of nucleotides, are organic molecules and are so named because they contain carbon and nitrogen. They are bases because they contain an amino group that has the potential of binding an extra hydrogen, and thus, decreases the hydrogen ion concentration in its environment, making it more basic. Each nucleotide in DNA contains one of four possible nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G) cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Adenine and guanine are classified as purines. The primary structure of a purine is two carbon-nitrogen rings. Cytosine, thymine, and uracil are classified as pyrimidines which have a single carbon-nitrogen ring as their primary structure (Figure). Each of these basic carbon-nitrogen rings has different functional groups attached to it. In molecular biology shorthand, the nitrogenous bases are simply known by their symbols A, T, G, C, and U. DNA contains A, T, G, and C whereas RNA contains A, U, G, and C. The pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, and in RNA, the sugar is ribose (Figure). The difference between the sugars is the presence of the hydroxyl group on the second carbon of the ribose and hydrogen on the second carbon of the deoxyribose. The carbon atoms of the sugar molecule are numbered as 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′, and 5′ (1′ is read as “one prime”). The phosphate residue is attached to the hydroxyl group of the 5′ carbon of one sugar and the hydroxyl group of the 3′ carbon of the sugar of the next nucleotide, which forms a 5′–3′ phosphodiester linkage. The phosphodiester linkage is not formed by simple dehydration reaction like the other linkages connecting monomers in macromolecules: its formation involves the removal of two phosphate groups. A polynucleotide may have thousands of such phosphodiester linkages. DNA Double-Helix Structure DNA has a double-helix structure (Figure). The sugar and phosphate lie on the outside of the helix, forming the backbone of the DNA. The nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior, like the steps of a staircase, in pairs; the pairs are bound to each other by hydrogen bonds. Every base pair in the double helivx is separated from the next base pair by 0.34 nm. The two strands of the helix run in opposite directions, meaning that the 5′ carbon end of one strand will face the 3′ carbon end of its matching strand. (This is referred to as antiparallel orientation and is important to DNA replication and in many nucleic acid interactions.) Only certain types of base pairing are allowed. For example, a certain purine can only pair with a certain pyrimidine. This means A can pair with T, and G can pair with C, as shown in Figure. This is known as the base complementary rule. In other words, the DNA strands are complementary to each other. If the sequence of one strand is AATTGGCC, the complementary strand would have the sequence TTAACCGG. During DNA replication, each strand is copied, resulting in a daughter DNA double helix containing one parental DNA strand and a newly synthesized strand. Art Connection A mutation occurs, and cytosine is replaced with adenine. What impact do you think this will have on the DNA structure? RNA Ribonucleic acid, or RNA, is mainly involved in the process of protein synthesis under the direction of DNA. RNA is usually single-stranded and is made of ribonucleotides that are linked by phosphodiester bonds. A ribonucleotide in the RNA chain contains ribose (the pentose sugar), one of the four nitrogenous bases (A, U, G, and C), and the phosphate group. There are four major types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and microRNA (miRNA). The first, mRNA, carries the message from DNA, which controls all of the cellular activities in a cell. If a cell requires a certain protein to be synthesized, the gene for this product is turned “on” and the messenger RNA is synthesized in the nucleus. The RNA base sequence is complementary to the coding sequence of the DNA from which it has been copied. However, in RNA, the base T is absent and U is present instead. If the DNA strand has a sequence AATTGCGC, the sequence of the complementary RNA is UUAACGCG. In the cytoplasm, the mRNA interacts with ribosomes and other cellular machinery (Figure). The mRNA is read in sets of three bases known as codons. Each codon codes for a single amino acid. In this way, the mRNA is read and the protein product is made. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a major constituent of ribosomes on which the mRNA binds. The rRNA ensures the proper alignment of the mRNA and the ribosomes; the rRNA of the ribosome also has an enzymatic activity (peptidyl transferase) and catalyzes the formation of the peptide bonds between two aligned amino acids. Transfer RNA (tRNA) is one of the smallest of the four types of RNA, usually 70–90 nucleotides long. It carries the correct amino acid to the site of protein synthesis. It is the base pairing between the tRNA and mRNA that allows for the correct amino acid to be inserted in the polypeptide chain. microRNAs are the smallest RNA molecules and their role involves the regulation of gene expression by interfering with the expression of certain mRNA messages. Table summarizes features of DNA and RNA. \| Features of DNA and RNA \| \|\| \|---\|---\|---\| \| DNA \| RNA \| \| \| Function \| Carries genetic information \| Involved in protein synthesis \| \| Location \| Remains in the nucleus \| Leaves the nucleus \| \| Structure \| Double helix \| Usually single-stranded \| \| Sugar \| Deoxyribose \| Ribose \| \| Pyrimidines \| Cytosine, thymine \| Cytosine, uracil \| \| Purines \| Adenine, guanine \| Adenine, guanine \| Even though the RNA is single stranded, most RNA types show extensive intramolecular base pairing between complementary sequences, creating a predictable three-dimensional structure essential for their function. As you have learned, information flow in an organism takes place from DNA to RNA to protein. DNA dictates the structure of mRNA in a process known as transcription, and RNA dictates the structure of protein in a process known as translation. This is known as the Central Dogma of Life, which holds true for all organisms; however, exceptions to the rule occur in connection with viral infections. Link to Learning To learn more about DNA, explore the Howard Hughes Medical Institute BioInteractive animations on the topic of DNA. Section Summary Nucleic acids are molecules made up of nucleotides that direct cellular activities such as cell division and protein synthesis. Each nucleotide is made up of a pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. DNA carries the genetic blueprint of the cell and is passed on from parents to offspring (in the form of chromosomes). It has a double-helical structure with the two strands running in opposite directions, connected by hydrogen bonds, and complementary to each other. RNA is single-stranded and is made of a pentose sugar (ribose), a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. RNA is involved in protein synthesis and its regulation. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is copied from the DNA, is exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, and contains information for the construction of proteins. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a part of the ribosomes at the site of protein synthesis, whereas transfer RNA (tRNA) carries the amino acid to the site of protein synthesis. microRNA regulates the use of mRNA for protein synthesis. Art Connections Figure A mutation occurs, and cytosine is replaced with adenine. What impact do you think this will have on the DNA structure? Hint: Figure Adenine is larger than cytosine and will not be able to base pair properly with the guanine on the opposing strand. This will cause the DNA to bulge. DNA repair enzymes may recognize the bulge and replace the incorrect nucleotide. Review Questions A nucleotide of DNA may contain ________. - ribose, uracil, and a phosphate group - deoxyribose, uracil, and a phosphate group - deoxyribose, thymine, and a phosphate group - ribose, thymine, and a phosphate group Hint: C The building blocks of nucleic acids are ________. - sugars - nitrogenous bases - peptides - nucleotides Hint: D Free Response What are the structural differences between RNA and DNA? Hint: DNA has a double-helix structure. The sugar and the phosphate are on the outside of the helix and the nitrogenous bases are in the interior. The monomers of DNA are nucleotides containing deoxyribose, one of the four nitrogenous bases (A, T, G and C), and a phosphate group. RNA is usually single-stranded and is made of ribonucleotides that are linked by phosphodiester linkages. A ribonucleotide contains ribose (the pentose sugar), one of the four nitrogenous bases (A,U, G, and C), and the phosphate group. What are the four types of RNA and how do they function? Hint: The four types of RNA are messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA, and microRNA. Messenger RNA carries the information from the DNA that controls all cellular activities. The mRNA binds to the ribosomes that are constructed of proteins and rRNA, and tRNA transfers the correct amino acid to the site of protein synthesis. microRNA regulates the availability of mRNA for translation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.586836	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/14948/overview", "title": "Biology, The Chemistry of Life", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78295/overview	Education Standards Track the Claim.docx Dis/Information Overview In a world of 24-hour news cycles, social media, and deep fakes it is difficult to discern what is true, what is opinion, and what is out-right false. The ability and habit of fact-checking information is increasingly important in light of recent global health crises and upcoming elections. This course will cover strategies for identifying misleading media, fact-checking news, and engaging in critical discussions about the information that we consume and share. This course is designed to dicussion-based and focused on personal reflection and practice. This course was created for the Honors Program at NC State University Overview & Syllabus Description This course engages students in the many ways that information is created, shared, and can be interpreted. Topics will include infographics, cyber security, news, news bots, cookies and online tracking, digital privacy, and more. Learning Outcomes Students will critically analyze media and news content and sources Students will utilize tools and methods to fact check online information Students will evaluate how data is collected, analyzed, and represented to tell a story. Students will consider the impacts of online tracking of personal data Students will discuss the risks and ethics of engaging on social media Students will utilize library resources for research and fact-checking Structure This course consists of 8 sessions that challenge students to critically and thoughtfully engage with mediated information. Students will be introduced to concepts that will help them decode and interpret the validity of news and other information sources. Through discussion and individual and/or group activities, course sessions will invite students to take an active role in building a foundation of best practices that can serve as a model for their peers and others. Resources and Expenses There are no textbooks or costs associated with this course. All readings and other required media will be provided electronically. Topic 1: Introduction. What is media? What is bias? Overview The constant stream of news and other media is often overwhelming and can feel like background noise. With the constant bombardment of catchy headlines and click bait, we may not always think about the sources of the information that we consume and share. In class we will discuss some of the following questions: Where do you get your news and other media? How much news media do you feel like you encounter every day? Do you believe everything you read? Do you share media with friends and family? In this first class, we will review the course syllabus, assignments and expectations. We will also begin to examine the two major themes of the course - media and bias. Suggested Discussion and Activities - Introductions (instructors & students) - Pre-assessment survey - What is media? - Students offer ideas on Padlet - Class discussion about definitions - What is bias? - Discuss confirmation bias Media Mindfulness Log assignment Objectives Gain awareness of personal media habits Reflect on where and how you encounter media Instructions Make a copy of this template in Google Sheets Save it with a new name following this format : Lastname_MML Share the Google Sheets with the instructors Update your spreadsheet each week with at least 3 entries Topic 2: Fake News Overview The phrase “fake news” comes up a lot these days. But what makes news or any other media “fake” or “true?” In this class we will discuss ways to investigate articles to verify or debunk the information presented and go through some fun fact-checking activities. We will also discuss how bias impacts news. Learning Objectives - Understand the history and concept of “fake news” - Discuss the ways people find and receive news - Develop strategies for identifying misinformation Suggested Readings - Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science), 359(6380), 1146-1151. doi:10.1126/science.aap9559 - Lichter, S. R. (2017). Theories of media bias. (1st ed., ) Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199793471.013.44_update_001 - Caulfield, M. (2017). Four Moves. In Web Literacy for Student Fact-Checkers. Self-published. https://webliteracy.pressbooks.com/chapter/four-strategies/ - Oatmeal Comic (Comic) - How To Identify Misinformation (And Disinformation) About The Protests (Podcast) Assignments Suggested Discussions and Activities - Discussion - Small group discussions (15 min) - 3 breakout rooms - identify someone to take notes and be the spokesperson. Summarize discussion in 1-2 minutes - Question 1: What is the difference between opinion and bias? (5 min) - Is bias and opinion necessary for understanding? For persuasion? - How does emotion and logic play into all of this? - Are objectivity and bias mutually exclusive? Is it possible to be full one or the other? - Question 1: What is the difference between opinion and bias? (5 min) - Large group share (5 min) - Question 2: Who is responsible for stopping the spread of misinformation? (5 min) - How can we be sure that fact checkers themselves are making the right decisions? - Are bots the answer to combating the spread of fake news? - Question 2: Who is responsible for stopping the spread of misinformation? (5 min) - Large group share (5 min) - Review Fake News Timeline - Fake News Game Topic 3: Visual Dis/Information Overview Visual information–images, video, diagrams, and data visualization– are powerful tools for illustrating ideas, proving a point, and quickly imparting the meaning of a complex concept. Like all other media, images and data visualizations are created and edited by humans. In class, we will view examples of misleading data visualizations and discuss best practices for creating and presenting visual information in a way that does not mislead. Learning Objectives - Critically view and discuss the impacts of photographs and images on new media. - Understand how data and statistics can tell a story. - View data visualizations critically and analyze how the information is presented. - Identify common components of infographics and utilize best practices for design. Suggested Readings - Hameleers, M., Powell, T. E., Van Der Meer, Toni G.L.A, & Bos, L. (2020). A picture paints a thousand lies? the effects and mechanisms of multimodal disinformation and rebuttals disseminated via social media. Political Communication, 37(2), 281-301. doi:10.1080/10584609.2019.1674979 - Brennen, J. S., Simon, F. M., & Nielsen, R. K. (2021). Beyond (Mis)Representation: Visuals in COVID-19 Misinformation. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 26(1), 277–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161220964780 - 3. On Rational, Scientific, Objective Viewpoints from Mythical, Imaginary, Impossible Standpoints. (2020). In Data Feminism. Open Access link - TEDTalk by David McCandless (Video) - The Beauty of Data Visualization - TEDTalk by Mona Chalabi (Video) - 3 Ways to Spot a Bad Statistics - Alternate link (Video) to YouTube version. Assignments - Media Mindfulness Log Submission #2 - Multimodal Meme Analysis - Finding and Evaluating Data Visualization in the Wild (optional) Suggested Discussion and Activities - Multimodal Disinformation - share an example from the readings or find something more current - Data Discussion - Data - What is data? - How can data be biased? - Depending on answers, ask for examples from students. - Accidental bias (surveyed only people they know), purposeful bias (small survey size, survey hosted on a politically aligned site), bias prevention (double-blind surveys) - Data representation - Small groups look at different visualizations made from the same data. Example from NYT. - Data - Asynchronous module on Data Visualization created by Natalia Lopez. - Link to editable Google Form (make a copy to share with your students) Topic 4: Online Security and Privacy Overview The ways by which particular articles, news, and ads show up online are often hidden. Sometimes it feels like your phone might be listening in on conversations, or that ads follow you from site to site. In this class, we will uncover and discuss how every action online is captured, monitored, and monetized to improve services and sell products. We will also go over practical, every day tips for privacy and security online. Learning Objectives - Gain broad understanding about the issues of online privacy and security - Develop deep understanding about a specific issue related to online privacy and security - Create an infographic to help communicate understanding to other students. Suggested Readings - Garcia-Rivadulla, S. (2016). Personalization vs. privacy: An inevitable trade-off? IFLA Journal, 42(3), 227-238. doi:10.1177/0340035216662890. - Your Security Plan(opens in new window) - Electronic Frontier Foundation - ReplyAll #109 Is Facebook Spying on You? (opens in new window)(Podcast) - All the Ways Facebook Tracks You – and How to Limit It(opens in new window) (Article) - WIRED Assignments Activity Students present infographics to the class. Topic 5: Social Media This is how we structured the debate, but you will want to adapt depending on the class size and time. - All groups prepare (15 minutes) - Question 1: - Group 1 (Yes) present the case (5 minutes) - Group 2 (No) present the case (5 minutes) - Groups discuss (3 minutes) - Group 1 rebuttal (3 minutes) - Group 2 rebuttal (3 minutes) --2 minute break -- - Question 2: - Group 3 (Yes) present your case (5 minutes) - Group 4 (No) present your case (5 minutes) - Groups discuss (3 minutes) - Group 1 rebuttal (3 minutes) - Group 2 rebuttal (3 minutes) - Large Group discusssion/wrap up (5 min) Overview Social Media platforms have become a primary aggregate and source of news and other information. In class, we will discuss and critically examine the ways in which Social Media shapes how information is shared and received. We will have a structured debate about whether or not social media companies should be responsible for regulating the spread of misinformation. Learning Objectives - Gain awareness of the development and history of social media - Understand the business model of social media - Understand social media’s role in sharing and consuming information/misinformation - Analyze and discuss the value of social media on personal, community, national, and global levels - Analyze and discuss the risks of social media on personal, community, national, and global levels Suggested Readings: - Valenzuela, S., Halpern, D., Katz, J., & Miranda, J. (2019). The paradox of participation versus misinformation: Social media, political engagement, and the spread of misinformation. Digital Journalism, 7(6), 802-823. doi:10.1080/21670811.2019.1623701 - Boukes, M. (2019). Social network sites and acquiring current affairs knowledge: The impact of Twitter and Facebook usage on learning about news. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 16(1), 36-51. doi:10.1080/19331681.2019.1572568 - Smyth, S. M. (2012). The new social media paradox: A symbol of self-determination or a boon for big brother? International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 6(1), 924. Link - What obligation do social media platforms have to the greater good? (Video) Ted Talk by Eli Pariser Assignments Suggested Discussion and Activities - Timeline of Social Media History - Discussion - Looking at the timeline, is there anything that is surprising to you about the (brief) history of social media? - What year did you start using social media? - What was the first form of social media you started using? - When you were younger, were there any restrictions on social media use? - Currently, do you impose any restrictions on your own social media use? Why or why not? - Debate: (30 minutes) - Form groups to debate the pro/con of each question - Topics/Questions: - Round 1: Should social media companies be responsible for regulating fake news and misinformation? - Round 2: Should social media companies be allowed to collect so much personal data? - Discussion Topic 7: Bias in Information Systems Overview The human influence on the infrastructure and pathways through which information travels online is often hidden. However, humans (and all of their biases) build the algorithms and artificial intelligence that drive and shape the way information is shared, discovered, and retrieved. For our penultimate class, we will examine and discuss how the systems used to organize and mechanically disseminate information can have unintended bias built in. We will look at examples from libraries and also review strategies and skills for accessing library resources and conducting research. Learning Objectives - Identify and discuss bias in information systems - Understand how to locate research through the Libraries Suggested Readings - Drabinski, E. (2013). Queering the catalog: Queer theory and the politics of correction. The Library Quarterly, 83(2), 94-111. doi:10.1086/669547 - Noble, S. U. (2013). Google Search: Hyper-visibility as a Means of Rendering Black Women and Girls Invisible. InVisible Culture: Issue 19. - Watch: Ain’t I a Woman (Video) Suggested Discussion and Activities - Bias in Library Systems - Dewey Decimal System - Religion section - LGBT subject placement - Dewey Decimal System - Discussion - Does neutrality and objectivity wihtin technology (AI) exist? - How can it be achieved? - What can be done? Final Project: Track the Claim! Final Project - Track the Claim Overview Many news articles and other media items make claims about historical events, official reports, and scholarly research. Phrases such as “a new study shows” and “according to researchers” leads readers to believe that the claim is true as presented. For this final project, be a critical detective and track a claim to its source. Objectives Demonstrate an ability to research a claim Synthesize research in an analysis Demonstrate communication skills through a multimedia presentation Instructions Find a recent news article or other media item that makes a claim. Through links, footnotes, and additional searching, trace the claim to the original (or near-original) source. Keep track of all articles and sources that you find related to that claim. Using Library databases and Google Scholar, look for scholarly research articles that support, refute, or relate to the claim. In total, collect 7 or more sources. 3 of the sources must be peer-reviewed scholarly research. Write a critical analysis of the claim using 7 or more sources. Present the claim and your analysis in a 5 minute multimedia presentation. Components Works Cited Draft Submit a draft of your Works Cited page, or bibliography. Use APA citation guidelines. If there is another citation style that you’d prefer to use based on your major, please indicate that at the top of your Works Cited. Multimedia Presentation (5 minutes) Create a multimedia presentation that walks the class through your detective’s journey to track the source of the claim. The presentation should include at least 2 different multimedia elements, such as images, audio, video, etc., and can be delivered in any format (PowerPoint, video, website). You have the option to present this live or recorded. Written analysis (3 page minimum, 6 page maximum) Present the claim and associated articles in a written analysis. The analysis needs to be 3-6 pages plus a bibliography. Your analysis should consider how accurately the claim is represented in your sources and incorporate the concepts covered in class. All of the sources in the bibliography should be integrated and correctly cited within the analysis. Use APA citation guidelines, unless you make a case for another citation style. Grading Rubric Criteria \| 4 points \| 3 points \| 2 points \| 1 points \| 0 points \| Topic \| The paper focuses on a single claim/topic that is relevant and interesting. The claim is clearly presented in the introduction. \| The paper focuses on a single claim/topic that is relevant and clearly stated. \| The paper presents a claim/topic that is interesting, but not clearly stated. \| The paper does not focus on a single claim, but presents multiple claims and is unfocused. \| No submission \| Analysis \| Demonstrated understanding of concepts learned in the course. Concepts are integrated with the writer’s own insights. The paper concludes with remarks that show analysis and synthesis of ideas. \| Demonstrates understanding of the concepts learned in the course. Concepts are present and partially integrated with the writer’s own insights. \| Demonstrates partial understanding of the concepts learned in the course. \| The paper does not demonstrate that the author has fully understood and applied concepts learned in the course. \| No submission \| Cohesiveness \| Ties together information from all sources. Paper flows from one issue to the next without the need for headings. Author's writing demonstrates an understanding of the relationship among material obtained from all sources. \| For the most part, ties together information from all sources. Paper flows with only some disjointedness. Author's writing demonstrates an understanding of the relationship among material obtained from all sources. \| Sometimes ties together information from all sources. Paper does not flow - disjointedness is apparent. Author's writing does not demonstrate an understanding of the relationship among material obtained from all sources. \| Does not tie together information. Paper does not flow and appears to be created from disparate issues. Headings are necessary to link concepts. Writing does not demonstrate understanding any relationships \| No submission \| Spelling and Grammar \| No spelling &/or grammar mistakes. \| Minimal spelling &/or grammar mistakes. \| Noticeable spelling & grammar mistakes. \| Unacceptable number of spelling and/or grammar mistakes. \| No submission \| Sources \| 7 or more sources related to the same claim are all present and cited in the paper. 3 of the 7 are peer-reviewed research articles. \| 5-7 sources related to the same claim. Includes 2 peer-reviewed research articles. \| Fewer than 5 sources. Includes 1 peer-reviewed research article. \| Fewer than 5 sources. No scholarly research articles. \| No submission \| Citations \| Cites all sources listed in bibliography. APA citation style is used in both text and bibliography. \| Cites most sources. APA citation style is used in both text and bibliography. \| Cites some sources. Citation style is either inconsistent or incorrect. \| Does not cite sources. \| No submission \| Multimedia \| The presentation utilizes more than two multimedia elements (ie audio, video, images) that are relevant to the topic. \| The presentation utilizes two multimedia elements that are relevant to the topic. \| The presentation utilizes one multimedia element that is relevant to the topic. \| The presentation utilizes one or more multimedia elements that are not relevant to the topic. \| No submission \| Visual presentation \| The visual elements of the presentation are appropriate, cohesive, and appealing. The font and colors are legible. All visual elements support and enrich the analysis. \| The visual elements of the presentation are appropriate and appealing. Font and colors are legible. \| Font and colors are legible. The visual elements are appealing. \| Inappropriate use of visual elements. Font and colors distract from the content. \| No submission \| Oral presentation \| The oral presentation is practiced and delivered clearly and confidently with minimal use of notes and pauses. \| The oral presentation is delivered clearly and confidently with minimal use of notes and pauses. \| The oral presentation is delivered with the use of notes and pauses. \| The oral presentation is unpracticed and lacks cohesion. \| No submission \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.664483	Lesson Plan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78295/overview", "title": "Dis/Information", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15298/overview	Introduction Overview This chapter covers: Why is Research Important? Approaches to Research Analyzing Findings Ethics For more information, visit OpenStax College. Have you ever wondered whether the violence you see on television affects your behavior? Are you more likely to behave aggressively in real life after watching people behave violently in dramatic situations on the screen? Or, could seeing fictional violence actually get aggression out of your system, causing you to be more peaceful? How are children influenced by the media they are exposed to? A psychologist interested in the relationship between behavior and exposure to violent images might ask these very questions. The topic of violence in the media today is contentious. Since ancient times, humans have been concerned about the effects of new technologies on our behaviors and thinking processes. The Greek philosopher Socrates, for example, worried that writing—a new technology at that time—would diminish people’s ability to remember because they could rely on written records rather than committing information to memory. In our world of quickly changing technologies, questions about the effects of media continue to emerge. Many of us find ourselves with a strong opinion on these issues, only to find the person next to us bristling with the opposite view. How can we go about finding answers that are supported not by mere opinion, but by evidence that we can all agree on? The findings of psychological research can help us navigate issues like this. References American Academy of Pediatrics, American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, American Psychological Association, American Medical Association, American Academy of Family Physicians, American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Joint statement on the impact of entertainment violence on children. Retrieved from http://www2.aap.org/advocacy/releases/jstmtevc.htm. American Cancer Society. (n.d.). History of the cancer prevention studies. Retrieved from http://www.cancer.org/research/researchtopreventcancer/history-cancer-prevention-study American Psychological Association. (2009). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Research with animals in psychology. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/research/responsible/research-animals.pdf Arnett, J. (2008). The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American. American Psychologist, 63(7), 602–614. Barton, B. A., Eldridge, A. L., Thompson, D., Affenito, S. G., Striegel-Moore, R. H., Franko, D. L., . . . Crockett, S. J. (2005). The relationship of breakfast and cereal consumption to nutrient intake and body mass index: The national heart, lung, and blood institute growth and health study. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 105(9), 1383–1389. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2005.06.003 Chwalisz, K., Diener, E., & Gallagher, D. (1988). Autonomic arousal feedback and emotional experience: Evidence from the spinal cord injured. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 820–828. Clayton, R. R., Cattarello, A. M., & Johnstone, B. M. (1996). The effectiveness of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (Project DARE): 5-year follow-up results. Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice and Theory, 25(3), 307–318. doi:10.1006/pmed.1996.0061 D.A.R.E. (n.d.). D.A.R.E. is substance abuse prevention education and much more! [About page] Retrieved from http://www.dare.org/about-d-a-r-e/ Dominus, S. (2011, May 25). Could conjoined twins share a mind? New York Times Sunday Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/29/magazine/could-conjoined-twins-share-a-mind.html?_r=5&hp& Ennett, S. T., Tobler, N. S., Ringwalt, C. L., & Flewelling, R. L. (1994). How effective is drug abuse resistance education? A meta-analysis of Project DARE outcome evaluations. American Journal of Public Health, 84(9), 1394–1401. doi:10.2105/AJPH.84.9.1394 Fanger, S. M., Frankel, L. A., & Hazen, N. (2012). Peer exclusion in preschool children’s play: Naturalistic observations in a playground setting. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 58, 224–254. Fiedler, K. (2004). Illusory correlation. In R. F. Pohl (Ed.), Cognitive illusions: A handbook on fallacies and biases in thinking, judgment and memory (pp. 97–114). New York, NY: Psychology Press. Frantzen, L. B., Treviño, R. P., Echon, R. M., Garcia-Dominic, O., & DiMarco, N. (2013). Association between frequency of ready-to-eat cereal consumption, nutrient intakes, and body mass index in fourth- to sixth-grade low-income minority children. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 113(4), 511–519. Harper, J. (2013, July 5). Ice cream and crime: Where cold cuisine and hot disputes intersect. The Times-Picaune. Retrieved from http://www.nola.com/crime/index.ssf/2013/07/ice_cream_and_crime_where_hot.html Jenkins, W. J., Ruppel, S. E., Kizer, J. B., Yehl, J. L., & Griffin, J. L. (2012). An examination of post 9-11 attitudes towards Arab Americans. North American Journal of Psychology, 14, 77–84. Jones, J. M. (2013, May 13). Same-sex marriage support solidifies above 50% in U.S. Gallup Politics. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/162398/sex-marriage-support-solidifies-above.aspx Kobrin, J. L., Patterson, B. F., Shaw, E. J., Mattern, K. D., & Barbuti, S. M. (2008). Validity of the SAT for predicting first-year college grade point average (Research Report No. 2008-5). Retrieved from https://research.collegeboard.org/sites/default/files/publications/2012/7/researchreport-2008-5-validity-sat-predicting-first-year-college-grade-point-average.pdf Lewin, T. (2014, March 5). A new SAT aims to realign with schoolwork. New York Times. Retreived from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/06/education/major-changes-in-sat-announced-by-college-board.html. Lowcock, E. C., Cotterchio, M., Anderson, L. N., Boucher, B. A., & El-Sohemy, A. (2013). High coffee intake, but not caffeine, is associated with reduced estrogen receptor negative and postmenopausal breast cancer risk with no effect modification by CYP1A2 genotype. Nutrition and Cancer, 65(3), 398–409. doi:10.1080/01635581.2013.768348 Lowry, M., Dean, K., & Manders, K. (2010). The link between sleep quantity and academic performance for the college student. Sentience: The University of Minnesota Undergraduate Journal of Psychology, 3(Spring), 16–19. Retrieved from http://www.psych.umn.edu/sentience/files/SENTIENCE_Vol3.pdf Lynam, D. R., Milich, R., Zimmerman, R., Novak, S. P., Logan, T. K., Martin, C., . . . Clayton, R. (1999). Project DARE: No effects at 10-year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(4), 590–593. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.67.4.590 McKie, R. (2010, June 26). Chimps with everything: Jane Goodall’s 50 years in the jungle. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/jun/27/jane-goodall-chimps-africa-interview Offit, P. (2008). Autism's false prophets: Bad science, risky medicine, and the search for a cure. New York: Columbia University Press. Perkins, H. W., Haines, M. P., & Rice, R. (2005). Misperceiving the college drinking norm and related problems: A nationwide study of exposure to prevention information, perceived norms and student alcohol misuse. J. Stud. Alcohol, 66(4), 470–478. Rimer, S. (2008, September 21). College panel calls for less focus on SATs. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/22/education/22admissions.html?_r=0 Ringwalt, C., Ennett, S. T., & Holt, K. D. (1991). An outcome evaluation of Project DARE (Drug Abuse Resistance Education). Health Education Research, 6(3), 327–337. doi:10.1093/her/6.3.327 Rothstein, J. M. (2004). College performance predictions and the SAT. Journal of Econometrics, 121, 297–317. Rotton, J., & Kelly, I. W. (1985). Much ado about the full moon: A meta-analysis of lunar-lunacy research. Psychological Bulletin, 97(2), 286–306. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.97.2.286 Santelices, M. V., & Wilson, M. (2010). Unfair treatment? The case of Freedle, the SAT, and the standardization approach to differential item functioning. Harvard Education Review, 80, 106–134. Sears, D. O. (1986). College sophomores in the laboratory: Influences of a narrow data base on social psychology’s view of human nature. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 515–530. Tuskegee University. (n.d.). About the USPHS Syphilis Study. Retrieved from http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/centers_of_excellence/bioethics_center/about_the_usphs_syphilis_study.aspx.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.688657	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15298/overview", "title": "Psychology, Psychological Research", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15299/overview	Why Is Research Important? Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain how scientific research addresses questions about behavior - Discuss how scientific research guides public policy - Appreciate how scientific research can be important in making personal decisions Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims. At various times in history, we would have been certain that the sun revolved around a flat earth, that the earth’s continents did not move, and that mental illness was caused by possession (Figure). It is through systematic scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world. The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical: It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing. While behavior is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we can see behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes we can learn the reason for someone’s behavior by simply asking a question, like “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly, or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior. This chapter explores how scientific knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain. USE OF RESEARCH INFORMATION Trying to determine which theories are and are not accepted by the scientific community can be difficult, especially in an area of research as broad as psychology. More than ever before, we have an incredible amount of information at our fingertips, and a simple internet search on any given research topic might result in a number of contradictory studies. In these cases, we are witnessing the scientific community going through the process of reaching a consensus, and it could be quite some time before a consensus emerges. For example, the hypothesized link between exposure to media violence and subsequent aggression has been debated in the scientific community for roughly 60 years. Even today, we will find detractors, but a consensus is building. Several professional organizations view media violence exposure as a risk factor for actual violence, including the American Medical Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the American Psychological Association (American Academy of Pediatrics, American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, American Psychological Association, American Medical Association, American Academy of Family Physicians, American Psychiatric Association, 2000). In the meantime, we should strive to think critically about the information we encounter by exercising a degree of healthy skepticism. When someone makes a claim, we should examine the claim from a number of different perspectives: what is the expertise of the person making the claim, what might they gain if the claim is valid, does the claim seem justified given the evidence, and what do other researchers think of the claim? This is especially important when we consider how much information in advertising campaigns and on the internet claims to be based on “scientific evidence” when in actuality it is a belief or perspective of just a few individuals trying to sell a product or draw attention to their perspectives. We should be informed consumers of the information made available to us because decisions based on this information have significant consequences. One such consequence can be seen in politics and public policy. Imagine that you have been elected as the governor of your state. One of your responsibilities is to manage the state budget and determine how to best spend your constituents’ tax dollars. As the new governor, you need to decide whether to continue funding the D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) program in public schools (Figure). This program typically involves police officers coming into the classroom to educate students about the dangers of becoming involved with alcohol and other drugs. According to the D.A.R.E. website (www.dare.org), this program has been very popular since its inception in 1983, and it is currently operating in 75% of school districts in the United States and in more than 40 countries worldwide. Sounds like an easy decision, right? However, on closer review, you discover that the vast majority of research into this program consistently suggests that participation has little, if any, effect on whether or not someone uses alcohol or other drugs (Clayton, Cattarello, & Johnstone, 1996; Ennett, Tobler, Ringwalt, & Flewelling, 1994; Lynam et al., 1999; Ringwalt, Ennett, & Holt, 1991). If you are committed to being a good steward of taxpayer money, will you fund this particular program, or will you try to find other programs that research has consistently demonstrated to be effective? Watch this news report to learn more about some of the controversial issues surrounding the D.A.R.E. program. Ultimately, it is not just politicians who can benefit from using research in guiding their decisions. We all might look to research from time to time when making decisions in our lives. Imagine you just found out that a close friend has breast cancer or that one of your young relatives has recently been diagnosed with autism. In either case, you want to know which treatment options are most successful with the fewest side effects. How would you find that out? You would probably talk with your doctor and personally review the research that has been done on various treatment options—always with a critical eye to ensure that you are as informed as possible. In the end, research is what makes the difference between facts and opinions. Facts are observable realities, and opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. In the scientific community, facts can be established only using evidence collected through empirical research. THE PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method. Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular. The types of reasoning within the circle are called deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning, ideas are tested against the empirical world; in inductive reasoning, empirical observations lead to new ideas (Figure). These processes are inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive aspects. In the scientific context, deductive reasoning begins with a generalization—one hypothesis—that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world. If the hypothesis is correct, then the logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct. A deductive reasoning argument might go something like this: All living things require energy to survive (this would be your hypothesis). Ducks are living things. Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion). In this example, the hypothesis is correct; therefore, the conclusion is correct as well. Sometimes, however, an incorrect hypothesis may lead to a logical but incorrect conclusion. Consider this argument: all ducks are born with the ability to see. Quackers is a duck. Therefore, Quackers was born with the ability to see. Scientists use deductive reasoning to empirically test their hypotheses. Returning to the example of the ducks, researchers might design a study to test the hypothesis that if all living things require energy to survive, then ducks will be found to require energy to survive. Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization that is tested against real-world observations; however, inductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction. Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based. For instance, you may notice that your favorite fruits—apples, bananas, and oranges—all grow on trees; therefore, you assume that all fruit must grow on trees. This would be an example of inductive reasoning, and, clearly, the existence of strawberries, blueberries, and kiwi demonstrate that this generalization is not correct despite it being based on a number of direct observations. Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate theories, which in turn generate hypotheses that are tested with deductive reasoning. In the end, science involves both deductive and inductive processes. For example, case studies, which you will read about in the next section, are heavily weighted on the side of empirical observations. Thus, case studies are closely associated with inductive processes as researchers gather massive amounts of observations and seek interesting patterns (new ideas) in the data. Experimental research, on the other hand, puts great emphasis on deductive reasoning. Play this “Deal Me In” interactive card game to practice using inductive reasoning. We’ve stated that theories and hypotheses are ideas, but what sort of ideas are they, exactly? A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory. A hypothesis is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests Figure. To see how this process works, let’s consider a specific theory and a hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. As you’ll learn in a later chapter, the James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state. If you walked out of your home and discovered a very aggressive snake waiting on your doorstep, your heart would begin to race and your stomach churn. According to the James-Lange theory, these physiological changes would result in your feeling of fear. A hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might be that a person who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the snake elicits will not feel fear. A scientific hypothesis is also falsifiable, or capable of being shown to be incorrect. Recall from the introductory chapter that Sigmund Freud had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors (Figure). However, a major criticism of Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable; for example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three elements of personality described in Freud’s theories. Despite this, Freud’s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy. In contrast, the James-Lange theory does generate falsifiable hypotheses, such as the one described above. Some individuals who suffer significant injuries to their spinal columns are unable to feel the bodily changes that often accompany emotional experiences. Therefore, we could test the hypothesis by determining how emotional experiences differ between individuals who have the ability to detect these changes in their physiological arousal and those who do not. In fact, this research has been conducted and while the emotional experiences of people deprived of an awareness of their physiological arousal may be less intense, they still experience emotion (Chwalisz, Diener, & Gallagher, 1988). Scientific research’s dependence on falsifiability allows for great confidence in the information that it produces. Typically, by the time information is accepted by the scientific community, it has been tested repeatedly. Visit this website to apply the scientific method and practice its steps by using them to solve a murder mystery, determine why a student is in trouble, and design an experiment to test house paint. Summary Scientists are engaged in explaining and understanding how the world around them works, and they are able to do so by coming up with theories that generate hypotheses that are testable and falsifiable. Theories that stand up to their tests are retained and refined, while those that do not are discarded or modified. In this way, research enables scientists to separate fact from simple opinion. Having good information generated from research aids in making wise decisions both in public policy and in our personal lives. Review Questions Scientific hypotheses are ________ and falsifiable. - observable - original - provable - testable Hint: D ________ are defined as observable realities. - behaviors - facts - opinions - theories Hint: B Scientific knowledge is ________. - intuitive - empirical - permanent - subjective Hint: B A major criticism of Freud’s early theories involves the fact that his theories ________. - were too limited in scope - were too outrageous - were too broad - were not testable Hint: D Critical Thinking Questions In this section, the D.A.R.E. program was described as an incredibly popular program in schools across the United States despite the fact that research consistently suggests that this program is largely ineffective. How might one explain this discrepancy? Hint: There is probably tremendous political pressure to appear to be hard on drugs. Therefore, even though D.A.R.E. might be ineffective, it is a well-known program with which voters are familiar. The scientific method is often described as self-correcting and cyclical. Briefly describe your understanding of the scientific method with regard to these concepts. Hint: This cyclical, self-correcting process is primarily a function of the empirical nature of science. Theories are generated as explanations of real-world phenomena. From theories, specific hypotheses are developed and tested. As a function of this testing, theories will be revisited and modified or refined to generate new hypotheses that are again tested. This cyclical process ultimately allows for more and more precise (and presumably accurate) information to be collected. Personal Application Questions Healthcare professionals cite an enormous number of health problems related to obesity, and many people have an understandable desire to attain a healthy weight. There are many diet programs, services, and products on the market to aid those who wish to lose weight. If a close friend was considering purchasing or participating in one of these products, programs, or services, how would you make sure your friend was fully aware of the potential consequences of this decision? What sort of information would you want to review before making such an investment or lifestyle change yourself?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.719785	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15299/overview", "title": "Psychology, Psychological Research", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15300/overview	Approaches to Research Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the different research methods used by psychologists - Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, and archival research - Compare longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to research There are many research methods available to psychologists in their efforts to understand, describe, and explain behavior and the cognitive and biological processes that underlie it. Some methods rely on observational techniques. Other approaches involve interactions between the researcher and the individuals who are being studied—ranging from a series of simple questions to extensive, in-depth interviews—to well-controlled experiments. Each of these research methods has unique strengths and weaknesses, and each method may only be appropriate for certain types of research questions. For example, studies that rely primarily on observation produce incredible amounts of information, but the ability to apply this information to the larger population is somewhat limited because of small sample sizes. Survey research, on the other hand, allows researchers to easily collect data from relatively large samples. While this allows for results to be generalized to the larger population more easily, the information that can be collected on any given survey is somewhat limited and subject to problems associated with any type of self-reported data. Some researchers conduct archival research by using existing records. While this can be a fairly inexpensive way to collect data that can provide insight into a number of research questions, researchers using this approach have no control on how or what kind of data was collected. All of the methods described thus far are correlational in nature. This means that researchers can speak to important relationships that might exist between two or more variables of interest. However, correlational data cannot be used to make claims about cause-and-effect relationships. Correlational research can find a relationship between two variables, but the only way a researcher can claim that the relationship between the variables is cause and effect is to perform an experiment. In experimental research, which will be discussed later in this chapter, there is a tremendous amount of control over variables of interest. While this is a powerful approach, experiments are often conducted in very artificial settings. This calls into question the validity of experimental findings with regard to how they would apply in real-world settings. In addition, many of the questions that psychologists would like to answer cannot be pursued through experimental research because of ethical concerns. CLINICAL OR CASE STUDIES In 2011, the New York Times published a feature story on Krista and Tatiana Hogan, Canadian twin girls. These particular twins are unique because Krista and Tatiana are conjoined twins, connected at the head. There is evidence that the two girls are connected in a part of the brain called the thalamus, which is a major sensory relay center. Most incoming sensory information is sent through the thalamus before reaching higher regions of the cerebral cortex for processing. To learn more about Krista and Tatiana, watch this New York Times video about their lives. The implications of this potential connection mean that it might be possible for one twin to experience the sensations of the other twin. For instance, if Krista is watching a particularly funny television program, Tatiana might smile or laugh even if she is not watching the program. This particular possibility has piqued the interest of many neuroscientists who seek to understand how the brain uses sensory information. These twins represent an enormous resource in the study of the brain, and since their condition is very rare, it is likely that as long as their family agrees, scientists will follow these girls very closely throughout their lives to gain as much information as possible (Dominus, 2011). In observational research, scientists are conducting a clinical or case study when they focus on one person or just a few individuals. Indeed, some scientists spend their entire careers studying just 10–20 individuals. Why would they do this? Obviously, when they focus their attention on a very small number of people, they can gain a tremendous amount of insight into those cases. The richness of information that is collected in clinical or case studies is unmatched by any other single research method. This allows the researcher to have a very deep understanding of the individuals and the particular phenomenon being studied. If clinical or case studies provide so much information, why are they not more frequent among researchers? As it turns out, the major benefit of this particular approach is also a weakness. As mentioned earlier, this approach is often used when studying individuals who are interesting to researchers because they have a rare characteristic. Therefore, the individuals who serve as the focus of case studies are not like most other people. If scientists ultimately want to explain all behavior, focusing attention on such a special group of people can make it difficult to generalize any observations to the larger population as a whole. Generalizing refers to the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society. Again, case studies provide enormous amounts of information, but since the cases are so specific, the potential to apply what’s learned to the average person may be very limited. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION If you want to understand how behavior occurs, one of the best ways to gain information is to simply observe the behavior in its natural context. However, people might change their behavior in unexpected ways if they know they are being observed. How do researchers obtain accurate information when people tend to hide their natural behavior? As an example, imagine that your professor asks everyone in your class to raise their hand if they always wash their hands after using the restroom. Chances are that almost everyone in the classroom will raise their hand, but do you think hand washing after every trip to the restroom is really that universal? This is very similar to the phenomenon mentioned earlier in this chapter: many individuals do not feel comfortable answering a question honestly. But if we are committed to finding out the facts about hand washing, we have other options available to us. Suppose we send a classmate into the restroom to actually watch whether everyone washes their hands after using the restroom. Will our observer blend into the restroom environment by wearing a white lab coat, sitting with a clipboard, and staring at the sinks? We want our researcher to be inconspicuous—perhaps standing at one of the sinks pretending to put in contact lenses while secretly recording the relevant information. This type of observational study is called naturalistic observation: observing behavior in its natural setting. To better understand peer exclusion, Suzanne Fanger collaborated with colleagues at the University of Texas to observe the behavior of preschool children on a playground. How did the observers remain inconspicuous over the duration of the study? They equipped a few of the children with wireless microphones (which the children quickly forgot about) and observed while taking notes from a distance. Also, the children in that particular preschool (a “laboratory preschool”) were accustomed to having observers on the playground (Fanger, Frankel, & Hazen, 2012). It is critical that the observer be as unobtrusive and as inconspicuous as possible: when people know they are being watched, they are less likely to behave naturally. If you have any doubt about this, ask yourself how your driving behavior might differ in two situations: In the first situation, you are driving down a deserted highway during the middle of the day; in the second situation, you are being followed by a police car down the same deserted highway (Figure). It should be pointed out that naturalistic observation is not limited to research involving humans. Indeed, some of the best-known examples of naturalistic observation involve researchers going into the field to observe various kinds of animals in their own environments. As with human studies, the researchers maintain their distance and avoid interfering with the animal subjects so as not to influence their natural behaviors. Scientists have used this technique to study social hierarchies and interactions among animals ranging from ground squirrels to gorillas. The information provided by these studies is invaluable in understanding how those animals organize socially and communicate with one another. The anthropologist Jane Goodall, for example, spent nearly five decades observing the behavior of chimpanzees in Africa (Figure). As an illustration of the types of concerns that a researcher might encounter in naturalistic observation, some scientists criticized Goodall for giving the chimps names instead of referring to them by numbers—using names was thought to undermine the emotional detachment required for the objectivity of the study (McKie, 2010). The greatest benefit of naturalistic observation is the validity, or accuracy, of information collected unobtrusively in a natural setting. Having individuals behave as they normally would in a given situation means that we have a higher degree of ecological validity, or realism, than we might achieve with other research approaches. Therefore, our ability to generalize the findings of the research to real-world situations is enhanced. If done correctly, we need not worry about people or animals modifying their behavior simply because they are being observed. Sometimes, people may assume that reality programs give us a glimpse into authentic human behavior. However, the principle of inconspicuous observation is violated as reality stars are followed by camera crews and are interviewed on camera for personal confessionals. Given that environment, we must doubt how natural and realistic their behaviors are. The major downside of naturalistic observation is that they are often difficult to set up and control. In our restroom study, what if you stood in the restroom all day prepared to record people’s hand washing behavior and no one came in? Or, what if you have been closely observing a troop of gorillas for weeks only to find that they migrated to a new place while you were sleeping in your tent? The benefit of realistic data comes at a cost. As a researcher you have no control of when (or if) you have behavior to observe. In addition, this type of observational research often requires significant investments of time, money, and a good dose of luck. Sometimes studies involve structured observation. In these cases, people are observed while engaging in set, specific tasks. An excellent example of structured observation comes from Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth (you will read more about this in the chapter on lifespan development). The Strange Situation is a procedure used to evaluate attachment styles that exist between an infant and caregiver. In this scenario, caregivers bring their infants into a room filled with toys. The Strange Situation involves a number of phases, including a stranger coming into the room, the caregiver leaving the room, and the caregiver’s return to the room. The infant’s behavior is closely monitored at each phase, but it is the behavior of the infant upon being reunited with the caregiver that is most telling in terms of characterizing the infant’s attachment style with the caregiver. Another potential problem in observational research is observer bias. Generally, people who act as observers are closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations. To protect against this type of bias, researchers should have clear criteria established for the types of behaviors recorded and how those behaviors should be classified. In addition, researchers often compare observations of the same event by multiple observers, in order to test inter-rater reliability: a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers. SURVEYS Often, psychologists develop surveys as a means of gathering data. Surveys are lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally (Figure). Generally, the survey itself can be completed in a short time, and the ease of administering a survey makes it easy to collect data from a large number of people. Surveys allow researchers to gather data from larger samples than may be afforded by other research methods. A sample is a subset of individuals selected from a population, which is the overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in. Researchers study the sample and seek to generalize their findings to the population. There is both strength and weakness of the survey in comparison to case studies. By using surveys, we can collect information from a larger sample of people. A larger sample is better able to reflect the actual diversity of the population, thus allowing better generalizability. Therefore, if our sample is sufficiently large and diverse, we can assume that the data we collect from the survey can be generalized to the larger population with more certainty than the information collected through a case study. However, given the greater number of people involved, we are not able to collect the same depth of information on each person that would be collected in a case study. Another potential weakness of surveys is something we touched on earlier in this chapter: People don't always give accurate responses. They may lie, misremember, or answer questions in a way that they think makes them look good. For example, people may report drinking less alcohol than is actually the case. Any number of research questions can be answered through the use of surveys. One real-world example is the research conducted by Jenkins, Ruppel, Kizer, Yehl, and Griffin (2012) about the backlash against the US Arab-American community following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Jenkins and colleagues wanted to determine to what extent these negative attitudes toward Arab-Americans still existed nearly a decade after the attacks occurred. In one study, 140 research participants filled out a survey with 10 questions, including questions asking directly about the participant’s overt prejudicial attitudes toward people of various ethnicities. The survey also asked indirect questions about how likely the participant would be to interact with a person of a given ethnicity in a variety of settings (such as, “How likely do you think it is that you would introduce yourself to a person of Arab-American descent?”). The results of the research suggested that participants were unwilling to report prejudicial attitudes toward any ethnic group. However, there were significant differences between their pattern of responses to questions about social interaction with Arab-Americans compared to other ethnic groups: they indicated less willingness for social interaction with Arab-Americans compared to the other ethnic groups. This suggested that the participants harbored subtle forms of prejudice against Arab-Americans, despite their assertions that this was not the case (Jenkins et al., 2012). ARCHIVAL RESEARCH Some researchers gain access to large amounts of data without interacting with a single research participant. Instead, they use existing records to answer various research questions. This type of research approach is known as archival research. Archival research relies on looking at past records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships. For example, a researcher might access the academic records of all individuals who enrolled in college within the past ten years and calculate how long it took them to complete their degrees, as well as course loads, grades, and extracurricular involvement. Archival research could provide important information about who is most likely to complete their education, and it could help identify important risk factors for struggling students (Figure). In comparing archival research to other research methods, there are several important distinctions. For one, the researcher employing archival research never directly interacts with research participants. Therefore, the investment of time and money to collect data is considerably less with archival research. Additionally, researchers have no control over what information was originally collected. Therefore, research questions have to be tailored so they can be answered within the structure of the existing data sets. There is also no guarantee of consistency between the records from one source to another, which might make comparing and contrasting different data sets problematic. LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH Sometimes we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. When we test the same group of individuals repeatedly over an extended period of time, we are conducting longitudinal research. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time. For example, we may survey a group of individuals about their dietary habits at age 20, retest them a decade later at age 30, and then again at age 40. Another approach is cross-sectional research. In cross-sectional research, a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time. Using the dietary habits example above, the researcher might directly compare different groups of people by age. Instead a group of people for 20 years to see how their dietary habits changed from decade to decade, the researcher would study a group of 20-year-old individuals and compare them to a group of 30-year-old individuals and a group of 40-year-old individuals. While cross-sectional research requires a shorter-term investment, it is also limited by differences that exist between the different generations (or cohorts) that have nothing to do with age per se, but rather reflect the social and cultural experiences of different generations of individuals make them different from one another. To illustrate this concept, consider the following survey findings. In recent years there has been significant growth in the popular support of same-sex marriage. Many studies on this topic break down survey participants into different age groups. In general, younger people are more supportive of same-sex marriage than are those who are older (Jones, 2013). Does this mean that as we age we become less open to the idea of same-sex marriage, or does this mean that older individuals have different perspectives because of the social climates in which they grew up? Longitudinal research is a powerful approach because the same individuals are involved in the research project over time, which means that the researchers need to be less concerned with differences among cohorts affecting the results of their study. Often longitudinal studies are employed when researching various diseases in an effort to understand particular risk factors. Such studies often involve tens of thousands of individuals who are followed for several decades. Given the enormous number of people involved in these studies, researchers can feel confident that their findings can be generalized to the larger population. The Cancer Prevention Study-3 (CPS-3) is one of a series of longitudinal studies sponsored by the American Cancer Society aimed at determining predictive risk factors associated with cancer. When participants enter the study, they complete a survey about their lives and family histories, providing information on factors that might cause or prevent the development of cancer. Then every few years the participants receive additional surveys to complete. In the end, hundreds of thousands of participants will be tracked over 20 years to determine which of them develop cancer and which do not. Clearly, this type of research is important and potentially very informative. For instance, earlier longitudinal studies sponsored by the American Cancer Society provided some of the first scientific demonstrations of the now well-established links between increased rates of cancer and smoking (American Cancer Society, n.d.) (Figure). As with any research strategy, longitudinal research is not without limitations. For one, these studies require an incredible time investment by the researcher and research participants. Given that some longitudinal studies take years, if not decades, to complete, the results will not be known for a considerable period of time. In addition to the time demands, these studies also require a substantial financial investment. Many researchers are unable to commit the resources necessary to see a longitudinal project through to the end. Research participants must also be willing to continue their participation for an extended period of time, and this can be problematic. People move, get married and take new names, get ill, and eventually die. Even without significant life changes, some people may simply choose to discontinue their participation in the project. As a result, the attrition rates, or reduction in the number of research participants due to dropouts, in longitudinal studies are quite high and increases over the course of a project. For this reason, researchers using this approach typically recruit many participants fully expecting that a substantial number will drop out before the end. As the study progresses, they continually check whether the sample still represents the larger population, and make adjustments as necessary. Summary The clinical or case study involves studying just a few individuals for an extended period of time. While this approach provides an incredible depth of information, the ability to generalize these observations to the larger population is problematic. Naturalistic observation involves observing behavior in a natural setting and allows for the collection of valid, true-to-life information from realistic situations. However, naturalistic observation does not allow for much control and often requires quite a bit of time and money to perform. Researchers strive to ensure that their tools for collecting data are both reliable (consistent and replicable) and valid (accurate). Surveys can be administered in a number of ways and make it possible to collect large amounts of data quickly. However, the depth of information that can be collected through surveys is somewhat limited compared to a clinical or case study. Archival research involves studying existing data sets to answer research questions. Longitudinal research has been incredibly helpful to researchers who need to collect data on how people change over time. Cross-sectional research compares multiple segments of a population at a single time. Review Questions Sigmund Freud developed his theory of human personality by conducting in-depth interviews over an extended period of time with a few clients. This type of research approach is known as a(n): ________. - archival research - case study - naturalistic observation - survey Hint: B ________ involves observing behavior in individuals in their natural environments. - archival research - case study - naturalistic observation - survey Hint: C The major limitation of case studies is ________. - the superficial nature of the information collected in this approach - the lack of control that the researcher has in this approach - the inability to generalize the findings from this approach to the larger population - the absence of inter-rater reliability Hint: C The benefit of naturalistic observation studies is ________. - the honesty of the data that is collected in a realistic setting - how quick and easy these studies are to perform - the researcher’s capacity to make sure that data is collected as efficiently as possible - the ability to determine cause and effect in this particular approach Hint: A Using existing records to try to answer a research question is known as ________. - naturalistic observation - survey research - longitudinal research - archival research Hint: D ________ involves following a group of research participants for an extended period of time. - archival research - longitudinal research - naturalistic observation - cross-sectional research Hint: B A(n) ________ is a list of questions developed by a researcher that can be administered in paper form. - archive - case Study - naturalistic observation - survey Hint: D Longitudinal research is complicated by high rates of ________. - deception - observation - attrition - generalization Hint: C Critical Thinking Questions In this section, conjoined twins, Krista and Tatiana, were described as being potential participants in a case study. In what other circumstances would you think that this particular research approach would be especially helpful and why? Hint: Case studies might prove especially helpful using individuals who have rare conditions. For instance, if one wanted to study multiple personality disorder then the case study approach with individuals diagnosed with multiple personality disorder would be helpful. Presumably, reality television programs aim to provide a realistic portrayal of the behavior displayed by the characters featured in such programs. This section pointed out why this is not really the case. What changes could be made in the way that these programs are produced that would result in more honest portrayals of realistic behavior? Hint: The behavior displayed on these programs would be more realistic if the cameras were mounted in hidden locations, or if the people who appear on these programs did not know when they were being recorded. Which of the research methods discussed in this section would be best suited to research the effectiveness of the D.A.R.E. program in preventing the use of alcohol and other drugs? Why? Hint: Longitudinal research would be an excellent approach in studying the effectiveness of this program because it would follow students as they aged to determine if their choices regarding alcohol and drugs were affected by their participation in the program. Aside from biomedical research, what other areas of research could greatly benefit by both longitudinal and archival research? Hint: Answers will vary. Possibilities include research on hiring practices based on human resource records, and research that follows former prisoners to determine if the time that they were incarcerated provided any sort of positive influence on their likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior in the future. Personal Application Questions A friend of yours is working part-time in a local pet store. Your friend has become increasingly interested in how dogs normally communicate and interact with each other, and is thinking of visiting a local veterinary clinic to see how dogs interact in the waiting room. After reading this section, do you think this is the best way to better understand such interactions? Do you have any suggestions that might result in more valid data? As a college student, you are no doubt concerned about the grades that you earn while completing your coursework. If you wanted to know how overall GPA is related to success in life after college, how would you choose to approach this question and what kind of resources would you need to conduct this research?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.763738	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15300/overview", "title": "Psychology, Psychological Research", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15301/overview	Analyzing Findings Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain what a correlation coefficient tells us about the relationship between variables - Recognize that correlation does not indicate a cause-and-effect relationship between variables - Discuss our tendency to look for relationships between variables that do not really exist - Explain random sampling and assignment of participants into experimental and control groups - Discuss how experimenter or participant bias could affect the results of an experiment - Identify independent and dependent variables Did you know that as sales in ice cream increase, so does the overall rate of crime? Is it possible that indulging in your favorite flavor of ice cream could send you on a crime spree? Or, after committing crime do you think you might decide to treat yourself to a cone? There is no question that a relationship exists between ice cream and crime (e.g., Harper, 2013), but it would be pretty foolish to decide that one thing actually caused the other to occur. It is much more likely that both ice cream sales and crime rates are related to the temperature outside. When the temperature is warm, there are lots of people out of their houses, interacting with each other, getting annoyed with one another, and sometimes committing crimes. Also, when it is warm outside, we are more likely to seek a cool treat like ice cream. How do we determine if there is indeed a relationship between two things? And when there is a relationship, how can we discern whether it is attributable to coincidence or causation? CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Correlation means that there is a relationship between two or more variables (such as ice cream consumption and crime), but this relationship does not necessarily imply cause and effect. When two variables are correlated, it simply means that as one variable changes, so does the other. We can measure correlation by calculating a statistic known as a correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient is a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. The correlation coefficient is usually represented by the letter r. The number portion of the correlation coefficient indicates the strength of the relationship. The closer the number is to 1 (be it negative or positive), the more strongly related the variables are, and the more predictable changes in one variable will be as the other variable changes. The closer the number is to zero, the weaker the relationship, and the less predictable the relationships between the variables becomes. For instance, a correlation coefficient of 0.9 indicates a far stronger relationship than a correlation coefficient of 0.3. If the variables are not related to one another at all, the correlation coefficient is 0. The example above about ice cream and crime is an example of two variables that we might expect to have no relationship to each other. The sign—positive or negative—of the correlation coefficient indicates the direction of the relationship (Figure). A positive correlation means that the variables move in the same direction. Put another way, it means that as one variable increases so does the other, and conversely, when one variable decreases so does the other. A negative correlation means that the variables move in opposite directions. If two variables are negatively correlated, a decrease in one variable is associated with an increase in the other and vice versa. The example of ice cream and crime rates is a positive correlation because both variables increase when temperatures are warmer. Other examples of positive correlations are the relationship between an individual’s height and weight or the relationship between a person’s age and number of wrinkles. One might expect a negative correlation to exist between someone’s tiredness during the day and the number of hours they slept the previous night: the amount of sleep decreases as the feelings of tiredness increase. In a real-world example of negative correlation, student researchers at the University of Minnesota found a weak negative correlation (r = -0.29) between the average number of days per week that students got fewer than 5 hours of sleep and their GPA (Lowry, Dean, & Manders, 2010). Keep in mind that a negative correlation is not the same as no correlation. For example, we would probably find no correlation between hours of sleep and shoe size. As mentioned earlier, correlations have predictive value. Imagine that you are on the admissions committee of a major university. You are faced with a huge number of applications, but you are able to accommodate only a small percentage of the applicant pool. How might you decide who should be admitted? You might try to correlate your current students’ college GPA with their scores on standardized tests like the SAT or ACT. By observing which correlations were strongest for your current students, you could use this information to predict relative success of those students who have applied for admission into the university. Manipulate this interactive scatterplot to practice your understanding of positive and negative correlation. Correlation Does Not Indicate Causation Correlational research is useful because it allows us to discover the strength and direction of relationships that exist between two variables. However, correlation is limited because establishing the existence of a relationship tells us little about cause and effect. While variables are sometimes correlated because one does cause the other, it could also be that some other factor, a confounding variable, is actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest. In the ice cream/crime rate example mentioned earlier, temperature is a confounding variable that could account for the relationship between the two variables. Even when we cannot point to clear confounding variables, we should not assume that a correlation between two variables implies that one variable causes changes in another. This can be frustrating when a cause-and-effect relationship seems clear and intuitive. Think back to our discussion of the research done by the American Cancer Society and how their research projects were some of the first demonstrations of the link between smoking and cancer. It seems reasonable to assume that smoking causes cancer, but if we were limited to correlational research, we would be overstepping our bounds by making this assumption. Unfortunately, people mistakenly make claims of causation as a function of correlations all the time. Such claims are especially common in advertisements and news stories. For example, recent research found that people who eat cereal on a regular basis achieve healthier weights than those who rarely eat cereal (Frantzen, Treviño, Echon, Garcia-Dominic, & DiMarco, 2013; Barton et al., 2005). Guess how the cereal companies report this finding. Does eating cereal really cause an individual to maintain a healthy weight, or are there other possible explanations, such as, someone at a healthy weight is more likely to regularly eat a healthy breakfast than someone who is obese or someone who avoids meals in an attempt to diet (Figure)? While correlational research is invaluable in identifying relationships among variables, a major limitation is the inability to establish causality. Psychologists want to make statements about cause and effect, but the only way to do that is to conduct an experiment to answer a research question. The next section describes how scientific experiments incorporate methods that eliminate, or control for, alternative explanations, which allow researchers to explore how changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. Illusory Correlations The temptation to make erroneous cause-and-effect statements based on correlational research is not the only way we tend to misinterpret data. We also tend to make the mistake of illusory correlations, especially with unsystematic observations. Illusory correlations, or false correlations, occur when people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists. One well-known illusory correlation is the supposed effect that the moon’s phases have on human behavior. Many people passionately assert that human behavior is affected by the phase of the moon, and specifically, that people act strangely when the moon is full (Figure). There is no denying that the moon exerts a powerful influence on our planet. The ebb and flow of the ocean’s tides are tightly tied to the gravitational forces of the moon. Many people believe, therefore, that it is logical that we are affected by the moon as well. After all, our bodies are largely made up of water. A meta-analysis of nearly 40 studies consistently demonstrated, however, that the relationship between the moon and our behavior does not exist (Rotton & Kelly, 1985). While we may pay more attention to odd behavior during the full phase of the moon, the rates of odd behavior remain constant throughout the lunar cycle. Why are we so apt to believe in illusory correlations like this? Often we read or hear about them and simply accept the information as valid. Or, we have a hunch about how something works and then look for evidence to support that hunch, ignoring evidence that would tell us our hunch is false; this is known as confirmation bias. Other times, we find illusory correlations based on the information that comes most easily to mind, even if that information is severely limited. And while we may feel confident that we can use these relationships to better understand and predict the world around us, illusory correlations can have significant drawbacks. For example, research suggests that illusory correlations—in which certain behaviors are inaccurately attributed to certain groups—are involved in the formation of prejudicial attitudes that can ultimately lead to discriminatory behavior (Fiedler, 2004). CAUSALITY: CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS AND USING THE DATA As you’ve learned, the only way to establish that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables is to conduct a scientific experiment. Experiment has a different meaning in the scientific context than in everyday life. In everyday conversation, we often use it to describe trying something for the first time, such as experimenting with a new hair style or a new food. However, in the scientific context, an experiment has precise requirements for design and implementation. The Experimental Hypothesis In order to conduct an experiment, a researcher must have a specific hypothesis to be tested. As you’ve learned, hypotheses can be formulated either through direct observation of the real world or after careful review of previous research. For example, if you think that children should not be allowed to watch violent programming on television because doing so would cause them to behave more violently, then you have basically formulated a hypothesis—namely, that watching violent television programs causes children to behave more violently. How might you have arrived at this particular hypothesis? You may have younger relatives who watch cartoons featuring characters using martial arts to save the world from evildoers, with an impressive array of punching, kicking, and defensive postures. You notice that after watching these programs for a while, your young relatives mimic the fighting behavior of the characters portrayed in the cartoon (Figure). These sorts of personal observations are what often lead us to formulate a specific hypothesis, but we cannot use limited personal observations and anecdotal evidence to rigorously test our hypothesis. Instead, to find out if real-world data supports our hypothesis, we have to conduct an experiment. Designing an Experiment The most basic experimental design involves two groups: the experimental group and the control group. The two groups are designed to be the same except for one difference— experimental manipulation. The experimental group gets the experimental manipulation—that is, the treatment or variable being tested (in this case, violent TV images)—and the control group does not. Since experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, we can be sure that any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance. In our example of how violent television programming might affect violent behavior in children, we have the experimental group view violent television programming for a specified time and then measure their violent behavior. We measure the violent behavior in our control group after they watch nonviolent television programming for the same amount of time. It is important for the control group to be treated similarly to the experimental group, with the exception that the control group does not receive the experimental manipulation. Therefore, we have the control group watch non-violent television programming for the same amount of time as the experimental group. We also need to precisely define, or operationalize, what is considered violent and nonviolent. An operational definition is a description of how we will measure our variables, and it is important in allowing others understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment. In operationalizing violent behavior, we might choose to count only physical acts like kicking or punching as instances of this behavior, or we also may choose to include angry verbal exchanges. Whatever we determine, it is important that we operationalize violent behavior in such a way that anyone who hears about our study for the first time knows exactly what we mean by violence. This aids peoples’ ability to interpret our data as well as their capacity to repeat our experiment should they choose to do so. Once we have operationalized what is considered violent television programming and what is considered violent behavior from our experiment participants, we need to establish how we will run our experiment. In this case, we might have participants watch a 30-minute television program (either violent or nonviolent, depending on their group membership) before sending them out to a playground for an hour where their behavior is observed and the number and type of violent acts is recorded. Ideally, the people who observe and record the children’s behavior are unaware of who was assigned to the experimental or control group, in order to control for experimenter bias. Experimenter bias refers to the possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study. Remember, conducting an experiment requires a lot of planning, and the people involved in the research project have a vested interest in supporting their hypotheses. If the observers knew which child was in which group, it might influence how much attention they paid to each child’s behavior as well as how they interpreted that behavior. By being blind to which child is in which group, we protect against those biases. This situation is a single-blind study, meaning that one of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control group) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group. In a double-blind study, both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments. Why would a researcher want to run a study where no one knows who is in which group? Because by doing so, we can control for both experimenter and participant expectations. If you are familiar with the phrase placebo effect, you already have some idea as to why this is an important consideration. The placebo effect occurs when people's expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation. In other words, simply expecting something to happen can actually make it happen. The placebo effect is commonly described in terms of testing the effectiveness of a new medication. Imagine that you work in a pharmaceutical company, and you think you have a new drug that is effective in treating depression. To demonstrate that your medication is effective, you run an experiment with two groups: The experimental group receives the medication, and the control group does not. But you don’t want participants to know whether they received the drug or not. Why is that? Imagine that you are a participant in this study, and you have just taken a pill that you think will improve your mood. Because you expect the pill to have an effect, you might feel better simply because you took the pill and not because of any drug actually contained in the pill—this is the placebo effect. To make sure that any effects on mood are due to the drug and not due to expectations, the control group receives a placebo (in this case a sugar pill). Now everyone gets a pill, and once again neither the researcher nor the experimental participants know who got the drug and who got the sugar pill. Any differences in mood between the experimental and control groups can now be attributed to the drug itself rather than to experimenter bias or participant expectations (Figure). Independent and Dependent Variables In a research experiment, we strive to study whether changes in one thing cause changes in another. To achieve this, we must pay attention to two important variables, or things that can be changed, in any experimental study: the independent variable and the dependent variable. An independent variable is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter. In a well-designed experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control groups. In our example of how violent television programs affect children’s display of violent behavior, the independent variable is the type of program—violent or nonviolent—viewed by participants in the study (Figure). A dependent variable is what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had. In our example, the dependent variable is the number of violent acts displayed by the experimental participants. We expect that the dependent variable will change as a function of the independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable. A good way to think about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is with this question: What effect does the independent variable have on the dependent variable? Returning to our example, what effect does watching a half hour of violent television programming or nonviolent television programming have on the number of incidents of physical aggression displayed on the playground? Selecting and Assigning Experimental Participants Now that our study is designed, we need to obtain a sample of individuals to include in our experiment. Our study involves human participants so we need to determine who to include. Participants are the subjects of psychological research, and as the name implies, individuals who are involved in psychological research actively participate in the process. Often, psychological research projects rely on college students to serve as participants. In fact, the vast majority of research in psychology subfields has historically involved students as research participants (Sears, 1986; Arnett, 2008). But are college students truly representative of the general population? College students tend to be younger, more educated, more liberal, and less diverse than the general population. Although using students as test subjects is an accepted practice, relying on such a limited pool of research participants can be problematic because it is difficult to generalize findings to the larger population. Our hypothetical experiment involves children, and we must first generate a sample of child participants. Samples are used because populations are usually too large to reasonably involve every member in our particular experiment (Figure). If possible, we should use a random sample (there are other types of samples, but for the purposes of this chapter, we will focus on random samples). A random sample is a subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Random samples are preferred because if the sample is large enough we can be reasonably sure that the participating individuals are representative of the larger population. This means that the percentages of characteristics in the sample—sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic level, and any other characteristics that might affect the results—are close to those percentages in the larger population. In our example, let’s say we decide our population of interest is fourth graders. But all fourth graders is a very large population, so we need to be more specific; instead we might say our population of interest is all fourth graders in a particular city. We should include students from various income brackets, family situations, races, ethnicities, religions, and geographic areas of town. With this more manageable population, we can work with the local schools in selecting a random sample of around 200 fourth graders who we want to participate in our experiment. In summary, because we cannot test all of the fourth graders in a city, we want to find a group of about 200 that reflects the composition of that city. With a representative group, we can generalize our findings to the larger population without fear of our sample being biased in some way. Now that we have a sample, the next step of the experimental process is to split the participants into experimental and control groups through random assignment. With random assignment, all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group. There is statistical software that will randomly assign each of the fourth graders in the sample to either the experimental or the control group. Random assignment is critical for sound experimental design. With sufficiently large samples, random assignment makes it unlikely that there are systematic differences between the groups. So, for instance, it would be very unlikely that we would get one group composed entirely of males, a given ethnic identity, or a given religious ideology. This is important because if the groups were systematically different before the experiment began, we would not know the origin of any differences we find between the groups: Were the differences preexisting, or were they caused by manipulation of the independent variable? Random assignment allows us to assume that any differences observed between experimental and control groups result from the manipulation of the independent variable. Use this online tool to instantly generate randomized numbers and to learn more about random sampling and assignments. Issues to Consider While experiments allow scientists to make cause-and-effect claims, they are not without problems. True experiments require the experimenter to manipulate an independent variable, and that can complicate many questions that psychologists might want to address. For instance, imagine that you want to know what effect sex (the independent variable) has on spatial memory (the dependent variable). Although you can certainly look for differences between males and females on a task that taps into spatial memory, you cannot directly control a person’s sex. We categorize this type of research approach as quasi-experimental and recognize that we cannot make cause-and-effect claims in these circumstances. Experimenters are also limited by ethical constraints. For instance, you would not be able to conduct an experiment designed to determine if experiencing abuse as a child leads to lower levels of self-esteem among adults. To conduct such an experiment, you would need to randomly assign some experimental participants to a group that receives abuse, and that experiment would be unethical. Interpreting Experimental Findings Once data is collected from both the experimental and the control groups, a statistical analysis is conducted to find out if there are meaningful differences between the two groups. A statistical analysis determines how likely any difference found is due to chance (and thus not meaningful). In psychology, group differences are considered meaningful, or significant, if the odds that these differences occurred by chance alone are 5 percent or less. Stated another way, if we repeated this experiment 100 times, we would expect to find the same results at least 95 times out of 100. The greatest strength of experiments is the ability to assert that any significant differences in the findings are caused by the independent variable. This occurs because random selection, random assignment, and a design that limits the effects of both experimenter bias and participant expectancy should create groups that are similar in composition and treatment. Therefore, any difference between the groups is attributable to the independent variable, and now we can finally make a causal statement. If we find that watching a violent television program results in more violent behavior than watching a nonviolent program, we can safely say that watching violent television programs causes an increase in the display of violent behavior. Reporting Research When psychologists complete a research project, they generally want to share their findings with other scientists. The American Psychological Association (APA) publishes a manual detailing how to write a paper for submission to scientific journals. Unlike an article that might be published in a magazine like Psychology Today, which targets a general audience with an interest in psychology, scientific journals generally publish peer-reviewed journal articles aimed at an audience of professionals and scholars who are actively involved in research themselves. The Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue University can walk you through the APA writing guidelines. A peer-reviewed journal article is read by several other scientists (generally anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter. These peer reviewers provide feedback—to both the author and the journal editor—regarding the quality of the draft. Peer reviewers look for a strong rationale for the research being described, a clear description of how the research was conducted, and evidence that the research was conducted in an ethical manner. They also look for flaws in the study's design, methods, and statistical analyses. They check that the conclusions drawn by the authors seem reasonable given the observations made during the research. Peer reviewers also comment on how valuable the research is in advancing the discipline’s knowledge. This helps prevent unnecessary duplication of research findings in the scientific literature and, to some extent, ensures that each research article provides new information. Ultimately, the journal editor will compile all of the peer reviewer feedback and determine whether the article will be published in its current state (a rare occurrence), published with revisions, or not accepted for publication. Peer review provides some degree of quality control for psychological research. Poorly conceived or executed studies can be weeded out, and even well-designed research can be improved by the revisions suggested. Peer review also ensures that the research is described clearly enough to allow other scientists to replicate it, meaning they can repeat the experiment using different samples to determine reliability. Sometimes replications involve additional measures that expand on the original finding. In any case, each replication serves to provide more evidence to support the original research findings. Successful replications of published research make scientists more apt to adopt those findings, while repeated failures tend to cast doubt on the legitimacy of the original article and lead scientists to look elsewhere. For example, it would be a major advancement in the medical field if a published study indicated that taking a new drug helped individuals achieve a healthy weight without changing their diet. But if other scientists could not replicate the results, the original study’s claims would be questioned. The Vaccine-Autism Myth and Retraction of Published Studies Some scientists have claimed that routine childhood vaccines cause some children to develop autism, and, in fact, several peer-reviewed publications published research making these claims. Since the initial reports, large-scale epidemiological research has suggested that vaccinations are not responsible for causing autism and that it is much safer to have your child vaccinated than not. Furthermore, several of the original studies making this claim have since been retracted. A published piece of work can be rescinded when data is called into question because of falsification, fabrication, or serious research design problems. Once rescinded, the scientific community is informed that there are serious problems with the original publication. Retractions can be initiated by the researcher who led the study, by research collaborators, by the institution that employed the researcher, or by the editorial board of the journal in which the article was originally published. In the vaccine-autism case, the retraction was made because of a significant conflict of interest in which the leading researcher had a financial interest in establishing a link between childhood vaccines and autism (Offit, 2008). Unfortunately, the initial studies received so much media attention that many parents around the world became hesitant to have their children vaccinated (Figure). For more information about how the vaccine/autism story unfolded, as well as the repercussions of this story, take a look at Paul Offit’s book, Autism’s False Prophets: Bad Science, Risky Medicine, and the Search for a Cure. