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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88063/overview	War in China, Burma, India Overview War in the China/Burma/India Theater, 1942-43 One of the major theaters in the Second World War was the China-Burma-India Theater, a designation given to the areas of fighting in Burma and India between Japanese and Allied forces. The fighting in this theater was related to the fighting between Japanese and Chinese forces in China and Japanese and Allied forces in the Pacific. Two of the key factors in the defeat of the Axis Powers as a whole and Japan in particular were the greater resources of and cooperation among the Allies, on display in the China Burma India Theater. The British dispatched a field army and the U.S. other forces to assist Burmese and Indian forces in their efforts against the Japanese, and to augment Chinese efforts against the Japanese in the CBI Theater. The Germans and the Italians, on the other hand, could not provide aid to the Japanese. The course of the war in this theater also illustrated a number of the complexities in the Second World War, particularly resentment felt by people in Burma and India toward the Allies, feelings that the Japanese tried to exploit, as illustrated by the creation of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Allied victory in the China-Burma-India Theater finally represented the existential nature of World War II, with the ultimate disintegration of the Japanese war effort. Learning Objectives - Identify key features of Japanese politics and territorial expansion prior to the outbreak of World War II, including the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War. - Outline the course of World War II from 1941 through 1945 in the China-Burma-India Theater. - Assess the historic significance and impact of World War II in the China-Burma-India Theater. Key Terms / Key Concepts China-Burma-India Theater: name for the Asian theater in World War, with most of the fighting in these three countries In March and April 1942, a powerful IJN carrier force launched a raid against British bases in the Indian Ocean. IJN carrier aircraft struck British Royal Navy bases in Ceylon and sank the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes, along with other Allied ships. The attack forced the Royal Navy to withdraw to the western part of the Indian Ocean, and this paved the way for a Japanese assault on Burma and India. In Burma, the British, under intense pressure, made a fighting retreat from Rangoon to the Indo-Burmese border. This cut the Burma Road, which was the western Allies' supply line to the Chinese Nationalists. In March 1942, the Chinese Expeditionary Force started to attack Japanese forces in northern Burma. On 16 April, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division, led by Sun Li-jen. As the Chinese war effort progress against Japan through the alliance of Chinese Nationalists and Communists, cooperation between the Chinese Nationalists and the Communists, waned, particularly from its zenith in the June-October 1938 Battle of Wuhan, and the relationship between the two had gone sour as both attempted to expand their areas of operation in occupied territories. The Japanese exploited this lack of unity to press ahead in their offensives. On 2 November 1943, Isamu Yokoyama, commander of the Imperial Japanese 11th Army, deployed the 39th, 58th, 13th, 3rd, 116th and 68th Divisions, a total of around 100,000 troops, to attack Changde. During the seven-week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly campaign of attrition. Although the Imperial Japanese Army initially successfully captured the city, the Chinese 57th Division was able to pin them down long enough for reinforcements to arrive and encircle the Japanese. The Chinese then cut Japanese supply lines, provoking a retreat and Chinese pursuit. During the battle, Japan used chemical weapons. Although Japan, Germany, and Italy were nominally allies, there was little cooperation between the three, particularly between Japan and either Germany or Italy because of the distance of the Asian theaters from the European and North African theaters. In practice, there was little coordination between Japan and Germany until 1944, by which time the Allies had the Axis Powers on the defensive.. Cairo Conference On 22 November 1943 US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and ROC Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, met in Cairo, Egypt to discuss a strategy to defeat Japan. The meeting was known as the Cairo Conference and concluded with the Cairo Declaration. This conference was one of a succession of wartime conferences among the Allied leaders toward the end of adjusting their strategies and cooperation as their war efforts progress against the Axis Powers. Burma 1942–1943 In the aftermath of the Japanese conquest of Burma, there was widespread disorder and pro-Independence agitation in eastern India, as well as a disastrous famine in Bengal that ultimately caused up to 3 million deaths. In spite of these uprisings and issues, as well as inadequate lines of communication, British and Indian forces attempted limited counter-attacks in Burma in early 1943. An offensive in Arakan failed, shamefully in the view of some senior officers, while a long-distance raid mounted by the Chindits under Brigadier Orde Wingate suffered heavy losses. This was publicized to bolster Allied morale, and it provoked the Japanese to mount major offensives themselves the following year. In August 1943 the Allies formed a new South East Asia Command (SEAC) to take over strategic responsibilities for Burma and India from the British India Command, under Wavell. In October 1943 Winston Churchill appointed Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten as the Supreme Commander of the SEAC, and the British and Indian Fourteenth Army was formed to face the Japanese in Burma. Under Lieutenant General William Slim, its training, morale, and health greatly improved. The American General Joseph Stilwell, who also was deputy commander to Mountbatten and commanded US forces in the China Burma India Theater, directed aid to China and prepared to construct the Ledo Road to link India and China by land. In 1943, the Thai Phayap Army invasion headed to Xishuangbanna at China, but they were driven back by the Chinese Expeditionary Force. War in the China/Burma/India Theater, 1944-45 The war in the China-Burma-India Theater continued into 1944 with both sides taking the offensive. Utlimately, Allied cooperation and logistical superiority would triumph over the Japanese war effort. Learning Objectives - Identify key features of Japanese politics and territorial expansion prior to the outbreak of World War II, including the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War. - Outline the course of World War II from 1941 through 1945 in the China-Burma-India Theater. - Assess the historic significance and impact of World War II in the China-Burma-India Theater. Key Terms / Key Concepts China-Burma-India Theater: name for the Asian theater in World War, with most of the fighting in these three countries Japanese Counteroffensives in China, 1944 In mid-1944 Japan mobilized over 500,000 men and launched a massive operation across China, which was their largest offensive of World War II. The goal of Ichi-Go was connecting Japanese-controlled territory in China and French Indochina and capturing airbases in southeastern China where American bombers were based. During this time, about 250,000 newly American-trained Chinese troops under Joseph Stilwell and Chinese expeditionary force were forcibly locked in the Burmese theater by the terms of the Lend-Lease Agreement. Though Japan suffered about 100,000 casualties, these attacks—the biggest in several years—gained much ground for Japan before Chinese forces stopped the incursions in Guangxi. Despite major tactical victories, the operation overall failed to provide Japan with any significant strategic gains. A great majority of the Chinese forces were able to retreat out of the area and later come back to attack Japanese positions at the Battle of West Hunan. Japan was not any closer to defeating China after this operation, and the constant defeats the Japanese suffered in the Pacific meant that Japan never got the time and resources needed to achieve final victory over China. This unsuccessful Japanese offensive also created a great sense of social confusion in the areas of China that it affected. Chinese Communist guerrillas were able to exploit this confusion to gain influence and control of greater areas of the countryside in the aftermath of Ichi-go. Japanese Offensive in India, 1944 After the Allied setbacks in 1943, the South East Asia command prepared to launch offensives into Burma on several fronts. In the first months of 1944, while the Chinese and American troops of the Northern Combat Area Command (NCAC) were extending the Ledo Road from India into northern Burma, the XV Corps began an advance along the coast in Arakan Province. In February 1944 the Japanese mounted a local counterattack in Arakan. After early Japanese success, this counterattack was defeated when the Indian divisions of XV Corps stood firm, relying on aircraft to drop supplies to isolated forward units until reserve divisions could relieve them. The Japanese responded to the Allied attacks by launching an offensive of their own into India in the middle of March, across the mountainous and densely forested frontier. This attack, codenamed Operation U-Go, was advocated by Lieutenant General Renya Mutaguchi—the recently promoted commander of the Japanese Fifteenth Army. Imperial General Headquarters permitted it to proceed, despite misgivings at several intervening headquarters. Although several units of the British Fourteenth Army had to fight their way out of encirclement, by early April they had concentrated around Imphal in the Manipur state of India. A Japanese division which had advanced to Kohima in Nagaland cut the main road to Imphal, but they failed to capture the whole of the defenses at Kohima. During April, the Japanese attacks against Imphal failed, while fresh Allied formations drove the Japanese from the positions they had captured at Kohima. As many Japanese had feared, Japan's supply arrangements could not maintain its forces. Once Mutaguchi's hopes for an early victory were thwarted, his troops, particularly those at Kohima, starved. During May, while Mutaguchi continued to order attacks, the Allies advanced southwards from Kohima and northwards from Imphal. The two Allied attacks met on 22 June, breaking the Japanese siege of Imphal. The Japanese finally broke off the operation on 3 July. They had lost over 50,000 troops, mainly to starvation and disease. This represented the worst defeat suffered by the Imperial Japanese Army to that date. Although the advance in Arakan had been halted to release troops and aircraft for the Battle of Imphal, the Americans and Chinese had continued to advance in northern Burma, aided by the Chindits operating against the Japanese lines of communication. In the middle of 1944 the Chinese Expeditionary Force invaded northern Burma from Yunnan. They captured a fortified position at Mount Song] By the time campaigning ceased during the monsoon rains, the Northern Combat Area Command had secured a vital airfield at Myitkyina (August 1944), which eased the problems of air resupply from India to China over "The Hump". Allied Offensives in Burma, 1944–1945 In late 1944 and early 1945, the Allied South East Asia Command launched offensives into Burma, intending to recover most of the country, including the capital Rangoon, before the onset of the monsoon in May. The offensives were fought primarily by British Commonwealth, Chinese, and United States forces against the forces of Imperial Japan, who were assisted to some degree by Thailand, the Burma National Army and the Indian National Army. The British Commonwealth land forces were drawn primarily from the United Kingdom, British India, and Africa. The Indian XV Corps advanced along the coast in Arakan Province, at last capturing Akyab Island after failures to do so in the two previous years. They then landed troops behind the retreating Japanese, inflicting heavy casualties; this led to the capture of Ramree Island and Cheduba Island off the coast, where they established airfields that were used to support the offensive into Central Burma. The Chinese Expeditionary Force captured Mong-Yu and Lashio, while the Chinese and American Northern Combat Area Command resumed its advance in northern Burma. In late January 1945, these two forces linked up with each other at Hsipaw. The Ledo Road was completed, linking India and China, but it was too late in the war to have any significant effect. The Japanese Burma Area Army attempted to forestall the main Allied attack on the central part of the front by withdrawing their troops behind the Irrawaddy River. Lieutenant General Heitarō Kimura—the new Japanese commander in Burma—, hoped that the Allies' lines of communications would be overstretched trying to cross this obstacle. However, the advancing British Fourteenth Army under Lieutenant General William Slim switched its axis of advance to outflank the main Japanese armies. During February, the Fourteenth Army secured bridgeheads across the Irrawaddy on a broad front. On 1 March, these units captured the supply center of Meiktila, throwing the Japanese into disarray. While the Japanese attempted to recapture Meiktila, XXXIII Corps captured Mandalay. The Japanese armies were heavily defeated, and, with the capture of Mandalay, the Burmese population and the Burma National Army (which the Japanese had raised) turned against the Japanese. During April, the Fourteenth Army advanced 300 miles (480 km) south towards Rangoon—the capital and principal port of Burma, but it was delayed by Japanese rearguards 40 miles (64 km) north of Rangoon at the end of the month. In May the Fourteenth Army occupied Rangoon, already abandoned by Japanese forces, and linked up with Fourteenth Army five days later, securing the Allies' lines of communication. The Japanese forces which had been bypassed by the Allied advances attempted to break out across the Sittaung River during June and July to rejoin the Burma Area Army, which had regrouped in Tenasserim in southern Burma. They suffered 14,000 casualties, half their strength. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma. Only 1,700 Japanese soldiers surrendered and were taken prisoner. The Allies were preparing to make amphibious landings in Malaya when word of the Japanese surrender arrived. Concurrently, that spring the Chinese managed to repel a Japanese offensive in Henan and Hubei. Afterwards, Chinese forces retook Hunan and Hubei provinces in South China. In August 1945, Chinese forces successfully retook Guangxi. Ironically, in light of Japan’s stated goal of claiming to free Asian peoples from European imperialism, the defeat of Japan in World War II in Asia paved the way for decolonization across Asia, with the appearance of a number of new nations, such as India and Pakistan. In a related development Japan’s defeat ended the truce between Chinese communists and nationalists, culminating in the emergence of the latest incarnation of Chinese civilization in 1949: the People’s Republic of China. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Title Image - photo M4A4 Sherman tank in east Burma, taken 1943 or 1944. Attribution: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia Commons. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_Sherman.jpg. License: Creative Commons CC0 License. Wikipedia "China Burma India Theater" Adapted from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Burma_India_Theater CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY Curation and Revision. Provided by: Wikipedia.com. License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0 CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Rossi, J.R. (1998). "The Flying Tigers – American Volunteer Group – Chinese Air Force". AVG. - ^ Bliss K. Thorne, The Hump: The Great Military Airlift of World War II (1965) - ^ Michael Schaller, The U.S. Crusade in China, 1938–1945 (1982) - ^ Barbara W. Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911–45 (1971) ch 10 - ^ Jump up to:a b Donovan Webster, The Burma Road: The Epic Story of the China–Burma–India Theater in World War II (2003) - ^ Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911–45 (1971) ch. 12–14 - ^ Bernstein, Richard (2014). China 1945 : Mao's revolution and America's fateful choice (First ed.). New York. pp. 39–44. ISBN 9780307595881. - ^ Central Intelligence Agency. Behind Japanese Lines in Burma: The Stuff of Intelligence Legend (2001). Retrieved 30 May 2012. - ^ Peers, William R. and Dean Brelis. Behind the Burma Road: The Story of America’s Most Successful Guerrilla Force. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1963, back cover. - ^ Jump up to:a b Chapter XIX: The Second Front and the Secondary War The CBI: January–May 1944. The Mounting of the B-29 Offensive in Maurice Matloff References Page 442 - ^ Jump up to:a b c Slim 1956, pp. 205–207. - ^ L, Klemen (1999–2000). "Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Edmund Charles Peirse". Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. - ^ Jump up to:a b Roll of Honour, Britain at War, The Air Forces in Burma http://www.roll-of-honour.org.uk/Cemeteries/Rangoon_Memorial/html/air_forces_in_burma.htm - ^ Masters, John. The Road Past Mandalay, Bantam Press (1979), pp. 146–148 and 308–309 - ^ Air of Authority – A History of RAF Organisation: Overseas Commands – Iraq, India and the Far East Archived 6 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine - ^ Jump up to:a b Mountbatten, Admiral Lord Louis, Address to the Press, August 1944 http://www.burmastar.org.uk/aug44mountbatten.htm Archived 29 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine - ^ Adrian Fort, Archibald Wavell: The Life and Death of the Imperial Servant (2009) - ^ Edward Young, Merrill's Marauders (2009) - ^ assault on Myitkyina town Archived 9 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine - ^ Wedemeyer, Albert C. (1958). Wedemeyer Reports! Autobiography.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:57.734822	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88063/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 14: The World Afire: World War II, War in China, Burma, India", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88116/overview	Contemporary China and India Overview Contemporary China In the 21st century, two nations alone, China and India, account for just over one-third of the world’s population. In this century, both nations have become economic powerhouses that have asserted what they each believe to be their national interest: China’s domination over East Asia and India’s embrace of its own Hindu traditions. Learning Objectives - Examine China’s policies regarding the South China Sea. - Analyze the rise of Hindu nationalism and Neoliberal policies in contemporary India. Key Terms / Key Concepts Association of Southeast Asian Nations: a regional organization comprising ten Southeast Asian states, which promotes intergovernmental cooperation and facilitates economic integration amongst its members exclusive economic zone: a sea zone prescribed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, over which a state has special rights regarding the exploration and use of marine resources, including energy production from water and wind nine-dash line: a term that refers to the demarcation line used initially by the government of the Republic of China (ROC/Taiwan) and subsequently also by the government of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), for their claims of the major part of the South China Sea Philippines v. China: an arbitration case brought by the Republic of the Philippines against the People’s Republic of China under Annex VII to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) concerning certain issues in the South China Sea, including the legality of China’s “nine-dash line” claim United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: the international agreement that defines the rights and responsibilities of nations with respect to their use of the world’s oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural resources (It was concluded in 1982.) Tension in the South China Sea One-third of the world’s shipping sails through the South China Sea, and it is believed to hold huge oil and gas reserves beneath its seabed. The South China Sea is a marginal sea that is part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from the Karimata and Malacca Straits to the Strait of Taiwan (around 3.5 million sq km or 1.4 million sq mi). The sea is located south of China, east of Vietnam and Cambodia, northwest of the Philippines, east of the Malay peninsula and Sumatra, up to the Strait of Malacca in the west, and north of the Bangka–Belitung Islands and Borneo. Several countries have made competing territorial claims over the South China Sea, and these territorial disputes are Asia’s most potentially dangerous source of conflict. Both the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC, commonly known as Taiwan) claim almost the entire body as their own, demarcating their claims within what is known as the nine-dash line. The area overlaps the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) claims of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Indonesia, China, and Taiwan all lay claim over waters northeast of the Natuna Islands. Vietnam, China, and Taiwan all lay claim over waters west of the Spratly Islands, some of which are also disputed between Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines. The Paracel Islands are disputed between China, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Malaysia, Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam lay claim over areas in the Gulf of Thailand. Singapore and Malaysia claim waters along the Strait of Johore and the Strait of Singapore. The disputes include the islands, reefs, banks, and other features of the South China Sea, including the Spratly Islands, Paracel Islands, and various boundaries in the Gulf of Tonkin. There are further disputes, including the waters near the Indonesian Natuna Islands, which many do not regard as part of the South China Sea. The states with these conflicting claims are interested in retaining or acquiring the rights to fishing areas, the exploration and potential exploitation of crude oil and natural gas in the seabed of various parts of the South China Sea, and the strategic control of important shipping lanes. Importance of the South China Sea The area of the South China Sea may be rich in oil and natural gas deposits although estimates vary from 7.5 billion to 125 billion barrels of oil and from 190 trillion cubic feet to 500 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. The once abundant fishing opportunities within the region are another motivation for claims. China believes that the value in fishing and oil from the sea may be as much as a trillion dollars. According to studies made by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (Philippines), this body of water holds one-third of the entire world’s marine biodiversity, making it a very important area for the ecosystem. However, the fish stocks in the area are depleted and countries are using fishing bans to assert their sovereignty claims. Finally, the area is one of the busiest shipping routes in the world. In the 1980s, at least 270 merchant ships used the route each day. Currently, more than half the tonnage of oil transported by sea passes through the South China Sea, a figure rising steadily with the growth of the Chinese consumption of oil. This traffic is three times greater than that passing through the Suez Canal and five times more than the Panama Canal. Disputes China and Vietnam have both been vigorous in prosecuting their claims to this region. China and South Vietnam each controlled part of the Paracel Islands before 1974. A brief conflict in 1974 resulted in 18 Chinese and 53 Vietnamese deaths and China has controlled the whole of Paracel since then. The Spratly Islands have been the site of a naval clash, in which over 70 Vietnamese sailors were killed in 1988. Disputing claimants regularly report clashes between naval vessels. In 2011, a vessel identifying itself as the Chinese Navy reportedly contacted one of India’s amphibious assault vessels on an open radio channel; the Indian vessel was on a friendly visit to Vietnam, when it was spotted at a distance of 45 nautical miles from the Vietnamese coast in the disputed South China Sea. The Chinese vessel stated that the Indian ship was entering Chinese waters. The spokesperson for the Indian Navy clarified that as no ship or aircraft was visible, the vessel would thus proceed on her onward journey as scheduled. The same year, shortly after China and Vietnam had signed an agreement seeking to contain a dispute over the South China Sea, India’s state-run explorer, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) said that its overseas investment arm, ONGC Videsh Limited, had signed a three-year deal with PetroVietnam for developing long-term cooperation in the oil sector. The ONGC also accepted Vietnam’s offer of exploration in certain specified blocks in the South China Sea. In response, the Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Jiang Yu issued a protest. Vietnam and Japan reached an agreement early in 1978 on the development of oil in the South China Sea. By 2012, Vietnam had concluded some 60 oil and gas exploration and production contracts with various foreign companies. In 2011, Vietnam was the sixth-largest oil producer in the Asia-Pacific region, although the country is a net oil importer. China’s first independently designed and constructed oil drilling platform in the South China Sea was the Ocean Oil 981. It began operation in 2012, 320 kilometers (200 mi) southeast of Hong Kong, employing 160 people. In 2014, the platform was moved near to the Paracel Islands, which propelled Vietnam to state that this move violated their territorial claims. Chinese officials said it was legal, stating the area lies in waters surrounding the Paracel Islands, which China occupies and controls militarily. Other nations besides Vietnam and China have contested for this region. In 2012 and 2013, Vietnam and Taiwan clashed over what Vietnam considered anti-Vietnamese military exercises by Taiwan. Prior to the dispute around the sea areas, fishermen from involved countries tended to enter on each other’s controlled islands and EEZ, which led to conflicts with the authorities that controlled the areas, as they were unaware of the exact borders. Due to the depletion of the fishing resources in their maritime areas, fishermen felt compelled to fish in the neighboring country’s areas. After Joko Widodo became President of Indonesia in 2014, he imposed a policy threatening to destroy the vessels of any foreign fishermen caught illegally fishing in Indonesian waters. Since then, many neighboring countries’ fishing vessels have been blown up by Indonesian authorities. On May 21, 2015, around 41 fishing vessels from China, Vietnam, Thailand, and the Philippines were blown up. On March 19, 2016, China Coast Guard prevented its fishermen from being detained by Indonesian authorities when the Chinese fishermen were caught fishing near the waters around Natuna, leading to a protest by Indonesian authorities. Further Indonesian campaigns against foreign fishermen resulted in 23 fishing boats from Malaysia and Vietnam being blown up on April 5, 2016. The South China Sea had also become known for Indonesian pirates, with frequent attacks on Malaysian, Singaporean, and Vietnamese fishing vessels and for Filipino pirates attacking Vietnamese fishermen. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), in general, and Malaysia, in particular, have been keen to ensure that the territorial disputes within the South China Sea do not escalate into armed conflicts. Joint Development Authorities have been set up in areas of overlapping claims to jointly develop the area and divide the profits equally, without settling the issue of sovereignty. Generally, China has preferred to resolve competing claims bilaterally, while some ASEAN countries prefer multi-lateral talks, believing that they are disadvantaged in bilateral negotiations with China. ASEAN countries maintain that only multilateral talks could effectively resolve the competing claims because so many countries claim the same territory. For example, the International Court of Justice settled the overlapping claims over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Putih, including neighboring Middle Rocks, by Singapore and Malaysia in 2008, awarding Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh to Singapore and Middle Rocks to Malaysia. An estimated US $5 trillion worth of global trade passes through the South China Sea and there are many non-claimant states that want the South China Sea to remain as international waters. Several states (e.g., the United States) are conducting “freedom of navigation” operations to promote this situation. U.S. and Chinese Positions The United States and China are currently in disagreement over the South China Sea, exacerbated by the fact that the US is not a member of the United Nations Convention on the law of the Sea (the United States recognizes the UNCLOS as a codification of customary international law but has not ratified it). Nevertheless, the U.S. has stood by its claim that “peaceful surveillance activities and other military activities without permission in a country’s exclusive economic zone” are allowed under the convention. In relation to the dispute, former U.S. State Secretary Hillary Clinton voiced her support for fair access by reiterating that freedom of navigation and respect of international law is a matter of national interest to the United States. Clinton testified in support of congressional approval of the Law of the Sea Convention, which would strengthen U.S. ability to support countries that oppose Chinese claims to certain islands in the area. Clinton also called for China to resolve the territorial dispute, but China responded by demanding the U.S. stay out of the issue. China’s Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi stated that the stand was “in effect an attack on China” and warned the United States against making the South China Sea an international or multilateral issue. This came at a time when both countries were engaging in naval exercises in a show of force to the opposing side, which increased tensions in the region. The U.S. Department of Defense released a statement in which it opposed the use of force to resolve the dispute and accused China of assertive behavior. In 2014, the United States responded to China’s claims over the fishing grounds of other nations by stating that “China has not offered any explanation or basis under international law for these extensive maritime claims.” While the US pledged American support for the Philippines in its territorial conflicts with the PRC, the Chinese Foreign Ministry asked the United States to maintain a neutral position on the issue. In 2014 and 2015, the United States continued freedom of navigation operations, including in the South China Sea. In 2015, Secretary of Defense Ash Carter warned China to halt its rapid island-building. In November 2015, two US B-52 strategic bombers flew near artificial Chinese-built islands in the area of the Spratly Islands and were contacted by Chinese ground controllers but continued their mission undeterred. In response to U.S. Secretary of State, Rex Tillerson’s comments on blocking access to Chinese man-made islands in the South China Sea, in January 2017, the Communist Party-controlled Global Times warned of a “large-scale war” between the U.S. and China, noting, “Unless Washington plans to wage a large-scale war in the South China Sea, any other approaches to prevent Chinese access to the islands will be foolish.” The position of China on its maritime claims based on UNCLOS and history has been ambiguous, particularly with the nine-dash line map. For example, in 2011, China stated that it has undisputed sovereignty over the islands and the adjacent waters, suggesting it is claiming sovereignty over its territorial waters, a position consistent with UNCLOS. However, it also stated that China enjoys sovereign rights and jurisdiction over the relevant waters along with the seabed and subsoil contained in this region, suggesting that China is claiming sovereignty over all of the maritime space (includes all the geographic features and the waters within the nine-dash line). China has also repeatedly indicated that the Chinese claims are drawn on a historical basis. The vast majority of international legal experts have concluded that China’s current claims, which are based on historical claims, are invalid. For example, in 2013, the Republic of the Philippines brought an arbitration case against the People’s Republic of China under Annex VII to UNCLOS, concerning certain issues in the South China Sea including the legality of China’s “nine-dash line” claim (Philippines v. China, known also as the South China Sea Arbitration). China declared that it would not participate in the arbitration but in 2015, the arbitral tribunal ruled that it had jurisdiction over the case, taking up seven of the 15 submissions made by the Philippines. In 2016, the tribunal ruled in favor of the Philippines. It clarified that it would not “…rule on any question of sovereignty over land territory and would not delimit any maritime boundary between the Parties.” The tribunal also confirmed that China has “no historical rights” based on the “nine-dash line” map. China has rejected the ruling, as has Taiwan. Contemporary India Over the first two decades of the 21st century, India's economy has expanded, but tensions between its Muslim and Hindu communities have increased as well. Key Terms / Key Concepts 2002 Gujarat riots: a three-day period of inter-communal violence in the western Indian state of Gujarat in 2002 Bharatiya Janata Party: one of the two major political parties in India, along with the Indian National Congress; as of 2017, India’s largest political party in terms of representation in the national parliament and state assemblies Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh: a right-wing, Hindu nationalist, paramilitary volunteer organization in India widely regarded as the parent organization of the ruling party of India, the Bharatiya Janata Party; founded in 1925, the world’s largest non-governmental organization that claims commitment to selfless service to India India under Modi India under Modi, a right-wing, nationalistic Prime Minister—has gone through numerous neoliberal reforms that contribute to its impressive economic growth, pleasing businesspeople and industrialists but widening inequalities between the wealthy and the poor and highlighting the ongoing challenges of poverty, corruption, and gender violence. Narendra Modi (b. 1950) is the current Prime Minister of India (as of March 2017), and he has been in office since May 2014. He was the Chief Minister of Gujarat from 2001 to 2014. He is the Member of Parliament for the Varanasi district (Utter Pradesh), a member of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)—which is one of the two major political parties in India. Modi is also a member of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS)—a right-wing, Hindu nationalist, paramilitary volunteer organization in India widely regarded as the parent organization of the BJP. Born to a Gujarati family in Vadnagar, Modi helped his father sell tea as a child and later ran his own stall. He was introduced to the RSS at age eight, beginning a long association with the organization. He left home after graduating from school, partly because of an arranged marriage, which he did not accept. Modi traveled around India for two years and visited a number of religious centers. In 1971 he became a full-time worker for the RSS. During the state of emergency imposed across the country in 1975, Modi was forced to go into hiding. The RSS assigned him to the BJP in 1985, and he held several positions within the party hierarchy until 2001, rising to the rank of general secretary. Modi was appointed chief minister of Gujarat in 2001. His administration has been considered complicit in the 2002 Gujarat riots—a three-day period of inter-communal violence. Following this incident, outbreaks of violence in Ahmedabad occurred for three weeks. Statewide, communal riots against the minority Muslim population occurred for three months. According to official figures, the riots resulted in the deaths of 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus. 2,500 people were injured non-fatally and 223 more were reported missing. There were instances of rape, children being burned alive, and widespread looting and destruction of property. Modi has been accused of initiating and condoning the violence, as have police and government officials who allegedly directed the rioters and gave them lists of Muslim-owned properties. In 2012, Modi was cleared of complicity in the violence by a Special Investigation Team (SIT) appointed by the Supreme Court of India. The SIT also rejected claims that the state government had not done enough to prevent the riots. The Muslim community reacted with anger and disbelief. In 2013, allegations were made that the SIT had suppressed evidence, but the Supreme Court expressed satisfaction over the SIT’s investigations. While officially classified as a communalist riot, the events have been described as a pogrom by many scholars. Other observers have stated that these events met the legal definition of genocide and called it an instance of state terrorism or ethnic cleansing. Modi led the BJP in the 2014 general election, which gave the party a majority in the parliament, the first time a single party had achieved this since 1984. Credited with engineering a political realignment towards right-wing politics, Modi remains a figure of controversy, domestically and internationally, over his Hindu nationalist beliefs and his role during the 2002 Gujarat riots, cited as evidence of an exclusionary social agenda. Modi's Hindi nationalist stance threatens to further harm India's relations with neighboring Pakistan with its Muslim majority population, especially considering the wars between India and Pakistan since the divsion of the Indian subcontinent with the end of British occupation. The posssession of nuclear weapons by both India and Pakistan since the 1990s increases the dangers that any future war between these two nations would entail. The economic policies of Modi’s government focused on privatization and liberalization of the economy based on a neoliberal framework. Modi updated India’s foreign direct investment policies to allow more foreign investment in several industries, including defense and the railways. Other reforms included removing many of the country’s labor laws to make it harder for workers to form unions and easier for employers to hire and fire them. These reforms met with support from institutions such as the World Bank, but opposition from scholars within the country. The labor laws also drew strong opposition from unions. The funds dedicated to poverty reduction programs and social welfare measures were greatly decreased by the Modi administration. The government also lowered corporate taxes, abolished the wealth tax, reduced customs duties on gold and jewelry, and increased sales taxes. In 2014, Modi introduced the Make in India initiative to encourage foreign companies to manufacture products in India, with the goal of turning the country into a global manufacturing hub. Supporters of economic liberalization supported the initiative, while critics argued it would allow foreign corporations to capture a greater share of the Indian market. To enable the construction of private industrial corridors, the Modi administration passed a land-reform bill that allowed it to acquire private agricultural land, without conducting social impact assessment and without the consent of the farmers who owned it. The bill was passed via an executive order after it faced opposition in parliament but was eventually allowed to lapse. In 2015, Modi launched a program intended to develop 100 smart cities, which is expected to bring information technology companies an extra benefit of ₹20 billion ($300 million US). Modi also launched the Housing for All By 2022 project, which intends to eliminate slums in India by building about 20 million affordable homes for India’s urban poor. Modi’s government reduced the amount of money spent by the government on healthcare and launched a New Health Policy, which emphasizes the role of private healthcare. This represented a shift away from the policy of the previous Congressional government, which had supported programs to assist public health goals, including reducing child and maternal mortality rates. Modi also launched the Clean India campaign (2014) to eliminate open defecation and manual scavenging. As part of the program, the Indian government began constructing millions of toilets in rural areas and encouraging people to use them. The government also announced plans to build new sewage treatment plants. Modi’s reformist approach has made him very popular with the public. At the end of his first year in office, he received an overall approval rating of 87% in a Pew Research poll, with 68% of people rating him “very favorably” and 93% approving of his government. At the end of his second year in office, an updated Pew Research poll showed Modi continued to receive high overall approval ratings of 81%, with 57% of those polled rating him “very favorably.” In naming his cabinet, Modi renamed the Ministry of Environment and Forests the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change. In the first budget of the government, the money allotted to this ministry was reduced by more than 50%. The new ministry also removed or diluted a number of laws related to environmental protection. These included no longer requiring clearance from the National Board for Wildlife for projects close to protected areas and allowing certain projects to proceed before environmental clearance was received. Modi also relaxed or abolished a number of other environmental regulations, particularly those related to industrial activity. A government committee stated that the existing system only created corruption and that the government should instead rely on the owners of industries to voluntarily inform the government about the pollution they were creating. In addition, Modi lifted a moratorium on new industrial activity in the most polluted areas. The changes were welcomed by businesspeople but criticized by environmentalists. Attributions Title Image Indian Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, 2015. Prime Minister's Office, Government of India, GODL-India <https://data.gov.in/sites/default/files/Gazette_Notification_OGDL.pdf>, via Wikimedia Commons Adapted from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/east-asia-in-the-21st-century/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:57.780745	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88116/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 17: Post-Cold War International Structure, Contemporary China and India", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88056/overview	Neutral Nations in World War II Overview Choosing Neutrality: Spain, Sweden, Switzerland Although most European countries chose to support either the Allies, or the Axis Powers in World War II, a handful remained neutral for various reasons. Often those reasons were economic and political. In addition to the few European nations, most Latin American countries also countries also chose neutrality in World War II. Learning Objectives - Identify the nations which were neutral durling all or part of World War II, explain the reasons for the neutrality of each, outline the course of the neutrality of each, and assess the historic impact and significance of the neutrality of each. Key Terms / Key Concepts Francisco Franco: a Spanish general who ruled over Spain as a dictator for 36 years from 1939 until his death (He took control of Spain from the government of the Second Spanish Republic after winning the Civil War, and was in power until 1978, when the Spanish Constitution of 1978 went into effect.) Thirty Years War: a series of wars in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648, growing out of the Protestant Reformation NATO: an intergovernmental military alliance signed on April 4, 1949 and including the five Treaty of Brussels states (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the United Kingdom) plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland Warsaw Pact: a collective defense treaty among the Soviet Union and seven other Soviet satellite states in Central and Eastern Europe during the Cold War Spain Although Spain was under the fascist government of General Francisco Franco, it remained neutral during the Second World War. Neither the Allied nor the Axis Powers in the European Theater relished the prospects of opening another front in order to force Spain into action. Moreover, after the Spanish Civil War Franco’s fascist government was in no position to participate in the war as a belligerent. At the beginning of World War II, Franco had considered joining the Axis Powers, but his demands for an alliance with Germany proved too much for Hitler. Franco favored Hitler’s and Mussolini’s governments ideologically and believed that Italy and Germany that would protect Spain. Through 1943 the Allies treated Franco’s government delicately. The Allies provided Spain with the food and raw materials needed to keep its economy running. In return, Franco’s government did not threaten British access to Gibraltar on the southern tip of Spain. British possession of Gibraltar allowed the Allies to maintain control over the Mediterranean Sea and win the Battle of the Atlantic against German U-boats. Both were necessary for Allied victory in the European Theater. Sweden Geography, iron ore deposits, and the imperatives of the Allied Powers and Germany were the reasons for Swedish neutrality. Ideologically Sweden supported the Allies, but with the German conquest of Denmark and Norway in the spring of 1940; and because of its own small military at that time, Sweden had to accept neutrality and even provide Germany with iron ore. As the Allied war effort progressed against Germany after 1944 and as the Swedish military grew more powerful, the Swedish government acted more assertively in dealing with a weakening Germany. This included denying German military demands in the last year of the war. After WWII, Sweden maintained its neutral and non-aligned orientation in the Cold War. Switzerland Swiss neutrality was guaranteed in part by its mountainous geography, which served to partially isolate it from its neighbors. Switzerland had been neutral in the First World War and had a tradition of neutrality in European wars going back to the Thirty Years War in the seventeenth century. In addition, Switzerland had a small but effective military, which would have made conquest by either side costly. Despite these advantages Swiss leaders feared a possible German invasion throughout the war Both sides tolerated Switzerland as a venue for covert intelligence operations and secure banking transactions. Throughout the war refugees streamed into Switzerland, including Jews escaping Hitler’s genocide, members of the French resistance to Hitler’s occupation of France, and various groups of partisans from Italy. After the war Switzerland continued its policy of neutrality in the Cold War between NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact alliance. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Title Image - map of Allied, Axis, and neutral nations during World War II. Attribution: Yonghokim, Joaopais + Various (See below.), CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia Commons. Location:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_participants_in_World_War_II.png .License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported Wikipedia "Neutral powers during World War II" Adapted from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY Curation and Revision. Provided by: Wikipedia.com. License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0 CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Estonian Neutrality Law of December 1st, 1938 - ^ Neiburgs, Uldis. "Soviet occupation". Latvijas Okupācijas muzejs. Retrieved 17 December 2017. - ^ Liekis, Šarūnas (2010). 1939: The Year that Changed Everything in Lithuania's History. New York: Rodopi. pp. 119–122. ISBN 978-9042027626. - ^ Egido León, Ángeles (2005). "Franco y la Segunda Guerra Mundial". Ayer. 57 (1): 105. JSTOR 41325295. - ^ Egido León 2005, p. 116. - ^ Egido León 2005, p. 122. - ^ Moradiellos, Enrique (2016). "España y la segunda guerra mundial, 1939-1945: entre resignaciones neutralistas y tentaciones beligerantes" (PDF). In Carlos Navajas Zubeldia & Diego Iturriaga Barco (ed.). Siglo. Actas del V Congreso Internacional de Historia de Nuestro Tiempo. Logroño: Universidad de la Rioja. pp. 72–73. - ^ Did Swedish Ball Bearings Keep the Second World War Going? Re‐evaluating Neutral Sweden’s Role - ^ Jan Romein (1962). The Asian Century: A History of Modern Nationalism in Asia. University of California Press. p. 382. - ^ "Inside Tibet". National Archives and Records Administration via Youtube. 1943. Archived from the original on 15 December 2021. Retrieved 12 July 2010. - ^ Allied Relations and Negotiations With Turkey, US State Department, pp. 6-8 - ^ Allén Lascano, Luís C. (1977). Argentina y la gran guerra, Cuaderno 12. «La Soberanía», Todo es Historia, Buenos Aires - ^ Jump up to:a b Carlos Escudé: Un enigma: la "irracionalidad" argentina frente a la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Estudios Interdisciplinarios de América Latina y el Caribe, Vol. 6 Nº 2, jul-dic 1995, Universidad de Tel Aviv - ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Galasso, Norberto (2006). Perón: Formación, ascenso y caída (1893-1955), Colihue, ISBN 950-581-399-6 - ^ "Wings of Thunder – Wartime RAF Veterans Flying in From Argentina". PR Newswire. 