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY Reliability and validity are two important considerations that must be made with any type of data collection. Reliability refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result. In the context of psychological research, this would mean that any instruments or tools used to collect data do so in consistent, reproducible ways. Unfortunately, being consistent in measurement does not necessarily mean that you have measured something correctly. To illustrate this concept, consider a kitchen scale that would be used to measure the weight of cereal that you eat in the morning. If the scale is not properly calibrated, it may consistently under- or overestimate the amount of cereal that’s being measured. While the scale is highly reliable in producing consistent results (e.g., the same amount of cereal poured onto the scale produces the same reading each time), those results are incorrect. This is where validity comes into play. Validity refers to the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure. While any valid measure is by necessity reliable, the reverse is not necessarily true. Researchers strive to use instruments that are both highly reliable and valid. How Valid Is the SAT? Standardized tests like the SAT are supposed to measure an individual’s aptitude for a college education, but how reliable and valid are such tests? Research conducted by the College Board suggests that scores on the SAT have high predictive validity for first-year college students’ GPA (Kobrin, Patterson, Shaw, Mattern, & Barbuti, 2008). In this context, predictive validity refers to the test’s ability to effectively predict the GPA of college freshmen. Given that many institutions of higher education require the SAT for admission, this high degree of predictive validity might be comforting. However, the emphasis placed on SAT scores in college admissions has generated some controversy on a number of fronts. For one, some researchers assert that the SAT is a biased test that places minority students at a disadvantage and unfairly reduces the likelihood of being admitted into a college (Santelices & Wilson, 2010). Additionally, some research has suggested that the predictive validity of the SAT is grossly exaggerated in how well it is able to predict the GPA of first-year college students. In fact, it has been suggested that the SAT’s predictive validity may be overestimated by as much as 150% (Rothstein, 2004). Many institutions of higher education are beginning to consider de-emphasizing the significance of SAT scores in making admission decisions (Rimer, 2008). In 2014, College Board president David Coleman expressed his awareness of these problems, recognizing that college success is more accurately predicted by high school grades than by SAT scores. To address these concerns, he has called for significant changes to the SAT exam (Lewin, 2014). Summary A correlation is described with a correlation coefficient, r, which ranges from -1 to 1. The correlation coefficient tells us about the nature (positive or negative) and the strength of the relationship between two or more variables. Correlations do not tell us anything about causation—regardless of how strong the relationship is between variables. In fact, the only way to demonstrate causation is by conducting an experiment. People often make the mistake of claiming that correlations exist when they really do not. Researchers can test cause-and-effect hypotheses by conducting experiments. Ideally, experimental participants are randomly selected from the population of interest. Then, the participants are randomly assigned to their respective groups. Sometimes, the researcher and the participants are blind to group membership to prevent their expectations from influencing the results. In ideal experimental design, the only difference between the experimental and control groups is whether participants are exposed to the experimental manipulation. Each group goes through all phases of the experiment, but each group will experience a different level of the independent variable: the experimental group is exposed to the experimental manipulation, and the control group is not exposed to the experimental manipulation. The researcher then measures the changes that are produced in the dependent variable in each group. Once data is collected from both groups, it is analyzed statistically to determine if there are meaningful differences between the groups. Psychologists report their research findings in peer-reviewed journal articles. Research published in this format is checked by several other psychologists who serve as a filter separating ideas that are supported by evidence from ideas that are not. Replication has an important role in ensuring the legitimacy of published research. In the long run, only those findings that are capable of being replicated consistently will achieve consensus in the scientific community. Review Questions Height and weight are positively correlated. This means that as height ________ weight ________. - There is no relationship between height and weight. - Usually, the taller someone is, the thinner they are. - Usually, the shorter someone is, the heavier they are. - As height increases, typically weight increases. Hint: D Which of the following correlation coefficients indicates the strongest relationship between two variables? - -.90 - -.50 - +.80 - +.25 Hint: A Which statement best illustrates a negative correlation between the number of hours spent watching TV the week before an exam and the grade on that exam? - Watching too much television leads to poor exam performance. - Smart students watch less television. - Viewing television interferes with a student’s ability to prepare for the upcoming exam. - Students who watch more television perform more poorly on their exams. Hint: D The correlation coefficient indicates the weakest relationship when ________. - it is closest to 0 - it is closest to -1 - it is positive - it is negative Hint: A ________ means that everyone in the population has the same likelihood of being asked to participate in the study. - operationalizing - placebo effect - random assignment - random sampling Hint: D The ________ is controlled by the experimenter, while the ________ represents the information collected and statistically analyzed by the experimenter. - dependent variable; independent variable - independent variable; dependent variable - placebo effect; experimenter bias - experiment bias; placebo effect Hint: B Researchers must ________ important concepts in their studies so others would have a clear understanding of exactly how those concepts were defined. - randomly assign - randomly select - operationalize - generalize Hint: C Sometimes, researchers will administer a(n) ________ to participants in the control group to control for the effects that participant expectation might have on the experiment. - dependent variable - independent variable - statistical analysis - placebo Hint: D Critical Thinking Questions Earlier in this section, we read about research suggesting that there is a correlation between eating cereal and weight. Cereal companies that present this information in their advertisements could lead someone to believe that eating more cereal causes healthy weight. Why would they make such a claim and what arguments could you make to counter this cause-and-effect claim? Hint: The cereal companies are trying to make a profit, so framing the research findings in this way would improve their bottom line. However, it could be that people who forgo more fatty options for breakfast are health conscious and engage in a variety of other behaviors that help them maintain a healthy weight. Recently a study was published in the journal, Nutrition and Cancer, which established a negative correlation between coffee consumption and breast cancer. Specifically, it was found that women consuming more than 5 cups of coffee a day were less likely to develop breast cancer than women who never consumed coffee (Lowcock, Cotterchio, Anderson, Boucher, & El-Sohemy, 2013). Imagine you see a newspaper story about this research that says, “Coffee Protects Against Cancer.” Why is this headline misleading and why would a more accurate headline draw less interest? Hint: Using the word protects seems to suggest causation as a function of correlation. If the headline were more accurate, it would be less interesting because indicating that two things are associated is less powerful than indicating that doing one thing causes a change in the other. Sometimes, true random sampling can be very difficult to obtain. Many researchers make use of convenience samples as an alternative. For example, one popular convenience sample would involve students enrolled in Introduction to Psychology courses. What are the implications of using this sampling technique? Hint: If research is limited to students enrolled in Introduction to Psychology courses, then our ability to generalize to the larger population would be dramatically reduced. One could also argue that students enrolled in Introduction to Psychology courses may not be representative of the larger population of college students at their school, much less the larger general population. Peer review is an important part of publishing research findings in many scientific disciplines. This process is normally conducted anonymously; in other words, the author of the article being reviewed does not know who is reviewing the article, and the reviewers are unaware of the author’s identity. Why would this be an important part of this process? Hint: Anonymity protects against personal biases interfering with the reviewer’s opinion of the research. Allowing the reviewer to remain anonymous would mean that they can be honest in their appraisal of the manuscript without fear of reprisal. Personal Application Questions We all have a tendency to make illusory correlations from time to time. Try to think of an illusory correlation that is held by you, a family member, or a close friend. How do you think this illusory correlation came about and what can be done in the future to combat them? Are there any questions about human or animal behavior that you would really like to answer? Generate a hypothesis and briefly describe how you would conduct an experiment to answer your question.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.815470	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15301/overview", "title": "Psychology, Psychological Research", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15302/overview	Ethics Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss how research involving human subjects is regulated - Summarize the processes of informed consent and debriefing - Explain how research involving animal subjects is regulated Today, scientists agree that good research is ethical in nature and is guided by a basic respect for human dignity and safety. However, as you will read in the feature box, this has not always been the case. Modern researchers must demonstrate that the research they perform is ethically sound. This section presents how ethical considerations affect the design and implementation of research conducted today. RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN PARTICIPANTS Any experiment involving the participation of human subjects is governed by extensive, strict guidelines designed to ensure that the experiment does not result in harm. Any research institution that receives federal support for research involving human participants must have access to an institutional review board (IRB). The IRB is a committee of individuals often made up of members of the institution’s administration, scientists, and community members (Figure). The purpose of the IRB is to review proposals for research that involves human participants. The IRB reviews these proposals with the principles mentioned above in mind, and generally, approval from the IRB is required in order for the experiment to proceed. An institution’s IRB requires several components in any experiment it approves. For one, each participant must sign an informed consent form before they can participate in the experiment. An informed consent form provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications of the research. It also lets participants know that their involvement is completely voluntary and can be discontinued without penalty at any time. Furthermore, the informed consent guarantees that any data collected in the experiment will remain completely confidential. In cases where research participants are under the age of 18, the parents or legal guardians are required to sign the informed consent form. Visit this website to see an example of a consent form. While the informed consent form should be as honest as possible in describing exactly what participants will be doing, sometimes deception is necessary to prevent participants’ knowledge of the exact research question from affecting the results of the study. Deception involves purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful. For example, if we are interested in how our opinion of someone is affected by their attire, we might use deception in describing the experiment to prevent that knowledge from affecting participants’ responses. In cases where deception is involved, participants must receive a full debriefing upon conclusion of the study—complete, honest information about the purpose of the experiment, how the data collected will be used, the reasons why deception was necessary, and information about how to obtain additional information about the study. Ethics and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Unfortunately, the ethical guidelines that exist for research today were not always applied in the past. In 1932, poor, rural, black, male sharecroppers from Tuskegee, Alabama, were recruited to participate in an experiment conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service, with the aim of studying syphilis in black men (Figure). In exchange for free medical care, meals, and burial insurance, 600 men agreed to participate in the study. A little more than half of the men tested positive for syphilis, and they served as the experimental group (given that the researchers could not randomly assign participants to groups, this represents a quasi-experiment). The remaining syphilis-free individuals served as the control group. However, those individuals that tested positive for syphilis were never informed that they had the disease. While there was no treatment for syphilis when the study began, by 1947 penicillin was recognized as an effective treatment for the disease. Despite this, no penicillin was administered to the participants in this study, and the participants were not allowed to seek treatment at any other facilities if they continued in the study. Over the course of 40 years, many of the participants unknowingly spread syphilis to their wives (and subsequently their children born from their wives) and eventually died because they never received treatment for the disease. This study was discontinued in 1972 when the experiment was discovered by the national press (Tuskegee University, n.d.). The resulting outrage over the experiment led directly to the National Research Act of 1974 and the strict ethical guidelines for research on humans described in this chapter. Why is this study unethical? How were the men who participated and their families harmed as a function of this research? Visit this website to learn more about the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. RESEARCH INVOLVING ANIMAL SUBJECTS Many psychologists conduct research involving animal subjects. Often, these researchers use rodents (Figure) or birds as the subjects of their experiments—the APA estimates that 90% of all animal research in psychology uses these species (American Psychological Association, n.d.). Because many basic processes in animals are sufficiently similar to those in humans, these animals are acceptable substitutes for research that would be considered unethical in human participants. This does not mean that animal researchers are immune to ethical concerns. Indeed, the humane and ethical treatment of animal research subjects is a critical aspect of this type of research. Researchers must design their experiments to minimize any pain or distress experienced by animals serving as research subjects. Whereas IRBs review research proposals that involve human participants, animal experimental proposals are reviewed by an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). An IACUC consists of institutional administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members. This committee is charged with ensuring that all experimental proposals require the humane treatment of animal research subjects. It also conducts semi-annual inspections of all animal facilities to ensure that the research protocols are being followed. No animal research project can proceed without the committee’s approval. Summary Ethics in research is an evolving field, and some practices that were accepted or tolerated in the past would be considered unethical today. Researchers are expected to adhere to basic ethical guidelines when conducting experiments that involve human participants. Any experiment involving human participants must be approved by an IRB. Participation in experiments is voluntary and requires informed consent of the participants. If any deception is involved in the experiment, each participant must be fully debriefed upon the conclusion of the study. Animal research is also held to a high ethical standard. Researchers who use animals as experimental subjects must design their projects so that pain and distress are minimized. Animal research requires the approval of an IACUC, and all animal facilities are subject to regular inspections to ensure that animals are being treated humanely. Review Questions ________ is to animal research as ________ is to human research. - informed consent; deception - IACUC; IRB - IRB; IACUC - deception; debriefing Hint: B Researchers might use ________ when providing participants with the full details of the experiment could skew their responses. - informed consent - deception - ethics - debriefing Hint: B A person’s participation in a research project must be ________. - confidential - rewarded - voluntary - public Hint: C Before participating in an experiment, individuals should read and sign the ________ form. - informed consent - debriefing - IRB - ethics Hint: A Critical Thinking Questions Some argue that animal research is inherently flawed in terms of being ethical because unlike human participants, animals do not consent to be involved in research. Do you agree with this perspective? Given that animals do not consent to be involved in research projects, what sorts of extra precautions should be taken to ensure that they receive the most humane treatment possible? Hint: In general, the fact that consent cannot be obtained from animal research subjects places extra responsibility on the researcher to ensure that the animal is treated as humanely as possible and to respect the sacrifice that the animal is making for the advancement of science. Like human research, the animals themselves should also receive some of the benefits of the research, and they do in the form of advanced veterinary medicine, and so on. At the end of the last section, you were asked to design a basic experiment to answer some question of interest. What ethical considerations should be made with the study you proposed to ensure that your experiment would conform to the scientific community’s expectations of ethical research? Hint: The research should be designed in such a way to adhere to the principles described in this section depending on the type of study that was proposed. Personal Application Questions Take a few minutes to think about all of the advancements that our society has achieved as a function of research involving animal subjects. How have you, a friend, or a family member benefited directly from this kind of research?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.846776	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15302/overview", "title": "Psychology, Psychological Research", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11758/overview	Introduction to Sociological Research Have you ever wondered if home schooling affects a person’s later success in college or how many people wait until they are in their forties to get married? Do you wonder if texting is changing teenagers’ abilities to spell correctly or to communicate clearly? How do social movements like Occupy Wall Street develop? How about the development of social phenomena like the massive public followings for Star Trek and Harry Potter? The goal of research is to answer questions. Sociological research attempts to answer a vast variety of questions, such as these and more, about our social world. We often have opinions about social situations, but these may be biased by our expectations or based on limited data. Instead, scientific research is based on empirical evidence, which is evidence that comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation. Many people believe, for example, that crime rates go up when there’s a full moon, but research doesn’t support this opinion. Researchers Rotton and Kelly (1985) conducted ameta-analysis of research on the full moon’s effects on behavior. Meta-analysis is a technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together. Rotton and Kelly’s meta-analysis included thirty-seven prior studies on the effects of the full moon on crime rates, and the overall findings were that full moons are entirely unrelated to crime, suicide, psychiatric problems, and crisis center calls (cited in Arkowitz and Lilienfeld 2009). We may each know of an instance in which a crime happened during a full moon, but it was likely just a coincidence. People commonly try to understand the happenings in their world by finding or creating an explanation for an occurrence. Social scientists may develop a hypothesis for the same reason. A hypothesis is a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables; it’s a possible explanation for specific happenings in the social world and allows for testing to determine whether the explanation holds true in many instances, as well as among various groups or in different places. Sociologists use empirical data and thescientific method, or an interpretative framework, to increase understanding of societies and social interactions, but research begins with the search for an answer to a question. References Arkowitz, Hal, and Scott O. Lilienfeld. 2009. "Lunacy and the Full Moon: Does a full moon really trigger strange behavior?" Scientific American. Retrieved December 30, 2014 (http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/lunacy-and-the-full-moon/). Rotton, James, and Ivan W. Kelly. 1985. "Much Ado about the Full Moon: A Meta-analysis of Lunar-Lunacy Research." Psychological Bulletin 97 (no. 2): 286–306.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.862827	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11758/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Sociological Research", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11759/overview	Approaches to Sociological Research Overview - Define and describe the scientific method - Explain how the scientific method is used in sociological research - Understand the function and importance of an interpretive framework - Define what reliability and validity mean in a research study When sociologists apply the sociological perspective and begin to ask questions, no topic is off limits. Every aspect of human behavior is a source of possible investigation. Sociologists question the world that humans have created and live in. They notice patterns of behavior as people move through that world. Using sociological methods and systematic research within the framework of the scientific method and a scholarly interpretive perspective, sociologists have discovered workplace patterns that have transformed industries, family patterns that have enlightened family members, and education patterns that have aided structural changes in classrooms. The crime during a full moon discussion put forth a few loosely stated opinions. If the human behaviors around those claims were tested systematically, a police officer, for example, could write a report and offer the findings to sociologists and the world in general. The new perspective could help people understand themselves and their neighbors and help people make better decisions about their lives. It might seem strange to use scientific practices to study social trends, but, as we shall see, it’s extremely helpful to rely on systematic approaches that research methods provide. Sociologists often begin the research process by asking a question about how or why things happen in this world. It might be a unique question about a new trend or an old question about a common aspect of life. Once the sociologist forms the question, he or she proceeds through an in-depth process to answer it. In deciding how to design that process, the researcher may adopt a scientific approach or an interpretive framework. The following sections describe these approaches to knowledge. The Scientific Method Sociologists make use of tried and true methods of research, such as experiments, surveys, and field research. But humans and their social interactions are so diverse that these interactions can seem impossible to chart or explain. It might seem that science is about discoveries and chemical reactions or about proving ideas right or wrong rather than about exploring the nuances of human behavior. However, this is exactly why scientific models work for studying human behavior. A scientific process of research establishes parameters that help make sure results are objective and accurate. Scientific methods provide limitations and boundaries that focus a study and organize its results. The scientific method involves developing and testing theories about the world based on empirical evidence. It is defined by its commitment to systematic observation of the empirical world and strives to be objective, critical, skeptical, and logical. It involves a series of prescribed steps that have been established over centuries of scholarship. But just because sociological studies use scientific methods does not make the results less human. Sociological topics are not reduced to right or wrong facts. In this field, results of studies tend to provide people with access to knowledge they did not have before—knowledge of other cultures, knowledge of rituals and beliefs, or knowledge of trends and attitudes. No matter what research approach they use, researchers want to maximize the study’s reliability, which refers to how likely research results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced. Reliability increases the likelihood that what happens to one person will happen to all people in a group. Researchers also strive forvalidity, which refers to how well the study measures what it was designed to measure. Returning to the crime rate during a full moon topic, reliability of a study would reflect how well the resulting experience represents the average adult crime rate during a full moon. Validity would ensure that the study’s design accurately examined what it was designed to study, so an exploration of adult criminal behaviors during a full moon should address that issue and not veer into other age groups’ crimes, for example. In general, sociologists tackle questions about the role of social characteristics in outcomes. For example, how do different communities fare in terms of psychological well-being, community cohesiveness, range of vocation, wealth, crime rates, and so on? Are communities functioning smoothly? Sociologists look between the cracks to discover obstacles to meeting basic human needs. They might study environmental influences and patterns of behavior that lead to crime, substance abuse, divorce, poverty, unplanned pregnancies, or illness. And, because sociological studies are not all focused on negative behaviors or challenging situations, researchers might study vacation trends, healthy eating habits, neighborhood organizations, higher education patterns, games, parks, and exercise habits. Sociologists can use the scientific method not only to collect but also to interpret and analyze the data. They deliberately apply scientific logic and objectivity. They are interested in—but not attached to—the results. They work outside of their own political or social agendas. This doesn’t mean researchers do not have their own personalities, complete with preferences and opinions. But sociologists deliberately use the scientific method to maintain as much objectivity, focus, and consistency as possible in a particular study. With its systematic approach, the scientific method has proven useful in shaping sociological studies. The scientific method provides a systematic, organized series of steps that help ensure objectivity and consistency in exploring a social problem. They provide the means for accuracy, reliability, and validity. In the end, the scientific method provides a shared basis for discussion and analysis (Merton 1963). Typically, the scientific method starts with these steps—1) ask a question, 2) research existing sources, 3) formulate a hypothesis—described below. Ask a Question The first step of the scientific method is to ask a question, describe a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study within a geography and time frame. “Are societies capable of sustained happiness?” would be too vague. The question should also be broad enough to have universal merit. “What do personal hygiene habits reveal about the values of students at XYZ High School?” would be too narrow. That said, happiness and hygiene are worthy topics to study. Sociologists do not rule out any topic, but would strive to frame these questions in better research terms. That is why sociologists are careful to define their terms. In a hygiene study, for instance, hygiene could be defined as “personal habits to maintain physical appearance (as opposed to health),” and a researcher might ask, “How do differing personal hygiene habits reflect the cultural value placed on appearance?” When forming these basic research questions, sociologists develop an operational definition, that is, they define the concept in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. The operational definition identifies an observable condition of the concept. By operationalizing a variable of the concept, all researchers can collect data in a systematic or replicable manner. The operational definition must be valid, appropriate, and meaningful. And it must be reliable, meaning that results will be close to uniform when tested on more than one person. For example, “good drivers” might be defined in many ways: those who use their turn signals, those who don’t speed, or those who courteously allow others to merge. But these driving behaviors could be interpreted differently by different researchers and could be difficult to measure. Alternatively, “a driver who has never received a traffic violation” is a specific description that will lead researchers to obtain the same information, so it is an effective operational definition. Research Existing Sources The next step researchers undertake is to conduct background research through a literature review, which is a review of any existing similar or related studies. A visit to the library and a thorough online search will uncover existing research about the topic of study. This step helps researchers gain a broad understanding of work previously conducted on the topic at hand and enables them to position their own research to build on prior knowledge. Researchers—including student researchers—are responsible for correctly citing existing sources they use in a study or that inform their work. While it is fine to borrow previously published material (as long as it enhances a unique viewpoint), it must be referenced properly and never plagiarized. To study hygiene and its value in a particular society, a researcher might sort through existing research and unearth studies about child-rearing, vanity, obsessive-compulsive behaviors, and cultural attitudes toward beauty. It’s important to sift through this information and determine what is relevant. Using existing sources educates researchers and helps refine and improve studies' designs. Formulate a Hypothesis A hypothesis is an assumption about how two or more variables are related; it makes a conjectural statement about the relationship between those variables. In sociology, the hypothesis will often predict how one form of human behavior influences another. In research,independent variables are thecause of the change. Thedependent variable is theeffect, or thing that is changed. For example, in a basic study, the researcher would establish one form of human behavior as the independent variable and observe the influence it has on a dependent variable. How does gender (the independent variable) affect rate of income (the dependent variable)? How does one’s religion (the independent variable) affect family size (the dependent variable)? How is social class (the dependent variable) affected by level of education (the independent variable)? \| Hypothesis \| Independent Variable \| Dependent Variable \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| The greater the availability of affordable housing, the lower the homeless rate. \| Affordable Housing \| Homeless Rate \| \| The greater the availability of math tutoring, the higher the math grades. \| Math Tutoring \| Math Grades \| \| The greater the police patrol presence, the safer the neighborhood. \| Police Patrol Presence \| Safer Neighborhood \| \| The greater the factory lighting, the higher the productivity. \| Factory Lighting \| Productivity \| \| The greater the amount of observation, the higher the public awareness. \| Observation \| Public Awareness \| At this point, a researcher’s operational definitions help measure the variables. In a study asking how tutoring improves grades, for instance, one researcher might define a “good” grade as a C or better, while another uses a B+ as a starting point for “good.” Another operational definition might describe “tutoring” as “one-on-one assistance by an expert in the field, hired by an educational institution.” Those definitions set limits and establish cut-off points that ensure consistency and replicability in a study. As the table shows, an independent variable is the one that causes a dependent variable to change. For example, a researcher might hypothesize that teaching children proper hygiene (the independent variable) will boost their sense of self-esteem (the dependent variable). Or rephrased, a child’s sense of self-esteem depends, in part, on the quality and availability of hygienic resources. Of course, this hypothesis can also work the other way around. Perhaps a sociologist believes that increasing a child’s sense of self-esteem (the independent variable) will automatically increase or improve habits of hygiene (now the dependent variable). Identifying the independent and dependent variables is very important. As the hygiene example shows, simply identifying two topics, or variables, is not enough; their prospective relationship must be part of the hypothesis. Just because a sociologist forms an educated prediction of a study’s outcome doesn’t mean data contradicting the hypothesis aren’t welcome. Sociologists analyze general patterns in response to a study, but they are equally interested in exceptions to patterns. In a study of education, a researcher might predict that high school dropouts have a hard time finding rewarding careers. While it has become at least a cultural assumption that the higher the education, the higher the salary and degree of career happiness, there are certainly exceptions. People with little education have had stunning careers, and people with advanced degrees have had trouble finding work. A sociologist prepares a hypothesis knowing that results will vary. Once the preliminary work is done, it’s time for the next research steps: designing and conducting a study and drawing conclusions. These research methods are discussed below. Interpretive Framework While many sociologists rely on the scientific method as a research approach, others operate from an interpretive framework. While systematic, this approach doesn’t follow the hypothesis-testing model that seeks to find generalizable results. Instead, aninterpretive framework, sometimes referred to as an interpretive perspective, seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants, which leads to in-depth knowledge. Interpretive research is generally more descriptive or narrative in its findings. Rather than formulating a hypothesis and method for testing it, an interpretive researcher will develop approaches to explore the topic at hand that may involve a significant amount of direct observation or interaction with subjects. This type of researcher also learns as he or she proceeds and sometimes adjusts the research methods or processes midway to optimize findings as they evolve. Summary Using the scientific method, a researcher conducts a study in five phases: asking a question, researching existing sources, formulating a hypothesis, conducting a study, and drawing conclusions. The scientific method is useful in that it provides a clear method of organizing a study. Some sociologists conduct research through an interpretive framework rather than employing the scientific method. Scientific sociological studies often observe relationships between variables. Researchers study how one variable changes another. Prior to conducting a study, researchers are careful to apply operational definitions to their terms and to establish dependent and independent variables. Section Quiz A measurement is considered ______ if it actually measures what it is intended to measure, according to the topic of the study. - reliable - sociological - valid - quantitative Hint: C Sociological studies test relationships in which change in one ______ causes change in another. - test subject - behavior - variable - operational definition Hint: C In a study, a group of ten-year-old boys are fed doughnuts every morning for a week and then weighed to see how much weight they gained. Which factor is the dependent variable? - The doughnuts - The boys - The duration of a week - The weight gained Hint: D Which statement provides the best operational definition of “childhood obesity”? - Children who eat unhealthy foods and spend too much time watching television and playing video games - A distressing trend that can lead to health issues including type 2 diabetes and heart disease - Body weight at least 20 percent higher than a healthy weight for a child of that height - The tendency of children today to weigh more than children of earlier generations Hint: C Short Answer Write down the first three steps of the scientific method. Think of a broad topic that you are interested in and which would make a good sociological study—for example, ethnic diversity in a college, homecoming rituals, athletic scholarships, or teen driving. Now, take that topic through the first steps of the process. For each step, write a few sentences or a paragraph: 1) Ask a question about the topic. 2) Do some research and write down the titles of some articles or books you’d want to read about the topic. 3) Formulate a hypothesis. Further Research For a historical perspective on the scientific method in sociology, read “The Elements of Scientific Method in Sociology” by F. Stuart Chapin (1914) in the American Journal of Sociology:http://openstaxcollege.org/l/Method-in-Sociology References Arkowitz, Hal, and Scott O. Lilienfeld. 2009. "Lunacy and the Full Moon: Does a full moon really trigger strange behavior?" Scientific American. Retrieved October 20, 2014 (http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/lunacy-and-the-full-moon). Berger, Peter L. 1963. Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective. New York: Anchor Books. Merton, Robert. 1968 [1949]. Social Theory and Social Structure. New York: Free Press. “Scientific Method Lab,” the University of Utah, http://aspire.cosmic-ray.org/labs/scientific_method/sci_method_main.html.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.894762	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11759/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Sociological Research", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11760/overview	Research Methods Overview - Differentiate between four kinds of research methods: surveys, field research, experiments, and secondary data analysis - Understand why different topics are better suited to different research approaches Sociologists examine the world, see a problem or interesting pattern, and set out to study it. They use research methods to design a study—perhaps a detailed, systematic, scientific method for conducting research and obtaining data, or perhaps an ethnographic study utilizing an interpretive framework. Planning the research design is a key step in any sociological study. When entering a particular social environment, a researcher must be careful. There are times to remain anonymous and times to be overt. There are times to conduct interviews and times to simply observe. Some participants need to be thoroughly informed; others should not know they are being observed. A researcher wouldn’t stroll into a crime-ridden neighborhood at midnight, calling out, “Any gang members around?” And if a researcher walked into a coffee shop and told the employees they would be observed as part of a study on work efficiency, the self-conscious, intimidated baristas might not behave naturally. This is called the Hawthorne effect—where people change their behavior because they know they are being watched as part of a study. The Hawthorne effect is unavoidable in some research. In many cases, sociologists have to make the purpose of the study known. Subjects must be aware that they are being observed, and a certain amount of artificiality may result (Sonnenfeld 1985). Making sociologists’ presence invisible is not always realistic for other reasons. That option is not available to a researcher studying prison behaviors, early education, or the Ku Klux Klan. Researchers can’t just stroll into prisons, kindergarten classrooms, or Klan meetings and unobtrusively observe behaviors. In situations like these, other methods are needed. All studies shape the research design, while research design simultaneously shapes the study. Researchers choose methods that best suit their study topics and that fit with their overall approaches to research. In planning studies' designs, sociologists generally choose from four widely used methods of social investigation: survey, field research, experiment, and secondary data analysis, or use of existing sources. Every research method comes with plusses and minuses, and the topic of study strongly influences which method or methods are put to use. Surveys As a research method, a survey collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire. The survey is one of the most widely used scientific research methods. The standard survey format allows individuals a level of anonymity in which they can express personal ideas. At some point, most people in the United States respond to some type of survey. The U.S. Census is an excellent example of a large-scale survey intended to gather sociological data. Not all surveys are considered sociological research, however, and many surveys people commonly encounter focus on identifying marketing needs and strategies rather than testing a hypothesis or contributing to social science knowledge. Questions such as, "How many hot dogs do you eat in a month?" or "Were the staff helpful?" are not usually designed as scientific research. Often, polls on television do not reflect a general population, but are merely answers from a specific show’s audience. Polls conducted by programs such as American Idol orSo You Think You Can Dance represent the opinions of fans but are not particularly scientific. A good contrast to these are the Nielsen Ratings, which determine the popularity of television programming through scientific market research. Sociologists conduct surveys under controlled conditions for specific purposes. Surveys gather different types of information from people. While surveys are not great at capturing the ways people really behave in social situations, they are a great method for discovering how people feel and think—or at least how they say they feel and think. Surveys can track preferences for presidential candidates or reported individual behaviors (such as sleeping, driving, or texting habits) or factual information such as employment status, income, and education levels. A survey targets a specific population, people who are the focus of a study, such as college athletes, international students, or teenagers living with type 1 (juvenile-onset) diabetes. Most researchers choose to survey a small sector of the population, or asample: that is, a manageable number of subjects whorepresent a larger population. The success of a study depends on how well a population is represented by the sample. In arandom sample, every person in a population has the same chance of being chosen for the study. According to the laws of probability, random samples represent the population as a whole. For instance, a Gallup Poll, if conducted as a nationwide random sampling, should be able to provide an accurate estimate of public opinion whether it contacts 2,000 or 10,000 people. After selecting subjects, the researcher develops a specific plan to ask questions and record responses. It is important to inform subjects of the nature and purpose of the study up front. If they agree to participate, researchers thank subjects and offer them a chance to see the results of the study if they are interested. The researcher presents the subjects with an instrument, which is a means of gathering the information. A common instrument is a questionnaire, in which subjects answer a series of questions. For some topics, the researcher might ask yes-or-no or multiple-choice questions, allowing subjects to choose possible responses to each question. This kind of quantitative data—research collected in numerical form that can be counted—are easy to tabulate. Just count up the number of “yes” and “no” responses or correct answers, and chart them into percentages. Questionnaires can also ask more complex questions with more complex answers—beyond “yes,” “no,” or the option next to a checkbox. In those cases, the answers are subjective and vary from person to person. How do plan to use your college education? Why do you follow Jimmy Buffett around the country and attend every concert? Those types of questions require short essay responses, and participants willing to take the time to write those answers will convey personal information about religious beliefs, political views, and morals. Some topics that reflect internal thought are impossible to observe directly and are difficult to discuss honestly in a public forum. People are more likely to share honest answers if they can respond to questions anonymously. This type of information isqualitative data—results that are subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting. Qualitative information is harder to organize and tabulate. The researcher will end up with a wide range of responses, some of which may be surprising. The benefit of written opinions, though, is the wealth of material that they provide. An interview is a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject, and it is a way of conducting surveys on a topic. Interviews are similar to the short-answer questions on surveys in that the researcher asks subjects a series of questions. However, participants are free to respond as they wish, without being limited by predetermined choices. In the back-and-forth conversation of an interview, a researcher can ask for clarification, spend more time on a subtopic, or ask additional questions. In an interview, a subject will ideally feel free to open up and answer questions that are often complex. There are no right or wrong answers. The subject might not even know how to answer the questions honestly. Questions such as, “How did society's view of alcohol consumption influence your decision whether or not to take your first sip of alcohol?” or “Did you feel that the divorce of your parents would put a social stigma on your family?” involve so many factors that the answers are difficult to categorize. A researcher needs to avoid steering or prompting the subject to respond in a specific way; otherwise, the results will prove to be unreliable. And, obviously, a sociological interview is not an interrogation. The researcher will benefit from gaining a subject’s trust, from empathizing or commiserating with a subject, and from listening without judgment. Field Research The work of sociology rarely happens in limited, confined spaces. Sociologists seldom study subjects in their own offices or laboratories. Rather, sociologists go out into the world. They meet subjects where they live, work, and play. Field research refers to gatheringprimary data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey. It is a research method suited to an interpretive framework rather than to the scientific method. To conduct field research, the sociologist must be willing to step into new environments and observe, participate, or experience those worlds. In field work, the sociologists, rather than the subjects, are the ones out of their element. The researcher interacts with or observes a person or people and gathers data along the way. The key point in field research is that it takes place in the subject’s natural environment, whether it’s a coffee shop or tribal village, a homeless shelter or the DMV, a hospital, airport, mall, or beach resort. While field research often begins in a specific setting, the study’s purpose is to observe specificbehaviors in that setting. Field work is optimal for observinghow people behave. It is less useful, however, for understandingwhy they behave that way. You can't really narrow down cause and effect when there are so many variables floating around in a natural environment. Much of the data gathered in field research are based not on cause and effect but on correlation. And while field research looks for correlation, its small sample size does not allow for establishing a causal relationship between two variables. Parrotheads as Sociological Subjects Some sociologists study small groups of people who share an identity in one aspect of their lives. Almost everyone belongs to a group of like-minded people who share an interest or hobby. Scientologists, folk dancers, or members of Mensa (an organization for people with exceptionally high IQs) express a specific part of their identity through their affiliation with a group. Those groups are often of great interest to sociologists. Jimmy Buffett, an American musician who built a career from his single top-10 song “Margaritaville,” has a following of devoted groupies called Parrotheads. Some of them have taken fandom to the extreme, making Parrothead culture a lifestyle. In 2005, Parrotheads and their subculture caught the attention of researchers John Mihelich and John Papineau. The two saw the way Jimmy Buffett fans collectively created an artificial reality. They wanted to know how fan groups shape culture. What Mihelich and Papineau found was that Parrotheads, for the most part, do not seek to challenge or even change society, as many sub-groups do. In fact, most Parrotheads live successfully within society, holding upper-level jobs in the corporate world. What they seek is escape from the stress of daily life. At Jimmy Buffett concerts, Parrotheads engage in a form of role play. They paint their faces and dress for the tropics in grass skirts, Hawaiian leis, and Parrot hats. These fans don’t generally play the part of Parrotheads outside of these concerts; you are not likely to see a lone Parrothead in a bank or library. In that sense, Parrothead culture is less about individualism and more about conformity. Being a Parrothead means sharing a specific identity. Parrotheads feel connected to each other: it’s a group identity, not an individual one. In their study, Mihelich and Papineau quote from a recent book by sociologist Richard Butsch, who writes, “un-self-conscious acts, if done by many people together, can produce change, even though the change may be unintended” (2000). Many Parrothead fan groups have performed good works in the name of Jimmy Buffett culture, donating to charities and volunteering their services. However, the authors suggest that what really drives Parrothead culture is commercialism. Jimmy Buffett’s popularity was dying out in the 1980s until being reinvigorated after he signed a sponsorship deal with a beer company. These days, his concert tours alone generate nearly $30 million a year. Buffett made a lucrative career for himself by partnering with product companies and marketing Margaritaville in the form of T-shirts, restaurants, casinos, and an expansive line of products. Some fans accuse Buffett of selling out, while others admire his financial success. Buffett makes no secret of his commercial exploitations; from the stage, he’s been known to tell his fans, “Just remember, I am spending your money foolishly.” Mihelich and Papineau gathered much of their information online. Referring to their study as a “Web ethnography,” they collected extensive narrative material from fans who joined Parrothead clubs and posted their experiences on websites. “We do not claim to have conducted a complete ethnography of Parrothead fans, or even of the Parrothead Web activity,” state the authors, “but we focused on particular aspects of Parrothead practice as revealed through Web research” (2005). Fan narratives gave them insight into how individuals identify with Buffett’s world and how fans used popular music to cultivate personal and collective meaning. In conducting studies about pockets of culture, most sociologists seek to discover a universal appeal. Mihelich and Papineau stated, “Although Parrotheads are a relative minority of the contemporary US population, an in-depth look at their practice and conditions illuminate [sic] cultural practices and conditions many of us experience and participate in” (2005). Here, we will look at three types of field research: participant observation, ethnography, and the case study. Participant Observation In 2000, a comic writer named Rodney Rothman wanted an insider’s view of white-collar work. He slipped into the sterile, high-rise offices of a New York “dot com” agency. Every day for two weeks, he pretended to work there. His main purpose was simply to see whether anyone would notice him or challenge his presence. No one did. The receptionist greeted him. The employees smiled and said good morning. Rothman was accepted as part of the team. He even went so far as to claim a desk, inform the receptionist of his whereabouts, and attend a meeting. He published an article about his experience in The New Yorker called “My Fake Job” (2000). Later, he was discredited for allegedly fabricating some details of the story andThe New Yorker issued an apology. However, Rothman’s entertaining article still offered fascinating descriptions of the inside workings of a “dot com” company and exemplified the lengths to which a sociologist will go to uncover material. Rothman had conducted a form of study called participant observation, in which researchers join people and participate in a group’s routine activities for the purpose of observing them within that context. This method lets researchers experience a specific aspect of social life. A researcher might go to great lengths to get a firsthand look into a trend, institution, or behavior. Researchers temporarily put themselves into roles and record their observations. A researcher might work as a waitress in a diner, live as a homeless person for several weeks, or ride along with police officers as they patrol their regular beat. Often, these researchers try to blend in seamlessly with the population they study, and they may not disclose their true identity or purpose if they feel it would compromise the results of their research. At the beginning of a field study, researchers might have a question: “What really goes on in the kitchen of the most popular diner on campus?” or “What is it like to be homeless?” Participant observation is a useful method if the researcher wants to explore a certain environment from the inside. Field researchers simply want to observe and learn. In such a setting, the researcher will be alert and open minded to whatever happens, recording all observations accurately. Soon, as patterns emerge, questions will become more specific, observations will lead to hypotheses, and hypotheses will guide the researcher in shaping data into results. In a study of small towns in the United States conducted by sociological researchers John S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, the team altered their purpose as they gathered data. They initially planned to focus their study on the role of religion in U.S. towns. As they gathered observations, they realized that the effect of industrialization and urbanization was the more relevant topic of this social group. The Lynds did not change their methods, but they revised their purpose. This shaped the structure of Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture, their published results (Lynd and Lynd 1959). The Lynds were upfront about their mission. The townspeople of Muncie, Indiana, knew why the researchers were in their midst. But some sociologists prefer not to alert people to their presence. The main advantage of covert participant observation is that it allows the researcher access to authentic, natural behaviors of a group’s members. The challenge, however, is gaining access to a setting without disrupting the pattern of others’ behavior. Becoming an inside member of a group, organization, or subculture takes time and effort. Researchers must pretend to be something they are not. The process could involve role playing, making contacts, networking, or applying for a job. Once inside a group, some researchers spend months or even years pretending to be one of the people they are observing. However, as observers, they cannot get too involved. They must keep their purpose in mind and apply the sociological perspective. That way, they illuminate social patterns that are often unrecognized. Because information gathered during participant observation is mostly qualitative, rather than quantitative, the end results are often descriptive or interpretive. The researcher might present findings in an article or book and describe what he or she witnessed and experienced. This type of research is what journalist Barbara Ehrenreich conducted for her book Nickel and Dimed. One day over lunch with her editor, as the story goes, Ehrenreich mentioned an idea.How can people exist on minimum-wage work? How do low-income workers get by? she wondered.Someone should do a study. To her surprise, her editor responded,Why don’t you do it? That’s how Ehrenreich found herself joining the ranks of the working class. For several months, she left her comfortable home and lived and worked among people who lacked, for the most part, higher education and marketable job skills. Undercover, she applied for and worked minimum wage jobs as a waitress, a cleaning woman, a nursing home aide, and a retail chain employee. During her participant observation, she used only her income from those jobs to pay for food, clothing, transportation, and shelter. She discovered the obvious, that it’s almost impossible to get by on minimum wage work. She also experienced and observed attitudes many middle and upper-class people never think about. She witnessed firsthand the treatment of working class employees. She saw the extreme measures people take to make ends meet and to survive. She described fellow employees who held two or three jobs, worked seven days a week, lived in cars, could not pay to treat chronic health conditions, got randomly fired, submitted to drug tests, and moved in and out of homeless shelters. She brought aspects of that life to light, describing difficult working conditions and the poor treatment that low-wage workers suffer. Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America, the book she wrote upon her return to her real life as a well-paid writer, has been widely read and used in many college classrooms. Ethnography Ethnography is the extended observation of the social perspective and cultural values of an entire social setting. Ethnographies involve objective observation of an entire community. The heart of an ethnographic study focuses on how subjects view their own social standing and how they understand themselves in relation to a community. An ethnographic study might observe, for example, a small U.S. fishing town, an Inuit community, a village in Thailand, a Buddhist monastery, a private boarding school, or an amusement park. These places all have borders. People live, work, study, or vacation within those borders. People are there for a certain reason and therefore behave in certain ways and respect certain cultural norms. An ethnographer would commit to spending a determined amount of time studying every aspect of the chosen place, taking in as much as possible. A sociologist studying a tribe in the Amazon might watch the way villagers go about their daily lives and then write a paper about it. To observe a spiritual retreat center, an ethnographer might sign up for a retreat and attend as a guest for an extended stay, observe and record data, and collate the material into results. Institutional Ethnography Institutional ethnography is an extension of basic ethnographic research principles that focuses intentionally on everyday concrete social relationships. Developed by Canadian sociologist Dorothy E. Smith, institutional ethnography is often considered a feminist-inspired approach to social analysis and primarily considers women’s experiences within male-dominated societies and power structures. Smith’s work is seen to challenge sociology’s exclusion of women, both academically and in the study of women’s lives (Fenstermaker, n.d.). Historically, social science research tended to objectify women and ignore their experiences except as viewed from the male perspective. Modern feminists note that describing women, and other marginalized groups, as subordinates helps those in authority maintain their own dominant positions (Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, n.d.). Smith’s three major works explored what she called “the conceptual practices of power” (1990; cited in Fensternmaker, n.d.) and are still considered seminal works in feminist theory and ethnography. The Making of Middletown: A Study in Modern U.S. Culture In 1924, a young married couple named Robert and Helen Lynd undertook an unprecedented ethnography: to apply sociological methods to the study of one U.S. city in order to discover what “ordinary” people in the United States did and believed. Choosing Muncie, Indiana (population about 30,000), as their subject, they moved to the small town and lived there for eighteen months. Ethnographers had been examining other cultures for decades—groups considered minority or outsider—like gangs, immigrants, and the poor. But no one had studied the so-called average American. Recording interviews and using surveys to gather data, the Lynds did not sugarcoat or idealize U.S. life (PBS). They objectively stated what they observed. Researching existing sources, they compared Muncie in 1890 to the Muncie they observed in 1924. Most Muncie adults, they found, had grown up on farms but now lived in homes inside the city. From that discovery, the Lynds focused their study on the impact of industrialization and urbanization. They observed that Muncie was divided into business class and working class groups. They defined business class as dealing with abstract concepts and symbols, whileworking class people used tools to create concrete objects. The two classes led different lives with different goals and hopes. However, the Lynds observed, mass production offered both classes the same amenities. Like wealthy families, the working class was now able to own radios, cars, washing machines, telephones, vacuum cleaners, and refrigerators. This was an emerging material new reality of the 1920s. As the Lynds worked, they divided their manuscript into six sections: Getting a Living, Making a Home, Training the Young, Using Leisure, Engaging in Religious Practices, and Engaging in Community Activities. Each chapter included subsections such as “The Long Arm of the Job” and “Why Do They Work So Hard?” in the “Getting a Living” chapter. When the study was completed, the Lynds encountered a big problem. The Rockefeller Foundation, which had commissioned the book, claimed it was useless and refused to publish it. The Lynds asked if they could seek a publisher themselves. Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture was not only published in 1929 but also became an instant bestseller, a status unheard of for a sociological study. The book sold out six printings in its first year of publication, and has never gone out of print (PBS). Nothing like it had ever been done before. Middletown was reviewed on the front page of theNew York Times. Readers in the 1920s and 1930s identified with the citizens of Muncie, Indiana, but they were equally fascinated by the sociological methods and the use of scientific data to define ordinary people in the United States. The book was proof that social data was important—and interesting—to the U.S. public. Case Study Sometimes a researcher wants to study one specific person or event. A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual. To conduct a case study, a researcher examines existing sources like documents and archival records, conducts interviews, engages in direct observation and even participant observation, if possible. Researchers might use this method to study a single case of, for example, a foster child, drug lord, cancer patient, criminal, or rape victim. However, a major criticism of the case study as a method is that a developed study of a single case, while offering depth on a topic, does not provide enough evidence to form a generalized conclusion. In other words, it is difficult to make universal claims based on just one person, since one person does not verify a pattern. This is why most sociologists do not use case studies as a primary research method. However, case studies are useful when the single case is unique. In these instances, a single case study can add tremendous knowledge to a certain discipline. For example, a feral child, also called “wild child,” is one who grows up isolated from human beings. Feral children grow up without social contact and language, which are elements crucial to a “civilized” child’s development. These children mimic the behaviors and movements of animals, and often invent their own language. There are only about one hundred cases of “feral children” in the world. As you may imagine, a feral child is a subject of great interest to researchers. Feral children provide unique information about child development because they have grown up outside of the parameters of “normal” child development. And since there are very few feral children, the case study is the most appropriate method for researchers to use in studying the subject. At age three, a Ukranian girl named Oxana Malaya suffered severe parental neglect. She lived in a shed with dogs, and she ate raw meat and scraps. Five years later, a neighbor called authorities and reported seeing a girl who ran on all fours, barking. Officials brought Oxana into society, where she was cared for and taught some human behaviors, but she never became fully socialized. She has been designated as unable to support herself and now lives in a mental institution (Grice 2011). Case studies like this offer a way for sociologists to collect data that may not be collectable by any other method. Experiments You’ve probably tested personal social theories. “If I study at night and review in the morning, I’ll improve my retention skills.” Or, “If I stop drinking soda, I’ll feel better.” Cause and effect. If this, then that. When you test the theory, your results either prove or disprove your hypothesis. One way researchers test social theories is by conducting an experiment, meaning they investigate relationships to test a hypothesis—a scientific approach. There are two main types of experiments: lab-based experiments and natural or field experiments. In a lab setting, the research can be controlled so that perhaps more data can be recorded in a certain amount of time. In a natural or field-based experiment, the generation of data cannot be controlled but the information might be considered more accurate since it was collected without interference or intervention by the researcher. As a research method, either type of sociological experiment is useful for testing if-then statements:if a particular thing happens,then another particular thing will result. To set up a lab-based experiment, sociologists create artificial situations that allow them to manipulate variables. Classically, the sociologist selects a set of people with similar characteristics, such as age, class, race, or education. Those people are divided into two groups. One is the experimental group and the other is the control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable(s) and the control group is not. To test the benefits of tutoring, for example, the sociologist might expose the experimental group of students to tutoring but not the control group. Then both groups would be tested for differences in performance to see if tutoring had an effect on the experimental group of students. As you can imagine, in a case like this, the researcher would not want to jeopardize the accomplishments of either group of students, so the setting would be somewhat artificial. The test would not be for a grade reflected on their permanent record, for example. An Experiment in Action A real-life example will help illustrate the experiment process. In 1971, Frances Heussenstamm, a sociology professor at California State University at Los Angeles, had a theory about police prejudice. To test her theory she conducted an experiment. She chose fifteen students from three ethnic backgrounds: black, white, and Hispanic. She chose students who routinely drove to and from campus along Los Angeles freeway routes, and who’d had perfect driving records for longer than a year. Those were her independent variables—students, good driving records, same commute route. Next, she placed a Black Panther bumper sticker on each car. That sticker, a representation of a social value, was the independent variable. In the 1970s, the Black Panthers were a revolutionary group actively fighting racism. Heussenstamm asked the students to follow their normal driving patterns. She wanted to see whether seeming support of the Black Panthers would change how these good drivers were treated by the police patrolling the highways. The dependent variable would be the number of traffic stops/citations. The first arrest, for an incorrect lane change, was made two hours after the experiment began. One participant was pulled over three times in three days. He quit the study. After seventeen days, the fifteen drivers had collected a total of thirty-three traffic citations. The experiment was halted. The funding to pay traffic fines had run out, and so had the enthusiasm of the participants (Heussenstamm 1971). Secondary Data Analysis While sociologists often engage in original research studies, they also contribute knowledge to the discipline throughsecondary data analysis. Secondary data don’t result from firsthand research collected from primary sources, but are the already completed work of other researchers. Sociologists might study works written by historians, economists, teachers, or early sociologists. They might search through periodicals, newspapers, or magazines from any period in history. Using available information not only saves time and money but can also add depth to a study. Sociologists often interpret findings in a new way, a way that was not part of an author’s original purpose or intention. To study how women were encouraged to act and behave in the 1960s, for example, a researcher might watch movies, televisions shows, and situation comedies from that period. Or to research changes in behavior and attitudes due to the emergence of television in the late 1950s and early 1960s, a sociologist would rely on new interpretations of secondary data. Decades from now, researchers will most likely conduct similar studies on the advent of mobile phones, the Internet, or Facebook. Social scientists also learn by analyzing the research of a variety of agencies. Governmental departments and global groups, like the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics or the World Health Organization, publish studies with findings that are useful to sociologists. A public statistic like the foreclosure rate might be useful for studying the effects of the 2008 recession; a racial demographic profile might be compared with data on education funding to examine the resources accessible by different groups. One of the advantages of secondary data is that it is nonreactive research (or unobtrusive research), meaning that it does not include direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviors. Unlike studies requiring direct contact with people, using previously published data doesn’t require entering a population and the investment and risks inherent in that research process. Using available data does have its challenges. Public records are not always easy to access. A researcher will need to do some legwork to track them down and gain access to records. To guide the search through a vast library of materials and avoid wasting time reading unrelated sources, sociologists employ content analysis, applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as they relate to the study at hand. But, in some cases, there is no way to verify the accuracy of existing data. It is easy to count how many drunk drivers, for example, are pulled over by the police. But how many are not? While it’s possible to discover the percentage of teenage students who drop out of high school, it might be more challenging to determine the number who return to school or get their GED later. Another problem arises when data are unavailable in the exact form needed or do not include the precise angle the researcher seeks. For example, the average salaries paid to professors at a public school is public record. But the separate figures don’t necessarily reveal how long it took each professor to reach the salary range, what their educational backgrounds are, or how long they’ve been teaching. When conducting content analysis, it is important to consider the date of publication of an existing source and to take into account attitudes and common cultural ideals that may have influenced the research. For example, Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd gathered research for their book Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture in the 1920s. Attitudes and cultural norms were vastly different then than they are now. Beliefs about gender roles, race, education, and work have changed significantly since then. At the time, the study’s purpose was to reveal the truth about small U.S. communities. Today, it is an illustration of 1920s' attitudes and values. Summary Sociological research is a fairly complex process. As you can see, a lot goes into even a simple research design. There are many steps and much to consider when collecting data on human behavior, as well as in interpreting and analyzing data in order to form conclusive results. Sociologists use scientific methods for good reason. The scientific method provides a system of organization that helps researchers plan and conduct the study while ensuring that data and results are reliable, valid, and objective. The many methods available to researchers—including experiments, surveys, field studies, and secondary data analysis—all come with advantages and disadvantages. The strength of a study can depend on the choice and implementation of the appropriate method of gathering research. Depending on the topic, a study might use a single method or a combination of methods. It is important to plan a research design before undertaking a study. The information gathered may in itself be surprising, and the study design should provide a solid framework in which to analyze predicted and unpredicted data. \| Method \| Implementation \| Advantages \| Challenges \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Survey \| \| \| \| \| Field Work \| \| \| \| \| Experiment \| \| \| \| \| Secondary Data Analysis \| \| \| \| Section Quiz Which materials are considered secondary data? - Photos and letters given to you by another person - Books and articles written by other authors about their studies - Information that you have gathered and now have included in your results - Responses from participants whom you both surveyed and interviewed Hint: B What method did researchers John Mihelich and John Papineau use to study Parrotheads? - Survey - Experiment - Web Ethnography - Case study Hint: C Why is choosing a random sample an effective way to select participants? - Participants do not know they are part of a study - The researcher has no control over who is in the study - It is larger than an ordinary sample - Everyone has the same chance of being part of the study Hint: D What research method did John S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd mainly use in their Middletown study? - Secondary data - Survey - Participant observation - Experiment Hint: C Which research approach is best suited to the scientific method? - Questionnaire - Case study - Ethnography - Secondary data analysis Hint: A The main difference between ethnography and other types of participant observation is: - ethnography isn’t based on hypothesis testing - ethnography subjects are unaware they’re being studied - ethnographic studies always involve minority ethnic groups - ethnography focuses on how subjects view themselves in relationship to the community Hint: A Which best describes the results of a case study? - It produces more reliable results than other methods because of its depth - Its results are not generally applicable - It relies solely on secondary data analysis - All of the above Hint: B Using secondary data is considered an unobtrusive or ________ research method. - nonreactive - nonparticipatory - nonrestrictive - nonconfrontive Hint: A Short Answer What type of data do surveys gather? For what topics would surveys be the best research method? What drawbacks might you expect to encounter when using a survey? To explore further, ask a research question and write a hypothesis. Then create a survey of about six questions relevant to the topic. Provide a rationale for each question. Now define your population and create a plan for recruiting a random sample and administering the survey. Imagine you are about to do field research in a specific place for a set time. Instead of thinking about the topic of study itself, consider how you, as the researcher, will have to prepare for the study. What personal, social, and physical sacrifices will you have to make? How will you manage your personal effects? What organizational equipment and systems will you need to collect the data? Create a brief research design about a topic in which you are passionately interested. Now write a letter to a philanthropic or grant organization requesting funding for your study. How can you describe the project in a convincing yet realistic and objective way? Explain how the results of your study will be a relevant contribution to the body of sociological work already in existence. Further Research For information on current real-world sociology experiments, visit: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/Sociology-Experiments References Butsch, Richard. 2000. The Making of American Audiences: From Stage to Television, 1750–1990. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Caplow, Theodore, Louis Hicks, and Ben Wattenberg. 2000. “The First Measured Century: Middletown.” The First Measured Century. PBS. Retrieved February 23, 2012 (http://www.pbs.org/fmc/index.htm). Durkheim, Émile. 1966 [1897]. Suicide. New York: Free Press. Fenstermaker, Sarah. n.d. “Dorothy E. Smith Award Statement” American Sociological Association. Retrieved October 19, 2014 (http://www.asanet.org/about/awards/duboiscareer/smith.cfm). Franke, Richard, and James Kaul. 1978. “The Hawthorne Experiments: First Statistical Interpretation.” American Sociological Review 43(5):632–643. Grice, Elizabeth. “Cry of an Enfant Sauvage.” The Telegraph. Retrieved July 20, 2011 (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/3653890/Cry-of-an-enfant-sauvage.html). Heussenstamm, Frances K. 1971. “Bumper Stickers and Cops” Trans-action: Social Science and Modern Society 4:32–33. Igo, Sarah E. 2008. The Averaged American: Surveys, Citizens, and the Making of a Mass Public. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Lynd, Robert S., and Helen Merrell Lynd. 1959. Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Javanovich. Lynd, Staughton. 2005. “Making Middleton.” Indiana Magazine of History 101(3):226–238. Mihelich, John, and John Papineau. Aug 2005. “Parrotheads in Margaritaville: Fan Practice, Oppositional Culture, and Embedded Cultural Resistance in Buffett Fandom.” Journal of Popular Music Studies 17(2):175–202. Pew Research Center. 2014. "Ebola Worries Rise, But Most Are 'Fairly' Confident in Government, Hospitals to Deal with Disease: Broad Support for U.S. Efforts to Deal with Ebola in West Africa." Pew Research Center for the People & the Press, October 21. Retrieved October 25, 2014 (http://www.people-press.org/2014/10/21/ebola-worries-rise-but-most-are-fairly-confident-in-government-hospitals-to-deal-with-disease/). Rothman, Rodney. 2000. “My Fake Job.” Pp. 120 in The New Yorker, November 27. Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. n.d. "Institutional Ethnography." Retrieved October 19, 2014 (http://web.uvic.ca/~mariecam/kgSite/institutionalEthnography.html). Sonnenfeld, Jeffery A. 1985. “Shedding Light on the Hawthorne Studies.” Journal of Occupational Behavior 6:125.