6 April 2005. Retrieved 8 January 2008. - ^ Golson, Eric (2016). "Neutrality in War". Economic History of Warfare and State Formation. Studies in Economic History. Springer, Singapore. pp. 259–278. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-1605-9_11. ISBN 9789811016042.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:57.807304	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88056/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 14: The World Afire: World War II, Neutral Nations in World War II", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91156/overview	Learning Hacks Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Introduction to Learning Hacks THE HACK Knowing just a little about how you learn can save you time The Story We know that you’re not always interested in learning for the sake of learning. While you probably find many of your classes interesting, there may be some that you’re just trying to get through because you have to take them. We also know that many of you are trying to balance your class work with a job (or jobs!), childcare, and other responsibilities. We get it. We want to help you learn what you need to learn to achieve your goals in the most efficient manner possible. Understanding a little about how you learn can save you time. We’re not going to make you dig into the research; rather, we’ve done that and are going to summarize the research for you in a way that hopefully enables you to put it into action. Remember, we’re trying to save you time, not cost you more time! You’ll see these learning hacks sprinkled throughout the course – no more than one per module. If you are curious to see what’s coming, we’ve provided the complete list of them below. Hopefully these hacks help you not just in this class, but in all of your coursework. Good luck! - What’s the Best Use of My (Limited!) Time? - What is Mindset and Why Does It Matter? - How Often Should I Study? - Should I Ask for Help? - How Should I Study Across Topics? - The Myth of Multitasking - Learning Styles - Don’t Bother Highlighting LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Introduction to Learning Hacks. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Learning Hacks Image. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution What’s the Best Use of My (Limited!) Time? THE HACK The most efficient way to learn something is by practicing. This turns out to be a much better use of time than other study techniques like rereading or highlighting. The Story It turns out that human beings learn by doing. You’ve probably experienced this yourself – you might feel like you understand something when you’re sitting in lecture or reading about it in your textbook, but then you start doing the homework and realize that you haven’t quite gotten it yet. It’s not until you actually practice the concept that you’re learning that it really starts to stick in your brain. Your experience is backed up by tons of research on learning. Over and over again, learning science research has shown that people learn by doing. While reading or watching a video about a concept may make you feel like you understand, it’s the act of practicing the concept that actually creates the connections between neurons in your brain. Practice can take many forms. For example: answering the practice or self-check questions in an online course like this one, or answering homework questions or working problems at the end of a chapter in your textbook. Even making up practice questions for yourself after you read a page of content is effective practice! The Research When researchers compared practice with other study techniques like rereading and highlighting, here’s what they found: \| Study Technique \| Usefulness \| \| Doing practice questions \| High \| \| Spacing out your practice over time \| High \| \| Rereading \| Low \| \| Highlighting \| Low \| \| Summarization \| Low \| We talked about practice in this learning hack. We’ll tell you about how to space out your practice over time in an upcoming one. We’ll also talk a little bit about why techniques like highlighting are not as useful. The Source Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving Students’ Learning With Effective Learning Techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58. doi:10.1177/1529100612453266 Hattie, J. A.C. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. New York, NY: Routledge. Ambrose, Susan A.. (Eds.) (2010) How learning works :seven research-based principles for smart teaching San Francisco, CA : Jossey-Bass, LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Learning Hacks: What's the Best Use of My (Limited!) Time?. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Image of a student answering a test. Authored by: Pokefan95. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_student_answering_a_test.jpg. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:57.833490	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91156/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Marketing Function, Learning Hacks", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88055/overview	The United States, 1939-1941: Neutrality? Overview The Arsenal of the Allies: The United States In December 1940, Franklin Roosevelt announced that the United States would be the “arsenal of democracy” during one of his fireside chats. In this speech, he urged Americans to support the democratic Allies in their fight against the Nazis—fascist oppressors who stood in direct opposition to democracy. Moreover, Roosevelt announced that the United States would provide goods and products essential to the Allies’ war effort. In large, the neutral United States rallied behind Roosevelt’s words. While most Americans were not in favor of getting entangled in another European war, the majority agreed that supplying the British with military products was essential. As the war in Europe increased in its scope and violence, so too did the industrial output on the American homefront. When the United States was drawn into World War II on the side of the Allies in 1941, every facet of society became devoted to helping the war effort. Indeed, the United States had become the world’s “arsenal of democracy.” Learning Objectives - Understand the significance of American industrial production during the World War II years. - Identify and explain the significance of the Lend-Lease Act. Key Terms / Key Concepts Bonds: a loan made to an investor; primary way of financing World War II in the United States Cash and Carry: 1939 American policy that allowed Allied countries to come to the United States and purchase military equipment with cash Lend-Lease Act: 1941 American program that agreed to “lend, lease, or otherwise dispose of” military and food aid to Allied nations Liberty Ships: commercial naval ships that were converted to be auxiliary warships during World War II War Production Board: American agency that governed war production during World War II The Role of the Neutral United States From the outset of World War II, Franklin Roosevelt was a staunch Anglophile. He admired many things about England and had developed a close relationship with the young and inexperienced king, George VI. Warm and engaging, Roosevelt was also paternal, and some historians describe his relationship with King George VI as almost father to son. Likewise, Roosevelt developed a close relationship with England’s future prime minister, Winston Churchill. When war erupted in Europe in the autumn of 1939, Roosevelt desperately wished to help the British. A master politician, he understood that the American public remembered too-well, the horrors of World War I. The people were overwhelmingly against becoming involved in another European war. For this reason, Roosevelt would have to become crafty in how he helped the Allies. Cash and Carry Following Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939, Roosevelt passed the Fourth Neutrality Act. This gave the United States the ability to trade arms with foreign nations provided that the countries came to America to retrieve the arms and paid for them in cash. This policy was quickly dubbed Cash and Carry. From Roosevelt’s perspective, the act served two immediate purposes: it galvanized American production and businesses; and it also allowed the British to purchase military equipment from the United States to bolster their defenses and war effort. Lend-Lease Following the fall of France, and the Battle for Britain, Roosevelt was committed to helping the Allies even more. In March 1941, Roosevelt signed the Lend-Lease Act. This allowed the President “to lend, lease, sell, or barter arms, ammunition, food, or any ‘defense article’ or any ‘defense information’ to ‘the government of any country whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States.'” In practicality, the Lend-Lease Act allowed the President to give military products and food to the Allies with little thought of their return or compensation. Through the Lend-Lease Act, the U.S. sent military equipment, including airplanes and heavy artillery, to England, Free France, the Soviet Union, and other Allied nations; however, most products went to England. Because of the Lend-Lease Act, skirmishes erupted in the Atlantic between U.S. cruisers and German U-boats because the Germans perceived the act as the unofficial alliance between the United States and England, as well as the Western Allies. In England, the act was hailed as helping save the British war effort. Planes, tanks, trucks, ammunition, helmets, and even food was sent to England. Similarly, the United States sent shipments of military equipment and food to the Soviet Union in the fall of 1941, following Germany’s invasion. By all accounts, the Lend-Lease program helped the Allies win the war. As Roosevelt predicted, the program also helped galvanize American industries and businesses. However, the United States received little compensation for the delivery of the military and food shipments. And very little of the military equipment was returned after the war. The United States Homefront during World War II Once the United States formally entered World War II in December 1941, the U.S. government took strong measures to convert the economy to meet the demands of war. And these demands imposed by the U.S. participation in World War II turned out to be the most effective measure in battling the long-lasting consequences of the Great Depression. Government programs continued to recruit workers; however, this time the demand was fueled not by the economic crisis, but by massive war demands. Production sped up dramatically, closed factories reopened, and new ones were established, which created millions of jobs in both private and public sectors as industries adjusted to the nearly insatiable needs of the military. Famously, under the “miracle man” Henry J. Kaiser, Liberty Ships were produced at the rate of one every three days after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Companies worked around the clock to produce war materials at a similar rate. By the end of 1943, two-thirds of the American economy had been integrated into the war effort. War Production Board The most powerful of all war-time organizations whose task was to control the economy was the War Production Board (WPB), established by President Roosevelt on January 16, 1942. Its purpose was to regulate the production of materials during World War II in the United States. The WPB converted and expanded peacetime industries to meet war needs, allocated scarce materials vital to war production, established priorities in the distribution of materials and services, and prohibited nonessential production. It rationed such commodities as gasoline, heating oil, metals, rubber, paper, and plastics. The WPB and the nation’s factories affected a great turnaround. Military aircraft production, which totaled 6,000 in 1940, jumped to 85,000 in 1943. Factories that made silk ribbons now produced parachutes, automobile factories now built tanks, typewriter companies converted to machine guns, undergarment manufacturers sewed mosquito netting, and a roller coaster manufacturer converted to the production of bomber repair platforms. The WPB ensured that each factory received the materials it needed to produce the most war goods in the shortest time. Between 1942 and 1945, WPB supervised the production of $183 billion worth of weapons and supplies, about 40% of the world's output of munitions. Rationing The greatest challenge of such massive war-related production was the permanent scarcity of resources. In response to it, the U.S. government, similarly to other states engaged in the war, introduced severe rationing measures. Tires were the first item to be rationed; there was a shortage of rubber for tires since the Japanese quickly conquered the rubber-producing regions of Southeast Asia. Throughout the war, rationing of gasoline was motivated by a desire to conserve rubber, as much as by a desire to conserve gasoline. A national speed limit of 35 miles per hour was imposed to save fuel and rubber for tires. Automobile factories stopped manufacturing civilian models by early February 1942, when they converted to producing tanks, aircraft, weapons, and other military products, with the United States government as the only customer. As of March 1, 1942, dog food could no longer be sold in tin cans; therefore, manufacturers switched to dehydrated versions. As of April 1, 1942, anyone wishing to purchase a new toothpaste tube, then made from metal, had to turn in an empty one. By June 1942, companies also stopped manufacturing metal office furniture, radios, phonographs, refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, washing machines, and sewing machines for civilians. Sugar was the first consumer commodity rationed, with all sales ended on April 27, 1942. Coffee was rationed nationally on November 29, 1942. By the end of 1942, ration coupons were used for nine other items. Typewriters, gasoline, bicycles, footwear, silk, nylon, fuel oil, stoves, meat, lard, shortening and food oils, cheese, butter, margarine, processed foods (canned, bottled, and frozen), dried fruits, canned milk, firewood and coal, jams, jellies, and fruit butter were rationed by November 1943. Scarce medicines, such as penicillin, were rationed by triage officers in the U.S. military during World War II. Many American families helped reduce the demands put on farmers by planting victory gardens. These private kitchen gardens were in homes, but also in public spaces such as parks. They supplemented, rather than replaced the fruits, vegetables, and herbs consumed by Americans. Moreover, they helped increase patriotism among families and the community. Labor The unemployment problem caused by the Great Depression ended with the mobilization for war, hitting an all-time low of 700,000 in fall 1944. Greater wartime production created millions of new jobs, while the draft reduced the number of young men available for civilian jobs. There was a growing labor shortage in war centers, with sound trucks going street by street begging for people to apply for war jobs. So great was the demand for labor that millions of retired people, housewives, and students entered the labor force, lured by patriotism and wages. The shortage of grocery clerks caused retailers to convert from service at the counter to self-service. Before the war, most groceries, dry cleaners, drugstores, and department stores offered home delivery service, but the labor shortage, as well as gasoline and tire rationing, caused most retailers to stop delivery. They found that requiring customers to buy their products in person increased sales. Because of the unprecedented labor demands, groups that were historically excluded from the labor market, particularly African Americans and women, received access to jobs. However, even the existing circumstances did not end discrimination, especially against the workers of color. Financing the War As the U.S. entered World War II, Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, Jr. began planning a national defense bond program to finance the war. Morgenthau advocated for a voluntary loan system and began planning a national defense bond program in the fall of 1940. The intent was to unite the attractiveness of the baby bonds that had been implemented in the interwar period with the patriotic element of the Liberty Bonds from the first World War. Bonds became the main source of war financing, covering what economic historians estimate to be between 50% and 60% of war costs. The Bond System The War Finance Committee was placed in charge of supervising the sale of all bonds, and the War Advertising Council promoted voluntary compliance with bond buying. The government appealed to the public through popular culture. Contemporary art was used to help promote the bonds, such as the Warner Brothers theatrical cartoon, “Any Bonds Today?” Norman Rockwell’s painting series, “The Four Freedoms,” toured in a war bond effort that raised $132 million. Bond rallies were held throughout the country with celebrities, usually Hollywood film stars, to enhance the bond advertising effectiveness. The Music Publishers Protective Association encouraged its members to include patriotic messages on the front of their sheet music, like “Buy U.S. Bonds and Stamps.” Over the course of the war, 85 million Americans purchased bonds, totaling approximately $185.7 billion. Global Impact The United States in World War II was not only the “arsenal for democracy,” but also the “breadbasket for democracy.” German occupation had caused much of the Soviet Union to be malnourished and underfed. Even Joseph Stalin confessed that American efforts in the war had helped the Soviet Union enormously. By the end of the war, the United States had shipped nearly 18,000,000 tons of products to the Soviet Union alone. And tens of millions of dollars worth of equipment to England, the Soviet Union, Free France, China, and other Allied countries. From 1939-41, the United States remained technically and legally, neutral. But its actions suggested that it was never truly neutral, and always on the side of the Allies. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Boundless U.S. History “Preparing the Economy for War” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/preparing-the-economy-for-war/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:57.864870	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88055/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 14: The World Afire: World War II, The United States, 1939-1941: Neutrality?", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87987/overview	Culture in the 20’s Overview Culture in the 20's The economy of the United States boomed in the decade following World War I. The development of a consumer driven economy in the United States changed American culture dramatically, as well as cultures across the world, even those of Germany and Japan. Learning Objectives - Explain how the social, political, and military costs of World War I fostered geographic and demographic shifts around the world. - Assess the impact of the development of a consumer driven economy on culture. Key Terms / Key Concepts Consumer Revolution: an economic shift that took off in the United States in the 1920s in which consumer spending drives economic growth (The causes of this consumer revolution were rising incomes among the urban working class and innovations in technology.) hyperinflation: occurs when a country experiences very high and usually accelerating rates of inflation, rapidly eroding the real value of the local currency and causing the population to minimize their holdings of local money by switching to relatively stable foreign currencies; the general price level within an economy increases rapidly as the official currency loses real value The Counsumer Revolution In the decade of the 1920s the world recovered from the devastation of the Great War and enjoyed a period of economic growth due largely to the unparalleled economic expansion in the United States as a result of the Consumer Revolution. The United States was the first nation in the world where consumer spending was driving economic growth. Americans were purchasing a host of new consumer products (i.e., cars, radios. refrigerators, cigarette lighters) in record numbers. Mass demand for these goods boosted production at factories and created a massive number of new jobs. The causes of this consumer revolution were rising incomes among the urban working class and innovations in technology. Since the late 19th century, wages for workers had steadily increased, as the economy expanded. World War I accelerated wage increases due to labor shortages during this war. As the wealth and size of the working class expanded, so did their ability to purchase consumer goods. During this period manufacturers also embraced new technology that allowed them to produce more goods and sell them to consumers in mass at prices that they could afford. For example, Henry Ford of the Ford Motor Company in 1908 sold the first Model T automobile, which was the first car that people other than the very wealthy could afford. In 1913, Ford introduced the moving assembly line into his factories to expand production and lower costs. Ford was then able to lower the price of his cars, so that more Americans could buy them. Between 1920 and 1929 the number of cars in the United States jumped from 8 million to 23 million. Ford Motor Company and its primary competitor, General Motors, were both headquartered in the city of Detroit, which became known as the "Motor City." Another booming business in this period was the radio industry. The Italian inventor, Guglielmo Marconi invented the first radio in 1897. In 1919 the General Electric Company founded the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) to manufacture and sell radios to the public. In 1920, the first radio station began broadcasting in Detroit. By 1922 the number of radio stations in the United States had jumped to 522. In 1926 RCA created the first national network of radio stations: the National Broadcasting Company (NBC). The very next year, a rival radio network emerged: the Columbia Broadcasting Company (CBS). Radio stations paid for their programs, which included broadcasting music, sporting events, and dramas, by selling advertising to businesses that wanted to exploit this new medium to sell their consumer products. For example, the founder of CBS, William Paley (1901 – 1990) saw radio as a new way to advertise the cigars manufactured by his family business. The wealth generated by this economic boom enabled American banks to invest overseas and promote an economic recovery. In the 1920s, New York City with its Wall Street banks replaced London as the world's financial center. After World War I, American investors feared that the economic collapse of Germany would prevent Germany from paying its reparations to France and the United Kingdom, which in turn would prevent British and French banks from paying off the loans that they had received from American banks during World War I. In 1924, after urging France to withdraw from the Ruhr Valley, the Vice-President of the United States, Charles Dawes—an eminent Wall Street banker—proposed that France and the United Kingdom negotiate with Germany to set up a way for Germany to pay its reparations without bankrupting Germany. Under the Dawes Plan, Germany slowly paid off its war reparations in series of fixed payments. At this time Wall Street banks also begin investing heavily in German banks. This influx of capital into Germany from the United States ended hyperinflation in Germany and allowed the German economy to recover and grow again. Germany's economic recovery and the flow of reparation payments to France and the United Kingdom from Germany enabled the economies of these countries to expand as well. Culture of Consumption “Change is in the very air Americans breathe, and consumer changes are the very bricks out of which we are building our new kind of civilization,” announced marketing expert and home economist Christine Frederick in her influential 1929 monograph, Selling Mrs. Consumer. The book, which was based on one of the earliest surveys of American buying habits, advised manufacturers and advertisers on how to capture the purchasing power of women, who, according to Frederick, accounted for 90 percent of household expenditures. Aside from granting advertisers insight into the psychology of the “average” consumer, Frederick’s text captured the tremendous social and economic transformations that had been wrought over the course of her lifetime. Indeed, the America of Frederick’s birth looked very different from the one she confronted in 1929. The consumer change she studied had resulted from the industrial expansion of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. With the discovery of new energy sources and manufacturing technologies, industrial output flooded the market with a range of consumer products such as ready-to-wear clothing, convenience foods, and home appliances. By the end of the nineteenth century, output had risen so dramatically that many contemporaries feared supply had outpaced demand and that the nation would soon face the devastating financial consequences of overproduction. American businessmen attempted to avoid this catastrophe by developing new merchandising and marketing strategies that transformed distribution and stimulated a new culture of consumer desire. The department store stood at the center of this early consumer revolution. By the 1880s, several large dry-goods houses blossomed into modern retail department stores. These emporiums concentrated a broad array of goods under a single roof, allowing customers to purchase shirtwaists and gloves alongside toy trains and washbasins. To attract customers, department stores relied on more than variety. They also employed innovations in service (such as access to restaurants, writing rooms, and babysitting) and spectacle (such as elaborately decorated store windows, fashion shows, and interior merchandise displays). Marshall Field & Co. was among the most successful of these ventures. Located on State Street in Chicago, the company pioneered many of these strategies, including establishing a tearoom that provided refreshment to the well-heeled female shoppers who composed the store’s clientele. Reflecting on the success of Field’s marketing techniques, Thomas W. Goodspeed, an early trustee of the University of Chicago, wrote, “Perhaps the most notable of Mr. Field’s innovations was that he made a store in which it was a joy to buy.” The joy of buying infected a growing number of Americans in the early twentieth century as the rise of mail-order catalogs, mass-circulation magazines, and national branding further stoked consumer desire. The automobile industry also fostered the new culture of consumption by promoting the use of credit. By 1927, more than 60 percent of American automobiles were sold on credit, and installment purchasing was made available for nearly every other large consumer purchase. Spurred by access to easy credit, consumer expenditures for household appliances, for example, grew by more than 120 percent between 1919 and 1929. Henry Ford’s assembly line, which advanced production strategies practiced within countless industries, brought automobiles within the reach of middle-income Americans and further drove the spirit of consumerism. By 1925, Ford’s factories were turning out a Model-T every ten seconds. Americans owned more cars than Great Britain, Germany, France, and Italy combined. In the late 1920s, 80 percent of the world’s cars drove on American roads. Culture of Escape As transformative as steam and iron had been in the previous century, gasoline and electricity—embodied most dramatically for many Americans in automobiles, film, and radio—propelled not only consumption but also the famed popular culture in the 1920s. Edgar Burroughs, author of the Tarzan series, claimed “We wish to escape [. . .] the restrictions of manmade laws, and the inhibitions that society has placed upon us.” Burroughs authored a new Tarzan story nearly every year from 1914 until 1939. “We would each like to be Tarzan,” he said. “At least I would; I admit it.” Like many Americans in the 1920s, Burroughs sought to challenge and escape the constraints of a society that seemed more industrialized with each passing day. Just like Burroughs, Americans escaped with great speed. The public wrapped itself in popular culture, whether through the automobile, Hollywood’s latest films, jazz records produced on Tin Pan Alley, or the hours spent listening to radio broadcasts of Jack Dempsey’s prizefights. One observer estimated that Americans belted out the silly musical hit “Yes, We Have No Bananas” more than “The Star Spangled Banner” and all the hymns in all the hymnals combined. As the automobile became more popular and more reliable, more people traveled more frequently and attempted greater distances. Women increasingly drove themselves to their own activities, as well as those of their children. Vacationing Americans sped to Florida to escape northern winters. In order to serve and capture the growing number of drivers, Americans erected gas stations, diners, motels, and billboards along the roadside. Automobiles themselves became objects of entertainment: nearly one hundred thousand people gathered to watch drivers compete for the $50,000 prize of the Indianapolis 500. Meanwhile, the United States dominated the global film industry. By 1930, as moviemaking became more expensive, a handful of film companies took control of the industry. Immigrants, mostly of Jewish heritage from central and Eastern Europe, originally “invented Hollywood” because most turn-of-the-century middle- and upper-class Americans viewed cinema as lower-class entertainment. After their parents emigrated from Poland in 1876, Harry, Albert, Sam, and Jack Warner (who were, according to family lore, given the name when an Ellis Island official could not understand their surname) founded Warner Bros. In 1918, Universal, Paramount, Columbia, and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) were all founded by or led by Jewish executives. Aware of their social status as outsiders, these immigrants (or sons of immigrants) purposefully produced films that portrayed American values of opportunity, democracy, and freedom. Americans fell in love with the movies. Whether it was the surroundings, the sound, or the production budgets, weekly movie attendance skyrocketed from sixteen million in 1912 to forty million in the early 1920s. Not content with distributing thirty-minute films in nickelodeons, film moguls produced longer, higher-quality films and showed them in palatial theaters that attracted those who had previously shunned the film industry. But as filmmakers captured the middle and upper classes, they maintained working-class moviegoers by blending traditional and modern values. Cecil B. DeMille’s 1923 epic The Ten Commandments depicted wild revelry, for instance, while still managing to celebrate a biblical story. Moguls and entrepreneurs soon constructed picture palaces. Samuel Rothafel’s Roxy Theater in New York held more than six thousand patrons who could be escorted by a uniformed usher past gardens and statues to their cushioned seat. In order to show The Jazz Singer (1927), the first movie with synchronized words and pictures, the Warners spent half a million to equip two theaters. While some asserted that sound was a passing fancy, Warner Bros.’ assets, which increased from just $5,000,000 in 1925 to $230,000,000 in 1930, tell a different story. Hungarian immigrant William Fox, founder of Fox Film Corporation, declared that “the motion picture is a distinctly American institution” because “the rich rub elbows with the poor” in movie theaters. With no seating restriction, the one-price admission was accessible for nearly all white Americans—as African Americans were either excluded or segregated. han 60 percent of moviegoers, packing theaters to see Mary Pickford, nicknamed “America’s Sweetheart,” who was earning one million dollars a year by 1920 through a combination of film and endorsements contracts. Pickford and other female stars popularized the “flapper,” a woman who favored short skirts, makeup, and cigarettes. As Americans went to the movies more and more, at home they had the radio. Italian scientist Guglielmo Marconi transmitted the first transatlantic wireless (radio) message in 1901, but radios in the home did not become available until around 1920, when they boomed across the country. Around half of American homes contained a radio by 1930. Radio stations brought entertainment directly into the living room through the sale of advertisements and sponsorships, from The Maxwell House Hour to the Lucky Strike Orchestra. Soap companies sponsored daytime dramas so frequently that an entire genre—“soap operas”—was born, providing housewives with audio adventures that stood in stark contrast to common chores. Though radio stations were often under the control of corporations like the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) or the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), radio programs were less constrained by traditional boundaries in order to capture as wide an audience as possible, spreading popular culture on a national level. Radio exposed Americans to a broad array of music. Jazz, a uniquely American musical style popularized by the African-American community in New Orleans, spread primarily through radio stations and records. The New York Times had ridiculed jazz as “savage” because of its racial heritage, but the music represented cultural independence to others. As Harlem-based musician William Dixon put it, “It did seem, to a little boy, that . . . white people really owned everything. But that wasn’t entirely true. They didn’t own the music that I played.” The fast-paced and spontaneity-laced tunes invited the listener to dance along. “When a good orchestra plays a ‘rag,’” dance instructor Vernon Castle recalled, “one has simply got to move.” Jazz became a national sensation, played and heard by both white and Black Americans. Jewish Lithuanian-born singer Al Jolson—whose biography inspired The Jazz Singer and who played the film’s titular character—became the most popular singer in America. The 1920s also witnessed the maturation of professional sports. Play-by-play radio broadcasts of major collegiate and professional sporting events marked a new era for sports, despite the institutionalization of racial segregation in most. Suddenly, Jack Dempsey’s left crosses and right uppercuts could almost be felt in homes across the United States. Dempsey, who held the heavyweight championship for most of the decade, drew million-dollar gates and inaugurated “Dempseymania” in newspapers across the country. Red Grange, who carried the football with a similar recklessness, helped popularize professional football, which was then in the shadow of the college game. Grange left the University of Illinois before graduating to join the Chicago Bears in 1925. “There had never been such evidence of public interest since our professional league began,” recalled Bears owner George Halas of Grange’s arrival. Perhaps no sports figure left a bigger mark than did Babe Ruth. Born George Herman Ruth, the “Sultan of Swat” grew up in an orphanage in Baltimore’s slums. Ruth’s emergence onto the national scene was much needed, as the baseball world had been rocked by the so-called Black Sox Scandal in which eight players allegedly agreed to throw the 1919 World Series. Ruth hit fifty-four home runs in 1920, which was more than any other team combined. Baseball writers called Ruth a superman, and more Americans could recognize Ruth than they could then-president Warren G. Harding. After an era of destruction and doubt brought about by World War I, Americans craved heroes who seemed to defy convention and break boundaries. Dempsey, Grange, and Ruth dominated their respective sports, but only Charles Lindbergh conquered the sky. On May 21, 1927, Lindbergh concluded the first ever nonstop solo flight from New York to Paris. Armed with only a few sandwiches, some bottles of water, paper maps, and a flashlight, Lindbergh successfully navigated over the Atlantic Ocean in thirty-three hours. Some historians have dubbed Lindbergh the “hero of the decade,” not only for his transatlantic journey but because he helped to restore the faith of many Americans in individual effort and technological advancement. In a world so recently devastated by machine guns, submarines, and chemical weapons, Lindbergh’s flight demonstrated that technology could inspire and accomplish great things. Outlook Magazine called Lindbergh “the heir of all that we like to think is best in America.” The decade’s popular culture seemed to revolve around escape. Coney Island in New York marked new amusements for young and old. Americans drove their sedans to massive theaters to enjoy major motion pictures. Radio towers broadcasted the bold new sound of jazz, the adventures of soap operas, and the feats of amazing athletes. Dempsey and Grange seemed bigger, stronger, and faster than any who dared to challenge them. Babe Ruth smashed home runs out of ball parks across the country. And Lindbergh escaped the earth’s gravity and crossed an entire ocean. Neither Dempsey nor Ruth nor Lindbergh made Americans forget the horrors of World War I and the chaos that followed, but they made it seem as if the future would be that much brighter. The New Woman The rising emphasis on spending and accumulation nurtured a national ethos of materialism and individual pleasure. These impulses were embodied in the figure of the flapper, whose bobbed hair, short skirts, makeup, cigarettes, and carefree spirit captured the attention of American novelists such as F. Scott Fitzgerald and Sinclair Lewis. Rejecting the old Victorian values of desexualized modesty and self-restraint, young “flappers” seized opportunities for the public coed pleasures offered by new commercial leisure institutions, such as dance halls, cabarets, and nickelodeons, not to mention the illicit blind tigers and speakeasies spawned by Prohibition. In this way, young American women had helped usher in a new morality that permitted women greater independence, freedom of movement, and access to the delights of urban living. In the words of psychologist G. Stanley Hall, “She was out to see the world and, incidentally, be seen of it.” Such sentiments were repeated in an oft-cited advertisement in a 1930 edition of the Chicago Tribune: “Today’s woman gets what she wants. The vote. Slim sheaths of silk to replace voluminous petticoats. Glassware in sapphire blue or glowing amber. The right to a career. Soap to match her bathroom’s color scheme.” As with so much else in the 1920s, however, sex and gender were in many ways a study in contradictions. It was the decade of the “New Woman,” and one in which only 10 percent of married women—although nearly half of unmarried women—worked outside the home. It was a decade in which new technologies decreased time requirements for household chores, and one in which standards of cleanliness and order in the home rose to often impossible standards. It was a decade in which women finally could exercise their right to vote, and one in which the often thinly bound women’s coalitions that had won that victory splintered into various causes. Finally, it was a decade in which images such as the “flapper” gave women new modes of representing femininity, and one in which such representations were often inaccessible to women of certain races, ages, and socioeconomic classes. Women undoubtedly gained much in the 1920s. There was a profound and keenly felt cultural shift that, for many women, meant increased opportunity to work outside the home. The number of professional women, for example, significantly rose in the decade. But limits still existed, even for professional women. Occupations such as law and medicine remained overwhelmingly male, and most female professionals were in professions in which women traditionally held many of the positions, such as teaching school children and nursing. And even within these fields, it was difficult for women to rise to leadership positions. A woman’s race, class, ethnicity, and marital status all had an impact on both the likelihood that she worked outside the home and the types of opportunities that were available to her. While there were exceptions, for many minority women, work outside the home was not a cultural statement but rather a financial necessity (or both), and physically demanding, low-paying domestic service work continued to be the most common job type. Young, working-class white women were joining the workforce more frequently, too, but often in order to help support their struggling mothers and fathers and often in low-paying jobs. For young, middle-class, white women—those most likely to fit the image of the carefree flapper—the most common workplace was the office. These predominantly single women increasingly became clerks, jobs that had been primarily male earlier in the century. But here, too, there was a clear ceiling. While entry-level clerk jobs became increasingly held by women, jobs at a higher, more lucrative level remained dominated by men. Further, rather than changing the culture of the workplace, the entrance of women into lower-level jobs primarily changed the coding of the jobs themselves. Such positions simply became “women’s work.” Finally, as these middle-class white women grew older and married, social changes became even subtler. Married women were, for the most part, expected to remain in the domestic sphere as homemakers. And while new patterns of consumption gave them more power and, arguably, more autonomy, new household technologies and philosophies of marriage and child-rearing increased expectations, further tying these women to the home. Of course, the number of women in the workplace cannot exclusively measure changes in sex and gender norms. Attitudes towards sex, for example, continued to change in the 1920s, a process that had begun decades before. This, too, had significantly different impacts on different social groups. But for many women—particularly young, college-educated white women—an attempt to rebel against what they saw as a repressive Victorian notion of sexuality led to an increase in premarital sexual activity. Meanwhile, especially in urban centers such as New York, the gay community flourished. While gay males had to contend with the increased policing of their daily lives, especially later in the decade, they generally lived more openly in such cities than they would be able to for many decades following World War II. At the same time, for many lesbians in the decade, the increased sexualization of women brought new scrutiny to same-sex female relationships previously dismissed as harmless friendships. Ultimately, the most enduring symbol of the changing notions of gender in the 1920s remains the flapper. And indeed, that image was a “new” available representation of womanhood in the 1920s. But it is just that: a representation of womanhood of the 1920s. There were many women in the decade of differing races, classes, ethnicities, and experiences, just as there were many men with different experiences. For some women, the 1920s were a time of reorganization, new representations, and new opportunities. For many, it was a decade of confusion, contradiction, new pressures, and struggles new and old. Germany and Japan in the 1920s The United States in the 1920s cast a large shadow across Europe and east Asia and exerted a strong cultural influence. Even Germany and Japan in this decade experimented with democracy and enjoyed friendly relations with the United States. In both countries, however, democracy died in the following decade in the wake of the Great Depression. Japan declared war on Germany on August 23, 1914 and immediately sought to expand its sphere of influence in China and the Pacific. It succeeded to some extent, taking over a number of German colonial holdings in the region. However, although Japan belonged to the victors of World War I, the Japanese were excluded from the prestigious club of world powers and were instead grouped with smaller, less influential countries. In 1919, Japan proposed a clause on racial equality to be included in the League of Nations Covenant at the Paris Peace Conference. The clause was rejected by several Western countries and was not forwarded for larger discussion at the full meeting of the conference. In the coming years, the rejection was an important factor in turning Japan away from cooperation with the West and towards nationalistic policies. All these events released a surge of Japanese nationalism and resulted in the end of collaboration diplomacy, which supported peaceful economic expansion. The implementation of a military dictatorship and territorial expansionism were considered the best ways to protect the Yamato-damashii, or what Japanese saw as their spiritual and cultural values. Japan and Democracy In the 1920s, Japan witnessed a development of democratic trends, including the introduction of universal male suffrage in 1925. This period of expanding democracy coincided with the decade of the 1920s when Japan and the United States enjoyed strong economic ties, as the United States was one of Japan’s primary markets for its manufactured goods. However, pressure from the conservative right forced the passage of the Peace Preservation Law of 1925, along with other anti-radical legislation. The Act curtailed individual freedom in Japan and outlawed groups that sought to alter the system of government or to abolish private ownership. The extreme leftist movements that had been galvanized by the Russian Revolution were subsequently crushed and scattered. Historians consider these developments to be critical to the end of democratic changes in Japan. In response to post-World War I disarmament efforts, a movement opposing the idea of limiting the size of Japanese military grew within the junior officer corps. On May 15, 1932, the naval officers, aided by Army cadets and right-wing civilians, staged a coup that aimed to overthrow the government and to replace it with military rule (known as the May 15th Incident). Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated by 11 young naval officers. The following trial and popular support of the Japanese population led to extremely light sentences for the assassins, strengthening the rising power of Japanese militarism and weakening democracy and the rule of law in Japan. The Weimar Republic Weimar Republic is an unofficial historical designation for the German state between 1919 and 1933. The name derives from the city of Weimar, where its constitutional assembly first took place. The official name of the state was still Deutsches Reich; it had remained unchanged since 1871. In English the country was usually known simply as Germany. In its 14 years, the Weimar Republic faced numerous problems, including hyperinflation, political extremism (with paramilitaries – both left- and right-wing); and contentious relationships with the victors of the First World War. The people of Germany blamed the Weimar Republic rather than their wartime leaders for the country’s defeat and for the humiliating terms of the Treaty of Versailles. However, the Weimar Republic government successfully reformed the currency, unified tax policies, and organized the railway system. A national assembly was convened in Weimar, where a new constitution for the Deutsches Reich was written and adopted on August 11, 1919. Weimar Germany eliminated most of the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles; it never completely met its disarmament requirements and eventually paid only a small portion of the war reparations (by twice restructuring its debt through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan). Under the Locarno Treaties, Germany accepted the western borders of the republic, but continued to dispute the Eastern border. Challenges and Reasons for Failure The reasons for the Weimar Republic’s collapse are the subject of continuing debate. It may have been doomed from the beginning since even moderates disliked it and extremists on both the left and right loathed it, a situation referred to by some historians, such as Igor Primoratz, as a “democracy without democrats.” Germany had limited democratic traditions, and Weimar democracy was widely seen as chaotic. Weimar politicians had been blamed for Germany’s defeat in World War I through a widely believed theory called the “Stab-in-the-back myth,” which contended that Germany’s surrender in World War I had been the unnecessary act of traitors, and thus the popular legitimacy of the government was on shaky ground. As normal parliamentary lawmaking broke down and was replaced around 1930 by a series of emergency decrees, the decreasing popular legitimacy of the government further drove voters to extremist parties. The Republic in its early years was already under attack from both left- and right-wing sources. The extreme left accused the ruling Social Democrats of betraying the ideals of the workers’ movement by preventing a communist revolution, and they sought to overthrow the Republic and do so themselves. Various right-wing sources opposed any democratic system, preferring an authoritarian, autocratic state like the 1871 Empire. To further undermine the Republic’s credibility, some right-wingers (especially certain members of the former officer corps) also blamed an alleged conspiracy of Socialists and Jews for Germany’s defeat in World War I. The Weimar Republic had some of the most serious economic problems ever experienced by any Western democracy in history. Rampant hyperinflation, massive unemployment, and a large drop in living standards were primary factors. By fall 1922, Germany found itself unable to make reparations payments since the price of gold was now well beyond what it could afford. Also, the German currency, the mark was by now practically worthless, making it impossible for Germany to buy foreign exchange or gold using paper marks. In the first half of 1922, the mark stabilized at about 320 marks per dollar. Instead, reparations were to be paid in goods such as coal. In January 1923, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr, the industrial region of Germany in the Ruhr Valley, to ensure reparations payments. Inflation was exacerbated when workers in the Ruhr went on a general strike and the German government printed more money to continue paying for their passive resistance. By November 1923, the US dollar was worth 4,2 trillion German marks. In 1919, one loaf of bread cost 1 mark; by 1923, the same loaf of bread cost 100 billion marks. From 1923 to 1929, there was a short period of economic recovery. An infusion of capital from Wall Street banks in the United States helped the German economy to rebuild in this period. The Liberal Social Democratic Party remained the largest party in Germany in this era of economic prosperity. However, the Great Depression of the 1930s led to a worldwide recession. Germany was particularly affected because it depended so heavily on American loans. In 1926, about 2 million Germans were unemployed, which rose to around 6 million in 1932. Many blamed the Weimar Republic. That was made apparent when political parties on both right and left wanting to disband the Republic altogether made any democratic majority in Parliament impossible. The reparations damaged Germany’s economy by discouraging market loans, which forced the Weimar government to finance its deficit by printing more currency, causing rampant hyperinflation. In addition, the rapid disintegration of Germany in 1919 by the return of a disillusioned army, the rapid change from possible victory in 1918 to defeat in 1919, and the political chaos may have caused a psychological imprint on Germans that could lead to extreme nationalism, later epitomized and exploited by Hitler. It is also widely believed that the 1919 constitution had several weaknesses, making the eventual establishment of a dictatorship likely, but it is unknown whether a different constitution could have prevented the rise of the Nazi Party. Attributions Title Image https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:JudgeMagazine2Jan1926.webp Judge Magazine, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons Adapted from: http://www.americanyawp.com/text/22-the-twenties/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/index.html https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/rebuilding-europe/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:57.919382	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87987/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 13: Post WWI, Culture in the 20’s", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97749/overview	Education Standards Key_ IR and molecule quiz Key_ Molecules And Light Guided Inquiry key_ Pattern Identification IR Activity comp LP 2_ IR Spectroscopy Molecules And Light Guided Inquiry_ Student Handout No computer Key_ Pattern Identification IR Activity No Computer Pattern Identification IR Activity Pattern Identification IR Activity (no computer) Pattern Identifiction IR Activity Comp Printable cards for Pattern Identification IR Student copy_ IR and molecule quiz Light and Matter: Atomic and Molecular Interactions Overview In this unit students investigate the cause of sunburns, the function of sunscreen, and the ways in which chemists determine the molecular structure of matter by applying relationships about how light interacts with matter on an atomic or molecular level. Overview of Unit and Materials In this unit plan, students describe the various ways in which light interacts with matter on a molecular and atomic level to explain many macroscopic level observations. Absorption of lower energy light (such as radio, micro-, and IR waves) typically results in increased motion of molecules and the bonds between atoms in molecules. The absorption of this low energy light can be used to determine the bonding within molecules or to heat food in a microwave oven. The absorption and reflection of visible light results in the visible color observed by molecules. Emission of visible light by electrons in atoms produces atomic spectrum, which can be used to determine the composition of stars and salts. Higher energy EMR, such as UV or gamma rays, can break chemical bonds or ionize atoms. This can result in damage to DNA and tissue. Compounds in sunscreen are designed to absorb this light, frequently by breaking the chemical bonds in the sunscreen, to prevent damage to living tissue. This unit contains the following resources: - Word: How Light Interacts with Matter Student inquiry Activity - Word: Key for How Light Interacts with Matter - Powerpoint: How light interacts with matter (discussion guide for after the task cards) - Word: Patterns in IR spectroscopy with computers student handout (Patterns in Identification IR Activity (comp)) - Word: Key for Patterns in Identification IR activity comp - Powerpoint: Patterns in IR sectroscopy printable cards (Printable cards for pattern identification) - Word: Student handout to accompany IR spectroscopy without computers (Pattern identification IR activity (no computer)) - Word: Formative assessment on identifying molecules through IR (Student copy_IR and molecule quiz) - Word: Key for IR and molecule quiz Intro to Light and Matter Students use a Phet simulation to identify general patterns in the ways light interacts with matter. Using these general principles, students then work through six stations focusing on different types of light interacting with matter, relating molecular and atomic level interactions to common real-life applications and observations. Using light to investigate molecular structure By identifying patterns in how infrared light is absorbed by different classes of molecules, students describe how to distinguish between the molecular bonding structure of molecules with similar or identical chemical formulas. Also provided is a formative assessment in which students apply these concepts to identify compounds in different household substances by how they intearct with infrared radiation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:57.952091	Interactive	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97749/overview", "title": "Light and Matter: Atomic and Molecular Interactions", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67289/overview	Pre-reading strategies and graphic organizer Overview Pre-reading strategies and graphic organizer Pre-reading strategies and graphic organizer Pre-reading strategies and graphic organizer - see lesson resource	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:57.968194	05/24/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67289/overview", "title": "Pre-reading strategies and graphic organizer", "author": "Laura Clarke" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69599/overview	Introduction to Self & Peer Assessment Overview Introduction to Self & Peer Assessment Activity & Rubric Business Communications Introduction to Self & Peer Assessment A key concept discussed in Business Communications is Assessment This material will provide an Introduction to Self & Peer Assessment and self-assessment prompts. Formative Assessment This assessment provides feedback to learners in order to help them learn, and feedback to teachers to enable them to decide how a student’s learning should be taken forward Summative Assessment This assessment provides overall and finite evidence of the achievement of students and of what they know, understand and can do, by assigning a value (often quantitative) to what the student achieves Business Communication by Jack Condon is licensed under a	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:57.987507	07/13/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69599/overview", "title": "Introduction to Self & Peer Assessment", "author": "Jack Condon" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92454/overview	Draft - Introduction To Computer Applications Overview Photo by freestocks on Unsplash The focus of this class is on learning the basics of commonly used computer applications, web concepts, multimedia, and general digital literacy to prepare you for living a digital life. Students will be able to navigate basic computer functions, MS Office Suite, understand computer ethics and the basics of ADA and accessiblity. The course is designed to gain and enhance students' abilities to effectively apply digital tools, technologies, and resources to communicate ideas and solve problems. Students will learn how to navigate, evaluate, create, and critically apply information by using a wide variety of applications such as MS Word, MS Excel, MS Access and MS PowerPoint. This course will also provide guidance on the professional and ethical application of these tools. Materials in this course are OER materials as well as published articles and videos. Welcome To Introduction to Computer Applications Class The focus of this class is on learning the basics of commonly used computer applications, web concepts, multimedia, and general digital literacy to prepare you for living a digital life. Students will be able to navigate basic computer functions, MS Office Suite, understand computer ethics and the basics of ADA and accessiblity. The course is designed to gain and enhance students' abilities to effectively apply digital tools, technologies, and resources to communicate ideas and solve problems. Students will learn how to navigate, evaluate, create, and critically apply information by using a wide variety of applications such as MS Word, MS Excel, MS Access and MS PowerPoint. This course will also provide guidance on the professional and ethical application of these tools. Materials in this course are OER materials as well as published articles/videos. OER books used in this course - Business Computers 365 Copyright © 2019 by Marcus Lacher is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. - Key Concepts of Computer Studies by Meizhong Wang is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. - Beginning Excel 2019 Copyright © by Noreen Brown; Barbara Lave; Hallie Puncochar; Julie Romey; Mary Schatz; Art Schneider; and Diane Shingledecker is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Module 1: Introduction to Computers - Your Computer and How it Works Overview In our first module we will discuss the basics about computers; such as equipment, input and output devices, and the operating systems. Learning Objectives - Identify the key components of a computer. - Define basic computer terminology. - Describe file management system. Computer Basics Let's review more about the computer. The history, the hardware, the operating system, and the file management app. All the videos below have closed captioning. To view the closed captioning, select the CC symbol. Read from online Business Computers 365 book: Personal Computer Basics. Articles: History of computers: A brief timeline. by Timothy Williamson - December 2021 Everything You Need to Know About Computer Hardware. by Tim Fisher - 2021 Videos: Computer Basics - Hardware – (YouTube video) 6:52 Computer Basics - The Peripherals – (YouTube video) 7:24 The Operating System How to communicate with your computer All the videos below have closed captioning. To view the closed captioning, select the CC symbol. Computer Basics: Understanding Operating Systems YouTube video - 1:30 Operating System (OS) Definition An operating system (OS) program that manages a computer’s resources, especially the allocation of those resources among other programs. Typical resources include the central processing unit (CPU), computer memory, file storage, input/output (I/O) devices, and network connections. Management tasks include scheduling resource use to avoid conflicts and interference between programs. Unlike most programs, which complete a task and terminate, an operating system runs indefinitely and terminates only when the computer is turned off. Hemmendinger, D. (2022, June 30). operating system. Encyclopedia Britannica Read article: Operating System (OS) by Stephen J. Bigelow. There is also a brief video within this article. Videos: Computer For Beginners - Software and Operating System – 6:09 Types of Software - 5:47 Windows 10 - Beginners Guide 33:25 Common Tools with Windows File Management Once you begin creating and saving files on the computer, it becomes important to have great organizational habits. If you save your files wherever and however you feel, you may have a hard time locating them later when you need them. The following material will help you with tips on organizing your files. All the videos below have closed captioning. To view the closed captioning, select the CC symbol. Articles: 11 ideas for how to organize digital files How to Organize Your Digital Files Videos: Best Practice to Organize Your Computer Files - 8:58 The Best Way to Organize Your Computer Files - 16:42 File Explorer How to create a new folder on Windows 10 \| Level 1 Screenshot Tools Windows has multiple options for capturing a screenshot. Below are two examples using the Snipping Tool and the Snip & Sketch. How to use Snipping Tool in Windows 10 - 8:44 How to Use Windows 10 Snip & Sketch (Beginners Guide) - 6:33 Module 2: Internet, Computer Ethics, Privacy, and Safety Online Overview In this module we will discuss internet, web browsers, search engines, netiquette, computer ethics, and privacy and safety issues. Objectives - Explore internet basics and netiquette. - Define Ethics. - Explore internet privacy concerns. - Identify trust seals used to increase security. The Internet You know all about the internet? Or do you? Read article: A Short History of the Internet from the Science & Media Museum. There are two videos within this article. Netiquette Videos: Netiquette: A Student's Guide to Digital Etiquette - 1:51 Netiquette Rules - 1:58 Articles: Netiquette: The Rules of the Internet Digital Literacy: Computer Skills, Netiquette & Internet Safety Metaverse Internet Browsers Web Browser What is a web browser? According to Wikipedia A web browser (also referred to as an Internet browser or simply a browser) is application software for accessing the World Wide Web or a local website. When a user requests a web page from a particular website, the web browser retrieves the necessary content from a web server and then displays the page on the user's device. A web browser is not the same thing as a search engine, though the two are often confused. A search engine is a website that provides links to other websites. However, to connect to a website's server and display its web pages, a user must have a web browser installed. Web browsers are used on a range of devices, including desktops, laptops, tablets, and smartphones. In 2020, an estimated 4.9 billion people used a browser. The most used browser is Google Chrome, with a 63% global market share on all devices, followed by Safari with 20%. Web Browser by Wikipedia is licensed under CC-SA 3.0 Read from Key Concepts of Computer Studies online book: Web Browser Read article: Internet Browsers: A Simple Guide to How Browsers Work Web Search Engines What is a search engine? According to Techopedia A search engine is a service that allows Internet users to search for content via the World Wide Web (WWW). A user enters keywords or key phrases into a search engine and receives a list of Web content results in the form of websites, images, videos or other online data that semantically match with the search query. Read from Key Concepts of Computer Studies online book: Web Search Engines Articles: Computer Ethics The Oxford Dictionary definition of ethics is: “NOUN – 1. [USUALLY TREATED AS PLURAL] moral principles that govern a person’s behavior or the conducting of an activity: medical ethics also enter into the question. [USUALLY TREATED AS SINGULAR]the branch of knowledge that deals with moral principles: neither metaphysics nor ethics are the home of religion.” "ethics, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, March 2022. Web. 25 May 2022 The Computer Ethics Institute (CEI) established some guidelines to ethical computing that they called the "Ten Commandments of ethical Computing". These CEI guidelines explain that it is unethical for users to: - Use a computer to harm others - Interfering with other people’s computer work - Snoop in other people’s files - Use a computer to steal - Use a computer to lie. - Copying or using proprietary software without paying for it (aka stealing) - Use someone else's resources without authorization or compensation - Appropriate other people's intellectual output The CEI Guidelines also encourage individuals to: - Think about the social consequences of a program they are writing or the system they are designing. - Use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for your fellow human being. Computer Ethics Articles: - Computer Ethics Institute and its "Ten Commandments for Computer Ethics" - Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics You Should Follow Without Fail - Techspirited - Computer Ethics - Teach Computer Science - What are Examples of Computer Ethics? Online Safety Security Issues on the Internet While we love to search and explore our favorite topics on the internet, there are some security things you should be aware of. Read from Key Concepts of Computer Studies online book: Security issues on the Internet Videos: - Digital Literacy – Staying safe online 6:27 - Online safety for grown ups 7:31 - What Parents Need to Know About Online Safety 14:36 - Digital Citizenship \| Things Explained 4:40 Module 3: Word Processing Overview In this module, we will discuss word processing; the definition, the history, and will begin creating documents. Objectives - Define word processing. - Identify top word processing software. - Create documents using MS Word. Word Processing Definition and Brief History According to Techopedia "A word processor is a type of software application used for composing, editing, formatting and printing documents. Word processors have a variety of uses and applications within the business environment, at home and in educational contexts." Read article: History of Word Processors Type of Word Processing Software Read article: 15 Word Processing Software Examples 2022 Microsoft Word During this course, we will use Microsoft Word. Read from online Business Computers 365 book: If you have problems understanding the 'Ribbon' options explained in images from above chapters or if you use a screen reader, please review: - Overview of the Microsoft Office Ribbon - Understanding the "Ribbon" in Microsoft Word: Screen Reader - Screen reader support for Word – Microsoft Go to Microsoft Word Help & Training. Watch the videos and read the text for lessons; - Write & edit, - Format text, - Layout pages and - Save and print. There are several smaller lessons within each of these - click the tabs along the left to view all of them. Writing Formats As a student, you will probably write many papers during your time at the university. Once you get out of school, you will need to know how to write professional communication letters, emails and a resume. In this section, we will discuss several writing styles and formats you will probably need to know. Written Communication Everything You Need to Know About Written Communication - Indeed The Importance of Written Communication Skills Professional Letters How to Start a Letter (With Professional Greeting Examples) - the balance careers Letter Format Example and Writing Tips - the balance careers How to Make a Resume (With Examples) Email Communication Not only is it important at the university, but essential as a professional: How To Write a Professional Email 10 Tips for Writing Professional Emails APA Formatting and Citation If you are a student at a college or university, you will need to know how to write in APA. - APA Style: Paper Format - APA Style: Style and Grammar Guidelines - Scribbr article: APA Formatting and Citation - Purdue Online Writing Lab: General Format Module 4: Spreadsheets Overview In this module, we will discuss spreadsheet programs; definitions, history, top software programs and creating spreadsheets. Objectives - Define spreadsheet. - Identify top spreadsheet software. - Create documents using MS Excel and Google Sheets. Definition and Brief History According to Techopedia , "A spreadsheet is a software application that enables a user to save, sort and manage data in an arranged form of rows and columns. A spreadsheet stores data in a tabular format as an electronic document. An electronic spreadsheet is based on and is similar to the paper-based accounting worksheet. A spreadsheet may also be called a worksheet." Articles: Type of Spreadsheet Software Articles: Microsoft Excel During this course, we will use Microsoft Excel. In the Beginning Excel 2019 online book, read Chapter 1: Fundamental Skills - Overview of Microsoft Excel - Entering, Editing, and Managing Data - Formatting and Data Analysis - Printing - Chapter Practice In the Beginning Excel 2019 online book, read Chapter 2: Mathematical Computations - 2.1 Formulas - 2.2 Introductory Statistical Functions - 2.3 Functions for Personal Finance - 2.4 Preparing to Print For additional resources, Microsoft has a page titled: Microsoft Excel Help & Training. Resources: Screen reader support for Excel Module 5: Databases Overview In this module, we will begin to look at databases as tools and begin an introduction to a free database tool, Microsoft SQL Express. Objectives - Explain the difference between data and information - Describe what a database management system is and how it functions - Compare the various database models. - Learn and Apply basic tools in Microsoft Access Definition and Brief History of Databases "A database is an organized collection of structured information, or data, typically stored electronically in a computer system. A database is usually controlled by a database management system (DBMS)Links to an external site.. Together, the data and the DBMS, along with the applications that are associated with them, are referred to as a database system, often shortened to just database". - What is a database, by Oracle, the worlds largest database management company.Links to an external site. History of Databases Overview of Databases Please read ACCESS Chapters 1 & 2 of our open educational textbook resource: Business Computers 365 (Links to an external site book by Marcus Lacher and is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (Links to an external site.) (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0). Type of Database Software Top 30 Most Popular Database Management Software: Complete ListLinks to an external site. 13 Best Database Software and Systems of 2022Links to an external site. Best database software in 2022Links to an external site. Microsoft SQL Server Express SQL Server 2019 Express is a free edition of SQL Server, ideal for the development and production of desktop, web, and small server applications. Introduction to Access During this module, we will read from online OER course: Business Computers 365 (Links to an external site book by Marcus Lacher and is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (Links to an external site.) (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) - Resources: Screen reader support for AccessLinks to an external site. Module 6: Presentations Overview In this module, we will discuss presentation design and how to use two different presentation softwares. We will also discuss ADA - Americans with Disability Act and accessibility. Objectives - Define ADA and accessibility - Utilize presentation design - Create two presentations Presentation Design Designing a Presentation– LinkedIn Learning Best practices for designing presentation slides– Virtual Speech Presentation Design: Beginner’s Guide (Tips, Tools & Templates– visme 4 tips to design better presentations– Pitch 20 tips for better presentation design Presentation Design Guide: How to Summarize Information for Presentations– Venngage (includes some videos) 4 Principles To Live By When You Design Presentations Presentation Design and the Art of Visual Storytelling YouTube Videos: 13 Presentation Design Tips 9:16 Presentation Software What is presentation software– Techopedia 15 Best Presentation Software for 2022 (Full Comparison Guide– Visme 14 Best Presentation Software Alternatives to PowerPoint - Vyond The 7 Best Presentation Software to Use in 2022– pictochart Best presentation software of 2022 - techradar Microsoft PowerPoint In this course, we will use Microsoft PowerPoint. Read from online Business Computers 365 book: If you have problems understanding the 'Ribbon' options explained in the images in the above chapters or use a screen reader, please review: - Overview of the Microsoft Office Ribbon - PowerPoint and Screen Readers - Perkins School for the Blind - Screen reader support for PowerPoint - Microsoft Go to Microsoft PowerPoint Help & Training. Watch the videos and read the text for lessons - Intro to PowerPoint - Slides & Layouts - Texts & Tables - Pictures & Graphics There are several smaller lessons within each of these - click the tabs along the left to view all of them. ADA and Accessibility Americans with Disability Act and Accessibility Before developing a presentation, let’s discuss the Americans with Disability Act and Accessibility. What do these things have to do with creating a presentation? You need to ensure that any document you create and share is accessible to everyone. If documents are not formatted correctly, individuals using assistive technology such as a screen reader, would not be able to read the document. Articles: Introduction to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Accessibility Enabling Accessibility to content you create online is not only ethical (remember the CEI guidelines), it also increases the number of people who can engage with your content. Fortunately, there are standards that we can follow to ensure that our content is accessible. The standards, linked below, are created by the World Wide Web Consortium (WC3) Introduction to Web Accessibility (4:07) What is Digital Accessibility? 2:40 Accessibility Checker Many software programs have a built-in accessibility checker tool that scans documents for problems with accessibility. - Improve accessibility with the Accessibility Checker- Microsoft - Best practices for making PowerPoint presentations accessible - Microsoft - Learn about accessibility features in Office - Microsoft Additional Resources - Web accessibility standards - Perceivable information and user interface - Operable user interface and navigation - Understandable information and user interface - Robust content and reliable interpretation	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.083594	Deborah Bockman	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92454/overview", "title": "Draft - Introduction To Computer Applications", "author": "Aleshia Hayes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64635/overview	Rhetorical Analysis of Happy Overview This is an essay prompt that asks students to write a rhetorical analysis of Roco Belic's documentary, Happy. English 1D Rhetorical Analysis of Happy For this assignment, you will write a rhetorical analysis (3-4 pages) of Roko Belic’s Happy, analyzing the film’s use of the three rhetorical concepts: logos (reasoning), ethos (credibility), and pathos (emotion). Introduction: - Identify the subject of your analysis. - Do some research and provide some background information about Belic. - What is the issue that Belic addresses? - Why is this issue important? - What situation created the need for the argument? - Thesis - Make a claim, stating your point about the movie’s effectiveness in its attempt to be persuasive. Body: - Explanation of first rhetorical concept followed by an analysis of the text: - Incorporate PIE Paragraph Analysis to explain why the concept is effective or ineffective - Explanation of second rhetorical concept followed by an analysis of the text: - Incorporate PIE Paragraph Analysis to explain why the concept is effective or ineffective - Explanation of third rhetorical concept followed by an analysis of the text: - Incorporate PIE Paragraph Analysis to explain why the concept is effective or ineffective Conclusion: - Consider these questions as you draft your conclusion. - Ultimately, what does your rhetorical analysis reveal about the film? - What does your analysis tell your readers about the rhetorical concepts you used to analyze the text? - Why is your explanation of the text or the rhetorical concepts important to your readers? - What should your readers look for in the future with this kind of film or this persuasion strategy? Other things to consider: - The Rhetorical Analysis must be written in MLA format.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.106888	03/28/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64635/overview", "title": "Rhetorical Analysis of Happy", "author": "John Clanton" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70957/overview	Legend of good women Overview Chaucer describes the virtuous women Summary of Legend of Good women by Geoffrey Chaucer	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.123340	Lecture Notes	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70957/overview", "title": "Legend of good women", "author": "Lecture" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113071/overview	OERizona Network OER Standards_Final OER Standards Criteria for Evaluation OER Standards Criteria for Evaluation_pdf OERizona Network - OER Standards Overview The purpose of these standards is to guide faculty who are designing OER for the OERizona Network, and they can be used for both a formal and/or informal review. The document includes 7 sections: OERizona Network Requirements Quality Appropriateness & Alignment Technical OER Review Supplemental or Ancillary Materials Criteria for Evaluation (for any standard using a 1-5 rating scale) Overview The purpose of these standards is to guide faculty who are designing OER for the OERizona Network, and they can be used for both a formal and/or informal review. The document includes 7 sections: OERizona Network Requirements Quality Appropriateness & Alignment Technical OER Review Supplemental or Ancillary Materials Criteria for Evaluation (for any standard using a 1-5 rating scale) This checklist of OER textbook standards is a remix of: - B.C. Open Textbooks Review Rubric [Word file] (CC BY 4.0 International License.) Accessed https://open.bccampus.ca/use-open-textbooks/review-an-open-textbook/ - Checklist for Evaluating Open Educational Resources (OER) by Texas State University Libraries is licensed under CC BY 4.0. accessed https://digital.library.txstate.edu/handle/10877/12236 - The Affordable Learning Georgia (ALG) Quality Standards for Open Educational Resources (OER) by University System of Georgian (USG) under an attribution of 4.0 International License CC BY. Accessed https://www.affordablelearninggeorgia.org/find_textbooks/selecting_textbooks OERizona Network Requirements Licensing OER content is openly licensed including CC BY, CC BY-NC, CC BY-SA, CC BY-NC-SA, or in the public domain. \| Y N \| \|---\| Accessibility Content meets general accessibility standards Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0, Level AA. \| Y N \| Shareability The content can meaningfully and efficiently be combined or assembled with other materials. \| Y N \| \|---\|---\| The learning object does not require specialized skills or software to read/remix. \| Y N \| Quality Currency & Logevity The OER content is up to date but does not present information that will become obsolete quickly. \| 1 2 3 4 5 \| The OER content reflects significant, topical, and recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. \| 1 2 3 4 5 \| Clarity & Accuracy The OER content is well-written and contains no grammatical, spelling, or typographical errors. \| 1 2 3 4 5 \| The OER content information is factual and verifiable via other external sources. \| 1 2 3 4 5 \| The OER content is understandable and does not need to be augmented with additional explanation or material. \| 1 2 3 4 5 \| Comprehensiveness The OER content scope covers all areas necessary for a particular college course or set of courses or specific course learning outcomes or module/unit learning objectives. \| Y N \| Readability The OER content is understandable for the target higher education students. \| Y N \| The OER provides adequate context for any jargon/technical terminology. \| Y N \| The OER content contains clear instructions explaining how students and instructors are expected to use the content. \| Y N \| Source Transparency & Attributions & Copyrighted Materials OER content cites references and sources appropriately. \| Y N \| OER content contains appropriate attributions for openly licensed content that you share or adapt. \| Y N \| OER content links out to all copyrighted content. \| Y N \| Refer to the Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for OpenCourseWare for all other copyright content that falls under Educational Fair Use. \| Y N \| Pedagogical Methods The OER content includes multiple modalities (e.g., graphics, tables, and information other than text) to support student learning. \| Y N \| The OER content promotes active learning, class participation, and/or collaboration. \| Y N \| Organization & Format The OER content provides an effective index or glossary, table of contents, or content outline when appropriate. \| Y N \| OER content reflects a sound organizational structure and approach. \| Y N \| Appropriatness & Alignment Alignment The OER content is appropriate for the course level. \| Y N \| The OER content clearly states student learning outcomes or unit/module learning objectives and demonstrates alignment. \| Y N \| Any relationships between the use of the OER course, textbook, and/or ancillary OER is clearly explained. \| Y N \| The OER content can be applied in some way that aids a learner’s understanding. \| Y N \| The OER content facilitates the use of a mix of instructional approaches, if it is a larger object, like a unit. \| Y N \| OER assessments clearly describe how the assessment is scored using either a grading rubric or other scoring system. \| Y N \| Cultural Relevance & Sensitivity The OER content is free of insensitivity or cultural stereotypes within the context of the subject matter. \| Y N \| The OER reflects diversity and inclusion regarding culture, gender, ethnicity, national origin, age, disability sexual orientation, education, and religion whenever possible, considering the context of the subject. \| Y N N/A \| Technical Modularity & Adaptability The text is easily and readily divisible into meaningful, smaller sections that can be reorganized. \| Y N \| The text is free of significant self-reference or interface issues, including navigation, that may disrupt if content sequence is modified. \| Y N \| Technical Quality The image resolution and sound quality are up to current standards for target viewing devices (e.g., mobile devices). \| Y N \| The interface and design are easy to navigate. \| Y N \| OER Review OER content has been reviewed by Instructional Designers, Librarians, and/or Subject Matter experts through an OER review process. \| Y N \| Supplemental or Ancillary Materials OER content that includes supporting resources such as study guides, labs, simulations, self-practice or assessment activities also meet these OER standards. \| 1 2 3 4 5 \| Criteria for Evaluation Note: The consortium recognizes that these are all guidelines, and there will be exceptions to each item depending on the content. The OER content is up to date but does not present information that will become obsolete quickly. The OER content is up to date but does not present information that will become obsolete quickly. 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| OER content >10 years old OER information is out-of-date for the topic \| OER content is about 7-10 years old OER information is somewhat up-to-date for the topic \| OER content is between 5-7 years old OER information is up-to-date for the topic \| OER content between 2-5 years old OER information is up-to-date for the topic If appropriate, the OER content has been revised \| OER content <2 years old OER information is up-to-date for the topic If appropriate, the OER content has also been recently revised \| The OER content reflects significant, topical, and recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| OER content is not significant, topical, or representative of recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. \| Most OER content does not reflect significant, topical, or recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. \| OER content more or less reflects significant, topical, and representative of recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. \| OER content is likely to reflect significant, topical, and representative of recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. \| OER content reflects highly significant, topical, and recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. \| The OER content is well-written and contains no grammatical, spelling, or typographical errors. 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| OER content is riddled with >10 grammar, spelling, and typographical errors that distract the audience. \| OER content has 5-10 grammar, spelling, or typographical errors that are distracting to the audience. \| OER content has 3-5 grammar, spelling, or typographical errors that are somewhat distracting to the audience. \| OER content has between 1-3 grammar, spelling, or typographical errors that are not distracting to the audience. \| OER content has no grammar, spelling, or typographical errors. \| The OER content information is factual and verifiable via other external sources. 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| OER content is neither factual nor verifiable via other external reputable sources. \| OER content is not likely to be factual and verifiable via other external reputable sources. \| OER content is more or less factual and verifiable via other external reputable sources. \| OER content is mostly factual and verifiable via other external reputable sources. \| OER content is highly factual and verifiable via other external reputable sources. It has also been peer reviewed or refereed. \| The OER content is presented with clarity and requires little to no additional explanation. 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| OER content is unclear and requires significant additional explanation. \| OER content is not presented with clarity and requires additional explanation or material. \| OER content is somewhat presented with clarity and requires little to no additional explanation. \| OER content is mostly presented with clarity and requires little to no additional explanation. \| OER content is presented with clarity and requires little to no additional explanation. \| OER content that includes supporting resources such as study guides, labs, simulations, self-practice or assessment activities also meet these OER standards. 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| OER content does not include supporting resources such as study guides, labs, simulations, self-practice or assessment activities. \| OER content includes <2 supporting resources such as guides, labs, simulations, self-practice, or assessment activities, but not all of them meet these OER standards. \| OER content includes 2-3 supporting resources such as guides, labs, simulations, self-practice, or assessment activities, and a majority of them meet these OER standards. \| OER content includes several 4-5 supporting resources such as study guides, labs, simulations, self-practice or assessment activities that also meet these OER standards. \| OER content includes numerous >5 supporting resources such as study guides, labs, simulations, self-practice or assessment activities that also meet these OER standards. \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.204671	02/19/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113071/overview", "title": "OERizona Network - OER Standards", "author": "Megan Crossfield" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93388/overview	Micrograph Candida albicans Gram stain 400x p000023 Overview This micrograph was taken at 400X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Candida albicans cells grown in broth culture at 30 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and Gram stained prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox micrograph Light background with a few dark purple oblong cells.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.222227	Emily Fox	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93388/overview", "title": "Micrograph Candida albicans Gram stain 400x p000023", "author": "Diagram/Illustration" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105879/overview	Proposed Model for Online Learning Overview This write up is about my proposed Model for Online Learning in fulfillment of the course Technology for Teaching and Learning. Open Learning This is about the model for Online Learning.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.238435	06/27/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105879/overview", "title": "Proposed Model for Online Learning", "author": "Marister Camello" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69698/overview	Module 6: Education and Diversity Overview This module examine the link between education and diversity Lesson 6.1 Education around the world Education is a social institution through which a society’s children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms. Every nation in the world is equipped with some form of education system, though those systems vary greatly. The major factors that affect education systems are the resources and money that are utilized to support those systems in different nations. As you might expect, a country’s wealth has much to do with the amount of money spent on education. Countries that do not have such basic amenities as running water are unable to support robust education systems or, in many cases, any formal schooling at all. The result of this worldwide educational inequality is a social concern for many countries, including the United States. International differences in education systems are not solely a financial issue. The value placed on education, the amount of time devoted to it, and the distribution of education within a country also play a role in those differences. For example, students in South Korea spend 220 days a year in school, compared to the 180 days a year of their United States counterparts (Pellissier 2010). As of 2006, the United States ranked fifth among twenty-seven countries for college participation, but ranked sixteenth in the number of students who receive college degrees (National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education 2006). These statistics may be related to how much time is spent on education in the United States. Then there is the issue of educational distribution within a nation. In December 2010, the results of a test called the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), which is administered to fifteen-year-old students worldwide, were released. Those results showed that students in the United States had fallen from fifteenth to twenty-fifth in the rankings for science and math (National Public Radio 2010). Students at the top of the rankings hailed from Shanghai, Finland, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Analysts determined that the nations and city-states at the top of the rankings had several things in common. For one, they had well-established standards for education with clear goals for all students. They also recruited teachers from the top 5 to 10 percent of university graduates each year, which is not the case for most countries (National Public Radio 2010). Finally, there is the issue of social factors. One analyst from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the organization that created the test, attributed 20 percent of performance differences and the United States’ low rankings to differences in social background. Researchers noted that educational resources, including money and quality teachers, are not distributed equitably in the United States. In the top-ranking countries, limited access to resources did not necessarily predict low performance. Analysts also noted what they described as “resilient students,” or those students who achieve at a higher level than one might expect given their social background. In Shanghai and Singapore, the proportion of resilient students is about 70 percent. In the United States, it is below 30 percent. These insights suggest that the United States’ educational system may be on a descending path that could detrimentally affect the country’s economy and its social landscape (National Public Radio 2010). Big Picture Education in Finland With public education in the United States under such intense criticism, why is it that Singapore, South Korea, and especially Finland (which is culturally most similar to us), have such excellent public education? Over the course of thirty years, the country has pulled itself from among the lowest rankings by the Organization of Economic Cooperation (OEDC) to first in 2012, and remains, as of 2014, in the top five. Contrary to the rigid curriculum and long hours demanded of students in South Korea and Singapore, Finnish education often seems paradoxical to outside observers because it appears to break a lot of the rules we take for granted. It is common for children to enter school at seven years old, and children will have more recess and less hours in school than U.S. children—approximately 300 less hours. Their homework load is light when compared to all other industrialized nations (nearly 300 fewer hours per year in elementary school). There are no gifted programs, almost no private schools, and no high-stakes national standardized tests (Laukkanen 2008; LynNell Hancock 2011). Prioritization is different than in the United States. There is an emphasis on allocating resources for those who need them most, high standards, support for special needs students, qualified teachers taken from the top 10 percent of the nation's graduates and who must earn a Master's degree, evaluation of education, balancing decentralization and centralization. "We used to have a system which was really unequal," stated the Finnish Education Chief in an interview. "My parents never had a real possibility to study and have a higher education. We decided in the 1960s that we would provide a free quality education to all. Even universities are free of charge. Equal means that we support everyone and we’re not going to waste anyone’s skills." As for teachers, "We don’t test our teachers or ask them to prove their knowledge. But it’s true that we do invest in a lot of additional teacher training even after they become teachers" (Gross-Loh 2014). Yet over the past decade Finland has consistently performed among the top nations on the PISA. Finland’s school children didn’t always excel. Finland built its excellent, efficient, and equitable educational system in a few decades from scratch, and the concept guiding almost every educational reform has been equity. The Finnish paradox is that by focusing on the bigger picture for all, Finland has succeeded at fostering the individual potential of most every child. "We created a school system based on equality to make sure we can develop everyone’s potential. Now we can see how well it’s been working. Last year the OECD tested adults from twenty-four countries measuring the skill levels of adults aged sixteen to sixty-five on a survey called the PIAAC (Programme for International Assessment of Adult Competencies), which tests skills in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments. Finland scored at or near the top on all measures." Formal and Informal Education As already mentioned, education is not solely concerned with the basic academic concepts that a student learns in the classroom. Societies also educate their children, outside of the school system, in matters of everyday practical living. These two types of learning are referred to as formal education and informal education. Formal education describes the learning of academic facts and concepts through a formal curriculum. Arising from the tutelage of ancient Greek thinkers, centuries of scholars have examined topics through formalized methods of learning. Education in earlier times was only available to the higher classes; they had the means for access to scholarly materials, plus the luxury of leisure time that could be used for learning. The Industrial Revolution and its accompanying social changes made education more accessible to the general population. Many families in the emerging middle class found new opportunities for schooling. The modern U.S. educational system is the result of this progression. Today, basic education is considered a right and responsibility for all citizens. Expectations of this system focus on formal education, with curricula and testing designed to ensure that students learn the facts and concepts that society believes are basic knowledge. In contrast, informal education describes learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors by participating in a society. This type of learning occurs both through the formal education system and at home. Our earliest learning experiences generally happen via parents, relatives, and others in our community. Through informal education, we learn how to dress for different occasions, how to perform regular life routines like shopping for and preparing food, and how to keep our bodies clean. Cultural transmission refers to the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture. Both informal and formal education include cultural transmission. For example, a student will learn about cultural aspects of modern history in a U.S. History classroom. In that same classroom, the student might learn the cultural norm for asking a classmate out on a date through passing notes and whispered conversations. Access to Education Another global concern in education is universal access. This term refers to people’s equal ability to participate in an education system. On a world level, access might be more difficult for certain groups based on class or gender (as was the case in the United States earlier in the nation’s history, a dynamic we still struggle to overcome). The modern idea of universal access arose in the United States as a concern for people with disabilities. In the United States, one way in which universal education is supported is through federal and state governments covering the cost of free public education. Of course, the way this plays out in terms of school budgets and taxes makes this an often-contested topic on the national, state, and community levels. Cultural transmission refers to the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture. Both informal and formal education include cultural transmission. For example, a student will learn about cultural aspects of modern history in a U.S. History classroom. In that same classroom, the student might learn the cultural norm for asking a classmate out on a date through passing notes and whispered conversations. Access to Education Another global concern in education is universal access. This term refers to people’s equal ability to participate in an education system. On a world level, access might be more difficult for certain groups based on class or gender (as was the case in the United States earlier in the nation’s history, a dynamic we still struggle to overcome). The modern idea of universal access arose in the United States as a concern for people with disabilities. In the United States, one way in which universal education is supported is through federal and state governments covering the cost of free public education. Of course, the way this plays out in terms of school budgets and taxes makes this an often-contested topic on the national, state, and community levels. A precedent for universal access to education in the United States was set with the 1972 U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia’s decision in Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia. This case was brought on the behalf of seven school-age children with special needs who argued that the school board was denying their access to free public education. The school board maintained that the children’s “exceptional” needs, which included intellectual disabilities, precluded their right to be educated for free in a public school setting. The board argued that the cost of educating these children would be too expensive and that the children would therefore have to remain at home without access to education. This case was resolved in a hearing without any trial. The judge, Joseph Cornelius Waddy, upheld the students’ right to education, finding that they were to be given either public education services or private education paid for by the Washington, D.C., board of education. He noted that Constitutional rights must be afforded citizens despite the greater expense involved … the District of Columbia’s interest in educating the excluded children clearly must outweigh its interest in preserving its financial resources. … The inadequacies of the District of Columbia Public School System whether occasioned by insufficient funding or administrative inefficiency, certainly cannot be permitted to bear more heavily on the “exceptional” or handicapped child than on the normal child (Mills v. Board of Education 1972). Today, the optimal way to include people with disabilities students in standard classrooms is still being researched and debated. “Inclusion” is a method that involves complete immersion in a standard classroom, whereas “mainstreaming” balances time in a special-needs classroom with standard classroom participation. There continues to be social debate surrounding how to implement the ideal of universal access to education. Lesson 6.2 Theoretical perspectives While it is clear that education plays an integral role in individuals’ lives as well as society as a whole, sociologists view that role from many diverse points of view. Functionalists believe that education equips people to perform different functional roles in society. Conflict theorists view education as a means of widening the gap in social inequality. Feminist theorists point to evidence that sexism in education continues to prevent women from achieving a full measure of social equality. Symbolic interactionists study the dynamics of the classroom, the interactions between students and teachers, and how those affect everyday life. In this section, you will learn about each of these perspectives. Functionalism Functionalists view education as one of the more important social institutions in a society. They contend that education contributes two kinds of functions: manifest (or primary) functions, which are the intended and visible functions of education; and latent (or secondary) functions, which are the hidden and unintended functions. Manifest Functions There are several major manifest functions associated with education. The first is socialization. Beginning in preschool and kindergarten, students are taught to practice various societal roles. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who established the academic discipline of sociology, characterized schools as “socialization agencies that teach children how to get along with others and prepare them for adult economic roles” (Durkheim 1898). Indeed, it seems that schools have taken on this responsibility in full. This socialization also involves learning the rules and norms of the society as a whole. In the early days of compulsory education, students learned the dominant culture. Today, since the culture of the United States is increasingly diverse, students may learn a variety of cultural norms, not only that of the dominant culture. School systems in the United States also transmit the core values of the nation through manifest functions like social control. One of the roles of schools is to teach students conformity to law and respect for authority. Obviously, such respect, given to teachers and administrators, will help a student navigate the school environment. This function also prepares students to enter the workplace and the world at large, where they will continue to be subject to people who have authority over them. Fulfillment of this function rests primarily with classroom teachers and instructors who are with students all day. Education also provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social mobility. This function is referred to as social placement. College and graduate schools are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to the careers that will give them the financial freedom and security they seek. As a result, college students are often more motivated to study areas that they believe will be advantageous on the social ladder. A student might value business courses over a class in Victorian poetry because she sees business class as a stronger vehicle for financial success. Latent Functions Education also fulfills latent functions. As you well know, much goes on in a school that has little to do with formal education. For example, you might notice an attractive fellow student when he gives a particularly interesting answer in class—catching up with him and making a date speaks to the latent function of courtship fulfilled by exposure to a peer group in the educational setting. The educational setting introduces students to social networks that might last for years and can help people find jobs after their schooling is complete. Of course, with social media such as Facebook and LinkedIn, these networks are easier than ever to maintain. Another latent function is the ability to work with others in small groups, a skill that is transferable to a workplace and that might not be learned in a homeschool setting. The educational system, especially as experienced on university campuses, has traditionally provided a place for students to learn about various social issues. There is ample opportunity for social and political advocacy, as well as the ability to develop tolerance to the many views represented on campus. In 2011, the Occupy Wall Street movement swept across college campuses all over the United States, leading to demonstrations in which diverse groups of students were unified with the purpose of changing the political climate of the country. \| Manifest Functions: Openly stated functions with intended goals \| Latent Functions: Hidden, unstated functions with sometimes unintended consequences \| \|---\|---\| \| Socialization \| Courtship \| \| Transmission of culture \| Social networks \| \| Social control \| Group work \| \| Social placement \| Creation of generation gap \| \| Cultural innovation \| Political and social integration \| Lesson 6.3 Issues in Education As schools strive to fill a variety of roles in their students’ lives, many issues and challenges arise. Students walk a minefield of bullying, violence in schools, the results of declining funding, plus other problems that affect their education. When Americans are asked about their opinion of public education on the Gallup poll each year, reviews are mixed at best (Saad 2008). Schools are no longer merely a place for learning and socializing. With the landmark Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka ruling in 1954, schools became a repository of much political and legal action that is at the heart of several issues in education. Equal Education Until the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education ruling, schools had operated under the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896, which allowed racial segregation in schools and private businesses (the case dealt specifically with railroads) and introduced the much maligned phrase “separate but equal” into the U.S. lexicon. The 1954 Brown v. Board decision overruled this, declaring that state laws that had established separate schools for black and white students were, in fact, unequal and unconstitutional. While the ruling paved the way toward civil rights, it was also met with contention in many communities. In Arkansas in 1957, the governor mobilized the state National Guard to prevent black students from entering Little Rock Central High School. President Eisenhower, in response, sent members of the 101st Airborne Division from Kentucky to uphold the students’ right to enter the school. In 1963, almost ten years after the ruling, Governor George Wallace of Alabama used his own body to block two black students from entering the auditorium at the University of Alabama to enroll in the school. Wallace’s desperate attempt to uphold his policy of “segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever,” stated during his 1963 inauguration (PBS 2000) became known as the “Stand in the Schoolhouse Door.” He refused to grant entry to the students until a general from the Alabama National Guard arrived on President Kennedy’s order. Presently, students of all races and ethnicities are permitted into schools, but there remains a troubling gap in the equality of education they receive. The long-term socially embedded effects of racism—and other discrimination and disadvantage—have left a residual mark of inequality in the nation’s education system. Students from wealthy families and those of lower socioeconomic status do not receive the same opportunities. Today’s public schools, at least in theory, are positioned to help remedy those gaps. Predicated on the notion of universal access, this system is mandated to accept and retain all students regardless of race, religion, social class, and the like. Moreover, public schools are held accountable to equitable per-student spending (Resnick 2004). Private schools, usually only accessible to students from high-income families, and schools in more affluent areas generally enjoy access to greater resources and better opportunities. In fact, some of the key predictors for student performance include socioeconomic status and family background. Children from families of lower socioeconomic status often enter school with learning deficits they struggle to overcome throughout their educational tenure. These patterns, uncovered in the landmark Coleman Report of 1966, are still highly relevant today, as sociologists still generally agree that there is a great divide in the performance of white students from affluent backgrounds and their nonwhite, less affluent, counterparts (Coleman 1966). Head Start The findings in the Coleman Report were so powerful that they brought about two major changes to education in the United States. The federal Head Start program, which is still active and successful today, was developed to give low-income students an opportunity to make up the preschool deficit discussed in Coleman’s findings. The program provides academic-centered preschool to students of low socioeconomic status. Busing The second major change brought about after the release of the Coleman Report was less successful than the Head Start program and has been the subject of a great deal of controversy. With the goal of further desegregating education, courts across the United States ordered some school districts to begin a program that became known as “busing.” This program involved bringing students to schools outside their neighborhoods (and therefore schools they would not normally have the opportunity to attend) to bring racial diversity into balance. This practice was met with a great deal of public resistance from people on both sides dissatisfied with white students traveling to inner city schools and minority students bring transported to schools in the suburbs. No Child Left Behind In 2001, the Bush administration passed the No Child Left Behind Act, which requires states to test students in designated grades. The results of those tests determine eligibility to receive federal funding. Schools that do not meet the standards set by the Act run the risk of having their funding cut. Sociologists and teachers alike have contended that the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act is far more negative than positive, arguing that a “one size fits all” concept cannot apply to education. Teaching to the Test The funding tie-in of the No Child Left Behind Act has led to the social phenomenon commonly called “teaching to the test,” which describes when a curriculum focuses on equipping students to succeed on standardized tests, to the detriment of broader educational goals and concepts of learning. At issue are two approaches to classroom education: the notion that teachers impart knowledge that students are obligated to absorb, versus the concept of student-centered learning that seeks to teach children not facts, but problem solving abilities and learning skills. Both types of learning have been valued in the U.S. school system. The former, to critics of “teaching to the test,” only equips students to regurgitate facts, while the latter, to proponents of the other camp, fosters lifelong learning and transferable work skills. Bilingual Education New issues of inequality have entered the national conversation in recent years with the issue of bilingual education, which attempts to give equal opportunity to minority students through offering instruction in languages other than English. Though it is actually an old issue (bilingual education was federally mandated in 1968), it remains one of hot debate. Supporters of bilingual education argue that all students deserve equal opportunities in education—opportunities some students cannot access without instruction in their first language. On the other side, those who oppose bilingual education often point to the need for English fluency in everyday life and in the professional world. Common Core "The Common Core is a set of high-quality academic standards in mathematics and English language arts/literacy (ELA). These learning goals outline what a student should know and be able to do at the end of each grade." Included in the list of standards is that they be evidence-based, clear, understandable, consistent, aligned with college and career expectations, include the application of knowledge through higher-order thinking skills, and are informed by other top-performing countries (The Common Core State Standards Initiative 2014). The primary controversy over the Common Core State Standards, or simply the Common Core, from the standpoint of teachers, parents and students, and even administrators, is not so much the standards themselves, but the assessment process and the high stakes involved. Both the national teacher's unions in the United States initially agreed to them, at least in principle. But both have since become strong voices of criticism. Given a public education system that is primarily funded by local property taxes, rather than by state and federal funds distributed to all schools equally, we see a wide disparity of funding per student throughout the country, with the result that students in schools funded by well-to-do communities are clearly better off than those who are not, sometimes only a few miles away. What gets measured? Much has been said about the quality, usefulness, and even accuracy of many of the standardized tests. Math questions have been found to be misleading and poorly phrased; for instance, “Tyler made 36 total snowfalls with is a multiple of how triangular snowflakes he made. How many triangular snowflakes could he have made?” Some of the essays had questions that made little sense to the students. One notable test question in 2014 that dominated the Internet for a time was about "The Hare and the Pineapple." This was a parody on the well-known Aesop fable of the race between the hare and the tortoise that appeared on a standardized test for New York's eighth-grade exam, with the tortoise changed into a talking pineapple. With the pineapple clearly unable to participate in a race and the hare winning, "the animals ate the pineapple." "Moral: Pineapples don’t have sleeves." At the end of the story, questions for the student included, "Which animal spoke the wisest words?" and "Why did the animals eat the talking fruit?" Charter Schools Charter schools are self-governing public schools that have signed agreements with state governments to improve students when poor performance is revealed on tests required by the No Child Left Behind Act. While such schools receive public money, they are not subject to the same rules that apply to regular public schools. In return, they make agreements to achieve specific results. Charter schools, as part of the public education system, are free to attend, and are accessible via lottery when there are more students seeking enrollment than there are spots available at the school. Some charter schools specialize in certain fields, such as the arts or science, while others are more generalized. Sociology in the Real World Money as Motivation in Charter Schools Public school teachers typically find stability, comprehensive benefits packages, and long-term job security. In 2011, one charter school in New York City set out to learn if teachers would give up those protections if it meant an opportunity to make much more money than the typical teacher’s salary. The Equity Project is a privately run charter school that offered teachers positions paying $125,000 per year (more than twice the average salary for teachers). The school’s founder and principal, Zeke Vanderhoek, explained that this allows him to attract the best and brightest teachers to his school—to decide whom he hires and how much they are paid—and build a school where “every teacher is a great teacher” (CBS News 2011). He sees attracting top teachers as a direct road to student achievement. A nationwide talent search resulted in the submission of thousands of applications. The final round of interviews consisted of a day-long trial run. The school looks for teachers who can show evidence of student growth and achievement. They also must be highly engaging. The majority of students at the school are African American and Hispanic, from poor families, and reading below grade level. The school faces the challenge faced by schools all over the United States: getting poor, disadvantaged students to perform at the same level as their more affluent counterparts. Vanderhoek believes his team of dream teachers can help students close their learning gaps by several grade levels within one year. This is not an affluent school. It is publicly funded and classes are held in trailers. Most of the school’s budget goes into the teachers’ salaries. There are no reading or math aides; those roles are filled by the regular classroom teachers. The experiment may be working. Students who were asked how they feel about their education at The Equity Project said that their teachers care if they succeed and give them the attention they need to achieve at high levels. They cite the feeling that their teachers believe in them as a major reason for liking school for the first time. Of course, with the high salary comes high risk. Most public schools offer contracts to teachers. Those contracts guarantee job security. But The Equity Project is an at-will employer. Those who don’t meet the standards set by the school will lose their jobs. Vanderhoek does not believe in teacher tenure, which he feels gives teachers “a job for life no matter how they perform” (CBS News 2011). With a teaching staff of roughly fifteen, he terminated two teachers after the first year. In comparison, in New York City as a whole, only seven teachers out of 55,000 with tenure have been terminated for poor performance. One of those two teachers who was let go said she was relieved, citing eighty- to ninety-hour work weeks and a decline in the quality of her family life. Meanwhile, there is some question as to whether the model is working. On one hand, there are individual success stories, such as a student whose reading skills increased two grade levels in a single year. On the other, there is the fact that on the state math and reading exams taken by all fifth graders, the Equity Project students remained out-scored by other district schools (CBS News 2011). Do charter schools actually work? A Stanford CREDO study in 2009 found "there is a wide variance in the quality of the nation’s several thousand charter schools with, in the aggregate, students in charter schools not faring as well as students in traditional public schools" (CREDO 2009). Teacher Training Schools face an issue of teacher effectiveness, in that most high school teachers perceive students as being prepared for college, while most college professors do not see those same students as prepared for the rigors of collegiate study. Some feel that this is due to teachers being unprepared to teach. Many teachers in the United States teach subject matter that is outside their own field of study. This is not the case in many European and Asian countries. Only eight percent of United States fourth-grade math teachers majored or minored in math, compared with 48 percent in Singapore. Further, students in disadvantaged American schools are 77 percent more likely to be educated by a teacher who didn’t specialize in the subject matter than students who attend schools in affluent neighborhoods (Holt, McGrath, and Seastrom 2006). Social Promotion Social promotion is another issue identified by sociologists. This is the concept of passing students to the next grade regardless of their meeting standards for that grade. Critics of this practice argue that students should never move to the next grade if they have not mastered the skills required to “graduate” from the previous grade. Proponents of the practice question what a school is to do with a student who is three to four years older than other students in his or her grade, saying this creates more issues than the practice of social promotion. Affirmative Action Affirmative action has been a subject of debate, primarily as it relates to the admittance of college students. Opponents suggest that, under affirmative action, minority students are given greater weighted priorities for admittance. Supporters of affirmative action point to the way in which it grants opportunities to students who are traditionally done a disservice in the college admission process. Rising Student Loan Debt In a growing concern, the amount of college loan debt that students are taking on is creating a new social challenge. As of 2010, the debts of students with student loans averaged $25,250 upon graduation, leaving students hard-pressed to repay their education while earning entry-level wages, even at the professional level (Lewin 2011). With the increase in unemployment since the 2008 recession, jobs are scarce and make this burden more pronounced. As recent grads find themselves unable to meet their financial obligations, all of society is affected. Home Schooling Homeschooling refers to children being educated in their own homes, typically by a parent, instead of in a traditional public or private school system. Proponents of this type of education argue that it provides an outstanding opportunity for student-centered learning while circumventing problems that plague today’s education system. Opponents counter that homeschooled children miss out on the opportunity for social development that occurs in standard classroom environments and school settings. Proponents say that parents know their own children better than anyone else and are thus best equipped to teach them. Those on the other side of the debate assert that childhood education is a complex task and requires the degree teachers spend four years earning. After all, they argue, a parent may know her child’s body better than anyone, yet she seeks out a doctor for her child’s medical treatment. Just as a doctor is a trained medical expert, teachers are trained education experts. The National Center for Education Statistics shows that the quality of the national education system isn’t the only major concern of homeschoolers. While nearly half cite their reason for homeschooling as the belief that they can give their child a better education than the school system can, just under 40 percent choose homeschooling for “religious reasons” (NCES 2008). To date, researchers have not found consensus in studies evaluating the success, or lack thereof, of homeschooling.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.277144	07/15/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69698/overview", "title": "Module 6: Education and Diversity", "author": "Audra Kallimanis" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103471/overview	Dealing with socially acute questions in the English-language classroom Overview In this article, I propose a toolbox that L2 teachers can draw from to nurture, facilitate, and foster constructive intercultural dialog when dealing with socially acute questions (SAQs) in the English-language classroom. Starting off with a case study describing a poorly managed racist incident that occurred in one of the author’s interfaculty conversation classes, the article provides insights into SAQs from Transdisciplinarity, Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), and the Pedagogy of Encounter. The article continues with an introduction to the concepts of Safe Spaces and Story Circles, and a reminder of the key concepts of Cross-Cultural Pragmatics. It aims at providing a SAQ toolbox that the L2 teacher can draw from to deal with SAQs in cross-cultural dialog situations they may encounter in their English-language classrooms, meeting the stakeholders’ (the L2 learners’ and teacher’s) academic expectations as well as emotional needs. Dealing with socially acute questions in the English-language classroom In this article, I propose a toolbox that L2 teachers can draw from to nurture, facilitate, and foster constructive intercultural dialog when dealing with socially acute questions (SAQs) in the English-language classroom. Starting off with a case study describing a poorly managed racist incident that occurred in one of the author’s interfaculty conversation classes, the article provides insights into SAQs from Transdisciplinarity, Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), and the Pedagogy of Encounter. The article continues with an introduction to the concepts of Safe Spaces and Story Circles, and a reminder of the key concepts of Cross-Cultural Pragmatics. It aims at providing a SAQ toolbox that the L2 teacher can draw from to deal with SAQs in cross-cultural dialog situations they may encounter in their English-language classrooms, meeting the stakeholders’ (the L2 learners’ and teacher’s) academic expectations as well as emotional needs.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.299068	Case Study	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103471/overview", "title": "Dealing with socially acute questions in the English-language classroom", "author": "World Cultures" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90114/overview	cinema scenes version six Overview recent version of text version six cinema scenes version six recent iteration of the text added more images arranged layout better columns adjusted spelling corrected started captions added more chapters split chapters chpaters on women in film added cinema scenes version six	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.316445	02/16/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90114/overview", "title": "cinema scenes version six", "author": "stuart lenig" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54978/overview	Ch. 3 Culture: Supplemental Slides Ch. 5 Socialization: Supplemental Review Slides Module 2: Culture and Socialization Overview Textbook, slides, and class activities related to culture and socialization. Primary text: OpenStax Introduction to Sociology. Culture and Socialization: Learning Objectives Explain what culture is and why it is important Distinguish between material and nonmaterial culture Compare and contrast ethnocentrism and cultural relativism Describe elements and uses of nonmaterial culture—gestures, language, norms, sanctions, folkways, mores, and taboos Compare and contrast subcultures and countercultures, high and low culture Outline the role of technology in cultural change Evaluate the role of “nurture” (socialization) in the “nature versus nurture” debate Compare and contrast psychological and sociological theories of self-development Analyze and describe the process of socialization Compare and contrast agents of socialization (including total institutions) and assess their influence in self-development throughout the life course Culture and Socialization: Readings Culture and Socialization: Supplemental Review Slides The attached slides provide a useful review of concepts from chapters 3 and 5 in your textbook. Culture and Socialization: Class Activities Activity 4: Elements of Culture Scavenger Hunt—Norms and Sanctions LO: Identify norms and sanctions, both positive and negative, operating within Eastfield College CSSS: Critical Thinking, Collaboration, Communication Instructions: Spend ___ minutes observing people on campus (hallways, The Pit, Subway, etc.). - Identify and list at least five (5) norms (folkways and mores) that you see people following or breaking. - Describe any sanctions you observe people receiving as a result of breaking or following these norms. Indicate whether the sanction is positive or negative. (Note: if you don’t observe people receiving a sanction, answer with the kind of sanction you think they would/should receive.) \| Norm: \| Sanction: \| \|---\|---\|---\| Ex: \| Waiting your turn in line (folkway) \| Negative \| Guy cut in line at Subway \| Everyone yelled at him \| \| 1. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 2. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 3. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 4. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 5. \| \| \| \| \| Activity 5: Connecting Material and Non-Material Culture LO: Describe the relationship between elements of non-material and material culture. Think critically about how material and non-material culture work together to emphasize the overall cultural values of a society. Instructions: Work with your group to create a list of at least 5 values and beliefs that are important in U.S. culture. Next, list at least two norms and behaviors that support that value. Finally, identify at least two material goods that related to that value. Value/Belief \| Norms and Behaviors \| Material Goods \| \|---\|---\|---\| Ex: Hygiene is important \| \| \| 1. \| \| \| 2. \| \| \| 3. \| \| \| 4. \| \| \| 5. \| \| \| Activity 6: Naciremans LO: Recognize examples of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism, identify elements of material and nonmaterial culture CSSS: Critical Thinking, Communication, Collaboration, Self-Assessment Instructions: Use the article “Body Ritual Among the Nacirema” to respond to each of the following items: - Identify and describe, at minimum, five (5) elements of the material culture of the Naciremans—what kinds of tools, buildings, etc. do they possess? - Identify and describe, at minimum, five (5) elements of the nonmaterial culture of the Naciremans—what kinds of norms, values, beliefs, and practices do you observe? - Identify examples of ethnocentrism in the author’s description of the Naciremans. \| Material \| Nonmaterial \| Ethnocentrism \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| 1. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 2. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 3. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 4. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 5. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Activity 7: Agents of Socialization Learning Objective: Recognize the role of various agents of socialization in shaping identity, compare and contrast differences in socialization based on social location. CSSS: Critical Thinking, Self -Assessment, Communication Instructions: With your group, discuss how your assigned agent of socialization has influenced you. Make sure you hear from each member of your group! Choose a group leader to present your answers to the class. - Identify and discuss, at minimum, two (2) ways this agent of socialization influenced you (lessons taught, messages, behaviors, etc.). How? - Identify and discuss, at minimum, two (2) differences in socialization experiences among members of your group. - How would you explain these differences in socialization-- why were you socialized differently? How do these differences influence your perspectives or behaviors? Agents: Family, School, Peer Groups, Media, Neighborhood, Religion, Workplace, Government Activity 8: Gender in the Toy Aisle LO: Think critically about how children are socialized to adhere to gender norms. CSSS: Critical Thinking, Communication, Collaboration Instructions: With your group, visit a toy store, the toy section of a local store (Target, WalMart, etc.) or visit the website of one of these stores and select two (2) toys that are marketed specifically to boys and two (2) toys marketed specifically to girls. List and briefly describe each item, then answer the Critical Thinking questions on the back of the page: Girls \| Boys \| \|---\|---\| Item #1: \| Item #2: \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Item #3: \| Item #4: \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Critical Thinking Questions: - How did you know which toys were intended for girls and which were intended for boys? - How are boys’ and girls’ toys packaged or displayed differently (colors, pictures, words, fonts, etc.)? Why do you think this is? - What messages are the toys are trying to send in terms of what is appropriate for boys and girls or what behaviors are encouraged? What roles are these toys socializing children into? How?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.386796	05/31/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54978/overview", "title": "Module 2: Culture and Socialization", "author": "India Stewart" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117886/overview	THE 1005: Module 5 - Contemporary Musical Theatre Overview This module resource provides a comprehensive overview of contemporary musical theatre, highlighting significant trends, key figures, and notable works. (Title Image Attribution: NWU-Theatre-Heathers-LARGE-164 by Julie Wilshusen is licensed CC BY-NC 2.0)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.403830	Red Rocks CC	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117886/overview", "title": "THE 1005: Module 5 - Contemporary Musical Theatre", "author": "Module" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96650/overview	Micrograph Pseudomonas putida gram stain 1000X p000174 Overview This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Pseudomonas putida cells grown in broth culture overnight at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and Gram stained prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox Micrograph White background with several pink, rod-shaped Pseudomonas putida cells.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.420977	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96650/overview", "title": "Micrograph Pseudomonas putida gram stain 1000X p000174", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93046/overview	Micrograph Escherichia coli and Mycobacterium smegmatis acid fast 1000X p000070 Overview This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Escherichia coli cells and Mycobacterium smegmatis cells grown separately in broth culture at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and acid-fast stained using the Ziehl-Neelsen method prior to visualization. M. smegmatis (acid-fast) stains pink with carbol fuchsin. E.coli (non-acid-fast) stains blue with methylene blue counterstain. Image credit: Emily Fox Micrograph Light background with many blue rods and clumped, pink rods.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.438010	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93046/overview", "title": "Micrograph Escherichia coli and Mycobacterium smegmatis acid fast 1000X p000070", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96125/overview	Linear Approximation and Tangent Planes: Calculus 3 Project by Abigail Powsner Overview This Project has been completed as part of a standard 10 weeks Calculus 3 asynhronous online course with optional office hours during Summer 2022 semester at MassBay Community College, Wellesley Hills, MA. Summary Author: Abigail Powsner Instructor: Igor V Baryakhtar Subject: Calculus 3 Course number: MA 202-700 Course type: Asynhronous online Semester: Summer 2022, 10 weeks College: MassBay Comminity College, MA Tags: Calculus, Project Based learning, Active Learning Language: English Media Format: html License: CC-BY 4.0 All project content created by Abigail Powsner Content added to OER Commons by Igor V Baryakhtar Linear Approximation and Tangent Planes In earlier sections of Calculus, tangent lines were discussed. When you think of a function on a graph, there is a tangent line that touches the function. This is similar to what we are learning now, but instead, these tangent lines become tangent planes. When solving for tangent planes or lines, linear approximation can be used in this process. Tangent planes are different compared to tangent lines because instead of thinking of a two-dimensional graph, tangent planes apply to three-dimensional graphs. Here is what a tangent line looks like: (the blue line) (Dawkins) There is usually only one tangent line, but now there is the possibility of having multiple tangent planes because it is being applied to three-dimensional graphs. Tangent planes are tangent to their graph and just touch the three-dimensional graph (Khan Academy). Here is what a tangent plane looks like: (gray plane) (Khan Academy) According to the Calculus Volume 3 textbook, the equation used to find tangent planes is: z = f(x0, y0) + fx(x0, y0)(x-x0) + fy(x0, y0)(y-y0) . This is specifically when S is a surface defined by z = f(x,y), which is a differentiable function. This equation gives the tangent plane to S at P0 when P0 = (x0, y0) is a point in the domain f (Gilbert & Herman, 2016). Here is one example of how to find the equation of a tangent plane at a point: In step one, you find the partial derivative of f with respect to x, and then plug in the x and y values into the equation. Step two is similar, but instead, the partial derivative of f with respect to y is found, and the same two values as before are plugged in. In step 3, the function is evaluated at the point. From the equation used to find a tangent plane, values are plugged into the equation in step 4. You then distribute and simplify the equation to get z, which is the equation of the tangent plane. Linear approximation is also known as the process of finding the tangent line. When looking at a graph, and this time it is a two-dimensional graph, linear approximation is used to approximate “values of f(x) as long as we stay ‘near’ x=a” (Dawkins). This means that linear approximation is a good technique to find a tangent line to a specific point. However, it is different when dealing with two-variable functions. In this case where there are two variables, a tangent plane is being approximated. Linear approximation is not going to give you an exact value or coordinate of a plane. Instead, it is going to give you the closest value possible to what you are solving for on the graph. The equation of linear approximation is: L(x, y) = f(x0, y0) + fx(x0, y0)(x-x0) + fy(x0, y0)(y-y0) . This equation is specifically used when a function, z = f(x, y), has continuous partial derivatives that exist at (x0, y0). L(x, y) finds the linear approximation of f at point (x0, y0). You use the tangent plane throughout the process of finding the linear approximation, here is a photo showing this: Here is an example of using linear (tangent) plane approximation: In step one, the partial derivative with respect to x was found. The values of x0 and y0 were then found. Step two was similar, but the partial derivative with respect to y was found. Then the same x0 and y0 values were plugged into the partial derivative and were calculated. This was the same process that was used in the previous example. Step 3 was evaluating what f was with the same values as before. In step 4, the equation of linear approximation was used, and all of the different values were plugged in. The equation for L(x, y) was then found. From the question, you were supposed to approximate the point by using the L(x, y) equation and see how similar it was to the function evaluated at the point. This was done by using x0 = 2 and y0 = 3 by plugging those numbers into the equation or function. The two values were very similar, so linear approximation shows that it is a valid way to approximate a function/plane. Here are a few problems to try out yourself: - Find the equation for the tangent plane to the surface at the point: z = - 9x2- 3y2 at point (2, 1, -39) - Find the linear approximation of each function at the point: f(x, y) = x √ (y) at point (1, 4). These are some videos to help further explain some topics (the last video is a video of more practice problems): - What is a Tangent Plane - Finding the Linearization of a Function using Tangent Line Approximations - Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations Overall, the topic of linear approximation and tangent planes brings together various Calculus concepts. We already knew about linear approximation and tangent lines, but now this was incorporating the fact that we are looking at three-dimensional figures/graphs. I hope you were able to use your previous knowledge on these topics and learn more about linear approximation and tangent planes. References: Dawkins, P. (n.d.). Section 4-11: Linear Approximations. Calculus I - linearapproximations. Retrieved July 8, 2022, from https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calci/linearapproximations.aspx Khan Academy. (n.d.). Tangent Planes (article). Khan Academy. Retrieved July 8, 2022, from https://www.khanacademy.org/math/multivariable-calculus/applications-of-multivariable-derivatives/tangent-planes-and-local-linearization/a/tangent-planes YouTube. (2016). What is a tangent plane. YouTube. Retrieved July 9, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cHNT7_F8m1Y. YouTube. (2018). Finding the linearization of a function using tangent line approximations. YouTube. Retrieved July 9, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XQaCbFMnDo0. YouTube. (2018). Tangent planes and linear approximation. YouTube. Retrieved July 9, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0qDdUruJwFU.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.458724	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96125/overview", "title": "Linear Approximation and Tangent Planes: Calculus 3 Project by Abigail Powsner", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51267/overview	Handout 2 Handout 3 Handout 4 Handout 5 Handout 6 Handout 7 Handout 8 Relationships & Communication Overview This is an in class activity where students watch an episode of the NBC television series "The Office" and are assigned a couple of characters to focus on throughout the episode and then answer questions on a handout about the things that went wrong between these characters due to their poor communicating skills and what they could have done different. The things that "blockcommunication" are listed directly on their handouts to help them with identifying effective and ineffective forms of communicaiton. Relationships & Communication Activity Instructions Relationships & Communication Activity The Office, Season 2 (Running time: 21:08) Here is some detailed information about the episode from Wiki The Office: Conflict Resolution Information Materials: - The Office DVD (see Jackie Felix for a copy of the DVD) if the link above does not open. - Hand-outs (8 different versions.) (Typically I end up with 3-4 students per group. It just depends on the size of the class. I also change it up and sometimes and do 6 instead of 8 different scenarios. You can do as you like.) Begin the lesson by reviewing the things that block communication as covered in the OER and that are listed directly on their handouts.. Then, inform the class that they are about to watch a video where they will be assigned to watch the relationship dynamic between 2 characters. They will be given a worksheet that they all must fill out and turn in. They can take notes while they watch the video but they must fill out the form. Then, randomly hand-out the forms. Once each student has a form, begin the video. When the episode is finished have them get into groups based on their pairing. (The characters they were assigned to watch.) For example, one group would be Angela vs. Oscar, and another would be Jim vs. Pam, etc ) Have them work with their group members to come up with the answers to the questions on the hand-out. Give them about 15 minutes. Make sure to reinforce that it is important to be very specific with the examples and answers that they give. Inform them that each group will be presenting their responses to the class. Finally, together as a class, call on each group to explain to the class what the issue / conflict was and have them give the answers to their questions. Collect the forms at the end of the activity. (I use this towards their participation points.) You will be watching a full episode ofthe NBC television series "The Office." You will be provided a handout where you will be assigned a pair of characters you are to focus on during the episode and answer the questions on the form. You are to identify the ineffective ways these characters communicatied and what happened as a result. Finally you are to provide effective ways each could have communicated with one another based on what you learned in your textbook. All forms are due at the end of the class session. Your handout will list the different things that block communication to help you in answering the questions.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.480094	Jackeline Felix	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51267/overview", "title": "Relationships & Communication", "author": "Module" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87355/overview	Student Worksheet-Website Evaluation Overview Use this worksheet to evaluate websites for credibility and reliability. Student Worksheets Use this worksheet to evaluate websites for credibility and reliability.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.496742	11/01/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87355/overview", "title": "Student Worksheet-Website Evaluation", "author": "Amy Betti" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98198/overview	CHAPTER 5: LISTENING Overview Introduction to Communication textbook. Learning Objectives After reading this module you should be able to: • Understand the difference between listening and hearing. • Identify a variety of listening styles. • Explain the challenges to effective listening. • Define the stages of listening. 5.