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.949225	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11760/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Sociological Research", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11761/overview	Ethical Concerns Overview - Understand why ethical standards exist - Demonstrate awareness of the American Sociological Association’s Code of Ethics - Define value neutrality Sociologists conduct studies to shed light on human behaviors. Knowledge is a powerful tool that can be used toward positive change. And while a sociologist’s goal is often simply to uncover knowledge rather than to spur action, many people use sociological studies to help improve people’s lives. In that sense, conducting a sociological study comes with a tremendous amount of responsibility. Like any researchers, sociologists must consider their ethical obligation to avoid harming subjects or groups while conducting their research. The American Sociological Association, or ASA, is the major professional organization of sociologists in North America. The ASA is a great resource for students of sociology as well. The ASA maintains a code of ethics—formal guidelines for conducting sociological research—consisting of principles and ethical standards to be used in the discipline. It also describes procedures for filing, investigating, and resolving complaints of unethical conduct. Practicing sociologists and sociology students have a lot to consider. Some of the guidelines state that researchers must try to be skillful and fair-minded in their work, especially as it relates to their human subjects. Researchers must obtain participants’ informed consent and inform subjects of the responsibilities and risks of research before they agree to partake. During a study, sociologists must ensure the safety of participants and immediately stop work if a subject becomes potentially endangered on any level. Researchers are required to protect the privacy of research participants whenever possible. Even if pressured by authorities, such as police or courts, researchers are not ethically allowed to release confidential information. Researchers must make results available to other sociologists, must make public all sources of financial support, and must not accept funding from any organization that might cause a conflict of interest or seek to influence the research results for its own purposes. The ASA’s ethical considerations shape not only the study but also the publication of results. Pioneer German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) identified another crucial ethical concern. Weber understood that personal values could distort the framework for disclosing study results. While he accepted that some aspects of research design might be influenced by personal values, he declared it was entirely inappropriate to allow personal values to shape the interpretation of the responses. Sociologists, he stated, must establish value neutrality, a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment, during the course of a study and in publishing results (1949). Sociologists are obligated to disclose research findings without omitting or distorting significant data. Is value neutrality possible? Many sociologists believe it is impossible to set aside personal values and retain complete objectivity. They caution readers, rather, to understand that sociological studies may, by necessity, contain a certain amount of value bias. It does not discredit the results but allows readers to view them as one form of truth rather than a singular fact. Some sociologists attempt to remain uncritical and as objective as possible when studying cultural institutions. Value neutrality does not mean having no opinions. It means striving to overcome personal biases, particularly subconscious biases, when analyzing data. It means avoiding skewing data in order to match a predetermined outcome that aligns with a particular agenda, such as a political or moral point of view. Investigators are ethically obligated to report results, even when they contradict personal views, predicted outcomes, or widely accepted beliefs. Summary Sociologists and sociology students must take ethical responsibility for any study they conduct. They must first and foremost guarantee the safety of their participants. Whenever possible, they must ensure that participants have been fully informed before consenting to be part of a study. The ASA maintains ethical guidelines that sociologists must take into account as they conduct research. The guidelines address conducting studies, properly using existing sources, accepting funding, and publishing results. Sociologists must try to maintain value neutrality. They must gather and analyze data objectively and set aside their personal preferences, beliefs, and opinions. They must report findings accurately, even if they contradict personal convictions. Section Quiz Which statement illustrates value neutrality? - Obesity in children is obviously a result of parental neglect and, therefore, schools should take a greater role to prevent it - In 2003, states like Arkansas adopted laws requiring elementary schools to remove soft drink vending machines from schools - Merely restricting children’s access to junk food at school is not enough to prevent obesity - Physical activity and healthy eating are a fundamental part of a child’s education Hint: B Which person or organization defined the concept of value neutrality? - Institutional Review Board (IRB) - Peter Rossi - American Sociological Association (ASA) - Max Weber Hint: D To study the effects of fast food on lifestyle, health, and culture, from which group would a researcher ethically be unable to accept funding? - A fast-food restaurant - A nonprofit health organization - A private hospital - A governmental agency like Health and Social Services Hint: A Short Answer Why do you think the ASA crafted such a detailed set of ethical principles? What type of study could put human participants at risk? Think of some examples of studies that might be harmful. Do you think that, in the name of sociology, some researchers might be tempted to cross boundaries that threaten human rights? Why? Would you willingly participate in a sociological study that could potentially put your health and safety at risk, but had the potential to help thousands or even hundreds of thousands of people? For example, would you participate in a study of a new drug that could cure diabetes or cancer, even if it meant great inconvenience and physical discomfort for you or possible permanent damage? Further Research Founded in 1905, the ASA is a nonprofit organization located in Washington, DC, with a membership of 14,000 researchers, faculty members, students, and practitioners of sociology. Its mission is “to articulate policy and implement programs likely to have the broadest possible impact for sociology now and in the future.” Learn more about this organization at http://openstaxcollege.org/l/ASA. References Code of Ethics. 1999. American Sociological Association. Retrieved July 1, 2011 (http://www.asanet.org/about/ethics.cfm). Rossi, Peter H. 1987. “No Good Applied Social Research Goes Unpunished.” Society 25(1):73–79. Weber, Max. 1949. Methodology of the Social Sciences. Translated by H. Shils and E. Finch. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.976060	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11761/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Sociological Research", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11798/overview	Introduction to Race and Ethnicity Trayvon Martin was a seventeen-year-old black teenager. On the evening of February 26, 2012, he was visiting with his father and his father’s fiancée in the Sanford, Florida multi-ethnic gated community where his father's fiancée lived. Trayvon left her home on foot to buy a snack from a nearby convenience store. As he was returning, George Zimmerman, a white Hispanic male and the community’s neighborhood watch program coordinator, noticed him. In light of a recent rash of break-ins, Zimmerman called the police to report a person acting suspiciously, which he had done on many other occasions. The 911 operator told Zimmerman not to follow the teen, but soon after Zimmerman and Martin had a physical confrontation. According to Zimmerman, Martin attacked him, and in the ensuing scuffle Martin was shot and killed (CNN Library 2014). A public outcry followed Martin’s death. There were allegations of racial profiling—the use by law enforcement of race alone to determine whether to stop and detain someone—a national discussion about “Stand Your Ground Laws,” and a failed lawsuit in which Zimmerman accused NBC of airing an edited version of the 911 call that made him appear racist. Zimmerman was not arrested until April 11, when he was charged with second-degree murder by special prosecutor Angela Corey. In the ensuing trial, he was found not guilty (CNN Library 2014). The shooting, the public response, and the trial that followed offer a snapshot of the sociology of race. Do you think race played a role in Martin’s death or in the public reaction to it? Do you think race had any influence on the initial decision not to arrest Zimmerman, or on his later acquittal? Does society fear black men, leading to racial profiling at an institutional level? What about the role of the media? Was there a deliberate attempt to manipulate public opinion? If you were a member of the jury, would you have convicted George Zimmerman?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:47.990663	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11798/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Race and Ethnicity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11799/overview	Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups Overview - Understand the difference between race and ethnicity - Define a majority group (dominant group) - Define a minority group (subordinate group) While many students first entering a sociology classroom are accustomed to conflating the terms “race,” “ethnicity,” and “minority group,” these three terms have distinct meanings for sociologists. The idea of race refers to superficial physical differences that a particular society considers significant, while ethnicity describes shared culture. And the term "minority groups" describe groups that are subordinate, or that lack power in society regardless of skin color or country of origin. For example, in modern U.S. history, the elderly might be considered a minority group due to a diminished status that results from popular prejudice and discrimination against them. Ten percent of nursing home staff admitted to physically abusing an elderly person in the past year, and 40 percent admitted to committing psychological abuse (World Health Organization 2011). In this chapter we focus on racial and ethnic minorities. What Is Race? Historically, the concept of race has changed across cultures and eras, and has eventually become less connected with ancestral and familial ties, and more concerned with superficial physical characteristics. In the past, theorists have posited categories of race based on various geographic regions, ethnicities, skin colors, and more. Their labels for racial groups have connoted regions (Mongolia and the Caucus Mountains, for instance) or skin tones (black, white, yellow, and red, for example). Social science organizations including the American Association of Anthropologists, the American Sociological Association, and the American Psychological Association have all taken an official position rejecting the biological explanations of race. Over time, the typology of race that developed during early racial science has fallen into disuse, and the social construction of race is a more sociological way of understanding racial categories. Research in this school of thought suggests that race is not biologically identifiable and that previous racial categories were arbitrarily assigned, based on pseudoscience, and used to justify racist practices (Omi and Winant 1994; Graves 2003). When considering skin color, for example, the social construction of race perspective recognizes that the relative darkness or fairness of skin is an evolutionary adaptation to the available sunlight in different regions of the world. Contemporary conceptions of race, therefore, which tend to be based on socioeconomic assumptions, illuminate how far removed modern understanding of race is from biological qualities. In modern society, some people who consider themselves “white” actually have more melanin (a pigment that determines skin color) in their skin than other people who identify as ”black.” Consider the case of the actress Rashida Jones. She is the daughter of a black man (Quincy Jones), and her best-known roles include Ann Perkins onParks and Recreation, Karen Filippelli onThe Office, and Zooey Rice inI Love You Man, none of whom are black characters. In some countries, such as Brazil, class is more important than skin color in determining racial categorization. People with high levels of melanin may consider themselves "white" if they enjoy a middle-class lifestyle. On the other hand, someone with low levels of melanin might be assigned the identity of "black" if he or she has little education or money. The social construction of race is also reflected in the way names for racial categories change with changing times. It’s worth noting that race, in this sense, is also a system of labeling that provides a source of identity; specific labels fall in and out of favor during different social eras. For example, the category ”negroid,” popular in the nineteenth century, evolved into the term “negro” by the 1960s, and then this term fell from use and was replaced with “African American.” This latter term was intended to celebrate the multiple identities that a black person might hold, but the word choice is a poor one: it lumps together a large variety of ethnic groups under an umbrella term while excluding others who could accurately be described by the label but who do not meet the spirit of the term. For example, actress Charlize Theron is a blonde-haired, blue-eyed “African American.” She was born in South Africa and later became a U.S. citizen. Is her identity that of an “African American” as most of us understand the term? What Is Ethnicity? Ethnicity is a term that describes shared culture—the practices, values, and beliefs of a group. This culture might include shared language, religion, and traditions, among other commonalities. Like race, the term ethnicity is difficult to describe and its meaning has changed over time. And as with race, individuals may be identified or self-identify with ethnicities in complex, even contradictory, ways. For example, ethnic groups such as Irish, Italian American, Russian, Jewish, and Serbian might all be groups whose members are predominantly included in the “white” racial category. Conversely, the ethnic group British includes citizens from a multiplicity of racial backgrounds: black, white, Asian, and more, plus a variety of race combinations. These examples illustrate the complexity and overlap of these identifying terms. Ethnicity, like race, continues to be an identification method that individuals and institutions use today—whether through the census, affirmative action initiatives, nondiscrimination laws, or simply in personal day-to-day relations. What Are Minority Groups? Sociologist Louis Wirth (1945) defined a minority group as “any group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination.” The term minority connotes discrimination, and in its sociological use, the termsubordinate group can be used interchangeably with the term minority, while the termdominant group is often substituted for the group that’s in the majority. These definitions correlate to the concept that the dominant group is that which holds the most power in a given society, while subordinate groups are those who lack power compared to the dominant group. Note that being a numerical minority is not a characteristic of being a minority group; sometimes larger groups can be considered minority groups due to their lack of power. It is the lack of power that is the predominant characteristic of a minority, or subordinate group. For example, consider apartheid in South Africa, in which a numerical majority (the black inhabitants of the country) were exploited and oppressed by the white minority. According to Charles Wagley and Marvin Harris (1958), a minority group is distinguished by five characteristics: (1) unequal treatment and less power over their lives, (2) distinguishing physical or cultural traits like skin color or language, (3) involuntary membership in the group, (4) awareness of subordination, and (5) high rate of in-group marriage. Additional examples of minority groups might include the LBGT community, religious practitioners whose faith is not widely practiced where they live, and people with disabilities. Scapegoat theory, developed initially from Dollard’s (1939) Frustration-Aggression theory, suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group. History has shown us many examples of the scapegoating of a subordinate group. An example from the last century is the way Adolf Hitler was able to blame the Jewish population for Germany’s social and economic problems. In the United States, recent immigrants have frequently been the scapegoat for the nation’s—or an individual’s—woes. Many states have enacted laws to disenfranchise immigrants; these laws are popular because they let the dominant group scapegoat a subordinate group. Summary Race is fundamentally a social construct. Ethnicity is a term that describes shared culture and national origin. Minority groups are defined by their lack of power. Section Quiz The racial term “African American” can refer to: - a black person living in the United States - people whose ancestors came to the United States through the slave trade - a white person who originated in Africa and now lives in the United States - any of the above Hint: D What is the one defining feature of a minority group? - Self-definition - Numerical minority - Lack of power - Strong cultural identity Hint: C Ethnicity describes shared: - beliefs - language - religion - any of the above Hint: D Which of the following is an example of a numerical majority being treated as a subordinate group? - Jewish people in Germany - Creoles in New Orleans - White people in Brazil - Blacks under apartheid in South Africa Hint: D Scapegoat theory shows that: - subordinate groups blame dominant groups for their problems - dominant groups blame subordinate groups for their problems - some people are predisposed to prejudice - all of the above Hint: B Short Answer Why do you think the term “minority” has persisted when the word “subordinate” is more descriptive? How do you describe your ethnicity? Do you include your family’s country of origin? Do you consider yourself multiethnic? How does your ethnicity compare to that of the people you spend most of your time with? Further Research Explore aspects of race and ethnicity at PBS’s site, “What Is Race?”: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/PBS_what_is_race References Caver, Helen Bush, and Mary T. Williams. 2011. “Creoles.” Multicultural America, Countries and Their Cultures, December 7. Retrieved February 13, 2012 (http://www.everyculture.com/multi/Bu-Dr/Creoles.html). CNN Library. (February 22, 2014). "Trayvon Martin Shooting Fast Facts." CNN US. N.p., Retrieved October 9, 2014 (http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/05/us/trayvon-martin-shooting-fast-facts/) Dollard, J., et al. 1939. Frustration and Aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Graves, Joseph. 2003. The Emperor's New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Millennium. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Omi, Michael, and Howard Winant. 1994. Racial Formation in the United States: from the 1960s to the 1990s (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Wagley, Charles, and Marvin Harris. 1958. Minorities in the New World: Six Case Studies. New York: Columbia University Press. Wirth, Louis. 1945. “The Problem of Minority Groups.” The Science of Man in the World Crisis, edited by R. Linton: 347. In Hacker, Helen Mayer. 1951.Women as a Minority Group. Retrieved December 1, 2011 (http://media.pfeiffer.edu/lridener/courses/womminor.html). World Health Organization. 2011. “Elder Maltreatment.” Fact Sheet N-357. Retrieved December 19, 2011 (http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs357/en/index.html).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.019864	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11799/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Race and Ethnicity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11800/overview	Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination Overview - Explain the difference between stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination, and racism - Identify different types of discrimination - View racial tension through a sociological lens The terms stereotype, prejudice, discrimination, and racism are often used interchangeably in everyday conversation. Let us explore the differences between these concepts. Stereotypes are oversimplified generalizations about groups of people. Stereotypes can be based on race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation—almost any characteristic. They may be positive (usually about one’s own group, such as when women suggest they are less likely to complain about physical pain) but are often negative (usually toward other groups, such as when members of a dominant racial group suggest that a subordinate racial group is stupid or lazy). In either case, the stereotype is a generalization that doesn’t take individual differences into account. Where do stereotypes come from? In fact new stereotypes are rarely created; rather, they are recycled from subordinate groups that have assimilated into society and are reused to describe newly subordinate groups. For example, many stereotypes that are currently used to characterize black people were used earlier in American history to characterize Irish and Eastern European immigrants. Prejudice and Racism Prejudice refers to the beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes someone holds about a group. A prejudice is not based on experience; instead, it is a prejudgment, originating outside actual experience. A 1970 documentary called Eye of the Storm illustrates the way in which prejudice develops, by showing how defining one category of people as superior (children with blue eyes) results in prejudice against people who are not part of the favored category. While prejudice is not necessarily specific to race, racism is a stronger type of prejudice used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others; it is also a set of practices used by a racial majority to disadvantage a racial minority. The Ku Klux Klan is an example of a racist organization; its members' belief in white supremacy has encouraged over a century of hate crime and hate speech. Institutional racism refers to the way in which racism is embedded in the fabric of society. For example, the disproportionate number of black men arrested, charged, and convicted of crimes may reflect racial profiling, a form of institutional racism. Colorism is another kind of prejudice, in which someone believes one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group. Studies suggest that darker skinned African Americans experience more discrimination than lighter skinned African Americans (Herring, Keith, and Horton 2004; Klonoff and Landrine 2000). For example, if a white employer believes a black employee with a darker skin tone is less capable than a black employer with lighter skin tone, that is colorism. At least one study suggested the colorism affected racial socialization, with darker-skinned black male adolescents receiving more warnings about the danger of interacting with members of other racial groups than did lighter-skinned black male adolescents (Landor et al. 2013). Discrimination While prejudice refers to biased thinking, discrimination consists of actions against a group of people. Discrimination can be based on age, religion, health, and other indicators; race-based laws against discrimination strive to address this set of social problems. Discrimination based on race or ethnicity can take many forms, from unfair housing practices to biased hiring systems. Overt discrimination has long been part of U.S. history. In the late nineteenth century, it was not uncommon for business owners to hang signs that read, "Help Wanted: No Irish Need Apply." And southern Jim Crow laws, with their "Whites Only" signs, exemplified overt discrimination that is not tolerated today. However, we cannot erase discrimination from our culture just by enacting laws to abolish it. Even if a magic pill managed to eradicate racism from each individual's psyche, society itself would maintain it. Sociologist Émile Durkheim calls racism a social fact, meaning that it does not require the action of individuals to continue. The reasons for this are complex and relate to the educational, criminal, economic, and political systems that exist in our society. For example, when a newspaper identifies by race individuals accused of a crime, it may enhance stereotypes of a certain minority. Another example of racist practices is racial steering, in which real estate agents direct prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race. Racist attitudes and beliefs are often more insidious and harder to pin down than specific racist practices. Prejudice and discrimination can overlap and intersect in many ways. To illustrate, here are four examples of how prejudice and discrimination can occur. Unprejudiced nondiscriminators are open-minded, tolerant, and accepting individuals. Unprejudiced discriminators might be those who unthinkingly practice sexism in their workplace by not considering females for certain positions that have traditionally been held by men. Prejudiced nondiscriminators are those who hold racist beliefs but don't act on them, such as a racist store owner who serves minority customers. Prejudiced discriminators include those who actively make disparaging remarks about others or who perpetuate hate crimes. Discrimination also manifests in different ways. The scenarios above are examples of individual discrimination, but other types exist. Institutional discrimination occurs when a societal system has developed with embedded disenfranchisement of a group, such as the U.S. military's historical nonacceptance of minority sexualities (the "don't ask, don't tell" policy reflected this norm). Institutional discrimination can also include the promotion of a group's status, such in the case of white privilege, which is the benefits people receive simply by being part of the dominant group. While most white people are willing to admit that nonwhite people live with a set of disadvantages due to the color of their skin, very few are willing to acknowledge the benefits they receive. Racial Tensions in the United States The death of Michael Brown in Ferguson, MO on August 9, 2014 illustrates racial tensions in the United States as well as the overlap between prejudice, discrimination, and institutional racism. On that day, Brown, a young unarmed black man, was killed by a white police officer named Darren Wilson. During the incident, Wilson directed Brown and his friend to walk on the sidewalk instead of in the street. While eyewitness accounts vary, they agree that an altercation occurred between Wilson and Brown. Wilson’s version has him shooting Brown in self-defense after Brown assaulted him, while Dorian Johnson, a friend of Brown also present at the time, claimed that Brown first ran away, then turned with his hands in the air to surrender, after which Johnson shot him repeatedly (Nobles and Bosman 2014). Three autopsies independently confirmed that Brown was shot six times (Lowery and Fears 2014). The shooting focused attention on a number of race-related tensions in the United States. First, members of the predominantly black community viewed Brown’s death as the result of a white police officer racially profiling a black man (Nobles and Bosman 2014). In the days after, it was revealed that only three members of the town’s fifty-three-member police force were black (Nobles and Bosman 2014). The national dialogue shifted during the next few weeks, with some commentators pointing to a nationwide sedimentation of racial inequality and identifyingredlining in Ferguson as a cause of the unbalanced racial composition in the community, in local political establishments, and in the police force (Bouie 2014). Redlining is the practice of routinely refusing mortgages for households and businesses located in predominately minority communities, while sedimentation of racial inequality describes the intergenerational impact of both practical and legalized racism that limits the abilities of black people to accumulate wealth. Ferguson’s racial imbalance may explain in part why, even though in 2010 only about 63 percent of its population was black, in 2013 blacks were detained in 86 percent of stops, 92 percent of searches, and 93 percent of arrests (Missouri Attorney General’s Office 2014). In addition, de facto segregation in Ferguson’s schools, a race-based wealth gap, urban sprawl, and a black unemployment rate three times that of the white unemployment rate worsened existing racial tensions in Ferguson while also reflecting nationwide racial inequalities (Bouie 2014). Multiple Identities Prior to the twentieth century, racial intermarriage (referred to as miscegenation) was extremely rare, and in many places, illegal. In the later part of the twentieth century and in the twenty-first century, as shows, attitudes have changed for the better. While the sexual subordination of slaves did result in children of mixed race, these children were usually considered black, and therefore, property. There was no concept of multiple racial identities with the possible exception of the Creole. Creole society developed in the port city of New Orleans, where a mixed-race culture grew from French and African inhabitants. Unlike in other parts of the country, “Creoles of color” had greater social, economic, and educational opportunities than most African Americans. Increasingly during the modern era, the removal of miscegenation laws and a trend toward equal rights and legal protection against racism have steadily reduced the social stigma attached to racial exogamy (exogamy refers to marriage outside a person’s core social unit). It is now common for the children of racially mixed parents to acknowledge and celebrate their various ethnic identities. Golfer Tiger Woods, for instance, has Chinese, Thai, African American, Native American, and Dutch heritage; he jokingly refers to his ethnicity as “Cablinasian,” a term he coined to combine several of his ethnic backgrounds. While this is the trend, it is not yet evident in all aspects of our society. For example, the U.S. Census only recently added additional categories for people to identify themselves, such as non-white Hispanic. A growing number of people chose multiple races to describe themselves on the 2010 Census, paving the way for the 2020 Census to provide yet more choices. The Confederate Flag vs. the First Amendment In January 2006, two girls walked into Burleson High School in Texas carrying purses that displayed large images of Confederate flags. School administrators told the girls that they were in violation of the dress code, which prohibited apparel with inappropriate symbolism or clothing that discriminated based on race. To stay in school, they’d have to have someone pick up their purses or leave them in the office. The girls chose to go home for the day but then challenged the school’s decision, appealing first to the principal, then to the district superintendent, then to the U.S. District Court, and finally to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals. Why did the school ban the purses, and why did it stand behind that ban, even when being sued? Why did the girls, identified anonymously in court documents as A.M. and A.T., pursue such strong legal measures for their right to carry the purses? The issue, of course, is not the purses: it is the Confederate flag that adorns them. The parties in this case join a long line of people and institutions that have fought for their right to display it, saying such a display is covered by the First Amendment’s guarantee of free speech. In the end, the court sided with the district and noted that the Confederate flag carried symbolism significant enough to disrupt normal school activities. While many young people in the United States like to believe that racism is mostly in the country’s past, this case illustrates how racism and discrimination are quite alive today. If the Confederate flag is synonymous with slavery, is there any place for its display in modern society? Those who fight for their right to display the flag say such a display should be covered by the First Amendment: the right to free speech. But others say the flag is equivalent to hate speech. Do you think that displaying the Confederate flag should considered free speech or hate speech? Summary Stereotypes are oversimplified ideas about groups of people. Prejudice refers to thoughts and feelings, while discrimination refers to actions. Racism refers to the belief that one race is inherently superior or inferior to other races. Section Quiz Stereotypes can be based on: - race - ethnicity - gender - all of the above Hint: D What is discrimination? - Biased thoughts against an individual or group - Biased actions against an individual or group - Belief that a race different from yours is inferior - Another word for stereotyping Hint: B Which of the following is the best explanation of racism as a social fact? - It needs to be eradicated by laws. - It is like a magic pill. - It does not need the actions of individuals to continue. - None of the above Hint: C Short Answer How do redlining and racial steering contribute to institutionalized racism? Give an example of stereotyping that you see in everyday life. Explain what would need to happen for this to be eliminated. Further Research How far should First Amendment rights extend? Read more about the subject at the First Amendment Center: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/first_amendment_center Learn more about institutional racism at www.splcenter.org Learn more about how prejudice develops by watching the short documentary “Eye of the Storm”: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FjSHOaugO-0 References Bouie, Jamelle. (August 19, 2014). "Why the Fires in Ferguson Won't End Soon." Slate.com. N.p., Retrieved October 9, 2014 (http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2014/08/ferguson_protests_over_michael_brown_won_t_end_soon_the_black_community.2.html) Herring, C., V. M. Keith, and H.D. Horton. 2004. Skin Deep: How Race and Complexion Matter in the “Color-Blind” Era (Ed.), Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press. Hudson, David L. 2009. “Students Lose Confederate-Flag Purse Case in 5th Circuit.” Retrieved December 7, 2011 (http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/students-lose-confederate-flag-purse-case-in-5th-circuit). Klonoff, E., and H. Landrine. 2000. “Is Skin Color a Marker for Racial Discrimination? Explaining the Skin Color-Hypertension Relationship.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 23: 329–338. Landor, Antoinette M., Leslie Gordon Simons, Ronald L. Simons, Gene H. Brody, Chalandra M. Bryant, Frederick X. Gibbons, Ellen M. Granberg, and Janet N. Melby. 2013. "Exploring the impact of skin tone on family dynamics and race-related outcomes." Journal Of Family Psychology. 27 (5): 817-826. Lowery, Wesley and Darryl Fears. (August 31, 2014). "Michael Brown and Dorian Johnson, the friend who witnessed his shooting". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 9 , 2014. (http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/michael-brown-and-dorian-johnson-the-friend-who-witnessed-his-shooting/2014/08/31/bb9b47ba-2ee2-11e4-9b98-848790384093_story.html) McIntosh, Peggy. 1988. “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack.” White Privilege and Male Privilege: A Personal Account of Coming to See Correspondences Through Work in Women’s Studies. Wellesley, MA: Wellesley College Center for Research on Women. Missouri Attorney General’s Office. (n.d.) "Racial Profiling Report." N.p. Retrieved October 9, 2014 (http://ago.mo.gov/VehicleStops/2013/reports/161.pdf). Nobles, Frances, and Julie Bosman. (August 17, 2014). "Autopsy Shows Michael Brown Was Struck at Least Six Times." The New York Times. Retrieved October 9, 2014 (http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/18/us/michael-brown-autopsy-shows-he-was-shot-at-least-6-times.html) Yerevanci. 2013. "Public Opinion of Interracial Marriage in the United States." Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved December 23, 2014 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Public_opinion_of_interracial_marriage_in_the_United_States.png).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.050934	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11800/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Race and Ethnicity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11801/overview	Theories of Race and Ethnicity Overview - Describe how major sociological perspectives view race and ethnicity - Identify examples of culture of prejudice Theoretical Perspectives We can examine issues of race and ethnicity through three major sociological perspectives: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. As you read through these theories, ask yourself which one makes the most sense and why. Do we need more than one theory to explain racism, prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination? Functionalism In the view of functionalism, racial and ethnic inequalities must have served an important function in order to exist as long as they have. This concept, of course, is problematic. How can racism and discrimination contribute positively to society? A functionalist might look at “functions” and “dysfunctions” caused by racial inequality. Nash (1964) focused his argument on the way racism is functional for the dominant group, for example, suggesting that racism morally justifies a racially unequal society. Consider the way slave owners justified slavery in the antebellum South, by suggesting black people were fundamentally inferior to white and preferred slavery to freedom. Another way to apply the functionalist perspective to racism is to discuss the way racism can contribute positively to the functioning of society by strengthening bonds between in-groups members through the ostracism of out-group members. Consider how a community might increase solidarity by refusing to allow outsiders access. On the other hand, Rose (1951) suggested that dysfunctions associated with racism include the failure to take advantage of talent in the subjugated group, and that society must divert from other purposes the time and effort needed to maintain artificially constructed racial boundaries. Consider how much money, time, and effort went toward maintaining separate and unequal educational systems prior to the civil rights movement. Conflict Theory Conflict theories are often applied to inequalities of gender, social class, education, race, and ethnicity. A conflict theory perspective of U.S. history would examine the numerous past and current struggles between the white ruling class and racial and ethnic minorities, noting specific conflicts that have arisen when the dominant group perceived a threat from the minority group. In the late nineteenth century, the rising power of black Americans after the Civil War resulted in draconian Jim Crow laws that severely limited black political and social power. For example, Vivien Thomas (1910–1985), the black surgical technician who helped develop the groundbreaking surgical technique that saves the lives of “blue babies” was classified as a janitor for many years, and paid as such, despite the fact that he was conducting complicated surgical experiments. The years since the Civil War have showed a pattern of attempted disenfranchisement, with gerrymandering and voter suppression efforts aimed at predominantly minority neighborhoods. Feminist sociologist Patricia Hill Collins (1990) developed intersection theory, which suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes. When we examine race and how it can bring us both advantages and disadvantages, it is important to acknowledge that the way we experience race is shaped, for example, by our gender and class. Multiple layers of disadvantage intersect to create the way we experience race. For example, if we want to understand prejudice, we must understand that the prejudice focused on a white woman because of her gender is very different from the layered prejudice focused on a poor Asian woman, who is affected by stereotypes related to being poor, being a woman, and her ethnic status. Interactionism For symbolic interactionists, race and ethnicity provide strong symbols as sources of identity. In fact, some interactionists propose that the symbols of race, not race itself, are what lead to racism. Famed Interactionist Herbert Blumer (1958) suggested that racial prejudice is formed through interactions between members of the dominant group: Without these interactions, individuals in the dominant group would not hold racist views. These interactions contribute to an abstract picture of the subordinate group that allows the dominant group to support its view of the subordinate group, and thus maintains the status quo. An example of this might be an individual whose beliefs about a particular group are based on images conveyed in popular media, and those are unquestionably believed because the individual has never personally met a member of that group. Another way to apply the interactionist perspective is to look at how people define their races and the race of others. As we discussed in relation to the social construction of race, since some people who claim a white identity have a greater amount of skin pigmentation than some people who claim a black identity, how did they come to define themselves as black or white? Culture of Prejudice Culture of prejudice refers to the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture. We grow up surrounded by images of stereotypes and casual expressions of racism and prejudice. Consider the casually racist imagery on grocery store shelves or the stereotypes that fill popular movies and advertisements. It is easy to see how someone living in the Northeastern United States, who may know no Mexican Americans personally, might gain a stereotyped impression from such sources as Speedy Gonzalez or Taco Bell’s talking Chihuahua. Because we are all exposed to these images and thoughts, it is impossible to know to what extent they have influenced our thought processes. Summary Functionalist views of race study the role dominant and subordinate groups play to create a stable social structure. Conflict theorists examine power disparities and struggles between various racial and ethnic groups. Interactionists see race and ethnicity as important sources of individual identity and social symbolism. The concept of culture of prejudice recognizes that all people are subject to stereotypes that are ingrained in their culture. Section Quiz As a Caucasian in the United States, being reasonably sure that you will be dealing with authority figures of the same race as you is a result of: - intersection theory - conflict theory - white privilege - scapegoating theory Hint: C Speedy Gonzalez is an example of: - intersection theory - stereotyping - interactionist view - culture of prejudice Hint: B Short Answer Give three examples of white privilege. Do you know people who have experienced this? From what perspective? What is the worst example of culture of prejudice you can think of? What are your reasons for thinking it is the worst? Further Research Do you know someone who practices white privilege? Do you practice it? Explore the concept with this checklist: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/white_privilege_checklist to see how much of it holds true for you or others. References Collins, Patricia Hill. 2008. Distinguishing Features of Black Feminist Thought. London: Routledge. Durkheim, Émile. 1982 [1895]. The Rules of the Sociological Method. Translated by W.D. Halls. New York: Free Press. Nash, Manning. 1964. “Race and the Ideology of Race.” Current Anthropology 3(3): 285–288. Rose, Arnold. 1958 [1951]. The Roots of Prejudice, fifth edition. Paris, France: Unesco. Retrieved November 19 (http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0007/000733/073342eo.pdf).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.074691	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11801/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Race and Ethnicity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11802/overview	Intergroup Relationships Overview - Explain different intergroup relations in terms of their relative levels of tolerance - Give historical and/or contemporary examples of each type of intergroup relation Intergroup relations (relationships between different groups of people) range along a spectrum between tolerance and intolerance. The most tolerant form of intergroup relations is pluralism, in which no distinction is made between minority and majority groups, but instead there’s equal standing. At the other end of the continuum are amalgamation, expulsion, and even genocide—stark examples of intolerant intergroup relations. Genocide Genocide, the deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group, is the most toxic intergroup relationship. Historically, we can see that genocide has included both the intent to exterminate a group and the function of exterminating of a group, intentional or not. Possibly the most well-known case of genocide is Hitler’s attempt to exterminate the Jewish people in the first part of the twentieth century. Also known as the Holocaust, the explicit goal of Hitler’s “Final Solution” was the eradication of European Jewry, as well as the destruction of other minority groups such as Catholics, people with disabilities, and homosexuals. With forced emigration, concentration camps, and mass executions in gas chambers, Hitler’s Nazi regime was responsible for the deaths of 12 million people, 6 million of whom were Jewish. Hitler’s intent was clear, and the high Jewish death toll certainly indicates that Hitler and his regime committed genocide. But how do we understand genocide that is not so overt and deliberate? The treatment of aboriginal Australians is also an example of genocide committed against indigenous people. Historical accounts suggest that between 1824 and 1908, white settlers killed more than 10,000 native aborigines in Tasmania and Australia (Tatz 2006). Another example is the European colonization of North America. Some historians estimate that Native American populations dwindled from approximately 12 million people in the year 1500 to barely 237,000 by the year 1900 (Lewy 2004). European settlers coerced American Indians off their own lands, often causing thousands of deaths in forced removals, such as occurred in the Cherokee or Potawatomi Trail of Tears. Settlers also enslaved Native Americans and forced them to give up their religious and cultural practices. But the major cause of Native American death was neither slavery nor war nor forced removal: it was the introduction of European diseases and Indians’ lack of immunity to them. Smallpox, diphtheria, and measles flourished among indigenous American tribes who had no exposure to the diseases and no ability to fight them. Quite simply, these diseases decimated the tribes. How planned this genocide was remains a topic of contention. Some argue that the spread of disease was an unintended effect of conquest, while others believe it was intentional citing rumors of smallpox-infected blankets being distributed as “gifts” to tribes. Genocide is not a just a historical concept; it is practiced today. Recently, ethnic and geographic conflicts in the Darfur region of Sudan have led to hundreds of thousands of deaths. As part of an ongoing land conflict, the Sudanese government and their state-sponsored Janjaweed militia have led a campaign of killing, forced displacement, and systematic rape of Darfuri people. Although a treaty was signed in 2011, the peace is fragile. Expulsion Expulsion refers to a subordinate group being forced, by a dominant group, to leave a certain area or country. As seen in the examples of the Trail of Tears and the Holocaust, expulsion can be a factor in genocide. However, it can also stand on its own as a destructive group interaction. Expulsion has often occurred historically with an ethnic or racial basis. In the United States, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 in 1942, after the Japanese government’s attack on Pearl Harbor. The Order authorized the establishment of internment camps for anyone with as little as one-eighth Japanese ancestry (i.e., one great-grandparent who was Japanese). Over 120,000 legal Japanese residents and Japanese U.S. citizens, many of them children, were held in these camps for up to four years, despite the fact that there was never any evidence of collusion or espionage. (In fact, many Japanese Americans continued to demonstrate their loyalty to the United States by serving in the U.S. military during the War.) In the 1990s, the U.S. executive branch issued a formal apology for this expulsion; reparation efforts continue today. Segregation Segregation refers to the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions. It is important to distinguish betweende jure segregation (segregation that is enforced by law) andde facto segregation (segregation that occurs without laws but because of other factors). A stark example ofde jure segregation is the apartheid movement of South Africa, which existed from 1948 to 1994. Under apartheid, black South Africans were stripped of their civil rights and forcibly relocated to areas that segregated them physically from their white compatriots. Only after decades of degradation, violent uprisings, and international advocacy was apartheid finally abolished. De jure segregation occurred in the United States for many years after the Civil War. During this time, many former Confederate states passed Jim Crow laws that required segregated facilities for blacks and whites. These laws were codified in 1896’s landmark Supreme Court casePlessey v. Ferguson, which stated that “separate but equal” facilities were constitutional. For the next five decades, blacks were subjected to legalized discrimination, forced to live, work, and go to school in separate—butunequal—facilities. It wasn’t until 1954 and theBrown v. Board of Education case that the Supreme Court declared that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal,” thus endingde jure segregation in the United States. De facto segregation, however, cannot be abolished by any court mandate. Segregation is still alive and well in the United States, with different racial or ethnic groups often segregated by neighborhood, borough, or parish. Sociologists use segregation indices to measure racial segregation of different races in different areas. The indices employ a scale from zero to 100, where zero is the most integrated and 100 is the least. In the New York metropolitan area, for instance, the black-white segregation index was seventy-nine for the years 2005–2009. This means that 79 percent of either blacks or whites would have to move in order for each neighborhood to have the same racial balance as the whole metro region (Population Studies Center 2010). Pluralism Pluralism is represented by the ideal of the United States as a “salad bowl”: a great mixture of different cultures where each culture retains its own identity and yet adds to the flavor of the whole. True pluralism is characterized by mutual respect on the part of all cultures, both dominant and subordinate, creating a multicultural environment of acceptance. In reality, true pluralism is a difficult goal to reach. In the United States, the mutual respect required by pluralism is often missing, and the nation’s past pluralist model of a melting pot posits a society where cultural differences aren’t embraced as much as erased. Assimilation Assimilation describes the process by which a minority individual or group gives up its own identity by taking on the characteristics of the dominant culture. In the United States, which has a history of welcoming and absorbing immigrants from different lands, assimilation has been a function of immigration. Most people in the United States have immigrant ancestors. In relatively recent history, between 1890 and 1920, the United States became home to around 24 million immigrants. In the decades since then, further waves of immigrants have come to these shores and have eventually been absorbed into U.S. culture, sometimes after facing extended periods of prejudice and discrimination. Assimilation may lead to the loss of the minority group’s cultural identity as they become absorbed into the dominant culture, but assimilation has minimal to no impact on the majority group’s cultural identity. Some groups may keep only symbolic gestures of their original ethnicity. For instance, many Irish Americans may celebrate Saint Patrick’s Day, many Hindu Americans enjoy a Diwali festival, and many Mexican Americans may celebrate Cinco de Mayo (a May 5 commemoration of Mexican independence and heritage). However, for the rest of the year, other aspects of their originating culture may be forgotten. Assimilation is antithetical to the “salad bowl” created by pluralism; rather than maintaining their own cultural flavor, subordinate cultures give up their own traditions in order to conform to their new environment. Sociologists measure the degree to which immigrants have assimilated to a new culture with four benchmarks: socioeconomic status, spatial concentration, language assimilation, and intermarriage. When faced with racial and ethnic discrimination, it can be difficult for new immigrants to fully assimilate. Language assimilation, in particular, can be a formidable barrier, limiting employment and educational options and therefore constraining growth in socioeconomic status. Amalgamation Amalgamation is the process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group. Amalgamation creates the classic “melting pot” analogy; unlike the “salad bowl,” in which each culture retains its individuality, the “melting pot” ideal sees the combination of cultures that results in a new culture entirely. Amalgamation, also known as miscegenation, is achieved through intermarriage between races. In the United States, antimiscegenation laws flourished in the South during the Jim Crow era. It wasn’t until 1967’s Loving v. Virginia that the last antimiscegenation law was struck from the books, making these laws unconstitutional. Summary Intergroup relations range from a tolerant approach of pluralism to intolerance as severe as genocide. In pluralism, groups retain their own identity. In assimilation, groups conform to the identity of the dominant group. In amalgamation, groups combine to form a new group identity. Section Quiz Which intergroup relation displays the least tolerance? - Segregation - Assimilation - Genocide - Expulsion Hint: C What doctrine justified legal segregation in the South? - Jim Crow - Plessey v. Ferguson - De jure - Separate but equal Hint: D What intergroup relationship is represented by the “salad bowl” metaphor? - Assimilation - Pluralism - Amalgamation - Segregation Hint: B Amalgamation is represented by the _____________ metaphor. - melting pot - Statue of Liberty - salad bowl - separate but equal Hint: A Short Answer Do you believe immigration laws should foster an approach of pluralism, assimilation, or amalgamation? Which perspective do you think is most supported by current U.S. immigration policies? Which intergroup relation do you think is the most beneficial to the subordinate group? To society as a whole? Why? Further Research So you think you know your own assumptions? Check and find out with the Implicit Association Test: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/implicit_association_test What do you know about the treatment of Australia’s aboriginal population? Find out more by viewing the feature-length documentary Our Generation:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tcq4oGL0wlI References Asi, Maryam, and Daniel Beaulieu. 2013. “Arab Households in the United States: 2006–2010.” U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved November 19, 2014 (http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acsbr10-20.pdf). Lewy, Guenter. 2004. “Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?” Retrieved December 6, 2011 (http://hnn.us/articles/7302.html). Norris, Tina, Paula L. Vines, and Elizabeth M. Hoeffel. 2012. “The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010.” U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved November 19, 2014 (http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf). Population Studies Center. 2010. “New Racial Segregation Measures for States and Large Metropolitan Areas: Analysis of the 2005–2009 American Community Survey.” Population Studies Center: Institute for Social Research. Retrieved November 29, 2011 (http://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/dis/census/segregation.html). Tatz, Colin. 2006. "Confronting Australian Genocide." The Indigenous Experience: Global Perspectives. Edited by Roger Maaka and Chris Andersen. Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars Press. U.S. Census Bureau. 2014. “State and County Quickfacts.” Retrieved November 19, 2014 (http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.106482	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11802/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Race and Ethnicity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11803/overview	Race and Ethnicity in the United States Overview - Compare and contrast the different experiences of various ethnic groups in the United States - Apply theories of intergroup relations, race, and ethnicity to different subordinate groups When colonists came to the New World, they found a land that did not need “discovering” since it was already occupied. While the first wave of immigrants came from Western Europe, eventually the bulk of people entering North America were from Northern Europe, then Eastern Europe, then Latin America and Asia. And let us not forget the forced immigration of African slaves. Most of these groups underwent a period of disenfranchisement in which they were relegated to the bottom of the social hierarchy before they managed (for those who could) to achieve social mobility. Today, our society is multicultural, although the extent to which this multiculturality is embraced varies, and the many manifestations of multiculturalism carry significant political repercussions. The sections below will describe how several groups became part of U.S. society, discuss the history of intergroup relations for each faction, and assess each group’s status today. Native Americans The only nonimmigrant ethnic group in the United States, Native Americans once numbered in the millions but by 2010 made up only 0.9 percent of U.S. populace; see above (U.S. Census 2010). Currently, about 2.9 million people identify themselves as Native American alone, while an additional 2.3 million identify them as Native American mixed with another ethnic group (Norris, Vines, and Hoeffel 2012). Sports Teams with Native American Names The sports world abounds with team names like the Indians, the Warriors, the Braves, and even the Savages and Redskins. These names arise from historically prejudiced views of Native Americans as fierce, brave, and strong savages: attributes that would be beneficial to a sports team, but are not necessarily beneficial to people in the United States who should be seen as more than just fierce savages. Since the civil rights movement of the 1960s, the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) has been campaigning against the use of such mascots, asserting that the “warrior savage myth . . . reinforces the racist view that Indians are uncivilized and uneducated and it has been used to justify policies of forced assimilation and destruction of Indian culture” (NCAI Resolution #TUL-05-087 2005). The campaign has met with only limited success. While some teams have changed their names, hundreds of professional, college, and K–12 school teams still have names derived from this stereotype. Another group, American Indian Cultural Support (AICS), is especially concerned with the use of such names at K–12 schools, influencing children when they should be gaining a fuller and more realistic understanding of Native Americans than such stereotypes supply. What do you think about such names? Should they be allowed or banned? What argument would a symbolic interactionist make on this topic? How and Why They Came The earliest immigrants to America arrived millennia before European immigrants. Dates of the migration are debated with estimates ranging from between 45,000 and 12,000 BCE. It is thought that early Indians migrated to this new land in search of big game to hunt, which they found in huge herds of grazing herbivores in the Americas. Over the centuries and then the millennia, Native American culture blossomed into an intricate web of hundreds of interconnected tribes, each with its own customs, traditions, languages, and religions. History of Intergroup Relations Native American culture prior to European settlement is referred to as Pre-Columbian: that is, prior to the coming of Christopher Columbus in 1492. Mistakenly believing that he had landed in the East Indies, Columbus named the indigenous people “Indians,” a name that has persisted for centuries despite being a geographical misnomer and one used to blanket 500 distinct groups who each have their own languages and traditions. The history of intergroup relations between European colonists and Native Americans is a brutal one. As discussed in the section on genocide, the effect of European settlement of the Americans was to nearly destroy the indigenous population. And although Native Americans’ lack of immunity to European diseases caused the most deaths, overt mistreatment of Native Americans by Europeans was devastating as well. From the first Spanish colonists to the French, English, and Dutch who followed, European settlers took what land they wanted and expanded across the continent at will. If indigenous people tried to retain their stewardship of the land, Europeans fought them off with superior weapons. A key element of this issue is the indigenous view of land and land ownership. Most tribes considered the earth a living entity whose resources they were stewards of, the concepts of land ownership and conquest didn’t exist in Native American society. Europeans’ domination of the Americas was indeed a conquest; one scholar points out that Native Americans are the only minority group in the United States whose subordination occurred purely through conquest by the dominant group (Marger 1993). After the establishment of the United States government, discrimination against Native Americans was codified and formalized in a series of laws intended to subjugate them and keep them from gaining any power. Some of the most impactful laws are as follows: - The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced the relocation of any native tribes east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river. - The Indian Appropriation Acts funded further removals and declared that no Indian tribe could be recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power with which the U.S. government would have to make treaties. This made it even easier for the U.S. government to take land it wanted. - The Dawes Act of 1887 reversed the policy of isolating Native Americans on reservations, instead forcing them onto individual properties that were intermingled with white settlers, thereby reducing their capacity for power as a group. Native American culture was further eroded by the establishment of Indian boarding schools in the late nineteenth century. These schools, run by both Christian missionaries and the United States government, had the express purpose of “civilizing” Native American children and assimilating them into white society. The boarding schools were located off-reservation to ensure that children were separated from their families and culture. Schools forced children to cut their hair, speak English, and practice Christianity. Physical and sexual abuses were rampant for decades; only in 1987 did the Bureau of Indian Affairs issue a policy on sexual abuse in boarding schools. Some scholars argue that many of the problems that Native Americans face today result from almost a century of mistreatment at these boarding schools. Current Status The eradication of Native American culture continued until the 1960s, when Native Americans were able to participate in and benefit from the civil rights movement. The Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 guaranteed Indian tribes most of the rights of the United States Bill of Rights. New laws like the Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975 and the Education Assistance Act of the same year recognized tribal governments and gave them more power. Indian boarding schools have dwindled to only a few, and Native American cultural groups are striving to preserve and maintain old traditions to keep them from being lost forever. However, Native Americans (some of whom now wished to be called American Indians so as to avoid the “savage” connotations of the term “native”) still suffer the effects of centuries of degradation. Long-term poverty, inadequate education, cultural dislocation, and high rates of unemployment contribute to Native American populations falling to the bottom of the economic spectrum. Native Americans also suffer disproportionately with lower life expectancies than most groups in the United States. African Americans As discussed in the section on race, the term African American can be a misnomer for many individuals. Many people with dark skin may have their more recent roots in Europe or the Caribbean, seeing themselves as Dominican American or Dutch American. Further, actual immigrants from Africa may feel that they have more of a claim to the term African American than those who are many generations removed from ancestors who originally came to this country. This section will focus on the experience of the slaves who were transported from Africa to the United States, and their progeny. Currently, the U.S. Census Bureau (2014) estimates that 13.2 percent of the United States' population is black. How and Why They Came If Native Americans are the only minority group whose subordinate status occurred by conquest, African Americans are the exemplar minority group in the United States whose ancestors did not come here by choice. A Dutch sea captain brought the first Africans to the Virginia colony of Jamestown in 1619 and sold them as indentured servants. This was not an uncommon practice for either blacks or whites, and indentured servants were in high demand. For the next century, black and white indentured servants worked side by side. But the growing agricultural economy demanded greater and cheaper labor, and by 1705, Virginia passed the slave codes declaring that any foreign-born non-Christian could be a slave, and that slaves were considered property. The next 150 years saw the rise of U.S. slavery, with black Africans being kidnapped from their own lands and shipped to the New World on the trans-Atlantic journey known as the Middle Passage. Once in the Americas, the black population grew until U.S.-born blacks outnumbered those born in Africa. But colonial (and later, U.S.) slave codes declared that the child of a slave was a slave, so the slave class was created. By 1869, the slave trade was internal in the United States, with slaves being bought and sold across state lines like livestock. History of Intergroup Relations There is no starker illustration of the dominant-subordinate group relationship than that of slavery. In order to justify their severely discriminatory behavior, slaveholders and their supporters had to view blacks as innately inferior. Slaves were denied even the most basic rights of citizenship, a crucial factor for slaveholders and their supporters. Slavery poses an excellent example of conflict theory’s perspective on race relations; the dominant group needed complete control over the subordinate group in order to maintain its power. Whippings, executions, rapes, denial of schooling and health care were all permissible and widely practiced. Slavery eventually became an issue over which the nation divided into geographically and ideologically distinct factions, leading to the Civil War. And while the abolition of slavery on moral grounds was certainly a catalyst to war, it was not the only driving force. Students of U.S. history will know that the institution of slavery was crucial to the Southern economy, whose production of crops like rice, cotton, and tobacco relied on the virtually limitless and cheap labor that slavery provided. In contrast, the North didn’t benefit economically from slavery, resulting in an economic disparity tied to racial/political issues. A century later, the civil rights movement was characterized by boycotts, marches, sit-ins, and freedom rides: demonstrations by a subordinate group that would no longer willingly submit to domination. The major blow to America’s formally institutionalized racism was the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This Act, which is still followed today, banned discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Some sociologists, however, would argue that institutionalized racism persists. Current Status Although government-sponsored, formalized discrimination against African Americans has been outlawed, true equality does not yet exist. The National Urban League’s 2011 Equality Index reports that blacks’ overall equality level with whites has dropped in the past year, from 71.5 percent to 71.1 percent in 2010. TheIndex, which has been published since 2005, notes a growing trend of increased inequality with whites, especially in the areas of unemployment, insurance coverage, and incarceration. Blacks also trail whites considerably in the areas of economics, health, and education. To what degree do racism and prejudice contribute to this continued inequality? The answer is complex. 2008 saw the election of this country’s first African American president: Barack Hussein Obama. Despite being popularly identified as black, we should note that President Obama is of a mixed background that is equally white, and although all presidents have been publicly mocked at times (Gerald Ford was depicted as a klutz, Bill Clinton as someone who could not control his libido), a startling percentage of the critiques of Obama have been based on his race. The most blatant of these was the controversy over his birth certificate, where the “birther” movement questioned his citizenship and right to hold office. Although blacks have come a long way from slavery, the echoes of centuries of disempowerment are still evident. Asian Americans Like many groups this section discusses, Asian Americans represent a great diversity of cultures and backgrounds. The experience of a Japanese American whose family has been in the United States for three generations will be drastically different from a Laotian American who has only been in the United States for a few years. This section primarily discusses Chinese, Japanese, and Vietnamese immigrants and shows the differences between their experiences. The most recent estimate from the U.S. Census Bureau (2014) suggest about 5.3 percent of the population identify themselves as Asian. How and Why They Came The national and ethnic diversity of Asian American immigration history is reflected in the variety of their experiences in joining U.S. society. Asian immigrants have come to the United States in waves, at different times, and for different reasons. The first Asian immigrants to come to the United States in the mid-nineteenth century were Chinese. These immigrants were primarily men whose intention was to work for several years in order to earn incomes to support their families in China. Their main destination was the American West, where the Gold Rush was drawing people with its lure of abundant money. The construction of the Transcontinental Railroad was underway at this time, and the Central Pacific section hired thousands of migrant Chinese men to complete the laying of rails across the rugged Sierra Nevada mountain range. Chinese men also engaged in other manual labor like mining and agricultural work. The work was grueling and underpaid, but like many immigrants, they persevered. Japanese immigration began in the 1880s, on the heels of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. Many Japanese immigrants came to Hawaii to participate in the sugar industry; others came to the mainland, especially to California. Unlike the Chinese, however, the Japanese had a strong government that negotiated with the U.S. government to ensure the well-being of their immigrants. Japanese men were able to bring their wives and families to the United States, and were thus able to produce second- and third-generation Japanese Americans more quickly than their Chinese counterparts. The most recent large-scale Asian immigration came from Korea and Vietnam and largely took place during the second half of the twentieth century. While Korean immigration has been fairly gradual, Vietnamese immigration occurred primarily post-1975, after the fall of Saigon and the establishment of restrictive communist policies in Vietnam. Whereas many Asian immigrants came to the United States to seek better economic opportunities, Vietnamese immigrants came as political refugees, seeking asylum from harsh conditions in their homeland. The Refugee Act of 1980 helped them to find a place to settle in the United States. History of Intergroup Relations Chinese immigration came to an abrupt end with the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. This act was a result of anti-Chinese sentiment burgeoned by a depressed economy and loss of jobs. White workers blamed Chinese migrants for taking jobs, and the passage of the Act meant the number of Chinese workers decreased. Chinese men did not have the funds to return to China or to bring their families to the United States, so they remained physically and culturally segregated in the Chinatowns of large cities. Later legislation, the Immigration Act of 1924, further curtailed Chinese immigration. The Act included the race-based National Origins Act, which was aimed at keeping U.S. ethnic stock as undiluted as possible by reducing “undesirable” immigrants. It was not until after the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that Chinese immigration again increased, and many Chinese families were reunited. Although Japanese Americans have deep, long-reaching roots in the United States, their history here has not always been smooth. The California Alien Land Law of 1913 was aimed at them and other Asian immigrants, and it prohibited aliens from owning land. An even uglier action was the Japanese internment camps of World War II, discussed earlier as an illustration of expulsion. Current Status Asian Americans certainly have been subject to their share of racial prejudice, despite the seemingly positive stereotype as the model minority. The model minority stereotype is applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching significant educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without challenging the existing establishment. This stereotype is typically applied to Asian groups in the United States, and it can result in unrealistic expectations, by putting a stigma on members of this group that do not meet the expectations. Stereotyping all Asians as smart and capable can also lead to a lack of much-needed government assistance and to educational and professional discrimination. Hispanic Americans Hispanic Americans have a wide range of backgrounds and nationalities. The segment of the U.S. population that self-identifies as Hispanic in 2013 was recently estimated at 17.1 percent of the total (U.S. Census Bureau 2014). According to the 2010 U.S. Census, about 75 percent of the respondents who identify as Hispanic report being of Mexican, Puerto Rican, or Cuban origin. Of the total Hispanic group, 60 percent reported as Mexican, 44 percent reported as Cuban, and 9 percent reported as Puerto Rican. Remember that the U.S. Census allows people to report as being more than one ethnicity. Not only are there wide differences among the different origins that make up the Hispanic American population, but there are also different names for the group itself. The 2010 U.S. Census states that “Hispanic” or “Latino” refers to a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race.” There have been some disagreements over whether Hispanic or Latino is the correct term for a group this diverse, and whether it would be better for people to refer to themselves as being of their origin specifically, for example, Mexican American or Dominican American. This section will compare the experiences of Mexican Americans and Cuban Americans. How and Why They Came Mexican Americans form the largest Hispanic subgroup and also the oldest. Mexican migration to the United States started in the early 1900s in response to the need for cheap agricultural labor. Mexican migration was often circular; workers would stay for a few years and then go back to Mexico with more money than they could have made in their country of origin. The length of Mexico’s shared border with the United States has made immigration easier than for many other immigrant groups. Cuban Americans are the second-largest Hispanic subgroup, and their history is quite different from that of Mexican Americans. The main wave of Cuban immigration to the United States started after Fidel Castro came to power in 1959 and reached its crest with the Mariel boatlift in 1980. Castro’s Cuban Revolution ushered in an era of communism that continues to this day. To avoid having their assets seized by the government, many wealthy and educated Cubans migrated north, generally to the Miami area. History of Intergroup Relations For several decades, Mexican workers crossed the long border into the United States, both legally and illegally, to work in the fields that provided produce for the developing United States. Western growers needed a steady supply of labor, and the 1940s and 1950s saw the official federal Bracero Program (bracero is Spanish forstrong-arm) that offered protection to Mexican guest workers. Interestingly, 1954 also saw the enactment of “Operation Wetback,” which deported thousands of illegal Mexican workers. From these examples, we can see the U.S. treatment of immigration from Mexico has been ambivalent at best. Sociologist Douglas Massey (2006) suggests that although the average standard of living in Mexico may be lower in the United States, it is not so low as to make permanent migration the goal of most Mexicans. However, the strengthening of the border that began with 1986’s Immigration Reform and Control Act has made one-way migration the rule for most Mexicans. Massey argues that the rise of illegal one-way immigration of Mexicans is a direct outcome of the law that was intended to reduce it. Cuban Americans, perhaps because of their relative wealth and education level at the time of immigration, have fared better than many immigrants. Further, because they were fleeing a Communist country, they were given refugee status and offered protection and social services. The Cuban Migration Agreement of 1995 has curtailed legal immigration from Cuba, leading many Cubans to try to immigrate illegally by boat. According to a 2009 report from the Congressional Research Service, the U.S. government applies a “wet foot/dry foot” policy toward Cuban immigrants; Cubans who are intercepted while still at sea will be returned to Cuba, while those who reach the shore will be permitted to stay in the United States. Current Status Mexican Americans, especially those who are here illegally, are at the center of a national debate about immigration. Myers (2007) observes that no other minority group (except the Chinese) has immigrated to the United States in such an environment of illegality. He notes that in some years, three times as many Mexican immigrants may have entered the United States illegally as those who arrived legally. It should be noted that this is due to enormous disparity of economic opportunity on two sides of an open border, not because of any inherent inclination to break laws. In his report, “Measuring Immigrant Assimilation in the United States,” Jacob Vigdor (2008) states that Mexican immigrants experience relatively low rates of economic and civil assimilation. He further suggests that “the slow rates of economic and civic assimilation set Mexicans apart from other immigrants, and may reflect the fact that the large numbers of Mexican immigrants residing in the United States illegally have few opportunities to advance themselves along these dimensions.” By contrast, Cuban Americans are often seen as a model minority group within the larger Hispanic group. Many Cubans had higher socioeconomic status when they arrived in this country, and their anti-Communist agenda has made them welcome refugees to this country. In south Florida, especially, Cuban Americans are active in local politics and professional life. As with Asian Americans, however, being a model minority can mask the issue of powerlessness that these minority groups face in U.S. society. Arizona’s Senate Bill 1070 As both legal and illegal immigrants, and with high population numbers, Mexican Americans are often the target of stereotyping, racism, and discrimination. A harsh example of this is in Arizona, where a stringent immigration law—known as SB 1070 (for Senate Bill 1070)—has caused a nationwide controversy. The law requires that during a lawful stop, detention, or arrest, Arizona police officers must establish the immigration status of anyone they suspect may be here illegally. The law makes it a crime for individuals to fail to have documents confirming their legal status, and it gives police officers the right to detain people they suspect may be in the country illegally. To many, the most troublesome aspect of this law is the latitude it affords police officers in terms of whose citizenship they may question. Having “reasonable suspicion that the person is an alien who is unlawfully present in the United States” is reason enough to demand immigration papers (Senate Bill 1070 2010). Critics say this law will encourage racial profiling (the illegal practice of law enforcement using race as a basis for suspecting someone of a crime), making it hazardous to be caught “Driving While Brown,” a takeoff on the legal term Driving While Intoxicated (DWI) or the slang reference of “Driving While Black.” Driving While Brown refers to the likelihood of getting pulled over just for being nonwhite. SB 1070 has been the subject of many lawsuits, from parties as diverse as Arizona police officers, the American Civil Liberties Union, and even the federal government, which is suing on the basis of Arizona contradicting federal immigration laws (ACLU 2011). The future of SB 1070 is uncertain, but many other states have tried or are trying to pass similar measures. Do you think such measures are appropriate? Arab Americans If ever a category was hard to define, the various groups lumped under the name “Arab American” is it. After all, Hispanic Americans or Asian Americans are so designated because of their counties of origin. But for Arab Americans, their country of origin—Arabia—has not existed for centuries. In addition, Arab Americans represent all religious practices, despite the stereotype that all Arabic people practice Islam. As Myers (2007) asserts, not all Arabs are Muslim, and not all Muslims are Arab, complicating the stereotype of what it means to be an Arab American. Geographically, the Arab region comprises the Middle East and parts of northern Africa. People whose ancestry lies in that area or who speak primarily Arabic may consider themselves Arabs. The U.S. Census has struggled with the issue of Arab identity. The 2010 Census, as in previous years, did not offer an “Arab” box to check under the question of race. Individuals who want to be counted as Arabs had to check the box for “Some other race” and then write in their race. However, when the Census data is tallied, they will be marked as white. This is problematic, however, denying Arab Americans opportunities for federal assistance. According to the best estimates of the U.S. Census Bureau, the Arabic population in the United States grew from 850,000 in 1990 to 1.2 million in 2000, an increase of .07 percent (Asi and Beaulieu 2013). Why They Came The first Arab immigrants came to this country in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. They were predominantly Syrian, Lebanese, and Jordanian Christians, and they came to escape persecution and to make a better life. These early immigrants and their descendants, who were more likely to think of themselves as Syrian or Lebanese than Arab, represent almost half of the Arab American population today (Myers 2007). Restrictive immigration policies from the 1920s until 1965 curtailed all immigration, but Arab immigration since 1965 has been steady. Immigrants from this time period have been more likely to be Muslim and more highly educated, escaping political unrest and looking for better opportunities. History of Intergroup Relations Relations between Arab Americans and the dominant majority have been marked by mistrust, misinformation, and deeply entrenched beliefs. Helen Samhan of the Arab American Institute suggests that Arab-Israeli conflicts in the 1970s contributed significantly to cultural and political anti-Arab sentiment in the United States (2001). The United States has historically supported the State of Israel, while some Middle Eastern countries deny the existence of the Israeli state. Disputes over these issues have involved Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Palestine. As is often the case with stereotyping and prejudice, the actions of extremists come to define the entire group, regardless of the fact that most U.S. citizens with ties to the Middle Eastern community condemn terrorist actions, as do most inhabitants of the Middle East. Would it be fair to judge all Catholics by the events of the Inquisition? Of course, the United States was deeply affected by the events of September 11, 2001. This event has left a deep scar on the American psyche, and it has fortified anti-Arab sentiment for a large percentage of Americans. In the first month after 9/11, hundreds of hate crimes were perpetrated against people who looked like they might be of Arab descent. Current Status Although the rate of hate crimes against Arab Americans has slowed, Arab Americans are still victims of racism and prejudice. Racial profiling has proceeded against Arab Americans as a matter of course since 9/11. Particularly when engaged in air travel, being young and Arab-looking is enough to warrant a special search or detainment. This Islamophobia (irrational fear of or hatred against Muslims) does not show signs of abating. Scholars noted that white domestic terrorists like Timothy McVeigh, who detonated a bomb at an Oklahoma courthouse in 1995, have not inspired similar racial profiling or hate crimes against whites. White Ethnic Americans As we have seen, there is no minority group that fits easily in a category or that can be described simply. While sociologists believe that individual experiences can often be understood in light of their social characteristics (such as race, class, or gender), we must balance this perspective with awareness that no two individuals’ experiences are alike. Making generalizations can lead to stereotypes and prejudice. The same is true for white ethnic Americans, who come from diverse backgrounds and have had a great variety of experiences. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2014), 77.7 percent of U.S. adults currently identify themselves as white alone. In this section, we will focus on German, Irish, Italian, and Eastern European immigrants. Why They Came White ethnic Europeans formed the second and third great waves of immigration, from the early nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century. They joined a newly minted United States that was primarily made up of white Protestants from England. While most immigrants came searching for a better life, their experiences were not all the same. The first major influx of European immigrants came from Germany and Ireland, starting in the 1820s. Germans came both for economic opportunity and to escape political unrest and military conscription, especially after the Revolutions of 1848. Many German immigrants of this period were political refugees: liberals who wanted to escape from an oppressive government. They were well-off enough to make their way inland, and they formed heavily German enclaves in the Midwest that exist to this day. The Irish immigrants of the same time period were not always as well off financially, especially after the Irish Potato Famine of 1845. Irish immigrants settled mainly in the cities of the East Coast, where they were employed as laborers and where they faced significant discrimination. German and Irish immigration continued into the late 19th century and earlier 20th century, at which point the numbers for Southern and Eastern European immigrants started growing as well. Italians, mainly from the Southern part of the country, began arriving in large numbers in the 1890s. Eastern European immigrants—people from Russia, Poland, Bulgaria, and Austria-Hungary—started arriving around the same time. Many of these Eastern Europeans were peasants forced into a hardscrabble existence in their native lands; political unrest, land shortages, and crop failures drove them to seek better opportunities in the United States. The Eastern European immigration wave also included Jewish people escaping pogroms (anti-Jewish uprisings) of Eastern Europe and the Pale of Settlement in what was then Poland and Russia. History of Intergroup Relations In a broad sense, German immigrants were not victimized to the same degree as many of the other subordinate groups this section discusses. While they may not have been welcomed with open arms, they were able to settle in enclaves and establish roots. A notable exception to this was during the lead up to World War I and through World War II, when anti-German sentiment was virulent. Irish immigrants, many of whom were very poor, were more of an underclass than the Germans. In Ireland, the English had oppressed the Irish for centuries, eradicating their language and culture and discriminating against their religion (Catholicism). Although the Irish had a larger population than the English, they were a subordinate group. This dynamic reached into the new world, where Anglo Americans saw Irish immigrants as a race apart: dirty, lacking ambition, and suitable for only the most menial jobs. In fact, Irish immigrants were subject to criticism identical to that with which the dominant group characterized African Americans. By necessity, Irish immigrants formed tight communities segregated from their Anglo neighbors. The later wave of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe was also subject to intense discrimination and prejudice. In particular, the dominant group—which now included second- and third-generation Germans and Irish—saw Italian immigrants as the dregs of Europe and worried about the purity of the American race (Myers 2007). Italian immigrants lived in segregated slums in Northeastern cities, and in some cases were even victims of violence and lynchings similar to what African Americans endured. They worked harder and were paid less than other workers, often doing the dangerous work that other laborers were reluctant to take on. Current Status The U.S. Census from 2008 shows that 16.5 percent of respondents reported being of German descent: the largest group in the country. For many years, German Americans endeavored to maintain a strong cultural identity, but they are now culturally assimilated into the dominant culture. There are now more Irish Americans in the United States than there are Irish in Ireland. One of the country’s largest cultural groups, Irish Americans have slowly achieved acceptance and assimilation into the dominant group. Myers (2007) states that Italian Americans’ cultural assimilation is “almost complete, but with remnants of ethnicity.” The presence of “Little Italy” neighborhoods—originally segregated slums where Italians congregated in the nineteenth century—exist today. While tourists flock to the saints’ festivals in Little Italies, most Italian Americans have moved to the suburbs at the same rate as other white groups. Summary The history of the U.S. people contains an infinite variety of experiences that sociologist understand follow patterns. From the indigenous people who first inhabited these lands to the waves of immigrants over the past 500 years, migration is an experience with many shared characteristics. Most groups have experienced various degrees of prejudice and discrimination as they have gone through the process of assimilation. Section Quiz What makes Native Americans unique as a subordinate group in the United States? - They are the only group that experienced expulsion. - They are the only group that was segregated. - They are the only group that was enslaved. - They are the only group that did not come here as immigrants. Hint: D Which subordinate group is often referred to as the “model minority?” - African Americans - Asian Americans - White ethnic Americans - Native Americans Hint: B Which federal act or program was designed to allow more Hispanic American immigration, not block it? - The Bracero Program - Immigration Reform and Control Act - Operation Wetback - SB 1070 Hint: A Many Arab Americans face _______________, especially after 9/11. - racism - segregation - Islamophobia - prejudice Hint: C Why did most white ethnic Americans come to the United States? - For a better life - To escape oppression - Because they were forced out of their own countries - a and b only Hint: D Short Answer In your opinion, which group had the easiest time coming to this country? Which group had the hardest time? Why? Which group has made the most socioeconomic gains? Why do you think that group has had more success than others? Further Research Are people interested in reclaiming their ethnic identities? Read this article and decide: The White Ethnic Revival: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/ethnic_revival What is the current racial composition of the United States? Review up-to-the minute statistics at the United States Census Bureau here: http://www.census.gov/ References ACLU. 2011. “Appellate Court Upholds Decision Blocking Arizona’s Extreme Racial Profiling Law.” American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved December 8, 2011 (http://www.aclu.org/immigrants-rights/appellate-court-upholds-decision-blocking-arizona-s-extreme-racial-profiling-law-0). Greely, Andrew M. 1972. That Most Distressful Nation: The Taming of the American Irish. Chicago: Quadrangle Books. Lewy, Guenter. 2004. "Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?" Retrieved December 6, 2011 (http://hnn.us/articles/7302.html). Marger, Martin. 2003. Race and Ethnic Relations: American and Global Perspectives. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. American Indian Cultural Support. “Mascots: Racism in Schools by State.” 2005. Retrieved December 8, 2011 ( http://www.aics.org/mascot/mascot.html). Massey, Douglas S. 2006. “Seeing Mexican Immigration Clearly.” Cato Unbound. Retrieved December 4, 2011 (http://www.cato-unbound.org/2006/08/20/douglas-s-massey/seeing-mexican-immigration-clearly/). Myers, John P. 2007. Dominant-Minority Relations in America. Boston: Pearson. National Congress of American Indians. 2005. “The National Congress of American Indians Resolution #TUL-05-087: Support for NCAA Ban on ‘Indian’ Mascots.” Retrieved December 8, 2011 ( http://www.ncai.org/attachments/Resolution_dZoHILXNEzXOuYlebzAihFwqFzfNnTHDGJVwjaujdNvnsFtxUVd_TUL-05-087.pdf ). Senate Bill 1070. 2010. State of Arizona. Retrieved December 8, 2011 (http://www.azleg.gov/legtext/49leg/2r/bills/sb1070s.pdf). Tatz, Colin. 2006. "Confronting Australian Genocide." Pp. 125-140 in The Indigenous Experience: Global Perspectives. Edited by Roger Maaka and Chris Andersen. Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars'. U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. “State and County Quickfacts.” Retrieved February 22, 2012 (http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html). U.S. Department of Homeland Security. 2010. “Persons Obtaining Legal Permanent Resident Status by Region and Selected Country of Last Residence: Fiscal Years 1820 to 2010.” Yearbook of Immigration Statistics. Retrieved December 6, 2011 (http://www.dhs.gov/files/statistics/publications/LPR10.shtm). Vigdor, Jacob L. 2008. “Measuring Immigrant Assimilation in the United States.” Manhattan Institute for Policy Research Civic Report 53. Retrieved December 4, 2011 (http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/cr_53.htm).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.194302	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11803/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Race and Ethnicity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11784/overview	Introduction to Media and Technology How many good friends do you have? How many people do you meet up with for coffee or a movie? How many would you call with news about an illness or invite to your wedding? Now, how many “friends” do you have on Facebook? How often do you post a "selfie" online? How often do you check e-mail? How often do you meet friends for a meal and spend your time texting other people instead of talking to each other? Technology has changed how we interact with each other. It has turned “friend” into a verb and has made it possible to share mundane news (“My dog just threw up under the bed! Ugh!”) with hundreds or even thousands of people who might know you only slightly, if at all. You might be glued to your cell phone, even when you should be focused on driving your car, or you might text in class instead of listening to the professor's lecture. When we have the ability to stay constantly connected to a data stream, it is easy to lose focus on the here and now. At the same time that technology is expanding the boundaries of our social circles, various media are also changing how we perceive and interact with each other. We don’t only use Facebook to keep in touch with friends; we also use it to “like” certain television shows, products, or celebrities. Even television is no longer a one-way medium; it is an interactive one. We are encouraged to tweet, text, or call in to vote for contestants in everything from singing competitions to matchmaking endeavors—bridging the gap between our entertainment and our own lives. How does technology change our lives for the better? Or does it? When you tweet a social cause, share an ice bucket challenge video on YouTube, or cut and paste a status update about cancer awareness on Facebook, are you promoting social change? Does the immediate and constant flow of information mean we are more aware and engaged than any society before us? Or are Keeping Up With the Kardashians and The Real Housewives franchise today’s version of ancient Rome’s “bread and circuses”––distractions and entertainment to keep the working classes complacent about the inequities of their society? These are some of the questions that interest sociologists. How might we examine these issues from a sociological perspective? A functionalist would probably focus on what social purposes technology and media serve. For example, the web is both a form of technology and of media, and it links individuals and nations in a communication network that facilitates both small family discussions and global trade networks. A functionalist would also be interested in the manifest functions of media and technology, as well as their role in social dysfunction. Someone applying the conflict perspective would probably focus on the systematic inequality created by differential access to media and technology. For example, how can middle-class U.S. citizens be sure the news they hear is an objective account of reality, unsullied by moneyed political interests? Someone applying the interactionist perspective to technology and the media might seek to understand the difference between the real lives we lead and the reality depicted on “reality” television shows, such as The Bachelor. Throughout this chapter, we will use our sociological imagination to explore how media and technology impact society.