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING “Are you listening to me?” This question is often asked because the speaker thinks the listener is nodding off or daydreaming. We sometimes think that listening means we only have to sit back, stay barely awake, and let a speaker’s words wash over us. While many Americans look upon being active as something to admire, to engage in, and to excel at, listening is often understood as a “passive” activity. More recently, O, the Oprah Magazine (2006), featured a cover article with the title, “How to Talk So People Really Listen: Four Ways to Make Yourself Heard.” This title leads us to expect a list of ways to leave the listening to others and insist that they do so, but the article contains a surprise ending. The final piece of advice is this: “You can’t go wrong by showing interest in what other people say and making them feel important. In other words, the better you listen, the more you’ll be listened to.” You may have heard the adage, “We have two ears but only one mouth”—an easy way to remember that listening can be twice as important as talking. As a student, you most likely spend many hours in a classroom doing a large amount of focused listening, yet sometimes it is difficult to apply those efforts to communicate in other areas of your life. As a result, your listening skills may not be all they could be. In this chapter, we will examine listening versus hearing, listening styles, listening difficulties or barriers, listening stages, and listening critically. “LOUD speaker” by woodleywonderworks is licensed under CC BY 2.0 5.2 LISTENING VS. HEARING Hearing is an accidental and automatic brain response to sound that requires no effort. We are surrounded by sound most of the time. For example, we are accustomed to the sounds of airplanes, lawn mowers, furnace blowers, the rattling of pots and pans, and so on. We hear those incidental sounds and, unless we have a reason to do otherwise, we train ourselves to ignore them. We learn to filter out sounds that mean little to us, just as we choose to hear our ringing cell phones and other sounds that are more important to us. Listening, on the other hand, is purposeful and focused rather than accidental. As a result, it requires motivation and effort. At its best, listening is active, focused, concentrated attention for the purpose of understanding the meanings expressed by a speaker. We do not always listen at our best. Later in this chapter, we will examine some of the reasons why and some strategies for becoming more active critical listeners. BENEFITS OF LISTENING Listening should not be taken for granted. Before the invention of writing, people conveyed virtually all knowledge through some combination of showing and telling. Elders recited tribal histories to attentive audiences. Listeners received religious teachings enthusiastically. Myths, legends, folktales, and stories for entertainment survived only because audiences were eager to listen. Nowadays, however, you can gain information and entertainment through reading and electronic recordings rather than through real-time listening. If you become distracted and let your attention wander, you can go back and replay a recording. Despite that fact, you can still gain at least four compelling benefits by becoming more active and competent at real-time listening. YOU BECOME A BETTER STUDENT When you focus on the material presented in a classroom, you will be able to identify not only the words used in a lecture but their emphasis and their more complex meanings. You will take better notes, and you will more accurately remember the instructor’s claims, information, and conclusions. Many times, instructors give verbal cues about what information is important, specific expectations about assignments, and even what material is likely to be on an exam, so careful listening can be beneficial. YOU BECOME A BETTER FRIEND When you give your best attention to people expressing thoughts and experiences that are important to them, those individuals are likely to see you as someone who cares about their well-being. This fact is especially true when you give your attention only and refrain from interjecting opinions, judgments, and advice. PEOPLE WILL PERCEIVE YOU AS INTELLIGENT AND PERCEPTIVE When you listen well to others, you reveal yourself as being curious and interested in people and events. In addition, your ability to understand the meanings of what you hear will make you a more knowledgeable and thoughtful person. GOOD LISTENING CAN HELP YOUR PUBLIC SPEAKING When you listen well to others, you start to pick up more on the stylistic components related to how people form arguments and present information. As a result, you have the ability to analyze what you think works and doesn’t work in others’ speeches, which can help you transform your speeches in the process. For example, really paying attention to how others cite sources orally during their speeches may give you ideas about how to more effectively cite sources in your presentation. Answer the following questions with a peer: 1. With a partner, discuss how you find out when you haven’t been listening carefully. 2. What are some of the consequences of poor listening? 5.3 LISTENING STYLES If listening were easy, and if all people went about it in the same way, the task for a public speaker would be much easier. Even Aristotle, as long ago as 325 BC, recognized that listeners in his audience were varied in listening style. He differentiated them as follows: Rhetoric falls into three divisions, determined by the three classes of listeners to speeches. For of the three elements in speech-making—speaker, subject, and person addressed—it is the last one, the hearer, that determines the speech’s end and object. The hearer must be either a judge, with a decision to make about things past or future, or an observer. A member of the assembly decides about future events, a juryman about past events: while those who merely decide on the orator’s skill are observers. Thus Aristotle classified listeners into those who would be using the speech to make decisions about past events, those who would make decisions affecting the future, and those who would evaluate the speaker’s skills. This is all the more remarkable when we consider that Aristotle’s audiences were composed exclusively of male citizens of one city-state, all prosperous property owners. Our audiences today are likely to be much more heterogeneous. Think about the classroom audience that will listen to your speeches in this course. Your classmates come from many religious and ethnic backgrounds. Some of them may speak English as a second language. Some might be survivors of war-torn parts of the world such as Bosnia, Darfur, or northwest China. Being mindful of such differences will help you prepare a speech in which you minimize the potential for misunderstanding. Part of the potential for misunderstanding is the difference in listening styles. In an article in the International Journal of Listening, Watson, Barker, and Weaver identified four listening styles: people, action, content, and time (1995). PEOPLE The people-oriented listener is interested in the speaker. People-oriented listeners listen to the message in order to learn how the speaker thinks and how they feel about their message. For instance, when people-oriented listeners listen to an interview with a famous rap artist, they are likely to be more curious about the artist as an individual than about music, even though the people-oriented listener might also appreciate the artist’s work. If you are a people-oriented listener, you might have certain questions you hope will be answered, such as: Does the artist feel successful? What’s it like to be famous? What kind of educational background does he or she have? In the same way, if we’re listening to a doctor who responded to the earthquake crisis in Haiti, we might be more interested in the doctor as a person than in the state of affairs for Haitians. Why did he or she go to Haiti? How did he or she get away from his or her normal practice and patients? How many lives were saved? We might be less interested in the equally important and urgent needs for food, shelter, and sanitation following the earthquake. The people-oriented listener is likely to be more attentive to the speaker than to the message. If you tend to be such a listener, understand that the message is about what is important to the speaker. ACTION Action-oriented listeners are primarily interested in finding out what the speaker wants. Does the speaker want votes, donations, volunteers, or something else? It’s sometimes difficult for an action-oriented speaker to listen to the descriptions, evidence, and explanations with which a speaker builds his or her case. Action-oriented listening is sometimes called task-oriented listening. In it, the listener seeks a clear message about what needs to be done and might have less patience for listening to the reasons behind the task. This can be especially true if the reasons are complicated. For example, when you’re a passenger on an airplane waiting to push back from the gate, a flight attendant delivers a brief speech called the pre-flight safety briefing. The flight attendant does not read the findings of a safety study or the regulations about seat belts. The flight attendant doesn’t explain that the content of his or her speech is actually mandated by the Federal Aviation Administration. Instead, the attendant says only to buckle up so we can leave. An action-oriented listener finds “buckling up” a more compelling message than a message about the underlying reasons. CONTENT Content-oriented listeners are interested in the message itself, whether it makes sense, what it means, and whether it’s accurate. When you give a speech, many members of your classroom audience will be content-oriented listeners who will be interested in learning from you. You, therefore have an obligation to represent the truth in the fullest way you can. You can emphasize an idea, but if you exaggerate, you could lose credibility in the minds of your content-oriented audience. You can advocate ideas that are important to you, but if you omit important limitations, you are withholding part of the truth and could leave your audience with an inaccurate view. Imagine you’re delivering a speech on the plight of orphans in Africa. If you just talk about the fact that there are over forty five million orphans in Africa but don’t explain further, you’ll sound like an infomercial. In such an instance, your audience’s response is likely to be less enthusiastic than you might want. Instead, content-oriented listeners want to listen to well developed information with solid explanations. TIME People using a time-oriented listening style prefer a message that gets to the point quickly. Time-oriented listeners can become impatient with slow delivery or lengthy explanations. This kind of listener may be receptive for only a brief amount of time and may become rude or even hostile if the speaker expects a longer focus of attention. Time-oriented listeners convey their impatience through eye rolling, shifting about in their seats, checking their cell phones, and other inappropriate behaviors. If you’ve been asked to speak to a group of middle school students, you need to realize that their attention spans are simply not as long as those of college students. This is an important reason speeches to young audiences must be shorter or broken up by more variety than speeches to adults. In your professional future, some of your audience members will have real time constraints, not merely perceived ones. Imagine that you’ve been asked to deliver a speech on a new project to the board of directors of a local corporation. Chances are the people on the board of directors are all pressed for time. If your speech is long and filled with overly detailed information, time-oriented listeners will simply start to tune you out as you’re speaking. Obviously, if time-oriented listeners start tuning you out, they will not be listening to your message. This is not the same thing as being a time-oriented listener who might be less interested in the message content than in its length. IDENTIFYING YOUR LISTENING STYLE It is important that you realize that your listening style is relational and situational. For example, if you are in a deeply committed relationship, you may be more people-oriented in your listening because you are invested in the other person’s feelings and well-being more so than the person that bags your groceries or takes your order at a restaurant. The situational context requires you to focus more on action, content, or time. In the workplace, you will respond with an action orientation and may think of your assignment as a to-do list. In an emergency, you are aware more of time and may not be as worried about the emotional feelings of the person involved but their safety. And in a final review session, you may be much more content focused while normally in class you might focus on what the professor is wearing or what the person next to you is eating. All of these examples represent the way listening styles can shift. You can think of your own listening style as fluid- but you probably recognize the one you tend to be most of the time. Would it surprise you to know that your gender may also play a part in your listening style? Males are generally action-oriented listeners, whereas women are generally more people-oriented listeners (Barker & Watson, 2000). It is key to remember that your listening preference does not equate to your ability and that you want to be able to adapt and apply different listening styles at different times. 1. In a small group, discuss what each person’s usual listening style is. Under what circumstances might you practice a different listening style? 2. Make a list of benefits and drawbacks to each of the HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 135 listening styles discussed in this section. 3. As you prepare for your next speech, identify ways that you can adapt your message to each of the listening styles noted in this section. 5.4 WHY LISTENING IS DIFFICULT WHY LISTENING IS DIFFICULT At times, everyone has difficulty staying completely focused during a lengthy presentation. We can sometimes have difficulty listening to even relatively brief messages. Some of the factors that interfere with good listening might exist beyond our control, but others are manageable. It’s helpful to be aware of these factors so that they interfere as little as possible with understanding the message. NOISE Noise is one of the biggest factors to interfere with listening; it can be defined as anything that interferes with your ability to attend to and understand a message. There are many kinds of noise, but we will focus on only the four you are most likely to encounter in public speaking situations: physical noise, psychological noise, physiological noise, and semantic noise. H. Rayl and are available under the CC-BY 4.0 license. PHYSICAL NOISE Physical noise consists of various sounds in an environment that interfere with a source’s ability to hear. Construction noises right outside a window, planes flying directly overhead, or loud music in the next room can make it difficult to hear the message being presented by a speaker even if a microphone is being used. It is sometimes possible to manage the context to reduce the noise. Closing a window might be helpful. Asking the people in the next room to turn their music down might be possible. Changing to a new location is more difficult, as it involves finding a new location and having everyone get there. PSYCHOLOGICAL NOISE Psychological noise consists of distractions to a speaker’s message caused by a receiver’s internal thoughts. For example, if you are preoccupied with personal problems, it is difficult to give your full attention to understanding the meanings of a message. The presence of another person to whom you feel attracted, or perhaps a person you dislike intensely, can also be psycho-social noise that draws your attention away from the message. PHYSIOLOGICAL NOISE Physiological noise consists of distractions to a speaker’s message caused by a listener’s own body. Maybe you’re listening to a speech in class around noon and you haven’t eaten anything. Your stomach may be growling and your desk is starting to look tasty. Maybe the room is cold and you’re thinking more about how to keep warm than about what the speaker is saying. In either case, your body can distract you from attending to the information being presented. SEMANTIC NOISE Semantic noise occurs when a receiver experiences confusion over the meaning of a source’s word choice. While you are attempting to understand a particular word or phrase, the speaker continues to present the message. While you are struggling with a word interpretation, you are distracted from listening to the rest of the message. An example of semantic noise is a euphemism. Euphemism is diplomatic language used for delivering unpleasant information. For instance, if someone is said to be “flexible with the truth,” it might take us a moment to understand that the speaker means this person sometimes lies. Many distractions are the fault of neither the listener nor the speaker. However, when you are the speaker, being aware of these sources of noise can help you reduce some of the noise that interferes with your audience’s ability to understand you. 5.5 STAGES OF LISTENING AND INEFFECTIVE LISTENING BEHAVIORS Communication Elements, 9 elements of communication process Lunenburg, F. C. (2010). Communication: The process, barriers, and improving effectiveness. Schooling, 1(1), 1-10. As you read earlier, there are many factors that can interfere with listening, so you need to be able to manage a number of mental tasks at the same time in order to be a successful listener. Author Joseph DeVito has divided the listening process into five stages: receiving, understanding, remembering, evaluating, and responding (2000). STAGE 1: RECEIVING Receiving is the intentional focus on hearing a speaker’s message, which happens when we filter out other sources so that we can isolate the message and avoid the confusing mixture of incoming stimuli. At this stage, we are still only hearing the message. There are many reasons that we may not receive a message. We often refer to these as listening barriers. If we have barriers to our listening, it is important to be able to recognize them and avoid those behaviors that contribute to poor listening. STAGE 2: UNDERSTANDING In the understanding stage, we attempt to learn the meaning of the message, which is not always easy. For one thing, if a speaker does not enunciate clearly, it may be difficult to tell what the message was—did your friend say, “I think she’ll be late for class,” or “my teacher delayed the class”? Even when we have understood the words in a message, because of the differences in our backgrounds and experience, we sometimes make the mistake of attaching our own meanings to the words of others. For example, say you have made plans with your friends to meet at a certain movie theater, but you arrive and nobody else shows up. Eventually, you find out that your friends are at a different theater all the way across town where the same movie is playing. Everyone else understood that the meeting place was the “west side” location, but you wrongly understood it as the “east side” location and therefore missed out on part of the fun. The consequences of ineffective listening in a classroom can be much worse. When your professor advises students to get an “early start” on your speech, he or she probably hopes that you will begin your research right away and move on to developing a thesis statement and outlining the speech as soon as possible. However, students in your class might misunderstand the instructor’s meaning in several ways. One student might interpret the advice to mean that as long as she gets started, the rest of the assignment will have time to develop itself. Another student might instead think that to start early is to start on the Friday before the Monday due date instead of Sunday night. So much of the way we understand others is influenced by our own perceptions and experiences. Therefore, at the understanding stage of listening, we should be on the lookout for places where our perceptions might differ from those of the speaker. STAGE 3: REMEMBERING Remembering begins with listening; if you can’t remember something that was said, you might not have been listening effectively. The most common reason for not remembering a message after the fact is because it wasn’t really learned in the first place. However, even when you are listening attentively, some messages are more difficult than others to understand and remember. Highly complex messages that are filled with detail call for highly developed listening skills. Moreover, if something distracts your attention even for a moment, you could miss out on information that explains other new concepts you hear when you begin to listen fully again. It’s also important to know that you can improve your memory of a message by processing it meaningfully—that is, by applying it in ways that are meaningful to you. Instead of simply repeating a new acquaintance’s name over and over, for example, you might remember it by associating it with something in your own life. “Emily,” you might say, “reminds me of the Emily I knew in middle school,” or “Mr. Impiari’s name reminds me of the Impala my father drives.” Finally, if understanding has been inaccurate, recollection of the message will also be inaccurate. STAGE 4: EVALUATING The fourth stage in the listening process is evaluating or judging the value of the message. We might be thinking, “This makes sense” or, conversely, “This is very odd.” Because everyone embodies biases and perspectives learned from widely diverse sets of life experiences, evaluations of the same message can vary widely from one listener to another. Even the most open-minded listeners will have opinions of a speaker, and those opinions will influence how the message is evaluated. People are more likely to evaluate a message positively if the speaker speaks clearly, presents ideas logically, and gives reasons to support the points made. Unfortunately, personal opinions sometimes result in prejudiced evaluations. Imagine you’re listening to a speech given by someone from another country and this person has an accent that is hard to understand. You may have a hard time simply making out the speaker’s message. Some people find a foreign accent to be interesting or even exotic, while others find it annoying or even take it as a sign of ignorance. If a listener has a strong bias against foreign accents, the listener may not even attempt to attend to the message. If you mistrust a speaker because of an accent, you could be rejecting important or personally enriching information. Good listeners have learned to refrain from making these judgments and instead to focus on the speaker’s meanings. STAGE 5: RESPONDING Responding—sometimes referred to as feedback—is the fifth and final stage of the listening process. It’s the stage at which you indicate your involvement. Almost anything you do at this stage can be interpreted as feedback. For example, you are giving positive feedback to your instructor if at the end of the class you stay behind to finish a sentence in your notes or approach the instructor to ask for clarification. The opposite kind of feedback is given by students who gather their belongings and rush out the door as soon as class is over. Formative Feedback Not all response occurs at the end of the message. Formative feedback is a natural part of the ongoing transaction between a speaker and a listener. As the speaker delivers the message, a listener signals his or her involvement with focused attention, note-taking, nodding, and other behaviors that indicate understanding or failure to understand the message. These signals are important to the speaker, who is interested in whether the message is clear and accepted or whether the content of the message is meeting the resistance of preconceived ideas. Speakers can use this feedback to decide whether additional examples, support materials, or explanation is needed. Summative Feedback Summative feedback is given at the end of the communication. When you attend a political rally, a presentation given by a speaker you admire, or even a class, there are verbal and nonverbal ways of indicating your appreciation for or your disagreement with the messages or the speakers at the end of the message. Maybe you’ll stand up and applaud a speaker you agreed with or just sit staring in silence after listening to a speaker you didn’t like. In other cases, a speaker may be attempting to persuade you to donate to a charity, so if the speaker passes a bucket and you make a donation, you are providing feedback on the speaker’s effectiveness. At the same time, we do not always listen most carefully to the messages of speakers we admire. Sometimes we simply enjoy being in their presence, and our summative feedback is not about the message but about our attitudes about the speaker. If your feedback is limited to something like, “I just love your voice,” you might be indicating that you did not listen carefully to the content of the message. There is little doubt that by now, you are beginning to understand the complexity of listening and the great potential for errors. By becoming aware of what is involved with active listening and where difficulties might lie, you can prepare yourself both as a listener and as a speaker to minimize listening errors with your own public speeches. INEFFECTIVE LISTENING BEHAVIORS At times, the barriers to effective listening (i.e., why listening is difficult) cause us to engage in ineffective listening behaviors. When our goal is to create shared meaning with others, these behaviors interrupt this process. Pseudo-listening– pretending to listen and appears attentive but is not listening to understand or interpret the information (listeners may respond with a smile, head-nod, or even a minimal verbal acknowledgment but are ignoring or not attending). Selective Listening– selecting only the information that the listeners identify as relevant to their own needs or interests (listeners may have their own agenda and disregard topics if they do not align with their current attitudes or beliefs). Insulated Listening– ignoring or avoiding information or certain topics of conversation (the opposite of selective listening). Defensive Listening– taking innocent comments as personal attacks (listeners misinterpret or project feelings of insecurity,jealousy, and guilt, or lack of confidence in the other person). Insensitive Listening– listening to information for its literal meaning and disregarding the other person’s feeling and emotions (listeners rarely pick-up on hidden meanings or subtle nonverbal cues and have difficulty expressing sympathy and empathy). Stage Hogging– listening to express one’s own ideas or interests and be the center of attention (listeners often plan what they are going to say or interrupt while the other person is talking). Ambushing– careful and attentive listening to collect information that can be used against the other person as an attack (listeners question, contradict, or oppose the other person to trap them or use their own words against them). Multitasking– listening without full attention while attempting to complete more than one task at a time (listeners are actually “switch tasking” and your brain is switching from one task to another rapidly and the information is lost). Review the article from the NPR broadcast, “Think You’re Multitasking? Think Again” (Hamilton,2008). 5.6 LISTENING CRITICALLY AND ETHICALLY As a student, you are exposed to many kinds of messages. You receive messages conveying academic information, institutional rules, instructions, and warnings; you also receive messages through political discourse, advertisements, gossip, jokes, song lyrics, text messages, invitations, web links, and all manners of communication. You know it’s not all the same, but it isn’t always clear how to separate the truth from the messages that are misleading or even blatantly false. Nor is it always clear which messages are intended to help the listener and which ones are merely self-serving for the speaker. Part of being a good listener is to learn when to use caution in evaluating the messages we hear. Critical listening in this context means using careful thinking and reasoning to see whether a message makes sense in light of factual evidence. Critical listening can be learned with practice but is not necessarily easy to do. Some people never learn this skill; instead, they take every message at face value even when those messages are in conflict with their knowledge. Problems occur when messages are repeated to others who have not yet developed the skills to discern the difference between a valid message and a mistaken one. Critical listening can be particularly difficult when the message is complex. Unfortunately, some speakers may make their messages intentionally complex to avoid critical scrutiny. For example, a city treasurer giving a budget presentation might use very large words and technical jargon, which make it difficult for listeners to understand the proposed budget and ask probing questions. IMPROVE CRITICAL LISTENING Critical listening is first and foremost a skill that can be learned and improved. Recognizing the Difference between Facts and Opinions Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan is credited with saying, “Everyone is entitled to their own opinions, but they are not entitled to their own facts.” Part of critical listening is learning to separate opinions from facts, and this works two ways: critical listeners are aware of whether a speaker is delivering a factual message or a message based on opinion, and they are also aware of the interplay between their own opinions and facts as they listen to messages. In American politics, the issue of health care reform is heavily laden with both opinions and facts, and it is extremely difficult to sort some of them out. A clash of fact versus opinion happened on September 9, 2010, during President Obama’s nationally televised speech to a joint session of Congress outlining his health care reform plan. In this speech, President Obama responded to several rumors about the plan, including the claim “that our reform effort will insure illegal immigrants. This, too, is false—the reforms I’m proposing would not apply to those who are here illegally.” At this point, one congressman yelled out, “You lie!” Clearly, this congressman did not have a very high opinion of either the health care reform plan or the president. However, when the nonpartisan watch group Factcheck.org examined the language of the proposed bill, they found that it had a section titled “No Federal Payment for Undocumented Aliens.” Often when people have a negative opinion about a topic, they are unwilling to accept facts. Instead, they question all aspects of the speech and have a negative predisposition toward both the speech and the speaker. This is not to say that speakers should not express their opinions. Many of the greatest speeches in history include personal opinions. Consider, for example, Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech, in which he expressed his personal wish for the future of American society. Critical listeners may agree or disagree with a speaker’s opinions, but the point is that they know when a message they are hearing is based on opinion and when it is factual. UNCOVERING ASSUMPTIONS If something is factual, supporting evidence exists. However, we still need to be careful about what evidence does and does not mean. Assumptions are gaps in a logical sequence that listeners passively fill with their own ideas and opinions and may or may not be accurate. When listening to a public speech, you may find yourself being asked to assume something is a fact when in reality many people question that fact. For example, suppose you’re listening to a speech on weight loss. The speaker talks about how people who are overweight are simply not motivated or lack the self-discipline to lose weight. The speaker has built the speech on the assumption that motivation and self-discipline are the only reasons why people can’t lose weight. You may think to yourself, what about genetics? By listening critically, you will be more likely to notice unwarranted assumptions, which may prompt you to question the speaker if questions are taken or to do further research to examine the validity of the speaker’s assumptions. If, however, you sit passively by and let the speaker’s assumptions go unchallenged, you may find yourself persuaded by information that is not factual. When you listen critically, you might hear information that appears unsupported by evidence. You shouldn’t accept that information unconditionally. FACTS VS. ASSUMPTIONS Facts are verified by clear, unambiguous evidence. Assumptions are not supported by evidence. Human progress has been possible, sometimes against great odds, because of the mental curiosity and discernment of a few people. In the late 1700’s when the technique of vaccination to prevent smallpox was introduced, it was opposed by both medical professionals and everyday citizens who staged public protests. More than two centuries later, vaccinations against smallpox, diphtheria, polio, and other infectious diseases have saved countless lives, yet popular opposition continues. Listeners should always be open to new ideas. We are not suggesting that you have to agree with every idea that you are faced with in life; rather, we are suggesting that you at least listen to the message and then evaluate the message. TAKE NOTES Note-taking is a skill that improves with practice. You already know that it’s nearly impossible to write down everything a speaker says. In fact, in your attempt to record everything, you might fall behind and wish you had divided your attention differently between writing and listening. Careful, selective note-taking is important because we want an accurate record that reflects the meanings of the message. However much you might concentrate on the notes, you could inadvertently leave out an important word, such as “not,” and undermine the reliability of your otherwise carefully written notes. Instead, if you give the same care and attention to listening, you are less likely to make that kind of a mistake. It’s important to find a balance between listening well and taking good notes. Many people struggle with this balance for a long time. For example, if you try to write down only key phrases instead of full sentences, you might find that you can’t remember how two ideas were related. In that case, too few notes were taken. At the opposite end, extensive note-taking can result in a loss of emphasis on the most important ideas. To increase your critical listening skills, continue developing your ability to identify the central issues in messages so that you can take accurate notes that represent the meanings intended by the speaker. LISTENING ETHICALLY Ethical listening rests heavily on honest intentions. We should extend to speakers the same respect we want to receive when it’s our turn to speak. We should be facing the speaker with our eyes open. We should not be checking our cell phones. We should avoid any behavior that belittles the speaker or the message. Scholars Stephanie Coopman and James Lull emphasize the creation of a climate of caring and mutual understanding, observing that “respecting others’ perspectives is one hallmark of the effective listener.” Respect, or unconditional positive regard for others, means that you treat others with consideration and decency whether you agree with them or not. Professors Sprague, Stuart, and Bodary (2012) also urge us to treat the speaker with respect even when we disagree, don’t understand the message, or find a conversation boring. This doesn’t mean we must accept everything we hear; however, ethically we should refrain from trivializing each others’ concerns. We have all had the painful experience of being ignored or misunderstood. This is how we know that one of the greatest gifts one human can give to another is listening. COMMUNICATION CODE OF ETHICS In 1999, the National Communication Association officially adopted the Credo for Ethical Communication. Ultimately, the NCA Credo for Ethical Communication is a set of beliefs communication scholars have about the ethics of human communication Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people communicate. Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making, and the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe that unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and consequently the well-being of individuals and the society in which we live. Therefore we, the members of the National Communication Association, endorse and are committed to practicing the following principles of ethical communication: ▪ We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of communication. ▪ We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision making fundamental to a civil society. ▪ We strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluating and responding to their messages. ▪ We promote access to communication resources and opportunities as necessary to fulfill human potential and contribute to the well being of families, communities, and society. ▪ We promote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that respect the unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators. ▪ We condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred. ▪ We are committed to the courageous expression of personal convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice. ▪ We advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings when facing significant choices while also respecting privacy and confidentiality. ▪ We accept responsibility for the short- and long-term consequences of our own communication and expect the same of others. Summary Prior to this chapter, you may not have thought of listening as a skill or even something that we can improve upon. Hopefully, you now have a deeper understanding of the role that effective listening plays in our professional, personal and even public lives. Listening is an intentional act that requires effort on our part and respect for others. It is also beneficial for us to understand others’ listening styles so that we can be more effective in how we speak with or address them. Listening critically requires us to suspend our judgment of others or others’ ideas and understand their point of view before coming to our own conclusions. Indeed, listening is an inherently ethical act in which we recognize and acknowledge one another. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How does listening behavior affect the quality of our personal relationships? If someone that you are in a relationship with changes the way they listen to you, how might that affect the relationship in a positiveway? 2. After reading this chapter, in what ways will you consider improving your own listening behaviors? 3. In what ways does critical listening impact our professional relationships? Key Word • ambushing • critical listening • defensive listening • ethical listening • insulated listening • listening vs. hearing • listening styles • multitasking • insensitive listening • physical noise • psychological noise • physiological noise • pseudo-listening • selective listening • semantic noise • stage hogging REFERENCES Bank, J. (2009). Cost of illegal immigrants. Ask Factcheck. Retrieved from http://www.factcheck.org/2009/04/cost-of-illegal immigrants/ Cooperman, S. & Lull, J. (2012). Public speaking: The evolving art (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. DeVito, J. A. (2000). The elements of public speaking (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Hamilton, J. (2008, October 2). Think you’re multitasking? Think again. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/ story.php?storyId=95256794 Jarvis, T. (2009, November). How to talk so people really listen: Four ways to make yourself heard. O Magazine. Retrieved from: http://www.oprah.com/money/Communication-Skills-How-to Make-Yourself-Heard. NCA. (1999). NCA credo for ethical communication [PDF file]. Retrieved from https://www.natcom.org/sites/default/files/pages/1999_Public_Statements_NCA_Credo_for_Ethical_Communication_ November.pdf Watson, K., Barker, L., and Weaver, J. (1995). The listening styles profile (LSP-16): Development and validation of an instrument to assess four listening styles. International Journal of Listening,9(1). Retrieved from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/ 10904018.1995.10499138. Components of some images were retrieved from Pixaby and were CC0. • Smileys • Person with gears • Ear All images not credited otherwise were created by H. Rayl and are available under the CC-BY 4.0 license.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.539976	Terri Johnson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98198/overview", "title": "CHAPTER 5: LISTENING", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96661/overview	Fern p000077 Overview Golden back fern. Back of pinnae. Image credit: Fernando Agudelo-Silva Micrograph Golden lobes of fern around dark stem	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.559545	Forestry and Agriculture	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96661/overview", "title": "Fern p000077", "author": "Botany" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90168/overview	cinema scenes version seven Overview cinema scenes version seven cinema scenes version seven cinema scenes version seven	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.575677	02/17/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90168/overview", "title": "cinema scenes version seven", "author": "stuart lenig" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89821/overview	Micrograph Escherichia coli methylene blue 100x p000003 Overview This micrograph was taken at 100X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Escherichia coli cells grown in broth culture overnight at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and stained for 1 minute with methylene blue stain prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox Micrograph White background with thousands of small, blue Escherichia coli cells scattered across.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.588516	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89821/overview", "title": "Micrograph Escherichia coli methylene blue 100x p000003", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76071/overview	Understanding Emerging Technologies Overview A series of six videos explaining several models for understanding emerging/exponential technologies and the driving forces behind these technologies. Includes a handout for note taking. Welcome to Understanding Emerging Technologies What's The Future? Hard to tell, but understanding that we live in an age of exponential technologies (and challenges) can help us have a clearer vision. This series presents some models for understanding what is happening, and what might happen! Download the handout to help take notes! Slides can be downloaded from Slideshare. The Six Ds of Exponential Technology An explanation of the Six Ds of Exponential Technology, the book BOLD by Peter Diamandis and Steven Kotler (http://amzn.to/2FbuQ2a). Drivers of Exponential Growth Gartner Hype Cycle Technology Adoption Life Cycle How to Cross the Chasm	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.610048	Student Guide	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76071/overview", "title": "Understanding Emerging Technologies", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64978/overview	Actors' Timelines Overview Hello, This is a very simple activity to practice the present perfect using the lifes of two famous actors, Brad Pitt and Tom Cruise. Regards - Which time line corresponds to which actor? ______________________ ______________________ - Make sentences in the Simple Past or in Present Perfect. When using the Present Perfect, try to include the following words: \| \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.624747	04/06/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64978/overview", "title": "Actors' Timelines", "author": "Sergio Gomez" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124238/overview	IQ Test Sample Overview PSY101 IQ Test Sample PSY101 OpenStax Module 7 Directions: The purpose of this assignment is to give you a chance to think about some issues involving analyzing the quality and usefulness of a measure. - Complete the IQ test (not a formal assessment, only for assignment purposes): https://www.allthetests.com/iq-tests/new-iq-test.phpLinks to an external site. - Take a screenshot of your results to show completion of the test. - Copy and paste your results into the provided document at the bottom of the page after completing the questions pertaining to the IQ test sample that is attached below.