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.212717	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11784/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Media and Technology", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11785/overview	Technology Today Overview - Define technology and describe its evolution - Understand technological inequality and issues related to unequal access to technology - Describe the role of planned obsolescence in technological development It is easy to look at the latest sleek Apple product and think technology is a recent addition to our world. But from the steam engine to the most cutting-edge robotic surgery tools, technology has described the application of science to address the problems of daily life. We might look back at the enormous and clunky computers of the 1970s that had about as much storage as an iPod Shuffle and roll our eyes in disbelief. But chances are thirty years from now our skinny laptops and iPods will look just as archaic. What Is Technology? While most people probably picture computers and cell phones when the subject of technology comes up, technology is not merely a product of the modern era. For example, fire and stone tools were important forms that technology developed during the Stone Age. Just as the availability of digital technology shapes how we live today, the creation of stone tools changed how premodern humans lived and how well they ate. From the first calculator, invented in 2400 B.C.E. Babylon in the form of an abacus, to the predecessor of the modern computer, created in 1882 by Charles Babbage, all of our technological innovations are advancements on previous iterations. And indeed, all aspects of our lives today are influenced by technology. In agriculture, the introduction of machines that can till, thresh, plant, and harvest greatly reduced the need for manual labor, which in turn meant there were fewer rural jobs. This led to the urbanization of society, as well as lowered birthrates because there was less need for large families to work the farms. In the criminal justice system, the ability to ascertain innocence through DNA testing has saved the lives of people on death row. The examples are endless: technology plays a role in absolutely every aspect of our lives. Technological Inequality As with any improvement to human society, not everyone has equal access. Technology, in particular, often creates changes that lead to ever greater inequalities. In short, the gap gets wider faster. This technological stratification has led to a new focus on ensuring better access for all. There are two forms of technological stratification. The first is differential class-based access to technology in the form of the digital divide. This digital divide has led to the second form, a knowledge gap, which is, as it sounds, an ongoing and increasing gap in information for those who have less access to technology. Simply put, students in well-funded schools receive more exposure to technology than students in poorly funded schools. Those students with more exposure gain more proficiency, which makes them far more marketable in an increasingly technology-based job market and leaves our society divided into those with technological knowledge and those without. Even as we improve access, we have failed to address an increasingly evident gap ine-readiness—the ability to sort through, interpret, and process knowledge (Sciadas 2003). Since the beginning of the millennium, social science researchers have tried to bring attention to the digital divide, the uneven access to technology among different races, classes, and geographic areas. The term became part of the common lexicon in 1996, when then Vice President Al Gore used it in a speech. This was the point when personal computer use shifted dramatically, from 300,000 users in 1991 to more than 10 million users by 1996 (Rappaport 2009). In part, the issue of the digital divide had to do with communities that received infrastructure upgrades that enabled high-speed Internet access, upgrades that largely went to affluent urban and suburban areas, leaving out large swaths of the country. At the end of the twentieth century, technology access was also a big part of the school experience for those whose communities could afford it. Early in the millennium, poorer communities had little or no technology access, while well-off families had personal computers at home and wired classrooms in their schools. In the 2000s, however, the prices for low-end computers dropped considerably, and it appeared the digital divide was naturally ending. Research demonstrates that technology use and Internet access still vary a great deal by race, class, and age in the United States, though most studies agree that there is minimal difference in Internet use by adult men and adult women. Data from the Pew Research Center (2011) suggests the emergence of yet another divide. As technological devices gets smaller and more mobile, larger percentages of minority groups (such as Latinos and African Americans) are using their phones to connect to the Internet. In fact, about 50 percent of people in these minority groups connect to the web via such devices, whereas only one-third of whites do (Washington 2011). And while it might seem that the Internet is the Internet, regardless of how you get there, there’s a notable difference. Tasks like updating a résumé or filling out a job application are much harder on a cell phone than on a wired computer in the home. As a result, the digital divide might mean no access to computers or the Internet, but could mean access to the kind of online technology that allows for empowerment, not just entertainment (Washington 2011). Mossberger, Tolbert, and Gilbert (2006) demonstrated that the majority of the digital divide for African Americans could be explained by demographic and community-level characteristics, such as socioeconomic status and geographic location. For the Latino population, ethnicity alone, regardless of economics or geography, seemed to limit technology use. Liff and Shepard (2004) found that women, who are accessing technology shaped primarily by male users, feel less confident in their Internet skills and have less Internet access at both work and home. Finally, Guillen and Suarez (2005) found that the global digital divide resulted from both the economic and sociopolitical characteristics of countries. Use of Technology and Social Media in Society by Individuals Do you own an e-reader or tablet? What about your parents or your friends? How often do you check social media or your cell phone? Does all this technology have a positive or negative impact on your life? When it comes to cell phones, 67 percent of users check their phones for messages or calls even when the phone wasn’t ringing. In addition, “44% of cell owners have slept with their phone next to their bed because they wanted to make sure they didn’t miss any calls, text messages, or other updates during the night and 29% of cell owners describe their cell phone as ‘something they can’t imagine living without’” (Smith 2012). While people report that cell phones make it easier to stay in touch, simplify planning and scheduling their daily activities, and increase their productivity, that’s not the only impact of increased cell phone ownership in the United States. Smith also reports that “roughly one in five cell owners say that their phone has made it at least somewhat harder to forget about work at home or on the weekends; to give people their undivided attention; or to focus on a single task without being distracted” (Smith 2012). A new survey from the Pew Research Center reported that 73 percent of adults engage in some sort of social networking online. Facebook was the most popular platform, and both Facebook users and Instagram users check their sites on a daily basis. Over a third of users check their sites more than once a day (Duggan and Smith 2013). With so many people using social media both in the United States and abroad, it is no surprise that social media is a powerful force for social change. You will read more about the fight for democracy in the Middle East embodied in the Arab Spring in Chapters 17 and 21, but spreading democracy is just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to using social media to incite change. For example, McKenna Pope, a thirteen-year-old girl, used the Internet to successfully petition Hasbro to fight gender stereotypes by creating a gender-neutral Easy-Bake Oven instead of using only the traditional pink color (Kumar 2014). Meanwhile in Latvia, two twenty-three-year-olds used a U.S. State Department grant to create an e-petition platform so citizens could submit ideas directly to the Latvian government. If at least 20 percent of the Latvian population (roughly 407,200 people) supports a petition, the government will look at it (Kumar 2014). Online Privacy and Security As we increase our footprints on the web by going online more often to connect socially, share material, conduct business, and store information, we also increase our vulnerability to those with criminal intent. The Pew Research Center recently published a report that indicated the number of Internet users who express concern over the extent of personal information about them available online jumped 17 percent between 2009 and 2013. In that same survey, 12 percent of respondents indicated they had been harassed online, and 11 percent indicated that personal information, such as their Social Security number, had been stolen (Rainie, Kiesler, Kang, and Madden 2013). Online privacy and security is a key organizational concern as well. Recent large-scale data breaches at retailers such as Target, financial powerhouses such as JP Morgan, the government health insurance site Healthcare.gov, and cell phone providers such as Verizon, exposed millions of people to the threat of identity theft when hackers got access to personal information by compromising website security. For example, in late August 2014, hackers breached the iCloud data storage site and promptly leaked wave after wave of nude photos from the private accounts of actors such as Jennifer Lawrence and Kirsten Dunst (Lewis 2014). While large-scale data breaches that affect corporations and celebrities are more likely to make the news, individuals may put their personal information at risk simply by clicking a suspect link in an official sounding e-mail. How can individuals protect their data? Numerous facts sheets available through the government, nonprofits, and the private sector outline common safety measures, including the following: become familiar with privacy rights; read privacy policies when making a purchase (rather than simply clicking “accept”); give out only the minimum information requested by any source; ask why information is being collected, how it is going to be used, and who will have access it; and monitor your credit history for red flags that indicate your identity has been compromised. Net Neutrality The issue of net neutrality, the principle that all Internet data should be treated equally by Internet service providers, is part of the national debate about Internet access and the digital divide. On one side of this debate is the belief that those who provide Internet service, like those who provide electricity and water, should be treated as common carriers, legally prohibited from discriminating based on the customer or nature of the goods. Supporters of net neutrality suggest that without such legal protections, the Internet could be divided into “fast” and “slow” lanes. A conflict perspective theorist might suggest that this discrimination would allow bigger corporations, such as Amazon, to pay Internet providers a premium for faster service, which could lead to gaining an advantage that would drive small, local competitors out of business. The other side of the debate holds the belief that designating Internet service providers as common carriers would constitute an unreasonable regulatory burden and limit the ability of telecommunication companies to operate profitably. A functional perspective theorist might point out that, without profits, companies would not invest in making improvements to their Internet service or expanding those services to underserved areas. The final decision rests with the Federal Communications Commission and the federal government, which must decide how to fairly regulate broadband providers without dividing the Internet into haves and have-nots. Summary Technology is the application of science to address the problems of daily life. The fast pace of technological advancement means the advancements are continuous, but that not everyone has equal access. The gap created by this unequal access has been termed the digital divide. The knowledge gap refers to an effect of the digital divide: the lack of knowledge or information that keeps those who were not exposed to technology from gaining marketable skills Section Quiz Jerome is able to use the Internet to select reliable sources for his research paper, but Charlie just copies large pieces of web pages and pastes them into his paper. Jerome has _____________ while Charlie does not. - a functional perspective - the knowledge gap - e-readiness - a digital divide Hint: C The ________ can be directly attributed to the digital divide, because differential ability to access the internet leads directly to a differential ability to use the knowledge found on the Internet. - digital divide - knowledge gap - feminist perspective - e-gap Hint: B The fact that your cell phone is using outdated technology within a year or two of purchase is an example of ____________. - the conflict perspective - conspicuous consumption - media - planned obsolescence Hint: D The history of technology began _________. - in the early stages of human societies - with the invention of the computer - during the Renaissance - during the nineteenth century Hint: A Short Answer Can you think of people in your own life who support or defy the premise that access to technology leads to greater opportunities? How have you noticed technology use and opportunity to be linked, or does your experience contradict this idea? Should the U.S. government be responsible for providing all citizens with access to the Internet? Or is gaining Internet access an individual responsibility? How have digital media changed social interactions? Do you believe it has deepened or weakened human connections? Defend your answer. Conduct sociological research. Google yourself. How much information about you is available to the public? How many and what types of companies offer private information about you for a fee? Compile the data and statistics you find. Write a paragraph or two about the social issues and behaviors you notice. Further Research To learn more about the digital divide and why it matters, check out these web sites: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/Digital_Divide andhttp://openstaxcollege.org/l/Digital_Divide2 To find out more about Internet privacy and security, check out the web site below: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/2EPrivacy References Guillen, M.F., and S.L. Suárez. 2005. “Explaining the Global Digital Divide: Economic, Political and Sociological Drivers of Cross-National Internet Use.” Social Forces 84:681–708. Lewis, Dave. 2014. "ICloud Data Breach: Hacking and Celebrity Photos." Forbes.com. Forbes. Retrieved October 6, 2014 (http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sans.org%2Freading-room%2Fwhitepapers%2Fcasestudies%2Fcase-study-critical-controls-prevented-target-breach-35412). Liff, Sondra, and Adrian Shepard. 2004. “An Evolving Gender Digital Divide.” Oxford Internet Institute, Internet Issue Brief No. 2. Retrieved January 11, 2012 (educ.ubc.ca/faculty/bryson/565/genderdigdiv.pdf). McChesney, Robert. 1999. Rich Media, Poor Democracy: Communication Politics in Dubious Times. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Mossberger, Karen, Caroline Tolbert, and Michele Gilbert. 2006. “Race, Place, and Information Technology.” Urban Affairs Review 41:583–620. Pew Research Center. 2011. “Demographics of Internet Users.” Pew Internet and American Life Project, May. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (http://www.pewinternet.org/Trend-Data/Whos-Online.aspx). “Planned Obsolescence.” 2009. The Economist, March 23. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (http://www.economist.com/node/13354332). Rainie, Lee, Sara Kiesler, Ruogo Kang, and Mary Madden. 2013. "Anonymity, Privacy, and Security Online." Pew Research Centers Internet American Life Project RSS. Pew Research Center. Retrieved October 5, 2014 (http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/09/05/anonymity-privacy-and-security-online/). Rappaport, Richard. 2009. “A Short History of the Digital Divide.” Edutopia, October 27. Retrieved January 10, 2012 ( http://www.edutopia.org/digital-generation-divide-connectivity). Sciadas, George. 2003. “Monitoring the Digital Divide … and Beyond.” World Bank Group. Retrieved January 22, 2012 (http://www.infodev.org/en/Publication.20.html). Smith, Aaron. 2012. "The Best (and Worst) of Mobile Connectivity." Pew Research Internet Project. Retrieved December 19, 2014 (http://www.pewinternet.org/2012/11/30/the-best-and-worst-of-mobile-connectivity/). Time.com. 2014. "Rankings." Fortune. Time.com. Retreived October 1, 2014 (http://fortune.com/rankings/). Washington, Jesse. 2011. “For Minorities, New ‘Digital Divide’ Seen.” Pew Internet and American Life Project, January 10. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (http://www.pewinternet.org/Media-Mentions/2011/For-minorities-new-digital-divide-seen.aspx).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.243862	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11785/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Media and Technology", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11786/overview	Media and Technology in Society Overview - Describe the evolution and current role of different media, like newspapers, television, and new media - Understand the function of product advertising in media - Demonstrate awareness of the social homogenization and social fragmentation that occur via modern society’s use of technology and media Technology and the media are interwoven, and neither can be separated from contemporary society in most core and semi-peripheral nations. Media is a term that refers to all print, digital, and electronic means of communication. From the time the printing press was created (and even before), technology has influenced how and where information is shared. Today, it is impossible to discuss media and the ways societies communicate without addressing the fast-moving pace of technology change. Twenty years ago, if you wanted to share news of your baby’s birth or a job promotion, you phoned or wrote letters. You might tell a handful of people, but you probably wouldn’t call up several hundred, including your old high school chemistry teacher, to let them know. Now, you might join an online community of parents-to-be even before you announce your pregnancy via a staged Instagram picture. The circle of communication is wider than ever and when we talk about how societies engage with technology, we must take media into account, and vice versa. Technology creates media. The comic book you bought your daughter is a form of media, as is the movie you streamed for family night, the web site you used to order takeout, the billboard you passed on the way to pick up your food, and the newspaper you read while you were waiting for it. Without technology, media would not exist, but remember, technology is more than just the media we are exposed to. Categorizing Technology There is no one way of dividing technology into categories. Whereas once it might have been simple to classify innovations such as machine-based or drug-based or the like, the interconnected strands of technological development mean that advancement in one area might be replicated in dozens of others. For simplicity’s sake, we will look at how the U.S. Patent Office, which receives patent applications for nearly all major innovations worldwide, addresses patents. This regulatory body will patent three types of innovation. Utility patents are the first type. These are granted for the invention or discovery of any new and useful process, product, or machine, or for a significant improvement to existing technologies. The second type of patent is adesign patent. Commonly conferred in architecture and industrial design, this means someone has invented a new and original design for a manufactured product.Plant patents, the final type, recognize the discovery of new plant types that can be asexually reproduced. While genetically modified food is the hot-button issue within this category, farmers have long been creating new hybrids and patenting them. A more modern example might be food giant Monsanto, which patents corn with built-in pesticide (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office 2011). Anderson and Tushman (1990) suggest an evolutionary model of technological change, in which a breakthrough in one form of technology leads to a number of variations. Once those are assessed, a prototype emerges, and then a period of slight adjustments to the technology, interrupted by a breakthrough. For example, floppy disks were improved and upgraded, then replaced by Zip disks, which were in turn improved to the limits of the technology and were then replaced by flash drives. This is essentially a generational model for categorizing technology, in which first-generation technology is a relatively unsophisticated jumping-off point that leads to an improved second generation, and so on. Violence in Media and Video Games: Does It Matter? A glance through popular video game and movie titles geared toward children and teens shows the vast spectrum of violence that is displayed, condoned, and acted out. As a way to guide parents in their programming choices, the motion picture industry put a rating system in place in the 1960s. But new media—video games in particular—proved to be uncharted territory. In 1994, the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ERSB) set a ratings system for games that addressed issues of violence, sexuality, drug use, and the like. California took it a step further by making it illegal to sell video games to underage buyers. The case led to a heated debate about personal freedoms and child protection, and in 2011, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled against the California law, stating it violated freedom of speech (ProCon 2012). Children’s play has often involved games of aggression—from cowboys and Indians, to cops and robbers, to fake sword fights. Many articles report on the controversy surrounding the suggested link between violent video games and violent behavior. Is the link real? Psychologists Anderson and Bushman (2001) reviewed forty-plus years of research on the subject and, in 2003, determined that there are causal linkages between violent video game use and aggression. They found that children who had just played a violent video game demonstrated an immediate increase in hostile or aggressive thoughts, an increase in aggressive emotions, and physiological arousal that increased the chances of acting out aggressive behavior (Anderson 2003). Ultimately, repeated exposure to this kind of violence leads to increased expectations that violence is a solution, increased violent behavioral scripts, and an increased cognitive accessibility to violent behavior (Anderson 2003). In short, people who play a lot of these games find it easier to imagine and access violent solutions than nonviolent ones, and they are less socialized to see violence as a negative. While these facts do not mean there is no role for video games, it should give players pause. In 2013, The American Psychological Association began an expansive meta-analysis of peer-reviewed research analyzing the effect of media violence. Results are expected in 2014. Types of Media and Technology Media and technology have evolved hand in hand, from early print to modern publications, from radio to television to film. New media emerge constantly, such as we see in the online world. Print Newspaper Early forms of print media, found in ancient Rome, were hand-copied onto boards and carried around to keep the citizenry informed. With the invention of the printing press, the way that people shared ideas changed, as information could be mass produced and stored. For the first time, there was a way to spread knowledge and information more efficiently; many credit this development as leading to the Renaissance and ultimately the Age of Enlightenment. This is not to say that newspapers of old were more trustworthy than the Weekly World News andNational Enquirer are today. Sensationalism abounded, as did censorship that forbade any subjects that would incite the populace. The invention of the telegraph, in the mid-1800s, changed print media almost as much as the printing press. Suddenly information could be transmitted in minutes. As the nineteenth century became the twentieth, U.S. publishers such as Hearst redefined the world of print media and wielded an enormous amount of power to socially construct national and world events. Of course, even as the media empires of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer were growing, print media also allowed for the dissemination of countercultural or revolutionary materials. Internationally, Vladimir Lenin’s Irksa (The Spark) newspaper was published in 1900 and played a role in Russia’s growing communist movement (World Association of Newspapers 2004). With the invention and widespread use of television in the mid-twentieth century, newspaper circulation steadily dropped off, and in the 21st century, circulation has dropped further as more people turn to internet news sites and other forms of new media to stay informed. According to the Pew Research Center, 2009 saw an unprecedented drop in newspaper circulation––down 10.6 percent from the year before (Pew 2010). This shift away from newspapers as a source of information has profound effects on societies. When the news is given to a large diverse conglomerate of people, it must maintain some level of broad-based reporting and balance in order to appeal to a broad audience and keep them subscribing. As newspapers decline, news sources become more fractured, so each segment of the audience can choose specifically what it wants to hear and what it wants to avoid. Increasingly, newspapers are shifting online in an attempt to remain relevant. It is hard to tell what impact new media platforms will have on the way we receive and process information. Increasingly, newspapers are shifting online in an attempt to remain relevant. It is hard to tell what impact new media platforms will have on the way we receive and process information. The Pew Research Center’s Project for Excellence in Journalism (2013) reported that audiences for all the major news magazines declined in 2012, though digital ad revenue increased. The same report suggested that, while newspaper circulation is holding steady at around $10 billion after years of decline, it is digital pay plans that allow newspapers to keep their heads above water, and the digital ad revenue that is increasing for news magazines is not enough to compensate for print revenue loss in newspapers. A 2014 report suggested that U.S. adults read a median of five books per year in 2013, which is about average. But are they reading traditional print or e-books? About 69 percent of people said they had read at least one printed book in the past year, versus 28 percent who said they’d read an e-book (DeSilver 2014). Is print more effective at conveying information? In recent study, Mangen, Walgermo, and Bronnick (2013) found that students who read on paper performed slightly better than those who read an e-book on an open-book reading comprehension exam of multiple-choice and short-answer questions. While a meta-analysis of research by Andrews (1992) seemed to confirm that people read more slowly and comprehend less when reading from screens, a meta-analysis of more recent research on this topic does not show anything definite (Noyes and Garland 2008). Television and Radio Radio programming obviously preceded television, but both shaped people’s lives in much the same way. In both cases, information (and entertainment) could be enjoyed at home, with a kind of immediacy and community that newspapers could not offer. For instance, many people in the United States might remember when they saw on television or heard on the radio that the Twin Towers in New York City had been attacked in 2001. Even though people were in their own homes, media allowed them to share these moments in real time. This same kind of separate-but-communal approach occurred with entertainment too. School-aged children and office workers gathered to discuss the previous night’s installment of a serial television or radio show. Right up through the 1970s, U.S. television was dominated by three major networks (ABC, CBS, and NBC) that competed for ratings and advertising dollars. The networks also exerted a lot of control over what people watched. Public television, in contrast, offered an educational nonprofit alternative to the sensationalization of news spurred by the network competition for viewers and advertising dollars. Those sources—PBS (Public Broadcasting Service), the BBC (British Broadcasting Company), and CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Company)—garnered a worldwide reputation for high-quality programming and a global perspective. Al Jazeera, the Arabic independent news station, has joined this group as a similar media force that broadcasts to people worldwide. The impact of television on U.S. society is hard to overstate. By the late 1990s, 98 percent of U.S. homes had at least one television set, and the average person watched between two and a half and five hours of television daily. All this television has a powerful socializing effect, providing reference groups while reinforcing social norms, values, and beliefs. Film The film industry took off in the 1930s, when color and sound were first integrated into feature films. Like television, early films were unifying for society: as people gathered in theaters to watch new releases, they would laugh, cry, and be scared together. Movies also act as time capsules or cultural touchstones for society. From Westerns starring the tough-talking Clint Eastwood to the biopic of Facebook founder and Harvard dropout Mark Zuckerberg, movies illustrate society’s dreams, fears, and experiences. While many consider Hollywood the epicenter of moviemaking, India’s Bollywood actually produces more films per year, speaking to the cultural aspirations and norms of Indian society. Increasingly, people are watching films online via Netflix, Hulu, Amazon, and other streaming services. While most streaming video companies keep their user data secret, Nielsen estimated that 38 percent of U.S. citizens accessed Netflix in 2013. In 2013, Google, Inc. reported that YouTube served 1 billion unique viewers every month—an impressive number, considering that it amounts to one-third of the estimated 3 billion accessing the Internet every month (Reuters 2013; International Telecommunication Union 2014). New Media New media encompasses all interactive forms of information exchange. These include social networking sites, blogs, podcasts, wikis, and virtual worlds. Clearly, the list grows almost daily. However, there is no guarantee that the information offered is accurate. In fact, the immediacy of new media coupled with the lack of oversight means we must be more careful than ever to ensure our news is coming from accurate sources. Planned Obsolescence: Technology That’s Built to Crash Chances are your mobile phone company, as well as the makers of your laptop and your household appliances, are all counting on their products to fail. Not too quickly, of course, or consumers wouldn't stand for it—but frequently enough that you might find that it costs far more to fix a device than to replace it with a newer model. Or you find the phone company e-mails you saying that you’re eligible for a free new phone, because yours is a whopping two years old. And appliance repair people say that while they might be fixing some machines that are twenty years old, they generally aren’t fixing those that are seven years old; newer models are built to be thrown out. This strategy is called planned obsolescence, and it is the business practice of planning for a product to be obsolete or unusable from the time it is created. To some extent, planned obsolescence is a natural extension of new and emerging technologies. After all, who is going to cling to an enormous and slow desktop computer from 2000 when a few hundred dollars can buy one that is significantly faster and better? But the practice is not always so benign. The classic example of planned obsolescence is the nylon stocking. Women’s stockings—once an everyday staple of women’s lives––get “runs” or “ladders” after only a few wearings. This requires the stockings to be discarded and new ones purchased. Not surprisingly, the garment industry did not invest heavily in finding a rip-proof fabric; it was in manufacturers' best interest that their product be regularly replaced. Those who use Microsoft Windows might feel that like the women who purchased endless pairs of stockings, they are victims of planned obsolescence. Every time Windows releases a new operating system, there are typically not many innovations in it that consumers feel they must have. However, the software programs are upwardly compatible only. This means that while the new versions can read older files, the old version cannot read the newer ones. In short order, those who have not upgraded right away find themselves unable to open files sent by colleagues or friends, and they usually wind up upgrading as well. Ultimately, whether you are getting rid of your old product because you are being offered a shiny new free one (like the latest smartphone model), or because it costs more to fix than to replace (like the iPod model), or because not doing so leaves you out of the loop (like the Windows model), the result is the same. It might just make you nostalgic for your old Sony Discman and simple DVD player. Product Advertising Companies use advertising to sell to us, but the way they reach us is changing. Naomi Klein identified the destructive impact of corporate branding her 1999 text, No Logo, an antiglobalization treatise that focused on sweatshops, corporate power, and anticonsumerist social movements. In the post-millennial society, synergistic advertising practices ensure you are receiving the same message from a variety of sources and on a variety of platforms. For example, you may see billboards for Miller beer on your way to a stadium, sit down to watch a game preceded by a Miller commercial on the big screen, and watch a halftime ad in which people are shown holding up the trademark bottles. Chances are you can guess which brand of beer is for sale at the concession stand. Advertising has changed, as technology and media have allowed consumers to bypass traditional advertising venues. From the invention of the remote control, which allows us to skip television advertising without leaving our seats, to recording devices that let us watch programs but skip the ads, conventional television advertising is on the wane. And print media is no different. Advertising revenue in newspapers and on television fell significantly in 2009, which shows that companies need new ways of getting their messages to consumers. One model companies are considering to address this advertising downturn uses the same philosophy as celebrity endorsements, just on a different scale. Companies are hiring college students to be their on-campus representatives, and they are looking for popular students engaged in high-profile activities like sports, fraternities, and music. The marketing team is betting that if we buy perfume because Beyoncé tells us to, we’ll also choose our cell phone or smoothie brand if a popular student encourages that choice. According to an article in the New York Times, fall semester 2011 saw an estimated 10,000 U.S. college students working on campus as brand ambassadors for products from Red Bull energy drinks to Hewlett-Packard computers (Singer 2011). As the companies figure it, college students will trust one source of information above all: other students. Homogenization and Fragmentation Despite the variety of media at hand, the mainstream news and entertainment you enjoy are increasingly homogenized. Research by McManus (1995) suggests that different news outlets all tell the same stories, using the same sources, resulting in the same message, presented with only slight variations. So whether you are reading the New York Times or the CNN’s web site, the coverage of national events like a major court case or political issue will likely be the same. Simultaneously with this homogenization among the major news outlets, the opposite process is occurring in the newer media streams. With so many choices, people increasingly customize their news experience, minimizing their opportunity to encounter information that does not jive with their worldview (Prior 2005). For instance, those who are staunchly Republican can avoid centrist or liberal-leaning cable news shows and web sites that would show Democrats in a favorable light. They know to seek out Fox News over MSNBC, just as Democrats know to do the opposite. Further, people who want to avoid politics completely can choose to visit web sites that deal only with entertainment or that will keep them up to date on sports scores. They have an easy way to avoid information they do not wish to hear. Summary Media and technology have been interwoven from the earliest days of human communication. The printing press, the telegraph, and the Internet are all examples of their intersection. Mass media have allowed for more shared social experiences, but new media now create a seemingly endless amount of airtime for any and every voice that wants to be heard. Advertising has also changed with technology. New media allow consumers to bypass traditional advertising venues and cause companies to be more innovative and intrusive as they try to gain our attention. Section Quiz When it comes to technology, media, and society, which of the following is true? - Media can influence technology, but not society. - Technology created media, but society has nothing to do with these. - Technology, media, and society are bound and cannot be separated. - Society influences media but is not connected to technology. Hint: C If the U.S. Patent Office were to issue a patent for a new type of tomato that tastes like a jellybean, it would be issuing a _________ patent? - utility patent - plant patent - design patent - The U.S. Patent Office does not issue a patent for plants. Hint: B Which of the following is the primary component of the evolutionary model of technological change? - Technology should not be subject to patenting. - Technology and the media evolve together. - Technology can be traced back to the early stages of human society. - A breakthrough in one form of technology leads to a number of variations, and technological developments. Hint: D Which of the following is not a form of new media? - The cable television program Dexter - Wikipedia - A cooking blog written by Rachael Ray Hint: A Research regarding video game violence suggests that _________. - boys who play violent video games become more aggressive, but girls do not - girls who play violent video games become more aggressive, but boys do not - violent video games have no connection to aggressive behavior - violent video games lead to an increase in aggressive thought and behavior Hint: D Comic books, Wikipedia, MTV, and a commercial for Coca-Cola are all examples of: - media - symbolic interaction perspective - e-readiness - the digital divide Hint: A Short Answer Where and how do you get your news? Do you watch network television? Read the newspaper? Go online? How about your parents or grandparents? Do you think it matters where you seek out information? Why, or why not? Do you believe new media allows for the kind of unifying moments that television and radio programming used to? If so, give an example. Where are you most likely to notice advertisements? What causes them to catch your attention? Further Research To get a sense of the timeline of technology, check out this web site: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/Tech_History To learn more about new media, click here: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/new_media To understand how independent media coverage differs from major corporate affiliated news outlets, review material from the Democracy Now! website: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/2EDemoNow References Anderson, C.A., and B.J. Bushman. 2001. “Effects of Violent Video Games on Aggressive Behavior, Aggressive Cognition, Aggressive Affect, Physiological Arousal, and Prosocial Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Scientific Literature.” Psychological Science 12:353–359. Anderson, Craig. 2003. “Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts and Unanswered Questions.” American Psychological Association, October. Retrieved January 13, 2012 (http://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2003/10/anderson.aspx). Anderson, Philip, and Michael Tushman. 1990. “Technological Discontinuities and Dominant Designs: A Cyclical Model of Technological Change.” Administrative Science Quarterly 35:604–633. Dillon, Andrew. 1992. “Reading From Paper Versus Screens: A Critical Review of the Empirical Literature.” Ergonomics 35(10): 1297–1326. DeSilver, Drew. 2014. “Overall Book Readership Stable, But e-Books Becoming More Popular.” Pew Research Center. Retrieved December 5, 2014 (http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/01/21/overall-book-readership-stable-but-e-books-becoming-more-popular/). Duggan, Maeve, and Aaron Smith. "Social Media Update 2013." Pew Research Centers Internet American Life Project RSS. Pew Research Center. Retrieved October 2, 2014 (http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/12/30/social-media-update-2013/). International Telecommunication Unions. 2014. “The World in 2014: ICT Facts and Figures.” United Nations. Retrieved December 5, 2014 (http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2014-e.pdf). Jansen, Jim. "Use of the Internet in Higher-income Households." Pew Research Centers Internet American Life Project RSS. Pew Research Center. Retrieved October 1, 2014 (http://www.pewinternet.org/2010/11/24/use-of-the-internet-in-higher-income-households). Kumar, Ravi. 2014. "Social Media and Social Change: How Young People Are Tapping into Technology." Youthink! N.p. Retrieved October 3, 2014 (http://blogs.worldbank.org/youthink/social-media-and-social-change-how-young-people-are-tapping-technology). Lievrouw, Leah A., and Sonia Livingstone, eds. 2006. Handbook of New Media: Social Shaping and Social Consequences. London : SAGE Publications. McManus, John. 1995. “A Market-Based Model of News Production.” Communication Theory 5:301–338. Mangen, A., B.R. Walgermo, and K. Bronnick. 2013. “Reading Linear Texts on Paper Versus Computer Screen: Effects on Reading Comprehension.” International Journal of Educational Research 58 :61–68. Nielsen. 2013. “'Bingeing’ in the New Viewing for Over-the-Top-Streamers.” Retrieved December 5, 2014 (http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2013/binging-is-the-new-viewing-for-over-the-top-streamers.html). Noyes, Jan, and Kate J. Garland. 2008. “Computer- Vs. Paper-Based Tasks: Are They Equivalent?” Ergonomics 51(9): 1352–1375. Pew Research Center. 2010. “State of the News Media 2010.” Pew Research Center Publications, March 15. Retrieved January 24, 2012 (http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1523/state-of-the-news-media-2010). Pew Research Center’s Project for Excellence in Journalism. 2013. “The State of the News Media 2013.” Pew Research Center Publications. Retrieved December 5, 2014 (http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2013/overview-5/key-findings/). Prior, Markus. 2005. “News vs. Entertainment: How Increasing Media Choice Widens Gaps in Political Knowledge and Turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 49(3):577–592. ProCon. 2012. “Video Games.” January 5. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (http://videogames.procon.org/). Reuters. 2013. “YouTube Stats: Site Has 1 Billion Active Users Each Month.” Huffington Post. Retrieved December 5, 2014 (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/21/youtube-stats_n_2922543.html). Singer, Natasha. 2011. “On Campus, It’s One Big Commercial.” New York Times, September 10. Retrieved February 10, 2012 (http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/11/business/at-colleges-the-marketers-are-everywhere.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&ref=education). Smith, Aaron. 2012. "The Best (and Worst) of Mobile Connectivity." Pew Research Centers Internet American Life Project RSS. Pew Research Center. Retrieved October 3, 2014 (http://www.pewinternet.org/2012/11/30/the-best-and-worst-of-mobile-connectivity/). Smith, Aaron. 2014a. "African Americans and Technology Use." Pew Research Centers Internet American Life Project RSS. Pew Research Center. Retrieved October 1, 2014 (http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/01/06/african-americans-and-technology-use/). Smith, Aaron. 2014b. "Older Adults and Technology Use." Pew Research Centers Internet American Life Project RSS. Pew Reserch Center. Retrieved October 2, 2014 (http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/04/03/older-adults-and-technology-use/). United States Patent and Trademark Office. 2012. “General Information Concerning Patents.” Retrieved January 12, 2012 (http://www.uspto.gov/patents/resources/general_info_concerning_patents.jsphttp://www.uspto.gov/patents/resources/general_info_concerning_patents.jsp). van de Donk, W., B.D. Loader, P.G. Nixon, and D. Rucht, eds. 2004. Cyberprotest: New Media, Citizens, and Social Movements. New York: Routledge. World Association of Newspapers. 2004. “Newspapers: A Brief History.” Retrieved January 12, 2012 (http://www.wan-press.org/article.php3?id_article=2821).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.284979	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11786/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Media and Technology", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11787/overview	Global Implications of Media and Technology Overview - Explain the advantages and concerns of media globalization - Understand the globalization of technology Technology, and increasingly media, has always driven globalization. In a landmark book, Thomas Friedman (2005), identified several ways in which technology “flattened” the globe and contributed to our global economy. The first edition of The World Is Flat, written in 2005, posits that core economic concepts were changed by personal computing and high-speed Internet. Access to these two technological shifts has allowed core-nation corporations to recruit workers in call centers located in China or India. Using examples like a Midwestern U.S. woman who runs a business from her home via the call centers of Bangalore, India, Friedman warns that this new world order will exist whether core-nation businesses are ready or not, and that in order to keep its key economic role in the world, the United States will need to pay attention to how it prepares workers of the twenty-first century for this dynamic. Of course not everyone agrees with Friedman’s theory. Many economists pointed out that in reality innovation, economic activity, and population still gather in geographically attractive areas, and they continue to create economic peaks and valleys, which are by no means flattened out to mean equality for all. China’s hugely innovative and powerful cities of Shanghai and Beijing are worlds away from the rural squalor of the country’s poorest denizens. It is worth noting that Friedman is an economist, not a sociologist. His work focuses on the economic gains and risks this new world order entails. In this section, we will look more closely at how media globalization and technological globalization play out in a sociological perspective. As the names suggest, media globalization is the worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas, whiletechnological globalization refers to the cross-cultural development and exchange of technology. Media Globalization Lyons (2005) suggests that multinational corporations are the primary vehicle of media globalization, and these corporations control global mass-media content and distribution (Compaine 2005). It is true, when looking at who controls which media outlets, that there are fewer independent news sources as larger and larger conglomerates develop. The United States offers about 1,500 newspapers, 2,600 book publishers, and an equal number of television stations, plus 6,000 magazines and a whopping 10,000 radio outlets (Bagdikian 2004). On the surface, there is endless opportunity to find diverse media outlets. But the numbers are misleading. Media consolidation is a process in which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets. This creates anoligopoly in which a few firms dominate the media marketplace. In 1983, a mere 50 corporations owned the bulk of mass-media outlets. Today in the United States (which has no government-owned media) just five companies control 90 percent of media outlets (McChesney 1999). Ranked by 2014 company revenue, Comcast is the biggest, followed by the Disney Corporation, Time Warner, CBS, and Viacom (Time.com 2014). What impact does this consolidation have on the type of information to which the U.S. public is exposed? Does media consolidation deprive the public of multiple viewpoints and limit its discourse to the information and opinions shared by a few sources? Why does it matter? Monopolies matter because less competition typically means consumers are less well served since dissenting opinions or diverse viewpoints are less likely to be found. Media consolidation results in the following dysfunctions. First, consolidated media owes more to its stockholders than to the public. Publicly traded Fortune 500 companies must pay more attention to their profitability and to government regulators than to the public's right to know. The few companies that control most of the media, because they are owned by the power elite, represent the political and social interests of only a small minority. In an oligopoly there are fewer incentives to innovate, improve services, or decrease prices. While some social scientists predicted that the increase in media forms would create a global village (McLuhan 1964), current research suggests that the public sphere accessing the global village will tend to be rich, Caucasoid, and English-speaking (Jan 2009). As shown by the spring 2011 uprisings throughout the Arab world, technology really does offer a window into the news of the world. For example, here in the United States we saw internet updates of Egyptian events in real time, with people tweeting, posting, and blogging on the ground in Tahrir Square. Still, there is no question that the exchange of technology from core nations to peripheral and semi-peripheral ones leads to a number of complex issues. For instance, someone using a conflict theorist approach might focus on how much political ideology and cultural colonialism occurs with technological growth. In theory at least, technological innovations are ideology-free; a fiber optic cable is the same in a Muslim country as a secular one, a communist country or a capitalist one. But those who bring technology to less-developed nations—whether they are nongovernment organizations, businesses, or governments—usually have an agenda. A functionalist, in contrast, might focus on the ways technology creates new means to share information about successful crop-growing programs, or on the economic benefits of opening a new market for cell phone use. Either way, cultural and societal assumptions and norms are being delivered along with those high-speed wires. Cultural and ideological bias are not the only risks of media globalization. In addition to the risk of cultural imperialism and the loss of local culture, other problems come with the benefits of a more interconnected globe. One risk is the potential for censoring by national governments that let in only the information and media they feel serve their message, as is occurring in China. In addition, core nations such as the United States risk the use of international media by criminals to circumvent local laws against socially deviant and dangerous behaviors such as gambling, child pornography, and the sex trade. Offshore or international web sites allow U.S. citizens (and others) to seek out whatever illegal or illicit information they want, from twenty-four hour online gambling sites that do not require proof of age, to sites that sell child pornography. These examples illustrate the societal risks of unfettered information flow. China and the Internet: An Uncomfortable Friendship In the United States, the Internet is used to access illegal gambling and pornography sites, as well as to research stocks, crowd-source what car to buy, or keep in touch with childhood friends. Can we allow one or more of those activities, while restricting the rest? And who decides what needs restricting? In a country with democratic principles and an underlying belief in free-market capitalism, the answer is decided in the court system. But globally, the questions––and the government’s responses––are very different. China is in many ways the global poster child for the uncomfortable relationship between Internet freedom and government control. China, which is a country with a tight rein on the dissemination of information, has long worked to suppress what it calls “harmful information,” including dissent concerning government politics, dialogue about China’s role in Tibet, or criticism of the government’s handling of events. With sites like Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube blocked in China, the nation’s Internet users––some 500 million strong in 2011––turn to local media companies for their needs. Renren.com is China’s answer to Facebook. Perhaps more importantly from a social-change perspective, Sina Weibo is China’s version of Twitter. Microblogging, or Weibo, acts like Twitter in that users can post short messages that can be read by their subscribers. And because these services move so quickly and with such wide scope, it is difficult for government overseers to keep up. This tool was used to criticize government response to a deadly rail crash and to protest a chemical plant. It was also credited with the government’s decision to report more accurately on the air pollution in Beijing, which occurred after a high-profile campaign by a well-known property developer (Pierson 2012). There is no question of China’s authoritarian government ruling over this new form of Internet communication. The nation blocks the use of certain terms, such as human rights, and passes new laws that require people to register with their real names and make it more dangerous to criticize government actions. Indeed, fifty-six-year-old microblogger Wang Lihong was recently sentenced to nine months in prison for “stirring up trouble,” as her government described her work helping people with government grievances (Bristow 2011). But the government cannot shut down this flow of information completely. Foreign companies, seeking to engage with the increasingly important Chinese consumer market, have their own accounts: the NBA has more than 5 million followers, and Tom Cruise’s Weibo account boasts almost 3 million followers (Zhang 2011). The government, too, uses Weibo to get its own message across. As the millennium progresses, China’s approach to social media and the freedoms it offers will be watched anxiously––on Sina Weibo and beyond––by the rest of the world. Technological Globalization Technological globalization is speeded in large part by technological diffusion, the spread of technology across borders. In the last two decades, there has been rapid improvement in the spread of technology to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations, and a 2008 World Bank report discusses both the benefits and ongoing challenges of this diffusion. In general, the report found that technological progress and economic growth rates were linked, and that the rise in technological progress has helped improve the situations of many living in absolute poverty (World Bank 2008). The report recognizes that rural and low-tech products such as corn can benefit from new technological innovations, and that, conversely, technologies like mobile banking can aid those whose rural existence consists of low-tech market vending. In addition, technological advances in areas like mobile phones can lead to competition, lowered prices, and concurrent improvements in related areas such as mobile banking and information sharing. However, the same patterns of social inequality that create a digital divide in the United States also create digital divides within peripheral and semi-peripheral nations. While the growth of technology use among countries has increased dramatically over the past several decades, the spread of technology within countries is significantly slower among peripheral and semi-peripheral nations. In these countries, far fewer people have the training and skills to take advantage of new technology, let alone access it. Technological access tends to be clustered around urban areas and leaves out vast swaths of peripheral-nation citizens. While the diffusion of information technologies has the potential to resolve many global social problems, it is often the population most in need that is most affected by the digital divide. For example, technology to purify water could save many lives, but the villages in peripheral nations most in need of water purification don’t have access to the technology, the funds to purchase it, or the technological comfort level to introduce it as a solution. The Mighty Cell Phone: How Mobile Phones Are Impacting Sub-Saharan Africa Many of Africa’s poorest countries suffer from a marked lack of infrastructure including poor roads, limited electricity, and minimal access to education and telephones. But while landline use has not changed appreciably during the past ten years, there’s been a fivefold increase in mobile phone access; more than a third of people in Sub-Saharan Africa have the ability to access a mobile phone (Katine 2010). Even more can use a “village phone”—through a shared-phone program created by the Grameen Foundation. With access to mobile phone technology, a host of benefits become available that have the potential to change the dynamics in these poorest nations. Sometimes that change is as simple as being able to make a phone call to neighboring market towns. By finding out which markets have vendors interested in their goods, fishers and farmers can ensure they travel to the market that will serve them best and avoid a wasted trip. Others can use mobile phones and some of the emerging money-sending systems to securely send money to a family member or business partner elsewhere (Katine 2010). These shared-phone programs are often funded by businesses like Germany’s Vodafone or Britain’s Masbabi, which hope to gain market share in the region. Phone giant Nokia points out that there are 4 billion mobile phone users worldwide—that’s more than twice as many people as have bank accounts—meaning there is ripe opportunity to connect banking companies with people who need their services (ITU Telecom 2009). Not all access is corporate-based, however. Other programs are funded by business organizations that seek to help peripheral nations with tools for innovation and entrepreneurship. But this wave of innovation and potential business comes with costs. There is, certainly, the risk of cultural imperialism, and the assumption that core nations (and core-nation multinationals) know what is best for those struggling in the world’s poorest communities. Whether well intentioned or not, the vision of a continent of Africans successfully chatting on their iPhone may not be ideal. Like all aspects of global inequity, access to technology in Africa requires more than just foreign investment. There must be a concerted effort to ensure the benefits of technology get to where they are needed most. Summary Technology drives globalization, but what that means can be hard to decipher. While some economists see technological advances leading to a more level playing field where anyone anywhere can be a global contender, the reality is that opportunity still clusters in geographically advantaged areas. Still, technological diffusion has led to the spread of more and more technology across borders into peripheral and semi-peripheral nations. However, true technological global equality is a long way off. Section Quiz When Japanese scientists develop a new vaccine for swine flu and offer that technology to U.S. pharmaceutical companies, __________ has taken place. - media globalization - technological diffusion - monetizing - planned obsolescence Hint: B In the mid-90s, the U.S. government grew concerned that Microsoft was a _______________, exercising disproportionate control over the available choices and prices of computers. - monopoly - conglomerate - oligopoly - technological globalization Hint: A The movie Babel featured an international cast and was filmed on location in various nations. When it screened in theaters worldwide, it introduced a number of ideas and philosophies about cross-cultural connections. This might be an example of: - technology - conglomerating - symbolic interaction - media globalization Hint: D Which of the following is not a risk of media globalization? - The creation of cultural and ideological biases - The creation of local monopolies - The risk of cultural imperialism - The loss of local culture Hint: B The government of __________ blocks citizens’ access to popular new media sites like Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter. - China - India - Afghanistan - Australia Hint: A Short Answer Do you believe that technology has indeed flattened the world in terms of providing opportunity? Why, or why not? Give examples to support your reason. Where do you get your news? Is it owned by a large conglomerate (you can do a web search and find out!)? Does it matter to you who owns your local news outlets? Why, or why not? Who do you think is most likely to bring innovation and technology (like cell phone businesses) to Sub-Saharan Africa: nonprofit organizations, governments, or businesses? Why? Further Research Check out more on the global digital divide here: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/Global_Digital_Divide References Acker, Jenny C., and Isaac M. Mbiti. 2010. “Mobile Phones and Economic Development in Africa.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 24(3):207–232. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdf/10.1257/jep.24.3.207). Bagdikian, Ben H. 2004. The New Media Monopoly. Boston, MA: Beacon Press Books. Bristow, Michael. 2011. “Can China Control Social Media Revolution?” BBC News China, November 2. Retrieved January 14, 2012 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15383756). Compaine, B. 2005. “Global Media.” Pp. 97-101 in Living in the Information Age: A New Media Reader Belmont: Wadsworth Thomson Learning. Friedman, Thomas. 2005. The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. ITU News. 2009. “ITU Telecom World 2009: Special Report: Reflecting New Needs and Realities.” November. Retrieved January 14, 2012 (http://www.itu.int/net/itunews/issues/2009/09/26.aspx). Jan, Mirza. 2009. “Globalization of Media: Key Issues and Dimensions.” European Journal of Scientific Research 29:66–75. Katine Chronicles Blog. 2010. “Are Mobile Phones Africa’s Silver Bullet?” The Guardian, January 14. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/katine/katine-chronicles-blog?page=6). Ma, Damien. 2011. “2011: When Chinese Social Media Found Its Legs.” The Atlantic, December 18. Retrieved January 15, 2012 (http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/12/2011-when-chinese-social-media-found-its-legs/250083/). McLuhan, Marshall. 1964. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. New York: McGraw-Hill. Pierson, David. 2012. “Number of Web Users in China Hits 513 Million.” Los Angeles Times, January 16. Retrieved January 16, 2012 (http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2012/01/chinese-web-users-grow-to-513-million.html). The World Bank. 2008. “Global Economic Prospects 2008: Technology Diffusion in the Developing World.” World Bank. Retrieved January 24, 2012 (http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGEP2008/Resources/GEP_ove_001-016.pdf).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.318826	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11787/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Media and Technology", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11788/overview	Theoretical Perspectives on Media and Technology Overview - Understand and discuss how we analyze media and technology through various sociological perspectives It is difficult to conceive of any one theory or theoretical perspective that can explain the variety of ways in which people interact with technology and the media. Technology runs the gamut from the match you strike to light a candle all the way up to sophisticated nuclear power plants that might power the factory where that candle was made. Media could refer to the television you watch, the ads wrapping the bus you take to work or school, or the magazines you flip through in a dentist's waiting room, not to mention all the forms of new media, including Instagram, Facebook, blogs, YouTube, and the like. Are media and technology critical to the forward march of humanity? Are they pernicious capitalist tools that lead to the exploitation of workers worldwide? Are they the magic bullet the world has been waiting for to level the playing field and raise the world’s poor out of extreme poverty? Choose any opinion and you will find studies and scholars who agree with you––and those who disagree. Functionalism Because functionalism focuses on how media and technology contribute to the smooth functioning of society, a good place to begin understanding this perspective is to write a list of functions you perceive media and technology to perform. Your list might include the ability to find information on the Internet, television’s entertainment value, or how advertising and product placement contribute to social norms. Commercial Function As you might guess, with nearly every U.S. household possessing a television, and the 250 billion hours of television watched annually by people in the United States, companies that wish to connect with consumers find television an irresistible platform to promote their goods and services (Nielsen 2012). Television advertising is a highly functional way to meet a market demographic where it lives. Sponsors can use the sophisticated data gathered by network and cable television companies regarding their viewers and target their advertising accordingly. Whether you are watching cartoons on Nick Jr. or a cooking show on Telemundo, chances are advertisers have a plan to reach you. And it certainly doesn’t stop with television. Commercial advertising precedes movies in theaters and shows up on and inside public transportation, as well as on the sides of building and roadways. Major corporations such as Coca-Cola bring their advertising into public schools, by sponsoring sports fields or tournaments, as well as filling the halls and cafeterias of those schools with vending machines hawking their goods. With rising concerns about childhood obesity and attendant diseases, the era of soda machines in schools may be numbered. In fact, as part of the United States Department of Agriculture's Healthy, Hunger Free Kids Act and Michelle Obama's Let's Move! Initiative, a ban on junk food in school began in July 2014. Entertainment Function An obvious manifest function of media is its entertainment value. Most people, when asked why they watch television or go to the movies, would answer that they enjoy it. And the numbers certainly illustrate that. While 2012 Nielsen research shows a slight reduction of U.S. homes with televisions, the reach of television is still vast. And the amount of time spent watching is equally large. Clearly, enjoyment is paramount. On the technology side, as well, there is a clear entertainment factor to the use of new innovations. From online gaming to chatting with friends on Facebook, technology offers new and more exciting ways for people to entertain themselves. Social Norm Functions Even while the media is selling us goods and entertaining us, it also serves to socialize us, helping us pass along norms, values, and beliefs to the next generation. In fact, we are socialized and resocialized by media throughout our whole lives. All forms of media teach us what is good and desirable, how we should speak, how we should behave, and how we should react to events. Media also provide us with cultural touchstones during events of national significance. How many of your older relatives can recall watching the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger on television? How many of those reading this textbook followed the events of September 11 or Hurricane Katrina on television or the Internet? Just as in Anderson and Bushman's (2011) evidence in the Violence in Media and Video Games: Does It Matter? feature, debate still exists over the extent and impact of media socialization. One recent study (Krahe et al. 2011) demonstrated that violent media content does have a desensitizing affect and is correlated with aggressive thoughts. Another group of scholars (Gentile, Mathieson, and Crick 2011) found that among children exposure to media violence led to an increase in both physical and relational aggression. Yet, a meta-analysis study covering four decades of research (Savage 2003) could not establish a definitive link between viewing violence and committing criminal violence. It is clear from watching people emulate the styles of dress and talk that appear in media that media has a socializing influence. What is not clear, despite nearly fifty years of empirical research, is how much socializing influence the media has when compared to other agents of socialization, which include any social institution that passes along norms, values, and beliefs (such as peers, family, religious institutions, and the like). Life-Changing Functions Like media, many forms of technology do indeed entertain us, provide a venue for commercialization, and socialize us. For example, some studies suggest the rising obesity rate is correlated with the decrease in physical activity caused by an increase in use of some forms of technology, a latent function of the prevalence of media in society (Kautiainen et al. 2011). Without a doubt, a manifest function of technology is to change our lives, sometimes for the better and sometimes for the worse. Think of how the digital age has improved the ways we communicate. Have you ever used Skype or another webcast to talk to a friend or family member far away? Or maybe you have organized a fund drive, raising thousands of dollars, all from your desk chair. Of course, the downside to this ongoing information flow is the near impossibility of disconnecting from technology that leads to an expectation of constant convenient access to information and people. Such a fast-paced dynamic is not always to our benefit. Some sociologists assert that this level of media exposure leads to narcotizing dysfunction, a result in which people are too overwhelmed with media input to really care about the issue, so their involvement becomes defined by awareness instead of by action (Lazerfeld and Merton 1948). Conflict Perspective In contrast to theories in the functional perspective, the conflict perspective focuses on the creation and reproduction of inequality—social processes that tend to disrupt society rather than contribute to its smooth operation. When we take a conflict perspective, one major focus is the differential access to media and technology embodied in the digital divide. Conflict theorists also look at who controls the media, and how media promotes the norms of upper-middle-class white people in the United States while minimizing the presence of the working class, especially people of color. Control of Media and Technology Powerful individuals and social institutions have a great deal of influence over which forms of technology are released, when and where they are released, and what kind of media is available for our consumption, which is a form of gatekeeping. Shoemaker and Voss (2009) define gatekeeping as the sorting process by which thousands of possible messages are shaped into a mass media-appropriate form and reduced to a manageable amount. In other words, the people in charge of the media decide what the public is exposed to, which, as C. Wright Mills (1956) famously noted, is the heart of media’s power. Take a moment to think of the way “new media” evolve and replace traditional forms of hegemonic media. With hegemonic media, a culturally diverse society can be dominated by one race, gender, or class that manipulates the media to impose its worldview as a societal norm. New media weakens the gatekeeper role in information distribution. Popular sites such as YouTube and Facebook not only allow more people to freely share information but also engage in a form of self-policing. Users are encouraged to report inappropriate behavior that moderators will then address. In addition, some conflict theorists suggest that the way U.S. media are generated results in an unbalanced political arena. Those with the most money can buy the most media exposure, run smear campaigns against their competitors, and maximize their visual presence. Almost a year before the 2012 U.S. presidential election, the candidates––Barack Obama for the Democrats and numerous Republican contenders––had raised more than $186 million (Carmi et al. 2012). Some would say that the Citizens United vs. Federal Election Committee is a major contributing factor to our unbalanced political arena. InCitizens United, the Supreme Court affirmed the right of outside groups, including Super Political Action Committees (SuperPACs) with undisclosed donor lists, to spend unlimited amounts of money on political ads as long as they don't coordinate with the candidate's campaign or specifically advocate for a candidate. What do you think a conflict perspective theorist would suggest about the potential for the non-rich to be heard in politics, especially when SuperPACs ensure that the richest groups have the most say? Technological Social Control and Digital Surveillance Social scientists take the idea of the surveillance society so seriously that there is an entire journal devoted to its study, Surveillance and Society. Thepanoptic surveillance envisioned by Jeremy Bentham, depicted in the form of an all-powerful, all-seeing government by George Orwell in1984, and later analyzed by Michel Foucault (1975) is increasingly realized in the form of technology used to monitor our every move. This surveillance was imagined as a form of constant monitoring in which the observation posts are decentralized and the observed is never communicated with directly. Today, digital security cameras capture our movements, observers can track us through our cell phones, and police forces around the world use facial-recognition software. Feminist Perspective Take a look at popular television shows, advertising campaigns, and online game sites. In most, women are portrayed in a particular set of parameters and tend to have a uniform look that society recognizes as attractive. Most are thin, white or light-skinned, beautiful, and young. Why does this matter? Feminist perspective theorists believe this idealized image is crucial in creating and reinforcing stereotypes. For example, Fox and Bailenson (2009) found that online female avatars conforming to gender stereotypes enhance negative attitudes toward women, and Brasted (2010) found that media (advertising in particular) promotes gender stereotypes. As early as 1990, Ms. magazine instituted a policy to publish without any commercial advertising. The gender gap in tech-related fields (science, technology, engineering, and math) is no secret. A 2011 U.S. Department of Commerce Report suggested that gender stereotyping is one reason for this gap which acknowledges the bias toward men as keepers of technological knowledge (US Department of Commerce 2011). But gender stereotypes go far beyond the use of technology. Press coverage in the media reinforces stereotypes that subordinate women; it gives airtime to looks over skills, and coverage disparages women who defy accepted norms. Recent research in new media has offered a mixed picture of its potential to equalize the status of men and women in the arenas of technology and public discourse. A European agency, the Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunities for Men and Women (2010), issued an opinion report suggesting that while there is the potential for new media forms to perpetuate gender stereotypes and the gender gap in technology and media access, at the same time new media could offer alternative forums for feminist groups and the exchange of feminist ideas. Still, the committee warned against the relatively unregulated environment of new media and the potential for antifeminist activities, from pornography to human trafficking, to flourish there. Increasingly prominent in the discussion of new media and feminism is cyberfeminism, the application to, and promotion of, feminism online. Research on cyberfeminism runs the gamut from the liberating use of blogs by women living in Iraq during the second Gulf War (Peirce 2011) to an investigation of the Suicide Girls web site (Magnet 2007). Symbolic Interactionism Technology itself may act as a symbol for many. The kind of computer you own, the kind of car you drive, your ability to afford the latest Apple product—these serve as a social indicator of wealth and status. Neo-Luddites are people who see technology as symbolizing the coldness and alienation of modern life. But fortechnophiles, technology symbolizes the potential for a brighter future. For those adopting an ideological middle ground, technology might symbolize status (in the form of a massive flat-screen television) or failure (ownership of a basic old mobile phone with no bells or whistles). Social Construction of Reality Meanwhile, media create and spread symbols that become the basis for our shared understanding of society. Theorists working in the interactionist perspective focus on this social construction of reality, an ongoing process in which people subjectively create and understand reality. Media constructs our reality in a number of ways. For some, the people they watch on a screen can become a primary group, meaning the small informal groups of people who are closest to them. For many others, media becomes a reference group: a group that influences an individual and to which an individual compares himself or herself, and by which we judge our successes and failures. We might do very well without the latest smartphone, until we see characters using it on our favorite television show or our classmates whipping it out between classes. While media may indeed be the medium to spread the message of rich white males, Gamson, Croteau, Hoynes, and Sasson (1992) point out that some forms of media discourse allow competing constructions of reality to appear. For example, advertisers find new and creative ways to sell us products we don’t need and probably wouldn’t want without their prompting, but some networking sites such as Freecycle offer a commercial-free way of requesting and trading items that would otherwise be discarded. The web is also full of blogs chronicling lives lived “off the grid,” or without participation in the commercial economy. Social Networking and Social Construction While Tumblr and Facebook encourage us to check in and provide details of our day through online social networks, corporations can just as easily promote their products on these sites. Even supposedly crowd-sourced sites like Yelp (which aggregates local reviews) are not immune to corporate shenanigans. That is, we think we are reading objective observations when in reality we may be buying into one more form of advertising. Facebook, which started as a free social network for college students, is increasingly a monetized business, selling you goods and services in subtle ways. But chances are you don’t think of Facebook as one big online advertisement. What started out as a symbol of coolness and insider status, unavailable to parents and corporate shills, now promotes consumerism in the form of games and fandom. For example, think of all the money spent to upgrade popular Facebook games like Candy Crush. And notice that whenever you become a “fan,” you likely receive product updates and special deals that promote online and real-world consumerism. It is unlikely that millions of people want to be “friends” with Pampers. But if it means a weekly coupon, they will, in essence, rent out space on their Facebook pages for Pampers to appear. Thus, we develop both new ways to spend money and brand loyalties that will last even after Facebook is considered outdated and obsolete. Summary There are myriad theories about how society, technology, and media will progress. Functionalism sees the contribution that technology and media provide to the stability of society, from facilitating leisure time to increasing productivity. Conflict theorists are more concerned with how technology reinforces inequalities among communities, both within and among countries. They also look at how media typically give voice to the most powerful, and how new media might offer tools to help those who are disenfranchised. Symbolic interactionists see the symbolic uses of technology as signs of everything from a sterile futuristic world to a successful professional life. Section Quiz A parent secretly monitoring the babysitter through the use of GPS, site blocker, and nanny cam is a good example of: - the social construction of reality - technophilia - a neo-Luddite - panoptic surveillance Hint: D The use of Facebook to create an online persona by only posting images that match your ideal self exemplifies the_____________ that can occur in forms of new media. - social construction of reality - cyberfeminism - market segmentation - referencing Hint: A _________ tend to be more pro-technology, while _______ view technology as a symbol of the coldness of modern life. - Luddites; technophiles - technophiles; Luddites - cyberfeminists; technophiles - liberal feminists; conflict theorists Hint: B When it comes to media and technology, a functionalist would focus on: - the symbols created and reproduced by the media - the association of technology and technological skill with men - the way that various forms of media socialize users - the digital divide between the technological haves and have-nots Hint: C When all media sources report a simplified version of the environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing, with no effort to convey the hard science and complicated statistical data behind the story, ___________ is probably occurring. - gatekeeping - the digital divide - technophilia - market segmentation Hint: A Short Answer Contrast a functionalist viewpoint of digital surveillance with a conflict perspective viewpoint. In what ways has the Internet affected how you view reality? Explain using a symbolic interactionist perspective. Describe how a cyberfeminist might address the fact that powerful female politicians are often demonized in traditional media. The issue of airplane-pilot exhaustion is an issue of growing media concern. Select a theoretical perspective, and describe how it would explain this. Would you characterize yourself as a technophile or a Luddite? Explain, and use examples. Further Research To learn more about cyberfeminism, check out the interdisciplinary artist collective, subRosa: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/cyberfeminism To explore the implications of panoptic surveillance, review some surveillance studies at the free, open source Surveillance and Society site: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/Surveillance Read an example of socialist media from Jacobin magazine here:http://openstaxcollege.org/l/2EJacobin References Brasted, Monica. 2010. “Care Bears vs. Transformers: Gender Stereotypes in Advertisements.” Retrieved January 10, 2012 (http://www.sociology.org/media-studies/care-bears-vs-transformers-gender-stereotypes-in-advertisements). Carmi, Evan, Matthew Ericson, David Nolen, Kevin Quealy, Michael Strickland, Jeremy White, and Derek Willis. 2012. “The 2012 Money Race: Compare the Candidates.” New York Times. Retrieved January 15, 2012 (http://elections.nytimes.com/2012/campaign-finance). Foucault, Michel. 1975. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage Books. Fox, Jesse, and Jeremy Bailenson. 2009. “Virtual Virgins and Vamps: The Effects of Exposure to Female Characters’ Sexualized Appearance and Gaze in an Immersive Virtual Environment.” Sex Roles 61:147–157. Gamson, William, David Croteau, William Hoynes, and Theodore Sasson. 1992. “Media Images and the Social Construction of Reality.” Annual Review of Sociology 18:373–393. Gentile, Douglas, Lindsay Mathieson, and Nikki Crick. 2011. “Media Violence Associations with the Form and Function of Aggression among Elementary School Children.” Social Development 20:213–232. Kautiainen, S., L. Koivusilta, T. Lintonen, S. M. Virtanen, and A. Rimpelä. 2005. “Use of Information and Communication Technology and Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity Among Adolescents.”International Journal of Obesity 29:925–933 Krahe, Barbara, Ingrid Moller, L. Huesmann, Lucyna Kirwil, Julianec Felber, and Anja Berger. 2011. “Desensitization to Media Violence: Links With Habitual Media Violence Exposure, Aggressive Cognitions, and Aggressive Behavior.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100:630–646. Lazerfeld, Paul F. and Robert K. Merton. 1948. “Mass Communication, Popular Taste, and Organized Social Action.” The Communication of Ideas. New York: Harper & Bros. Magnet, Shoshana. 2007. “Feminist Sexualities, Race, and The Internet: An Investigation of suicidegirls.com.” New Media & Society 9:577-602. Mills, C. Wright. 2000 [1956]. The Power Elite. New York: Oxford University Press. NielsenWire. 2011. “Nielsen Estimates Number of U.S. Television Homes to be 114.7 Million.” May 3. Retrieved January 15, 2012 (http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/media_entertainment/nielsen-estimates-number-of-u-s-television-homes-to-be-114-7-million/). Pierce, Tess. 2011. “Singing at the Digital Well: Blogs as Cyberfeminist Sites of Resistance.” Feminist Formations 23:196–209. Savage, Joanne. 2003. “Does Viewing Violent Media Really Cause Criminal Violence? A Methodological Review.” Aggression and Violent Behavior 10:99–128. Shoemaker, Pamela and Tim Voss. 2009. “Media Gatekeeping.” Pp. 75–89 in An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research, 2nd ed., edited by D. Stacks and M. Salwen. New York: Routledge. U.S. Department of Commerce. 2011. “Women in STEM: A Gender Gap to Innovation.” August. Retrieved February 22, 2012 (http://www.esa.doc.gov/sites/default/files/reports/documents/womeninstemagaptoinnovation8311.pdf/).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.355486	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11788/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Media and Technology", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15192/overview	OpenStax Instructor Resources Preface Overview Welcome to American Government, an OpenStax resource. This textbook was written to increase student access to high-quality learning materials, maintaining highest standards of academic rigor at little to no cost. Untitled Section Welcome to American Government, an OpenStax resource. This textbook was written to increase student access to high-quality learning materials, maintaining highest standards of academic rigor at little to no cost. ABOUT OPENSTAX OpenStax is a nonprofit based at Rice University, and it’s our mission to improve student access to education. Our first openly licensed college textbook was published in 2012, and our library has since scaled to over 20 books for college and AP® courses used by hundreds of thousands of students. 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OpenStax is committed to remaining transparent about all updates, so you will also find a list of past errata changes on your book page on openstax.org. Format You can access this textbook for free in web view or PDF through openstax.org, and for a low cost in print. ABOUT AMERICAN GOVERNMENT American Government is designed to meet the scope and sequence requirements of the single-semester American Government course. This title includes innovative features designed to enhance student learning, including Insider Perspective features and a Get Connected module that shows students how they can get engaged in the political process. The book provides an important opportunity for students to learn the core concepts of American Government and understand how those concepts apply to their lives and the world around them. Coverage and Scope Our American Government textbook adheres to the scope and sequence of introductory American government courses nationwide. We have endeavored to make the workings of American Government interesting and accessible to students while maintaining the conceptual coverage and rigor inherent in the subject at the college level. With this objective in mind, the content of this textbook has been developed and arranged to provide a logical progression from the fundamental principles of institutional design at the founding, to avenues of political participation, to thorough coverage of the political structures that constitute American government. The book builds upon what students have already learned and emphasizes connections between topics as well as between theory and applications. The goal of each section is to enable students not just to recognize concepts, but to work with them in ways that will be useful in later courses, future careers, and as engaged citizens. The organization and pedagogical features were developed and vetted with feedback from American government instructors dedicated to the project. Unit I: Students and the System - Chapter 1: American Government and Civic Engagement - Chapter 2: The Constitution and Its Origins - Chapter 3: American Federalism Unit II: Individual Agency and Action - Chapter 4: Civil Liberties - Chapter 5: Civil Rights - Chapter 6: The Politics of Public Opinion - Chapter 7: Voting and Elections Unit III: Toward Collective Action: Mediating Institutions - Chapter 8: The Media - Chapter 9: Political Parties - Chapter 10: Interest Groups and Lobbying Unit IV: Delivering Collective Action: Formal Institutions - Chapter 11: Congress - Chapter 12: The Presidency - Chapter 13: The Courts - Chapter 14: State and Local Government Unit V: Outputs of Government - Chapter 15: The Bureaucracy - Chapter 16: Domestic Policy - Chapter 17: Foreign Policy Appendixes - Appendix A: Declaration of Independence - Appendix B: The Constitution of the United States - Appendix C: Federalist Papers #10 and #51 - Appendix D: Electoral College Votes by State, 2012–2020 - Appendix E: Selected Supreme Court Cases Engaging Feature Boxes Throughout American Government, you will find features that engage students by taking selected topics a step further. 