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.641772	01/29/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124238/overview", "title": "IQ Test Sample", "author": "Sierra Stewart" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56682/overview	7.2 Cellular Respiration Glycolysis 7.2 Cellular Respiration Glucose Catabolism Glycolysis Cellular Respiration, Glucose catabolism, ATPGlucose breakdown 7.2 Cellular Respiration Glucose Catabolism Glycolysis Cellular Respiration, Glucose catabolism, ATPGlucose breakdown	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.667294	08/05/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56682/overview", "title": "7.2 Cellular Respiration Glycolysis", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92594/overview	The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 5] Overview The fifth episode of "The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast", featuring Paul Stacey, and discussing the notion of The Commons. The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 5] Episode 5 - Made iwth Creative Commons Originally published on May 22nd, 2017 In episode 5, I'm joined by Paul Stacey (Associate Director of Global Learning, Creative Commons) to discuss a recent project entitled 'Made with Creative Commons'. Paul and I discuss the 'necessary preconditions; for an organisation to benefit from Creative Commons, using Kickstarter for open projects, and notions of The Commons for contemporary organisations. The resources referred to in this episode are: - Made With Creative Commons page with a free download of CC BY-SA versions of book in .pdf, .epub, .mobi, and editable GDoc. Links to Amazon and Ctrl-Alt-Delete (the publisher) for those who want a print version. - The Kickstarter campaign, and - Project posts on Medium Hosts: Adrian Stagg & Paul Stacey	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.690042	05/09/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92594/overview", "title": "The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 5]", "author": "Adrian Stagg" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76907/overview	Communication Skills Overview I've just updated this image with something that's a little easier to toss into a presentation. Enjoy. Original document created by Dayanand Hattiambire Levels of Communication Skills Good Communication Good communication skills are essential in your online course. There are many different ways you’ll communicate with your instructor and other students in your class, so we’ve created this module to introduce you to common terms you’ll need to know and familiarize you with some concepts that we hope will lead you to success in your class. Our job in this module is to teach you: - the vocabulary that may be used to describe communication in your online class, - how communication is different for you as a student when you’re learning online, - some of the advantages and disadvantages of academic online communication, and - how to become an effective communicator in your online course. Definitions Let’s begin with a few definitions. First let’s talk about the two types of communication that can be used in an online class: - Asynchronous communication is when you, your classmates, and your instructor participate in online discussions at different times, rather than in real time. So if you send your instructor a question via email, participate in an online discussion forum, or post to a blog for your class, you are communicating asynchronously. - Synchronous communication happens in real time, like having a class discussion in a traditional setting or talking to a teacher after class. But you can communicate synchronously in an online environment too, through the use of tools like online chat; Internet voice of video calling systems like Skype or Google Hang-outs; or through the use of web-based video conferencing software like WebEx, Zoom, or Collaborate. Discussion Boards The discussion board (also known as a discussion forum, or message board) is one of the most popular features in a Course Management System, and it’s one place where your asynchronous classroom discussions can occur. Your instructor may post the first message (or prompt) and ask students to reply to their initial post, or they may choose to allow students to post a topic (or thread) and engage the class in the online conversation that way. Both methods are equally effective, and discussions in your online courses are likely to vary, just like your discussions in a traditional class can differ depending on your instructor and their personal teaching style Blogs Think of a blog as a website journal or diary. Blogs are usually run by an individual or a small group. Entries are made periodically and typically displayed in reverse chronological order (so, the most recent post will appear first). Most blogs are set up to allow readers to post comments below each entry, and it is often just as informative to read the comments and criticisms of fellow readers as it is to read the initial blog post. Some instructors may require you to post or review blogs during your online course, and they can be a useful source of information. Keep in mind, though, that blogs are typically personal communication platforms, so be sure to double-check facts or information you might find on a blog with a verified source before using it in your research. Now that we’ve talked a little bit about different kinds of asynchronous communication, let’s talk about some forms of synchronous communication. Chat Many Course Management Systems have a text-based chat feature that will allow you to exchange messages with others who are online at the same time as you. Sometimes instructors will use the chat feature as a way to hold office hours or a study session. Because chat happens in real time, there is a sense of immediate gratification—you don’t have to wait several hours (or more) for a response like you might have to with email. Video Calls Skype is a free software application that will enable you to make voice and video phone calls over the internet. Once you download, register, and install the software for Skype, you’ll probably want to plug in a headset or a microphone and speakers so that you can hear others and they can hear you more clearly. If you are using video, you’ll need a web cam, but many newer computers and laptops now include this as part of their standard equipment. Video Conferencing Video Conferencing software applications like Zoom, Collaborate, or WebEx are designed to support larger groups than Skype. They can provide a virtual experience that closely replicates an on-campus classroom. Many videoconferencing applications include useful features like: - the ability to share desktops, - the ability to share files - online chat windows - break-out rooms for small group work So your computer can truly become a window into a live classroom where students and instructors can interact and collaborate at the same time. Netiquette Finally, “netiquette”, which is the correct or acceptable way to communicate online—it’s the code of online etiquette you should abide by, especially when in an academic or professional setting. This goes for both synchronous and asynchronous communication. Netiquette includes respectful behavior, appropriate language, and an acknowledgement of other people’s privacy interests. Remember, your classroom discussions should be much more formal than the type of discussions you may have with your friends on Facebook or Twitter. Student Q&A Now that we’ve covered some of the basic terminology, let’s start digging a little deeper into these topics. Here are some typical questions that students have about communicating online Student 1: Ok, so you’ve told us about the differences between synchronous and asynchronous communication. But what does this mean for me? Online class communication often takes place asynchronously rather than in real time, giving you a chance to research, write, and edit your answers, instead of being put “on the spot” during class. Think of this as an opportunity for you to really reflect and compose your thoughts carefully before you make a response. Synchronous sessions are similar to what you experience in your traditional classes. Discussions can often be more lively this way, because interactions are immediate since everyone is in the virtual room at the same time. They can also help an online class bond more quickly, if used early in the semester. Student 2: Will my online communications be permanent? Yes–when you communicate asynchronously online, you create a permanent record of your words. All of your electronic communication will be dated, and because of this it can be easily organized, stored and reviewed (usually for grading purposes) at a later date. Because your words are enduring, it is a good idea to compose your electronic communications carefully before posting. Student 3: I generally feel more comfortable talking online than in person. Is online communication easier than face-to-face communication in a classroom, too? It can be. When you communicate through email, private messages, a discussion board, or a blog, you’re somewhat anonymous. Your instructor and classmates may not know your age, gender, race, ethnicity, or other physical characteristics. Some students find that this environment gives them extra confidence if they are normally shy or tongue-tied in front of instructors or other students. Student 4: This isn’t really a question, but more of a concern. I’m worried that there will be more potential for misunderstanding when I’m communicating online than when I’m communicating face-to-face. This is a valid concern, because the teacher and your classmates cannot see your body language or hear your voice, written words can sometimes be misinterpreted. Review your written communications in an online course carefully before posting and try to remove any language that could be interpreted as offensive or inappropriate. Student 5: Can I make friends in an online course? Absolutely! If you’re normally reserved in front of other people, an online environment can make it feel like you can express your ideas more freely. Discussion boards and blogs often create a real sense of community as you respond to your instructor’s and other students’ posts, and they respond to yours. In an online course everyone has a chance (and is expected) to speak. Student 6: I get that email and discussion boards will be important, but will any of my online course communication be synchronous? I thought that I would be able to do all of my online work on my own schedule… It depends on the course, but it is likely! Many online instructors use online chat, Skype and videoconferencing tools like Zoom, Collaborate/CCCConfer, or WebEx. It will also provide a nice contrast to the asynchronous communication you’ll be doing in your course, because it presents an opportunity to be more interactive. You’ll want to check your syllabus early on to see if your instructor has scheduled any synchronous sessions for your online course, and make note of those dates and times—as we already pointed out, these will take place in real time, and you don’t want to miss class! Student 7: Can you give me some tips for writing effectively in an online educational environment? I don’t want to get started on the wrong foot. If you can write well, you’ll already have an advantage in an online course: effective writing is essential to your success. But we do have some more suggestions that you should find helpful: - Always proof your writing for spelling, grammar, or punctuation errors. - Keep your posts concise. - Avoid slang and offensive language. - Look for opportunities to collaborate with other students in the course. - If you find you’ve written a negative comment, try reframing it in a way that is more conducive for creating discussion. It’s ok to disagree with someone, but being disagreeable or making personal attacks is not. Student 8: Ok, so how do I go about writing a respectful and respectable discussion post? First, make sure that you read your instructor’s directions and follow them carefully. This is the most basic way of showing respect for your instructor and the others in the classroom. Second, take your time before you respond, when your online instructor posts topical questions to a discussion board, and he or she is requesting your informed response. Email Netiquette In this last section we’ll review a term we introduced earlier in the module, “netiquette” and extend this to include email etiquette, a particularly important part of taking almost any class today (whether it’s online or face-to-face). Just as a reminder, “netiquette” is the correct or acceptable code of conduct for communicating online. Here’s your challenge: based on the tips we’ve talked about today, help Brittany compose an email to her history professor asking when the midterm will take place. At each step you’ll be presented with two choices of sentences or phrases—simply select the choice you think is best. - The salutation. - “Dear Professor Kennedy,” - “Hi,” Correct answer: a. When addressing your teacher, include a title such as “Professor” or “Instructor,” unless they ask you to address them otherwise. If you’re unsure of your instructor’s title, you can simply ask your teacher in a preliminary email. - The question/concern. - “do u kno when the midterm will b? thx” - “I hope you’re well. I was wondering: do we have a date set for the midterm?” Correct answer: b. Even though it might be a convenient shortcut for texting or Instant Messaging with your friends, don’t write email or a private message to your instructor or others in “text speak.” Punctuate your message correctly, check your spelling carefully, and begin the first word of each sentence with a capital letter. Showcase your brilliance! - The wrap-up and sign-off. - “Thank you so much for your help! Sincerely, Brittany.” - “THANKS SO MUCH!!!!!!!!!” Correct answer: a. Don’t use all capital letters for certain words or phrases in emails or private messages. Readers often interpret emails written in all caps as if the writer is yelling at them. Great job, and thanks for getting Brittany off on the right track with her instructor! Before you leave we want to leave you with one final, feline acronym that will help you remember 3 important aspects of email etiquette: RAR! R: Respond. Respond to email and private messages in a timely manner; don’t let more than two days elapse before replying to your instructor or another student. A: Attach. If you’ve included an attachment with your email, mention it in the body of the email. Then double-check that you actually included the attachment before you hit “send.” R: Re-read. This goes for emails, as well as any other written text you submit in your course. One of the biggest advantages of taking an online class is that you can really take your time to think about and formulate your responses before you deliver them. Conclusion You’re now ready to take on any online communication challenges you may encounter in your course. Congratulations on finishing the Online Communication Skills module, and don’t forget to RAR!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.719765	02/02/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76907/overview", "title": "Communication Skills", "author": "Christopher Rowe" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76240/overview	This Day in Astronomical History Overview This new astronomical calendar, compiled by textbook lead author, Andrew Fraknoi lists, month by month, 158 astronomical anniversaries and birthdays that are important for the history of our understanding of the universe. While many such calendars exist, this one differs by focusing on real astronomical research (and not so much on anniversaries of human space flight.) And it includes a more diverse group of scientists, including more women and more people of color. The calendar is available without charge at: http://bit.ly/astrodates Overview This new astronomical calendar, compiled by lead author Andrew Fraknoi, lists, month by month, 158 astronomical anniversaries and birthdays that are important for the history of our understanding of the universe. While many such calendars exist, this one differs by focusing on real astronomical research (and not so much on anniversaries of human space flight.) And it includes a more diverse group of scientists, including more women and more people of color. The calendar is available without charge at: http://bit.ly/astrodates	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.735169	Lecture Notes	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76240/overview", "title": "This Day in Astronomical History", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84177/overview	Introduction to Communication & Media Overview Provides a framework for understanding the impact of media on society and the individual. The history, organization, economics, theories, and social significance of communication media are surveyed. Special emphasis will be given toward the evolving media environment, how to evaluate media messages, and how to become a better consumer of the media. Welcome to Introduction to Communication & Media Overview This resource explores the history and evolution of mass communication allowing opportunity for participants to reflect on contemporary issues and topics related to the media. This course uses the OER texbook Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication as its major text. Within this resource are various reflection and discussion activities to supplement participant learning. Syllabus Access a sample syllabus for the course HERE Units of Study Below are links to units of study for the course. Each unit of study includes learning objectives, links to the associated readings, discussion, and reflection activities. Final Paper Participants should be introduced to the Final Paper and grading rubric early on in the semester. Lay out each benchmark throughout the semester starting with Benchmark # 1. Benchmark #1 serves as a brainstorm to capture participants' interest and ideas. Benchmark # 2 requires students to solidify a topic and give some background information on their selected event or issue. Benchmark # 3 involves selecting 2 sources, and analyzing the coverage for overlap and potentially conflicting narratives. As one can observe, the requirements for each Benchmark leading up to the Final Paper become more depth and analysis. This section provides resources for the final paper. Included is the description of the assignment, a sample grading rubric, and a series of benchmarks to scaffold toward the Final Paper.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.752667	07/23/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84177/overview", "title": "Introduction to Communication & Media", "author": "Gordon Curry" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80477/overview	Increase Your Health by Eating More Effectively! Overview One page handout identifying fourteen strategies for young adults to eat more healthfully. Increase Your Health by Eating More Effectively handout Increase Your Health by Eating More Effectively! We are what we eat! You cannot run a high-performance car on bad fuel...the same holds true for your body. If you want to maintain your health for many years, you need to maintain healthy eating habits as well. Listed below are several methods to optimize your health through a better diet. This is not a 'crash program,' but comprehensive steps to help you be a healthier and feel better. Try one modification at a time, or several at once, whatever you are comfortable with...you'll feel the difference! One: Eat a good breakfast Don't try to go through the day on an empty stomach! Get into the habit of eating a balanced breakfast which include high-carbohydrate foods (such as oatmeal, cereals, bagels, or toast) in addition to seasonal fruit. It will give you energy throughout the day. Two: Drink more water Drink at least one big glass of water in the morning, in addition to every meal, and in the evening rather than just coffee or soda. Drinking water though out the day also assures your body having enough fluids. Three: Eat more raw vegetables and fruit Fruits and vegetables help you meet your daily carbohydrate need and increase needed fiber. Green vegetables such as broccoli are especially nutrient-rich while orange or red vegetables and fruits, such as carrots or cantaloupe, are great sources of beta-carotene. Four: Moderate your carbohydrate intake The most readily available source of energy for our bodies are carbohydrates such as breads, bagels, rice, pastas and potatoes. By moderating your intake of whole-grain carbohydrates, you will increase your body's energy reserves while supplying your body an excellent low-fat food. Five: Eliminate or reduce alcohol consumption Excess alcohol is a poison, and the body will work overtime to expel it, causing dehydration, which will eventually hurt your health and well-being. Important Fact: One night of binge drinking reduces your ability to think abstractly (math, physics, social science courses) for up to 30 days! Six: Eliminate artificial sweeteners from your diet Artificial sweeteners known as 'Saccharin' and 'NutraSweet', which are found in most diet sodas and no-sugar foods, constricts blood flow throughout your body and brain, and might cause headaches if consumed in excess. Also lessen your consumption of high-fructose corn syrup found primarily in processed foods and sugary drinks, as our bodies cannot property metabolize this cheap additive, and a primary cause of obesity/belly fat. Seven: Eat fewer highly sweetened foods Added sugars, such as sucrose, might cause your body to produce too much insulin, which can cause hypoglycemia or low blood sugar and leave you feeling weak. Eight: Reduce caffeine intake Caffeine and other stimulants 'rev' up your nervous system needlessly and cause dehydration while disrupting your concentration and sleeping patterns, influencing your daily and academic performance. Limit your consumption and avoid becoming dependent on the 'rush' of caffeine. Nine: Limit salt intake Most the salt we need each day is in the food we eat, especially if it is mostly from restaurant or processed foods. Try to avoid adding salt as too much will dehydrate and make it difficult for the body to pass nutrients to your muscles. Ten: Eliminate carbonated sodas Some soda drinks contain as much as eleven teaspoons of simple sugar per can, in addition to large amounts of caffeine. Such large amounts of sugar can spike your insulin levels, while large amounts of caffeine can interact with the body’s ability to absorb calcium, which could reduce bone strength/density. Eleven: Reduce high-fat dairy products While low-fat milks and yogurts are good for you in limited quantities, dairy products can contain high levels of fat. Avoid full milk, soft cheese, and ice cream. 1% milk is best for use on most cereals and in drinks. Twelve: Limit intake of preservatives and artificial food colorings Food additives and colorings are common in most processed foods and may be linked to reducing the efficiency of the brain and nervous system. Read food labels! Thirteen: Reduce the intake of fats Excess fat in the diet slows your metabolism making you sluggish and making training more difficult. High-fat diets have also been linked to heart disease, stroke, cancer, and other ailments. Fat in excess can also increase your body fat and weight. Fourteen: Limit red meat in your diet Most Americans eat far more red meat than necessary to be healthy. Red meat is the main culprit of our fat intake, and a source of steroids and antibiotics which in the long run could be harmful to our bodies. Citation: Adapted from Speed Dynamics; American Institute of Sport, and handouts from Bob Rush	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.775014	05/17/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80477/overview", "title": "Increase Your Health by Eating More Effectively!", "author": "Dave Shrock" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121859/overview	The Essential Guide to Video Storyboarding Overview This article shares the best practices for Video Storyboarding used by the Emeritus Design Team. Check out the Emeritus guide to storyboarding! You can download the PDF using the link below.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.791868	Nolan Williams	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121859/overview", "title": "The Essential Guide to Video Storyboarding", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67310/overview	Dramaturgy Overview Dramaturgy, a chapter from Media Studies 101 Adapted from Media Studies 101: A Creative Commons Textbook Dramaturgy Adapted fromMedia Studies 101: A Creative Commons Textbook by Media Texthack Team, BCcampus, Victoria, B.C. Media Studies 101 by Media Texthack Team is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Dramaturgy Adapted from Media Studies 101: A Creative Commons Textbook by Media Texthack Team, BCcampus, Victoria, B.C. Media Studies 101 by Media Texthack Team is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Dramaturgy is a sociological perspective on identity that uses the metaphor of theater to explore issues of identity formation and reformation. Dramaturgy assumes a place, a moment, and an audience to whom the identityis being presented. This places identity formation both in a social context (such as a classroom, a chatroom, a family, etc) as well as at a particular point in time. This implies that identities can shiftwith varying contexts and moments. The key aspect to dramaturgy, however, is the concept of the audienceand an individual’s relationship with that audience in that specific time and place. As with impressions management, the individual actor must control their presentation of self so as to evoke from this audience a desired reaction to that presentation. So you can probably start to see elements of both impressions management (reacting to audiences) and looking-glass self (imagining the audience) within dramaturgy. However, dramaturgy extends the metaphor of the stage even further, and this is where things get particularly interesting. A key element of dramaturgy is the concept of the front- and backstage. In face-to-face interactions, the front- and backstage are two related but separate areas, where the front is the space in which the performance of self takes place, and the back is where that performance is prepared. For example, to borrow Goffman’s own example (1997), for a waiter, the frontstage is the restaurant floor, where the waiter performs their identity as waiter for the diners. The backstage is the kitchen, where that identity is relaxed, until another order is up. As the waiter passes through the kitchen doors, they become the waiter once more, playing their assigned role. It may be useful to look at one specific communicative arena, online social networking sites, from the perspective of dramaturgy, and ask the question: where is the backstagein an online performance of self? The internet blurs the line between frontstage and backstage, and thus problematizes it. An individual can be simultaneously front- and backstage. Their World of Warcraft avatar, for example, can be performing to an audience, but at the same time you, as the extension of that avatar, can be alone in your room in front of the computer (maybe making snide comments about the people your avatar is talking to in a chat window). The backstage and the frontstage co-exist simultaneously instead of concurrently. Another good example of this is when the virtual boundaries between front and backstage break down – like when someone is chatting in two windows, and mistakenly sends a comment meant for one recipient to another, or when someone tries to send a friend a private message via Facebook Messenger, but ends up posting it on a public wall instead. Whether online or off, the goal of a dramaturgical performance of self is the same – to project to a known audience a desired and desirable perception of self, and to maintain that dramatic portrayal in a consistent manner. Whether you are playing the role solo or in a team, these goals remain the same. Dramaturgy acknowledges that identities are pluralistic– we have many identities that we put on and off as we move through time and space, and enter and exit different social contexts. As such, to achieve these goals, one has to be able to quickly switch and negotiate roles, or performative masks, as they move between different social contexts.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:58.818815	05/25/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67310/overview", "title": "Dramaturgy", "author": "Katie Winkelstein-Duveneck" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83733/overview	Claude Bernard DCCT Trial 1993 google classroom-monitoring-diabetes-hypertension IDF Diabetes Atlas Kids and diabetes in schools by IDF Oxygen saturation UKPDS Using a digital BP monitor Using a mercury BP monitor Using glucometer WHO Constitution Monitoring diabetes and hypertension Overview The course seeks to familiarize the learners with the possibilities involved in the management of diabetes and hypertension. This course is to make medical knowledge simpler and accessible for common people. This will help reduce anxiety about the diseases. Reduction in the incidence of threatening complications like cerebral stroke, heart attack, kidney failure, blindness, diabetic foot and amputations is the goal we need to achieve. The health-aware person, a learner of this course, can be a patient itself, a relative, a neighbor, or anyone from society. Some basic education and a will to help the patient is all that is required. Abstract The central idea of this course is that a trained voluntary health-literate can assist doctors in diagnosing, monitoring, and treating people with diabetes and hypertension. One simple test, one small observation, one timely consultation by the volunteer can prevent dreadful moments for the patient. This health-aware person, a learner of this course, could be a patient himself or herself, a relative, a neighbor, or anyone from society. Some basic education and a will to help the patient is all that is required. Diabetes and hypertension are quite prevalent globally. Global diabetes data report 2010 — 2045 With a large number of patients, it is getting difficult for the present healthcare systems to reach every patient in need of medical intervention. Especially in rural areas and where traveling is still a difficult task, where people are unwilling (for a variety of reasons) to visit a doctor frequently, where there are fewer doctors as compared to the population, such as in India. Nearly every family has a patient with hypertension, diabetes, or both. Many patients remain undiagnosed because they are asymptomatic many times. This course seeks to familiarize the learners with the possibilities involved in their role in the management of diabetes and hypertension. The goal of this course is to make medical knowledge simpler and accessible for common people. This will help not only demystify these diseases but also reduce the anxiety about them. Reduction in the incidence of serious and life-threatening complications like cerebral stroke, heart attack, kidney failure, blindness, and diabetic foot and amputations is the goal we need to achieve. Introduction Background The thought behind this course Fear of the disease is mostly due to ignorance. Knowledge is the answer. This is an attempt to do that. People just know the names of diseases but that is not enough. They should gather enough information and live a fear-free life. \| I have a clinic in a village in Konkan, the western part of Maharashtra state in India, where I have been treating diabetes and hypertension patients for the last forty years. In these years, I have learned that there is no alternative to close monitoring of blood sugar and blood pressure for adequate management of diabetes and hypertension. However, most of the time, people around are not educated enough or health-literate to monitor themselves or their family members. I thought of the above fifteen teenagers of these families. These young students were studying in schools or junior colleges. They already have some health lessons in their curriculum. It was the right time to make them aware of these prevalent diseases. Due to the theatre activities, I am connected to most of the students in the school. So I began a dialogue with them about a project I had in my mind. I often thought that how lucky are people when they have a doctor in their family. It is really not possible but we can at least have someone who has learned some skills in medicine and has read enough information to guide the family members. When an elder member in a family is sick everyone is worried. Though they want to help the person they do not know how to do that. If they learn a few medical skills like using a thermometer, measuring a pulse rate, and respiratory rate. They can learn the basics of wound care easily. Using the Blood pressure apparatus is also not a big thing to do. If explained well they can even measure blood glucose with a glucometer. I wanted to make them health-literate as early as possible. I went to the school in our village and explained the idea to the school authorities and we started Saturday and Sunday discussion sessions with the interested students. We had ten sessions of one hour each. We discussed health and illnesses in general. Diabetes and hypertension were discussed in detail. We learned together to measure blood pressure, feel the pulse, and use a glucometer. Then, we arranged a camp for diabetes and hypertension for people in the area with the help of these volunteer students. Diagnosis and guidance were the aims. We repeated this activity with different batches of students for the next three years. These camps were helpful for people. We detected many new cases and could arrange discussion sessions for all new and old patients. Every camp was attended by more than three hundred people; three to four camps in a year. There were around thirty volunteer students who took blood pressure and measured blood sugar under the supervision of volunteer doctors in the village. We held an open discussion among doctors in the village who shared their experiences about the management of diabetes and hypertension in the camps in front of the patients. There was a question-answer session with the audience after the discussion. We had named this activity ‘school for health’. The present course is an online version of this particular thought. Problem-oriented discussions among the participants will enhance group learning. Diabetes and hypertension As silent killer diseases Diabetes and hypertension are called silent killers. This means that they can lead to complications causing sudden deaths without any preceding symptoms. This is unique to diabetes and hypertension. Undiagnosed and borderline diseases cause irreversible damage to organs. People remain unaware of the disease that exists within their bodies. They don’t consult a doctor as they do not have a troublesome, recognizable symptom. Dyslipidemia or increased fats in the blood is another such modern human disease. These are all chronic acquired diseases also listed under the broad name of non-communicable diseases. Another term used is lifestyle diseases. We observe heart attacks, cerebral strokes, kidney failures, retinal detachments, ketoacidosis, non-healing wounds, and gangrenes. But we miss the hidden culprits sitting under. Those are long-standing untreated hypertension and hyperglycemia. Those are diabetes and hypertension. They remain the fastest-growing public health issue for the last forty years or so. The reasons are many. And not all have yet been identified or well-understood. Changed dietary habits, physical inactivity, and stress create the ground for these diseases. And hence there is a need for a different approach to deal with them. Frequent examinations for blood glucose and blood pressure levels are required with a continuous suspicious mind to know if someone is suffering from diabetes or hypertension. And if someone is not being treated adequately. Medicine has a long history to overcome diseases Time brings us here and we are to decide about our future with thoughtful actions. Education, communication, and collective actions have always helped us to survive and get through difficult situations till now. How we think about the cause of a disease has kept changing with time. Many scientists work hard over their lifetimes to find out the facts. Every disease is investigated and the cause is identified. The treatment is sorted out. And we get rid of the problem. We have gotten rid of many diseases till now. Science has got a methodology to deal with diseases. Knowledge on a fingertip We are now in the era of the internet. We have vast amounts of information in every field of life. It is at our fingertips, just a click away from every person with an internet connection. The internet and mobile technology are spreading rapidly in every country. Now it has become easier to reach people and communicate. Open education for a better world (OE4BW) is one such kind of momentum. This resource is part of it. Scientific mind at work Not all people living at a particular time have the same opinion about a particular subject. Diabetes and hypertension are not an exception. Education and discussions make the difference. Research should reach people. The patient should follow evidence-based medicine. Small attention is required to know the exact reason behind the suffering. Armed with this knowledge, it is easily possible to stay fit and healthy despite the disease. Health is wealth Prevention is the best cure they say. Early diagnosis and proper care are almost like a cure. Diabetes and hypertension are to some extent preventable diseases. Since we know the risk factors involved we can avoid them. We aim to prevent complications. If complications are treated well we can prevent disabilities. The present course about monitoring blood glucose and blood pressure is important as a preventive measure at every stage of the disease. Monitoring will prevent repeated hospitalizations. Monitoring will reduce the economic burden due to these chronic diseases. The course structure We have divided the course into three modules. Module 1 The Disease: Module 2 The patient Module 3 The monitoring Restrictions: Knowing the limitations as a volunteer/mediator Response: Self-assessment of the work Reaching:: Building the network of voluntary health literates Research: Comparative study if possible Module 1 The Disease: The concept of health and disease Module 1 Diabetes and Hypertension The concept of health and disease Life is like a river flowing continuously without a moment of rest. We grow old with every heartbeat. Cells die and newer ones take their place. We are unaware of many minute happenings that take place in our bodies. We are unaware of the working of our minds. The chemical reactions take place throughout the body and messages travel from place to place with the speed of the electric current. The functioning of the body is not noticed by us. We are not disturbed by our bodies most of the time. I think that is what happens when we are in good health. The smooth functioning of our body systems has an ultimate feeling of health to us. Health is the well-being of the mind and that of the body. “Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” – WHO Constitution \| This WHO definition of health, dated back to 1948 is still valid today. It covers the health of mind, body, and our interaction with the society we live in. Health for all by 2020 Total health is difficult to attain in today’s world. Healthy individuals together will make a healthy society. Hence we had thought of ‘Health for all by 2020’. And now we have already missed that deadline. Unfortunately, the pandemic of Covid-19 has taken away the little progress if at all we had made by 2020. The world is affected badly today. We were not prepared for this calamity. Uncertainty is ruling the world it seems. That should not dishearten us and we must prepare ourselves and improve our capacity to reach our goal of health for all. We have witnessed that diabetes and hypertension are making it difficult to fight the virus. Covid-19 is more lethal when an infected person has these comorbidities. Diabetes and hypertension monitoring has become so important in the present situation. Life with the disease is bound to be different. But we can help make it bearable, painless, and full of hopes and dreams. Even talking for a few minutes and listening to their experiences is going to help the patients. Here, we are trying to help them, understand the disease well and make timely decisions to maintain their health. Diabetes and hypertension monitored well are as good as no disease. Keeping the glucose levels and blood pressure in the normal range is all that is necessary. \| Module 1 The Disease: Anatomy Why study anatomy? It is like viewing a map to plan a trip. It gives the idea of the locations and their relations to each other. It is the theatre where the play named `life' is performed. If we want to know about life in health and disease we need to go to the place where every action takes place. Many people have fear or even a nauseating feeling when they look at blood or wounds. It is a natural response for them. One has to overcome this with an intention to go ahead and study an important subject like anatomy. I think the learner of this course is courageous enough to visualize dissected body parts, not the real ones but in pictures, and learn the science of life. If we want to study diseases and to know about the functioning of our body, then we need to study anatomy. We should know their relations, positions, and importance. We must appreciate the wonderful design of our bodies. How organs are protected by a bony cage is surprising. How muscles function and perform an activity is amazing. One must note the textures, colours, and shapes of various body parts as a student of medicine. The learner here is being introduced to the world of medicine. Anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry are the subjects at the entrance of this world. Doctors learn anatomy to start the course of medicine after admission into medical college. In the dissection hall, they study cadavers. They dissect bodies to observe and handle bones, muscles, arteries, veins, nerves, tissues, organs. Later on, as a surgeon, they have to know the minute details of the human body as a part of their work. Nowadays we can visualize internal organs in films of CT scans, MRI, etc. We can learn to some extent with pictures and videos on the internet too. Animation has helped to make simulations and the study of anatomy quite interesting. You can explore the internet to study anatomy whenever you like. What is our body made up of? A cell is a building unit of the human body. There are many types of cells and together they give the shape and structure to the body. Cells divide and redivide to form our bodies. It is surprising to see how the life of mankind starts with a single cell. The size achieved in the uterus till birth and its growth afterward are just because of repeated divisions of cells. How cells get differentiated and form tissues, organs, and systems inside the uterus are studied in embryology. The three-layered embryo turns into a fetus Initially, the cell divides and forms three layers of the embryo: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. The ectoderm forms cells of skin and nails, brain and spinal cord, eyes, epithelium of mouth, nose, and anus. Endoderm forms cells of the inner lining of the digestive tract and the respiratory tract, and glands, liver, and pancreas. Mesoderm forms cells of muscles, the circulatory system, kidneys, ureter, bladder, and urethra. What does every cell do? Though cells differ in shape and size for different functions, they all have an outer cell membrane and a nucleus inside. They have an intracellular fluid or a cytoplasm. The other structures are nucleolus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, vacuoles, lysosomes, etc. They together are called organelles. They all together carry on functions of the cell. Functions of a cell can be listed as: Structure and support of the body. Growth by the process of division Passive transport across the cell membrane, e. g. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, alcohol Active transport across the cell membrane e.g. bigger molecules like glucose, proteins, polysaccharides Energy production by process of respiration Metabolism: includes catabolic reactions, which are breaking bigger molecules. Anabolic reactions are constructing bigger molecules from smaller components. Reproduction: cells take part in the process of reproduction. It can be mitotic or meiotic division. Systems of our body and their functions 1. skin, hair, and nails \| fig.1 Skin \| Skin is our largest organ. It weighs 4 kg and has an area of about two square meters. Skin not only covers us but does many functions. Any injury to the skin exposes our body to the possibility of infection by microorganisms. Wound care is a very important part of health care. Every person should learn the techniques of dressing wounds and practice them whenever needed. Protection Sensation Excretion/sweat,sebum Temperature regulation Vitamin D production using sunlight 2. Skeletal: skull, spine, shoulder, and pelvic girdles, thoracic cage, hands, and feet bones. \| Fig,2 Skeleton \| Skeleton is used as a symbol of fear in movies. It is also linked with the idea of ghosts. Recognizing the bones is easy if you observe them for their shape and size. People can find some differences between male and female skeletons. Women have a wider pelvis. Less prominent brows and equally less prominent muscle attachment markings over bones. Skeleton provides the following functions: The shape of the body is due to the skeleton. It supports all other organs/bears weight of the body Protection for soft organs: the skull protects the brain, ribs protect the heart and lungs Place of muscle attachment Joints help in locomotion Producing blood cells 3. muscular \| Fig.3 Muscles in back as an example \| Locomotion Work flexibility 4. nervous: brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves \| fig.4 Nervous System \| Controlling the other systems Interacting with the surroundings 5.respiratory: nose, nasopharynx, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs \| fig.5 Respiratory System \| Breathing air in and out Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air and blood 6.cardiovascular: heart, arteries, veins, arterioles, capillaries \| fig. 6 Cardiovascular System \| - Carry oxygen from lungs to body cells Carry carbon dioxide from cells to lungs Carry digested food/nutrients from the digestive system to cells 7.lymphatic: lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, tonsils, and spleen \| fig.7 lymphatic system \| Drain the fluid from capillaries to veins Maintain the balance of extracellular fluid and that in the vessels Carry immune cells from the immunity system to the body Spleen destroys old RBCs (red blood corpuscles) 8. digestive: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, liver, gallbladder, pancreas. \| fig. 8 \| The figure shows the position of the pancreas Breaking the food into small size molecules Excretion of bile and undigested food The pancreas and liver have various other functions 9. urinary: kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra \| fig.9 Urinary system \| Filters blood to remove waste Maintains the blood pressure 10. reproductive: mammary glands, uterus, ovaries, vagina/testes, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis \| fig.10 Reproductive System \| Reproduction 11. endocrine: pituitary, pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroid, suprarenals, pancreas, testes, /ovaries \| Fig. 11 Endocrine System \| Producing hormones that control other systems Growth and functioning Module 1 The Disease: Physiology Functioning of the human body Physiology tries to understand how the body functions. It is a branch of biology. It is learned with so many experiments that biology works with the laws of physics and chemistry. So, in physiology, we need to go in-depth about the processes involved. Every system needs to be studied from that angle. What are the functions of our body? Organization Metabolism Responsiveness Movement Development / Growth Reproduction Physiology of blood sugar and blood pressure regulation How does a normal person always have his/her fasting blood sugar level in a range of 80 to 120 mg/dl,оr blood pressure systolic<120 and diastolic<80 mm of Hg? These are the desirable ranges for blood sugar and blood pressure in our bodies. To understand how blood sugar and blood pressure levels are maintained in their respective range, we need to learn the concept of homeostasis. Homeostasis Homeostasis is the stability of the internal environment of the body. This ability of the body to control its interior environment was first explained by the scientist Claude Bernard (recognized as the father of modern physiology). The word he used for that was `milieu interieur’. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bernard https://www.britannica.com/biography/Claude-Bernard The body has different systems working separately but all are well connected and are interdependent too. To have an ideal environment for the best functioning of our body some conditions need to be fulfilled. These conditions are many. For example, body temperature, pH of blood, blood sugar, etc. Our body control systems work together for maintaining these values in the desired range. The system acts like that of the thermostat, which maintains the temperature near the set point. The human body requires energy for functioning. The energy we get is from the food we eat. Our food is in three main forms. Those are proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. When these three forms are digested they get absorbed into the blood flow as amino acids, fatty acids, and glucose respectively. Glucose is used to give instant energy. It is easy to understand that blood glucose/sugar is raised when we eat food containing glucose. Carbohydrates are a rich source of glucose. Then glucose molecules enter cells for their further utilization. Here insulin secreted by beta cells of the pancreas is required for the active transport of glucose molecules through the cell membrane. The glucose that enters the cell undergoes glycolysis. This is an irreversible reaction and it gives one ATP molecule. ATP is used as energy throughout the body. The body has glucose reserves, stored glucose in the form of glycogen. Mostly in the liver and skeletal muscles. This storage process, called glycogenesis, is also promoted by the hormone insulin. The extra glucose, if available, is converted into fats or adipose tissues for long-term storage. When the glucose level starts falling glycogen molecules are again converted to glucose and brought back into blood circulation for utilization. The reaction is the opposite of glycogenesis. So glycogenolysis is breaking down glycogen molecules in small parts. That is glucose. Glycogenolysis = Glycogen+lysis. The hormone which plays a role here is glucagon. Glucagon is secreted by alpha cells of the pancreas. In some situations when required glucagon can produce glucose from proteins too. It is called gluconeogenesis. At the time of starvation, glucagon converts fatty acids to ketone bodies. The process is called ketogenesis. They increase the acidic level of blood and cause a condition known as ketoacidosis. Role of hormones in the homeostasis of glucose 1. insulin Insulin reduces blood sugar by Glycolysis: by helping glucose enter into the cell. Glycogenesis: by increasing the glucose conversion to glycogen in the liver and muscles. Lipogenesis: by converting glucose to fats. 2. Glucagon Glucagon increases blood sugar by Glycogenolysis: Converts glycogen to glucose Gluconeogenesis: Converts amino acids to glucose Glucagon is an exceptional condition of starvation that produces ketone bodies from fats. Ketone bodies are used instead of glucose as a source of energy only by the brain and heart. As if this is the last life-saving alternative available to the body. Ketogenesis: Fats are converted to ketone bodies. 3. Amylin (islet amyloid polypeptide) Secreted with insulin by beta cells. Helps to decrease postprandial blood glucose spikes by Slowing the gastric emptying Promoting satiety 4. Incretins GLP-1 GIP Incretins are hormones secreted by epithelial cells of the small intestine. The entry of food or glucose triggers the secretion. They increase insulin release by beta cells of islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. They decrease glucagon secretion. They also delay gastric emptying and promote satiety. But they are deactivated by the enzyme DPP4 in a short time. New drugs DPP4 Inhibitors prolong the action of incretins and reduce blood glucose. Other hormones 5. Growth hormone secreted by the pituitary gland, 6. Cortisol secreted by suprarenal or adrenal glands, 7. Adrenaline by adrenal glands, All the above three hormones have hyperglycemic effects. Means they increase blood glucose levels. \| fig.12The graph below is blood glucose values against time. \| Module 1 The Disease: Diabetes: Types Diabetes What is diabetes? Diabetes is a metabolic disorder causing raised blood sugar, also known as hyperglycemia. It occurs due to a deficiency of the hormone insulin. But it can also occur due to the phenomenon of insulin resistance, where insulin is ineffective though not deficient. It is called a relative deficiency of insulin. Insulin is a hormone produced by beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. Though diabetes is a metabolic disorder it affects small and large vascular systems, causing inflammation of endothelium (inner walls of the blood vessels). So it is equally a cardiovascular disease. \| Types of diabetes mellitus(DM) Type1 DM: Type1 diabetes mellitus was previously known as Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus, (IDDM). It starts early in life and children suffer from this, hence is called juvenile diabetes too. This type of diabetes is due to the autoimmune destruction of beta cells in islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. Autoimmunity is when our immune system fails to recognize our cells and produces antibodies against our own cells. Destroyed and non-functioning beta cells lead to worrisome conditions for Type1 DM patients as they do not have endogenous insulin to control their blood sugar. If not treated the sugar is too high and causes complications like ketoacidosis and sometimes altered consciousness. The patients can still lead a good life when treated properly with insulin. The life span and the quality of life are improved after insulin treatment. Insulin has saved many lives. To learn more about juvenile diabetes it is worth visiting the sites below. Type2 DM: Type2 diabetes mellitus was previously known as non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus(NIDDM). It starts mostly after forty years of age and is also called maturity-onset diabetes. As some insulin is produced this diabetes remains asymptomatic for a longer duration. It is due to the dysfunction of beta cells of islets of Langerhans in the pancreas and associated insulin resistance. Type2 DM is the commonest type of diabetes. Nearly 90 percent of total diabetics have Type2 DM. In this course, we are mostly dealing with this type of diabetes. Gestational diabetes This type of diabetes is found in some of the expecting mothers (around 2-3 percent) during the last trimester mostly. The cause here is insulin resistance. This hyperglycemia reduces on its own after the delivery. Pancreatic diabetes The main cause here is repeated and chronic pancreatitis. Due to inflammation, the pancreatic tissue is destroyed. There are fibrotic lesions and calcifications in the pancreas. Both exocrine and endocrine functions get affected. The patients have upper abdominal pain and indigestion in association with hyperglycemia. This type of diabetes is difficult to treat as the sugar levels always keep fluctuating. The patients remain malnourished. But monitoring blood sugar is essential to reduce possibilities of hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia. Comparison of Type1 DM to Type 2 DM \| T1DM \| T2DM \| \|\| Juvenile diabetes mellitus \| \| \|\| \| Starts in childhood \| Starts after age 40 usually \| \|\| \| Symptoms are acute \| symptoms develop gradually \| \|\| \| The patient is usually thin \| The patient is usually obese \| \|\| \| Need insulin in the treatment \| Insulin may be needed \| \|\| \| Can not be prevented \| Risk is reducible \| Module 1 The Disease: Diabetes: Symptoms Symptoms of diabetes Symptoms depend on the level of hyperglycemia. If the blood sugar is below 180mg/dl then the patient may not have any symptoms, that is the patient is asymptomatic. As we know now, hyperglycemia is a raised blood glucose level. When the blood glucose is more than 180 mg/dl it crosses the renal threshold. Meaning the kidney starts excreting glucose through urine. Normally glucose is nil or is absent in urine. If glucose passes the kidney’s barrier it pulls the amount of water in its proportion by the laws of osmosis. A large quantity of water passes with glucose in urine. This causes dehydration. Cells experience dryness which stimulates the thirst center. The person feels thirsty quite often. As insulin shortage or insulin resistance causes few glucose molecules to enter cells, cells lack the energy source and are starved. This causes hunger. Sugar in urine invites infection by fungi. Polyuria: passing large amounts of urine, frequently. Polydipsia: Increased thirst Polyphagia: Increased appetite. Glycosuria: Passing glucose in urine. Unexplained weight loss Fatigue Irritability Delayed wound healing Blurred vision Frequent infections Module 1 The Disease: Diabetes: Diagnosis Diagnosis of diabetes ( Patient's serum mixed with the reagent in a laboratory) If the person has symptoms mentioned above, s/he is investigated further. If s/he has blood tests done twice at an interval positive, s/he is considered to have diabetes. The tests performed are as follows: Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) (Fasting means no caloric intake for eight hours.) FPG ≥ 126mg/dL OR Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)/2- Hour plasma glucose(PG) (Patient is given 75-gram anhydrous glucose dissolved in water 2 hours before the test) 2-hour PG ≥ 200mg/dL OR HbA1c ≥ 6.5% OR If the patient has classic symptoms of hyperglycemia then Random plasma glucose ≥ 200 mg/dL Prediabetes It is when the individual has high blood sugar levels but not so high to be diagnosed as diabetes. Here the fasting sugar will be 100 mg/dL to 125 mg/dL or the postprandial between 140 mg/dL to 199 mg/dL. This is just a warning sign that the person may have the disease very soon. A healthy and stress-free lifestyle can change the picture. The onset of diabetes can be prevented by dietary changes and increasing physical activity. Jogging, brisk walking, and aerobics are good, proven exercises. Keeping the mind relaxed will also help reduce elevated blood glucose levels. Glycosylated hemoglobin/ HbA1c HbA1c is glycosylated hemoglobin. When blood glucose increases some glucose molecules get attached to hemoglobin molecules. This is in proportion to the rise in glucose concentration. This property of glucose binding to the Hb molecule is used here to see the glucose behavior for the last three months. HbA1c is helpful to guide us about chronic hyperglycemia. Chronic is for a longer duration. The reading of HbA1c gives an idea about the estimated average blood glucose of the last three months. One millimole of glucose is 18 mg of glucose HbA1c report estimated average blood sugar in mg/dL & mmol/dL HbA1C % 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 \| mg/dL 97 126 154 183 212 240 269 298 \| mmol/L 5.4 7.0 8.6 10.2 11.8 13.4 14.9 16.5 \| Other investigations Once diagnosed the patient needs to be further evaluated to see his/her status regarding possible ill effects due to the disease. They have different symptoms. Their systems get ill at a different pace. It will depend on how long s/he has hyperglycemia and his dietary habits. It will also depend on his/her body mass index and whether s/he has hypertension. Smoking and tobacco chewing and alcohol are worrisome addictions that can exacerbate diabetes. Urine examinations Previously we used to use urine examination for monitoring and to diagnose too. I remember doing Benedict's test in my college forty years back. The color of Benedict’s solution would change from blue to green to yellow to brick red. This was bedside clinical laboratory work for the medical students. The more the sugar, the more the color changes. It was routine work and we used to change the drug dosages depending on the results. But with the introduction of glucometers, a drop of blood gives results in a few seconds. But still, dry strips for glucose and ketone bodies are useful. (Diasticks) They have replaced Benedict’s test. Urine for microalbuminuria helps us judge the beginning of kidneys getting affected. Urinary tract infections are common in diabetics. The pus cells in the routine urine test indicate that. Lipid profile Dyslipidemia, when present, adds to the complications. The readings about cholesterol, triglycerides, and the proportion of high density and low-density lipids provide important information about the state/degree of atherosclerosis we expect. Serum creatinine To check and see if any renal impairment has begun. Diabetic nephropathy is a common complication. It is aggravated if associated with uncontrolled hypertension. If Nephropathy is present then the treatment needs to be changed accordingly. Drugs are used with precautions. Ophthalmic check-up The patient’s vision needs regular checkups if diabetic. Retinopathy and related blindness are avoidable only with good glycemic control. Long-standing hyperglycemia is also connected to cataracts and optic neuritis. Cardiac check-up A basic reading of electrocardiogram gives many clues for patient’s Cardiac status. Rate, rhythm, conduction of electric current, condition of atria and ventricles, and ischemic changes if any are detected. Module 1 The Disease: Diabetes: Treatment There are five parts in the management of diabetes mellitus: - Patient education, - Diet, - Exercise - Drug treatment - Monitoring This is applicable to every disease. But in diabetes, the other parts are equally or more important than the drug treatment. Diabetes being a lifelong companion needs continuous attention. Suppression of the disease is the key to success! People are claiming that they can even exclude the drug treatment if concentrated enough on diet and exercise. The reversal of diabetes is a popular term used in recent times. It is based on these assumptions and there are many stories available on the internet. It will be a great victory if people get free of the disease without the drugs. But the day has not yet arrived. What we see is people with complications and difficulties beyond their capacity. Sufferings and economic burdens both are on the rise. Diabetes and other diseases combine to make the solutions difficult. We have observed this with wound sepsis, tuberculosis, AIDS, Urinary tract infections, Atherosclerotic vascular diseases, and many more. The Covid 19 is a recent example. Patient education The skill to deal with diabetes is a must for every diabetic. The patient has to know what exactly is the cause and process behind his/her suffering. Informing the patient about diet, exercise, drug dosages, possible side effects is essential. Recognizing the symptoms of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia is very important. As the knowledge is ever-changing, updating from experts, magazines should continue. But the diabetic has to keep away from false advertisements. Diet There is a famous term heard often as a diabetic diet. It is a constant fear amongst patients about the diet. People are accustomed to many things in their diet. They have developed the taste over the years from childhood and have developed their formula for eating. Suddenly if they know that they have to restrict themselves to a particular type of food they find the idea difficult. Diabetes demands meticulous planning in diet. Proper diet to get into the right zone of body mass index, the right blood sugar, and to fulfill the energy demand of the body. A diet should be full of vitamins, healthy nutrients, fruits, and enough fiber. The doctor treating patients often sends patients to a dietician for proper advice. The dietician takes into consideration the present diet received by the patient, his/her health issues, and the goals of the treatment. The dietician designs meal plans accordingly. Exercise The importance and benefits of physical activity have proved beyond doubt now. The lack of physical activity is the leading cause of lifestyle diseases. Simple brisk walking for an hour a day can make a difference. Sedentary behavior is a new urban problem.Household chores, cleaning, gardening, etc. are forgotten. Reduction in this sedentarism and promoting outdoor activities will help a lot. Being physically active is found to improve insulin sensitivity. It also helps to control blood sugar levels and reduce the average sugar in HbA1c. Altering the dose of insulin and hypoglycemic drugs according to your activity variations is not to be forgotten. The tight control might precipitate hypoglycemia. Age-related diseases like osteoarthritis affect knee joints and people get into trouble and can not walk for a long time. Frozen shoulders are common in diabetes. Such specific health issues need special attention while treating diabetes. Hundred years of insulin Difficult were days for diabetes patients, especially Type 1 DM, before Insulin. Death was inevitable. Starvation was the only treatment known. Diagnosis of Type1 DM was like a death sentence for the patient. Frederick G. Banting and Charles H. Best, John J. R. Macleod, and James B. Collip together made it possible to effectively treat diabetes with purified pancreatic extract named insulin. It has proved a life-saving drug for people with diabetes since then. It is essential to know about this discovery but it is important to know how difficult it is for a patient with average income to get treated with insulin. Insulin is the only drug for Type 1DM. The dosages are based on readings of blood sugar and need constant titration. As insulin is a peptide, if taken orally it is broken down into amino acids and becomes ineffective. Hence it is effective in the injectable form. Insulin is advised for Type 1 DM patients Uncontrolled sugar in Type 2DM even with high dosages of drugs Type 2 DM with severe infection, cardiac event, or planned surgery Type 2 DM who needs steroid treatment Patient with ketoacidosis Severe hyperglycemia/patient in comatose condition (blood glucose > 600mg/dL) Short term period insulin for gestational diabetes patient If the Type 2 DM is allergic to oral hypoglycemic drugs Patient with diabetes who is only on intravenous support/ no oral feeding Action duration \| Name \| Starts action \| Peak of action \| End of action \| Rapid \| Lispro Aspart Glulisine \| 5 to 15 minutes \| 30 to 90 minutes \| 3 to 5 hours \| Short \| Regular \| 30 to 60 minutes \| 2 to 3 hours \| 5 to 8 hours \| Intermediate \| Isophane (N.P.H.) \| 2 to 4 hours \| 4 to 10 hours \| 10 to 16 hours \| Long \| Glargine Detemir Degludec \| 2 to 4 hours \| No peak hours \| 16 to 24 hours \| The type of insulin and the dose and time to inject change according to the response of the patient to the treatment. It is to be remembered that the regimen of drugs or insulin is not likely to work permanently for any patient. The regimens can be once a day, twice a day, thrice a day, four times a day as per the need. We will learn more in detail about this in our module about monitoring. Oral Hypoglycemic drugs The oral hypoglycemic drugs are effective in Type 2 DM. They are to be prescribed in low dosages, to begin with. The dose of the drug is increased as per the need. A single drug may serve the purpose or if not sufficient drugs may be given in combinations. The selection of a particular drug is based on the patient’s sugar reports and accompanying health conditions. The commonly used drugs to treat Type 2DM Metformin Metformin is the first-line treatment. The mode of action is not yet clearly understood. It reduces hepatic glucose formation and increases tissue uptake of glucose. Bad taste, gastrointestinal disturbances, and lactic acidosis are side effects. But in most patients, it is well tolerated. It is contraindicated when a patient has high serum creatinine values. Sulfonylureas They improve the function of beta cells. The type of drugs under this heading are: Tolbutamide, Chlorpropamide, Tolazamide, Glyburide, Glimepride, Glipizide, Gliclazide, etc. They too cause Gastrointestinal disturbances, hypoglycemia, and also, have a Disulfiram-like effect. (They cause nausea after alcohol intake) Glitazones/Thizolidinediones Pioglitazone and Rosilglitazone They increase glucose uptake in tissues. They have hepatotoxicity and are unsafe for the heart. Alpha Glucosidase inhibitors Acarbose, Miglitol They block the conversion of disaccharides to monosaccharides by blocking the enzyme glucosidase in epithelial cells of the small intestine. Hence reduce the absorption of glucose into the blood. Indigestion, flatulence, and diarrhea are side effects. GLP1 Analogs: exenatide and Amylin Analogs: Pramlintide They increase the secretion of insulin and decrease the secretion of glucagon. They can cause pancreatitis due to continuous overstimulation of beta cells. DPP 4 Inhibitors/ Gliptins Sitagliptin, Vildagliptin, Teneligliptin, Linagliptin, etc. These drugs come into action only when there is some food intake. They increase the duration of action of incretins secreted by the intestinal cells by inhibiting the enzyme DPP 4. This means they will reduce the glucose only when there is glucose intake. So they do not cause hypoglycemia and are safer drugs. At present they are a bit expensive. But these newer drugs are day by day becoming part of the prescription for Type 2DM. Headache, Nasopharyngitis, and pancreatitis are side effects. The dose has to be reduced in renal insufficiency. Safety in the pregnancy and lactating period is not yet established. For extra reading please see the web page below. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2846464/?report=reader Sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors Dapagliflozin, Empagliflozin etc. These drugs increase the excretion of glucose by inhibiting glucose reabsorption (which happens physiologically otherwise in renal tubules.) But due to increased glucose in the urine, they cause polyuria, fungal infections in the urethra and around, and weight loss. It is not at all advised in Type 1 DM. To know more about these drugs, their dosages, the prescription details, please go through the webpage/book below. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482386/#_ncbi_dlg_citbx_NBK482386 Module 1 The Disease: Hypertension: Diagnosis Hypertension The word hypertension is used to denote increased blood pressure. Sometimes people call it by a short form as high BP. BP is blood pressure. Even patients know now that the BP should not go high as it will lead to a cerebral stroke or a heart attack. The incidence of such events is very common. People have started accepting these attacks as a new normal of life. But awareness about hypertension among people is increasing now. They ask doctors to check their BP quite often. Some doctors do keep watch on the blood pressure of their patients without being asked for it. What is blood pressure? We can imagine how amazing the design of our bodies is. The heart the size of a fist pumps the blood all through the six feet tall body and that too through the densely packed tissue. Nearly eighty such cycles in a minute and with no interruption in the entire life. When blood is pushed through the arteries it has to have some pressure as any fluid flowing through an elastic pipe will have. We often see it when a gardener is watering plants or in a servicing center while washing a car. The forceful water is as energetic as an arrow. The water pump provides that energy. The heart in our body works similarly and gives energy to blood flow with rhythmic contractions. Blood carries nutrients and oxygen to every cell in the body. This process is known as perfusion. So to make it simple blood pressure is an essential function of the cardiovascular system that helps the body with the perfusion of tissues. When an elastic rubber pipe carrying water is punctured by a pointed object what we get to see is a fountain. The height of the fountain is directly proportional to the pressure of the water flowing through. As a doctor, we witness a sprinkle of blood when a patient is brought with an arterial wound. That is not the case when the vein is injured. Blood simply oozes out when a vein is injured. That is because the blood in the artery flows with a higher pressure than the blood in the vein. The fluid in the pipe exerts pressure on its wall and it is at a right angle to the wall of the pipe. Similarly, our blood in the artery exerts pressure on its wall. And that can be measured and studied. The blood pressure of every artery will be different because they have different diameters, different types of walls, and are at different distances from the heart. So blood pressure depends on many factors. The blood poured into the artery by the heart also matters. We call it cardiac output. The amount of blood in the artery depends on the blood volume. Sometimes in dehydration or in hemorrhagic shock, the blood volume is depleted. Blood pressure falls automatically. Tissue perfusion reduces and the person goes in shock. Shock is a medical emergency and requires immediate action. Definition of hypertension (HTN) Hypertension is elevated blood pressure; systolic blood pressure(SBP) ≥ 140 mm Hg and /or Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) ≥ 90 mm Hg \| Primary hypertension Hypertension with no definable cause is termed primary or essential hypertension. Secondary hypertension Hypertension caused by a specific organ or metabolic defect is termed secondary hypertension. Classification of hypertension Category \| SBP/DBP mm of Hg \| Normal \| <130/85 \| High Normal \| 130-139 or 85 -89 \| Stage 1 hypertension \| 140-159 or 90 -99 \| Stage 2 hypertension \| 160-179 or 100-109 \| Stage 3 hypertension \| >180 or 110 \| Grade 1 Isolated systolic hypertension \| 140-159 and <90 \| Grade 2 Isolated systolic hypertension \| >160 and <90 \| Evaluation of the patient with hypertension The patient who is having elevated blood pressure is to be investigated to find out the cause of hypertension. That is to look for the secondary cause if any. In secondary hypertension, if the cause is treatable, patients need not take the life-long antihypertensive drugs. Diagnostic tests in a patient with hypertension ECG: to rule out cardiac complications and also for basal Urinalysis: to rule out renal impairment Electrolytes: to see levels of Sodium, potassium, and chlorides Creatinine, BUN: to judge renal functions CBC: to rule out anemia, infections, etc. Fasting glucose: to rule out diabetes Cholesterol: to rule out dyslipidemia Chest X-Ray: to rule out heart enlargement, and lung pathologies. Why is controlling hypertension important? HTN is the most important risk factor for premature cardiovascular disease. More common than tobacco smoking, dyslipidemia, and diabetes. HTN is a cause behind 54% of strokes and 47% of ischemic heart disease events globally. 10-12% reduction in systolic blood pressure and 5-6% reduction in diastolic blood pressure can reduce 38% of strokes and 16% of coronary events. End organ damages like retinopathies( Retina is an inner layer of the eyeball) and renal failures are the results of longstanding uncontrolled hypertension. Module 1 The Disease: Hypertension: Treatment Treatment of hypertension Lifestyle changes Diet, physical activity, and stress-free living help a lot. Weight reduction, keeping calories balanced, and regular exercises keep you fit. Eat healthy food Limit salt intake Physical activity Good to avoid alcohol Do not smoke Manage stress Drug treatment Antihypertensive drugs are available and should be used to bring the blood pressure in a normal acceptable range in every patient. There are many drugs and they have different modes of action. We have to select a particular drug according to the age of the patient, grade of hypertension, and any other disease the patient might be suffering from. The commonly used drugs are from the following class of antihypertensive drugs. They are given in small doses, to begin with. Blood pressure is measured repeatedly and the dose is titrated. The doctor treating the patient has to consider many factors to get the right drug in the correct required dosage. The grade and response of blood pressure are taken into account. A combination of drugs is tried to achieve the preferred blood pressure level. Thiazide diuretics: Examples: hydrochlorothiazide, chlorthalidone, Indapamide, Metolazone, chlorothiazide, Amiloride - - Preferred in Heart failure, Elderly patients, Systolic hypertension - contraindications: Gout, Dyslipidemia Calcium channel blockers: - Amlodipine, Cilnidipine,Diltiazem, Nifedipine, Verapamil, Benidipine, Efonidipine - Preferred in Metabolic syndrome, Angina, Elderly, Systolic hypertension, Diabetes Contraindications: Verapamil or Diltiazem not to be given in Heart block, and congestive HF ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitors. Examples: Enalapril, Lisinopril, Ramipril, Perindopril Preferred in : Metabolic syndrome, Heart failure, Left ventricular dysfunction, Post myocardial infarction, Proteinuria Contraindications: Pregnancy, Lactation, Bilateral renal artery stenosis, Hyperkalemia, Renal failure Angiotensin II receptor blockers. Eexamples: Losartan, Candesartan, Valsartan, Irbesartan, Telmisartan, Olmesartan, Azilsartan Preferred in: Metabolic syndrome, Diabetes mellitus, Proteinuria, Left ventricular dysfunction, ACEi induced cough - Contraindications: Pregnancy, Lactation, Hyperkalemia, Renal failure Beta-blockers. Examples: Metoprolol, Bisoprolol, Nebivolol - Preferred in Angina, Post MI( Myocardial Infarction), Tachyarrhythmia, Heart Failure Contraindications: Heart block, Dyslipidemia, Physically active, Peripheral vascular disease, Elderly, Asthma, COPD(chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) Alpha-Blockers Examples: Doxazosin, Prazosin - Preferred in Prostatic hypertrophy, Chronic Kidney Disease - Contraindications: Orthostatic hypotension, Congestive Heart failure Centrally acting drugs Alpha methyldopa - preferred in pregnancy - Contraindications: Liver disease Clonidine - Preferred in Resistant hypertension Contraindications: pregnancy and lactation Hydralazine - Preferred in Pregnancy, Resistant Hypertension - Contraindication: Coronary artery disease Module 2 The patient: Your role Your role As we have seen, people with diabetes and hypertension are mostly asymptomatic and many do not seek treatment nor do they visit the doctor. People need screening tests to know whether they have such types of illnesses. So we use this term patient here even for those who are suspected to have high levels of blood sugar, blood pressure, or blood lipids. One who is having prediabetes is on the edge of the disease. S/he is a potential patient and needs repeat examinations. The same is true for hypertension. So when we use the term patient in this course it is a person who needs care for these diseases. The care may be a preventive measure. Screening tests are also part of patient care. Actually, it is care taken to reduce the number of patients! Since both diabetes and hypertension affect every organ in the body, and there are so many aspects of studying these diseases; it is difficult to cover the subject in this short course. But you will get whatever you need to know from the internet nowadays. It is difficult for you to remember all the drugs and details of their indications and contraindications. The information summarised in short here is just to get the idea of it. You can use it as a ready reference when needed. The medical terminology is not easy to get familiar with within this short time. But with the time you spend with these words, you will find them simple and easier to use. Your role can be explained shortly as follows - To help in monitoring the disease. - To visit the patient frequently and note down variables like blood pressure and blood glucose. - To see if the patient is showing some symptoms which need some immediate attention by the doctor. - To help patients in some emergency situations till they are taken to a doctor. - To motivate the patient to take steps to control diabetes and hypertension. - To guide the patient about proper diet and exercise. - To help the patient to maintain proper medical records. - To become a reliable friend of the patient and his family as such. - To carry on as a medical guide/ voluntary health worker - To gain information from resources to keep updated and be ready to use it when needed. Module 2 The patient: A step towards relieving suffering A step towards relieving suffering Knowing about the disease is not enough. Only the patient will give you the unique experience to confirm your knowledge. To study medicine is science but to practice, it is an art. We study the science behind the diseases and label patients as diabetic, hypertensive, etc. But they are the individuals suffering. Every patient is an individual and requires separate attention. In real life when we meet them we need to get closer to them. We must assist them to get to know the disease they are facing. And assure them how they can get out of it or make it less troublesome. Every patient has his/her own way to respond to the disease and the treatment. You are supposed to change your approach accordingly. Some patients can express their feelings, some can not. Some talk a lot, some are very quiet. Some can bear the pain, some will shout and cry loudly. But it is to be remembered that a sick person can not behave as one should behave otherwise. We should always keep calm and be thoughtful before any action. What we plan to do is to help the patient to get better. In this course, we are limiting ourselves to monitoring diabetes and hypertension. That is we will measure blood pressure and blood sugar regularly. We have tried to understand the need of doing this in the last module. Mainly because both diabetes and hypertension are quite prevalent all over. And they bring about changes in our body so that we land into many acute and chronic troublesome conditions. We aim to prevent this from happening. Module 2 The patient: Being a volunteer We get joy and a sense of fulfillment when we help others. That is what volunteering is all about. A grown-up person with compassion and strong emotional and social intelligence will love to be a volunteer. It is found in one study that teenagers love to be a volunteer. They are curious, hard-working, and commit to the cause. They know that to grow is to know more about life. Life all around is a mix of all sorts of events and emotions. Illness is an unavoidable part of life. One has to face it as and when it comes. A volunteer does things not as a job but as a new challenge. It is an opportunity to learn new skills. It is the way to gain confidence. It will teach you to communicate with others. Presenting the best of you to the community makes a difference. There is a possibility to develop the leader in you when you have a team of volunteers dedicated to a cause. For science students who want to be a doctor, this course will be like premedical training. They can use their vacation period for this purpose. The idea to work with a doctor on a certain mission will be fun for them. They will get to meet patients and will have the opportunity to observe them. The history taking, physical examination, and investigations are the steps In diagnosing any illness. To witness these steps with the doctor will be a great experience for these volunteer students. Module 2 The patient: The first meeting The first meeting There are many possibilities for the introduction of a patient with the volunteer. The volunteer is a patient itself. The volunteer is from the same family and is related to the patient. The volunteer stays in the neighborhood of the patient. The volunteer will visit the patient from a distance regularly at a fixed time. The volunteer will meet many patients in a health camp. The volunteer devotes time to the hospitalized patients. But in any case, the volunteer will require an introduction to the patient. This will be the first meeting of this sort if the volunteer is not self or from the family. The meeting place will be mostly the patient’s house. Daylight is preferred as the room will be well lit. The patient who is already diagnosed may have old reports/investigations which might guide you. It will be good to look at those papers carefully. But before that, you need to introduce yourself. Introducing yourself is a skill to be learned. The meeting should of course begin with this self-introduction. Offering a greeting smile with the introduction will make further conversation easier. You will have to wait for the patient’s response to your presence, your smile. This will say a lot about the patient. Did the patient smile back? Is the patient comfortable? Does the patient appear anxious, frightened, depressed? Is the posture normal? Is breathing comfortable? Are the accompanying persons worried? The conversation may not begin with the medical problems. It can be anything else trying to get closer to the patient. It need not be a pre-decided one but as the time suggests or the mood permits. Though the volunteer is not a doctor, the patient should have the same kind of respect. The conversation therefore should be equally genuine and a serious one. It is good to maintain that formality in the relationship. Let yourself be the listener. Let the patient say something. Allow the patient to begin the story; so you will know what the patient expects from you. Your introduction, in the beginning, should include that you are there to help patients in monitoring diabetes and hypertension by taking repeated readings of blood sugar and blood pressure. And after a discussion with the doctor, may have to make certain changes in diet, exercise, and if needed in drugs too. This will help in the fine-tuning of the control of both the diseases and it will give clues to doctors about the well-being of the patient in between the hospital or institutional visits. This also needs to be told in the very first meeting to the patient to clarify your role. Module 2 The patient: The history The history The conversation with the patient may begin with the introduction and friendly smiles. Then one has to know certain details about the patient which have importance in total understanding of the patient and the disease. When you note it regularly you have it on your records/notes which can be analyzed later on. It is to identify the patient first and not to mix findings with any other patients. Make proper entries carefully. The name, age, sex, address, education, occupation, marital status are to be noted. The information about smoking, alcohol intake, and diet history is a must. The patient should be allowed to speak freely about his complaints if s/he has any. The presenting complaint needs some further discussion to know the severity and other details. The complaint made by the patient is called a symptom. From the symptom, we can judge the organ or the system affected. As we have seen, hypertension and diabetes both may not have any symptoms in the beginning stages. We may have to depend only on investigations to confirm the diagnosis. But one reading is not enough for diagnosis and two or three high readings will be necessary. With any abnormal reading found you may have to report it to the doctor and know about the risk of complication. The patient may need a hospital visit after that. The doctor may make the decision as per the findings reported by you. Here is a list of symptoms with their possible systems involvement. General health \| weight: over, under, Energy: fatigue, lassitude, Malaise Sleep: drowsiness, insomnia, disturbed sleep \| Upper Gastrointestinal tract \| Pain: dull, burning, deep, spasmodic, Appetite: Reduced appetite, overeating Nausea, Vomiting, Hiccoughs, Fullness, flatulence, Waterbrash Dysphagia \| Lower Gastrointestinal tract \| Diarrhea, Constipation, Pain: Dull, Acute, Colicky. Indigestion, Jaundice \| Genital system \| Ulcerations, Itching, Dysfunctioning \| Cardiovascular system \| Dyspnoea (breathlessness) Pain in the chest: precordial, jaw pain, hand pain, epigastric pain Choking sensation Palpitations, Cough, Edema \| Respiratory System \| Cough, Sputum, Breathing difficulties, Wheeze, Chest pain \| Urinary system \| Excessive/scanty amount, Increased /decreased frequency Pain: burning, dull, acute \| Nervous system \| Stroke Seizure Headache Loss of sensations, Tingling, burning sensations Visual loss Hearing loss Loss of smell \| Skin \| Infections, Allergies, pigmentations, \| Locomotor system \| Cramps Wasting of muscles weakness/limping Joint pains \| Module 2 The patient: Small observations The history obtained in short is not enough to conclude many times. But it can suggest to you an organ or a system involved. You are not going to do a complete examination as the doctor does but you can get information from small observations. It is good to know those points as they tell a lot about the patient’s health. This is not to make the diagnosis. But this will make a general assessment of the degree of illness. Is the patient seriously ill and in need of immediate attention by the doctor? How is the consciousness level? How is the mental state? Is there any pain in the chest that is making the patient restless? Is the patient able to walk well? Is the patient obese/ underweight/ normal? Are the feet edematous? Is there a wound/rash/eruptions anywhere on the skin? Is the skin pale/ yellowish? Is the patient having a high fever? Module 2 The patient: Vital Signs Vital signs are so-called because those are the signs of life. In medicine, in a patient's examination, vital signs have a special place. They are written at the beginning of the medical records. They give an immediate idea about the condition of the patient. What are these signs? Temperature Pulse Respiration Blood pressure We need to know about these if we have to describe the health of the patient to someone else. Or if we want to record the serial improvement or deterioration in a patient's health. The record of vital signs can tell you a lot about the patient. The normalcy of these signs will assure you about the general condition of the patient. And deviation of any of these signs from the normal will indicate the illness. Body temperature: Everybody knows about the use of a thermometer. We used mercury thermometers till now. We have seen people using digital thermometers too. And now with COVID-19, we are used to seeing the no-touch infrared thermometers. Whatever be the instrument we must know that the normal body temperature is around 370 celsius /98.60 Fahrenheit. Everyone might have a small variation of this normal is also true. A temperature above 99.50 F is to be considered as a fever. There are many causes for the patient to have a fever. Infections, inflammation, tissue necrosis, malignancy are common causes of fever. Fever is a common symptom that alerts the patient about the illness. In simple terms, the patient can have a clear cause like respiratory infection, diarrhea, an infected wound, an abscess somewhere, etc. The patient’s fever may not have a clear explanation. We need to investigate such patients. Diabetes patients are more prone to have infections. We should immediately inform the doctor. Fever is to be seen and looked after by the doctor. If the fever is high, more than 104 degrees Fahrenheit, the patient needs to be given antipyretic medicine like Acetaminophen/ paracetamol 500 mg stat (immediate) and may need sponging with water. Pulse: Pulse is like a wave that travels along the arteries. It is the result of the left ventricle pushing the blood in an aorta to travel through the other arteries with every contraction. The quality of that wave depends also on the elasticity of the arterial wall. Pulse can be felt in any of the accessible arteries. Usually, the pulse a clinician feels is of the radial artery at the wrist. It is felt with the fingers by lightly pressing the radial artery on the plain radial bone below. What we feel is mostly the rate, rhythm, and volume of the pulse. The normal pulse is from 55 to 100 beats per minute(bpm). Below 55 bpm is called bradycardia and above 100 bpm is called tachycardia. Changes in the rhythm are a big topic. We will not discuss that here but will just remember that loss in the rhythmic contraction of the heart causes many arrhythmias. And these are due to the defects in the electrical conduction patterns of the heart. Respiration: The newborn baby has a respiratory rate (RR) of 44 cycles per minute. It goes on decreasing as we grow up. Adults have a respiratory rate of 14-18 cycles per minute. Increased respiratory rate is tachypnoea. The decrease is bradypnoea. Respiratory rate is counted as cycles of breathing (inhalation and exhalation) in a minute. It is a skill to count the respiratory rate as it requires the diversion of the patient’s attention. If the patient is conscious about respiration, it affects the normal pattern of breathing. Tachypnoea is found when the patient has exertion, fear, fever, heart weakness, pain, lung diseases like pneumonia, embolism, pneumothorax. RR increases in anemia, hyperthyroidism. Bradypnoea is found in the intoxication of CNS depressant drugs, in the condition of uremia, and also when there is raised intracranial pressure. The image below is from old files and gives an idea about TPR charts. If you see a file of an admitted patient in any hospital the first thing you notice is this sort of graph which is Temperature, Pulse, and Respiratory rate chart. This gives an idea about the health of the patient at a glance. This is mostly maintained by the nursing staff of the ward. Accurate and timely entries in this graph are must. Blood pressure: We have already discussed what blood pressure is. Here we will see how we check blood pressure. There are two types of blood pressure apparatus available. One is a manual type and the other is automatic. Manual apparatus requires a stethoscope to auscultate and a pumping balloon to inflate air in the cuff. It has either a mercury column or a dial calibrated to give readings. The electronic types of equipment give readings on screen and do not need a balloon to inflate air. They have an inbuilt motor/pump to push air. We will see some important precautions at the time of measuring the blood pressure. The arm cuff used in BP measurement should be wide enough to reduce the error. The patient should be at rest for ten minutes before measuring ideally. Feel the brachial and/or radial artery pulse before inflating the air into the cuff. The patient can be sitting or in a lying down supine position. When you inflate the air in the cuff, at one point you will notice the disappearance of the pulse. Inflate further for 30 mm above that point. (This you can judge with mercury or dial sphygmomanometer. In digital instruments, we do not see the column but the numbers come on the screen. There you don’t have to feel the pulse too. The readings follow as you start deflating the air in the cuff.) To get systolic and diastolic readings we have to start deflating the air in the cuff slowly with the stethoscope put at the cubital fossa on the brachial artery. Vibrations of the artery make sounds known as Kortkoff sounds. The point where the sounds start is the systolic blood pressure. The point at which the sounds start fading and disappear is the diastolic blood pressure. In some people, Korotkoff sounds do not disappear but continue till zero. Then the point at which the sounds start fading is taken as diastolic blood pressure. Whatever be the instrument used the blood pressure is always written as Systolic blood pressure/ Diastolic blood pressure mm of Hg. We say ‘mm of Hg’ as a millimeter of mercury. For example, 120/80 mm of Hg means systolic BP is 120 diastolic BP is 80 mm of mercury. Oxygen saturation level https://youtu.be/ifnGCz0cgvs This investigation has suddenly become an important one in this pandemic of COVID-19. Doctors are advising patients to have a pulse-oximeter reading frequently and report it to them. This reading gives an idea of the severity of the disease and the decision of treating the patient varies accordingly. Pulse-oximeter is a small machine previously used mainly by chest physicians or in intensive care units. It is a piece of thumb-size clip-like equipment that runs on a battery. There is a small screen for the display of results. Pulse-oximeter is applied to the fingertip and we can see the pulse and oxygen saturation level on the screen within a few seconds. Such a quick test and easy to use for anyone. Oxygen saturation of more than 95% is considered normal. 92% and below are the patients who will require oxygen to correct their hypoxemia/hypoxia. Low levels of oxygen saturation indicate less supply of oxygen to tissues, that is reduced tissue perfusion. It is a life-threatening condition and is not to be ignored. But some patients with COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) may have low levels of saturation normally. Will like to share here a TED lecture titled `Wireless future of medicine'. It is a magic world but not for all. What we are going to learn is simple https://www.ted.com/talks/eric_topol_the_wireless_future_of_medicine Module 2 The patient: Height, weight, body mass index(BMI), and waist-hip ratio Height Height is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Height goes on increasing from childhood to adolescence till maturity. Then it remains stable for years. But with some degenerating changes and in osteoporosis some reduction is seen. With the change in an erect posture, we do observe a reduction in height. Height is measured from ground level to the topmost point on the scalp when a person is standing erect and bare feet. It is recorded in centimeters or feet and inches. Bodyweight Weight is an important variable and needs frequent measurements to assess and compare health status. In diabetes and hypertension weight needs constant attention. Having an extra burden of weight puts the physiological systems under stress. Obesity is a common medical condition nowadays. It is associated with Dyslipidemia, Type 2DM, hypertension, Cardiovascular diseases. Alarming weight loss is also seen sometimes and needs investigations. It can be due to cancer, viral infection (such as CMV or HIV), gastroenteritis, parasite infection, depression, bowel diseases, and overactive thyroid (hyperthyroidism). Measuring Weight: Each visit must include weight measurement as a routine. Electronic scale gives accurate and sensitive readings. It is lightweight and portable too. Weight is recorded in pounds or kilograms. Body mass index(BMI) BMI is a ratio of Weight in Kilograms to the square of the height in meters. So the unit of BMI is kg/m². BMI is called the Quetelet index. BMI indicates risks of diseases and is used to set goals in the treatment part of both diabetes and hypertension. Below is a short table that will help to interpret the BMI. Here weight reduction will help to get into the normal zone. BMI calculations are clinically useful to set goals. Explaining the degree of obesity with BMI numbers to the patient becomes easier. Having a BMI chart handy is useful. BMI \| Interpretation \| <18.5 \| Underweight \| 18.5 to 25 \| Normal \| >25 to 30 \| Overweight \| >30 to 35 \| Class 1 Obese \| >35 to 40 \| Class 2 Obese \| >40 \| Class 3 Obese \| Waist-hip ratio Waist circumference tends to increase in midlife. This is mostly due to increased fat in the omentum. This is the age when Type 2DM starts. So this adiposity is found to have a connection with insulin resistance. The waist-hip ratio is the ratio of body circumference at the waist and hip of a person. The normal ratio for males is below 0.9 and for females, it is less than 1. Module 2 The patient: Blood glucose test by the glucometer Glucometers are handy and are about the same size as that of a mobile phone or smaller than that. They are battery-operated mostly. They have a notch where a strip is to be inserted. Strips have a mark or arrow to tell you which side goes in the notch. The other end has the part where the blood drop is put. A simple one-minute test is easy to do and gives us a quick reading of blood glucose. It shows the glucose concentration in blood in milligrams of glucose per 100 ml of blood. This number appears on the screen when you perform the test as per the guidelines. Most glucometers give suggestions for the performer of the test on their screens. The glucometer starts functioning with the introduction of a strip and stops with the removal of the strip. The drop of blood is obtained by pricking a fingertip. It is a good practice to prick not in the center but on the sides of the finger. It is to avoid a prick to the tendon below. If injured it gets inflamed and will have pain for a longer time. All aseptic precautions are to be taken. Cleaning your hands before doing the test is a must. And cleaning the fingertip of the patient should also be done. Cleaning with a spirit swab is avoided while doing a sugar test as it is possible that the reading might change due to alcohol. Spirit/ alcohol if used, we should wait till it dries out and then make a prick with the lancet. You have to press the sterile cotton swab at the prick site for about a minute or two. This will stop the oozing of blood. Remember the blood-stained swab and the lancet has to be disposed of and treated like biomedical waste. Your doctor can guide you in this matter. Be careful not to get an accidental prick to you from that lancet. Such pricks do occur if you are not attentive enough. (A video showing the test here.) Module 2 The patient: Hypoglycemia Measuring is one thing and knowing the meaning of the measurement is another thing. If you can not conclude the reading of blood pressure, blood sugar, or temperature then the result you get is just a number. It can not help the patient. So it becomes necessary to learn the meaning of those readings. What if the patient has a low pulse rate? What If it is high? What may be the cause of the raised temperature? Is the respiration of 30 per minute normal? Is the blood pressure of 180/100 mm Hg acceptable? Such questions may arise in your mind. The reason we are trying to know more about our body functioning is this. It is good if you know which readings are acceptable and which need immediate attention or consultation with the doctor. Here we will learn more about abnormal test results and the steps we follow then. Hypoglycemia Blood glucose level is maintained in a range and many hormones and tissues play a role in this process. We have discussed it before being a part of the homeostasis. Hypoglycemia occurs when glucose utilization is increased and intake and production are decreased. Hormones like catecholamines are released to increase glucose. These increase sympathetic activity and cause symptoms like palpitations, sweating, anxiety, hunger, and tremors. The common emergency faced by diabetic patients is hypoglycemia. Patients take drugs or insulin injections to reduce the raised blood sugar. But if they take a higher dose of the drug or the injection they can present with hypoglycemia. It can also result from a lower intake of diet or excessive exercise or due to accompanied illness like diarrhea or vomiting. Children with Type 1 DM also have hypoglycemia possibilities as they are playful and may miss a proper time for a meal. Blood glucose below 70 mg/dL is considered hypoglycemia. A patient’s brain cells require glucose for functioning. If they are deprived of glucose we start getting many symptoms. It will have a different presentation for every patient. Many patients can learn to recognize these and with experience will consume a sweet and get to normal. But if they miss noticing they may become drowsy and their consciousness is affected. Hypoglycemia may cause death if it is severe and prolonged. Common symptoms of hypoglycemia Palpitations due to increased heart rate. Sweating Anxiety Hunger Tremors Headache Confusion Light-headedness Irrelevant behavior Slurring of speech Visual disturbances Seizures Coma Common causes of hypoglycemia High dose of Insulin or Oral hypoglycemic drugs Alcohol Starvation Some insulin-producing tumors Treatment of Hypoglycemia If the patient is conscious enough we should give him/her sugar to eat. Three to four teaspoonfuls of sugar in powder form or glucose powder should be given. Then check the blood sugar again after fifteen minutes. The patient is advised to take frequent small meals and necessary changes in drug and insulin dosages are to be done. It is to be discussed to remain watchful for symptoms of hypoglycemia next time. If the patient is not conscious we can rub glucose in a paste form on buccal mucosa. It does raise the sugar level. Non-responding patients will need intravenous glucose. Either call the doctor for this or shift the patient to the hospital for further treatment. How to avoid or prevent hypoglycemia We need to educate the patient and the relatives about the condition of hypoglycemia and the need to report to the doctor as early as possible. They should be informed of dangerous complications of not recognizing and not treating hypoglycemia. Diet, drug treatment, and exercise need proper planning. Frequent blood glucose examinations tell us about the possibility of hypoglycemia in time. Be prepared for hypoglycemia treatment Every diabetic patient must carry a card mentioning that he or she is having diabetes. If he or she is found unconscious then people will know the cause of his unconsciousness from that card. The card should have that type of message for people and that a doctor needs to be informed. Details about contacting the doctor will be helpful for quick treatment. It is useful to tell friends and other people who are related to the patient by means of work or so that the person has diabetes. The patient has to do this. There is no need to hide the condition of diabetes. Though the patient knows every symptom of hypoglycemia, in a confused state it is difficult for him to do the right things. It is good to carry a kit containing sugar, fruits, biscuits, or chocolates by the patient when away from home. Glucometers should be carried on a journey. It is good if blood sugar is checked before and after any sports activity by the diabetic patient. Module 2 The patient: Metabolic Syndrome It is a newer term and relates to the disease complex as a result of the combination of Central/abdominal obesity and insulin resistance. It includes High blood glucose High blood pressure Cardiovascular diseases High triglycerides High insulin levels in the blood. It will be good to see if our patient fits into this complex disease combination. This is important because there the patient needs to be more alert about monitoring. The atherosclerotic changes in vessels need to be reversed by proper daily exercise and dietary changes. Module 2 The patient: Keep an eye on eyes Diabetes and the eye problems You might observe the following eye problems in a diabetes patient Stye: It is an infection on the eyelid at the base of an eyelash. Early-onset of refractive error. Glaucoma: Raised intraocular pressure. Presents with pain