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He joined the University of Oklahoma’s Department of Political Science in 2002 and serves as Professor of Political Science, teaching the American Government course to hundreds of students each semester. Prior to his academic career, Dr. Krutz worked in politics and policy, as a campaign assistant and then Capitol Hill aide to a U.S. senator, and as a research analyst for what would become the Nevada System of Higher Education. He has authored and co-authored several books, and his work has appeared in numerous leading journals. Dr. Krutz’s current research probes questions of public policy agenda-setting in democratic political institutions, especially Congress. Sylvie Waskiewicz (Lead Editor), PhD Dr. Waskiewicz received her BSBA from Georgetown University and her MA and PhD from the Institute of French Studies at New York University. With a specialization in Franco-American relations and over ten years of teaching experience at the university level, Sylvie left academia to join the ranks of higher education publishing. She has spent the last nine years editing college textbooks and academic journals in the humanities, social sciences, and world languages. Contributing Authors Prosper Bernard, Jr., City University of New York Jennifer Danley-Scott, Texas Woman’s University Ann Kordas, Johnson & Wales University Christopher Lawrence, Middle Georgia State College Tonya Neaves, George Mason University Adam Newmark, Appalachian State University Brooks D. Simpson, Arizona State University Joel Webb, Tulane University Shawn Williams, Campbellsville University Rhonda Wrzenski, Indiana University Southeast Reviewers Brad Allard, Hill College Milan Andrejevich, Ivy Tech Community College Thomas Arndt, Rowan University Sue Atkinson, University of Maryland–University College Edward Bond, Alabama A&M University Joseph Campbell, Rose State College James Davenport, Rose State College Sharon Deubreau, Rhodes State College Henry Esparza, University of Texas–San Antonio Terri Fine, University of Central Florida Mark Francisco, Volunteer State Community College Sarah Gershon, Georgia State University Rick Gianni, Indiana University Northwest Travis Grasser, Commerce High School Eric Herzik, University of Nevada–Reno Matthew Hipps, Dalton State College Alexander Hogan, Lone Star College–CyFair Cynthia Hunter-Summerlin, Tarrant County College Tseggai Isaac, University of Missouri-Rolla Walter Jatkowski, III, Northwest College Kevin Jeffries, Alvin Community College J. Aaron Knight, Houston Community College Robert Lancaster, Kentucky State University John Lund, Keene State College Shari MacLachlan, Palm Beach State College Carol Marmaduke-Sands, North Central Texas College James McCormick, Iowa State University Eric Miller, Blinn College Sara Moats, Florida International University Marie Natoli, Emmanuel College Caryn Neumann, Miami University of Ohio James Newman, Southeast Missouri State University Cynthia Newton, Wesley College Jeffrey S. Peake, Clemson University G. David Price, Santa Fe College James Ronan, Rowan University David Smith, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi Leniece Smith, Jackson State University Kai Sorensen, Central Michigan University James Starkey, Pasadena City College Karen Stewart, Collin College Abram Trosky, United States Coast Guard Academy Adam Warber, Clemson University Alexander Wathen, University of Houston–Downtown Reed Welch, West Texas A&M University Yvonne Wollenberg, Rutgers University John Wood, University of Central Oklahoma Laura Wood, Tarrant County College Michael Zarkin, Westminster College	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.393733	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15192/overview", "title": "American Government, Preface", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71783/overview	Artificial Intelligence in Hospitality: A Future Not Too Far Overview Artificial Intelligence (AI) promises to offer tremendous opportunities for service excellence, creation of newer domain of employment avenues, and in the process augment industrial and economic growth for countries. The question, however, is India ready to embrace AI and pave for a new technology revolution? India’s history does indeed support this possibility. In the past, starting in the late 1980s, India successfully clasped the computer revolution bubble and took almost a decade to become an information technology (IT) leader in the world. Today, the Indian IT sector contributes significantly to the country’s GDP and is among the highest employment opportunity provider in the country. The journey of India as an IT major, however, has not been without its ups and downs. Artificial Intelligence in Hospitality: A Future Not Too Far This article will help you know the future of AI in Hospitality! Technological advancements continue to disrupt traditional processes and, in this regard, it is expected to evolve further to offer unimaginable service experiences by organizations to people across the world in the very near future. Artificial Intelligence (AI) promises to offer tremendous opportunities for service excellence, creation of newer domain of employment avenues, and in the process augment industrial and economic growth for countries. The question, however, is India ready to embrace AI and pave for a new technology revolution? India’s history does indeed support this possibility. In the past, starting in the late 1980s, India successfully clasped the computer revolution bubble and took almost a decade to become an information technology (IT) leader in the world. Today, the Indian IT sector contributes significantly to the country’s GDP and is among the highest employment opportunity provider in the country. The journey of India as an IT major, however, has not been without its ups and downs. As regards AI, early signs do suggest that India is slowly moving towards industries adopting sophisticated technology and AI to offer their products and services to the world market. Experts estimate that by the year 2050, 40 percent of manpower across different industries would be replaced by robots. In India itself, investments in AI and related technologies are expected to touch $16 billion by the year 2025. The transition towards AI though, unlike IT, is expected to be slow and difficult. A country where a service sector like hospitality and tourism is a major employment generator, an ill-planned transition into AI may momentarily lead to greater levels of unemployment. Further, organizations are expected to possess the necessary capital, infrastructure, and expertise to introduce AI for services. Furthermore, India should possess a good number of effective technology and research and development institutes dedicatedly training young minds to design, develop, and maintain AI and related technologies. Moreover, industries and organizations should have an active will to embrace AI, given the extremely volatile, competitive, dynamic nature of the business market, heightened levels of customer awareness and expectations, and the very need for the organizations to remain relevant in the business scape. The adoption of AI and related technologies in India, therefore, is found to be at an embryonic stage. However, notwithstanding the challenges involved, the advantages of using AI by organizations abound. In this connection, some sectors like, for example, healthcare, logistics, automobile manufacturing, and hospitality have already adopted AI-related technologies to bring about operational excellence in their business processes. In fact, as regards the service sector, some international luxury hotels like FlyZoo, Henn Na Hotel, and the Yotel use AI robots to render their services. The AI in these hotels assists in offering significantly improved and robust housekeeping, reception, and food delivery processes. These technologies are also effectively utilized for handling customer complaints, offering authentic, accurate, and timely information on queries (e.g., travel destinations, flight/railway bookings, food, movies, shopping outlets, etc.) as raised by the guests and in the language of their preference. In fact, today’s innovative technologies, such as data analytics, artificial intelligence, robotics, mobility, and other next-generation solutions, unleash revenue generation potential for hotels and restaurants. This is being accomplished, in part, by allowing hotels to focus more intently on giving their loyal guests the best experience possible which, in turn, is carefully designed to create repeat business. For example, it has become more commonplace to see automated check-in kiosks at the hotel lobby, allowing the front-desk personnel to concentrate more on other priority tasks. Hotel chains are also using mobile apps for check-in check-outs, offering guests everything from making reservations for meals to a quick scan of local concerts, plays, sporting events, and other activities around the country. AI through features such as machine learning has enabled hotels to grow in business. It has ever since been rapidly evolving and is already making a huge impact, with technology enabling AI to integrate into everyday life. By using AI, hotels across all industries (travel and tourism) are now able to use available data more effectively to complete the tasks well in time. Chatbots are the most ideal addition for customer centric-businesses and destinations. A conversational bot can serve 24/7 front-end customer care specialists & they are capable of totally transforming visitor servicing in destinations after hours. Also, the extant research available in the domain of hospitality and tourism suggests that lack of knowledge of language(s) hamper the motivation of potential tourists from visiting a particular destination. In this connection, hotels that use AI technologies capable of handling multiple languages are expected to differentiate themselves from other hotels by truly offering services that are customized and personalized as per the needs of the tourists. Notwithstanding the observed benefits, AI and related technologies can still be beneficially used to improve customer service experiences by optimally utilizing chatbots, Kiosk machines at reception, and interactive robots programmed to demonstrate human-like service capabilities (i.e., emotional intelligence, empathy, responsiveness, spontaneity, and flexibility in the decision). For example, interactions for hotel booking that are enriched with intelligent Chatbots can offer immense convenience to customers: 24/7 availability, hasty delivery service along with several custom options for booking room services. Built-in combination with call center agents, conversational AI in hotels will fuel the digital reservation process helping hotel businesses upsell relevant services (such as spa, body care treatments, dinners and bar reservations, lounge package, etc.). Further, AI can also alert front office managers about the VIP check-in for the surprising and delightful guest experience. Valet will know the ETA and will be ready for the guest's car parking. AI can also be used to email guests who are late to check-in and ask for special requirements needed. Robot butler will be ready in room for food service that guests will not be expecting (e.g., a fresh lemonade). From customers’ perspective though, it is expected that many guests may be reluctant to rely entirely on the information as provided by the AI-based technologies. This is because the validity, reliability, and accuracy of any information given by the robots are conditioned to the quality of the program and algorithms that enable the AI technology to perform. Therefore, it is expected that in some situations that require some flexibility in information dissemination and decision making, guests may still feel that experienced humans may eventually far better than mechanically programmed robots. One solution to this issue could be to have an in-depth understanding of customers’ levels of readiness, perceptions, and attitudes towards adopting AI-related technologies. Further, organizations may even undertake extensive AI-related awareness interventions for customers and travellers thereby, bridging the gap between human and robot interactions. Moreover, guests who are frequent travellers often experience service recovery by receiving calls from staff members and smiling faces who greet you at the time of check-in and the same faces at the time of check-out. In this connection, researchers are working on robots who can sense human emotions, analyse emotions from vocal intonations and, accordingly offer its reaction and response to the customer's need. Against the afore-mentioned benefits of AI, hotel management in India should take concrete and tangible steps to include AI in their daily operations for better functioning of the organization, revenue generation, enhance guest satisfaction and guest loyalty.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.413269	Prithvi Roy	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71783/overview", "title": "Artificial Intelligence in Hospitality: A Future Not Too Far", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123096/overview	Information Seeking Behaviour Model Overview The Information Seeking Behavior (ISB) module explores how individuals seek, collect, and utilize information to fulfill their needs. It is an interdisciplinary field of study that incorporates the concepts from information science, psychology, sociology, and communication studies. Information Seeking Behaviour Model Information Seeking Behaviour Model Introduction Information Seeking Behaviour (ISB) means the process of seeking and acquiring information by an individual. It is about the action of searching, retrieving, and using information to serve a need or solve problems. Understanding how people find, use, and judge information is vital in areas that include library science, information science, marketing, education, and healthcare. This research paper discusses some of the major Information Seeking Behaviour models with insights into why and how people interact with information at different levels. Objectives - To understand the concept of Information Seeking Behaviour (ISB). - To discuss the key models of ISB. - To analyse what influences the information-seeking processes. -To examine practical implications of these models on real-world scenarios. Information Seeking Behaviour Definition: An information-seeking behaviour model is a theoretical construct that describes how one comes to know and find as well as utilize information. The models explain how, as part of a very dynamic and iterative process, searching for information is impacted upon by cognitive, social and contextual factors. Key Models of Information Seeking Behaviour: There are several models that explain how individuals seek information. Below are a few prominent models: - Kuhlthau’s Model (ISP) (1991) Kuhlthau's Information Search Process is among the most influential models of Information Seeking Behaviour. The model describes the cognitive and emotional stages of the information search process. Kuhlthau suggested that the information search process is composed of different stages, with emotional and cognitive states affecting the information seeker. Stage 1: Initiation- The person becomes conscious of a lack of information or uncertainty. This is characterized by anxiety. Stage 2: Selection– The researcher chooses a general focus and selects a method for conducting research. At this point, hopefulness starts to develop. Stage 3: Exploration: The person looks for information, but most of the time, it is ambiguous and frustrating due to unclear situations. The emotional state could be ambiguous or indefinite. Stage 4: Formulation: The information searcher clarifies his needs to know what he is really looking for and narrows his information to specifics. His confidence increases. Stage 5: Collection – At this stage, the individual collects relevant information and uses their findings. The person feels satisfied and relieved. Stage 6: Presentation – The information synthesized and communicated for a purpose. The seeker feels fulfilled. This is also noteworthy in Kuhlthau's model since it recognized the emotional states related to information seeking, which marked a departure from earlier models, which were mainly cognitive or behavioural. This picture is use for educational purpose - Dervin’s Model (SMM) (1992): Another influential model is Dervin's Sense-Making Methodology (SMM), which puts emphasis on understanding how individuals make sense of information in the course of their search. Key concepts: Knowledge gaps: Gaps are points of uncertainty or confusion in the subject matter that lead to the search for information. Bridge: The information or insight that helps to reduce or eliminate these gaps. Context: The circumstances and surroundings within which the individual operates are a factor in shaping the individual's information-seeking behaviour. This picture is use for educational purpose C. Savolainen’s ELIS Model (1995): The ELIS (Everyday Life Information Seeking) model, developed by Savolainen, focuses on how people seek information for use in their ordinary daily lives, outside of formal and professional contexts. Key Elements: . Information Need: The individual has a need for information, which can be driven by curiosity, problem-solving, or social interaction. 2. Information Seeking: People employ various strategies such as active search (for example, the internet), passive seeking (for example, overhearing), social interaction (for example, asking others), and environmental cues (for example, observing surroundings). 3. Sources of information: Formal sources (for example, libraries) and informal sources (for example, family, social media). 4. Information Use: Individuals use the information for problem solving, decision-making or simply to satisfy their interest. 5. Satisfaction: The individual assesses whether the information satisfied his or her needs, which then determines their satisfaction. This picture is use for educational purpose D. Wilson’s Model (1996): Wilson proposed an elaborate model that classifies information seeking behaviour into several types such as active and passive searching. His model emphasizes that the influences of information-seeking behaviour are based on either internal or external factors. Information need: The initiation point for the process that can result from a cognitive, emotional, or social need of a person. Information seeking: Actively seek information using different sources: Internet, libraries, or other experts. Information Use: The application of the information to meet the need or solve the problem. Influencing Factors: These can be personal characteristics, social norms, or environmental influences. This picture is use for educational purpose Conclusion Models of information-seeking behaviour offer crucial insights into how people find, assess, and use information that they need. These models provide helpful frameworks for strengthening information retrieval systems, increasing user experience, and optimising research methodologies, whether it is via analysing the user's background, identifying the behaviours involved, or comprehending the emotional components of the process. The implementation of these models will continue to influence the creation of more efficient and user-friendly information systems as technology advances and the amount of information makes its way online. References 1. Kuhlthau, C. C. (1991). Information Search Process: A Summary of Research and Implications for Library Instruction. Journal of Documentation, 47(3), 207-231. 2. Dervin, B. (1992). From the Mind’s Eye of the User: The Sense-Making Qualitative-Quantitative Methodology. In J. D. Glazier & R. R. Powell (Eds.), Qualitative Research in Information Management (pp. 61–84). Libraries Unlimited. 3. Wilson, T. D. (1996). Information Behaviour: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Information Science, 1(1), 49-55. 4. Savolainen,R.(1995).Everyday Life Information Seeking: Approaching information seeking in the context of way of life. Library and Information Science Reaserch,17((3),259-294.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.448920	12/16/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123096/overview", "title": "Information Seeking Behaviour Model", "author": "PRIYANKA SHIL" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98158/overview	ADDIE Template Overview ADDIE - Instructional Design Template. Introduction { Please enter a brief description of your lesson } A - Analyze Key items for In-Class Exercise Backround information consisting of: Who, What, Where, When, Why Relevance For reference only Needs Analysis - Surveys Task Analysis { Please add your text here } D - Design Key items for In-Class Exercise Lesson Plan Procedures For reference only Evaluations to be used { Please add your text here } D - Develop Key items for In-Class Exercise Graphic design (Look and Feel) For reference only Pilot testing Train the Trainer courses { Please add your text here } I - Implement Key items for In-Class Exercise Kirkpatricks Level of Evaluation Level. 1 - Reaction Level 2 - Learning Level 3 - Behavior Level 4 - Results How will you assess the success of the lesson based on these 4 levels? { Please add your text here } E - Evaluate Key items for In-Class Exercise Evaluation in this case is a systematic review of the lesson elements. What questions and/or look fors might you add to measure success? { Please add your text here }	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.466575	10/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98158/overview", "title": "ADDIE Template", "author": "Thomas McClain" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92505/overview	Blaise Pascal's "The Wager" Overview Information and discussion questions regarding Blaise Pascal's "The Wager." The Wager The attatched PowerPoint includes information and discussion questions regarding Blaise Pascal's "The Wager."	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.482448	Courtney Buchtel	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92505/overview", "title": "Blaise Pascal's \"The Wager\"", "author": "Unit of Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83563/overview	PreK-Grade 3 Reentry: Connecting to Families Overview This resource provides tools and guidance to help educators and families get to know one another and collaborate on learning activities that promote growth across learning settings. Resources to Connect with Families Schools are encouraged to invite families to meet with their child’s teacher prior to or at the beginning of the school year to initiate a relationship among the child, the family, and the teacher. While this is required for kindergarten and Transitional Kindergarten as part of WaKIDS RCW 28A.150.220, teachers may meet with families at the beginning of the school year in other grades, counting this time as school days if districts seek a waiver for the purpose of conducting parent- teacher conferences. A district seeking a waiver solely for the purpose of parent-teacher conference days must have local school board of directors’ approval and notify the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI). A district seeking a waiver of more than five days must request the waiver through the regular 180-day School Year Requirement waiver application process. Building Trust and Relationships Cultural Humility \| Puget Sound Educational Service District This video explores cultural humility, specifically having a willingness to learn and understand other cultures, and be willing to reflect on where your knowledge of other cultures is inaccurate, or needs growth Including Voice in Education: Addressing Equity Through Student and Family Voice in Classroom Learning \| Institute of Education Sciences and REL Pacific This tool illustrates the necessity to incorporate student and family voices in learning, highlighting the need to create culturally responsive classrooms during and following the COVID-19 pandemic. This infographic visual provides strategies to create culturally responsive classrooms, learning and understanding student voice and family voice, strategies for supporting student voice for teachers and a deep dive into student and family voice strategies. Family-School-Community Partnerships \| The National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments This website outlines school-family-community partnerships to support academic outcomes and features resources detailing partnerships for learning, along with a comprehensive handbook on Family and Community engagement. Family and Caregiver Discussion Guide with Educators and Schools \| OSPI This is a resource for families and caregivers to use to guide conversations with educators. It provides helpful tips to prepare for meetings and questions for families and caregivers to ask teachers and other educators. From ‘Best’ to ‘Next’ Practices in Family Engagement for Educational Justice \| EmbraceRace This eye-opening conversation about the principles and practices families and communities of color are using to challenge dominant narratives about race and class and bring about promising new possibilities for transforming power and fostering solidarities across communities in education. Family and Community Engagement \| Learning for Justice (f.k.a Teaching Tolerance) This article details how investing meaningfully and sincerely in family and community engagement is a key pillar of anti-bias education. Engaging Families and Creating Trusting Partnerships to Improve Child and Family Outcomes \| Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center (ECTA) This four part web broadcast series is aimed at supporting early intervention (EI) and early childhood special education (ECSE) systems leaders with building capacity in personnel and families to develop trusting partnerships. These partnerships in a child’s early years lay the foundation for achieving the long-term intended outcomes for children/students with developmental delays and disabilities articulated in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The series features discussions of the role that data play in strengthening family-professional partnerships. Suggestions and resources for designing personnel and family development activities to support partnerships are also shared. Division for Early Childhood (DEC) Recommended Practices/Family Checklists \| Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center (ECTA) The DEC Recommended Practices were developed to provide guidance to practitioners and families about the most effective ways to improve the learning outcomes and promote the development of young children, birth through five years of age, who have or are at-risk for developmental delays or disabilities. The purpose of this document is to help bridge the gap between research and practice by highlighting those practices that have been shown to result in better outcomes for young children with disabilities, their families, and the personnel who serve them. Family practices refer to ongoing activities that: - promote the active participation of families in decision-making related to their child (e.g., assessment, planning, intervention). - lead to the development of a service plan (e.g., a set of goals for the family and child and the services and supports to achieve those goals); or - support families in achieving the goals they hold for their child and the other family members. Evidence-Based and Promising Practices to Support Continuity of Learning for Students with Disabilities: Practices and Resources to Support Parents and Families \| IDEA’s that Work This topical brief provides practice information, examples and resources to support children with disabilities and their families. The content is presented in two sections: the first for school-aged children (ages 5-18), and the second for young children (ages 2-5). The content related to young children includes categories of practices for each area of growth and skill development and begins on page 8. Reflecting on Anti-bias Education in Action: The Early Years \| Anti-Bias Leaders in Early Childhood Education This 48 minute film, Reflecting on Anti-bias Education in Action: The Early Years features vignettes of anti-bias strategies in early childhood classrooms interspersed with teachers reflecting on their practice. By taking viewers into diverse early childhood classrooms, the film seeks to demonstrate the importance of teacher reflection on identity, context, and practice in anti-bias education and provides a much-needed resource for teacher education and professional development Advocacy Parent Advisory Council (PAC) Guide \| OSPI The purpose of the Role of the Parent Advisory Council Training Guide is for Educational Service Districts and Local Education Agency to use when training District PAC Teams in their roles and responsibilities. It can be easily modified for any group to use. In addition, the Office of Head Start provides an interactive Parent, Family, and Community Engagement Framework which creates the mission for the two-generational anti-poverty and child development program model. Creating a clear recruitment of experienced Head Start and Early Childhood Education and Assistance Program (ECEAP) Parent Advisory Committee members to actively inform the new elementary school policies is critical to the relevance of the elementary school policies to families. Washington Family Engagement Website Washington Family Engagement fosters social transformation by supporting the development of multigenerational leaders from diverse backgrounds to become actively engaged in schools and communities in Washington State SEL and the Family Parent Engagement Practices Improve Outcomes for Preschool Children (3-5) \| Head Start Early Childhood Learning and Knowledge Center Video from the Best Practices in Family & Community Engagement Video Series. This January 2017 research brief describes research-based approaches to effectively engage families and children furthest from educational justice. The brief highlights findings from recent studies with preschool children (ages 3-5) and focuses on effective parent engagement models that improve school readiness outcomes in well-controlled studies. It finds that supporting parents' efforts to help their children develop during the preschool years improves a child's school readiness, reduces behavior problems, enhances social skills, and promotes academic success. Aligning and Integrating Family Engagement in Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS): Concepts and Strategies for Families and Schools in Key Contexts \| Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports This book offers an in depth exploration of PBIS supports and strategies for families and schools across grade levels. Family Communication Best Practices for Using Technology with Multilingual Families Toolkit \| OSPI We are relying on technology more than ever, and families are overwhelmed as remote and distance learning is becoming more prevalent in their children’s lives. Parents are supporting their children with numerous unfamiliar platforms and communication tools. Multilingual families are attempting to navigate these online learning environments in a new language. This toolkit is designed to help Local Educational Agencies create and maintain effective strategies with multilingual families. We explore and model best practices for the use of technology in teaching, as well as for assessing and communicating with diverse adults. The following guide is applicable for face-to-face, blended, and online instruction, and can also serve as a toolkit. Systems, Tools, and Frameworks for Family Communication Parent Engagement and Leadership Assessment \| Center for the Study of Social Policy An in-depth guide to analyzing the quality of family engagement within a system. The purpose of this assessment is to support agencies and systems to engage parents as partners and leaders to advance a more equitable, accountable, and responsive early childhood system of care. Understanding Family Engagement Outcomes: Research to Practice Series \| Head Start Early Childhood Learning and Knowledge Center This series is from the Best Practices in Family & Community Engagement Video Series. This January 2017 research brief describes research-based approaches to effectively engage families and children at risk for poor school readiness. The brief highlights findings from recent studies with preschool children (ages 3-5) and focuses on effective parent engagement models that improve school readiness outcomes in well-controlled studies. It finds that supporting parents' efforts to help their children develop during the preschool years improves a child's school readiness, reduces behavior problems, enhances social skills, and promotes academic success. Policy Statement on Family Engagement from the Early Years to the Early Grades \| U.S. Departments of Health and Human Services and Education This policy statement provides recommendations to early childhood systems and programs on family engagement. General Resources Family Engagement Guidance and Toolkit \| OSPI The Family Engagement Guidance and Toolkit was developed to support districts, schools, and classrooms with planning for implementation of positive family engagement and participation practices. Each section begins with guided questions that were compiled from considerations and concerns raised by workgroup members. As you review the information for each area, read from left to right to gain an understanding of the progression from Family Involvement to Family Engagement to Family Partnership. As you review each of the three, a pattern will be seen as the complexity of actions builds to a deeper commitment to constructing strong, beneficial interactions with all of Washington’s 1.1 million students and their families. You will see that many different voices from the workgroup are honored and are included in the following sections. Page 20 of this Guidance includes numerous external links around Family Partnership Planning Resources. Edutopia Family Engagement Resources \| George Lucas Foundation Provides relevant and timely information and has been filtered to show articles and videos related to family engagement in the current context. Many of these contributing educators share practical tips and strategies that are working for them in their classrooms. Teachers, administrators, and other school personnel will find relevant and valuable tools and resources here for strengthening bonds between schools, families, and communities. Family Engagement Resource Library \| National Center for Pyramid Model Innovations This resource library page provides guidance around family engagement and includes a link to the Early Childhood Technical Assistance (ECTA) Family engagement broadcast series along with additional related resources. Early Learning Professional Opportunities for Ongoing Learning: Family Engagement \| NCESD This slide deck is created by Josie Komorowski, Early Learning & Inclusionary Practices Coordinator from North Central ESD. It outlines the importance of working with families and provides strategies for developing relationships with families. Attribution and License Attribution Icons from the Noun Project: growth by Rockicon, Family by DewDrops, evaluative assessment by ahmad, resources by Becris, School by PJ Souders from the Noun Project License Except where otherwise noted, this curated resource collection by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction and Washington Association of Educational Service Districts is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. All logos and trademarks are property of their respective owners. This document contains links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any monitoring by OSPI or AESD. Please confirm the license status of any third-party resources and understand their terms of use before reusing them.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.532382	Washington OSPI OER Project	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83563/overview", "title": "PreK-Grade 3 Reentry: Connecting to Families", "author": "Barbara Soots" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77600/overview	French Level 2, Activity 04: La météo et le temps libre / Weather and Free Time (Online) Overview In this activity, students watch a French weather report to warm up. They then speak about appropriate activities for different types of weather. To finish, they answer a few questions about their favorite weather and seasons. Activity Information Did you know that you can access the complete collection of Pathways Project French activities in our new Let’s Chat! French pressbook? View the book here: https://boisestate.pressbooks.pub/pathwaysfrench Please Note: Many of our activities were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact pathwaysproject@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. Weather and Free Time / La météo et le temps libre Description In this activity, students watch a French weather report to warm up. They then speak about appropriate activities for different types of weather. To finish, they answer a few questions about their favorite weather and seasons. Semantic Topics Seasons, weather, activities, pastimes, climate, video, weather report, saisons, méteo, activités, climat, vidéo, adjectifs, adjectives Products Weather and free time Practices Different times of the year, activities related to each time of the year, precaution about the bad weather conditions. Perspectives There are many different types of climates and weather conditions possible in France, and in other Francophone countries! This leaves many possible forecasts for a variety of activities year-round. For example, one day might be perfect for sunbathing in Guadeloupe, but the same might see horrible snow storms in the Alps! NCSSFL-ACTFL World-Readiness Standards - Standard 1.1: Students engage in conversations or correspondence in French to provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions. - Standard 1.2: Students understand and interpret spoken and written French on a variety of topics. - Standard 2.1: Students demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the practices and perspectives of the cultures of the francophone world. Idaho State Content Standards - COMM 1.1: Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions. - COMM 2.1: Understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics. - CLTR 1.1: Analyze the cultural practices/patterns of behavior accepted as the societal norm in the target culture. - CLTR 1.2: Explain the relationship between cultural practices/behaviors and the perspectives that represent the target culture’s view of the world. NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can talk about familiar activities. - I can discuss current events like the weather. - I can communicate some basic information about my everyday life. Materials Needed Warm-Up Warm-Up 1. Begin by introducing the Can-Dos for today's activity and opening the slideshow. 2. Play the video for the group with the subtitles on, at 0.75 speed if they seem to have trouble keeping up. Ask them to pay attention to key points that the weather report says. Nous allons regarder une petite vidéo d’un bulletin météo. Écoutez bien et portez attention aux détails que la femme dit. If you cannot play the video via Zoom, put the link into the chat and have the students watch it on their computer! 3. After the video, ask the students some questions about what they observed or understood from the video. Après la vidéo, demandez aux étudiants ce qu’ils ont observé et compris lors de la vidéo. Questions: - Quel temps fait-il ? (What is the weather for that day?) - C’est quoi la température ? (What is the temperature?) - Qu’est-ce qu’elle dit ? (What does she say?) Main-Activity Main Activity 1. In this activity, students will be shown various photos on the slideshow. Depending on the weather in the photo, the students must go around, stating a complete sentence of what they do in their free time on a day like the one in the photo. Aujourd’hui nous allons continuer avec la météo et le temps libre. Je vais vous montrer des photos et vous allez créer une phrase complète qui correspond avec la photo. (Today, we are going to continue with the weather and free time. I am going to show you some photos and you are going to state a complete sentence that corresponds with the photo.) Par exemple, si je vous montre une photo comme celle-ci (show the photo on slide 5), vous pouvez dire, “Quand il fait nuageux, je reste chez moi et je regarde la télé.” (For example, if I show you a photo like this one (show the photo on slide 5), you could say "When it snows, I stay home and watch TV.") Vous devez dire une phrase complète qui inclut une partie où il s’agit de la météo et une partie qui explique ce que vous faites ce jour-là. (You must say a full sentence that includes a part about the weather and a part that explains what you will be doing that day.) 2. Go through the slides and have each student go around in a circle saying their complete sentence. Chacun son tour, un étudiant devra faire une phrase complète d’après une diapositive. 3. After you go through the weather slides (slides 4-11), have the students do the same for the seasons (slides 12-16). Après les diapositives sur la météo (diapositives 4-11), demandez aux étudiants de faire le même exercice avec les saisons (diapositives 12-16). Wrap-Up Wrap-Up Ask the following questions to finish the activity: - Tu préfères quel type de climat? (What climate do you prefer?) - Quel est le jour idéal pour toi? (What is your ideal day?) - Quelle est ta saison préférée? Pourquoi? (What is your favorite season? Why?) Cultural Resources Where to Travel During France's Spring Months Enjoy the Fall Foliage in France End of Activity - Can-Do statement check-in... “Where are we?” - Read can-do statements and have students evaluate their confidence. - Encourage students to be honest in their self-evaluation - Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future activities! NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can talk about familiar activities. - I can discuss current events like the weather. - I can communicate some basic information about my everyday life.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.612764	Camille Daw	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77600/overview", "title": "French Level 2, Activity 04: La météo et le temps libre / Weather and Free Time (Online)", "author": "Mimi Fahnstrom" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99498/overview	Ant 100 (Quality Education) OER COMMONS CONTRIBUTION Overview https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/10csVedOuKMWjyZkiujCwJEAGhWuAqaCqaH7kUETXHdk/edit?usp=sharing Ant 100 (Quality Education) OER COMMONS CONTRIBUTION https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/10csVedOuKMWjyZkiujCwJEAGhWuAqaCqaH7kUETXHdk/edit?usp=sharing https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/10csVedOuKMWjyZkiujCwJEAGhWuAqaCqaH7kUETXHdk/edit?usp=sharing https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/10csVedOuKMWjyZkiujCwJEAGhWuAqaCqaH7kUETXHdk/edit?usp=sharing https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/10csVedOuKMWjyZkiujCwJEAGhWuAqaCqaH7kUETXHdk/edit?usp=sharing https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/10csVedOuKMWjyZkiujCwJEAGhWuAqaCqaH7kUETXHdk/edit?usp=sharing	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.633316	12/17/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99498/overview", "title": "Ant 100 (Quality Education) OER COMMONS CONTRIBUTION", "author": "Yakov Nakash" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89182/overview	Integrated Treament Models Overview This resource discusses briefly the top forms of family therapy. Licensing Integrated Treatment Models by Andrea Bearman is licensed under CC-BY 4.0 International License	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.649998	01/11/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89182/overview", "title": "Integrated Treament Models", "author": "Andrea Bearman" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106010/overview	Therapeutic Approaches for the ASD Population Overview This critically appraised topic is about the effectiveness of therapeutic approaches for children with a current diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The information used in this paper was collected using current research to answer the question: Do children with a diagnosis of ASD perform better during structured tasks over more relaxed tasks? This critically appraised topic focused on the research that describes the effectiveness of both structured and unstructured therapeutic intervention methods. The population for these studies was children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.666559	06/29/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106010/overview", "title": "Therapeutic Approaches for the ASD Population", "author": "Morgan Landis" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87500/overview	Sciuchetti_FacultyCommons_Oct_27_2021 Creating a Free and Open Classroom for Everyone: Using OER to Adapt to a Changing World. Overview Creative Commons Presentation Creating a Free and Open Classroom for Everyone: Using OER to Adapt to a Changing World. Presentation to JSU Faculty Commons entitled "Creating a Free and Open Classroom for Everyone: Using OER to Adapt to a Changing World." Creating a Free and Open Classroom for Everyone: Using OER to Adapt to a Changing World. Presentation to JSU Faculty Commons entitled "Creating a Free and Open Classroom for Everyone: Using OER to Adapt to a Changing World."	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.683490	11/05/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87500/overview", "title": "Creating a Free and Open Classroom for Everyone: Using OER to Adapt to a Changing World.", "author": "Mark Sciuchetti" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114520/overview	Nuclear Power Plant Calculations Overview "Nuclear Power Plant Calculations" serves as a seamless continuation of the educational unit on "Introduction to Nuclear Reactors." This comprehensive resource is tailored for engineering students specializing in nuclear power, aiming to deepen their understanding of reactor dynamics and operational efficiency. Through structured lessons, learners explore fundamental concepts such as reactor power output, fuel efficiency, and core temperature regulation, building upon the foundational principles established in the previous unit. Practical problem-solving exercises are integrated throughout the resource, allowing students to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world scenarios. Nuclear power sample problems Overview: In this lesson, students will explore the fundamental concepts and calculations necessary for understanding and analyzing nuclear power plants. Students will delve into the key parameters and variables involved in nuclear power plant operation, such as reactor power output, fuel efficiency, reactor core temperature, and coolant flow rate. Through clear explanations and illustrative examples, learners will grasp the relationships between these parameters and their significance in ensuring safe and efficient plant operation. Next, the lesson transitions to problem-solving exercises, where students apply the concepts learned to solve a series of questions related to nuclear power plant calculations. These questions cover a range of topics, including reactor power generation, fuel consumption rates, core temperature changes, and reactor efficiency. By working through these problems, students will develop proficiency in performing calculations specific to nuclear power plants, enabling them to analyze and evaluate plant performance, identify potential issues, and optimize operational parameters. Throughout the lesson, emphasis will be placed on the importance of accuracy, safety considerations, and adherence to regulatory standards in nuclear power plant calculations. Students will gain a deep understanding of the complex interplay of factors involved in nuclear energy production and the critical role of calculations in ensuring the safe and reliable operation of nuclear power plants. You can download the learning material below. I wish you an amazing learning experience.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.704630	Lotachukwu Ernest Eze	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114520/overview", "title": "Nuclear Power Plant Calculations", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60791/overview	Title resource Overview this is a resource to help you know the tool physio 1 instructor notes test2 physio 2 test	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.721884	12/16/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60791/overview", "title": "Title resource", "author": "Vanessa Administrator" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123883/overview	Mindful Lawyer Syllabus Weeks Eleven and Twelve Instructor Narrative Weeks Five and Six Instructor Narrative Weeks Nine and Ten Instructor Narrative Weeks One and Two Instructor Narrative Weeks Seven and Eight Instructor Narrative Weeks Thirteen & Fourteen Instructor Narrative Weeks Three and Four Instructor Narrative Mindfulness for Lawyers Course Overview This resource was supported by the OER Creators program at University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. In recent years, lawyers and those who train them have paid more attention to lawyer well-being. Over 30 years ago, law faculty and psychologists surveyed the mental well-being of law-students and found it abysmal. Continuing regional and national studies confirm this issue as one that needs addressing. A result is the creation of courses on mindful lawyering and mindfulness among law students. While perhaps not a groundswell, one needs more than just their two hands to count the number of law schools offering courses in this realm. This course showcases one version of a mindfulness course offered in one law school. Those attracted to teaching a similar course likely have a practice of their own, and indeed really need a practice to effectively teach the course. Instructor Materials These narratives will offer guidance to instructors who would like to offer a mindful lawyering course. Information About this Open Course Introduction to Mindful Lawyer Course In recent years, lawyers and those who train and regulate them have been paying more attention to lawyer well-being. Over 30 years ago, law faculty and psychologists surveyed the mental well-being of law-students and found it to be abysmal. Continuing regional and national studies cement this as a real issue and one that needs addressing. A result of these concerns is the creation of courses focused on mindful lawyering and mindfulness among law students. While perhaps not a groundswell, one needs more than just their two hands to count the number of law schools offering courses in this realm. Faculty creating these courses may already be involved in other kinds of legal mindfulness practice. The Mindfulness in Law Society (MILS) has chapters all over the country; it also has a law student division, which can wax and wane as student leadership rotates and shifts (or as pandemics come and go!) In addition to the resources offered by MILS, students and lawyers have multiple online resources to complement, enhance, or even guide formation of a mindfulness orientation. Further, there are now several books available that could be used as a textbook, thus obviating the need for curated materials. This Mindful Lawyer course showcases one version of a mindfulness lawyer course offered in one law school. People attracted to teaching a similar course likely have a practice of their own --and indeed really need a practice to effectively teach this course. Their practice will likely inform the kind of course they want to put together, as will, of course, things such as credit hours available for a course. I chose to create a three-credit-hour OER mindfulness course for several reasons. The first -- and the primary reason for OER materials generally -- is the cost factor. Second, as someone who has undertaken multiple mindfulness trainings, including trainings to teach it, I have preferences as to how to focus the course. I created a three credit-hour course to allow more freedom in course coverage and increase the time available for in-class practice. Third, I like the idea that someone can take these materials and make them their own by adding things, deleting other things, shifting for material for a two credit-hour course, or any other adaptation. Two things I focused on in developing this course that I should mention at the outset: First, and part of the reason for the course to meet twice a week, I want to immerse the students in in-class twice weekly practices. They will also do out-of-class practice, but twice-a-week in-class group practice will, I hope, really strengthen the odds that students actually incorporate this methodology into their lives and practice. Second, as I began to think about what materials to include, I became convinced that students would benefit from fewer readings, more practice, more reflection, and more discussion. I have tried my best to incorporate that belief in the materials, which required the continual pushing away of the notion that more equals better. A review of the material demonstrates that I succeeded in some places better than in others. Student mindfulness practice during the course semester Students will be required to have a mindfulness practice six days a week while in this class. For the two class days per week, students will practice mindfulness during class, with a brief time for observation and comment afterward. On at least four other days during any given week, the students will be required to do a mindfulness practice - starting with 10 minutes a day and advancing to 20 over the course of the semester. This practice will be followed by a short period of journaling. The students will need to keep a log of their mindfulness practice each week in order to keep a record for themselves as well as being accountable to course requirements. Students will be permitted, indeed encouraged, to use apps or other resources as well as be provided with journal and log entries forms to keep in long hand if they so desire. There are also on-line practices that students will be asked to sample as part of the course assignments. These are listed as links on the course syllabus. The exposure to these various sites is intended to add to the in-class practices and allow students to experience a range of mindfulness practices, as well as a range of facilitators. At several points during the semester, class time will be devoted to how the students’ mindfulness practice is developing. For this 12-person seminar, I will divide the group into three small groups to encourage sharing. I may use prompts to help the discussion begin or just let the discussions begin and flow naturally. This course may attract some students who already have a mindfulness practice and others who are novices. This range of experience will be beneficial as students with an existing practice can share their own experience(s)with their peers. As mentioned before, a core course goal of having a three-plus-month period in which students are practicing mindfulness at least six times a week is to create enough time to for them to form a mindfulness practice habit, as well as supporting them in the early stages. Another core goal is to expose students to a variety of mindfulness practices. This exposure will come through multiple sources. In the first half of the course, the instructor will lead a variety of different mindfulness practices. Students will be encouraged to, in their out-of-classroom practice, experiment with the various practices used in class as well as using other sources. Many of these sources will be provided to the students and they will be encouraged to explore on their own. There will also be two guest facilitators during the semester. For instance, the syllabus will guide students to websites and other on-line practices that are law-school-based mindfulness. For this course, I am requiring students to attend several live on-line practices offered by both the Mindfulness in Law Society as well as a state-based lawyer well-being on-line platform. A goal here is to be sure that students are aware of and able to access resources when they are done with this class. They will thus have the ability to continue with the mindfulness practice habit created and cultivated during the course, Many of the resources they are exposed to during the course they will be able to access throughout law school and beyond into law practice or other environments. Class readings/videos. Students will also sample mindfulness literature –usually law professor generated. For the material used for class, whether it be written or video, students often will be required to complete personal reflections. This will help them develop the reflective muscle which, one hopes, will allow and reinforce the non-judgmental curiosity that mindfulness seeks to cultivate. This curiosity will be beneficial as they immerse themselves in a career in which judgment is often at the fore. Note here, please, that this is not to discourage students from developing good judgment as lawyers. Rather, it may help them learn the distinction between sound professional judgment and being reactively judgmental, to the detriment of their client or a situation more generally. Guest Speakers. For a class like this, there are any number of potential guest speakers. I ended up with two. The first is affiliated with the state lawyer assistance program and is herself a mindfulness proponent and expert. She is scheduled early on, but really could come at any point in the semester. In addition to leading the practice for the day, this speaker will augment the presentation of the mindfulness neuroscience that students will also get from the two videos/documentaries that I assign early in the course. The second speaker is a library colleague who will lead a meditation to help students explore mindless relationships with technology and devices. Open Classes. For my first iteration of the class, I have chosen to leave a couple of classes open, i.e., with material for that specific class yet to decided. In the spirit of mindful awareness and present moment living, I want to leave space for the class to develop and to allow students to suggest topics that I had not inserted into the syllabus. This also allows for spillover in case the rather tricky skill of assessing how long it will take to cover the assigned material needs some tweaking. Further, one of the open classes, which I chose to situate together towards the end of the course, could be structured as a mini-retreat in which the entirety of class time - 85 minutes - is spent doing three to five different practices. I share several other thoughts about the use of the open classes in the Weeks 13 and 14 narrative. In-class practice. When initially developing the syllabus, I inserted the specific mindfulness practice that would be done in that particular class session. After further thought, however, I decided not to identify specific practices, simply noting the in-class practice. I like the fluidity that this gives me in choosing what practice to use in any given day. Having had several trainings on facilitating mindfulness, I am comfortable leading practices and will do so most sessions. I will plan to cover the basics: breathe, focused attention, mindful walking, body scans, mindful eating, and some form of seated mindful movement. I know several faculty who teach these courses are certified in movement practice such as yoga or Qi Gong. I am not and accordingly want to be careful with any kind of movement practice. Essentially it will be some gentle stretching, much as I might do in any longer class session where there is no time for an official break. It is important for law students to get out of their heads and become more aware of their bodies. To further encourage this, I will also point students towards the 20 minute on-line yoga class offered weekly by the state’s lawyer assistance program. This is part of the wellness focus of the program and is a good free resource for students to become familiar with and which, I hope, they will continue to use after the class is done. Class orientation. It seemed important to me to note that this class is, as structured, very secular. That orientation feels appropriate to me but does raise several corollary issues. One, the millennia old Buddhist orientation of mindfulness is not covered in any depth. I will speak of it here and there and make clear the origins of the practice. I also will reference some giants, such as Thich Nhat Hanh, whose books are among the assigned readings in some of the mindful lawyer syllabi I have examined. I start some practices with a bell and explain how, in some secular trainings, even that is controversial. In addition, some of the on-line guided meditations that students are encouraged and required to sample will be facilitated by Buddhist practitioners. Students will also see similar references in some of the videos and, for some classes, other monks might be referenced. I think it is possible to run the course with more Buddhist or contemplative mystical content, even in a secular institution. And some might argue that it is inappropriate not to have more of that content, amounting to cultural appropriation. My hope is that, by acknowledging where credit is due, I avoid that. I also hope to provide and hold space for students who come with no religious background or different religious backgrounds. My goal is for the class to be and feel open to all. In addition to the files attached to this record, this complete course is available in an interactive format through LibreTexts: https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Massachusetts_Dartmouth/Mindfulness_for_Lawyers or locate the resource in LibreTexts Commons: https://commons.libretexts.org/book/socialsci-226945 This course will: introduce multiple mindfulness techniques to students and explore how mindful practices can help students be better and more ethical lawyers; introduce the science that explains how these mindful techniques are beneficial while also examining whether some benefits have been exaggerated; introduce students to the multiple resources available to them both as law students and when they become lawyers; require students to practice those techniques, thus gaining familiarity and proficiency, both in class and out of class. We all benefit from strengthening the ability to bring a wandering mind back into the present moment. Nearly all aspects of law practice will be enhanced by one’s ability to focus in on the task at hand, be it interacting with clients, negotiating with opposing counsel, or arguing to the court. Plus the plethora of other lawyer activities such as legal research and document creation. In addition to focusing on enhancing one's attention, mindfulness practices can help a lawyer become aware of the onset of performance-crippling stress and provide techniques to help address that stress. To be able to pay attention in the present moment and to notice without judgment and with curiosity what is happening within and around can benefit an individual professionally and personally. This resource was supported by funding from the OER Creator Program at University of Massachusetts Dartmouth.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.758378	Justine Dunlap	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123883/overview", "title": "Mindfulness for Lawyers Course", "author": "Emma Wood" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96906/overview	VR vs AR Overview This is all about diffrence in VR and AR and there application VR s AR application of VR application of AR	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.784099	09/01/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96906/overview", "title": "VR vs AR", "author": "waseem awan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/55622/overview	Designing a Test and Test Blueprint Learning Center or Pizza Wheel Learning Center or Pizza Wheel Template Lesson Plan Reflection Lesson Plan Rubric Lesson Plan Template Lesson Plan to do together as a class Unit Rubric Unit Template Assignments for Strategies and Instruction Overview Several assignments are used for this course, including writing lesson plans, writing a unit plan, creating supplemental items for the unit plan, and designing a classroom management plan. In my course, I assign two units with three lesson plans included in each unit. This is designed for Early Childhood, but it can be edited for secondary. Classroom Management System Comprehensive Class Management System – Design your own including the following: - classroom layout, 10 points - rules (4 types of rules –include at least one example for each rule), 8 points - routines for transition from one area to another (i.e. circle area, whole group to seats, seats to small groups or centers, restrooms, hallway, assembly, etc.) – minimum of 5 routines, 15 - cues (quiet, line up, etc.) – minimum of 5 cues and their use,15 - routines for collecting work and homework, doing lunch count, attendance, hallway behavior – minimum of 5 routines, 15 Design your own classroom management system including the following: • Classroom layout Chalkboard or white board, Teacher Desk, 2 tables with 8 chairs, 30 student desks with chairs, shelf and contents, waste basket, pencil sharpener, 2 bulletin boards, etc. • Classroom Rules (4 types of rules – minimum of one example for each rule) To enhance work engagement and minimize disruption To promote safety and security To prevent disturbance of others To promote acceptable standards j of courtesy and interpersonal skills • Routines for transition from one area to another (i.e. circle area whole group to seats, sets to small groups or centers) • Cues (quiet, line up, etc.) • Procedures for collecting work and homework, doing lunch count, attendance, hallway behavior Lesson Plan Writing I suggest developing a classroom lesson plan together using the attached template. Then, allow students to develop their own plans for grading. See rubric for grading. If they use this plan to teach a lesson in the field, use the attached reflection template. I use 10 points to grade this. Develop a lesson plan using the attached template. If you use this plan to deliver the actual lesson in the field placement, use the attached reflection to ponder the effectiveness of your lesson and teaching. The rubric is attached. Writing a Unit Template and rubric attached. Use the attached template to develop a unit in one content area. This unit is in one discipline area. There is a rubric attached that will be used for grading. Supplemental Unit Items Assignments and rubrics are attached as resources. You can add many things to your unit to supplement the planning process. You will design a learning center or pizza wheel to reinforce or practice skills or content from your unit. You will also design a 50-point test for the unit you are writing.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.817534	06/24/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/55622/overview", "title": "Assignments for Strategies and Instruction", "author": "Jeanne Burth" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105203/overview	Processed Based Assessment Overview Processed Based Assessment Processed Based Ass	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.833741	06/13/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105203/overview", "title": "Processed Based Assessment", "author": "Girlly Oyangoren" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15295/overview	History of Psychology Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand the importance of Wundt and James in the development of psychology - Appreciate Freud’s influence on psychology - Understand the basic tenets of Gestalt psychology - Appreciate the important role that behaviorism played in psychology’s history - Understand basic tenets of humanism - Understand how the cognitive revolution shifted psychology’s focus back to the mind Psychology is a relatively young science with its experimental roots in the 19th century, compared, for example, to human physiology, which dates much earlier. As mentioned, anyone interested in exploring issues related to the mind generally did so in a philosophical context prior to the 19th century. Two men, working in the 19th century, are generally credited as being the founders of psychology as a science and academic discipline that was distinct from philosophy. Their names were Wilhelm Wundt and William James. This section will provide an overview of the shifts in paradigms that have influenced psychology from Wundt and James through today. WUNDT AND STRUCTURALISM Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) was a German scientist who was the first person to be referred to as a psychologist. His famous book entitled Principles of Physiological Psychology was published in 1873. Wundt viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience, and he believed that the goal of psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how those components combined to result in our conscious experience. Wundt used introspection (he called it “internal perception”), a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible, making the human mind like any other aspect of nature that a scientist observed. Wundt’s version of introspection used only very specific experimental conditions in which an external stimulus was designed to produce a scientifically observable (repeatable) experience of the mind (Danziger, 1980). The first stringent requirement was the use of “trained” or practiced observers, who could immediately observe and report a reaction. The second requirement was the use of repeatable stimuli that always produced the same experience in the subject and allowed the subject to expect and thus be fully attentive to the inner reaction. These experimental requirements were put in place to eliminate “interpretation” in the reporting of internal experiences and to counter the argument that there is no way to know that an individual is observing their mind or consciousness accurately, since it cannot be seen by any other person. This attempt to understand the structure or characteristics of the mind was known as structuralism. Wundt established his psychology laboratory at the University at Leipzig in 1879 (Figure). In this laboratory, Wundt and his students conducted experiments on, for example, reaction times. A subject, sometimes in a room isolated from the scientist, would receive a stimulus such as a light, image, or sound. The subject’s reaction to the stimulus would be to push a button, and an apparatus would record the time to reaction. Wundt could measure reaction time to one-thousandth of a second (Nicolas & Ferrand, 1999). However, despite his efforts to train individuals in the process of introspection, this process remained highly subjective, and there was very little agreement between individuals. As a result, structuralism fell out of favor with the passing of Wundt’s student, Edward Titchener, in 1927 (Gordon, 1995). JAMES AND FUNCTIONALISM William James (1842–1910) was the first American psychologist who espoused a different perspective on how psychology should operate (Figure). James was introduced to Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and accepted it as an explanation of an organism’s characteristics. Key to that theory is the idea that natural selection leads to organisms that are adapted to their environment, including their behavior. Adaptation means that a trait of an organism has a function for the survival and reproduction of the individual, because it has been naturally selected. As James saw it, psychology’s purpose was to study the function of behavior in the world, and as such, his perspective was known as functionalism. Functionalism focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment. Functionalism has a second, more subtle meaning in that functionalists were more interested in the operation of the whole mind rather than of its individual parts, which were the focus of structuralism. Like Wundt, James believed that introspection could serve as one means by which someone might study mental activities, but James also relied on more objective measures, including the use of various recording devices, and examinations of concrete products of mental activities and of anatomy and physiology (Gordon, 1995). FREUD AND PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Perhaps one of the most influential and well-known figures in psychology’s history was Sigmund Freud (Figure). Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from “hysteria” and neurosis. Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis for disorders, primarily of women with a wide variety of symptoms, including physical symptoms and emotional disturbances, none of which had an apparent physical cause. Freud theorized that many of his patients’ problems arose from the unconscious mind. In Freud’s view, the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which we have no awareness. Gaining access to the unconscious, then, was crucial to the successful resolution of the patient’s problems. According to Freud, the unconscious mind could be accessed through dream analysis, by examinations of the first words that came to people’s minds, and through seemingly innocent slips of the tongue. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences, and this particular perspective dominated clinical psychology for several decades (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Freud’s ideas were influential, and you will learn more about them when you study lifespan development, personality, and therapy. For instance, many therapists believe strongly in the unconscious and the impact of early childhood experiences on the rest of a person’s life. The method of psychoanalysis, which involves the patient talking about their experiences and selves, while not invented by Freud, was certainly popularized by him and is still used today. Many of Freud’s other ideas, however, are controversial. Drew Westen (1998) argues that many of the criticisms of Freud’s ideas are misplaced, in that they attack his older ideas without taking into account later writings. Westen also argues that critics fail to consider the success of the broad ideas that Freud introduced or developed, such as the importance of childhood experiences in adult motivations, the role of unconscious versus conscious motivations in driving our behavior, the fact that motivations can cause conflicts that affect behavior, the effects of mental representations of ourselves and others in guiding our interactions, and the development of personality over time. Westen identifies subsequent research support for all of these ideas. More modern iterations of Freud’s clinical approach have been empirically demonstrated to be effective (Knekt et al., 2008; Shedler, 2010). Some current practices in psychotherapy involve examining unconscious aspects of the self and relationships, often through the relationship between the therapist and the client. Freud’s historical significance and contributions to clinical practice merit his inclusion in a discussion of the historical movements within psychology. WERTHEIMER, KOFFKA, KÖHLER, AND GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) were three German psychologists who immigrated to the United States in the early 20th century to escape Nazi Germany. These men are credited with introducing psychologists in the United States to various Gestalt principles. The word Gestalt roughly translates to “whole;” a major emphasis of Gestalt psychology deals with the fact that although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception. For example, a song may be made up of individual notes played by different instruments, but the real nature of the song is perceived in the combinations of these notes as they form the melody, rhythm, and harmony. In many ways, this particular perspective would have directly contradicted Wundt’s ideas of structuralism (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Unfortunately, in moving to the United States, these men were forced to abandon much of their work and were unable to continue to conduct research on a large scale. These factors along with the rise of behaviorism (described next) in the United States prevented principles of Gestalt psychology from being as influential in the United States as they had been in their native Germany (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Despite these issues, several Gestalt principles are still very influential today. Considering the human individual as a whole rather than as a sum of individually measured parts became an important foundation in humanistic theory late in the century. The ideas of Gestalt have continued to influence research on sensation and perception. Structuralism, Freud, and the Gestalt psychologists were all concerned in one way or another with describing and understanding inner experience. But other researchers had concerns that inner experience could be a legitimate subject of scientific inquiry and chose instead to exclusively study behavior, the objectively observable outcome of mental processes. PAVLOV, WATSON, SKINNER, AND BEHAVIORISM Early work in the field of behavior was conducted by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936). Pavlov studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex, in which an animal or human produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus. The reflex Pavlov worked with was salivation in response to the presence of food. The salivation reflex could be elicited using a second stimulus, such as a specific sound, that was presented in association with the initial food stimulus several times. Once the response to the second stimulus was “learned,” the food stimulus could be omitted. Pavlov’s “classical conditioning” is only one form of learning behavior studied by behaviorists. John B. Watson (1878–1958) was an influential American psychologist whose most famous work occurred during the early 20th century at Johns Hopkins University (Figure). While Wundt and James were concerned with understanding conscious experience, Watson thought that the study of consciousness was flawed. Because he believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible, Watson preferred to focus directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under control. Watson was a major proponent of shifting the focus of psychology from the mind to behavior, and this approach of observing and controlling behavior came to be known as behaviorism. A major object of study by behaviorists was learned behavior and its interaction with inborn qualities of the organism. Behaviorism commonly used animals in experiments under the assumption that what was learned using animal models could, to some degree, be applied to human behavior. Indeed, Tolman (1938) stated, “I believe that everything important in psychology (except … such matters as involve society and words) can be investigated in essence through the continued experimental and theoretical analysis of the determiners of rat behavior at a choice-point in a maze.” Behaviorism dominated experimental psychology for several decades, and its influence can still be felt today (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Behaviorism is largely responsible for establishing psychology as a scientific discipline through its objective methods and especially experimentation. In addition, it is used in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy. Behavior modification is commonly used in classroom settings. Behaviorism has also led to research on environmental influences on human behavior. B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) was an American psychologist (Figure). Like Watson, Skinner was a behaviorist, and he concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences. Therefore, Skinner spoke of reinforcement and punishment as major factors in driving behavior. As a part of his research, Skinner developed a chamber that allowed the careful study of the principles of modifying behavior through reinforcement and punishment. This device, known as an operant conditioning chamber (or more familiarly, a Skinner box), has remained a crucial resource for researchers studying behavior (Thorne & Henley, 2005). The Skinner box is a chamber that isolates the subject from the external environment and has a behavior indicator such as a lever or a button. When the animal pushes the button or lever, the box is able to deliver a positive reinforcement of the behavior (such as food) or a punishment (such as a noise) or a token conditioner (such as a light) that is correlated with either the positive reinforcement or punishment. Skinner’s focus on positive and negative reinforcement of learned behaviors had a lasting influence in psychology that has waned somewhat since the growth of research in cognitive psychology. Despite this, conditioned learning is still used in human behavioral modification. Skinner’s two widely read and controversial popular science books about the value of operant conditioning for creating happier lives remain as thought-provoking arguments for his approach (Greengrass, 2004). MASLOW, ROGERS, AND HUMANISM During the early 20th century, American psychology was dominated by behaviorism and psychoanalysis. However, some psychologists were uncomfortable with what they viewed as limited perspectives being so influential to the field. They objected to the pessimism and determinism (all actions driven by the unconscious) of Freud. They also disliked the reductionism, or simplifying nature, of behaviorism. Behaviorism is also deterministic at its core, because it sees human behavior as entirely determined by a combination of genetics and environment. Some psychologists began to form their own ideas that emphasized personal control, intentionality, and a true predisposition for “good” as important for our self-concept and our behavior. Thus, humanism emerged. Humanism is a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans. Two of the most well-known proponents of humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers (O’Hara, n.d.). Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was an American psychologist who is best known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior (Figure). Although this concept will be discussed in more detail in a later chapter, a brief overview will be provided here. Maslow asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met (e.g., food, water, shelter), higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior. According to Maslow, the highest-level needs relate to self-actualization, a process by which we achieve our full potential. Obviously, the focus on the positive aspects of human nature that are characteristic of the humanistic perspective is evident (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Humanistic psychologists rejected, on principle, the research approach based on reductionist experimentation in the tradition of the physical and biological sciences, because it missed the “whole” human being. Beginning with Maslow and Rogers, there was an insistence on a humanistic research program. This program has been largely qualitative (not measurement-based), but there exist a number of quantitative research strains within humanistic psychology, including research on happiness, self-concept, meditation, and the outcomes of humanistic psychotherapy (Friedman, 2008). Carl Rogers (1902–1987) was also an American psychologist who, like Maslow, emphasized the potential for good that exists within all people (Figure). Rogers used a therapeutic technique known as client-centered therapy in helping his clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy. Unlike a psychoanalytic approach in which the therapist plays an important role in interpreting what conscious behavior reveals about the unconscious mind, client-centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy session. Rogers believed that a therapist needed to display three features to maximize the effectiveness of this particular approach: unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy. Unconditional positive regard refers to the fact that the therapist accepts their client for who they are, no matter what he or she might say. Provided these factors, Rogers believed that people were more than capable of dealing with and working through their own issues (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Humanism has been influential to psychology as a whole. Both Maslow and Rogers are well-known names among students of psychology (you will read more about both men later in this text), and their ideas have influenced many scholars. Furthermore, Rogers’ client-centered approach to therapy is still commonly used in psychotherapeutic settings today (O’hara, n.d.) View a brief video of Carl Rogers describing his therapeutic approach. THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION Behaviorism’s emphasis on objectivity and focus on external behavior had pulled psychologists’ attention away from the mind for a prolonged period of time. The early work of the humanistic psychologists redirected attention to the individual human as a whole, and as a conscious and self-aware being. By the 1950s, new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging, and these areas revived interest in the mind as a focus of scientific inquiry. This particular perspective has come to be known as the cognitive revolution (Miller, 2003). By 1967, Ulric Neisser published the first textbook entitled Cognitive Psychology, which served as a core text in cognitive psychology courses around the country (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Although no one person is entirely responsible for starting the cognitive revolution, Noam Chomsky was very influential in the early days of this movement (Figure). Chomsky (1928–), an American linguist, was dissatisfied with the influence that behaviorism had had on psychology. He believed that psychology’s focus on behavior was short-sighted and that the field had to re-incorporate mental functioning into its purview if it were to offer any meaningful contributions to understanding behavior (Miller, 2003). European psychology had never really been as influenced by behaviorism as had American psychology; and thus, the cognitive revolution helped reestablish lines of communication between European psychologists and their American counterparts. Furthermore, psychologists began to cooperate with scientists in other fields, like anthropology, linguistics, computer science, and neuroscience, among others. This interdisciplinary approach often was referred to as the cognitive sciences, and the influence and prominence of this particular perspective resonates in modern-day psychology (Miller, 2003). Feminist Psychology The science of psychology has had an impact on human wellbeing, both positive and negative. The dominant influence of Western, white, and male academics in the early history of psychology meant that psychology developed with the biases inherent in those individuals, which often had negative consequences for members of society that were not white or male. Women, members of ethnic minorities in both the United States and other countries, and individuals with sexual orientations other than heterosexual had difficulties entering the field of psychology and therefore influencing its development. They also suffered from the attitudes of white, male psychologists, who were not immune to the nonscientific attitudes prevalent in the society in which they developed and worked. Until the 1960s, the science of psychology was largely a “womanless” psychology (Crawford & Marecek, 1989), meaning that few women were able to practice psychology, so they had little influence on what was studied. In addition, the experimental subjects of psychology were mostly men, which resulted from underlying assumptions that gender had no influence on psychology and that women were not of sufficient interest to study. An article by Naomi Weisstein, first published in 1968 (Weisstein, 1993), stimulated a feminist revolution in psychology by presenting a critique of psychology as a science. She also specifically criticized male psychologists for constructing the psychology of women entirely out of their own cultural biases and without careful experimental tests to verify any of their characterizations of women. Weisstein used, as examples, statements by prominent psychologists in the 1960s, such as this quote by Bruno Bettleheim: “. . . we must start with the realization that, as much as women want to be good scientists or engineers, they want first and foremost to be womanly companions of men and to be mothers.” Weisstein’s critique formed the foundation for the subsequent development of a feminist psychology that attempted to be free of the influence of male cultural biases on our knowledge of the psychology of women and, indeed, of both genders. Crawford & Marecek (1989) identify several feminist approaches to psychology that can be described as feminist psychology. These include re-evaluating and discovering the contributions of women to the history of psychology, studying psychological gender differences, and questioning the male bias present across the practice of the scientific approach to knowledge. MULTICULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY Culture has important impacts on individuals and social psychology, yet the effects of culture on psychology are under-studied. There is a risk that psychological theories and data derived from white, American settings could be assumed to apply to individuals and social groups from other cultures and this is unlikely to be true (Betancourt & López, 1993). One weakness in the field of cross-cultural psychology is that in looking for differences in psychological attributes across cultures, there remains a need to go beyond simple descriptive statistics (Betancourt & López, 1993). In this sense, it has remained a descriptive science, rather than one seeking to determine cause and effect. For example, a study of characteristics of individuals seeking treatment for a binge eating disorder in Hispanic American, African American, and Caucasian American individuals found significant differences between groups (Franko et al., 2012). The study concluded that results from studying any one of the groups could not be extended to the other groups, and yet potential causes of the differences were not measured. This history of multicultural psychology in the United States is a long one. The role of African American psychologists in researching the cultural differences between African American individual and social psychology is but one example. In 1920, Cecil Sumner was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in the United States. Sumner established a psychology degree program at Howard University, leading to the education of a new generation of African American psychologists (Black, Spence, and Omari, 2004). Much of the work of early African American psychologists (and a general focus of much work in first half of the 20th century in psychology in the United States) was dedicated to testing and intelligence testing in particular (Black et al., 2004). That emphasis has continued, particularly because of the importance of testing in determining opportunities for children, but other areas of exploration in African-American psychology research include learning style, sense of community and belonging, and spiritualism (Black et al., 2004). The American Psychological Association has several ethnically based organizations for professional psychologists that facilitate interactions among members. Since psychologists belonging to specific ethnic groups or cultures have the most interest in studying the psychology of their communities, these organizations provide an opportunity for the growth of research on the impact of culture on individual and social psychology. Read a news story about the influence of an African American’s psychology research on the historic Brown v. Board of Education civil rights case. Summary Before the time of Wundt and James, questions about the mind were considered by philosophers. However, both Wundt and James helped create psychology as a distinct scientific discipline. Wundt was a structuralist, which meant he believed that our cognitive experience was best understood by breaking that experience into its component parts. He thought this was best accomplished by introspection. William James was the first American psychologist, and he was a proponent of functionalism. This particular perspective focused on how mental activities served as adaptive responses to an organism’s environment. Like Wundt, James also relied on introspection; however, his research approach also incorporated more objective measures as well. Sigmund Freud believed that understanding the unconscious mind was absolutely critical to understand conscious behavior. This was especially true for individuals that he saw who suffered from various hysterias and neuroses. Freud relied on dream analysis, slips of the tongue, and free association as means to access the unconscious. Psychoanalytic theory remained a dominant force in clinical psychology for several decades. Gestalt psychology was very influential in Europe. Gestalt psychology takes a holistic view of an individual and his experiences. As the Nazis came to power in Germany, Wertheimer, Koffka, and Köhler immigrated to the United States. Although they left their laboratories and their research behind, they did introduce America to Gestalt ideas. Some of the principles of Gestalt psychology are still very influential in the study of sensation and perception. One of the most influential schools of thought within psychology’s history was behaviorism. Behaviorism focused on making psychology an objective science by studying overt behavior and deemphasizing the importance of unobservable mental processes. John Watson is often considered the father of behaviorism, and B. F. Skinner’s contributions to our understanding of principles of operant conditioning cannot be underestimated. As behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory took hold of so many aspects of psychology, some began to become dissatisfied with psychology’s picture of human nature. Thus, a humanistic movement within psychology began to take hold. Humanism focuses on the potential of all people for good. Both Maslow and Rogers were influential in shaping humanistic psychology. During the 1950s, the landscape of psychology began to change. A science of behavior began to shift back to its roots of focus on mental processes. The emergence of neuroscience and computer science aided this transition. Ultimately, the cognitive revolution took hold, and people came to realize that cognition was crucial to a true appreciation and understanding of behavior. Review Questions Based on your reading, which theorist would have been most likely to agree with this statement: Perceptual phenomena are best understood as a combination of their components. - William James - Max Wertheimer - Carl Rogers - Noam Chomsky Hint: B ________ is most well-known for proposing his hierarchy of needs. - Noam Chomsky - Carl Rogers - Abraham Maslow - Sigmund Freud Hint: C Rogers believed that providing genuineness, empathy, and ________ in the therapeutic environment for his clients was critical to their being able to deal with their problems. - structuralism - functionalism - Gestalt - unconditional positive regard Hint: D The operant conditioning chamber (aka ________ box) is a device used to study the principles of operant conditioning. - Skinner - Watson - James - Koffka Hint: A Critical Thinking Questions How did the object of study in psychology change over the history of the field since the 19th century? Hint: In its early days, psychology could be defined as the scientific study of mind or mental processes. Over time, psychology began to shift more towards the scientific study of behavior. However, as the cognitive revolution took hold, psychology once again began to focus on mental processes as necessary to the understanding of behavior. In part, what aspect of psychology was the behaviorist approach to psychology a reaction to? Hint: Behaviorists studied objectively observable behavior partly in reaction to the psychologists of the mind who were studying things that were not directly observable. Personal Application Questions Freud is probably one of the most well-known historical figures in psychology. Where have you encountered references to Freud or his ideas about the role that the unconscious mind plays in determining conscious behavior?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.874260	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15295/overview", "title": "Psychology, Introduction to Psychology, History of Psychology", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15289/overview	Federalist Papers #10 and #51 Federalist Paper #10: The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection From the New York Packet. Friday, November 23, 1787. Author: James Madison To the People of the State of New York: AMONG the numerous advantages promised by a well-constructed Union, none deserves to be more accurately developed than its tendency to break and control the violence of faction. The friend of popular governments never finds himself so much alarmed for their character and fate, as when he contemplates their propensity to this dangerous vice. He will not fail, therefore, to set a due value on any plan which, without violating the principles to which he is attached, provides a proper cure for it. The instability, injustice, and confusion introduced into the public councils, have, in truth, been the mortal diseases under which popular governments have everywhere perished; as they continue to be the favorite and fruitful topics from which the adversaries to liberty derive their most specious declamations. The valuable improvements made by the American constitutions on the popular models, both ancient and modern, cannot certainly be too much admired; but it would be an unwarrantable partiality, to contend that they have as effectually obviated the danger on this side, as was wished and expected. Complaints are everywhere heard from our most considerate and virtuous citizens, equally the friends of public and private faith, and of public and personal liberty, that our governments are too unstable, that the public good is disregarded in the conflicts of rival parties, and that measures are too often decided, not according to the rules of justice and the rights of the minor party, but by the superior force of an interested and overbearing majority. However anxiously we may wish that these complaints had no foundation, the evidence, of known facts will not permit us to deny that they are in some degree true. It will be found, indeed, on a candid review of our situation, that some of the distresses under which we labor have been erroneously charged on the operation of our governments; but it will be found, at the same time, that other causes will not alone account for many of our heaviest misfortunes; and, particularly, for that prevailing and increasing distrust of public engagements, and alarm for private rights, which are echoed from one end of the continent to the other. These must be chiefly, if not wholly, effects of the unsteadiness and injustice with which a factious spirit has tainted our public administrations. By a faction, I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or a minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adversed to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community. There are two methods of curing the mischiefs of faction: the one, by removing its causes; the other, by controlling its effects. There are again two methods of removing the causes of faction: the one, by destroying the liberty which is essential to its existence; the other, by giving to every citizen the same opinions, the same passions, and the same interests. It could never be more truly said than of the first remedy, that it was worse than the disease. Liberty is to faction what air is to fire, an aliment without which it instantly expires. But it could not be less folly to abolish liberty, which is essential to political life, because it nourishes faction, than it would be to wish the annihilation of air, which is essential to animal life, because it imparts to fire its destructive agency. The second expedient is as impracticable as the first would be unwise. As long as the reason of man continues fallible, and he is at liberty to exercise it, different opinions will be formed. As long as the connection subsists between his reason and his self-love, his opinions and his passions will have a reciprocal influence on each other; and the former will be objects to which the latter will attach themselves. The diversity in the faculties of men, from which the rights of property originate, is not less an insuperable obstacle to a uniformity of interests. The protection of these faculties is the first object of government. From the protection of different and unequal faculties of acquiring property, the possession of different degrees and kinds of property immediately results; and from the influence of these on the sentiments and views of the respective proprietors, ensues a division of the society into different interests and parties. The latent causes of faction are thus sown in the nature of man; and we see them everywhere brought into different degrees of activity, according to the different circumstances of civil society. A zeal for different opinions concerning religion, concerning government, and many other points, as well of speculation as of practice; an attachment to different leaders ambitiously contending for pre-eminence and power; or to persons of other descriptions whose fortunes have been interesting to the human passions, have, in turn, divided mankind into parties, inflamed them with mutual animosity, and rendered them much more disposed to vex and oppress each other than to co-operate for their common good. So strong is this propensity of mankind to fall into mutual animosities, that where no substantial occasion presents itself, the most frivolous and fanciful distinctions have been sufficient to kindle their unfriendly passions and excite their most violent conflicts. But the most common and durable source of factions has been the various and unequal distribution of property. Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination. A landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, with many lesser interests, grow up of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them into different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views. The regulation of these various and interfering interests forms the principal task of modern legislation, and involves the spirit of party and faction in the necessary and ordinary operations of the government. No man is allowed to be a judge in his own cause, because his interest would certainly bias his judgment, and, not improbably, corrupt his integrity. With equal, nay with greater reason, a body of men are unfit to be both judges and parties at the same time; yet what are many of the most important acts of legislation, but so many judicial determinations, not indeed concerning the rights of single persons, but concerning the rights of large bodies of citizens? And what are the different classes of legislators but advocates and parties to the causes which they determine? Is a law proposed concerning private debts? It is a question to which the creditors are parties on one side and the debtors on the other. Justice ought to hold the balance between them. Yet the parties are, and must be, themselves the judges; and the most numerous party, or, in other words, the most powerful faction must be expected to prevail. Shall domestic manufactures be encouraged, and in what degree, by restrictions on foreign manufactures? are questions which would be differently decided by the landed and the manufacturing classes, and probably by neither with a sole regard to justice and the public good. The apportionment of taxes on the various descriptions of property is an act which seems to require the most exact impartiality; yet there is, perhaps, no legislative act in which greater opportunity and temptation are given to a predominant party to trample on the rules of justice. Every shilling with which they overburden the inferior number, is a shilling saved to their own pockets. It is in vain to say that enlightened statesmen will be able to adjust these clashing interests, and render them all subservient to the public good. Enlightened statesmen will not always be at the helm. Nor, in many cases, can such an adjustment be made at all without taking into view indirect and remote considerations, which will rarely prevail over the immediate interest which one party may find in disregarding the rights of another or the good of the whole. The inference to which we are brought is, that the CAUSES of faction cannot be removed, and that relief is only to be sought in the means of controlling its EFFECTS. If a faction consists of less than a majority, relief is supplied by the republican principle, which enables the majority to defeat its sinister views by regular vote. It may clog the administration, it may convulse the society; but it will be unable to execute and mask its violence under the forms of the Constitution. When a majority is included in a faction, the form of popular government, on the other hand, enables it to sacrifice to its ruling passion or interest both the public good and the rights of other citizens. To secure the public good and private rights against the danger of such a faction, and at the same time to preserve the spirit and the form of popular government, is then the great object to which our inquiries are directed. Let me add that it is the great desideratum by which this form of government can be rescued from the opprobrium under which it has so long labored, and be recommended to the esteem and adoption of mankind. By what means is this object attainable? Evidently by one of two only. Either the existence of the same passion or interest in a majority at the same time must be prevented, or the majority, having such coexistent passion or interest, must be rendered, by their number and local situation, unable to concert and carry into effect schemes of oppression. If the impulse and the opportunity be suffered to coincide, we well know that neither moral nor religious motives can be relied on as an adequate control. They are not found to be such on the injustice and violence of individuals, and lose their efficacy in proportion to the number combined together, that is, in proportion as their efficacy becomes needful. From this view of the subject it may be concluded that a pure democracy, by which I mean a society consisting of a small number of citizens, who assemble and administer the government in person, can admit of no cure for the mischiefs of faction. A common passion or interest will, in almost every case, be felt by a majority of the whole; a communication and concert result from the form of government itself; and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party or an obnoxious individual. Hence it is that such democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention; have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths. Theoretic politicians, who have patronized this species of government, have erroneously supposed that by reducing mankind to a perfect equality in their political rights, they would, at the same time, be perfectly equalized and assimilated in their possessions, their opinions, and their passions. A republic, by which I mean a government in which the scheme of representation takes place, opens a different prospect, and promises the cure for which we are seeking. Let us examine the points in which it varies from pure democracy, and we shall comprehend both the nature of the cure and the efficacy which it must derive from the Union. The two great points of difference between a democracy and a republic are: first, the delegation of the government, in the latter, to a small number of citizens elected by the rest; secondly, the greater number of citizens, and greater sphere of country, over which the latter may be extended. The effect of the first difference is, on the one hand, to refine and enlarge the public views, by passing them through the medium of a chosen body of citizens, whose wisdom may best discern the true interest of their country, and whose patriotism and love of justice will be least likely to sacrifice it to temporary or partial considerations. Under such a regulation, it may well happen that the public voice, pronounced by the representatives of the people, will be more consonant to the public good than if pronounced by the people themselves, convened for the purpose. On the other hand, the effect may be inverted. Men of factious tempers, of local prejudices, or of sinister designs, may, by intrigue, by corruption, or by other means, first obtain the suffrages, and then betray the interests, of the people. The question resulting is, whether small or extensive republics are more favorable to the election of proper guardians of the public weal; and it is clearly decided in favor of the latter by two obvious considerations: In the first place, it is to be remarked that, however small the republic may be, the representatives must be raised to a certain number, in order to guard against the cabals of a few; and that, however large it may be, they must be limited to a certain number, in order to guard against the confusion of a multitude. Hence, the number of representatives in the two cases not being in proportion to that of the two constituents, and being proportionally greater in the small republic, it follows that, if the proportion of fit characters be not less in the large than in the small republic, the former will present a greater option, and consequently a greater probability of a fit choice. In the next place, as each representative will be chosen by a greater number of citizens in the large than in the small republic, it will be more difficult for unworthy candidates to practice with success the vicious arts by which elections are too often carried; and the suffrages of the people being more free, will be more likely to centre in men who possess the most attractive merit and the most diffusive and established characters. It must be confessed that in this, as in most other cases, there is a mean, on both sides of which inconveniences will be found to lie. By enlarging too much the number of electors, you render the representatives too little acquainted with all their local circumstances and lesser interests; as by reducing it too much, you render him unduly attached to these, and too little fit to comprehend and pursue great and national objects. The federal Constitution forms a happy combination in this respect; the great and aggregate interests being referred to the national, the local and particular to the State legislatures. The other point of difference is, the greater number of citizens and extent of territory which may be brought within the compass of republican than of democratic government; and it is this circumstance principally which renders factious combinations less to be dreaded in the former than in the latter. The smaller the society, the fewer probably will be the distinct parties and interests composing it; the fewer the distinct parties and interests, the more frequently will a majority be found of the same party; and the smaller the number of individuals composing a majority, and the smaller the compass within which they are placed, the more easily will they concert and execute their plans of oppression. Extend the sphere, and you take in a greater variety of parties and interests; you make it less probable that a majority of the whole will have a common motive to invade the rights of other citizens; or if such a common motive exists, it will be more difficult for all who feel it to discover their own strength, and to act in unison with each other. Besides other impediments, it may be remarked that, where there is a consciousness of unjust or dishonorable purposes, communication is always checked by distrust in proportion to the number whose concurrence is necessary. Hence, it clearly appears, that the same advantage which a republic has over a democracy, in controlling the effects of faction, is enjoyed by a large over a small republic,--is enjoyed by the Union over the States composing it. Does the advantage consist in the substitution of representatives whose enlightened views and virtuous sentiments render them superior to local prejudices and schemes of injustice? It will not be denied that the representation of the Union will be most likely to possess these requisite endowments. Does it consist in the greater security afforded by a greater variety of parties, against the event of any one party being able to outnumber and oppress the rest? In an equal degree does the increased variety of parties comprised within the Union, increase this security. Does it, in fine, consist in the greater obstacles opposed to the concert and accomplishment of the secret wishes of an unjust and interested majority? Here, again, the extent of the Union gives it the most palpable advantage. The influence of factious leaders may kindle a flame within their particular States, but will be unable to spread a general conflagration through the other States. A religious sect may degenerate into a political faction in a part of the Confederacy; but the variety of sects dispersed over the entire face of it must secure the national councils against any danger from that source. A rage for paper money, for an abolition of debts, for an equal division of property, or for any other improper or wicked project, will be less apt to pervade the whole body of the Union than a particular member of it; in the same proportion as such a malady is more likely to taint a particular county or district, than an entire State. In the extent and proper structure of the Union, therefore, we behold a republican remedy for the diseases most incident to republican government. And according to the degree of pleasure and pride we feel in being republicans, ought to be our zeal in cherishing the spirit and supporting the character of Federalists. Federalist Paper #51: The Structure of the Government Must Furnish the Proper Checks and Balances Between the Different Departments From the New York Packet. Friday, February 8, 1788. Author: Alexander Hamilton or James Madison To the People of the State of New York: TO WHAT expedient, then, shall we finally resort, for maintaining in practice the necessary partition of power among the several departments, as laid down in the Constitution? The only answer that can be given is, that as all these exterior provisions are found to be inadequate, the defect must be supplied, by so contriving the interior structure of the government as that its several constituent parts may, by their mutual relations, be the means of keeping each other in their proper places. Without presuming to undertake a full development of this important idea, I will hazard a few general observations, which may perhaps place it in a clearer light, and enable us to form a more correct judgment of the principles and structure of the government planned by the convention. In order to lay a due foundation for that separate and distinct exercise of the different powers of government, which to a certain extent is admitted on all hands to be essential to the preservation of liberty, it is evident that each department should have a will of its own; and consequently should be so constituted that the members of each should have as little agency as possible in the appointment of the members of the others. Were this principle rigorously adhered to, it would require that all the appointments for the supreme executive, legislative, and judiciary magistracies should be drawn from the same fountain of authority, the people, through channels having no communication whatever with one another. Perhaps such a plan of constructing the several departments would be less difficult in practice than it may in contemplation appear. Some difficulties, however, and some additional expense would attend the execution of it. Some deviations, therefore, from the principle must be admitted. In the constitution of the judiciary department in particular, it might be inexpedient to insist rigorously on the principle: first, because peculiar qualifications being essential in the members, the primary consideration ought to be to select that mode of choice which best secures these qualifications; secondly, because the permanent tenure by which the appointments are held in that department, must soon destroy all sense of dependence on the authority conferring them. It is equally evident, that the members of each department should be as little dependent as possible on those of the others, for the emoluments annexed to their offices. Were the executive magistrate, or the judges, not independent of the legislature in this particular, their independence in every other would be merely nominal. But the great security against a gradual concentration of the several powers in the same department, consists in giving to those who administer each department the necessary constitutional means and personal motives to resist encroachments of the others. The provision for defense must in this, as in all other cases, be made commensurate to the danger of attack. Ambition must be made to counteract ambition. The interest of the man must be connected with the constitutional rights of the place. It may be a reflection on human nature, that such devices should be necessary to control the abuses of government. But what is government itself, but the greatest of all reflections on human nature? If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself. A dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government; but experience has taught mankind the necessity of auxiliary precautions. This policy of supplying, by opposite and rival interests, the defect of better motives, might be traced through the whole system of human affairs, private as well as public. We see it particularly displayed in all the subordinate distributions of power, where the constant aim is to divide and arrange the several offices in such a manner as that each may be a check on the other that the private interest of every individual may be a sentinel over the public rights. These inventions of prudence cannot be less requisite in the distribution of the supreme powers of the State. But it is not possible to give to each department an equal power of self-defense. In republican government, the legislative authority necessarily predominates. The remedy for this inconveniency is to divide the legislature into different branches; and to render them, by different modes of election and different principles of action, as little connected with each other as the nature of their common functions and their common dependence on the society will admit. It may even be necessary to guard against dangerous encroachments by still further precautions. As the weight of the legislative authority requires that it should be thus divided, the weakness of the executive may require, on the other hand, that it should be fortified. An absolute negative on the legislature appears, at first view, to be the natural defense with which the executive magistrate should be armed. But perhaps it would be neither altogether safe nor alone sufficient. On ordinary occasions it might not be exerted with the requisite firmness, and on extraordinary occasions it might be perfidiously abused. May not this defect of an absolute negative be supplied by some qualified connection between this weaker department and the weaker branch of the stronger department, by which the latter may be led to support the constitutional rights of the former, without being too much detached from the rights of its own department? If the principles on which these observations are founded be just, as I persuade myself they are, and they be applied as a criterion to the several State constitutions, and to the federal Constitution it will be found that if the latter does not perfectly correspond with them, the former are infinitely less able to bear such a test. There are, moreover, two considerations particularly applicable to the federal system of America, which place that system in a very interesting point of view. First. In a single republic, all the power surrendered by the people is submitted to the administration of a single government; and the usurpations are guarded against by a division of the government into distinct and separate departments. In the compound republic of America, the power surrendered by the people is first divided between two distinct governments, and then the portion allotted to each subdivided among distinct and separate departments. Hence a double security arises to the rights of the people. The different governments will control each other, at the same time that each will be controlled by itself. Second. It is of great importance in a republic not only to guard the society against the oppression of its rulers, but to guard one part of the society against the injustice of the other part. Different interests necessarily exist in different classes of citizens. If a majority be united by a common interest, the rights of the minority will be insecure. There are but two methods of providing against this evil: the one by creating a will in the community independent of the majority that is, of the society itself; the other, by comprehending in the society so many separate descriptions of citizens as will render an unjust combination of a majority of the whole very improbable, if not impracticable. The first method prevails in all governments possessing an hereditary or self-appointed authority. This, at best, is but a precarious security; because a power independent of the society may as well espouse the unjust views of the major, as the rightful interests of the minor party, and may possibly be turned against both parties. The second method will be exemplified in the federal republic of the United States. Whilst all authority in it will be derived from and dependent on the society, the society itself will be broken into so many parts, interests, and classes of citizens, that the rights of individuals, or of the minority, will be in little danger from interested combinations of the majority. In a free government the security for civil rights must be the same as that for religious rights. It consists in the one case in the multiplicity of interests, and in the other in the multiplicity of sects. The degree of security in both cases will depend on the number of interests and sects; and this may be presumed to depend on the extent of country and number of people comprehended under the same government. This view of the subject must particularly recommend a proper federal system to all the sincere and considerate friends of republican government, since it shows that in exact proportion as the territory of the Union may be formed into more circumscribed Confederacies, or States oppressive combinations of a majority will be facilitated: the best security, under the republican forms, for the rights of every class of citizens, will be diminished: and consequently the stability and independence of some member of the government, the only other security, must be proportionately increased. Justice is the end of government. It is the end of civil society. It ever has been and ever will be pursued until it be obtained, or until liberty be lost in the pursuit. In a society under the forms of which the stronger faction can readily unite and oppress the weaker, anarchy may as truly be said to reign as in a state of nature, where the weaker individual is not secured against the violence of the stronger; and as, in the latter state, even the stronger individuals are prompted, by the uncertainty of their condition, to submit to a government which may protect the weak as well as themselves; so, in the former state, will the more powerful factions or parties be gradually induced, by a like motive, to wish for a government which will protect all parties, the weaker as well as the more powerful. It can be little doubted that if the State of Rhode Island was separated from the Confederacy and left to itself, the insecurity of rights under the popular form of government within such narrow limits would be displayed by such reiterated oppressions of factious majorities that some power altogether independent of the people would soon be called for by the voice of the very factions whose misrule had proved the necessity of it. In the extended republic of the United States, and among the great variety of interests, parties, and sects which it embraces, a coalition of a majority of the whole society could seldom take place on any other principles than those of justice and the general good; whilst there being thus less danger to a minor from the will of a major party, there must be less pretext, also, to provide for the security of the former, by introducing into the government a will not dependent on the latter, or, in other words, a will independent of the society itself. It is no less certain than it is important, notwithstanding the contrary opinions which have been entertained, that the larger the society, provided it lie within a practical sphere, the more duly capable it will be of self-government. And happily for the REPUBLICAN CAUSE, the practicable sphere may be carried to a very great extent, by a judicious modification and mixture of the FEDERAL PRINCIPLE. PUBLIUS.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.898061	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15289/overview", "title": "American Government, Federalist Papers #10 and #51, Federalist Papers #10 and #51", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60462/overview	Chapter 2.5: Constitution of 1861 Overview Texas Government: Constitution of 1861 Constitution of 1861 After the Texas voters ratified secession from the Union on February 23, 1861, the Secession Convention reconvened. Convention delegates believed it their duty to direct the transition of Texas from a state in the United States to one of the Confederate States of America. As part of that duty, they amended the Constitution of 1845. In most instances, the wording of the older constitution was kept intact, but some changes were required to meet new circumstances. The words "United States of America" were replaced with "Confederate States of America". Slavery and states’ rights were more directly defended. A clause providing for emancipation of slaves was eliminated, and the freeing of slaves was declared illegal. All current state officials were required to take an oath of loyalty to the Confederacy, and all existing laws not in conflict with the constitutions of Texas or the Confederate States were declared valid. Amending the constitution was also made easier. This constitution was as remarkable for what it did not do as for what it did. It did not legalize the resumption of the African slave trade, a move advocated by some leaders of the secession movement. It did not take an extreme position on the issue of states’ rights. It did not substantially change any important law. It was a conservative document partly designed to allay fears of the radical nature of the secessionists and to ease the transition of Texas into the Confederacy. For More Information For More Information More information on the Constitution of the State of Texas (1861) may be found at the Texas Constitutions 1824-1876 project of the Tarlton Law Library, Jamail Center for Legal Research at the University of Texas School of Law, The University of Texas at Austin. The project includes digitized images and searchable text versions of the constitutions.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.915298	12/07/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60462/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas' Constitution, Chapter 2.5: Constitution of 1861", "author": "Annette Howard" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60449/overview	Introduction: The Constitutions of Texas Overview Introduction Introduction Introduction A constitution is a body of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is acknowledged to be governed. What distinguishes Texas from other states is its unique history as an entity—a state, a republic, a nation—and the documents that created Texas as we know it today. Between the years of 1824 and 1876, Texas was at times a part of the United States of Mexico, an independent republic, a state within the Confederate States of America, and a state within the United States of America. Beginning in 1824, what we now know as Texas passed through many iterations—each with its own foundational documents. These founding documents legally established the entity of Texas, set forth the rights and responsibilities of its people, and defined the scope and powers of its government. This chapter discusses those constitutions and introduces the Constitution of 1876–Texas’ current constitution.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.929689	12/06/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60449/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas' Constitution, Introduction: The Constitutions of Texas", "author": "Annette Howard" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28776/overview	How To Organize Economies: An Overview of Economic Systems Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Contrast traditional economies, command economies, and market economies - Explain gross domestic product (GDP) - Assess the importance and effects of globalization Traditional Economies Think about what a complex system a modern economy is. It includes all production of goods and services, all buying and selling, all employment. The economic life of every individual is interrelated, at least to a small extent, with the economic lives of thousands or even millions of other individuals. Who organizes and coordinates this system? Who insures that, for example, the number of televisions a society provides is the same as the amount it needs and wants? Who insures that the right number of employees work in the electronics industry? Who insures that televisions are produced in the best way possible? How does it all get done? There are at least three ways that societies organize an economy. The first is the traditional economy, which is the oldest economic system and is used in parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. Traditional economies organize their economic affairs the way they have always done (i.e., tradition). Occupations stay in the family. Most families are farmers who grow the crops using traditional methods. What you produce is what you consume. Because tradition drives the way of life, there is little economic progress or development. Command economies are very different. In a command economy, economic effort is devoted to goals passed down from a ruler or ruling class. Ancient Egypt was a good example: a large part of economic life was devoted to building pyramids, like those in Figure, for the pharaohs. Medieval manor life is another example: the lord provided the land for growing crops and protection in the event of war. In return, vassals provided labor and soldiers to do the lord’s bidding. In the last century, communism emphasized command economies. In a command economy, the government decides what goods and services will be produced and what prices it will charge for them. The government decides what methods of production to use and sets wages for workers. The government provides many necessities like healthcare and education for free. Currently, Cuba and North Korea have command economies. Although command economies have a very centralized structure for economic decisions, market economies have a very decentralized structure. A market is an institution that brings together buyers and sellers of goods or services, who may be either individuals or businesses. The New York Stock Exchange (Figure) is a prime example of a market which brings buyers and sellers together. In a market economy, decision-making is decentralized. Market economies are based on private enterprise: the private individuals or groups of private individuals own and operate the means of production (resources and businesses). Businesses supply goods and services based on demand. (In a command economy, by contrast, the government owns resources and businesses.) Supply of goods and services depends on what the demands. A person’s income is based on his or her ability to convert resources (especially labor) into something that society values. The more society values the person’s output, the higher the income (think Lady Gaga or LeBron James). In this scenario, market forces, not governments, determine economic decisions. Most economies in the real world are mixed. They combine elements of command and market (and even traditional) systems. The U.S. economy is positioned toward the market-oriented end of the spectrum. Many countries in Europe and Latin America, while primarily market-oriented, have a greater degree of government involvement in economic decisions than the U.S. economy. China and Russia, while over the past several decades have moved more in the direction of having a market-oriented system, remain closer to the command economy end of the spectrum. The Heritage Foundation provides information about how free and thus market-oriented different countries' are, as the following Clear It Up feature discusses. For a similar ranking, but one that defines freedom more broadly, see the Cato Foundation's Human Freedom Index. What countries are considered economically free? Who is in control of economic decisions? Are people free to do what they want and to work where they want? Are businesses free to produce when they want and what they choose, and to hire and fire as they wish? Are banks free to choose who will receive loans, or does the government control these kinds of choices? Each year, researchers at the Heritage Foundation and the Wall Street Journal look at 50 different categories of economic freedom for countries around the world. They give each nation a score based on the extent of economic freedom in each category. The 2016 Heritage Foundation’s Index of Economic Freedom report ranked 178 countries around the world: Table lists some examples of the most free and the least free countries. Several additional countries were not ranked because of extreme instability that made judgments about economic freedom impossible. These countries include Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Somalia, and Yemen. The assigned rankings are inevitably based on estimates, yet even these rough measures can be useful for discerning trends. In 2015, 101 of the 178 included countries shifted toward greater economic freedom, although 77 of the countries shifted toward less economic freedom. In recent decades, the overall trend has been a higher level of economic freedom around the world. \| Most Economic Freedom \| Least Economic Freedom \| \|---\|---\| \| 1. Hong Kong \| 167. Timor-Leste \| \| 2. Singapore \| 168. Democratic Republic of Congo \| \| 3. New Zealand \| 169. Argentina \| \| 4. Switzerland \| 170. Equatorial Guinea \| \| 5. Australia \| 171. Iran \| \| 6. Canada \| 172. Republic of Congo \| \| 7. Chile \| 173. Eritrea \| \| 8. Ireland \| 174. Turkmenistan \| \| 9. Estonia \| 175. Zimbabwe \| \| 10. United Kingdom \| 176. Venezuela \| \| 11. United States \| 177. Cuba \| \| 12. Denmark \| 178. North Korea \| Regulations: The Rules of the Game Markets and government regulations are always entangled. There is no such thing as an absolutely free market. Regulations always define the “rules of the game” in the economy. Economies that are primarily market-oriented have fewer regulations—ideally just enough to maintain an even playing field for participants. At a minimum, these laws govern matters like safeguarding private property against theft, protecting people from violence, enforcing legal contracts, preventing fraud, and collecting taxes. Conversely, even the most command-oriented economies operate using markets. How else would buying and selling occur? The government heavily regulates decisions of what to produce and prices to charge. Heavily regulated economies often have underground economies (or black markets), which are markets where the buyers and sellers make transactions without the government’s approval. The question of how to organize economic institutions is typically not a black-or-white choice between all market or all government, but instead involves a balancing act over the appropriate combination of market freedom and government rules. The Rise of Globalization Recent decades have seen a trend toward globalization, which is the expanding cultural, political, and economic connections between people around the world. One measure of this is the increased buying and selling of goods, services, and assets across national borders—in other words, international trade and financial capital flows. Globalization has occurred for a number of reasons. Improvements in shipping, as illustrated by the container ship in Figure, and air cargo have driven down transportation costs. Innovations in computing and telecommunications have made it easier and cheaper to manage long-distance economic connections of production and sales. Many valuable products and services in the modern economy can take the form of information—for example: computer software; financial advice; travel planning; music, books and movies; and blueprints for designing a building. These products and many others can be transported over telephones and computer networks at ever-lower costs. Finally, international agreements and treaties between countries have encouraged greater trade. Table presents one measure of globalization. It shows the percentage of domestic economic production that was exported for a selection of countries from 2010 to 2015, according to an entity known as The World Bank. Exports are the goods and services that one produces domestically and sells abroad. Imports are the goods and services that one produces abroad and then sells domestically. Gross domestic product (GDP) measures the size of total production in an economy. Thus, the ratio of exports divided by GDP measures what share of a country’s total economic production is sold in other countries. \| Country \| 2010 \| 2011 \| 2012 \| 2013 \| 2014 \| 2015 \| \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Higher Income Countries \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| United States \| 12.4 \| 13.6 \| 13.6 \| 13.5 \| 13.5 \| 12.6 \| \| \| Belgium \| 76.2 \| 81.4 \| 82.2 \| 82.8 \| 84.0 \| 84.4 \| \| \| Canada \| 29.1 \| 30.7 \| 30.0 \| 30.1 \| 31.7 \| 31.5 \| \| \| France \| 26.0 \| 27.8 \| 28.1 \| 28.3 \| 29.0 \| 30.0 \| \| \| Middle Income Countries \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| Brazil \| 10.9 \| 11.9 \| 12.6 \| 12.6 \| 11.2 \| 13.0 \| \| \| Mexico \| 29.9 \| 31.2 \| 32.6 \| 31.7 \| 32.3 \| 35.3 \| \| \| South Korea \| 49.4 \| 55.7 \| 56.3 \| 53.9 \| 50.3 \| 45.9 \| \| \| Lower Income Countries \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| Chad \| 36.8 \| 38.9 \| 36.9 \| 32.2 \| 34.2 \| 29.8 \| \| \| China \| 29.4 \| 28.5 \| 27.3 \| 26.4 \| 23.9 \| 22.4 \| \| \| India \| 22.0 \| 23.9 \| 24.0 \| 24.8 \| 22.9 \| - \| \| \| Nigeria \| 25.3 \| 31.3 \| 31.4 \| 18.0 \| 18.4 \| - \| In recent decades, the export/GDP ratio has generally risen, both worldwide and for the U.S. economy. Interestingly, the share of U.S. exports in proportion to the U.S. economy is well below the global average, in part because large economies like the United States can contain more of the division of labor inside their national borders. However, smaller economies like Belgium, Korea, and Canada need to trade across their borders with other countries to take full advantage of division of labor, specialization, and economies of scale. In this sense, the enormous U.S. economy is less affected by globalization than most other countries. Table indicates that many medium and low income countries around the world, like Mexico and China, have also experienced a surge of globalization in recent decades. If an astronaut in orbit could put on special glasses that make all economic transactions visible as brightly colored lines and look down at Earth, the astronaut would see the planet covered with connections. Despite the rise in globalization over the last few decades, in recent years we've seen significant pushback against globalization from people across the world concerned about loss of jobs, loss of political sovereignty, and increased economic inequality. Prominent examples of this pushback include the 2016 vote in Great Britain to exit the European Union (i.e. Brexit), and the election of Donald J. Trump for President of the United States. Hopefully, you now have an idea about economics. Before you move to any other chapter of study, be sure to read the very important appendix to this chapter called The Use of Mathematics in Principles of Economics. It is essential that you learn more about how to read and use models in economics. Decisions ... Decisions in the Social Media Age The world we live in today provides nearly instant access to a wealth of information. Consider that as recently as the late 1970s, the Farmer’s Almanac, along with the Weather Bureau of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, were the primary sources American farmers used to determine when to plant and harvest their crops. Today, farmers are more likely to access, online, weather forecasts from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration or watch the Weather Channel. After all, knowing the upcoming forecast could drive when to harvest crops. Consequently, knowing the upcoming weather could change the amount of crop harvested. Some relatively new information forums, such as Facebook, are rapidly changing how information is distributed; hence, influencing decision making. In 2014, the Pew Research Center reported that 71% of online adults use Facebook. This social media forum posts topics ranging from the National Basketball Association, to celebrity singers and performers, to farmers. Information helps us make decisions as simple as what to wear today to how many reporters the media should send to cover a crash. Each of these decisions is an economic decision. After all, resources are scarce. If the media send ten reporters to cover an accident, they are not available to cover other stories or complete other tasks. Information provides the necessary knowledge to make the best possible decisions on how to utilize scarce resources. Welcome to the world of economics! Key Concepts and Summary We can organize societies as traditional, command, or market-oriented economies. Most societies are a mix. The last few decades have seen globalization evolve as a result of growth in commercial and financial networks that cross national borders, making businesses and workers from different economies increasingly interdependent. Self-Check Questions The chapter defines private enterprise as a characteristic of market-oriented economies. What would public enterprise be? Hint: It is a characteristic of command economies. Hint: Public enterprise means the factors of production (resources and businesses) are owned and operated by the government. Why might Belgium, France, Italy, and Sweden have a higher export to GDP ratio than the United States? Hint: The United States is a large country economically speaking, so it has less need to trade internationally than the other countries mentioned. (This is the same reason that France and Italy have lower ratios than Belgium or Sweden.) One additional reason is that each of the other countries is a member of the European Union, where trade between members occurs without barriers to trade, like tariffs and quotas. Review Questions What are the three ways that societies can organize themselves economically? What is globalization? How do you think it might have affected the economy over the past decade? Critical Thinking Questions Why do you think that most modern countries’ economies are a mix of command and market types? Can you think of ways that globalization has helped you economically? Can you think of ways that it has not? References The Heritage Foundation. 2015. "2015 Index of Economic Freedom." Accessed March 11, 2015. http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking. Garling, Caleb. “S.F. plane crash: Reporting, emotions on social media,” The San Francisco Chronicle. July 7, 2013. http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/S-F-plane-crash-Reporting-emotions-on-social-4651639.php. Irvine, Jessica. “Social Networking Sites are Factories of Modern Ideas.” The Sydney Morning Herald. November 25, 2011.http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/society-and-culture/social-networking-sites-are-factories-of-modern-ideas-20111124-1nwy3.html#ixzz2YZhPYeME. Pew Research Center. 2015. "Social Networking Fact Sheet." Accessed March 11, 2015. http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheets/social-networking-fact-sheet/. The World Bank Group. 2015. "World Data Bank." Accessed March 30, 2014. http://databank.worldbank.org/data/.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.962710	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28776/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, Welcome to Economics!, How To Organize Economies: An Overview of Economic Systems", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28799/overview	Tracking Real GDP over Time Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain recessions, depressions, peaks, and troughs - Evaluate the importance of tracking real GDP over time Economic Business Cycle When news reports indicate that “the economy grew 1.2% in the first quarter,” the reports are referring to the percentage change in real GDP. By convention, governments report GDP growth is at an annualized rate: Whatever the calculated growth in real GDP was for the quarter, we multiply it by four when it is reported as if the economy were growing at that rate for a full year. Figure shows the pattern of U.S. real GDP since 1900. Short term declines have regularly interrupted the generally upward long-term path of GDP. We call a significant decline in real GDP a recession. We call an especially lengthy and deep recession a depression. The severe drop in GDP that occurred during the 1930s Great Depression is clearly visible in the figure, as is the 2008–2009 Great Recession. Real GDP is important because it is highly correlated with other measures of economic activity, like employment and unemployment. When real GDP rises, so does employment. The most significant human problem associated with recessions (and their larger, uglier cousins, depressions) is that a slowdown in production means that firms need to lay off or fire some of their workers. Losing a job imposes painful financial and personal costs on workers, and often on their extended families as well. In addition, even those who keep their jobs are likely to find that wage raises are scanty at best—or their employers may ask them to take pay cuts. Table lists the pattern of recessions and expansions in the U.S. economy since 1900. We call the highest point of the economy, before the recession begins, the peak. Conversely, the lowest point of a recession, before a recovery begins, is the trough. Thus, a recession lasts from peak to trough, and an economic upswing runs from trough to peak. We call the economy's movement from peak to trough and trough to peak the business cycle. It is intriguing to notice that the three longest trough-to-peak expansions of the twentieth century have happened since 1960. The most recent recession started in December 2007 and ended formally in June 2009. This was the most severe recession since the 1930s Great Depression. The ongoing expansion since the June 2009 trough will also be quite long, comparatively, having already reached 90 months at the end of 2016. \| Trough \| Peak \| Months of Contraction \| Months of Expansion \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| December 1900 \| September 1902 \| 18 \| 21 \| \| August 1904 \| May 1907 \| 23 \| 33 \| \| June 1908 \| January 1910 \| 13 \| 19 \| \| January 1912 \| January 1913 \| 24 \| 12 \| \| December 1914 \| August 1918 \| 23 \| 44 \| \| March 1919 \| January 1920 \| 7 \| 10 \| \| July 1921 \| May 1923 \| 18 \| 22 \| \| July 1924 \| October 1926 \| 14 \| 27 \| \| November 1927 \| August 1929 \| 23 \| 21 \| \| March 1933 \| May 1937 \| 43 \| 50 \| \| June 1938 \| February 1945 \| 13 \| 80 \| \| October 1945 \| November 1948 \| 8 \| 37 \| \| October 1949 \| July 1953 \| 11 \| 45 \| \| May 1954 \| August 1957 \| 10 \| 39 \| \| April 1958 \| April 1960 \| 8 \| 24 \| \| February 1961 \| December 1969 \| 10 \| 106 \| \| November 1970 \| November 1973 \| 11 \| 36 \| \| March 1975 \| January 1980 \| 16 \| 58 \| \| July 1980 \| July 1981 \| 6 \| 12 \| \| November 1982 \| July 1990 \| 16 \| 92 \| \| March 1991 \| March 2001 \| 8 \| 120 \| \| November 2001 \| December 2007 \| 8 \| 73 \| A private think tank, the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), tracks business cycles for the U.S. economy. However, the effects of a severe recession often linger after the official ending date assigned by the NBER. Key Concepts and Summary Over the long term, U.S. real GDP have increased dramatically. At the same time, GDP has not increased the same amount each year. The speeding up and slowing down of GDP growth represents the business cycle. When GDP declines significantly, a recession occurs. A longer and deeper decline is a depression. Recessions begin at the business cycle's peak and end at the trough. Self-Check Questions Without looking at Table, return to Figure. If we define a recession as a significant decline in national output, can you identify any post-1960 recessions in addition to the 2008-2009 recession? (This requires a judgment call.) Hint: Two other major recessions are visible in the figure as slight dips: those of 1973–1975, and 1981–1982. Two other recessions appear in the figure as a flattening of the path of real GDP. These were in 1990–1991 and 2001. According to Table, how often have recessions occurred since the end of World War II (1945)? Hint: 11 recessions in approximately 70 years averages about one recession every six years. According to Table, how long has the average recession lasted since the end of World War II? Hint: The table lists the “Months of Contraction” for each recession. Averaging these figures for the post-WWII recessions gives an average duration of 11 months, or slightly less than a year. According to Table, how long has the average expansion lasted since the end of World War II? Hint: The table lists the “Months of Expansion.” Averaging these figures for the post-WWII expansions gives an average expansion of 60.5 months, or more than five years. Review Question What are typical GDP patterns for a high-income economy like the United States in the long run and the short run? Critical Thinking Questions Why do you suppose that U.S. GDP is so much higher today than 50 or 100 years ago? Why do you think that GDP does not grow at a steady rate, but rather speeds up and slows down? References The National Bureau of Economic Research. “Information on Recessions and Recoveries, the NBER Business Cycle Dating Committee, and related topics.” http://www.nber.org/cycles/main.html.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:48.991550	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28799/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, The Macroeconomic Perspective, Tracking Real GDP over Time", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28772/overview	Introduction Introduction Decisions ... Decisions in the Social Media Age To post or not to post? Every day we are faced with a myriad of decisions, from what to have for breakfast, to which route to take to class, to the more complex—“Should I double major and add possibly another semester of study to my education?” Our response to these choices depends on the information we have available at any given moment. Economists call this “imperfect” because we rarely have all the data we need to make perfect decisions. Despite the lack of perfect information, we still make hundreds of decisions a day. Now we have another avenue in which to gather information—social media. Outlets like Facebook and Twitter are altering the process by which we make choices, how we spend our time, which movies we see, which products we buy, and more. How many of you chose a university without checking out its Facebook page or Twitter stream first for information and feedback? As you will see in this course, what happens in economics is affected by how well and how fast information disseminates through a society, such as how quickly information travels through Facebook. “Economists love nothing better than when deep and liquid markets operate under conditions of perfect information,” says Jessica Irvine, National Economics Editor for News Corp Australia. This leads us to the topic of this chapter, an introduction to the world of making decisions, processing information, and understanding behavior in markets —the world of economics. Each chapter in this book will start with a discussion about current (or sometimes past) events and revisit it at chapter’s end—to “bring home” the concepts in play. Introduction In this chapter, you will learn about: - What Is Economics, and Why Is It Important? - Microeconomics and Macroeconomics - How Economists Use Theories and Models to Understand Economic Issues - How Economies Can Be Organized: An Overview of Economic Systems What is economics and why should you spend your time learning it? After all, there are other disciplines you could be studying, and other ways you could be spending your time. As the Bring it Home feature just mentioned, making choices is at the heart of what economists study, and your decision to take this course is as much as economic decision as anything else. Economics is probably not what you think. It is not primarily about money or finance. It is not primarily about business. It is not mathematics. What is it then? It is both a subject area and a way of viewing the world.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.007778	09/20/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28772/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, Welcome to Economics!, Introduction", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28801/overview	How Well GDP Measures the Well-Being of Society Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss how productivity influences the standard of living - Explain the limitations of GDP as a measure of the standard of living - Analyze the relationship between GDP data and fluctuations in the standard of living "Standards of Living" The level of GDP per capita clearly captures some of what we mean by the phrase “standard of living.” Most of the migration in the world, for example, involves people who are moving from countries with relatively low GDP per capita to countries with relatively high GDP per capita. “Standard of living” is a broader term than GDP. While GDP focuses on production that is bought and sold in markets, standard of living includes all elements that affect people’s well-being, whether they are bought and sold in the market or not. To illuminate the difference between GDP and standard of living, it is useful to spell out some things that GDP does not cover that are clearly relevant to standard of living. Limitations of GDP as a Measure of the Standard of Living While GDP includes spending on recreation and travel, it does not cover leisure time. Clearly, however, there is a substantial difference between an economy that is large because people work long hours, and an economy that is just as large because people are more productive with their time so they do not have to work as many hours. The GDP per capita of the U.S. economy is larger than the GDP per capita of Germany, as showed, but does that prove that the standard of living in the United States is higher? Not necessarily, since it is also true that the average U.S. worker works several hundred hours more per year more than the average German worker. Calculating GDP does not account for the German worker’s extra vacation weeks. While GDP includes what a country spends on environmental protection, healthcare, and education, it does not include actual levels of environmental cleanliness, health, and learning. GDP includes the cost of buying pollution-control equipment, but it does not address whether the air and water are actually cleaner or dirtier. GDP includes spending on medical care, but does not address whether life expectancy or infant mortality have risen or fallen. Similarly, it counts spending on education, but does not address directly how much of the population can read, write, or do basic mathematics. GDP includes production that is exchanged in the market, but it does not cover production that is not exchanged in the market. For example, hiring someone to mow your lawn or clean your house is part of GDP, but doing these tasks yourself is not part of GDP. One remarkable change in the U.S. economy in recent decades is the growth in women’s participation in the labor force. As of 1970, only about 42% of women participated in the paid labor force. By the second decade of the 2000s, nearly 60% of women participated in the paid labor force according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. As women are now in the labor force, many of the services they used to produce in the non-market economy like food preparation and child care have shifted to some extent into the market economy, which makes the GDP appear larger even if people actually are not consuming more services. GDP has nothing to say about the level of inequality in society. GDP per capita is only an average. When GDP per capita rises by 5%, it could mean that GDP for everyone in the society has risen by 5%, or that GDP of some groups has risen by more while that of others has risen by less—or even declined. GDP also has nothing in particular to say about the amount of variety available. If a family buys 100 loaves of bread in a year, GDP does not care whether they are all white bread, or whether the family can choose from wheat, rye, pumpernickel, and many others—it just looks at the total amount the family spends on bread. Likewise, GDP has nothing much to say about what technology and products are available. The standard of living in, for example, 1950 or 1900 was not affected only by how much money people had—it was also affected by what they could buy. No matter how much money you had in 1950, you could not buy an iPhone or a personal computer. In certain cases, it is not clear that a rise in GDP is even a good thing. If a city is wrecked by a hurricane, and then experiences a surge of rebuilding construction activity, it would be peculiar to claim that the hurricane was therefore economically beneficial. If people are led by a rising fear of crime, to pay for installing bars and burglar alarms on all their windows, it is hard to believe that this increase in GDP has made them better off. Similarly, some people would argue that sales of certain goods, like pornography or extremely violent movies, do not represent a gain to society’s standard of living. Does a Rise in GDP Overstate or Understate the Rise in the Standard of Living? The fact that GDP per capita does not fully capture the broader idea of standard of living has led to a concern that the increases in GDP over time are illusory. It is theoretically possible that while GDP is rising, the standard of living could be falling if human health, environmental cleanliness, and other factors that are not included in GDP are worsening. Fortunately, this fear appears to be overstated. In some ways, the rise in GDP understates the actual rise in the standard of living. For example, the typical workweek for a U.S. worker has fallen over the last century from about 60 hours per week to less than 40 hours per week. Life expectancy and health have risen dramatically, and so has the average level of education. Since 1970, the air and water in the United States have generally been getting cleaner. Companies have developed new technologies for entertainment, travel, information, and health. A much wider variety of basic products like food and clothing is available today than several decades ago. Because GDP does not capture leisure, health, a cleaner environment, the possibilities that new technology creates, or an increase in variety, the actual rise in the standard of living for Americans in recent decades has exceeded the rise in GDP. On the other side, crime rates, traffic congestion levels, and income inequality are higher in the United States now than they were in the 1960s. Moreover, a substantial number of services that women primarily provided in the non-market economy are now part of the market economy that GDP counts. By ignoring these factors, GDP would tend to overstate the true rise in the standard of living. Visit this website to read about the American Dream and standards of living. GDP is Rough, but Useful A high level of GDP should not be the only goal of macroeconomic policy, or government policy more broadly. Even though GDP does not measure the broader standard of living with any precision, it does measure production well and it does indicate when a country is materially better or worse off in terms of jobs and incomes. In most countries, a significantly higher GDP per capita occurs hand in hand with other improvements in everyday life along many dimensions, like education, health, and environmental protection. No single number can capture all the elements of a term as broad as “standard of living.” Nonetheless, GDP per capita is a reasonable, rough-and-ready measure of the standard of living. How is the Economy Doing? How Does One Tell? To determine the state of the economy, one needs to examine economic indicators, such as GDP. To calculate GDP is quite an undertaking. It is the broadest measure of a nation’s economic activity and we owe a debt to Simon Kuznets, the creator of the measurement, for that. The sheer size of the U.S. economy as measured by GDP is huge—as of the fourth quarter of 2016, $18.9 trillion worth of goods and services were produced annually. Real GDP informed us that the 2008–2009 recession was severe and that the recovery from that recession has been slow, but the economy is improving. GDP per capita gives a rough estimate of a nation’s standard of living. This chapter is the building block for other chapters that explore more economic indicators such as unemployment, inflation, or interest rates, and perhaps more importantly, will explain how they are related and what causes them to rise or fall. Key Concepts and Summary GDP is an indicator of a society’s standard of living, but it is only a rough indicator. GDP does not directly take account of leisure, environmental quality, levels of health and education, activities conducted outside the market, changes in inequality of income, increases in variety, increases in technology, or the (positive or negative) value that society may place on certain types of output. Self-Check Question Explain briefly whether each of the following would cause GDP to overstate or understate the degree of change in the broad standard of living. - The environment becomes dirtier - The crime rate declines - A greater variety of goods become available to consumers - Infant mortality declines Hint: - A dirtier environment would reduce the broad standard of living, but not be counted in GDP, so a rise in GDP would overstate the standard of living. - A lower crime rate would raise the broad standard of living, but not be counted directly in GDP, and so a rise in GDP would understate the standard of living. - A greater variety of goods would raise the broad standard of living, but not be counted directly in GDP, and so a rise in GDP would understate the rise in the standard of living. - A decline in infant mortality would raise the broad standard of living, but not be counted directly in GDP, and so a rise in GDP would understate the rise in the standard of living. Review Question List some of the reasons why economists should not consider GDP an effective measure of the standard of living in a country. Critical Thinking Questions How might you measure a “green” GDP?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.030747	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28801/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, The Macroeconomic Perspective, How Well GDP Measures the Well-Being of Society", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61392/overview	Chapter 9.4: Structure Of The Texas Court System Overview Structure Of The Texas Court System Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Discuss the structure of the Texas Court System By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the structure of the Texas Court System Structure Of The Texas Court System Structure Of The Texas Court System The Texas court system is a bifurcated system, meaning there are two highest courts of appeals for criminal and civil cases. The table below depicts the structure of the Texas court system with some additional jurisdiction and court information. Note that Juvenile Courts preside in the District Courts- In Texas a juvenile is defined as young as 10 years old, and a juvenile can be convicted as an adult as young as 14 years old. [1] Structure of the Texas Court System CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Court Organization. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution Trial Courts Trial Courts In trial courts: - Witnesses are heard; - Testimony is received; - Exhibits are offered into evidence; and - A verdict is rendered. The trial court structure in Texas has several different levels, each level handling different types of cases, with some overlap. The state trial court of general jurisdiction is known as the district court. The county-level courts consist of the constitutional county courts, statutory county courts, and statutory probate courts. In addition, there is at least one justice court located in each county, and there are municipal courts located in each incorporated city. Municipal Courts Municipal Courts Under its constitutional authority to create “such other courts as may be provided by law,” the Legislature has created municipal courts in each incorporated municipality in the state. In lieu of a municipal court created by the Legislature, municipalities may choose to establish municipal courts of record. The jurisdiction of municipal courts is provided in Chapters 29 and 30 of the Texas Government Code. Municipal courts have: - Original and exclusive jurisdiction over criminal violations of certain municipal ordinances and airport board rules, orders, or resolutions that do not exceed $2,000 in some instances and $500 in others; - Concurrent jurisdiction with the justice courts in certain misdemeanor criminal cases; and - Concurrent jurisdiction over truancy cases. In addition to the jurisdiction of a regular municipal court, municipal courts of record also have jurisdiction over criminal cases arising under ordinances authorized by certain provisions of the Local Government Code. The municipality may also provide by ordinance that a municipal court of record have additional jurisdiction in certain civil and criminal matters. Municipal judges also serve in the capacity of a committing magistrate, with the authority to issue warrants for the apprehension and arrest of persons charged with the commission of felony or misdemeanor offenses. As a magistrate, the municipal judge may hold preliminary hearings, reduce testimony to writing, discharge the accused, or remand the accused to jail and set bail. Trials in municipal courts are not generally “of record;” many appeals go to the county court, county court at law, or district court by a trial de novo. Appeals from municipal courts of record are generally heard in the county criminal courts, county criminal courts of appeal or municipal courts of appeal. If none of these courts exist in the county or municipality, appeals are to a county court at law. Justice Courts Justice Courts As amended in November 1983, the Texas Constitution provides that each county is to be divided, according to population, into at least one, and not more than eight, justice precincts, in each of which is to be elected one or more justices of the peace. Generally, the justice courts have: - Original jurisdiction in misdemeanor criminal cases where punishment upon conviction may be by fine only; - Exclusive jurisdiction over civil matters when the amount in controversy does not exceed $200; - Concurrent jurisdiction with the county courts when the amount in controversy exceeds $200 but does not exceed $10,000; - Exclusive jurisdiction over forcible entry and detainer (eviction) cases; - Concurrent jurisdiction over repair and remedy cases; and - Concurrent jurisdiction over truancy cases. Trials in justice courts are not “of record.” Appeals from these courts are by trial de novo in the constitutional county court, the county court at law, or the district court. The justice of the peace also serves in the capacity of a committing magistrate, with the authority to issue warrants for the apprehension and arrest of persons charged with the commission of felony or misdemeanor offenses. As a magistrate, the justice of the peace may hold preliminary hearings, reduce testimony to writing, discharge the accused, or remand the accused to jail and set bail. In addition, the justice of the peace serves as the coroner in those counties where there is no provision for a medical examiner, serves as an ex officio notary public, and may perform marriage ceremonies for additional compensation. County-Level Courts County-Level Courts Constitutional County Courts The Texas Constitution provides for a county court in each of the 254 counties of the state, though all such courts do not exercise judicial functions. In populous counties, the “county judge” may devote his or her full attention to the administration of county government. Generally, the constitutional county courts have: - Concurrent jurisdiction with justice courts in civil cases where the matter in controversy exceeds $200 but does not exceed $10,000; - Concurrent jurisdiction with the district courts in civil cases where the matter in controversy exceeds $500 but does not exceed $5,000; - General jurisdiction over probate and guardianship cases; - Juvenile jurisdiction; and - Exclusive original jurisdiction over misdemeanors, other than those involving official misconduct, where punishment for the offense is by a fine exceeding $500 or a jail sentence not to exceed one year. County courts generally have appellate jurisdiction (usually by trial de novo) over cases tried originally in the justice and municipal courts. Original and appellate judgments of the county courts may be appealed to the courts of appeals. In 36 counties, the county court, by special statute, has been given concurrent jurisdiction with the justice courts in all civil matters over which the justice courts have jurisdiction. In counties with a population of 1.75 million or more, the county court has jurisdiction over truancy cases. Statutory County Courts And Probate Courts Under its constitutional authorization to “...establish such other courts as it may deem necessary... [and to] conform the jurisdiction of the district and other inferior courts thereto,” the Legislature created the first statutory county court in 1907 to relieve the county judge of some or all of the judicial duties of the office. Statutory County Courts include: - County courts at law - County civil courts at law - County criminal courts at law - County criminal courts - County criminal courts of appeal Section 25.003 of the Texas Government Code provides statutory county courts with jurisdiction over all causes and proceedings prescribed by law for constitutional county courts. In general, statutory county courts that exercise civil jurisdiction concurrent with the constitutional county court also have concurrent civil jurisdiction with the district courts in: 1) civil cases in which the matter in controversy exceeds $500 but does not exceed $200,000, and 2) appeals of final rulings and decisions of the Texas Workers’ Compensation Commission. However, the actual jurisdiction of each statutory county court varies considerably according to the statute under which it was created. A few statutory county courts even hear felony cases. In addition, some of these courts have been established to exercise subject-matter jurisdiction in only limited fields, such as civil, criminal, or appellate cases (from justice or municipal courts). In general, statutory probate courts have general jurisdiction provided to probate courts by the Texas Estates Code, as well as the jurisdiction provided by law for a county court to hear and determine cases and matters instituted under various sections and chapters of the Texas Health and Safety Code. District Courts District Courts District courts are the primary trial courts in Texas. The Constitution of the Republic provided for not less than three or more than eight district courts, each having a judge elected by a joint ballot of both houses of the Legislature for a term of four years. Most constitutions of the state continued the district courts but provided that the judges were to be elected by the qualified voters. (The exceptions were the Constitutions of 1845 and 1861 which provided for the appointment of judges by the Governor with confirmation by the Senate). All constitutions have provided that the judges of these courts must be chosen from defined districts (as opposed to statewide election). In many locations, the geographical jurisdiction of two or more district courts is overlapping. District courts are courts of general jurisdiction. Article V, Section 8 of the Texas Constitution extends a district court’s potential jurisdiction to “all actions” but makes such jurisdiction relative by excluding any matters in which exclusive, appellate, or original jurisdiction is conferred by law upon some other court. For this reason, while one can speak of the “general” jurisdiction of a district court, the actual jurisdiction of any specific court will always be limited by the constitutional or statutory provisions that confer exclusive, original, or appellate jurisdiction on other courts serving the same county or counties. With this caveat, it can be said that district courts generally have the following jurisdiction: - Original jurisdiction in all criminal cases of the grade of felony and misdemeanors involving official misconduct; - Cases of divorce or other family law disputes; - Suits for title to land or enforcement of liens on land; - Contested elections; - Suits for slander or defamation; and - Suits on behalf of the State for penalties, forfeitures and escheat. Most district courts exercise criminal and civil jurisdiction, but in the metropolitan areas there is a tendency for the courts to specialize in civil, criminal, juvenile or family law matters. Thirteen district courts are designated “criminal district courts” but have general jurisdiction. A limited number of district courts also exercise the subject-matter jurisdiction normally exercised by county courts. The district courts also have jurisdiction in civil matters with a minimum monetary limit but no maximum limit. The amount of the lower limit has for many years been the subject of controversy, with differing opinions from the courts of appeal. House Bill 79 from the 82nd Legislature, 1st Called Session (2011), included a provision in Section 24.007(b) of the Government Code which was intended to resolve the dispute and to set the minimum jurisdiction of district courts at $500. However, there is still a potential conflict between Article V, Section 8 of the Texas Constitution (which gives the district courts jurisdiction of all actions…except in cases where exclusive) and the amendment. Therefore, there are still differing opinions as to whether the minimum monetary jurisdiction of the district courts is $200.01 or $500. In counties having statutory county courts, the district courts generally have exclusive jurisdiction in civil cases where the amount in controversy is $200,000 or more, and concurrent jurisdiction with the statutory county courts in cases where the amount in controversy exceeds $500 but is less than $200,000. The district courts may also hear contested matters in probate and guardianship cases and have general supervisory control over commissioners courts. In addition, district courts have the power to issue writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, injunction, certiorari, sequestration, attachment, garnishment, and all writs necessary to enforce their jurisdiction. Appeals from judgments of the district courts are to the courts of appeals (except appeals of death sentences). A 1985 constitutional amendment established the Judicial Districts Board to reapportion Texas judicial districts, subject to legislative approval. The same amendment also allows for more than one judge per judicial district. Appellate Courts Appellate Courts The appellate courts of the Texas Judicial System are: - The Supreme Court, the highest state appellate court for civil and juvenile cases; - The Court of Criminal Appeals, the highest state appellate court for criminal cases; and - The courts of appeals, the intermediate appellate courts for civil and criminal appeals from the trial courts. Appellate courts do not try cases, have juries, or hear witnesses. Rather, they review actions and decisions of the lower courts on questions of law or allegations of procedural error. In carrying out this review, the appellate courts are usually restricted to the evidence and exhibits presented in the trial court. The Courts of Appeals The Courts of Appeals The first intermediate appellate court in Texas was created by the Constitution of 1876, which created a Court of Appeals with appellate jurisdiction in all criminal cases and in all civil cases originating in the county courts. In 1891, an amendment was added to the Constitution authorizing the Legislature to establish intermediate courts of civil appeals located at various places throughout the state. The purpose of this amendment was to preclude the large quantity of civil litigation from further congesting the docket of the Supreme Court, while providing for a more convenient and less expensive system of intermediate appellate courts for civil cases. In 1980, a constitutional amendment extended the appellate jurisdiction of the courts of civil appeals to include criminal cases and changed the name of the courts to the “courts of appeals.” Each court of appeals has jurisdiction over appeals from the trial courts located in its respective district. The appeals heard in these courts are based upon the “record” (a written transcription of the testimony given, exhibits introduced, and the documents filed in the trial court) and the written and oral arguments of the appellate lawyers. The courts of appeals do not receive testimony or hear witnesses in considering the cases on appeal, but they may hear oral argument on the issues under consideration. The Legislature has divided the state into 14 court of appeals districts and has established a court of appeals in each. One court of appeals is currently located in each of the following cities: - Amarillo - Austin - Beaumont - Corpus Christi/Edinburg - Dallas - Eastland - El Paso - Fort Worth - San Antonio - Texarkana - Tyler - Waco - Houston (2) Each of the courts of appeals has at least three justices—a chief justice and two associate justices. While 80 justices currently serve on the courts of appeals, the Legislature is empowered to increase this number whenever the workload of an individual court requires additional justices. The Supreme Court The Supreme Court In most civil and juvenile cases, the Supreme Court has statewide, final appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court of Texas was first established in 1836 by the Constitution of the Republic of Texas, which vested the judicial power of the Republic in “...one Supreme Court and such inferior courts as the Congress may establish.” This court was re-established by each successive constitution adopted throughout the course of Texas history and currently consists of one chief justice and eight justices. The Supreme Court has statewide, final appellate jurisdiction in most civil and juvenile cases. Its caseload is directly affected by the structure and jurisdiction of Texas’ appellate court system, as the courts of appeals handle most of the state’s criminal and civil appeals from the district and county-level courts, and the Court of Criminal Appeals handles all criminal appeals beyond the intermediate courts of appeals. The Supreme Court’s caseload can be broken down into three broad categories: - Determining whether to grant review of the final judgment of a court of appeals (i.e., to grant or not grant a petition for review); - Disposition of regular causes (i.e., granted petitions for review, accepted petitions for writs of mandamus or habeas corpus, certified questions, accepted parental notification appeals, and direct appeals); and - Disposition of numerous motions related to petitions and regular causes. Much of the Supreme Court’s time is spent determining which petitions for review will be granted, as it must consider all petitions for review that are filed. However, the Court exercises some control over its caseload in deciding which petitions will be granted. The Court usually takes only those cases that present the most significant Texas legal issues in need of clarification. The Supreme Court also has jurisdiction to answer questions of state law certified from a federal appellate court; has original jurisdiction to issue writs and to conduct proceedings for the involuntary retirement or removal of judges; and reviews cases involving attorney discipline upon appeal from the Board of Disciplinary Appeals of the State Bar of Texas. In addition, the Court: - Promulgates all rules of civil trial practice and procedure, evidence, and appellate procedure; - Promulgates rules of administration to provide for the efficient administration of justice in the state; - Monitors the caseloads of the courts of appeals and orders the transfer of cases between the courts in order to make the workloads more equal; and - With the assistance of the Texas Equal Access to Justice Foundation administers funds for the Basic Civil Legal Services Program, which provides basic civil legal services to the indigent. The Court of Criminal Appeals The Court of Criminal Appeals To relieve the Supreme Court of some of its caseload, the Constitution of 1876 created the Court of Appeals, composed of three elected judges, with appellate jurisdiction in all criminal cases and in those civil cases tried by the county courts. In 1891, a constitutional amendment: - Changed the name of this court to the Court of Criminal Appeals; - Limited its jurisdiction to appellate jurisdiction in criminal cases only; and - Increased the number of judges to nine: one presiding judge and eight associate judges. The Court of Criminal Appeals is the highest state court for criminal appeals. Its caseload consists of both mandatory and discretionary matters. All cases that result in the death penalty are automatically directed to the Court of Criminal Appeals from the trial court level. A significant portion of the Court’s workload also involves the mandatory review of applications for post-conviction habeas corpus relief in felony cases without a death penalty, over which the Court has sole authority. In addition, decisions made by the intermediate courts of appeals in criminal cases may be appealed to the Court of Criminal Appeals by petition for discretionary review, which may be filed by the State, the defendant, or both. However, the Court may also review a decision on its own motion. In conjunction with the Supreme Court of Texas, the Court of Criminal Appeals promulgates rules of appellate procedure and rules of evidence for criminal cases. The Court of Criminal Appeals also administers public funds that are appropriated for the education of judges, prosecuting attorneys, criminal defense attorneys who regularly represent indigent defendants, clerks and other personnel of the state’s appellate, district, county-level, justice, and municipal courts. Reading Review Questions Explain why the term “bifurcated” is used to describe the Texas Court System. How does Texas define a “juvenile” within the court system? Explain the features the define a “TRIAL” court as opposed to other state courts. Explain the two steps in the creation of municipal courts. Who serves as magistrate for many municipalities? What are the functions of a magistrate? What are counties divided into for judicial purposes? What are these judges called? What other four roles may justices of the peace often need to serve for their precinct? How many Constitutional County Courts are there in Texas? From what courts do the Constitutional County Courts hear appeals? To whom do their appeals go? Who created the Statutory Courts and why? What are the primary trial courts in Texas? How are the judges for these courts selected? What area does each serve? What are the two highest appellate courts in Texas? In what three ways do appellate courts differ from trial courts? When was the first intermediate appellate court created? What change took place in 1891 with regard to these courts? What two types of cases does the Texas Supreme Court hear? What do they spend most of their time doing and why? What two types of cases does the Court of Criminal Appeals hear? What type of criminal cases are they required to review? Describe three of the non-judicial duties of the Court of Criminal Appeals.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.068263	01/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61392/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Judicial Branch, Chapter 9.4: Structure Of The Texas Court System", "author": "Annette Howard" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28775/overview	How Economists Use Theories and Models to Understand Economic Issues Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Interpret a circular flow diagram - Explain the importance of economic theories and models - Describe goods and services markets and labor markets John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946), one of the greatest economists of the twentieth century, pointed out that economics is not just a subject area but also a way of thinking. Keynes (Figure) famously wrote in the introduction to a fellow economist’s book: “[Economics] is a method rather than a doctrine, an apparatus of the mind, a technique of thinking, which helps its possessor to draw correct conclusions.” In other words, economics teaches you how to think, not what to think. Watch this video about John Maynard Keynes and his influence on economics. Economists see the world through a different lens than anthropologists, biologists, classicists, or practitioners of any other discipline. They analyze issues and problems using economic theories that are based on particular assumptions about human behavior. These assumptions tend to be different than the assumptions an anthropologist or psychologist might use. A theory is a simplified representation of how two or more variables interact with each other. The purpose of a theory is to take a complex, real-world issue and simplify it down to its essentials. If done well, this enables the analyst to understand the issue and any problems around it. A good theory is simple enough to understand, while complex enough to capture the key features of the object or situation you are studying. Sometimes economists use the term model instead of theory. Strictly speaking, a theory is a more abstract representation, while a model is a more applied or empirical representation. We use models to test theories, but for this course we will use the terms interchangeably. For example, an architect who is planning a major office building will often build a physical model that sits on a tabletop to show how the entire city block will look after the new building is constructed. Companies often build models of their new products, which are more rough and unfinished than the final product, but can still demonstrate how the new product will work. A good model to start with in economics is the circular flow diagram (Figure). It pictures the economy as consisting of two groups—households and firms—that interact in two markets: the goods and services market in which firms sell and households buy and the labor market in which households sell labor to business firms or other employees. Firms produce and sell goods and services to households in the market for goods and services (or product market). Arrow “A” indicates this. Households pay for goods and services, which becomes the revenues to firms. Arrow “B” indicates this. Arrows A and B represent the two sides of the product market. Where do households obtain the income to buy goods and services? They provide the labor and other resources (e.g. land, capital, raw materials) firms need to produce goods and services in the market for inputs (or factors of production). Arrow “C” indicates this. In return, firms pay for the inputs (or resources) they use in the form of wages and other factor payments. Arrow “D” indicates this. Arrows “C” and “D” represent the two sides of the factor market. Of course, in the real world, there are many different markets for goods and services and markets for many different types of labor. The circular flow diagram simplifies this to make the picture easier to grasp. In the diagram, firms produce goods and services, which they sell to households in return for revenues. The outer circle shows this, and represents the two sides of the product market (for example, the market for goods and services) in which households demand and firms supply. Households sell their labor as workers to firms in return for wages, salaries, and benefits. The inner circle shows this and represents the two sides of the labor market in which households supply and firms demand. This version of the circular flow model is stripped down to the essentials, but it has enough features to explain how the product and labor markets work in the economy. We could easily add details to this basic model if we wanted to introduce more real-world elements, like financial markets, governments, and interactions with the rest of the globe (imports and exports). Economists carry a set of theories in their heads like a carpenter carries around a toolkit. When they see an economic issue or problem, they go through the theories they know to see if they can find one that fits. Then they use the theory to derive insights about the issue or problem. Economists express theories as diagrams, graphs, or even as mathematical equations. (Do not worry. In this course, we will mostly use graphs.) Economists do not figure out the answer to the problem first and then draw the graph to illustrate. Rather, they use the graph of the theory to help them figure out the answer. Although at the introductory level, you can sometimes figure out the right answer without applying a model, if you keep studying economics, before too long you will run into issues and problems that you will need to graph to solve. We explain both micro and macroeconomics in terms of theories and models. The most well-known theories are probably those of supply and demand, but you will learn a number of others. Key Concepts and Summary Economists analyze problems differently than do other disciplinary experts. The main tools economists use are economic theories or models. A theory is not an illustration of the answer to a problem. Rather, a theory is a tool for determining the answer. Self-Check Questions Suppose we extend the circular flow model to add imports and exports. Copy the circular flow diagram onto a sheet of paper and then add a foreign country as a third agent. Draw a rough sketch of the flows of imports, exports, and the payments for each on your diagram. Hint: Draw a box outside the original circular flow to represent the foreign country. Draw an arrow from the foreign country to firms, to represents imports. Draw an arrow in the reverse direction representing payments for imports. Draw an arrow from firms to the foreign country to represent exports. Draw an arrow in the reverse direction to represent payments for imports. What is an example of a problem in the world today, not mentioned in the chapter, that has an economic dimension? Hint: There are many such problems. Consider the AIDS epidemic. Why are so few AIDS patients in Africa and Southeast Asia treated with the same drugs that are effective in the United States and Europe? It is because neither those patients nor the countries in which they live have the resources to purchase the same drugs. Review Questions How did John Maynard Keynes define economics? Are households primarily buyers or sellers in the goods and services market? In the labor market? Are firms primarily buyers or sellers in the goods and services market? In the labor market? Critical Thinking Questions Why is it unfair or meaningless to criticize a theory as “unrealistic?” Suppose, as an economist, you are asked to analyze an issue unlike anything you have ever done before. Also, suppose you do not have a specific model for analyzing that issue. What should you do? Hint: What would a carpenter do in a similar situation?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.091354	09/20/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28775/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, Welcome to Economics!, How Economists Use Theories and Models to Understand Economic Issues", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51115/overview	Levels of Organization of Living Things Overview Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that can be examined on a scale from small to large. The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Atoms form molecules. A molecule is a chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by one or more chemical bonds. Many molecules that are biologically important are macromolecules, large molecules that are typically formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule that is made by combining smaller units called monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules). An example of a macromolecule is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Figure 1.15), which contains the instructions for the structure and functioning of all living organisms. Introduction Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that can be examined on a scale from small to large. The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Atoms form molecules. A molecule is a chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by one or more chemical bonds. Many molecules that are biologically important are macromolecules, large molecules that are typically formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule that is made by combining smaller units called monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules). An example of a macromolecule is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Figure 1.15), which contains the instructions for the structure and functioning of all living organisms. Watch this video that animates the three-dimensional structure of the DNA molecule shown in Figure 1.15. Some cells contain aggregates of macromolecules surrounded by membranes; these are called organelles. Organelles are small structures that exist within cells. Examples of organelles include mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out indispensable functions: mitochondria produce energy to power the cell, while chloroplasts enable green plants to utilize the energy in sunlight to make sugars. All living things are made of cells; the cell itself is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms. (This requirement is why viruses are not considered living: they are not made of cells. To make new viruses, they have to invade and hijack the reproductive mechanism of a living cell; only then can they obtain the materials they need to reproduce.) Some organisms consist of a single cell and others are multicellular. Cells are classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are single-celled or colonial organisms that do not have membrane-bound nuclei; in contrast, the cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles and a membrane-bound nucleus. In larger organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which are groups of similar cells carrying out similar or related functions. Organs are collections of tissues grouped together performing a common function. Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants. An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related organs. Mammals have many organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system transports blood through the body and to and from the lungs; it includes organs such as the heart and blood vessels. Organisms are individual living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an organism. Single-celled prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes are also considered organisms and are typically referred to as microorganisms. All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively called a population. For example, a forest may include many pine trees. All of these pine trees represent the population of pine trees in this forest. Different populations may live in the same specific area. For example, the forest with the pine trees includes populations of flowering plants and also insects and microbial populations. A community is the sum of populations inhabiting a particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and other populations in a forest form the forest’s community. The forest itself is an ecosystem. An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a particular area together with the abiotic, non-living parts of that environment such as nitrogen in the soil or rain water. At the highest level of organization (Figure 1.16), the biosphere is the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on earth. It includes land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent. Exercises 1. What is the level of organization represented by each of the following? a) the heart or the brain Show Answer b) all the organisms living in the desert Show Answer 2. Which of the following statements is false? a) Tissues exist within organs which exist within organ systems. b) Communities exist within populations which exist within ecosystems. c) Organelles exist within cells which exist within tissues. d) Communities exist within ecosystems which exist in the biosphere. Show Answer The Human Project of Categorizing Life We humans are compelled to organize and categorize the world around us. We keep food in the kitchen and socks in the dresser drawer, and would be very disturbed to find a can of beans nestled among the dress socks. This compunction to organize and categorize also applies to our understanding of what constitutes life on earth. Thousands of years ago when people lived as hunter-gatherers, herders or farmers, they divided their world into plants, such as the trees and grasses, and animals such as the sheep, dogs and fish. The plants were green, grew with rain and sunshine, and provided food for the animals. The animals moved, ate plants or other animals and were rarely green. In this binary world, only the kingdom of plants and the kingdom of animals existed. Ancient categories of plants and animals worked well except for mushrooms. Although they appear to grow like plants, they are not green like plants and are not dependent on sunlight. Therefore a new kingdom needed to be established: the fungi. Subsequent studies have shown that fungi have chitin in the cell call rather than the cellulose of plants. Later, it was determined that yeast also belong in the fingi kingdom. Yeast has long served civilization in making bread and femented beverages, both of which are present in most of the world’s societies. The kingdom of fungi includes many different varieties with different llife cycles and mophologies. They are present throughout the world: in water on land and even as pathogens such as the fungus genus that causes athlete’s foot, Trycophyton. The invention of the microscope changed the way that people looked at the natural world. Zaccharias Jansen, a Dutch spectacle maker, is credited with inventing the first compound microscope in the 1590’s. It was picked up by another Dutchman, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who used it to discover the world of single celled organisms seventy years later. This discovery was met with derision and rejection by the Royal Society of National Science for several years, but van Leeuwenhoek persisted and his observations were eventually accepted and, even celebrated by the end of his life. Among van Leeuwenhoek’s contributions of over 500 papers to the Royal Society, were studies of the single-celled organisms living in fresh water ponds and streams including the Euglena.Euglena can both move like an animal and photosynthesize like a plant. Clearly, they do not belong in one of the three kingdoms already in existence; a new kingdom was needed. Originally called the protozoa (“early animals”), the Kingdom Protista, include a large variety of single-celled aquatic organisms. Some of them are photosynthetic, such as the Euglena or Stentor; others are heterotrophs, eating food to provide them with energy. The Kingdom Protista also include most algae, or seaweed. Even the gigantic kelp of the Pacific Northwest, which grows to over ten feet tall, is made of individual protists. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many people used microscopes to study the cells of different organisms. They found that all the plants, animals, fungi and protists had several cell structures in common. For example, all the organisms had a large nucleus that was easily stained. There were also other structures within the cells, some circular and some ovoid. Although early biologists weren’t able to determine their functions, they all agreed that all their known cells had many internal structures in common. From the perspective of the twenty first century, we know that the animals, plants, fungi and protists were all eukaryotes. These are organisms whose cells contain many internal structures called organelles. Eukaryotes divide the work of being a cell among these organelles, which increases efficiency. While eukaryotes can be single-celled, such as the protists and some fungi, only eukaryotes can be multicellular such as trees and elephants and spiders. Although van Leeuwenhoek was credited with seeing and drawing the first large bacteria, this discovery was largely ignored until around 1850, when the idea of invisible factors could be disease-causing agents started to become accepted. This germ-theory idea made sense through the work of many people, including Dr. Lister (of “Listerine” antiseptic) who advocated surgeons wash their hands between surgeries and use clean instruments, and Dr. John Snow who thought that a “miasma” or cloud was a cause of the cholera epidemic in London in the 1850’s. By this time, microscope technology had advanced so that organisms could be magnified one thousand times or more. This made microscopes powerful enough for people to see the small organisms often associated with disease. Furthermore, advances in staining cells allowed for these small organisms to be seen and differentiated from each other. This was the beginning of microbiology, the study of micro-organisms. These micro-organisms or bacteria as they were called, had a very different internal structure than the cells previously studied. Bacteria had a much simpler internal structure with no nucleus or other organelles. A new category of organism was needed. The Domain Bacteria (later Eubacteria) was introduced. These single-celled organisms had the plasma membrane, DNA, ribosomes and cytosol of all other cells, but the DNA was circular and condensed in the center of the cell, not sequestered in the nucleus as in all the other cells. Furthermore, there were none of the internal organelles present in the other cells. Clearly this was a different way of organizing life. After some discussion, the scientific community established the two major organizations of living cells: the prokaryotes or “early cells” which were the bacteria, and the eukaryotes or “true nuclei” which were the kingdoms of the protists, fungi, plants and animals, with their more complex cellular organization of organelles including nuclei containing the DNA. The division between eukaryotes and prokaryotes existed for more than fifty years, until scientists began to analyze the prokaryotes found in hot springs and salt lakes. At first, they were considered a sub-category of bacteria, called Archaeobacteria, after the Greek word for “ancient ones.” Like bacteria, these organisms did not have membrane-bound organelles. However, they often had linear DNA similar to the linear chromosomal DNA of eukaryotes, so were given their own domain: Archaea. It was originally thought that Archaea only lived under extreme conditions, such as deep in the ocean or in hot springs of places like Yellowstone Park. Today, Archaea have been found throughout the world, including in the guts of many animals. They are thought to be important contributors to both the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.112807	02/13/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51115/overview", "title": "Biology - Remixed for Austin Community College, The Study of Life, Levels of Organization of Living Things", "author": "Alice Sessions" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91213/overview	Brand Positioning and Alignment Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Brand Positioning and Alignment What you’ll learn to do: explain how marketers use brand positioning to align marketing activities and build successful brands It is clear that brands are valuable assets that benefit organizations and their customers. Building brand loyalty is an important goal for marketers. But what does it take to build a brand? Brands are shaped by many different activities. As a marketer, you can control some of these activities, but not others. For instance, you can put together an amazing product design, a fabulous brand name, memorable packaging, irresistible marketing promotions, and delightful customer service—those are all things within your control. But you can’t control how customers actually react to and use the product, despite your best efforts to direct and influence them. You also can’t control what they write in online reviews. In order to optimize the success of your brand, you should become very good at aligning all the activities you can control, so that the brand experience you provide is consistent for the customers you care about. Consistency and alignment are essential for building strong brands. Brand positioning is an ideal tool for creating this alignment. It’s how you figure out what your brand really means to you. It’s the yardstick you use to figure out which messages and activities will communicate that brand most effectively. It provides the pattern for helping customers understand what to think about your brand and decide whether it matters to them and they can trust it. In the end, brand positioning is the clearest path toward creating brand-loyal customers. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Explain the concept of brand positioning - Discuss techniques marketers use to achieve strong brand positioning and alignment: - Brand promise - Brand voice and personality - Brand positioning statement Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: Brand Positioning and Alignment - Video: Red Bull’s Extreme Brand Alignment Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: Brand Positioning and Alignment. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Brand Positioning and Alignment Building Strong Brands: Consistency Matters In order to make an impression in a market, brands need to stand for something. Inconsistent brands and messages fail to make a lasting impression because it is difficult for customers to trust them or register what these brands represent. On the other hand, when a brand is both consistent and relevant to customers, it builds recognition, credibility, trust, and ultimately loyalty. And loyalty, as you’ve learned, translates into sales. Consistency is also important when it comes to differentiating a product. Brands simplify decisions for customers. When a brand consistently communicates how and why it is distinct from competitors, it reminds customers why they prefer this brand over others–and why they may be willing to pay more for it. Finally, consistency is an imperative in the globalized economy in which virtually every business operates today. Brand-related messages and communications circulate around the world at astonishing speed: Just ask any company that has seen a major story break on social media. While it does make sense to target specific messages to different global markets according to consumer needs, those messages should all be aligned to a consistent, centralized brand identity. A brand manager–the marketer responsible for directing and managing brand strategy–must think of herself as an ambassador, advocating and communicating on behalf of that common brand in the various markets where the brand is represented. Brand Positioning: A Tool for Achieving Consistency The Brand Platform As you learned in the previous module, product positioning is an important strategic tool that helps organizations focus their messages and marketing activities around a consistent, differentiating message aimed at a target segment. Brand positioning works on the same principle. The goal of brand positioning—like the positioning for any product or service—is to explain why that brand is different and better for its target customers, and why the differences matter. At the same time, brands need a consistent, universal identity that is the same regardless of whom you communicate with. For this reason, brand positioning starts with defining precisely what the brand stands for. This is called the brand platform. The brand platform may include a variety of descriptive elements to paint a clear picture of what a brand represents. Some brand platform models are very complex, with ten or more inputs. Others are simpler and more streamlined. The brand platform begins with the organization’s mission statement, since the ultimate purpose of a brand is to help the organization achieve its mission. It also incorporates the value proposition for whatever the brand promotes. Remember that brands may operate at the company level (needing a company-level value proposition) or at the product or service level (needing an offering-specific value proposition). In addition to the mission statement and value proposition, the basic elements of any brand platform are a brand promise, core values, a brand voice or personality, and a brand-positioning statement. These are discussed below. The Brand Promise The brand promise is, in effect, the singular experience your brand promises to provide to your customers. It expresses what you want them to feel when they interact with your products and services. Year in, year out, the brand promise is what your customers count on and, ideally, it’s the reason they keep coming back to you. The brand promise should be unique and linked to your competitive advantage: something other brands do not and cannot deliver in the way you do. It describes the most salient benefits your brand provides, including benefits that create an emotional connection with customers. The brand promise is important not only for customers, but also for employees and other internal audiences. It sets the tone for how the company operates and for the experience the brand provides to customers across all segments and all points of contact. Finally, the brand promise should be simple and easily understood, so it’s easy to communicate and reinforce. Some marketers equate the marketing tagline, or advertising slogan, with the brand promise. While there are some exceptions, most brand-promise statements do not use the same marketing language that’s used in ad slogans. For instance, Nike’s “Just Do It” slogan works very well as part of an ad campaign, but it’s not very illuminating as a brand promise. Similarly, fast-food chain Taco Bell never intended its catchy “Make a Run for the Border” tagline to be interpreted as a brand promise. Also, taglines, which are part of marketing communications, may need to be updated more frequently than the brand promise. In contrast, the brand promise should be the global, enduring commitment you stand for over time. The following are examples of effective brand promises: - The Coca-Cola Company: to refresh the world in mind, body, and spirit, and inspire moments of optimism1 - TOMS Shoes: Through your purchases, TOMS helps provide shoes, sight, water, safe birth and bullying prevention services to people in need. Learn more about what we give.2 - Target: expect more, pay less3 Core (Brand) Values Core values are guiding principles for how an organization does business. These values express a perspective on the world, and they govern both internal conduct and external behavior. While the brand promise explains what consistent experience a brand will deliver, the core values describe how the company will behave as it delivers that experience. Zappos’ Values An excellent example of core values infusing a strong brand comes from online retailer Zappos. The company’s ten “Family Core Values,” listed below, are written for current and prospective employees and describe Zappos’ operating principles. At the same time, these values also set the tone for what customers can expect from Zappos and how they interact with the Zappos brand. Zappos Family Core Values4 Deliver WOW through Service Embrace and Drive Change Create Fun and a Little Weirdness Be Adventurous, Creative, and Open-Minded Pursue Growth and Learning Build Open and Honest Relationships with Communication Build a Positive Team and Family Spirit Do More with Less Be Passionate and Determined Be Humble Even if you are unfamiliar with Zappos, these core values give you a strong sense of what the company must be like, either to work for or to do business with. Not every organization defines ten core values; in fact, most keep the number to six or fewer in order to retain a better focus on defining and expressing the organization’s identity. What does matter is to find ways for the brand to deliver these values, so that they become real for employees and customers. For example, Zappos empowers individual employees to make judgment calls about how they deliver WOW-worthy customer service; every decision doesn’t have to go through manager approval. By encouraging personal initiative in this way, the company also invites creativity, learning, and passion from its employees. Brand Voice and Personality Just like people, strong brands have an outlook, tone, and personality that help reinforce the consistency of what and how the brand gets communicated to customers, employees, and other stakeholders. The brand voice and personality are rooted in the brand promise and values, but they help flesh out the brand’s distinctive image and presence. A useful template for defining brand voice and personality is the “is/is never” template. Using this template, marketers define the voice and personality attributes of the brand, almost as if it were a person. For example: - Brand X is strong, authentic, independent, resourceful, and classic. - Brand X is never frivolous, trendy, or fake. A well-defined brand voice is a window into the personality of the brand. Together, the brand voice and personality set the linguistic tone for all brand-related communications and promotions. They also guide the choice of visual design, logo, and the look and feel of the brand, ensuring that the overall visual representation is a good match for what the organization wants the brand to convey. As a short exercise, take a moment and see if you can construct “is/is never” statements for a couple well-known brands. What are the brand voice and personality of, say, GAP clothing compared with another well-known clothing brand, such as Guess? Brand-Positioning Statement Brand positioning follows the same process for product and service positioning outlined in the positioning module: understanding market and competitive dynamics, confirming competitive advantages, defining the market niche and positioning strategy, and delivering on that strategy. Fortunately, the brand promise should provide strong guidance around the competitive advantages and market niche that should be represented in the positioning statement. Brand managers may develop brand-positioning statements according to the same formula used for product positioning (discussed in the positioning module): To [target audience], Brand X is the only [category or frame of reference] that [points of differentiation/benefits delivered] because [reasons to believe].5 Note that the target audience for the brand-positioning statement should include all the audiences for the brand, not just the specific, narrowly defined target segment you’d expect in a product- or service-positioning statement. The brand needs to be relevant to every conceivable audience you are trying to reach (which may include multiple target segments). For that reason, the brand-positioning statement needs to be written in such a way that it has a broad enough appeal to speak to that “larger” audience. As with a product- or service-positioning statement, the brand-positioning statement becomes a guiding document for decisions about the key messages the organization should communicate about the brand, as well as other marketing activities. Aligning to Deliver the Brand It takes strong focus and hard work to get through the brand-positioning process and build a brand platform. But once this work is done, brand managers and marketers have a basis for deciding what they want to achieve with the brand. Next, the fun of brand building can begin. Because brand encompasses much more than just marketing, it is important for the entire organization to understand the brand and each person’s role in delivering the brand promise to customers. Every employee in every department, from Accounting and Finance to Product Development and Technology (and everyone in between) plays a part. Organizations with great brands look for ways to educate all internal stakeholders about what the brand means and how it connects with their way of doing business. Company leaders provide incentives for employees to innovate and excel at delivering the brand effectively. Of course, organizations also communicate about their brands to external audiences—to current and future customers, investors, thought leaders, and influencers, for instance. Brand is embedded in every strategy, tactic, and activity associated with a marketing mix for a given target segment. The brand platform is like a filter that lets through the kinds of communication that an organization needs to reach its audience, but it keeps out the distracting noise and chatter that might confuse or alienate that audience. The brand platform gives a brand coherence and helps the company stay on track. Figure 1, below, illustrates the tools and artifacts marketers use to deliver strong alignment between brand, messaging, and other marketing activities. The brand strategy and positioning are very consistent from year to year, and they rely on the tools and artifacts we’ve discussed in this reading. Market-specific positioning and messaging are designed to reinforce the brand while promoting the organization’s products and services to target segments. The positioning tools and process discussed in the previous positioning module work at this level of marketing alignment. They remain relatively consistent, with marketers reviewing and refining positioning strategy every twelve to twenty-four months in alignment with company strategy, priorities, and performance. At the bottom of the alignment pyramid are the day-to-day marketing activities associated with executing the marketing mix to reach target segments. These include marketing campaigns and the tactics, messaging, promotions, and other activities that accompany these campaigns. We’ll explore this dimension of marketing activity in much more detail when we turn to integrated marketing communications (IMC). - "Workplace Culture." The Coca-Cola Company. Accessed March 01, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190123001919/https://www.coca-colacompany.com/our-company/diversity/workplace-culture - Toms. "Improving Lives." TOMS® Official Site. Accessed March 01, 2019. https://www.toms.com/improving-lives. - "A Bullseye View. Behind the Scenes at Target." Target Corporate. Accessed March 01, 2019. https://corporate.target.com/about/purpose-values. - "Zappos 10 Core Values." Zappos Insights. Accessed March 01, 2019. https://www.zapposinsights.com/about/core-values. - "Brand Positioning Template \| Brand Consultant \| Brand Strategy Consultant." EquiBrand \| Marketing Consulting \| Branding \| Digital \| Innovation. Accessed March 01, 2019. http://equibrandconsulting.com/templates/positioning-templates. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Gummi Bears. Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/en/giant-rubber-bear-gummib%C3%A4r-1089618/. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved - Lone Texas Cowboy. Authored by: Don the Upnorth Memories Guy. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/upnorthmemories/5147038060/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives Video: Red Bull’s Extreme Brand Alignment The energy drink Red Bull has developed a fun, edgy, maverick identity to match the young male adult segment it targets. To stay true to this brand identity, Red Bull’s leadership decided not to go with business as usual and sponsor another sporting event like the Coca-Colas and Procter & Gambles of the world. Instead, they set out to control the entire brand experience in a different way by producing the events themselves—and even by inventing a completely new sport! Watch the following video to learn more about the extreme steps Red Bull has taken to invest its own money in the creation and ownership of sporting events and teams, all with the goal of building the brand’s name, image, and dedicated following. For Red Bull, brand alignment is the name of the game. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Red Bull's Extreme Brand Alignment. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Red Bull. Provided by: Bloomberg. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vo5c8_pk8L0. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.151664	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91213/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Branding, Brand Positioning and Alignment", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91216/overview	Brand Development Strategies Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Brand Development Strategies What you’ll learn to do: explain key strategies for developing brands including brand ownership, brand and line extensions, co-branding, and licensing Up to this point, this module has explored the important ingredients of creating brands. But once you’ve combined the ingredients and you have a fledgling brand, then what? You need a branding strategy. Branding strategies are different approaches for expanding the reach of a brand, reinforcing its value, and finding advantageous ways to coexist with other brands. It’s a crowded marketplace for brands today, and in the future it will only grow more crowded. As you’ll discover, carefully selected and wisely executed branding strategies can multiply the benefits of the brands you build. Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: Brand Development Strategies Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: Brand Development Strategies. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Brand Development Strategies Managing Brands As Strategic Assets As organizations establish and build strong brands, they can pursue a number of strategies to continue developing them and extending their value to stakeholders (customers, retailers, supply chain and distribution partners, and of course the organization itself). Brand Ownership Who “owns” the brand? The legal owner of a brand is generally the individual or entity in whose name the legal registration has been filed. Operationally speaking, brand ownership should be the responsibility of an organization’s management and employees. Brand ownership is about building and maintaining a brand that reflects your principles and values. Brand building is about effectively persuading customers to believe in and purchase your product or service. Iconic brands, such as Apple and Disney, often have a history of visionary leaders who champion the brand, evangelize about it, and build it into the organizational culture and operations. When an organization truly owns its brand, its efforts are unified around a common symbol of the value it provides to customers. These organizations use their resources wisely to produce marketing that is targeted and effective because they have a sophisticated understanding of the marketplace; they know how their brand and offerings fit into it, which audiences they are targeting, and they have a strategy for successful growth. These advantages lead to disciplined and effective brand management, which enables these organizations to remain relevant in a rapidly changing and often saturated marketplace. Branding Strategies A branding strategy helps establish a product within the market and to build a brand that will grow and mature. Making smart branding decisions up front is crucial since a company may have to live with their decisions for a long time. The following are commonly used branding strategies: “Branded House” Strategy A “branded house” strategy (sometimes called a “house brand”) uses a strong brand—typically the company name—as the identifying brand name for a range of products (for example, Mercedes Benz or Black & Decker) or a range of subsidiary brands (such as Cadbury Dairy Milk or Cadbury Fingers). Because the primary focus and investment is in a single, dominant “house” brand, this approach can be simpler and more cost effective in the long run when it is well aligned with broader corporate strategy. “House of Brands” Strategy With the “house of brands” strategy, a company invests in building out a variety of individual, product-level brands. Each of these brands has a separate name and may not be associated with the parent company name at all. These brands may even be in de facto competition with other brands from the same company. For example, Kool-Aid and Tang are two powdered beverage products, both owned by Kraft Foods. The “house of brands” strategy is well suited to companies that operate across many product categories at the same time. It allows greater flexibility to introduce a variety of different products, of differing quality, to be sold without confusing the consumer’s perception of what business the company is in or diluting brand perceptions about products that target different tiers or types of consumers within the same product category. Competitive Multi-Brand Strategy In a very saturated market, a supplier can deliberately launch totally new brands in apparent competition with its own existing strong brand (and often with identical product characteristics) to soak up some of the share of the market. The rationale is that having three out of twelve brands in such a market will give a greater overall share than having one out of ten. Procter & Gamble is a leading exponent of this philosophy, running as many as ten detergent brands in the U.S. market. In 2015, hotel giant Marriott International operated sixteen different hotel chains across different pricing tiers, including some chains that compete with one another directly. A sampling of these includes Fairfield Inn, Springhill Suites, Residence Inn, Courtyard, Marriott, JW Marriott, and The Ritz Carlton, among others. Cannibalization is a particular problem with the multi-brands-strategy. As will be discussed further in the product marketing module, cannibalization occurs when the new brand takes business away from an established one, which the organization also owns. This may be acceptable (indeed expected) if there is a net gain overall. Brand Families, or “Umbrella Branding” Similar to a “branded house” strategy, a brand family uses a single brand name for multiple products. However, brand families–also called umbrella branding–may also be used in a “house of brands” strategy to extend the reach of some of the company’s brands. For instance, consumer products powerhouse Procter & Gamble manages many popular brands including Tide (laundry detergent), Pampers (disposable diapers), Ivory (soap), and Olay (skin care and beauty products) among many others. Each of these brands constitutes its own family, with multiple products carrying the same brand name. Attitude Branding and Iconic Brands Attitude branding is a strategy of representing the larger feeling that a brand comes to embody. The idea is that the brand’s feeling or “attitude” transcends the specific products being consumed. Examples of companies that use this approach effectively include: - Nike: “Just do it” - Apple: “Think different” - Patagonia: “We’re in business to save the planet.” Effective attitude branding can transform strong brands into iconic, “lifestyle” brands that contribute to the consumer’s self-expression and personal identity. Component Branding Some suppliers of important product or manufacturing components try to guarantee positions of preference by promoting these components as brands in their own right. For example, Intel created competitive advantage for itself in the PC market with the slogan (and famous sticker) “Intel Inside.” Private-Label or Store Branding Also called store branding, private-label branding has become increasingly popular. In cases where the retailer has a particularly strong identity, the private label may be able to compete against even the strongest brand leaders and may outperform those products that are not otherwise strongly branded. The northeastern U.S. grocery chain Wegman’s offers many grocery products that carry the Wegman’s brand name. Meanwhile national grocery chain Safeway offers several different private label “store” brands: Signature Select, O Organics, Signature Cafe, and Primo Taglio, among others.[1] “No-Brand” Branding A number of companies successfully pursue “no-brand” strategies by creating packaging that imitates generic-brand simplicity. “No brand” branding can be considered a type of branding since the product is made conspicuous by the absence of a brand name. “Tapa Amarilla” or “Yellow Cap” in Venezuela during the 1980s is a prime example of no-brand strategy. It was recognized simply by the color of the cap of this cleaning products company. Personal and Organizational Brands Personal and organizational branding are strategies for developing a brand image and marketing engine around individual people or groups. Personal branding treats persons and their careers as products to be branded and sold to target audiences. Organizational branding promotes the mission, goals, and/or work of the group being branded. The music and entertainment industries provide many examples of personal and organizational branding. From Justin Bieber to George Clooney to Kim Kardashian, virtually any celebrity today is a personal brand. Likewise, bands, orchestras, and other artistic groups typically cultivate an organizational (or group) brand. Faith branding is a variant of this brand strategy, which treats religious figures and organizations as brands seeking to increase their following. Mission-driven organizations such the Girl Scouts of America, the Sierra Club, the National Rifle Association (among millions of others) pursue organizational branding to expand their membership, resources, and impact. Crowd-Sourced Branding Crowd-sourced branding is the phenomenon of brands being created “by the people” for the business, which is the opposite of how branding traditionally works (business create the brands). This method minimizes the risk of brand failure, since the people who might reject the brand are the ones involved in the branding process. The drawback is that the business cannot fully control these brands, because they are the product of crowd sourcing and, in effect, are owned by “the crowd.” An interesting example of crowd-sourced branding is the Timbers Army, the independent fan organization of the Portland Timbers Major League Soccer (MLS) Team. The Timbers Army was created by fans, and it operates independently from the MLS team and the Portland Timbers management. Although the organizations coordinate in many areas, ultimately the fan organization gets to assert and control its own brand identity. Place Branding and Nation Branding The developing fields of place branding and nation branding work on the assumption that places compete with other places to win over people, investment, tourism, economic development, and other resources. With this in mind, public administrators, civic leaders, and business groups may team up to “brand” and promote their city, region, or nation among target audiences. Depending on the goals they are trying to achieve, targets for these marketing initiatives may be real-estate developers, employers and business investors, tourists and tour/travel operators, and so forth. While place branding may focus on any given geographic area or destination, nation branding aims to measure, build, and manage the reputation of countries. The city-state Singapore is an early, successful example of nation branding. The Las Vegas “What Happens Here, Stays Here” campaign, shown in in the following video, is a well-known example of place branding. You can view the transcript for “What Happens Here, Stays Here – Sketchbook Commercial” (opens in new window) or the text alternative for “What Happens Here, Stays Here – Sketchbook Commercial” (opens in new window). Co-Branding Co-branding is an arrangement in which two established brands collaborate to offer a single product or service that carries both brand names. In these relationships, generally both parties contribute something of value to the new offering that neither would have been able to achieve independently. Effective co-branding builds on the complementary strengths of the existing brands. It can also allow each brand an entry point into markets in which they would not otherwise be credible players. The following are some examples of co-branded offerings: - Delta Airlines and American Express offer an entire family of co-branded credit cards; other airlines offer similar co-branded cards that offer customer rewards in terms of frequent flyer points and special offers. - Home furnishings company Pottery Barn and the paint manufacturer Benjamin Moore co-brand seasonal color palettes for home interior paints - Forever 21 worked with the USPS to create an exclusive line of clothing featuring USPS branding. - Auto maker Fiat and toy maker Mattel teamed up to celebrate Barbie’s fiftieth anniversary with the nail-polish-pink Fiat 500 Barbie car. Co-branding is a common brand-building strategy, but it can present difficulties. There is always risk around how well the market will receive new offerings, and sometimes, despite the best-laid plans, co-branded offerings fall flat. Also, these arrangements often involve complex legal agreements that are difficult to implement. Co-branding relationships may be unevenly matched, with the partners having different visions for their collaboration, placing different priority on the importance of the co-branded venture, or one partner holding significantly more power than the other in determining how they work together. Because co-branding impacts the existing brands, the partners may struggle with how to protect their current brands while introducing something new and possibly risky. Brand Licensing Brand licensing is the process of leasing or renting the right to use a brand in association with a product or set of products for a defined period and within a defined market, geography, or territory. Through a licensing agreement, a firm (licensor) provides some tangible or intangible asset to another firm (licensee) and grants that firm the right to use the licensor’s brand name and related brand assets in return for some payment. The licensee obtains a competitive advantage in this arrangement, while the licensor obtains inexpensive access to the market in question. Licensing can be extremely lucrative for the owner of the brand, as other organizations pay for permission to produce products carrying a licensed name. The Walt Disney Company was an early pioneer in brand licensing, and it remains a leader in this area with its wildly popular entertainment and toy brands: Star Wars, Disney Princesses, Toy Story, Mickey Mouse, and so on. Toy manufacturers, for example, pay millions of dollars and vie for the rights to produce and sell products affiliated with these “super-brands.” A licensing arrangement contains risk, in that if the licensing venture is very successful, the profit potential is limited by the terms of the licensing agreement. If the venture isn’t successful, the licensee loses a substantial investment, and the failure may reflect poorly on the original brand. Also, a licensor might be very controlling about how the licensed offering is designed, produced, distributed, marketed, or sold, making it difficult for the licensee to meet the expectations or requirements of the licensor. Conversely, a licensor might make a long-term commitment to a firm, and that firm could be less capable than expected, leading to a botched implementation of the licensing venture. Or, the licensee may be unwilling to invest in product quality, marketing, distribution, or other areas needed to be successful. Franchising represents a very popular type of licensing arrangement for many consumer products firms. Holiday Inn, Hertz Car Rental, and McDonald’s have all expanded globally through franchising. In a franchise, the entity purchasing the franchise (the franchisee) typically pays an up-front fee plus a percentage of revenue in return for the right to use branded assets such as recognized brand name(s), proven products, building design and decor (as in a fast-food restaurant chain), business processes, and so forth. Lines Extensions and Brand Extensions Organizations use line extensions and brand extensions to leverage and increase brand equity. A company creates a line extension when it introduces a new variety of offering within the same product category. To illustrate with the food industry, a company might add new flavors, package sizes, nutritional content, or products containing special additives in line extensions. Line extensions aim to provide more variety and hopefully capture more of the market within a given category. More than half of all new products introduced each year are line extensions. For example, M&M candy varieties such as peanut, pretzel, peanut butter, and dark chocolate are all line extensions of the M&M brand. Diet Coke™ is a line extension of the parent brand Coke ™. While the products have distinct differences, they are in the same product category. A brand extension moves an existing brand name into a new product category, with a new or somehow modified product. In this scenario, a company uses the strength of an established product to launch a product in a different category, hoping the popularity of the original brand will increase receptivity of the new product. An example of a brand extension is the offering of Jell-O pudding pops in addition to the original product, Jell-O gelatin. This strategy increases awareness of the brand name and increases profitability from offerings in more than one product category. Another form of brand extension is a licensed brand extension. In this scenario, the brand owner works with a partner (sometimes a competitor), who takes on the responsibility of manufacturing and selling the new products, generally paying a royalty every time a product is sold. Line extensions and brand extensions are important tools for companies because they reduce financial risk associated with new-product development by leveraging the equity in the parent brand name to enhance consumers’ perceptions and receptivity towards new products. Due to the established success of the parent brand, consumers will have instant recognition of the product name and be more likely to try the new line extension. Also, launching a new product is time-consuming, and it requires a generous budget to create awareness and promote a product’s benefits. As a result, promotional costs are much lower for a line extension than for a completely new product. More products expand the company’s shelf-space presence, too, thereby enhancing brand recognition. For example, consider Campbell’s Soups™: the strength of Campbell’s™ brand lowers costs of launching a new flavor of soup, such as Healthy Request Roasted Chicken with Country Vegetables Soup™, due to the established brand name and package design. Consumers who have enjoyed Campbell’s Chicken Noodle Soup™ are likely to try Campbell’s Healthy Request Roasted Chicken with Country Vegetables Soup™, even with minimal impact from advertisements and promotions. Overall, the main benefits of a line extensions and brand extensions are the following: - Expand company shelf-space presence - Gain more potential customers - Offer customers more variety - Greater marketing efficiency - Greater production efficiency - Lower promotional costs - Increased profits Risks of Brand/Line Extension While there can be significant benefits to brand-extension strategies, there can also be significant risks, resulting in a diluted or severely damaged brand image. Poor choices for brand extension may overextend the brand so that it no longer stands for something meaningful and valued by consumers. This phenomenon is called brand dilution. It causes the core brand to deteriorate, and it damages brand equity. According to research, there is a higher rate of brand extension failures than successes. Studies also suggest that when brand extensions fail, not only does the new product fail but the core brand’s image and equity also suffer. When products fail, negative associations and a poor communications strategy can harm the parent brand and even an entire brand family. A common, visible example of brand dilution occurs when fashion and designer companies extend brands into fragrances, shoes, and accessories, furniture, hotels, vehicles, and beyond. Often the products being introduced are no different from the offerings already available in the market, with the exception of an added brand name (and probably a higher “designer” price tag). Brand dilution is almost guaranteed when consumers no longer see the branded product adding value. Brand dilution can also happen when the new products do not meet the standards consumers expect around quality, workmanship, price, design, or other differentiating features of the brand. An inferior brand extension leads to negative associations that reflect poorly on the original brand. Customers no longer trust the brand in all product categories, and they may be less willing to pay a price premium for it in the future. Line extensions carry similar risks. If the new line extension fails to satisfy, consumers’ attitudes toward other products carrying the same brand name may be damaged. Additionally, there is potential for intra-firm competition between the parent product and the line extension or between two or more line extensions. The key to avoiding intra-firm competition is to clearly differentiate between products. Although similar, the products must be different enough that they will not compete with one another as much as they will with the brands of rival companies. - “Our Brands.” Safeway. Accessed September 23, 2019. http://www.safeway.com/ShopStores/Brands/Our-Brands.page. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Shared previously - Branding. Authored by: Linda Williams and Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.candelalearning.com/masterybusiness2xngcxmasterfall2015/chapter/reading-branding-labeling-and-packaging/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Image: Steve Jobs. Authored by: Steve Jurvetson. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Jobs#/media/File:Steve_Jobs_with_red_shawl_edit2.jpg. License: CC BY: Attribution - Image: Outings Sierra Club GA. Provided by: Sierra Club GA. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/gasierraclub/23718280462/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial - Fiat 500 Barbie. Authored by: Xavigivax. Located at: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_500_Barbie#/media/File:Fiat_Barbie_500.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike All rights reserved content - Image: Kool-Aid Man. Provided by: Kraft Foods. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kool_Aid_Man.jpeg. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair use under U.S. copyright law - Timbers Army Crest. Provided by: Timbers Army. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Timbers_Army_crest.png. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair use under U.S. copyright law - Image: Campbell's Star Wars Soup. Provided by: Campbell's Soup Company. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair use under U.S. copyright law - Screenshot Zippo Perfume. Provided by: Zippo Manufacturing Company. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair use under U.S. copyright law - What Happens Here, Stays Here - Sketchbook Commercial. Authored by: Unravel Travel TV. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BMTfNXfa0UA. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license Public domain content - Intel Inside. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Intel_Inside_Logo.svg/1000px-Intel_Inside_Logo.svg.png. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.192993	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91216/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Branding, Brand Development Strategies", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91217/overview	Putting it Together Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Putting It Together: Branding Investigating Brand Power As noted earlier in this module, every year organizations conduct analyses and publish lists of the world’s top brands. Forbes publishes a list of the most valuable brands in terms of dollar value. Interbrand analyzed what Business Insider called the most powerful brands in terms of the companies’ “financial performance, their role in purchasing decisions, and their competitive strength.”[1] The results are summarized in the following table: \| Most Valuable Brands in 2019[2] \| Most Powerful Brands in 2018[3] \| \|---\|---\| \| 1. Apple \| 1. Apple \| \| 2. Google \| 2. Google \| \| 3. Microsoft \| 3. Amazon \| \| 4. Amazon \| 4. Microsoft \| \| 5. Facebook \| 5. Coca-Cola \| \| 6. Coca-Cola \| 6. Samsung \| \| 7. Samsung \| 7. Toyota \| \| 8. Disney \| 8. Mercedes-Benz \| \| 9. Toyota \| 9. Facebook \| \| 10. McDonald’s \| 10. McDonald’s \| Most of the brands on both lists are household names. Not surprising in our present information age, technology companies are heavily represented on both the most valuable brand list and the most powerful brand list. All of these brands offer products and services that have created, shaped, or fundamentally redefined the categories in which they operate. What sets these companies apart from their competitors who didn’t make the list is how they have invested in brand building to support their broader corporate goals for growth and success. Behind the Power Brand: LEGO Toymaker LEGO provides a great example of the brand-alignment and brand-building strategies explored in this module. Anyone who has wandered through the LEGO section of a toy store or a department store knows that the company understands its target audiences very well: young children (ages 1.5 to 11) who like to build things and parents who want to guide their children’s development and success—in other words, virtually all children and all parents. LEGO articulates perfectly the brand promise its toys deliver to these audiences: Joy of building, pride of creation. As illustrated in the LEGO Brand Framework (see Figure 1, below), the company values are in step with this promise: imagination, creativity, fun, learning, caring, and quality. The company has also developed a fairly elaborate definition–and a name–for its brand personality: My LEGO Friend. What is this friend like? My LEGO friend . . . has a vivid imagination . . . is curious and likes to try out new things . . . is always positive and optimistic . . . is fun to be around with . . . enjoys bringing people together . . . is friendly and approachable . . . is caring for others . . . doesn’t get bothered by the little things . . . can comfortably adapt to play different roles.4 With such a clear articulation of its brand promise, brand personality, and the related benefits it aspires to deliver, LEGO employees have clear guidance about what they need to accomplish. The next step is to effectively deliver on the brand promise with products, services, and marketing activities that guarantee that children and their parents will experience joy and pride in connection with LEGO Bricks. Here is just a sampling: Product Design: Easy, step-by-step instructions that do not require reading, in every building kit . After a short learning curve, children can assemble age-appropriate LEGO creations without help from adults. Events: Free, monthly “Mini Model Build” events at LEGO toy stores around the world, where children can build and take home a mini model, free of charge. Fan Communications: A free quarterly magazine, available online or mailed to a child’s home, filled with stories, contests, fan photos, building ideas to capture the imagination, and, of course, the latest generation of LEGO products any child might desire. Licensing Agreements: Product lines offering toys linked to popular children’s entertainment brands such as Disney Princesses, Star Wars, Frozen, Hello Kitty, and Minecraft. Theme Parks: LEGOLAND amusement parks designed around the LEGO theme, inviting fans to experience a life-size world of LEGO and see the the wonders of the world constructed out of LEGO bricks. It is worth noting that LEGO considers seriously only the activities that are in keeping with its brand, but also the activities that might undermine it. In October 2015, the Chinese dissident artist Ai Weiwei tried to place a bulk order of LEGO bricks for an art exhibition he was planning at the National Gallery of Victoria, Australia, on the subject of free speech. Somewhat surprisingly for many LEGO fans, the company declined Weiwei’s request. According to the artist, the company indicated that “they cannot approve the use of LEGOs for political works.” This explanation was later confirmed by a company spokesman. Weiwei went on to denounce the company publicly in social media, accusing it of censorship and discrimination. He also suggested that LEGO’s decision was motivated by trying to protect its commercial interests in China. In response to the social media flurry, many LEGO owners offered to donate their bricks to help Weiwei complete the project. Donation centers were set up in eleven cities (including Beijing) to help the artist’s cause. LEGO itself faced public criticism from longtime fans who were disappointed by its decision. People cited other artistic projects with political themes that LEGO had supported, complaining about the company’s apparently inconsistent behavior.5 So why would LEGO make this decision, and how does it relate to brand management? The company was concerned about politicizing its brand and product, and it didn’t want to get embroiled in a controversy that might overshadow the universal, positive experience at LEGO’s core: Joy of building, pride of creation. Then, in January 2016, the Weiwei vs. LEGO story broke again, but this time with a different ending. In the intervening weeks, the artist had continued to lobby LEGO’s executive leadership to change their position, and eventually they agreed.6 When people submit bulk order requests, the company will no longer inquire about the “thematic purpose” of the project. Instead, it will simply require any publicly displayed works to make it clear that LEGO does not endorse or support the project. According to a company statement, Previously, when asked to sell very large quantities of LEGO® bricks for projects, the LEGO Group has asked about the thematic purpose of the project. This has been done, as the purpose of the LEGO Group is to inspire children through creative play, not to actively support or endorse specific agendas of individuals or organizations. However, those guidelines could result in misunderstandings or be perceived as inconsistent, and the LEGO Group has therefore adjusted the guidelines for sales of LEGO bricks in very large quantities. As of January 1st, the LEGO Group no longer asks for the thematic purpose when selling large quantities of LEGO bricks for projects. Instead, the customers will be asked to make it clear – if they intend to display their LEGO creations in public – that the LEGO Group does not support or endorse the specific projects.7 With the opportunity for deeper consideration, LEGO found a new policy that is consistent with its brand promise and purpose of supporting creative activity, while at the same time protecting the LEGO brand from being politicized. Navigating the complexities of brand management is never simple. As LEGO discovered, even hard-core fans may turn away from a beloved brand. However, brand building is a long-term endeavor. Over time, most super-brands demonstrate that staying true to consistent, well-designed brand positioning pays off. - Chenel, Thomas. “These Are the 17 Most Powerful Brands in the World.” Business Insider, October 9, 2018. https://www.businessinsider.com/these-are-the-17-most-powerful-brands-in-the-world-2018-10. - “The World's Most Valuable Brands.” Forbes. Forbes Magazine. Accessed September 23, 2019. https://www.forbes.com/powerful-brands/list/. - Interbrand. “Best Brands.” Interbrand. Accessed September 23, 2019. https://www.interbrand.com/best-brands/best-global-brands/2018/ranking/. - “Lego Brand Identity & Experience.” Lego. Lego, 2014. http://www.hothbricks.com/pdf/6123880.pdf. - Ryan, Fergus. “Ai Weiwei Swamped by Lego Donation Offers after Ban on Use for 'Political' Artwork.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, October 25, 2015. http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/oct/25/ai-weiwei-swamped-by-lego-donation-offers-after-ban-on-use-for-political-artwork. - https://news.vice.com/article/the-chinese-artist-ai-weiwei-has-convinced-lego-to-change-its-policy-on-political-projects - Trangbæk, Roar Rude. “Adjusted Guidelines for Bulk Sales.” Lego Newsroom, January 12, 2016. http://www.lego.com/en-gb/aboutus/news-room/2016/january/adjusted-guidelines-for-bulk-sales. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Putting It Together: Branding. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - LEGOLAND. Authored by: lisa-skorpion. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/muszka/19991616450/. License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives All rights reserved content - Screenshot LEGO Brand Framework. Provided by: Lego. Located at: https://www.lego.com/en-us/aboutus/lego-group/the-lego-brand/. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.225252	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91217/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Branding, Putting it Together", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91223/overview	Challenges for New Products Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Challenges for New Products What you’ll learn to do: identify the challenges associated with marketing a new product successfully Have you ever waited in line to be among the first to buy a new product when it was released? Are you careful, maybe pragmatic, about trying new products? Do you continue to use products that your friends and family believe are outdated? Your answers to these questions matter to the marketers who are targeting you. We have looked at the life cycle of products and the process for developing new products. As a buyer, you have specific attitudes and behaviors when it comes to new products—or at least toward groups of products. These behaviors are both intriguing and vexing to marketers. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Explain common challenges of new products - Identify approaches to improving the success of new products Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: Diffusion of Innovation - Reading: Improved Success in Product Development Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: Challenges for New Products. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Diffusion of Innovation Just as the product life cycle has a typical bell-shaped pattern, there is a predictable—and similar-shaped—pattern of buying, or adoption, when it comes to new products. This customer adoption pattern is important because it can be used to inform marketing decisions. Diffusion-of-Innovation Theory Common sense suggests that not everyone will buy a new product at the same time. Some will rush out and buy first or try to get an early version of a product before it is widely available. Others will wait until many people have adopted a product before they reluctantly consider the purchase. As early as 1962, Everett Rogers recognized this phenomenon and described it as the “diffusion of innovation.” He developed a theory to support it, explaining how, why, and at what rate an innovation will be adopted by participants in a social system. The theory divides adopters into different groups with shared characteristics, as shown in Figure 1, below: Figure 1. Diffusion of Ideas The purple line on the graph indicates the percentage of the market that will buy a new product in each phase of product adoption. You can see from the graph that there is a small number of innovators, and a large number of early majority and late majority adopters. The yellow line on the graph shows the cumulative market share gained. In other words, the yellow line shows the total of the market share gained at the end of each phase, adding together the share from each prior phase. Consumer Adoption Patterns Innovators Innovators are willing to take risks and are viewed by their peers as risk takers. Innovators’ risk tolerance enables them to adopt technologies that may ultimately fail, and they typically need sufficient financial resources to absorb these failures. Innovators tend to be very tuned into market leaders and the latest developments. To stay on top of current trends, they research products thoroughly using “in-the-know” sources such as expert blogs and product forums. Innovators are willing to pay a premium to be the first to try a new offering. Although this is the smallest segment in the diffusion-of-innovation theory, if innovators approve of a product, it marks an important gateway toward generating broader market acceptance. Early Adopters Early adopters have a high degree of opinion leadership among the adopter categories. Others look to this group to road-test and validate new products. As a significantly larger segment than innovators, early adopters are influential in shaping the opinions of later adopters. Therefore it is essential to achieve high customer satisfaction with this segment. Early adopters are more aggressive than later adopters, but they are judicious about their adoption choices. Early adopters don’t look to be first at any cost, so they actively consider risk as part of the decision-making process. To illustrate, classic innovator behavior is to camp out overnight for the first showing of a new film, while early adopters read the reviews before deciding to see a film during the opening weekend. Early Majority Early majority adopters are more risk averse than early adopters, so they wait for the wrinkles to be ironed out of new products before making a purchase. Early majority buyers tend to seek a lot of opinion and validation to guide their choices: they want to know that the early adopters and innovators have had a good experience before they invest. The window of early majority purchasing spans a longer period of time than the innovators’ and early adopters.’ Early majority buyers generally have more choices in terms of quality, features, and price because competition tends to peak when this group’s buying cycle is in full swing. Like the early adopters, the early majority’s opinions and decisions carry weight across the adopter categories. Late Majority Late majority adopters arrive after the “average” participant has embraced an innovation. These individuals approach innovations reluctantly and with more skepticism than their predecessors. Late majority buyers are less likely to conduct extensive research about a purchase; instead they tend to simply follow the buying behaviors of earlier-adopting segments. Laggards Laggards are the last to adopt an innovation. Often they are older and less educated than buyers in the other diffusion of innovation segments. Laggards typically have little or no opinion leadership and are averse to things they perceive as “agents of change.” Laggards tend to be focused on traditions. They are less connected socially, less involved with media, and harder to reach than the other groups. Marketing an Innovation Figure 1, above, shows a tipping point between the early majority and the late majority adopters. A tipping point is the point at which small changes are enough to cause a larger, more substantial change. The challenge for the marketer is to encourage the adoption of a product by early adopters and the early majority in order to reach that tipping point. Once these groups are on board, their momentum helps drive the product from the introduction stage of the life cycle into the growth stage. Often marketers are tempted to focus their marketing efforts on the innovators. Innovators are game to try the product, which makes them an easier target than risk-averse consumers. In all but the most unusual, extreme cases, though, this will be a flawed strategy. The early adopters are actually in a much better position to influence broad opinion of the product and to draw in the early majority. By the same token, aggressive marketing to laggards is unlikely to influence their pattern of adoption. Understanding the patterns of adoption and adjusting the marketing strategy to address changes in adoption profiles is a challenge that marketers of new products need to understand and face. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Diffusion of Innovation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Early Adopter. Authored by: Quinn Dombrowski. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/quinnanya/3813741958/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Reading: Improved Success in Product Development One common cause of failure in the developing and marketing of new products is something called “product-market fit.” Marc Andreesen, a technology entrepreneur and investor who has written about this, explains that product-market fit is simply being in a good market with a product that can satisfy that market.1 New technologies enhance the ability of companies to bring products to market quickly, but speed doesn’t guarantee the right product-market fit. Without a good fit, companies risk launching a product that doesn’t satisfy the market need. A couple of innovations in new-product development strategies have had a significant impact on the way companies improve their chances of a successful fit. User-Centered Design Have you ever found a product that seems like it was made for you? You don’t need to read the instructions. You don’t have to learn how to use it. It seems naturally to conform to your preferences and needs. The creation of such products is the goal of user-centered design. User-centered design is a product development process in which the needs, wants, and limitations of end users are given extensive attention at each stage of the design process. The chief difference from other product design approaches is that user-centered design tries to optimize the product around how users can, want, or need to use the product, rather than forcing the users to change their behavior to accommodate the product. In a user-centered design process the product team tries to understand user needs and define the requirements to meet those needs—but that’s true of any good product-design process. User-centered design requires the designers to test their assumptions about user behavior and requirements in real-world settings with actual users during every step of the product development process—all the way from product concept and requirements to production and prelaunch. This recursive approach gives designers a steady stream of information that confirms the original requirements or suggests needed modifications. The frequent user testing encourages designers to think of typical or recurring user challenges as design requirements rather than problems that ought to be solved by the user. For example, most educational institutions want to make the course selection and registration process easier for students. Portland State University decided to employ a user-centered design process when it set out to improve its own system. After a number of student interviews, the university created a prototype of the new process. When they were ready to test the concept, the university registrar went to the homes of students and watched them try to work through the course selection and registration processes on their home computers. The idea was to gain information about students’ real experience of these processes in the places where they actually happen—and make design decisions accordingly. The home-setting experiment revealed a number of unanticipated design flaws and new requirements that hadn’t come to light during interviews or simulations run in the campus computer lab. As a result, by prioritizing the user perspective, the university was able to design a much more effective solution. The Lean Startup Methodology The “lean startup methodology” has been described by Eric Ries as an approach that helps new companies achieve product-market fit during their earliest product launch. The methodology is based on the assumption that it’s essential to get real market data from product users as early as possible in the design process. The challenge, as you have learned, is that marketers don’t see substantial, realistic market data (which are used to refine the marketing mix) until well after the product launch. The lean startup methodology tries to get around this problem by shortening the time frame needed to capture the data. Ries proposes that rather launching a fully developed, full-featured product, companies should begin with a very limited launch of what he calls “the minimum viable product.” The minimum viable product (MVP) is the most streamlined product that any group of users will accept. According to this approach, the company develops and launches its MVP, captures market and user data, and quickly uses that information to make adjustments for its next minimal feature set. In each cycle of development the product team learns from actual market and user data, and uses them to refine the product and stay aligned with company goals.2 The lean startup methodology is used by organizations of all sizes, but it’s particularly well suited to small companies that can’t afford the risk of a single product-fit issue and to software-based companies that can launch an online offering to a user base without needing complex manufacturing processes and distribution channels. Neither of these approaches will address all new-product challenges or guarantee success, but both are considered important innovations in the new-product design process, since they improve the odds of new-product success and reduce the cost of product failure. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Improved Success in Product Development. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Fits Like a Glove. Authored by: Paul & Hien Brown. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/p-r-b/2501319678/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.257666	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91223/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Product Marketing, Challenges for New Products", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91228/overview	Pricing Considerations Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Pricing Considerations What you’ll learn to do: explain the primary factors to consider in pricing Now that we’ve considered the customer perspective, we need to understand how pricing fits into the company strategy. It’s important to remember that all elements of the marketing mix, including pricing, fit into a larger customer mission and strategy. An effective pricing strategy will align with the corporate mission, account for competitive factors, and support corporate strategies and objectives. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Explain company objectives in the pricing strategy - Define break-even pricing - Describe how competition affects pricing strategies - Describe the benefit of value-based pricing for customers Learning Activities - Reading: Pricing Objectives - Reading: Break-Even Pricing - Reading: Competitor Impact on Pricing - Reading: Benefits of Value-Based Pricing Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: Pricing Considerations. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Pricing Objectives Introduction Companies set the prices of their products in order to achieve specific objectives. Consider the following examples: In 2014 Nike initiated a new pricing strategy. The company determined from a market analysis that its customers appreciated the value that the brand provided, which meant that it could charge a higher price for its products. Nike began to raise its prices 4–5 percent a year. Footwear News reported on the impact of their strategy: “The ability to raise prices is a key long-term advantage in the branded apparel and footwear industry—we are particularly encouraged that Nike is able to drive pricing while most U.S. apparel names are calling for elevated promotional [and] markdown levels in the near-term,” said UBS analyst Michael Binetti. Binetti said Nike’s new strategy is an emerging competitive advantage.1 Nike’s understanding of customer value enabled it to raise prices and achieve company growth objectives, increasing U.S. athletic footwear sales by $168 million in one year. In 2015 the U.S. airline industry lost $12 billion in value in one day because of concerns about potential price wars. When Southwest Airlines announced that it was increasing its capacity by 1 percent, the CEO of American Airlines—the world’s largest airline—responded that American would not lose customers to price competition and would match lower fares. Forbes magazine reported on the consequences: This induced panic among investors, as they feared that this would trigger a price war among the airlines. The investors believe that competing on prices would undermine the airline’s ability to charge profitable fares, pull down their profits, and push them back into the shackles of heavy losses. Thus, the worried investors sold off stocks of major airlines, wiping out nearly $12 billion of market value of the airline industry in a single trading day.2 Common Pricing Objectives Not surprising, product pricing has a big effect on company objectives. (You’ll recall that objectives are essentially a company’s business goals.) Pricing can be used strategically to adjust performance to meet revenue or profit objectives, as in the Nike example above. Or, as the airline-industry example shows, pricing can also have unintended or adverse effects on a company’s objectives. Product pricing will impact each of the objectives below: - Profit objective: For example, “Increase net profit in 2016 by 5 percent” - Competitive objective: For example, “Capture 30 percent market share in the product category” - Customer objective: For example, “Increase customer retention” Of course, over the long run, no company can really say, “We don’t care about profits. We are pricing to beat competitors.” Nor can the company focus only on profits and ignore how it delivers customer value. For this reason, marketers talk about a company’s “orientation” in pricing. Orientation describes the relative importance of one factor compared to the others. All companies must consider customer value in pricing, but some have an orientation toward profit. We would call this profit-oriented pricing. Profit-Oriented Pricing Profit-oriented pricing places an emphasis on the finances of the product and business. A business’s profit is the money left after all costs are covered. In other words, profit = revenue – costs. In profit-oriented pricing, the price per product is set higher than the total cost of producing and selling each product to ensure that the company makes a profit on each sale. The benefit of profit-oriented pricing is obvious: the company is guaranteed a profit on every sale. There are real risks to this strategy, though. If a competitor has lower costs, then it can easily undercut the pricing and steal market share. Even if a competitor does not have lower costs, it might choose a more aggressive pricing strategy to gain momentum in the market. Also, customers don’t really care about the company’s costs. Price is a component of the value equation, but if the product fails to deliver value, it will be difficult to generate sales. Finally, profit-oriented pricing is often a difficult strategy for marketers to succeed with, because it limits flexibility. If the price is too high, then the marketer has to adjust other aspects of the marketing mix to create more value. If the marketer invests in the other three Ps—by, say, making improvements to the product, increasing promotion, or adding distribution channels—that investment will probably require additional budget, which will further raise the price. It’s fairly standard for retailers to use some profit-oriented pricing—applying a standard mark-up over wholesale prices for products, for instance—but that’s rarely their only strategy. Successful retailers will also adjust pricing for some or all products in order to increase the value they provide to customers. Competitor-Oriented Pricing Sometimes prices are set almost completely according to competitor prices. A company simply copies the competitor’s pricing strategy or seeks to use price as one of the features that differentiates the product. That could mean either pricing the product higher than competitive products, to indicate that the firm believes it to provide greater value, or lower than competitive products in order to be a low-price solution. This is a fairly simple way to price, especially with products whose pricing information is easily collected and compared. Like profit-oriented pricing, it carries some risks, though. Competitor-oriented pricing doesn’t fully take into account the value of the product to the customer vis-à-vis the value of competitive products. As a result, the product might be priced too low for the value it provides, or too high. As the airline example illustrates, competitor-oriented pricing can contribute to a difficult market dynamic. If players in a market compete exclusively on price, they will erode their profits and, over time, limit their ability to add value to products. Customer-Oriented Pricing Customer-oriented pricing is also referred to as value-oriented pricing. Given the centrality of the customer in a marketing orientation (and this marketing course!), it will come as no surprise that customer-oriented pricing is the recommended pricing approach because its focus is on providing value to the customer. Customer-oriented pricing looks at the full price-value equation (Figure 1, above; discussed earlier in the module in “Demonstrating Customer Value”) and establishes the price that balances the value. The company seeks to charge the highest price that supports the value received by the customer. Customer-oriented pricing requires an analysis of the customer and the market. The company must understand the buyer persona, the value that the buyer is seeking, and the degree to which the product meets the customer need. The market analysis shows competitive pricing but also pricing for substitutes. In an attempt to bring the customer voice into pricing decisions, many companies conduct primary market research with target customers. Crafting questions to get at the value perceptions of the customer is difficult, though, so marketers often turn to something called the Van Westerndorp price-sensitivity meter. This method uses the following four questions to understand customer perceptions of pricing: - At what price would you consider the product to be so expensive that you would not consider buying it? (Too expensive) - At what price would you consider the product to be priced so low that you would feel the quality couldn’t be very good? (Too cheap) - At what price would you consider the product starting to get expensive, such that it’s not out of the question, but you would have to give some thought to buying it? (Expensive/High Side) - At what price would you consider the product to be a bargain—a great buy for the money? (Cheap/Good Value) Each of these questions asks about the customer’s perspective on the product value, with price as one component of the value equation. The responses of many potential buyers can be plotted on a graph (see Figure 2, below). Each line shows the different customer responses to each of the questions at different price points. For example, 100 percent of those interviewed think the product is too cheap at $0, and 40 percent think that it’s still too cheap at a price of $500. The graph shows an acceptable price range in which the customers’ responses cross one another. They become torn between whether the prices are cheap or expensive but are not clearly landing on one side or the other. The results of this graph suggest a price band between $500 and $1,200. For the purposes of this course, we won’t be getting into a full analysis of these data or the price-sensitivity meter; the important point is that marketers need to balance the customer’s perception of the value provided with the customer’s perception of the right price (“perceived costs” in Figure 1, above) in the value equation. - http://footwearnews.com/2014/business/news/nike-price-hikes-drive-u-s-sneaker-growth-144128/ - http://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2015/06/11/airlines-stocks-drop-as-fear-of-price-war-clouds-the-industry/#2715e4857a0b103622d442d5 Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Pricing Objectives. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Van Westendorp Price Sensitivity Meter. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Westendorp%27s_Price_Sensitivity_Meter. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Best Price. Located at: https://pixabay.com/en/award-price-tag-note-board-offer-73084/. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved Reading: Break-Even Pricing Introduction Regardless of the pricing strategy a company ultimately selects, it is important to do a break-even analysis beforehand. Marketers need to understand break-even analysis because it helps them choose the best pricing strategy and make smart decisions about the short- and long-term profitability of the product. The break-even price is the price that will produce enough revenue to cover all costs at a given level of production. At the break-even point, there is neither profit nor loss. A company may choose to price its product below the break-even point, but we’ll discuss the different pricing strategies that might favor this option later in the module. Understanding Breakeven Let’s begin with a very simple calculation of breakeven and build from there. Imagine that you decide to hold a bake sale and sell cookies in the student union as a social event for students. You don’t want to lose money on the cookies, but you are not trying to make a profit or even cover your time. You spend a very convenient $24 on groceries and bake 4 dozen cookies (48 cookies). What is your break-even price for the cookies? It’s the total cost divided by the number of cookies that you expect to sell, represented by the formula below: Break-Even Price = Costs / Units So, it would be $24 / 48 = $.50, or 50 cents per cookie. What if you sell only 40 cookies? The calculation would be $24 / 40 = $.60. Your break-even price goes up if you sell fewer cookies. One challenge of calculating breakeven is that all of the variables can change, and some are unknown. For instance, it may be impossible to know exactly the quantity that you will sell. For that reason, companies often calculate the break-even quantity rather than the break-even price. Focusing on quantity enables the marketer to answer the following question: “Given this set of costs and this price, how many products must I sell to break even?” The break-even quantity is shown by the following formula: Break-Even Quantity (in terms of units) = Costs / Price In our cookie example, once you have spent $24 on groceries, you know your cost. What if you plan to sell the cookies for $1 apiece? According to the equation above, units = cost / price, so in our case, units = $24 / $1, or 24 cookies. Of course this is a very simple example, but it gives you a sense of why breakeven matters, and how you would calculate it. Including Fixed and Variable Costs Let’s add one more complication to make our example a little more realistic and interesting. Your cookies have been such a hit that you decide to sell them more broadly. In fact, you rent a commercial kitchen space and hire an experienced baker named Helen to do the baking. Your break-even point just went up dramatically. Now you need to cover the costs of your kitchen and an employee. For the sake of this exercise, let’s assume that Helen works a set number of hours every week—20 hours—and that you pay her $20 per hour including all taxes and benefits. You rent the kitchen for $100 per week, and that price includes all the equipment and utilities. Those are costs that are not going to change no matter how many cookies you sell. If you baked nothing, you would still need to pay $100 per week in rent and $400 per week in wages. Those are your fixed costs. Fixed costs do not change as the level of production goes up or down. Your fixed costs are $500 per week. Now you need to buy ingredients for the cookies. Once you add up the food costs of making a single large batch of cookies, you find that it’s a total of $7.20 for a batch of 12 dozen (144) cookies. If you divide that out, you can tell that each cookie costs $.05 in food costs ($7.20 / 144 cookies = $.05). In other words, every cookie you sell is going to have a variable cost of $.05. Variable costs do change as production is increased or decreased. Adding these different types of costs makes the break-even equation more complicated, as shown below: pn = Vn + FC p = price n = number of units sold V = variable cost per unit FC = fixed costs With this equation we can calculate either the break-even price or the break-even quantity. Calculating Break-Even Price Chances are good that you can only bake a certain number of cookies each week—let’s say it’s 2,500 cookies—so, based on that information, you can calculate the break-even price. The formula to do that is the following: p = (Vn + FC) / n n = 2,500 V = $.05 FC = $500 Therefore, p = (($.05 x 2,500) + $500) / 2,500 p = ($125 + $500) / 2,500 p = $.25 Your break-even price for your cookies is 25 cents. That doesn’t mean it’s the right market price for the cookies; nor does it mean that you can definitely sell 2,500 cookies at whatever price you choose. It simply gives you good information about the price and quantity at which you will cover all your costs. Calculating Break-Even Quantity Now let’s assume that you have set your price and you need to know your break-even quantity. You are an exceptional marketing student, so you have talked to the people who are likely buyers for your cookies, and you understand what price is a bargain and what price is too expensive. You have compared the price with competitor prices. And, you have considered the price of your cookie compared to the price of doughnuts and ice cream (both are “substitutes” for your product). All of this analysis has led you to set a price of $2 per cookie, but you want to make sure that you don’t lose money on your business: You need to calculate the break-even quantity. The formula to do that is the following: n = FC /( p – V) Using the same inputs for the variables, your equation looks like this: n = $500 / ($2 – $.05) n = $500 / $1.95 n = 256.41 cookies So, let’s round up and just call the break-even quantity 257 cookies. Does that mean that you keep the full $2 as profit for every cookie after 257? Sadly, no. First, you have to cover the variable cost for each cookie ($.05 per cookie), which means you make just $1.95 per cookie you sell (after you’ve surpassed the break-even point). Second, our simple break-even example did not include all of the costs. After you’ve locked down the product costs and the pricing, you will need to invest in promotion and distribution of the cookies. You’ll also probably want to cover your time (i.e., pay yourself) and add some profit into the total fixed costs. For instance, if you wanted to earn a profit of $600 each week, then you would need to add that to the $500 fixed costs of the kitchen and Helen. Breakeven in the Marketing Strategy Now that we have a cost example, it’s a little easier to think about the pricing objectives. If you decided to price your cookies with a profit orientation, then you would simply add a profit ($1 per cookie, say,) to the break-even price. That approach doesn’t take the customer into account at all, though, since a profit orientation is only about the business. What if you found that your campus stores and vending machines sell a national chain of cookies for 75 cents? Using a competitor-oriented pricing approach, you might decide to match that price and compete on that basis. The drawback is that this approach does not take into account the value your customers find in a fresh, local product—i.e., your cookies—made from high-quality ingredients. A customer-oriented pricing approach allows you to treat the break-even data as one input to your pricing, but it goes beyond that to bring your customers’ perceptions and the full value of your product into the pricing evaluation. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Break-Even Pricing. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Bake. Authored by: Foodie Baker. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/foodiebaker/20515342453/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives - Have a Cookie. Authored by: Hans Splinter. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/archeon/8817752554/. License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives Competitor Impact on Pricing Introduction It’s important to remember that pricing is just one component of the marketing mix, and even very specific pricing decisions need to take into account the other components. This is particularly true in a competitive marketplace. Actions by different competitors integrate all elements of the marketing mix and do not focus on price alone. A competitor might make a change to a product or initiate a promotion that impacts customers’ perceptions of value and, therefore, their perceptions of price. Competitive Pricing Once a business decides to use price as a primary competitive strategy, there are many well-established tools and techniques that can be employed. The pricing process normally begins with a decision about the company’s pricing approach to the market. Price is a very important decision criterion that customers use to compare alternatives. It also contributes to the company’s position. In general, a business can price its offering to match its competition, or it can price higher or price lower. Each has its pros and cons. Pricing to Meet Competition Many organizations attempt to establish prices that, on average, are the same as those set by their more important competitors. Automobiles of the same size with comparable equipment and features tend to have similar prices, for instance. This strategy means that the organization uses price as an indicator or baseline. Quality in production, better service, creativity in advertising, or some other element of the marketing mix is used to attract customers who are interested in products in a particular price category. The key to implementing a strategy of meeting competitive prices is to have an accurate definition of competition and a knowledge of competitors’ prices. A maker of handcrafted leather shoes is not in competition with mass producers. If he/she attempts to compete with mass producers on price, higher production costs will make the business unprofitable. A more realistic definition of competition in this case would be other makers of handcrafted leather shoes. Such a definition along with an understanding of competitors’ prices would enable management to put the strategy into effect. The banking industry often uses this strategy by using technology to actively monitor competitors’ rates, fees, and packages in order to adjust their own prices. Pricing Above Competitors Pricing above competitors can be rewarding to organizations, provided that the objectives of the policy are clearly understood and the marketing mix is developed in such a way that the policy can be successfully implemented by management. Pricing above competition generally requires a clear advantage on some nonprice element of the marketing mix. In some cases, that advantage may be due to a high price-quality association on the part of potential buyers. Betting on that advantage is increasingly dangerous in today’s information-rich environment, however. Online shoppers can get quick price comparisons and read customer or expert reviews to evaluate other elements of the value proposition. This is true for both business-to-consumer and business-to-business offerings. Many consumers also take advantage of their smartphones when they shop: it’s easy enough to stand in one store and compare price and distribution options for the same product and for competitive products. Customers’ access to information puts more pressure on marketers to understand customer value and provide an offering whose price, relative to competitors’ prices, contributes to the value. You’ll recall our earlier example of Nike using a strategy of raising prices—while its competitors were holding pricing flat or reducing prices—because its analysis showed that it was providing sufficient value to sustain a higher price. Pricing Below Competitors While some firms are positioned to price above competition, others wish to carve out a market niche by pricing below competitors. The goal of such a policy is to realize a large sales volume through a lower price and lower profit margins. By controlling costs and reducing services, these firms are able to earn an acceptable profit, even though profit per unit is usually less. Such a strategy can be effective if a significant segment of the market is price sensitive and/or the organization’s cost structure is lower than competitors’. Costs can be reduced by increased efficiency, economics of scale, or by reducing or eliminating such things as credit, delivery, and advertising. For example, if a firm could replace its field sales force with telemarketing or online access, this function might be performed at lower cost. Such reductions often involve some loss in effectiveness, so the trade-off must be considered carefully. One of the worst outcomes that can result from pricing lower than a competitor is a “price war.” Price wars usually occur when a company believes that price-cutting will increase market share, but it doesn’t have a true cost advantage. Price wars are often caused by companies misreading or misunderstanding competitors. Typically, they are overreactions to threats that either are nonexistent or are not as big as they seem. You will remember our example of the airline price war, in which the stock price of airlines plummeted because stockholders reacted negatively to price reductions, fearing that a price war would eliminate profits and put the health of the industry at risk. In the module on product marketing we described the ride-sharing service Uber. Uber has successfully undercut the taxi industry with a product that improves services while lowering prices, which has led to extremely rapid growth and success for the company. When lower prices are part of a complete, compelling value proposition, pricing can provide a powerful solution and create a challenging competitive environment for existing players. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and Adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Chapter 9, Pricing, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf.. License: CC BY: Attribution - Shoe Store in Trinidad. Authored by: Bud Ellison. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/budellison/15920712043/. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Benefits of Value-Based Pricing The Customer and the Pricing Decision We have discussed common company objectives that affect pricing and the competitive impact on pricing. The most important perspective in the pricing process is the customer’s. Value-based pricing brings the voice of the customer into the pricing process. It bases prices primarily on the value to the customer rather than on the cost of the product or historical prices determined by competitors. If we consider the three approaches to setting price, cost-based pricing is focused entirely on the perspective of the company, with very little concern for the customer; demand-based pricing is focused on the customer, but only as a predictor of sales; and value-based pricing focuses entirely on the customer as the determiner of the total price/value package. Marketers who employ value-based pricing might describe it this way: “Price is what you think your product is worth to that customer at that time.” This approach regards the following as marketing/price truths: - To the customer, price is the only unpleasant part of buying. - Price is the easiest marketing tool to copy. - Price represents everything about the product. Still, value-based pricing is not altruistic. It asks and answers two questions: - What is the highest price I can charge and still make the sale? - Am I willing to sell at that price? In order to answer these questions we need to consider both customer- and competitor-related factors. In answering the second question, we would also want to use the break-even analysis that we discussed in the previous section, as well as other financial and strategic analyses. Customer-Related Factors Several customer-related factors are important in value-based pricing; one of them is understanding the customer buying process. For a convenience good, customers often spend little time, planning, or effort in the buying process, and purchases are more often made on impulse. With a shopping product, the consumer is more likely to compare a number of options when evaluating quality, cost, and features; as a result, he or she will require a better understanding of price in order to assess value. Another issue is that different groups or segments of customers view price differently. Buyer personas can be instrumental to a marketer’s grasp of those differences and the role price plays in the decision-making process. Some buyers will weight convenience or quality over price, for instance, while others will be highly price sensitive. The marketer must understand what the customer values, what the customer expects, and how the customer evaluates price in the value equation. Competitor-Related Factors A second factor influencing value-based pricing is competitors. We asserted above that the primary driver of value-based pricing is the customer’s estimation of value—not costs or historical competitor prices. Still, competitors do influence the customer’s view of value. The marketing mix of competitive products have an impact on customer expectations because they are an important part of the decision-making context. Customers are shopping across products and brands and take price differences into account when evaluating the quality and benefits of competitive products. These direct comparisons have tremendous impact on the customer’s perceptions of value. In value-based pricing, the marketer must also consider indirect competitors that consumers may use as a basis for price comparisons. For example, one might use the price of a vacation as a basis for buying vacation clothes. The cost of eating out is frequently compared to the cost of groceries. Ultimately, value-based pricing offers the following three tactical recommendations: - Employ a segmented approach toward price that considers how each group of customers assesses value. - Establish the highest possible price level and justify it with comparable value. - Use price as one component in the marketing mix, building compelling value across all elements of the offering. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Benefits of Value-Based Pricing. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Hot Soup Charitable Elephants. Authored by: Julian Partridge. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/julianpartridge/11512394244/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Choices. Authored by: Darwin Bell. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/darwinbell/3340033037/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.308033	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91228/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Pricing Strategies, Pricing Considerations", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91171/overview	Putting it Together Overview The Principles of Marketing textbook contains fifteen modules—roughly one module per week for a 16-week semester. Putting It Together: Segmentation and Targeting Remember Chumber, your new employer from the beginning of this module? Now that you’ve learned something about segmentation and targeting strategy, let’s return to the request your boss made for recommendations about whom Chumber ought to target and why. Remember that Chumber’s product is an automated, fully online system for checking the references of job candidates. Chumber’s customers are other companies. After learning about market segmentation, you know that “all companies” is too broad to be a useful target market. Even on your first day of work, you can guess that marketing to every company you can find isn’t going to be a smart strategy. Instead, you do a little research. It stands to reason that Chumber will be most valuable to companies that do a lot of hiring. A Google search for “employment by industry” brings up U.S. Bureau of Labor statistics data to help you identify which industries are expected to post the biggest gains in employment in the coming years. \| Industry Sector \| Thousands of Jobs \| Change \| Percent Distribution \| Compound Annual Rate of Change \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| 2008 \| 2018 \| 2028 \| 2008–2018 \| 2018–2028 \| 2008 \| 2018 \| 2028 \| 2008–2018 \| 2018–2028 \| \| \| Total1,2 \| 149,276.0 \| 161,037.7 \| 169,435.9 \| 11,761.7 \| 8,398.2 \| 100.0 \| 100.0 \| 100.0 \| 0.8 \| 0.5 \| \| Nonagriculture wage and salary3 \| 137,991.0 \| 149,803.7 \| 157,662.0 \| 11,812.7 \| 7,858.3 \| 92.4 \| 93.0 \| 93.1 \| 0.8 \| 0.5 \| \| Goods-producing, excluding agriculture \| 21,277.9 \| 20,661.3 \| 20,872.7 \| −616.6 \| 211.4 \| 14.3 \| 12.8 \| 12.3 \| −0.3 \| 0.1 \| \| Mining \| 709.9 \| 683.3 \| 727.9 \| −26.6 \| 44.6 \| 0.5 \| 0.4 \| 0.4 \| −0.4 \| 0.6 \| \| Construction \| 7,162.5 \| 7,289.3 \| 8,096.8 \| 126.8 \| 807.5 \| 4.8 \| 4.5 \| 4.8 \| 0.2 \| 1.1 \| \| Manufacturing \| 13,405.5 \| 12,688.7 \| 12,048.0 \| −716.8 \| −640.7 \| 9.0 \| 7.9 \| 7.1 \| −0.5 \| −0.5 \| \| Services-providing excluding special industries \| 116,713.1 \| 129,142.4 \| 136,789.3 \| 12,429.3 \| 7,646.9 \| 78.2 \| 80.2 \| 80.7 \| 1.0 \| 0.6 \| \| Utilities \| 558.8 \| 554.6 \| 537.2 \| −4.2 \| −17.4 \| 0.4 \| 0.3 \| 0.3 \| −0.1 \| −0.3 \| \| Wholesale trade \| 5,875.0 \| 5,852.5 \| 5,754.0 \| −22.5 \| −98.5 \| 3.9 \| 3.6 \| 3.4 \| 0.0 \| -0.2 \| \| Retail trade \| 15,289.1 \| 15,833.1 \| 15,679.4 \| 544.0 \| −153.7 \| 10.2 \| 9.8 \| 9.3 \| 0.4 \| -0.1 \| \| Transportation and warehousing \| 4,513.6 \| 5,419.1 \| 5,741.4 \| 905.5 \| 322.3 \| 3.0 \| 3.4 \| 3.4 \| 1.8 \| 0.6 \| \| Information \| 2,983.8 \| 2,828.1 \| 2,833.7 \| −155.7 \| 5.6 \| 2.0 \| 1.8 \| 1.7 \| −0.5 \| 0.0 \| \| Financial activities \| 8,206.1 \| 8,568.8 \| 8,849.4 \| 362.7 \| 280.6 \| 5.5 \| 5.3 \| 5.2 \| 0.4 \| 0.3 \| \| Professional and business services \| 17,792.3 \| 20,999.5 \| 22,661.9 \| 3,207.2 \| 1,662.4 \| 11.9 \| 13.0 \| 13.4 \| 1.7 \| 0.8 \| \| Educational services \| 3,039.8 \| 3,727.5 \| 4,201.0 \| 687.7 \| 473.5 \| 2.0 \| 2.3 \| 2.5 \| 2.1 \| 1.2 \| \| Health care and social assistance \| 16,188.6 \| 19,939.3 \| 23,335.4 \| 3,750.7 \| 3,396.1 \| 10.8 \| 12.4 \| 13.8 \| 2.1 \| 1.6 \| \| Leisure and hospitality \| 13,436.2 \| 16,348.5 \| 17,904.9 \| 2,912.3 \| 1,556.4 \| 9.0 \| 10.2 \| 10.6 \| 2.0 \| 0.9 \| \| Other services \| 6,320.5 \| 6,622.4 \| 6,716.7 \| 301.9 \| 94.3 \| 4.2 \| 4.1 \| 4.0 \| 0.5 \| 0.1 \| \| Federal government \| 2,762.0 \| 2,796.0 \| 2,670.2 \| 34.0 \| −125.8 \| 1.9 \| 1.7 \| 1.6 \| 0.1 \| -0.5 \| \| State and local government \| 19,747.3 \| 19,653.0 \| 19,904.0 \| −94.3 \| 251.0 \| 13.2 \| 12.2 \| 11.7 \| 0.0 \| 0.1 \| \| Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting4 \| 2,071.4 \| 2,310.0 \| 2,320.6 \| 238.6 \| 10.6 \| 1.4 \| 1.4 \| 1.4 \| 1.1 \| 0.0 \| \| Agriculture wage and salary \| 1,208.6 \| 1,547.2 \| 1,587.2 \| 338.6 \| 40.0 \| 0.8 \| 1.0 \| 0.9 \| 2.5 \| 0.3 \| \| Agriculture self-employed \| 862.8 \| 762.8 \| 733.4 \| −100.0 \| −29.4 \| 0.6 \| 0.5 \| 0.4 \| −1.2 \| −0.4 \| \| Nonagriculture self-employed \| 9,213.6 \| 8,924.0 \| 9,453.4 \| −289.6 \| 529.4 \| 6.2 \| 5.5 \| 5.6 \| −0.3 \| 0.6 \| Segmenting by industry makes a lot of sense in this case because some industries clearly do more hiring than others. You decide that Chumber should focus on industries with the highest projected hiring increases in the next decade: health care; professional and business services; construction; leisure and hospitality; and retail. Companies in growth industries will definitely get the most value from Chumber. Next you want to understand more about which decision makers in these companies will be the best targets for Chumber. Having just come through the hiring process, you know who is interested in reference checking: human resources professionals, job recruiters, and hiring managers. You email Ken, the Chumber HR person who handled your hiring process, to see if he can answer a few questions about how decisions are made in HR departments. Ken is very helpful. Prior to Chumber, he worked in HR for a health care company and a consulting firm. He confirms that an HR manager or director of recruiting oversees the reference-checking process for new hires. This person would also be the primary decision maker for a product like Chumber. Ken explains that the requirements for reference checking differ by industry. In health care, for instance, where people routinely handle life-and-death situations, reference checks are essential and thorough. Ken mentions a couple of features Chumber could add to fit the specific requirements of the health care industry. You take notes about product improvements that could be part of the marketing mix for this segment. When you’re back at your desk, Ken sends you a list of Web sites, publications, and conferences where many HR recruiters go for professional information. This will be really useful when your boss wants to talk about promotion and place! You invite Ken out for lunch to thank him for his valuable input. You still have a lot to learn about Chumber and product marketing. But applying your knowledge about segmentation and targeting is giving you a good feel for how you might help the company succeed. - Employment data for wage and salary workers are from the BLS Current Employment Statistics survey, which counts jobs, whereas self-employed and agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting are from the Current Population Survey (household survey), which counts workers. - ndividual sectors do not necessarily add to major sectors due to rounding. - Includes wage and salary data from the Current Employment Statistics survey, except private households, which is from the Current Populations Survey. Logging workers are excluded. - Includes agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting data from the Current Population Survey, except logging, which is from Current Employment Statistics survey. Government wage and salary workers are excluded. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Putting It Together: Segmentation and Targeting. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Untitled. Authored by: Marius Ciocirlan. Provided by: Unsplash. Located at: https://unsplash.com/photos/vMV6r4VRhJ8. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved. License Terms: Unsplash License PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT - Employment by major industry sector. Provided by: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Located at: https://www.bls.gov/emp/tables/employment-by-major-industry-sector.htm. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.345238	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91171/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Segmentation and Targeting, Putting it Together", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91179/overview	Why it Matters Overview Teacher resources for Unit 5 can be found on the next page. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Why It Matters: Ethics and Social Responsibility Resources for Unit 5: Ethics and Social Responsibility Slide Deck - Unit 5: Ethics and Social Responsibility Discussion Assignments and Alignment: Analyzing Social Responsibility Simulation Unit 5: “Simulation: Ethics” Pacing The Principles of Marketing textbook contains sixteen units—roughly one unit per week for a 16-week semester. If you need to modify the pace and cover the material more quickly, the following units work well together: - Unit 1: What Is Marketing? and Unit 2: Marketing Function. Both are lighter, introductory units. - Unit 15: Global Marketing and Unit 16: Marketing Plan. Unit 16 has more course review and synthesis information than new material per se. - Unit 5: Ethics can be combined with any unit. You can also move it around without losing anything. - Unit 8: Positioning and Unit 9: Branding. Companion modules that can be covered in a single week. - Unit 6: Marketing Information & Research and Unit 7: Consumer Behavior. Companion units that can be covered in a single week. We recommend NOT doubling up the following units, because they are long and especially challenging. Students will need more time for mastery and completion of assignments. - Unit 4: Marketing Strategy - Unit 10: Product Marketing - Unit 13: Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Why learn about ethics and social responsibility? Learning Outcomes - Describe the types of ethical and social responsibility issues that marketing must address - Explain the laws that regulate marketing - Explain how ethical dilemmas in B2B marketing differ from those in consumer marketing - Describe measures companies take to ensure ethical behavior - Explain how demonstrating corporate social responsibility can impact marketing Generally speaking, students believe that there are two primary reasons to act ethically: - Acting ethically is the right thing to do from a moral perspective; - If you act unethically, then you might get caught and be punished. Neither of these is a bad reason to apply principles of ethics and social responsibility, but it is worth considering another reason, as well. In most cases strong ethical behavior leads to strong business results. Behaving ethically is actually good business. Let’s look at two different auto companies whose track records on ethical behavior have had very different outcomes. Tesla and Social Responsibility Tesla, Inc. was founded in 2003 by a group of engineers who wanted to prove that electric cars could be better than gasoline-powered cars. They hoped to build cars that wouldn’t require the tradeoffs in power and comfort of electric cars in the past. The founders pledged that each new generation of cars would be increasingly affordable, helping the company work toward its mission: “to accelerate the world’s transition to sustainable energy.”1 In order to design and build luxury electric cars, Tesla invented a number of new technologies that it patented in order to protect its competitive advantage. In June 2014 the company announced that it was releasing access to all of its patents, making its technological advances open to competitors and inventors. In the announcement, company CEO Elon Musk said, “Tesla Motors was created to accelerate the advent of sustainable transport. If we clear a path to the creation of compelling electric vehicles, but then lay intellectual-property land mines behind us to inhibit others, we are acting in a manner contrary to that goal. Tesla will not initiate patent lawsuits against anyone who, in good faith, wants to use our technology.”2 Tesla has a mission with an emphasis on social responsibility; it strives to develop products that have both a societal and economic benefit. Industry analysts and consumers alike see this as a distinct advantage in the marketplace. Investment analyst Seeking Alpha explains: Companies like Toyota Motor and Honda are already pushing for gas-less cars and more and more efficiency from their cars. Tesla is not single-handedly pushing this, but it is part of the overall push to improve one of the most important aspects of our country—how we envision the car. Yet, the company extends beyond this—challenging how we vision luxury, how we understand how to build a car, and what the future electric grid could look like.3 Volkswagen and Ethical Behavior The car company Volkswagen (which is part of the larger Volkswagen Group) does not have a formal mission statement, but its goal is “to offer attractive, safe, and environmentally sound vehicles that can compete in an increasingly tough market and set world standards in their respective class.”4 In September 2015, the Environmental Protection Agency announced that Volkswagen had installed special software in its cars to manipulate emissions levels (making it appear that the cars are less polluting than they are). A week later Volkswagen disclosed that 11 million diesel vehicles contained the devices, and CEO Martin Winterkorn resigned. The price of Volkswagen stock plunged—losing 30 percent of its value overnight—and the company scrambled to understand what had happened and control the damage to its reputation. In the months following the discovery of the deceptive devices, investigators identified a team of Volkswagen employees who had hatched the plan and implemented it over a number of years. An internal evaluation identified a “culture of tolerance” for rule breaking at the company. It also came to light that Volkswagen’s emphasis on “results at any cost” had contributed to the breach in ethical standards. Industry experts believe that the company’s violation of consumers’ trust will be exceedingly difficult to repair and that it may take years to rebuild the Volkswagen brand. - “About Tesla,” Tesla, accessed September 23, 2019, https://www.tesla.com/about - Musk, Elon. “All Our Patent Are Belong To You,” Tesla, June 12, 2014, https://www.tesla.com/blog/all-our-patent-are-belong-you. - “Tesla: Social Responsibility Scorecard Shows Strengths And Weaknesses,” Seeking Alpha, Jan 6, 2015, https://seekingalpha.com/article/2801365-tesla-social-responsibility-scorecard-shows-strengths-and-weaknesses. - Jurevicius, Ovidijus. “Mission statement of Volkswagen,” Strategic Management Insight. September 14, 2013, https://www.strategicmanagementinsight.com/mission-statements/volkswagen-mission-statement.html. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Why It Matters: Ethics and Social Responsibility. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Tesla Model S. Authored by: Al Abut. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/alabut/4276454889/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - VW Jetta TDI. Authored by: RightBrainPhotography. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/rightbrainphotography/3526674386/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.379463	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91179/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Ethics and Social Responsibility, Why it Matters", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91209/overview	Why it Matters Overview Teacher resources for Unit 9 can be found on the next page. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Why It Matters: Branding Resources for Unit 9: Branding Slide Deck - Unit 9: Branding Unit 9 Assignment: Marketing Plan, Part 2 Pacing The Principles of Marketing textbook contains sixteen units—roughly one unit per week for a 16-week semester. If you need to modify the pace and cover the material more quickly, the following units work well together: - Unit 1: What Is Marketing? and Unit 2: Marketing Function. Both are lighter, introductory units. - Unit 15: Global Marketing and Unit 16: Marketing Plan. Unit 16 has more course review and synthesis information than new material per se. - Unit 5: Ethics can be combined with any unit. You can also move it around without losing anything. - Unit 8: Positioning and Unit 9: Branding. Companion modules that can be covered in a single week. - Unit 6: Marketing Information & Research and Unit 7: Consumer Behavior. Companion units that can be covered in a single week. We recommend NOT doubling up the following units, because they are long and especially challenging. Students will need more time for mastery and completion of assignments. - Unit 4: Marketing Strategy - Unit 10: Product Marketing - Unit 13: Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Learning Outcomes - Describe the elements of brand and how brands add value to an organization’s products and services - Define brand equity and its role in measuring brand strength - Explain the how marketers use brand positioning to align marketing activities and build successful brands - Explain the importance of name selection in the success of a brand - Discuss the role of packaging in the brand-building process - Explain key strategies for developing brands including brand ownership, brand and line extensions, co-branding and licensing Why analyze elements of a brand and explain how the brand-building process contributes to the success of products or services? Pop Quiz! Instructions: Grab a piece of paper and jot down answers to the following questions: - What is your favorite brand of clothing? - Why is it your favorite? - List a word or phrase that describes how this brand makes you feel: - What is your favorite brand of car? - Why is it your favorite? - List a word or phrase that describes how this brand makes you feel: - What is your favorite place to stop for coffee, donuts, a bagel, or some other snack? - Why is it your favorite? - List a word or phrase that describes how this place (which is also a brand) makes you feel: Set the paper aside for a moment and keep reading. We’ll come back to it. The Power of Brand Brands are images that exist in your mind–and in the minds of other consumers–about the things around you: products, services, places, companies, people, entertainment, and so on. In a modern world that offers many choices, brands help simplify the decisions you make about what to buy, where to go, and how to spend your time. Brands are powerful. When you explain why a brand is your favorite, you probably identify some of the traits or features of its products or services that explain rationally what makes it better than others. But rational explanations are just part of the story. Strong brands are powerful because they also tap into emotions. They make you feel a certain way, and that feeling is hard for any other brand to replicate—let alone replace. Brands can cause people to spend more money on a product than they would otherwise. Brands can create a sense of loyalty and even lock-in—that haloed point where a tribe of dedicated fans always chooses one company’s product or services over another. So how do they do it? What’s happening in marketing departments to create these powerful, emotional assets called brands? What Creates a Brand Experience? Go back to your pop quiz responses. Pick one of your favorite brands and list 2–3 things the company behind the brand provides to help make that favorite brand so memorable or special for you. It could be any of the following things–or something else entirely: - Brand name - Product design - The shopping experience - The post-purchase experience - People or communities associated with the brand - Product packaging - Advertising - Social media activity - Customer service - Comfort, convenience, or ease-of-use - Attitude or personality of the brand - Special information, deals, or promotions targeted to you - Membership or loyalty programs - Pricing or value for the money - Events or activities tied to the brand - Something else? Marketers use these tools and many others to create the total experience with a product, service, or company that turns it into an actual “brand.” In this module, you’ll learn how a brand starts and discover what it takes to coordinate all the different parts of the unique brand. The Paradox of Brand Although organizations take all kinds of measures to create and build brands, in fact, the brand isn’t just what the company says it is. In the end, the brand is what customers believe it is, as the following quote explains: So what exactly is a brand? A brand is a person’s gut feeling about a product, service, or organization. It’s a gut feeling because people are emotional, intuitive beings. It’s a person’s gut feeling because brands are defined by individuals, not companies, markets, or the public. It’s not what YOU say it is. It’s what THEY say it is.—Marty Neumeier, author and branding consultant, Neutron LLC Companies can do a lot to create and build brands, but the net impact and value is what happens inside the mind of the consumer. The supreme challenge of brand is to make your vision of your brand the same thing other people experience and believe about your brand. Read on to learn more. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Why It Matters: Branding. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Coffee Art in 3D. Authored by: JC Awe. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/qqjawe/8452733327/. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.414937	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91209/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Branding, Why it Matters", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91208/overview	Putting it Together Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Putting It Together: Positioning Positioning Your Way Out of Obscurity Let’s get back to the challenge that started this module: how to position and differentiate a company in a crowded field of competitors. You’ll recall that you have a swell job at a newish events management company called Shindiggity. The company is struggling to find ways of setting itself apart in a crowded and growing field. At the company retreat, you have an opportunity to suggest some strategies that can help Shindiggity stand out from the competition. You also have a chance to impress your divisional VP, who is assigned to the same brainstorming and breakout group as you. Now that you know something about positioning and differentiation, you step forward to lead your group through the positioning process. Step 1: Confirm Your Understanding of Market Dynamics Once your breakout group gets going, you start with a discussion about what you’re all seeing in the market generally. You ask Kara, your VP, to share perspectives from the executive team about where it plans to target growth for the company in the coming year, and whether there are particular industries or segments it plans to focus on. Kara says that the company has seen particular growth potential in the health care and pharmaceutical industries. Shindiggity has several clients in these segments already, and you know from your experience with these events that they can be quite technical and specialized. In fact, recently Shindiggity won three proposals for health-care-related events that you helped write. You recall from the selection process that two factors helped push your proposals over the finish line: 1) knowledge and experience required to produce and manage an event with significant industry-specific technical needs; and 2) strong, established relationships with industry thought leaders whom Shindiggity could bring into the program at relatively short notice. As you share these insights, you realize the conversation is already moving on to the next step in the positioning strategy. Step 2: Identify Your Competitive Advantages You ask your colleagues to share what other factors are helping Shindiggity win new business. They agree that industry-specific technical knowledge and strong relationships with thought leaders are important distinguishing factors. While many other event management companies seem perfectly competent, there is an extra level of confidence customers express when they know Shindiggity has the expertise and connections to pull off highly technical, industry-specific events. Someone mentions that since Shindiggity is a smaller firm than many others, it has lower overhead costs. This generally translates into somewhat lower pricing, which customers like. Kara expresses concern: “I don’t think we want to compete on lowest price. That just doesn’t feel like the right path.” This is a perfect opportunity for you to jump in. You back her up and say, “Positioning as the low price alternative would be a mistake, since our customers don’t make their decisions based on price alone. But what about positioning Shindiggity as offering more value for the money?” Kara and the others seem to like this approach. It acknowledges the reality that pricing exercises important influence in technology decisions, but it doesn’t force the company into uncomfortably low budgets or profit margins. Step 3: Choose Competitive Advantages That Define Your “Niche” The group rounds out the discussion of Shindiggity’s strengths and advantages: creativity, caring people, strong partnership with clients to achieve all their goals for the event. Next you suggest listing out the company’s key competitors and their competitive advantages, to give everyone a common picture of the competitive landscape. The list on the whiteboard runs long—nearly twenty companies are on it. As the team begins to enumerate the competitors’ strengths, a pattern emerges. At least half of the competitors have noted competitive advantages related to the industries where they do the most work: media, sports and recreation, finance, apparel, and automotive, to name a few. If this survey of key players is any indicator, industry expertise is a great way to establish a place for yourself in events management. While Shindiggity is not the only company with particular expertise in health care and pharmaceuticals, it is the only smallish company that has established this expertise as a competitive advantage. The handful of others tends to be larger firms with higher overhead, and, according to client feedback you heard recently, they tend to be more “cookie cutter” in their approach to events, rather than going the extra mile to give clients exactly what they want. All this talk of relative strengths and weaknesses is exciting: you’re starting to see a positioning strategy come together. Step 4: Define Your Positioning Strategy After a short break, your group gets to work again. Kara observes, “We’ve got a great list of Shindiggity’s strengths here, but what do we want customers to remember about us? What’s going to make them seek us out and choose us over all these other companies they could work with?” This is the moment you’ve been waiting for. “For our positioning strategy,” you say, “I think we should focus on owning a distinctive benefit, something we do better than anyone else, linked to Shindiggity’s strengths and competitive advantages. I’m not sure of the wording yet, but I think it’s a combination of our health care and pharma expertise, and the way we partner with clients creatively to make events feel unique and visionary. How does that sound?” Your proposal generates excitement because it taps into what makes people at Shindiggity so enthusiastic about their jobs: creativity, vision, and the challenge of designing events that are out of the ordinary. Kara remarks that it’s a good sign when employees get this excited about a positioning strategy. Step 5: Communicate and Deliver on the Positioning Strategy Your breakout group needs to consolidate its thinking to share back with the rest of the company. You suggest translating the positioning strategy into a positioning statement, using the tried-and-true formula you learned in your marketing class: To [target audience], Product X is the only [category or frame of reference] that [points of differentiation/benefits delivered] because [reasons to believe].1 After a few minutes’ work, the group hammers out a positioning statement worth sharing: To health care and pharmaceutical companies, Shindiggity is the only visionary partner that produces top-notch events health care professionals love to attend because they bring together great minds, enriching activities, and a dose of the extraordinary. Heading back into the main meeting room, Kara compliments you on your great ideas and suggests that you be the spokesperson to share your group’s work with the rest of the company. “You should be proud,” she adds. “I think we’re really on to something here.” Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Putting It Together: Positioning and Differentiation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Lightbulbs. Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/en/light-bulbs-light-bulb-light-energy-1125016/. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved - Huddle. Authored by: Cedim News. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/cedimnews/11866202786/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial - Huddle. Authored by: Cedim News. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/cedimnews/11865651953/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.440891	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91208/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Positioning, Putting it Together", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91202/overview	Why it Matters Overview Teacher resources for Unit 8 can be found on the next page. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Why It Matters: Positioning Resources for Unit 8: Positioning Slide Deck - Module 8: Positioning Discussion Assignments and Alignment: Positioning and Differentiation Pacing The Principles of Marketing textbook contains sixteen units—roughly one unit per week for a 16-week semester. If you need to modify the pace and cover the material more quickly, the following units work well together: - Unit 1: What Is Marketing? and Unit 2: Marketing Function. Both are lighter, introductory units. - Unit 15: Global Marketing and Unit 16: Marketing Plan. Unit 16 has more course review and synthesis information than new material per se. - Unit 5: Ethics can be combined with any unit. You can also move it around without losing anything. - Unit 8: Positioning and Unit 9: Branding. Companion modules that can be covered in a single week. - Unit 6: Marketing Information & Research and Unit 7: Consumer Behavior. Companion units that can be covered in a single week. We recommend NOT doubling up the following units, because they are long and especially challenging. Students will need more time for mastery and completion of assignments. - Unit 4: Marketing Strategy - Unit 10: Product Marketing - Unit 13: Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Learning Outcomes - Define positioning and differentiation, and why they are important to marketing a product or service - Explain the process of selecting a positioning and differentiation strategy - Develop and evaluate positioning statements based on defined criteria - Explain repositioning and the associated risks and complexities of repositioning a product or service - Describe the process of implementing a positioning strategy Why create a product or service positioning statement that aligns with a value proposition and a target segment? Ever since you were small, you have loved special occasions and gatherings. It started with sprawling extended-family picnics when you were a child. From there, you graduated to bigger and more elaborate events: attending fairs and grand openings, crashing weddings and voter conventions, wandering through business expositions at the local convention center. In fact, one of your favorite memories is of the time you sneaked into the legendary Consumer Electronics Show when you were visiting your cousin in Las Vegas. As far as you’re concerned, the more people, the bigger the party and the better. Now, as an adult, you’ve landed a job with Shindiggity, an events management firm that specializes in putting on conferences, trade shows, and events for industry associations and companies. You love getting to meet new people, travel, and work on making fun, memorable events. Here’s the challenge: Shindiggity is relatively small and new on the events management scene. Although events management is a growing area for business services, it’s also a fairly crowded field. When you google “events management company,” you get 432 million results. Shindiggity is easily lost in the crowd. At Shindiggity’s annual retreat, employees from across the company are divided into several groups, and each group is given the same task: How can we get Shindiggity to stand out from the competition? You realize that the VP from your division has been assigned to your group and that this is a great chance for you to impress her with your creativity and initiative. You also want to help your company be successful. Right off, you jot down some questions to focus your thinking: - What makes Shindiggity better than competitors? Is it the quality of events? The creative ideas? The amazing people? The way it uses technology to make things smoother and more efficient? Something else? - Who do we need to talk to about Shindiggity, and what will make them decide to give us a try? - How can we make sure they remember Shindiggity and what we stand for? These are critical questions you need to answer in order to help your company (and, you think, impress the VP). At the core, they are questions about positioning and differentiation: What position do you hold in customers’ minds? What position do you want to hold? How are you different in positive ways that make you stand out from the pack? If Shindiggity can’t figure out how to make a lasting impact in customers’ minds, it won’t win enough clients to stay in business. And, if it goes out of business, you’ll be job hunting instead of continuing to do the work you love. On the other hand, if you come up with great ideas, you may help Shindiggity position itself effectively against competitors, which could lead to new business and—who knows?—to more job responsibility or a promotion for you. It’s pretty obvious which scenario you decide to pursue. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Why It Matters: Positioning and Differentiation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - San Diego Comic-Con 2011u2014Kermit and Gonza balloon costumes. Authored by: Conmunityu2014Pop Culture Geek. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/popculturegeek/5991540917/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.472900	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91202/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Positioning, Why it Matters", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93493/overview	Animation - Flake Size and Angle Animation - Hills and Ledges Animation - Pool Table Irregular Animation - Pool Table Regular YouTube - The Science of Knapping Animations - The Science of Knapping Overview Explore the physics and material science of making stone tools. Educator Nate Salzman walks us through the surprisingly complex science of flintknapping, or the process of turning stone into blades, arrowheads, spear points, axes, jewelry and more. Making tools from stone may be thousands of years old, but required people to think about the properties of the material they were using and the physics of striking the stone to shape it just right. NOTE: These are animations derived from the video "The Science of Knapping" which is linked here and published under its own listing on OER Commons. This resource is part of Jefferson Patterson Park and Museum’s open educational resources project to provide history, ecology, archaeology, and conservation resources related to our 560 acre public park. More of our content can be found on YouTube and SketchFab. JPPM is a part of the Maryland Historical Trust under the Maryland Department of Planning. Key YouTube - The Science of Knapping: A short (<5m) video explaining some of the material science and physics behind flintknapping. This resource has its own listing on OER Commons at oercommons.org/courses/the-science-of-knapping. The following animations were created during production of this video or to support presentations on site at Jefferson Patterson Park and Museum. Animation - Pool Table Regular: A metaphor for the distribution of particles in the best materials for flintknapping: they are evenly distributed and of uniform size, so they transfer energy in a predictable fashion. Animation - Pool Table Irregular: A metaphor for the distribution of particles in less desirable materials for flintknapping: they are unevenly distributed and/or of varying size, so they transfer energy in an unpredictable fashion or not at all. Animation - Hills and Ledges: A term unique to Jefferson Patterson's flintknapping, indicating the orientation of an edge in relation to the center of the stone to be worked. Flintknappers traditionally speak in terms of "platforms" instead. It is important to hit on these hills rather than ledges when working the stone to prevent shattering the piece. Animation - Flake Size and Angle: Flintknapping exploits the tendency of knappable stones to create "conchoidal fractures" when hit. By varying the angle which the knapper strikes the stone or applies pressure, they can cause this cone-like shape to intersect the work piece more or less and thus control the size of the flake. Animation - Center Line: A visualization of the imaginary center line extending through the lateral edges of the work piece. When knapping it is important to strike below this line to avoid shattering the stone.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.497902	History	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93493/overview", "title": "Animations - The Science of Knapping", "author": "Geology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80235/overview	Social Problems - Continuity and Change OER Overview This is the entire syllabus for a Social Problems course. Please edit sections to align with your campus dates and resources. Course Description and Learning Outcomes Course description This is an online, synchronous introductory Sociology course. We will have the opportunity to have face to face interactions but all sessions will be recorded and stored on our Blackboard site. This course examines the major issues confronting society: economic and political change, nationalism, racial and ethnic relations, sexism, socioeconomic class, crime and justice, health and education, and family life. It discusses causes, effects, possible solutions and future trends. Students will examine the interrelationship of social problems and their roots in fundamental social institutions. Learning Outcomes General Education Program Level Outcomes: Students taking this course will engage identity and equity by: - Engaging issues of identity – race and gender, sexuality, belief systems and religion, nationality, class and others – both in self and in others - Using theory to inform life experiences and vice-versa - Examining constructs of identity with rigor and emotional intelligence, all in the context of understanding and achieving equity. Sociology Department Learning Objectives: Students successfully completing this course will demonstrate mastery of these skills and competencies through the various course assignments, using appropriate examples in clear, concise, and grammatical English: Objective #1: Sociology graduates will be able to explain the application of the sociological perspective to human behavior. Objective #2: Sociology graduates will be able to identify the role of theory in sociology. Objective #3: Sociology graduates will be able to exhibit the effects of social, cultural, political, and economic factors on societies and cultures around the world. Objective #4: Sociology graduates will be able to explain diversity and continuing sources of social inequality. Society and Culture Thematic-Area Learning Outcomes: Students completing this course should be able to: - Communicate effectively about the social world - Understand peoples, social relations, and politics within a global context - Analyze social problems using social science theories and methodologies - Interpret social inequity as it relates to race, gender, class, sexuality, nationality, and/or other forms of difference Course Aims and Objectives Students taking this course will learn to: - Learn to analyze social problems from a sociological perspective. - Explain and identify how social problems are socially constructed. - Analyze the interrelationship between social problems and the major social institutions in society. - Analyze how social problems are reinforced and preserved by social groups who maintain wealth and power. - Analyze how attitudes towards human differences (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation, age, and disabilities) are interrelated to the problems of inequality. - Formulate potential solutions for social problems using a systematic and empirical approach. - Use concepts discussed in class to create cohesive arguments in classroom discussion and written/digital assignments. Course Policies and Expectations Course Policies and Expectations Course Requirements: A syllabus is not a contract between instructor and student, but rather a guide to course procedures. The instructor reserves the right to amend the syllabus when conflicts, emergencies or circumstances dictate. Students will be duly notified. Class Participation: Participation “officially” counts for 15% of your grade. You are expected to actively participate in every class session. We will meet via the Zoom platform. Specifically, you should pay attention, take careful notes, and ask and answer questions. To ask questions in class about any topics or concepts that you do not understand is essential for your mastery of the material and also helps me, as your instructor, to recognize when topics or concepts are unclear. You will have many opportunities to participate in class activities, both online and on the Blackboard course site. During our class sessions, it is preferred that you turn your cameras on. If you are unable to for any reason, please communicate that to me via email or the remind text app. It is in your best interest to be an active participant as many of these activities will count towards your participation grade. Regular attendance is essential to doing well in this course. Students are expected to attend class during our meeting times. Assignments: There will be six online assignments throughout the semester that will comprise 30% of your course grade. These will rely heavily on your keeping up with the readings. Quizzes, Midterm and Final Exams: There will be five quizzes over the course of the semester. Each is worth 5% of your grade, totaling 25%. The quizzes will consist of multiple choice, fill in the blank, matching, and true/false questions. The final, constituting 30% of your grade, will also be cumulative. Exam information will be announced in class. Be mindful that I do not accept late final exams. In sum your course grade will be calculated according to the following rubric, Class Participation \| 15% \| Assignments \| 30% \| Quizzes \| 25% \| Final \| 30% \| Grading Scale: 90-100 = A, 85-89 = B+, 80-84 = B, 75-79 = C+, 70-74 = C, 60-69 = D, Below 60 = F Course Policies: Late Policy: All assignments are due ET. Each day that your work is late results in the deduction of one full letter grade. Assignments turned into my office, placed in my box or under my door; by snail mail or emails are considered late. Be sure to give yourself plenty of time to complete the assignments. Only assignments turned into me on their due dates are considered on time. This late policy does not count or your final project/exam. Personal illness and family emergencies are valid excuses but must have proper documentation. I will utilize my own judgment in determining what a valid excuse is but typically, oversleeping, traveling out of town, interviews, car trouble, and work-related absences are not valid excuses. If you know that you have conflict with a scheduled date on the syllabus, please see me so that we can make other arrangements prior to the exam or assignment due date. Class Conduct: We will establish our online rules during our first week of class. Students will be expected to be muted unless they are recognized (by raising their hands) or some other rules that we establish as a part of our course expectations. Each class lecture will be recorded and posted to our BlackBoard site. Procedure for disputing a grade: If you disagree with a grade you’ve received, you may submit a written request for a review of the test question or assignment. Written requests must include your argument for why you think you should have received a different grade. These requests must be made within 3-days of receiving the grade. I reserve the right to agree or disagree with your dispute. In the event of inclement weather, the College will announce any closures via the emergency notification system and/or through local news outlets. Absent an official closure, students are not excused from attending class due to weather and any absences will be considered unexcused. Academic Integrity Accommodations for Students with Disabilities Tutoring: Brainfuse: Writing Center: Materials and Access and Course Schedule - Social Problems: Continuity and Change, by Steve Barkan, 2016 university of Minnesota Libraries, https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/social-problems-continuity-and-change - Course Blackboard Site Week \| Assigned Reading / Topics \| Assignments Due \| February 1 \| Introduction Week and Chapter 1: What is a Social Problem? \| None \| February 8 \| Chapter 2: Poverty \| Assignment #1 (February 14, 11:59pm) \| February 15 \| Chapter 2: Poverty (cont.) \| Quiz #1 (February 21, 11:59pm) \| February 22 \| Chapter 3: Racial and Ethnic Inequality \| Assignment 2: Discussion Post (February 28, 11:59pm) \| March 1 \| Chapter 4: Gender Inequality \| Assignment #3 (March 7, 11:59pm) \| March 8 \| Chapter 5: Sexual Orientation and Inequality and Chapter 9: Sexual Behavior \| Quiz #2 (March 14, 11:59pm) \| March 15 \| Chapter 6: Aging and Ageism \| \| March 22 \| Chapter 7: Alcohol and Other Drugs \| \| March 29 \| Chapter 8: Crime and Criminal Justice \| (No class on Wednesday, March 31 or Friday April 2) \| April 5 \| Chapter 8: Crime and Criminal Justice (cont.) Chapter 10: The Changing Family \| Assignment #4 and Quiz #3 (April 11, 11:59pm) \| April 12 \| Chapter 11: Schools and Education \| Quiz #4 (April 18, 11:59pm) \| April 19 \| Chapter 12: Work and the Economy \| Assignment #5 and Assignment #6 (April 25, 11:59pm) \| April 26 \| Chapter 13: Health and Healthcare \| Quiz #5 (May 3, 11:59pm) \| April 30 May 5 \| Final Exam \| April 30 (senior exams due) May 5 (non-senior exams due) \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.557073	05/11/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80235/overview", "title": "Social Problems - Continuity and Change OER", "author": "Adria Welcher" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96208/overview	Open Resources for Art History Overview Reading list of open materials for the Art History program at the College of DuPage, compiled by David Ouellette and Amy Lubke, organized by keyword, material type, and course number. All resources in this collection are licensed as indicated. Reading list of open materials for the Art History program at the College of DuPage, compiled by David Ouellette and Amy Lubke, organized by keyword, material type, and course number. All resources in this collection are licensed as indicated. View the Google sheet of resources here.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.569869	08/06/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96208/overview", "title": "Open Resources for Art History", "author": "College of DuPage" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66679/overview	Education Standards Prescription Map 4 Multi Product Key Prescription Map - Multiple Products Overview This is a fourth lesson in computing variable rate prescriptions. This lesson utilizes four different fertilizer products for meeting N, P, K and S needs of a corn crop. Prescription Map 4 Multiple Products Key for Worksheet is attached. Variable Rate Prescription Multiple Product Lesson One: Variable Rate Prescription of Multiple Products Overview: Students will calculate fertilizer rates for multiple products for multiple zones. Objectives: The student will calculate rates of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulfur using several fertilizer products for a field with three management zones. Materials Needed: Internet Calculator Activity: - The student should have familiarity with the process of calculating fertilizer amounts by completing Lessons 1, 2 and 3 of Variable Rate Prescriptions. - Print the worksheet. - Complete the worksheet utilizing several different resources. - At completion of the worksheet, the student will have calculated rates of Urea, MAP, Potash and AMS for three different management zones. - The student can check their calculations by using a fertilizer blend calculator. Teacher Resources: - Have students complete Lessons 1, 2 and 3 of Variable Rate Prescriptions prior to this worksheet. - A key for this worksheet is available.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.596176	05/12/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66679/overview", "title": "Prescription Map - Multiple Products", "author": "Carmel Miller" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73345/overview	https://www.minorityhealth.hhs.gov/ Health Equity Overview This is an assigment for students to research websites on Health Equity issues. Identify a specific racial/ethnic group and select a public health problem. In 300 words or more paragraph(s) summarize the following statements. You can utilize the web sites below to find your answers. If you use an alternate web site please cite it in your assignment. - Present the status of the problem - The future outlook for the problem - What can be done to reduce or eliminate the problem	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.613110	10/10/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73345/overview", "title": "Health Equity", "author": "Milan Motroni" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93062/overview	ASTR 1020 - Lab 10: The Search for Exoplanets Overview Most exoplanets are found through indirect methods: measuring the dimming of a star that happens to have a planet pass in front of it, called the transit method, or monitoring the spectrum of a star for the tell-tale signs of a planet pulling on its star and causing its light to subtly Doppler shift. Space telescopes have found thousands of planets by observing “transits,” the slight dimming of light from a star when its tiny planet passes between it and our telescopes. Other detection methods include gravitational lensing, the so-called “wobble method.” --------------------------------------- Distant Nature: Astronomy Exercises 2016 by Stephen Tuttle under license "Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike". ASTR 1020 - Lab 10: The Search for Exoplanets Download the attached zip file and install the website on a server or in your LMS course section. To place HTML website content in Brightspace: - Create an appropriate folder structure in Manage Files. This location is where files will be uploaded and unzipped. Each resource (website) should have a descriptively named independent folder. - Navigate to the appropriate folder and Upload the zip file. - Unzip the folder by clicking the pull-down arrow, and clicking Unzip on the submenu. A content folder will appear. It contains two folders and two HTML files. - Associate the index.html file to your Course Content topic. Perform this task in the Course Content area by clicking New and then clicking Add from Manage Files on the submenu. Next, navigate to the index.html file and Add the file. - Click the pull-down arrow by the new web page topic (currently named index). Next, click Edit Properties In-place on the submenu and rename the link to be descriptive. - Delete the extraneous zip file from the Manage Files folder.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.631927	05/26/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93062/overview", "title": "ASTR 1020 - Lab 10: The Search for Exoplanets", "author": "Hollyanna White" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99047/overview	"Yellow Face" Pt. 2 Identity & Self Definition: "Yellow Face" Overview David Henry Hwang's play, "Yellow Face", provides his perspective on theatre. The play is available for viewing for free on YouTube. This assignment are short essay questions created to allow the students to think deeply on Hwang's purpose for writing this play and the importance it holds in theatre. Assignment To complete this assignment, you will need to view David Henry Hwang's "Yellow Face" (available on YouTube). Please respond in short essay format. - How does Hwang both celebrate and critique the American dream, both through the play’s plot and the characters he invents? - What does this text add to our understanding of the definition of the American dream, and specifically, to this unit’s theme of exclusion?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.650152	11/23/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99047/overview", "title": "Identity & Self Definition: \"Yellow Face\"", "author": "Lori DeLappe" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92896/overview	Learning Styles Explained Overview The video was made for the Fall 18 semester. If watching this at a later semester, please include dates for the current semester. Fall semester should be Sept -December and Spring should be Jan-April. You don't need to include the assignments for this class as they aren't listed in the syllabus. Just upload a sample of what kind of planner or calendar you are using to stay organized. You can send a snip it of your google calendar if that's what you use. I mainly just want to see that you have some sort of system to stay organized. Learning Styles This resource is created to help students start to recognize their own learning style in an effort to help them be more successful in college. https://screencast-o-matic.com/watch/cF6hbHYo5x	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.662275	05/20/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92896/overview", "title": "Learning Styles Explained", "author": "Melissa Cripe" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98446/overview	CHAPTER 3: VERBAL COMMUNICATION Overview Introduction to Communication textbook. Learning Objectives After reading this module you should be able to: • Define verbal communication and explain its main characteristics. • Understand the three qualities of symbols. • Describe the rules governing verbal communication. • Explain the differences between written and spoken communication. • Describe the functions of verbal communication. 3.1 STICKS AND STONES AND THE IMPACT OF WORDS 58 HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN “Consciousness can’t evolve any faster than language” – Terence McKenna 3.1 STICKS AND STONES AND THE IMPACT OF WORDS Imagine for a moment that you have no language with which to communicate. It’s hard to imagine, isn’t it? It’s probably even harder to imagine that with all of the advancements we have at our disposal today, there are people in our world who actually do not have, or cannot use, language to communicate. Nearly 25 years ago, the Nicaraguan government started bringing deaf children together from all over the country in an attempt to educate them. These children had spent their lives in remote places and had no contact with other deaf people. They had never learned a language and could not understand their teachers or each other. Likewise, their teachers could not understand them. Shortly after bringing these students together, the teachers noticed that the students communicated with each other in what appeared to be an organized fashion: they had literally brought together the individual gestures they used at home and composed them into a new language. Although the teachers still did not understand what the kids were saying, they were astonished at what they were witnessing—the birth of a new language in the late 20th century! This was an unprecedented discovery. In 1986, American linguist Judy Kegl went to Nicaragua to find out what she could learn from these children without language. She contends that our brains are open to language until the age of 12 or 13, and then language becomes difficult to learn. She quickly discovered approximately 300 people in Nicaragua who did not have language and says, “They are invaluable to research – among the only people on Earth who can provide clues to the beginnings of human communication.” You can read the full transcript on CBS News: Birth of a Language. Adrien Perez, one of the early deaf students who formed this new language (referred to as Nicaraguan Sign Language), says that without verbal communication, “You can’t express your feelings. Your thoughts may be there but you can’t get them out. And you can’t get new thoughts in.” As one of the few people on earth who has experienced life with and without verbal communication, his comments speak to the heart of communication: it is the essence of who we are and how we understand our world. We use it to form our identities, initiate and maintain relationships, express our needs and wants, construct and shape worldviews, and achieve personal goals (Pelley, 2000). In this chapter, we want to provide and explain our definition of verbal communication, highlight the differences between written and spoken verbal communication, and demonstrate how verbal communication functions in our lives. 3.2 DEFINING VERBAL COMMUNICATION 3.2 DEFINING VERBAL COMMUNICATION When people ponder the word communication, they often think about the act of talking. We rely on verbal communication to exchange messages with one another and develop as individuals. The term verbal communication often evokes the idea of spoken communication, but written communication is also part of verbal communication. Reading this book you are decoding the authors’ written verbal communication in order to learn more about communication. Let’s explore the various components of our definition of verbal communication and examine how it functions in our lives. Verbal communication is about language, both written and spoken. In general, verbal communication refers to our use of words while nonverbal communication refers to communication that occurs through means other than words, such as body language, gestures, tone and silence. Both verbal and nonverbal communication can be spoken and written. Many people mistakenly assume that verbal communication refers only to spoken communication. However, you will learn that this is not the case. Let’s say you tell a friend a joke and he or she laughs in response. Is the laughter verbal or nonverbal communication? Why? As laughter is not a word we would consider this vocal act as a form of nonverbal communication. For simplification, the box below highlights the kinds of communication that fall into the various categories. You can find many definitions of verbal communication in our literature, but for this text, we define verbal communication as an agreed-upon and rule-governed system of symbols used to share meaning. Let’s examine each component of this definition in detail. A SYSTEM OF SYMBOLS Symbols are arbitrary representations of thoughts, ideas, emotions, objects, or actions used to encode and decode meaning (Nelson & Shaw, 2002). Symbols stand for or represent, something else. For example, there is nothing inherent about calling a cat a cat. Ogden & Richard’s Triangle of Meaning (1923). Design by H. Rayl, CC-BY 4.0 English speakers have agreed that these symbols (words), whose components (letters) are used in a particular order each time, stand for both the actual object, as well as our interpretation of that object. This idea is illustrated by C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richard’s triangle of meaning. The word “cat” is not the actual cat. Nor does it have any direct connection to an actual cat. Instead, it is a symbolic representation of our idea of a cat, as indicated by the line going from the word “cat” to the speaker’s idea of “cat” to the actual object. Symbols have three distinct qualities: they are arbitrary, ambiguous, and abstract. Notice that the picture of the cat on the left side of the triangle more closely represents a real cat than the word “cat.” However, we do not use pictures as language, or verbal communication. Instead, we use words to represent our ideas. This example demonstrates our agreement that the word “cat” represents or stands for a real cat and our idea of a cat. The symbols we use are arbitrary and have no direct relationship to the objects or ideas they represent. We generally consider communication successful when we reach agreement on the meanings of the symbols we use (Duck, 1994). Definition of Symbols Not only are symbols arbitrary, they are ambiguous because they have several possible meanings. Imagine your friend tells you she has an apple on her desk. Is she referring to a piece of fruit or her computer? If a friend says that a person he met is cool, does he mean that person is cold or awesome? The meanings of symbols change over time due to changes in social norms, values, and advances in technology. You might be asking, “If symbols can have multiple meanings then how do we communicate and understand one another?” We are able to communicate because there are a finite number of possible meanings for our symbols, a range of meanings which the members of a given language system agree upon. Without an agreed-upon system of symbols, we could share relatively little meaning with one another. A simple example of ambiguity can be represented by one of your classmates asking a simple question to the teacher during a lecture where she is showing PowerPoint slides: “Can you go to the last slide please?” The teacher is half way through the presentation. Is the student asking if the teacher can go back to the previous slide? Or does the student really want the lecture to be over with and is insisting that the teacher jumps to the final slide of the presentation? Chances are the student missed a point on the previous slide and would like to see it again to quickly take notes. However, suspense may have overtaken the student and they may have a desire to see the final slide. Even a simple word like “last” can be ambiguous and open to more than one interpretation. The verbal symbols we use are also abstract, meaning that words are not material or physical. A certain level of abstraction is inherent in the fact that symbols can only represent objects and ideas. This abstraction allows us to use a phrase like “the public” in a broad way to mean all the people in the United States rather than having to distinguish among all the diverse groups that make up the U.S. population. Similarly, in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter book series, wizards and witches call the non-magical population on earth “muggles” rather than having to define all the separate cultures of muggles. Abstraction is helpful when you want to communicate complex concepts in a simple way. However, the more abstract the language, the greater potential there is for confusion. RULE-GOVERNED Verbal communication is rule-governed. We must follow agreed-upon rules to make sense of the symbols we share. Let’s take another look at our example of the word cat. What would happen if there were no rules for using the symbols (letters) that make up this word? If placing these symbols in a proper order was not important, tac, tca, act, or atc could all mean cat. Even worse, what if you could use any three letters to refer to cat? Or still worse, what if there were no rules and anything could represent cat? Clearly, it’s important that we have rules to govern our verbal communication. There are four general rules for verbal communication, involving the sounds, meaning, arrangement, and use of symbols. Case In Point: Sounds and Letters – A Poem for English Students When in English class we speak, Why is break not rhymed with freak? Will you tell me why it’s true That we say sew, but also few? When a poet writes a verse Why is horse not rhymed with worse? Beard sounds not the same as heard Lord sounds not the same as word Cow is cow, but low is low Shoe is never rhymed with toe. Think of nose and dose and lose Think of goose, but then of choose. Confuse not comb with tomb or bomb, Doll with roll, or home with some. We have blood and food and good. Mould is not pronounced like could. There’s pay and say, but paid and said. “I will read”, but “I have read”. Why say done, but gone and lone – Is there any reason known? To summarize, it seems to me Sounds and letters disagree. –Based on a poem written by Lord Cromer, Spectator, August 9, 1902 Phonology is the study of speech sounds. The pronunciation of the word cat comes from the rules governing how letters sound, especially in relation to one another. The context in which words are spoken may provide answers for how they should be pronounced. When we don’t follow phonological rules, confusion results. One way to understand and apply phonological rules is to use syntactic and pragmatic rules to clarify phonological rules. Communication Now: Look It Up We all know we can look up words in the dictionary, such as Webster’s Dictionary. When we do this, we are looking up the Denotative Meaning of words. This is the literal meaning of the word, an it is easy to remember because denotive and dictionary both start with the letter ‘d.’ The other meanings words can have are connotative. The connotative meaning of a word deals with its implications. Think of the word home. The literal dictionary or denotive meaning is a place to take shelter. But if you think of the connotative meaning of home, you might think of a place where your family is, or a place where we feel safe or loved. Given that there are so many Connotative Meanings of words, we now have a resource to look up those meanings as well. Urban Dictionary is a resource for people to find out how words that have certain denotative meanings are used connotatively. Go ahead, give it a try! Semantic rules help us understand the difference in meaning between the word cat and the word dog. Instead of each of these words meaning any four-legged domestic pet, we use each word to specify what four-legged domestic pet we are talking about. You’ve probably used these words to say things like, “I’m a cat person” or “I’m a dog person.” Each of these statements provides insight into what the sender is trying to communicate. The Case in Point, “A Poem for English Students,” not only illustrates the idea of phonology, but also semantics. Even though many of the words are spelled the same, their meanings vary depending on how they are pronounced and in what context they are used. We attach meanings to words; meanings are not inherent in words themselves. As you’ve been reading, words (symbols) are arbitrary and attain meaning only when people give them meaning. While we can always look to a dictionary to find a standardized definition of a word or its denotative meaning, meanings do not always follow standard, agreed-upon definitions when used in various contexts. Think about how other words have positive or negative connotations. One consideration is the use of euphemisms in our language. A euphemism is a more politically or socially acceptable use of a word. We often use euphemisms to disguise the negative emotions surrounding language in a way that is socially agreed upon. Sometimes we use euphemisms when it is difficult, uncomfortable or embarrassing to say a particular word. You can think about how poor people may be referred to as “economically disadvantaged” or how “restroom” may be the most polite use of the term in polite or professional conversation. Instead of saying someone died, we use euphemisms like “they passed away” or “they are in a better place.” Syntactics is the study of language structure and symbolic arrangement. Syntactics focuses on the rules we use to arrange words to create meaningful sentences and statements. We speak and write according to agreed-upon syntactic rules to keep meaning coherent and understandable. Think about this sentence: “The pink and purple elephant flapped its wings and flew out the window.” While the content of this sentence is fictitious and unreal, you can understand and visualize it because it follows syntactic rules for language structure. Different languages have different syntactic rules. Pragmatics is the study of how people actually use verbal communication. For example, as a student, you probably speak more formally to your professors than to your peers. It’s likely that you make different word choices when you speak to your parents than you do when you speak to your friends or even colleagues at work. Slang tends to be more generational and reflects a constantly evolving use of language. Words that are identified as slang are sometimes adapted and added each year to the dictionary due to their necessity in our current culture. Over 500 words have been added to the dictionary to reflect how technology is changing the language. Some examples include “sexting”, “vaping”, and “photobombing”. To see a complete list of new words making it into the dictionary, you can read the article published in WIRED in 2015 (Collins). Others are abandoned for more timely use. Think of how words like “neat” or “cool’ have been replaced by “dope”, “fleak”, or “chill.” Another specialized (often technical) use of language usually deferred to in professional settings or within co-cultures is jargon. You may recognize the use of jargon from watching medical dramas on TV or trying to follow along with an IT specialist while you fix your computer. Jargon can also be used within skill sets. I’m sure that some of you may identify as “gamers” and you recognize that there is a different language used in this context. These differences illustrate the pragmatics of our verbal communication. Even though you use agreed-upon symbolic systems and follow phonological, syntactic, and semantic rules, you apply these rules differently in different contexts. Each communication context has different rules for “appropriate” communication. We are trained from a young age to communicate “appropriately” in different social contexts. A barrier to understanding language may be the addition of an accent or the use of regionalisms. A regionalism is a geographically influenced language use from a particular region. While most North Americans, British, and Australians all speak English as a language, the differences in accent and region create differences in the way words are pronounced. We can see regionalisms on a smaller scale by looking at how pronunciation changes by region within the United States. You may think about whether you refer to a carbonated drink as “pop”, “soda”, or a “coke.” Are you using a shopping cart or a “buggy”? What other regionalisms can you think of as you have traveled or met people from the northeast, south, or midwest? It is only through an agreed-upon and rule-governed system of symbols that we can exchange verbal communication in an effective manner. Without agreement, rules, and symbols, verbal communication would not work. The reality is after we learn a language in school, we don’t spend much time consciously thinking about all of these rules, we simply use them. However, rules keep our verbal communication structured in ways that make it useful for us to communicate more effectively. 3.3 SPOKEN VS. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION: WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE While both spoken and written communication function as agreed-upon rule-governed systems of symbols used to convey meaning, there are enough differences in pragmatic rules between writing and speaking to discuss some of their differences. Imagine for a moment that you’re a college student who desperately needs money. Rather than looking for a job you decide that you’re going to ask your parents for the money you need to make it through the end of the semester. Now, you have a few choices for using verbal communication to do this. You might choose to call your parents or talk to them in person. You may take a different approach and write them a letter or send them an email. You can probably identify your own list of pros and cons for each of these approaches. But really, what’s the difference between writing and talking in these situations? Let’s look at four of the major differences between the two: 1) formal versus informal, 2) synchronous versus asynchronous, 3) recorded versus unrecorded, and 4) privacy. Venn diagram illustrating written and spoken communication differences and similarities. Case In Point: Informal versus Formal Communication Text Version FYI… we’re meeting on friday. wanna go to the office party after? its byob so bring w/e you want. Last years was sooo fun. Your dancing made everyone lol! hope to see ya there ��-T Letter Version Ann, For your information, we are having a meeting on Friday, November 6th. Afterward, there will be an office party. Do you want to go? It will be a Bring Your Own Beverage party, so feel welcome to bring whatever you like. Last years was so fun, your dancing made everyone laugh out loud! I hope to see you there, Tesia The first difference between spoken and written communication is that we generally use spoken communication informally while we use written communication formally. Consider how you have been trained to talk versus how you have been trained to write. Have you ever turned in a paper to a professor that “sounds” like how you talk? How was that paper graded compared to one that follows the more formal structures and rules of the English language? In western societies like the U.S., we follow more formal standards for our written communication than our spoken communication. With a few exceptions, we generally tolerate verbal mistakes (e.g. “should of” rather than “should have”) and qualifiers (e.g. “uh” “um” “you know,” etc.) in our speech, but not our writing. Consider a written statement such as, “I should of, um, gone and done somethin’ ‘bout it’ but, um, I I didn’t do nothin’.” In most written contexts, this is considered unacceptable written verbal communication. However, most of us would not give much thought to hearing this statement spoken aloud by someone. While we may certainly notice mistakes in another’s speech, we are generally not inclined to correct those mistakes as we would in written contexts. Even though most try to speak without qualifiers and verbal mistakes, there is something to be said about those utterances in our speech while engaging in an interpersonal conversation. According to John Du Bois (2014), the way two people use utterances and structure their sentences during conversation creates an opportunity to find new meaning in the language and develop “parallelism” which can lead to a natural feeling of liking or sympathy in the conversation partner. Even though it may seem like formal language is valued over informal, this informal language that most of us use when we speak inadvertently contributes to bringing people closer together. While writing is generally more formal and speech more informal, there are some exceptions, especially with the growing popularity of new technologies. For the first time in history, we are now seeing exceptions in our uses of speech and writing. Using text messaging and email, people are engaging in forms of writing using more informal rule structures, making their writing “sound” more like a conversation. Likewise, this style of writing often attempts to incorporate the use of “nonverbal” communication (known as emoticons) to accent the writing. Consider the two examples in the box above. One is an example of written correspondence using text while the other is a roughly equivalent version following the more formal written guidelines of a letter. Notice the informality in the text version. While it is readable, it reads as if Tesia was actually speaking in a conversation rather than writing a document. Have you noticed that when you turn in written work that has been written in email programs, the level of formality of the writing decreases? However, when students use a word processing program like Microsoft Word, the writing tends to follow formal rules more often. As we continue using new technologies to communicate, new rule systems for those mediums will continue altering the rule systems in other forms of communication. It is likely that your professors expect your essays to be formal, and it is good advice to remember your audience when sending an email or a text. An email or a text to your professor should likely be more formal than one to your friend. The second difference between spoken and written forms of verbal communication is that spoken communication or speech is almost entirely synchronous while written communication is almost entirely asynchronous. Synchronous communication is communication that takes place in real time, such as a conversation with a friend. When we are in conversation and even in public speaking situations, immediate feedback and response from the receiver is the rule. For instance, when you say “hello” to someone, you expect that the person will respond immediately. You do not expect that the person will get back to you sometime later in response to your greeting. In contrast, asynchronous communication is communication that is not immediate and occurs over longer periods of time, such as letters, email, or even text messages at times. When someone writes a book, letter, email, or text, there is no expectation from the sender that the receiver will provide an immediate response. Instead, the expectation is that the receiver will receive the message, and respond to it when they have time. This is one of the reasons people sometimes choose to send an email instead of calling another person because it allows the receiver to respond when they have time rather than “putting them on the spot” to respond right away. Just as new technologies are changing the rules of formality and informality, they are also creating new situations that break the norms of written communication as asynchronous and spoken communication as synchronous. Voicemail has turned the telephone and our talk into asynchronous forms of communication. Even though we speak in these contexts, we understand that if we leave a message on voicemail we will not get an immediate reply. Instead, we understand that the receiver will call us back at their convenience. In this example, even though the channel of communication is speaking, there is no expectation for immediate response to the sent message. Similarly, texting is a form of written communication that follows the rules of spoken conversation in that it functions as synchronous communication. When you type a text to someone you know, the expectation is that they will respond almost immediately. The lines continue to blur when video chats were introduced as communication technologies. These are a form of synchronous communication that mimics face to-face interaction and in some cases even have an option to send written messages to others. The possible back and forth between written and spoken communication has allowed many questions to arise about rules and meaning behind interactions. Maria Sindoni (2014) explains in her article, “Through the Looking Glass,” that even though people are having a synchronous conversation and are sharing meaning through their words, they are ultimately in different rooms and communicating through a machine which makes the meaning of their exchanges more ambiguous. The third difference between spoken and written communication is that written communication is generally archived and recorded for later retrieval, while spoken communication is generally not recorded. When we talk with friends, we do not tend to take notes or tape record our conversations. Instead, conversations tend to be ongoing and cataloged into our personal memories rather than recorded in an easily retrievable written format. On the other hand, it is quite easy to reference written works such as books, journals, magazines, newspapers, and electronic sources such as web pages and emails for long periods after the sender has written them. New communication applications like Vine add to the confusion. This app allows users to record themselves and post it to their profile. This would be considered a form of spoken communication, yet it is archived and asynchronous so others can look at the videos years after the original posting. To make the matter more complicated, Snapchat’s many functions come into play. On Snapchat you have the option of sending videos or photos that are traditionally not archived since the sender decides how long the receiver has to view it, then will theoretically disappear forever. Most recently with the addition of My Story, users of the app can post a picture for 24 hours and have their friends view it multiple times. The feeling of technological communication not being archived can lead to a false sense of privacy, which can lead to some negative consequences. As with the previous rules we’ve discussed, new technologies are changing many of the dynamics of speech and writing. For example, many people use email and texting informally like spoken conversation, as an informal form of verbal communication. Because of this, they often expect that these operate and function like a spoken conversation with the belief that it is a private conversation between the sender and receiver. However, many people have gotten into trouble because of what they have “spoken” to others through email and text. The corporation Epson (a large computer electronics manufacturer) was at the center of one of the first lawsuits regarding the recording and archiving of employees’ use of email correspondence. Employees at Epson assumed their email was private and therefore used it to say negative things about their bosses. What they didn’t know was their bosses were saving and printing these email messages, and using the content of these messages to make personnel decisions. When employees sued Epson, the courts ruled in favor of the corporation, stating that they had every right to retain employee email for their records.As you can see, there are a number of differences between spoken and written forms of verbal communication. Both forms are rule-governed as our definition points out, but the rules are often different for the use of these two types of verbal communication. However, it’s apparent that as new technologies provide more ways for us to communicate, many of our traditional rules for using both speech and writing will continue to blur as we try to determine the “most appropriate” uses of these new communication technologies. As more changes continue to occur in the ways we communicate with one another, more avenues of study will continue to open for those interested in being part of the development of how communication is conducted. 3.4 FUNCTIONS OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION Our existence is intimately tied to the communication we use, and verbal communication serves many functions in our daily lives. We use verbal communication to define reality, organize, think, and shape attitudes. • Verbal communication helps us define reality. We use verbal communication to define everything from ideas, emotions, experiences, thoughts, objects, and people (Blumer, 1969). Think about how you define yourself. You may define yourself as a student, employee, son/ daughter, parent, advocate, etc. You might also define yourself as moral, ethical, a night-owl, or a procrastinator. Verbal communication is how we label and define what we experience in our lives. These definitions are not only descriptive but evaluative. Imagine you are at the beach with a few of your friends. The day starts out sunny and beautiful, but the tides quickly turn when rain clouds appeared overhead. Because of the unexpected rain, you define the day as disappointing and ugly. Suddenly, your friend comments, “What are you talking about, man? Today is beautiful!” Instead of focusing on the weather, he might be referring to the fact that he was having a good day by spending quality time with his buddies on the beach, rain or shine. This statement reflects that we have choices for how we use verbal communication to define our realities. We make choices about what to focus on and how to define what we experience and its impact on how we understand and live in our world. • Verbal communication helps us organize complex ideas and experiences into meaningful categories. Consider the number of things you experience with your five primary senses every day. It is impossible to comprehend everything we encounter. We use verbal communication to organize seemingly random events into understandable categories to make sense of our experiences. For example, we all organize the people in our lives into categories. We label these people with terms like friends, acquaintances, romantic partners, family, peers, colleagues, and strangers. We highlight certain qualities, traits, or scripts to organize outwardly haphazard events into meaningful categories to establish meaning for our world. • Verbal communication helps us think. Without verbal communication, we would not function as thinking beings. The ability most often used to distinguish humans from other animals is our ability to reason and communicate. With language, we are able to reflect on the past, consider the present, and ponder the future. We develop our memories using language. Try recalling your first conscious memories. Chances are, your first conscious memories formed around the time you started using verbal communication. The example we used at the beginning of the chapter highlights what the world would be like for humans without language. In the 2011 Scientific American article, “How Language Shapes Thought“, Lera Boroditsky claims that people “rely on language even when doing simple things like distinguishing patches of color, counting dots on a screen or orienting in a small room: my colleagues and I have found that limiting people’s ability to access their language faculties fluently–by giving them a competing demanding verbal task such as repeating a news report, for instance–impairs their ability to perform these tasks.” This may be why it is difficult for some people to multitask – especially when one task involves speaking and the other involves thinking. • Verbal communication helps us shape our attitudes about our world. The way you use language shapes your attitude about the world around you. Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1920’s-30’s) developed the Sapir Whorf hypothesis to explain that language determines thought. People who speak different languages, or use language differently, think differently (Whorf, 1956; Sapir, 1958; Maxwell, 20o4; Perlovsky, 2009; Lucy, 2010; Simpson, 2011; Hussein, 2012). The argument suggests that if a native English speaker had the exact same experiences in their life, but grew up speaking Chinese instead of English, their worldview would be different because of the different symbols used to make sense of the world. When you label, describe or evaluate events in your life, you use the symbols of the language you speak. Your use of these symbols to represent your reality influences your perspective and attitude about the world. So, it makes sense then that the more sophisticated your repertoire of symbols is, the more sophisticated your world view can be for you. It is worth noting that some communication researchers are now critical of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in light of modern communication technologies. SUMMARY Summary In this module, we defined verbal communication as an agreed-upon and rule-governed system of symbols used to share meaning. These symbols are arbitrary, ambiguous, and abstract. The rules that dictate our use and understanding of symbols include phonology, semantics, syntactics, and pragmatics. As you recall there are distinct differences between written and spoken forms of verbal communication in terms of levels of formality, synchronicity, recording, and privacy. Yet, new technologies are beginning to blur some of these differences. Finally, verbal communication is central to our identity as humans and it allows us to define reality, organize ideas and experiences into categories, help us think, and shape our attitudes about the world. Discussion Questions 1. What kinds of definitions do you have for yourself? What do you think would happen if you changed some of your self-definitions? 2. How do advances in technology impact verbal communication? What are some examples? 3. How does popular culture impact our verbal communication? What are some examples? 4. When you use text messages or email, are you formal or informal? 5. To what extent do you believe that verbal communication drives thought, or vice versa Key Terms • abstract • ambiguous • arbitrary • asynchronous • connotative meaning • denotative meaning • euphemism • formal • informal • jargon • phonology • pragmatics • regionalism • rule-governed • semantics • slang • synchronous • syntactics • verbal communication REFERENCES Blumer, H. (1961). Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Boroditsky, L. (2011). How language shapes thought. Scientific American, 304(2), 62-65. CBS NEWS. (2000, April 25). Birth of a language. Retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/news/birth-of-a-language/ Collins, K. (2015). Sexting, vaping, and photobombing reach Oxford English Dictionary. In WIRED. Retrieved from http://www.wired.co.uk/article/sexting-vaping photobombing-new-words-oxford-english-dictionary Du Bois, J. W. (2010, February 2). Towards a dialogic syntax. Cognitive Linguistics, 25(3), 359-410. Duck, S. (1994). Maintenance as a shared meaning system. Communication and Relational Maintenance. San Diego, CA: Academic. Hussein, B. A. (2012). The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis today. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2, 642-646. Lucy, J. (2010). Through the window of language: Assessing the influence of language diversity on thought. THEORIA : An International Journal for Theory, 20, 299-309. Maxwell, A. (2004). Magyarization, language planning, and Whorf: The word as a case study in linguistic relativism. Multilingua – Journal of Cross-Cultural and InterlanguageCommunication,23(4), 319-37. Nelson, K., & Shaw, L.K. (2002). Developing a socially shared symbolic system. Language, Literacy, and Cognitive Development: The Development and Consequences of Symbolic Communication. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ogden, C. K., Richards, I. A.. (1923). The “meaning of meaning” a study of the influence of language upon thought and of the science of symbolism. NY: Harcourt Brace. Perlovsky, L. (2009). Language and emotions: Emotional Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis. Neural Networks,22(5), 518-526. Sapir, E. (1933). Communication. Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. NY: Macmillan. Sapir, E. (1958). Selected writings of Edward Sapir in language, culture and personality. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Simpson, B. (2011). Examination of the Sapir Whorf Hypothesis through the perspective of the comparison and contrast of the Chinese and Maya languages. UMI Dissertations Publishing. Sindoni, M. G. (2014). Through the looking glass: A social semiotic and linguistic perspective on the study of video chats. Text & Talk, 34, 325-347. Whorf, B. L. & Carroll, J.B. (1956). Language, thought, and reality: Selected writings. Cambridge, MA: Technology of Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Components of some images were retrieved from Pixaby and were CC0. • speech bubble • cat All images not credited otherwise were created by H. Rayl and are available under the CC-BY 4.0 license.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.700271	Terri Johnson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98446/overview", "title": "CHAPTER 3: VERBAL COMMUNICATION", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90267/overview	french film 20-40 presentation elevenb french film 20-40 presentation elevenc french film 20-40 presentation eleven Overview french film 20-40 presentation eleven french film 20-40 preesntation eleven french film 20-40 presentation eleven	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.720550	02/21/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90267/overview", "title": "french film 20-40 presentation eleven", "author": "stuart lenig" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61041/overview	Electronic Structure Slide Notes Chemistry: Electronic Structure Overview Lecture on Electronic Structure with a powerpoint presentation and corresponding lecture slide notes. Chemistry: Electronic Structure Power Point Presentation about Electronic Structure with corresponding lecture slide notes.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:49.737475	12/27/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61041/overview", "title": "Chemistry: Electronic Structure", "author": "Philip Shivokevich" }

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