in the eye and redness. Can lead to blindness. Diplopia: Double vision Early-onset of cataract. The retina changes: hemorrhage, degeneration. Corneal abrasion and ulceration Module 2 The patient: Diabetic foot Diabetes affects small blood vessels and peripheral nerves badly. Many people experience these changes as the disease progresses. Burning sensation or tingling and numbness are common symptoms. Patients have total loss of sensation sometimes. This is a difficult time and it becomes troublesome to walk or keep balance and stand on feet. Patients have injuries on soles and they don't know it. Injuries get infected. Bacteria enter cells around the wound and there is swelling and redness. It is called cellulitis. If not intervened by the effective treatment it's a serious condition that can lead to gangrene. Gangrene is necrosis. This means it is the death of the tissue affected. The necrosed part has to be removed and hence sometimes we see diabetic patients who have to get an amputation done of the affected part of the leg. Is diabetic foot preventable? Proper care can prevent a diabetic foot. It is monitoring diabetes well which prevents peripheral neuritis. Regular self-examination of the foot done by the patient is advised. A mirror is to be used to see soles. Using soft footwear can prevent injuries. Early identification of the wound and careful treatment of the wound with frequent dressings and antibiotics is a must. Every patient should learn wound care. Patients should always avoid tobacco and alcohol. Because they both speed up the process of neuritis. Since the wound is painless patients do not take rest or proper care. If they do not take enough antibiotics the wounds do not heal in time. Module 3 The monitoring: Readings: monitoring Monitoring Diabetes and hypertension is not episodic work but a daily routine for the patient. We can say that monitoring is the treatment of these diseases. Since the complete cure is not possible we have to just carry on with monitoring. Even for those who claim the reversal of the disease, how can we be sure about that unless we do check patients repeatedly. One who has such a kind of illness can not just neglect the care. The patient should always keep in mind that monitoring is the only way to know how well the treatment is working. By doing the blood glucose test frequently you can judge the food you eat, the exercise you do, and the drug treatment you follow is appropriate or not. You can monitor blood glucose and /or blood pressure when you know the level you are aiming for. When you do it regularly you are able to interpret the result and connect them to food, exercise, and drugs. You can make changes in these three modes of treatment and achieve the glucose and blood pressure levels in the most effective way. In the past, we used to test urine and monitor diabetes. But that was very crude and not that sensitive. But with glucometers, it has become easier and more accurate to do so now. A negative test in urine examination will indicate that the blood glucose can be anything below 180 mg/dL. It can be reading of hypoglycemia too i.e. below 70 mg/dL. So a blood glucose test really helps you to know the exact status at that particular time. Monitoring glucose is good for the long-term aim of preventing organ damages. But it is sometimes essential to monitor it strictly in some situations. - When a diabetic child or an adult takes part in any sports activity it is necessary to make sure that hypoglycemia does not occur in the middle of the game. The same is the case with a diabetic driver on a long drive. Hypoglycemia is to be avoided as it will interact with alertness while driving. Diabetes management in pregnancy is also very strict. Needs frequent checkings to maintain blood glucose in the normal range. High blood glucose levels have an adverse effect on a baby’s development. Alcohol intake in a diabetic always is a risky thing to do. Possible hypoglycemia is to be avoided by doing frequent blood glucose tests. At the time of illness, blood glucose levels become unpredictable. It becomes mandatory to check it and monitor it. Before any surgery, we need to get the blood glucose in a normal range. A planned surgery like cataract surgery has good results only when the blood glucose is well controlled. When any new drug is started or a dose of insulin is changed we need to check it again and again. If the daily routine changes due to some reason we need to do blood glucose tests. It can be a change in a job you do or the hours of working that change. These changes can change blood glucose too. When there is concomitant use of steroids or any new drug which has a possible effect on blood glucose level it is a must to check and see if it has changed. We can adjust our antidiabetic drugs accordingly. In this covid pandemic glycemic control is a must. Diabetes with Covid-19 is found to be a difficult combination to manage. Monitoring blood glucose definitely helps in a good recovery. Module 3 The monitoring: Recordings: Maintaining records Keeping a diary is a good habit for everyone. It becomes a must for a person with diabetes and hypertension. The date, time, blood pressure, and glucose test results with other relevant notes will make them useful in the total management. If the patients make it a habit to enter the drugs taken and the dosages also it will be complete documentation. Diet and activity records along with these will help to see the relationship between the efforts taken to keep the control and the results obtained. Good records make it easy for the patient and the doctor to see the course of the disease well. They can judge the progress just by looking at well-maintained records. It is a doctor who has to stress the importance of keeping the readings recorded properly and in chronological order. It is good if the doctor has all the records with him/her too. Digitization has made it simple to trace and keep records up to date. We as a mediator or volunteer should play an important role to help the patient maintain their diary/records well. We should guide the patient about the preparation before their visit to the doctor. The patient should know that the doctor expects to see reports, medicines, and dosages. The doctor should get the correct idea of symptoms, diet, physical activities. With the records in hand, we can actually see a pattern of blood glucose or blood pressure over a definite period and decide the action we need to take. For example, avoiding particular food or to become more active, or changing the drug/insulin dosages. But while doing any major changes we need to consult our doctor \| Diabetes registry proforma \| Name of the volunteer/reporter: Date: Time: Place: Description: \| Details: \| Fill in: \| Name of the patient: \| \|\| Address \| \|\| Age \| \|\| Sex \| \|\| Occupation \| \|\| Blood glucose today \| \|\| Age of onset of diabetes \| \|\| Medicines \| oral or Insulin or both \| \| Height \| cm \| \| Weight \| kg \| \| Abdominal girth \| cm \| \| Known complications & associated conditions \| (tick mark complications/conditions) \| \| hypertension \| \|\| hyperlipidemia \| \|\| ischemic heart disease \| \|\| peripheral vascular disease \| \|\| diabetic foot/amputation \| \|\| retinopathy \| \|\| nephropathy \| \|\| neuropathy \| \|\| Educational status \| illiterate or primary education or secondary education or higher \| \| Economical status \| poor or middle class or high income \| Module 3 The monitoring: Requesting: Motivating the patient Patients who are well educated and can afford to visit consultants frequently probably do not need your service. They will manage their illness well. But those who are not educated enough and are poor will require your voluntary work. Diabetes and hypertension are different from other short-term illnesses. Many people fail to understand this. They want to recover fast. They have a tendency to ignore that they have an illness. This is very common and a natural human behavior. We do not want to see ourselves in any difficult situation. We just try to neglect the need to know the truth, a bitter truth. People may not like you when you remind them of their illness. They will keep you away. Then it becomes more difficult to deal with them. Our first job is to make them know they need to monitor their disease. You can explain it step by step and not all at a time. With an easy, casual, and friendly approach we should demonstrate that it is an easy task to keep watch on the disease. Though you know many theoretical possibilities of disease progression you must not tell them to the patient on the very first day. This you can achieve as and when the need arises. Never ever should a patient feel like rejecting the help you are providing. Understand the currents of thoughts the patients have about you and the disease. Observe their expressions and words. It will help you to do that. Make sure that your words or actions will not hurt patients anytime. There is a possibility that some patients may be very old and do not want to get treated. They may be living with depression. As such diabetes and hypertension can alter the mindset of the patients as a part of the pathology in the later stage of the disease. These patients may have memory problems and may not remember you sometimes. They may be bed-ridden and non-ambulatory. Remember they need you badly then. Module 3 The monitoring: Resistance: Obstacles in monitoring There are many obstacles in our way of monitoring diabetes and hypertension. We should identify these and try to find appropriate solutions to them. It is not going to be easy every time. When you know that you have chosen this work to change things then you will work on the ideas to make it happen. We will just try to list a few obstacles . We have to take them as a challenge, a part of our job - The patient is ignorant/not worried about his/her high blood glucose or blood pressure levels. The patient does not give you time to test. The patient does not take medicines in time. The patient does not follow the diet guidelines. The patient is tired of doing tests. The patient tries out illogical things as a part of the treatment. There are family issues and quarrels that keep you worrying about. The patient hides information about symptoms, drugs, etc. Module 3 The monitoring: Referring: Informing the doctor in time It is important to know when you should seek advice from a doctor. When you see some alarming symptoms you should not waste much time but ask the patient to get examined by the doctor. If the hypoglycemia does not improve, it means if the blood glucose remains below 50 mg/dL even after giving plenty of glucose or food rich in carbohydrates. The patient might need intravenous administration of glucose that time. If repeated blood tests for glucose show reading higher than 250 mg/dL. Definitely some change in the treatment is needed. If the patient has a fever. Fever suggests infection. Diabetes with infection is quite not good for one's health. Fever needs to be properly diagnosed. Any skin lesions with ulcer or abscess. Non healing wounds. Diminishing vision Severe abdominal pain If the patient has breathlessness Module 3 The monitoring: Revisiting: Follow-ups How frequently should you test the blood glucose and blood pressure is the question. Some patients don't know the logic behind testing. They try to underestimate the need to do so. The common practice they follow is problem-oriented. They will get examined only if they have some problem. This is a big problem and their diabetes and hypertension remain unmonitored. There are chances that they will have uncontrolled blood glucose and blood pressure. So they are heading towards complications unknowingly. One should decide the frequency of follow-ups just by test results. If the patient has abnormal test results then we need to do some corrective measures. We need to check again and again to see how effective our measures are. We may have to see it twice, thrice, or even more frequently in some cases. If the patient has learned to check it then it becomes easier. Self-monitoring of glucose and hypertension is best possiblething to have in managing the diseases. For patients staying in villages and diagnosed with diabetes and hypertension, they should be followed up at least once a month if their previous readings are around normal levels. If they have high readings then they will need multiple testings. Titrating the dosages of drugs will have to be done depending upon the test results. Module 3 The monitoring: Reminding: Guidance to the patient Educating patients is a slow process. They can not grasp everything they need to know in one meeting. In each meeting, we should reserve some time to elevate the level of understanding of the patient about the disease. We need to explain the basis of the treatment and give stress on precautions to prevent complications. Some common questions patients frequently ask or may want to ask are worth going through. I would like to add a few possible answers here too. Why did I get this disease? -It is common nowadays. But it is to be controlled in time. Now since you have it you have to take proper care. Will I get rid of this and live as before? -Definitely. With some diet changes, the proper exercise you can control it. But it is learned from the experience so far that you can not ignore it. You have to keep a continuous watch on blood glucose levels, blood pressure and that is not difficult. We can do it. Not to worry. You can always live as before but with some supportive drug treatment. Can I get some better treatment from another doctor? -If your blood glucose is well under control and if you do not have symptoms of complications it is better to stick to one physician and monitor properly How is the other patient in the neighborhood with diabetes not having any problem? -No two people will have the same response to the treatment. What will happen if I do not take any treatment for some days? Should I try doing that? -It is not a wise decision. One should always take the treatment and stay safe. Why should I continue the medicine if my reports are so normal now? -Reports being normal is a good thing. But it is because of the treatment they are normal. How can diabetes cause a heart problem? If I am not eating sugar now, how do my reports show high blood sugar? Is it necessary to tell people around me about my illness? Should I attend the party and eat whatever they will serve or should I suggest to them about my dietary restrictions? What if I get hypoglycemic on a journey? Are ayurvedic medicines safer and better than allopathic or modern medicines? It is an unending list and it will vary from patient to patient. But we need to study these probable questions and deal accordingly. If you know the facts then you can find better words to guide. The most important thought to remember is never ever to create fear in a patient's mind. Even if you know the bad prognosis you should always speak about hope. Hope keeps people going. Kind words with simple helpful suggestions will make a huge difference. Module 3 The monitoring: Restrictions: Know your limitations as a volunteer The volunteer is like a member of the family trying to help another member of the family. The readings of blood glucose and blood pressure are important to decide the prognosis or fate of diabetes and hypertension. Hence timely measurement is going to be a great help for the patient. But when I thought about this course, I had many questions in mind. Those were mostly about how the patients will cooperate with these volunteers? If the person examining is not qualified in the subject, how well his/her opinion will be honored? What if some decision-making is not helpful for the patient? What if any emergency is beyond the volunteer’s capacity? These are all very important questions and they need to be answered well before we proceed further to make this course work in reality. To make volunteers capable to face these questions is quite a necessary step. If the volunteer knows his/her limitations the answer is simple. We need to work with the patient after proper consent. The patient should know well that measuring blood pressure and blood glucose is the only responsibility of the volunteer. The volunteer is there to alarm and suggest further treatment. The readings obtained by the volunteer are to be finally analyzed by the doctor. The ultimate decision is with the doctor and not the volunteer. If there is any confusion about readings the patient is free to visit a doctor for further check-up. I have no doubt about the role of the volunteer in the management of these patients. But the volunteers should never try to replace a doctor at any time. \| Module 3 The monitoring: Risk reduction: the tight control Body processes are not predictable for us sometimes. The way some cases deteriorate is beyond our understanding. Infection is a big threat to diabetic patients We have witnessed in the recent pandemic of covid19 how some people having diabetes and hypertension as comorbidity collapsed suddenly. We could not help them survive. They are easy targets it seems. Let that be HIV, tuberculosis, Urinary tract infections, types of pneumonia or skin and soft tissue infections. The doctor has to be very prompt and very much attentive if the patient is a diabetic. The volunteer should also keep this in mind about diabetes and infections. They are not to be taken lightly. Even a simple skin wound may turn into severe complications if diabetes is not under control. The present situation of fungal infections is worrisome. Any surgical procedure may it be a tooth extraction requires fine control over blood glucose and blood pressure. The same is true with cataract surgeries and all other surgeries. The idea of continuous monitoring is the best strategy to follow. Diabetes and hypertension together are bad for the heart The risk of a cardiac event is manifolds if the patient has diabetes or hypertension, studies have shown. Some unpredictability is always experienced in these vascular diseases. Many such sudden incidents make us wonder. We have no answers really. But to keep on thinking whether something done in time could have prevented these from happening. But those are afterthoughts. We still are not able to cope up with these shocking events and need to concentrate on monitoring well. Blindness is preventable Diabetic retinopathy is a complication that leads to loss of vision. But it can be prevented with early diagnosis and good glycemic control of diabetes. It is proved that microvascular complications can be postponed with good monitoring of blood glucose. Hemodialysis and renal transplants are not the answers When capillaries of kidneys get affected due to diabetes we say it is diabetic nephropathy. Uncontrolled diabetes and hypertension both cause end-stage renal disease. This is so common complication and the patient lands up with the thrice a week hemodialysis or kidney transplant as a last resort to survive. It is so expensive mode of treatment and many poor people can not just receive it. Monitoring can avoid the need for hemodialysis if applied well at the beginning of the disease. Peripheral neuropathy leading to gangrene and amputations The pain is felt due to the sensory nerves doing their work. Touch, temperature, and vibration sense make us responsive. If the nerve function gets affected we start getting some altered sensations. We get unbearable pain and burning or sometimes we can not feel the pain or even the touch. This we call peripheral neuropathy. Neuropathy can lead to non-healing wounds, cellulitis, gangrene. The patient may require amputation to survive. The studies done have come to conclusions supporting that the risk of complications gets reduced with the tight control over diabetes and hypertension. This finding is a basis behind the monitoring.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.049246	Rajendra Chavan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83733/overview", "title": "Monitoring diabetes and hypertension", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105772/overview	Through the Lens of Social Justice: An Inclusive Approach to Mentoring Undergraduates in Macrophage Cell Diversity and Severe Covid-19 Symptoms in Public Health Overview In our resource, we highlight the role of the viral non-structural proteins and their role in blocking host interferon signaling of the innate immune system. In addition, we also describe the host immune response specifically the cytokine signaling clouds in the variation in severity of patients living with COVID-19. Finally, we apply these latest peer-reviewed research on host immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in the context of integrated immunology framework linked with three-dimensional learning in life science education and topics on social justice dimensions of vaccination access in global health. Through the social justice lens and global health perspectives, we provide an innovative framework to engage undergraduates in the field of integrated immunology and developmental biology in both remote and hybrid-flexible (HyFlex) learning settings. Integrating Immunology, Public Health, and Social Justice Rahel S. Ghebrihiwot and Robert M. Kao Article Info Keywords: Coronavirus Novel coronavirus Pneumonia SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 Pre-symptomatic transmission Asymptomatic transmission Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-2 ACE-2 Non-structural proteins Interferon signaling Cytokine signaling Public Health Social Justice Abstract The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has taken center stage in infectious disease research. Since the first reports to the World Health Organization (WHO) in winter 2019, we know that the infectious agent was a virus of the coronavirus family, named SARS-CoV-2 (the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2) causes a respiratory disease in COVID-19 and attacks lung cells due to the presence the host cell receptor Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-2. In our resource, we highlight the role of the viral non-structural proteins and their role in blocking host interferon signaling of the innate immune system. In addition, we also describe the host immune response specifically the cytokine signaling clouds in the variation in severity of patients living with COVID-19. Finally, we apply these latest peer-reviewed research on host immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in the context of integrated immunology framework linked with three-dimensional learning in life science education and topics on social justice dimensions of vaccination access in global health. Through the social justice lens and global health perspectives, we provide an innovative framework to engage undergraduates in the field of integrated immunology and developmental biology in both remote and hybrid-flexible (HyFlex) learning settings.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.084592	06/24/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105772/overview", "title": "Through the Lens of Social Justice: An Inclusive Approach to Mentoring Undergraduates in Macrophage Cell Diversity and Severe Covid-19 Symptoms in Public Health", "author": "Bob Kao" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104696/overview	Spring 2023 - ESL 192 Syllabus ESL 192: Advanced Academic Reading & Writing 3 - Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Overview This is an activity for Advanced ESL students that allows them to incorporate grammar and writing skills with a song, giving them an opportunity to use their voices to describe an authentic situation. This was created as a Canvas Discussion Board Assignment, but it can easily be adapted for various other formats. The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Action Plan OER and open pedagogy help this class to be antiracist by providing students with the opportunities to work collaboratively, share their stories and experiences, learn how to use their voices, easily access all course materials no matter what their background, and learn about many different perspectives. Course Description This course is the third in a series of advanced integrated ESL skills courses designed to improve critical thinking and analytical academic reading, leading to essay and research paper writing, focusing on synthesis of sources and correct grammar structure. Readings from culturally diverse sources provide exposure to a range of genres and a broader cultural understanding of the world. Student Learning Outcomes: 1. Students will be able to produce a well-developed in-class 5 paragraph essay with a clear thesis statement and appropriate support in response to a college-level reading on a cultural component, demonstrating the ability to evaluate, analyze, summarize, and synthesize information. 2. Students will be able to identify, explain, and determine the strength of an author’s claim or argument in a reading selection using critical thinking skills, cultural knowledge, a knowledge of genre, and academic vocabulary. Antiracist Assignment This is a Discussion Board Assignment that can be adapted to highlight any writing or grammar point. This assignment uses the song "Use My Voice" by Evanescence.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.106191	06/05/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104696/overview", "title": "ESL 192: Advanced Academic Reading & Writing 3 - Open For Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Cheryl Bucholtz" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83299/overview	Cardiac Anatomy Heart Anatomy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J3YTxBreXe4 Echocardiography for the Beginner Overview This lesson is a review of cardiac anatomy along with an activity to help the student grasp cardiac anatomy and blood flow. Instructions Understanding blood flow through the heart and the antomy of the heart is important for all aspects of echocardiography and is a required building block. First review the powerpoint, then watch the video for an understanding of the anatomy and blood flow of the heart. Next complete the crossword to test your knowledge. Cardiac Anatomy This resource is helpful for further understanding of the anatomy of the heart. Bloodflow through the heart	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.126646	07/07/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83299/overview", "title": "Echocardiography for the Beginner", "author": "Kristen Wendling" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91062/overview	Higher Education Syllabus Sharing Template. Mroeun Overview This template is for Higher Education courses to share their syllabus, with a focus on opportunities to collaborate. Math 150 Syllabus Content (Copy and paste your syllabus into this space. You can also "Import from Google Docs" and attach Word Documents or PDFs.) Semester \| Spring 2022 \| \|---\|---\| Lecture Course Times \| On-Online \| Course Units \| 4 (MATH 150) \| Course Prerequisite \| MATH 73 or MATH 80 with a minimum grade of C, or by multiple measures. \| \| \| Instructor’s Name \| Dr. Malinni Roeun \| Email Address \| MRoeun@Compton.edu \| Office Location \| (Remotely) via Zoom \| Office Hours \| Live Office Hours via Zoom Monday & Wednesday 4:30 - 6:30 pm Join Zoom Meeting: https://compton-edu.zoom.us/j/94678863849 (Links to an external site.) Meeting ID: 946 8863 849 \| Course Descriptions \| MATH 150 This course focuses on the basic principles of statistics, including descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and the role probability plays in statistical analysis. Students will calculate and interpret various descriptive statistics using graphing calculators with statistical testing capabilities and statistical software, as well as by hand. Major topics include methods of data collection and simulation; measures of central tendency, variability, and relative position; graphical summaries of data; linear regression and correlation; distributions, including normal and binomial distributions; probability theory; and inferential statistical methods. Students will choose, justify, use, and interpret the results of inferential techniques, such as confidence intervals, hypothesis tests, the goodness of fit, analysis of variance, and nonparametric tests. \| \|---\|---\| Course Objectives \| MATH 150 \| Student Learning Outcomes \| \| Course Textbook & Supplies \| Elementary Statistics, California 3rd edition by Mario Triola (optional) Access Code: A MyStatLab Access Code to access the course materials. (Required) Texas Instrument 84-Plus Calculator (Required) \| Evaluation \| Certain parts of each assignment will count towards your grade for the lecture course while the remaining parts will contribute towards your support course grade. Your instructor will inform you of this once the assignment is given. \| \| MATH 150 Course Orientation Video: 5pts Brief Intro: 5pts Student Learning Agreement: 10pts Exams (3): 300 pts Homework: 120 pts Quizzes: 110 pts Final Exam: 150 pts \| Grading Scale \| If this course is a prerequisite for a future mathematics course, a grade of C or higher in the lecture course and a grade of P for the support course is required. Also, if you withdraw from either the lecture or the support course, you will be withdrawn from both courses. \| \| MATH 150 [90% , 100%] = A [80% , 90%) = B [70% , 80%) = C [60% , 70%) = D [0% , 60%) = F \| Important Dates \| Lincoln’s Day Holiday (Campus Closed) ................................................Friday, February 11, 2022 Registration Ends (Full-Semester and First Eight-Week Classes) ........ Friday, February 11, 2022 Spring Semester Classes Begin ........................................................Saturday, February 12, 2022 Add Codes Needed to Add Full-Semester and First Eight-Week Classes....Saturday, February 12, 2022 Add/Drop Period Begins (Full-Semester Classes) ............................Saturday, February 12, 2022 Weekday Classes Begin .....................................................................Monday, February 14, 2022 Washington’s Day Holiday (Campus Closed) .....................................Monday, February 21, 2022 Last Day to Apply for Spring Degrees and Certificates ......................Friday, February 25, 2022 Last Day to Add (Full-Semester Courses) ........................................Sunday, February 27, 2022 Last Day to Drop Without Notation on Record (Full-Semester Classes) ..Sunday, February 27, 2022 Last Day to Drop for an Enrollment Fee Refund (Full-Semester Classes)..Sunday, February 27, 2022 Spring Recess (No Classes) .......................................................Saturday-Friday, April 9-15, 2022 Mid-Term Classes Begin (Second Eight-Week Classes) .......................Saturday, April 16, 2022 Pass/No Pass Deadline (if applicable) ...................................................Friday, May 13, 2022 Last Day to Drop with a “W” ...........................................................................Friday, May 13, 2022 Memorial Day (Campus Closed) ..................................................................Monday, May 30, 2022 Commencement ............................................................................................Friday, June 10, 2022 Spring Semester Ends ...................................................................................Friday, June 10, 2022 \| \| \|---\|---\|---\| Course Expectations and Behavior \| First Day of Attendance: Students who enroll in a class but do not attend, by logging in and completing brief bio and Student Learning Agreement, the first scheduled class meeting may be dropped from the roster and their places given to waiting students who were unable to enroll at the time of registration. If an illness or emergency prevents a student from attending the first class session, the student must contact the instructor. A student who registers for a class and never attends is still responsible for dropping the class. Failure to properly drop a class may result in a “W” and may hold the student responsible for any and all fees associated with the class. *More on Attendance Policy – The Attendance Policy as stated in the Catalog is as follows: Students whose absences exceed 10% of the scheduled class meeting time may be dropped by the instructor (for a 3 or 4 unit course – 10% is approximately 3 classes). However, students are responsible for dropping a class within the deadlines published in the class schedule. Withdrawal from the class through the Admissions Office is the student's responsibility. If you have any concerns regarding your attendance, please contact me immediately via email, telephone, or during my office hours. Attendance Without Official Enrollment Students will not be permitted to attend classes in which they are not enrolled. Exceptions may be allowed by the instructor for bonafide visitors. Students who attend a class without proper enrollment (the student did not properly register or add the class) by the published deadline will not be permitted to “late add” the class except under-documented extenuating and mitigating circumstances. Attendance During Semester Students are expected to attend/ login into their classes regularly. Students who miss the first class meeting or who are not in regular attendance/login during the add period for the class may be dropped by the instructor. Students whose absences from the class exceed 10% of the scheduled class meeting time may be dropped by the instructor. However, students are responsible for dropping a class within the deadlines published in the class schedule. Students who stop attending but do not drop may still be retained on the course roster and receive a failing grade. Students may view their registration status on MyECC. Academic Integrity: Academic Honesty – Include a statement regarding Academic Honesty consistent with ECC policy and procedures (BP5500 Section I and AP5520 Section A), such as the one below. El Camino College places a high value on the integrity of its student scholars. When an instructor determines that there is evidence of dishonesty in any academic work (including, but not limited to cheating, plagiarism, or theft of exam materials), disciplinary action appropriate to the misconduct as defined in BP 5500 may be taken. A failing grade on an assignment in which academic dishonesty has occurred and suspension from the class are among the disciplinary actions for academic dishonesty (AP 5520). Students with any questions about Academic Honesty or discipline policies are encouraged to speak with their instructor in advance. \| \| No. Week \| Day 1 & Day 2 \| Day 3 & Day 4 \| \|---\|---\|---\| Week#1, 2/14 - 2/20 \| Get your book and/ or *Brief bio via Canvas> Dicussions> Student Learning Agreement via Canvas> Quizzes \| 1.1, 1.2, Discussion Weekly#1 \| Week#2, 2/21 - 2/27 \| 1.3, 2.1 \| 2.2, 2.3, Discussion Weekly#2 \| \| Week#3, 2/28 - 3/6 \| 3.1, 3.2 \| 3.3 Exam#1 Practice via MyLab, Discussion Weekly#2 \| \| Week#4, 3/7 - 3/13 \| Exam#1 Practice via MyLab 4.1 \| Exam#1 Chps 1-3, Password: Dodo Discussion Weekly#3 Section 3.2 \| \| Week#5, 3/14 - 3/20 \| 4.2, 4.3 \| 4.4, 4.5, Discussion Weekly#4 section 4.1 \| \| Week#6, 3/21 - 3/27 \| 5.1, 5.2 \| 6.1 Discussion Weekly#5 section 4.3 \| \| Week#7, 3/28 - 4/3 \| 6.2, 6.3 \| 6.4, Discussion Weekly#6 section 5.2 \| \| Week#8, 4/4 - 4/10 \| Practice Exam#2 Review \| Exam#2 Chps 4-6, Password: Fish Discussion Weekly#8, Section 6.4 \| \| Week#9, 4/18 - 4/24 \| 7.1, 7.2 \| 7.3, Discussion Weekly#9, Section 7.1 \| \| Week#10, 4/25 - 5/1 \| 8.1, 8.2 \| 8.3, Discussion Weekly#10, Section 8.3 \| \| Week#11, 5/2 - 5/8 \| 8.4, 9.1 \| 9.2, Discussion Weekly#11, Section 9.2 \| \| Week#12, 5/9 - 5/15 \| Practice Exam#3 Review \| Exam#3 Chps 7-9, Password: Plant Discussion Weekly#12, Practice Exam#3, section 9.2#9) \| \| Week#13, 5/16 - 5/22 \| 10.1 \| 10.2 Discussion Weekly#13, Section 10.2 \| \| Week#14, 5/23 - 5/29 \| 11.1 \| 11.2 Discussion Weekly#14, Section 12.1 \| \| Week#15, 5/30 -6/5 \| 12.1, 12.2 \| Review for Final Exam, Discussion Weekly#14, Section 12.2 \| \| Week#16, 6/6 - 6/10 \| Final Exam Chps 4-12 \| Final Exam Chps 4-12, Password: Flowers \| Rationale To be continue....	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.157742	03/18/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91062/overview", "title": "Higher Education Syllabus Sharing Template. Mroeun", "author": "Malinni Roeun" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93917/overview	Norco College Art History 2 Syllabus (Dr. Chandler) Overview Syllabus. Syllabus Syllabus attached as PDF.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.176075	06/17/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93917/overview", "title": "Norco College Art History 2 Syllabus (Dr. Chandler)", "author": "Meghan Chandler" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94751/overview	Pharmacy Tech Pre-Training English Textbook Overview This course teaches participants to communicate clearly and effectively in both speech and in writing, using conventional professional language and observing basic principles of etiquette in workplace conversations and correspondence. DILL Pharmacy Tech Pre-Training English Course Outcomes/ Competency Definitions You will communicate clearly and effectively in both speech and in writing, using conventional professional language and observing basic principles of etiquette in workplace conversations and correspondence. As a reader, you will understand technical documents that include unfamiliar vocabulary and conditional statements, distinguishing main ideas from details, tracking particular steps in an instructional process, and interpreting unique graphics with densely displayed information and multiple variables. By Holyoke Community College. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.193031	Textbook	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94751/overview", "title": "Pharmacy Tech Pre-Training English Textbook", "author": "Reading Informational Text" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60433/overview	Taboo Cards 학교와 직장/ School and Work, Intermediate Mid, Korean 202, Lab 13 Overview In this lab, students will try to explain a vocabulary or concepts without using a specific word. Students will utilize other vocabulary or description to communicate their message. 학교와 직장/ School and Work, Korean, Intermediate Mid Please Note: Many of the activities on the Pathways Project OER Repository were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact amberhoye@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. — The Pathways Project About the Boise State World Languages Resource Center (WLRC) Language Activity Repository The activities provided by the Boise State World Languages Resource Center (WLRC) serve as foundational activities which can be adapted by any language and scaled up or down on the proficiency scale. Many of these activities offer an English Version that is “language-agnostic” to provide language instructors from around the country a platform to remix these instructional materials, infusing them with their target language and culture! The activities within the Pathways Project OER Repository seek to help students solidify their interpersonal speaking and interpretive skills through task-based situations or communicative activities. These activities should be facilitated in the target language for approximately 90% (or more), per the recommendation of the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. How to use the WLRC Repository’s Activities: 1. Use the Activity as is: Before you begin: Most activities are 30 minutes in duration, unless otherwise specified. Be sure to read through the activity description, and review the list of required materials. You will notice that the activity materials are also highlighted in yellow throughout the activity instructions. If you have any suggestions about grammar, syntax, and content, please kindly contact amberhoye@boisestate.edu. 2. Remix for Your Language Classroom: When you are ready to begin remixing the activity, in order to adapt it for the needs of your language classroom, simply click the blue “Remix This Resource” button at the top of your screen. This will then take you to a screen with a NEW, editable version of this activity. The text provided in purple is a suggestion of what you might say to your students in the target language, and may be altered for different levels and age groups. All activities have “NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do” statements, a warm-up, a main activity, and a wrap-up. Many of the activities include printable cards and other instructional materials such as Google Slideshows. If you would like to make changes to these materials in Spanish, follow the instructions below: Google Slideshows: To begin, go to File -> Copy to create an editable version of the slideshow. Once finished with your changes, please complete the following steps to share: Click on Share Who Has Access Ensure link sharing is on and allow external access. Materials Saved as PDF: Please email WLRCLAR@gmail.com and we will provide you with an editable copy. Please allow up to two business days for a response. For YouTube videos and other websites, hyperlinks are provided. 3. Adapt for Another Language: See the linked English Version at the top of the activity (English Version may not be available for all activities) 학교와 직장/ School and Work Description: In this lab, students will try to explain a vocabulary or concepts without using a specific word. Students will utilize other vocabulary or description to communicate their message. Proficiency Level: Intermediate Mid Keywords: Taboo, job promotion, interview, graduate school, memory World Readiness Standards: STANDARD 1.1 Students engage in conversations, provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions. STANDARD 1.2 Students understand and interpret written and spoken Korean on a variety of topics. STANDARD 1.3 Students present information, concepts, and ideas to an audience of listeners or readers on a variety of topics. STANDARD 3.2 Students acquire information and recognize the distinctive viewpoints that are only available through the Korean language and cultures. Idaho Content Standards for World Languages: COMM 1.1 - Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions. COMM 2.1 - Understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics. CONN 1.2 - Relate information studied in other subjects to the target language and culture. COMT 1.1 - Participate in multilingual communities at home and around the world. NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements: I can describe new concepts in my target language. I can use new vocabulary to gain a better understanding of the Korean culture. I can describe a job interview without using certain words, such as job and formal attire. Materials Needed: Taboo Cards Warm-up 1. Begin by introducing the Can-Dos for today’s activity 2. Students will discuss the following questions: 방학 동안에 어떤 활동을 할 건가요? What are you planning to do over the break? 방학이 끝나기 전에 이루고 싶은 목표가 있나요? Is there a goal that you want to achieve by the end of the break? Main Activity Place the taboo cards in the center of the table. A student will pick a card one at a time. Only the student who picked the card will be able to see the word or phrase written on the card. The student who looked at the word will describe the vocabulary without saying the word. 취업을 하고 싶으면 이 과정을 거쳐가야 돼요. You need to go through this process if you want to get hired. 이 시간에는 차가 많이 막혀요. There is a lot of traffic during this time. Students will repeat until they have completed all the cards. Wrap-up Discuss the following question to finish the lab: 1. 졸업 후에 어떤 일을 하고 싶나요? 이 일을 하기 위해서 어떤 것을 준비해야 될까요? What do you want to do after graduating? What do you need to do in order to do this work? End of lab: • Read Can-Do statements once more and have students evaluate their confidence. (Use thumbs up/thumbs down or download our student cards.) • Encourage students to be honest in their self-evaluation. • Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future labs NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements: I can describe new concepts in my target language. I can use new vocabulary to gain a better understanding of the Korean culture. I can describe a job interview without using certain words, such as job and formal attire.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.278205	Mimi Fahnstrom	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60433/overview", "title": "학교와 직장/ School and Work, Intermediate Mid, Korean 202, Lab 13", "author": "Daum Jung" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74096/overview	HS+ Contemporary World Problems, Environmental Science & English (2020) Overview This theme-based English course integrates reading, writing, listening, speaking, and critical thinking skills around assignments and activities focusing on Environmental Science and Contemporary World Problems. This course meets the statutory requirement for lab science in Washington State. This competency-based class allows students to work at their own pace, exit at a level appropriate to demonstrated skills and knowledge, and earn possible high school completion English, Lab Science, Contemporary World Problems and/or elective credits. About this Course This theme-based English course integrates reading, writing, listening, speaking, and critical thinking skills around assignments and activities focusing on Environmental Science and Contemporary World Problems. Topics include: - Global History And Interdependence - Survey And Analysis Of Global Issues - Environmental Justice - Focus Issues Of Water, Food System And Waste This course meets the statutory requirement for lab science in Washington State. This competency based class allows students to work at their own pace, exit at a level appropriate to demonstrated skills and knowledge, and earn possible high school completion English, Lab Science, Contemporary World Problems and/or elective credits. Culturally Responsive Approach This course was intentionally developed to align with the Washington State Board for Community and Technical College’s vision, mission, values, and strategic plan. The Culturally Responsive Scorecard, developed by NYU Steinhardt, was a guiding document in the development of this course. Sincere efforts were made to develop a culturally responsive curriculum that is inclusive of all students, with particular emphasis on highlighting the histories, experiences, and strengths of historically underserved populations. Faculty planning to teach this course should review modules thoroughly prior to presenting material to students. The HS+ Instructor Resource Guide provides resources and strategies that may be a useful starting place for faculty to address gaps in knowledge and confidence. Course Outcomes - Evaluate information scientifically in the context of his/her own life. - Identify and evaluate instances where population growth and humans' use of resources impacts the natural environment. - Actively participate in solutions to environmental problems. - Interpret and explain basic scientific data represented in graphs and charts. - Utilize academic research skills; such as evaluate the quality/credibility of information from various kinds of sources. - Narrow topics and discern the most important information from texts. - Employ strategies to build and retain vocabulary. - Identify how authors organize text both written and oral and use vocabulary for specific purposes and audiences. - Utilize the writing process to write academic essays. - Improve sentence clarity and structure by addressing errors in the context of their own writing. - Assess options for individual and collective action to address local, regional, or global problems by engaging in self-reflection, strategy identification, and complex causal reasoning. - Investigate global themes rooted in environmental issues, economic development, human rights, and civic action and responsibility College and Career Readiness Standards Throughout the course students demonstrate the following: - Reading anchor standard 7: Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words. - Writing Anchor Standard 1: Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts, using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence. - Writing anchor standard 5: Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach. - Writing anchor standard 6: Use technology, including the Internet, to produce and publish writing and to interact and collaborate with others. - Speaking and Listening anchor standard 4: Present information, findings, and supporting evidence such that listeners can follow the line of reasoning and the organization, development, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.294568	Full Course	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74096/overview", "title": "HS+ Contemporary World Problems, Environmental Science & English (2020)", "author": "World History" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67069/overview	Long and Short Hedging Lab Long Hedging Lab Margin Account Lab Short-Hedging Lab Understanding Hedging with Futures Contracts Overview This unit takes the ideas learned in Understanding Commodity Markets and Understanding Basis and digs deeper to explain how futures contracts are used to allow agricultural producers to hedge. Futures Markets Futures Markets Futures markets for commodities serve two primary functions that are vital and of extreme importance to farmers, ranchers and producers; price discovery and risk management. The link to the website below offers a video to watch and is a great example of how the CME Group performs both functions: The CME Group is the parent company to the two most famous futures markets in the world – the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) and the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT). There are other futures markets – Minneapolis Grain Exchange (MGEX), Kansas City Board of Trade (KCBOT), New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX), Intercontinental Exchange (ICE). Each exchange offers a market to trade (buy or sell) futures contracts for different commodities. For example, the MGEX offers a platform for hedgers and speculators to buy and sell futures contracts as well as options on futures contracts on hard red spring wheat, where the CBOT offers the market for soft red winter wheat and the KCBOT offers the market for hard red winter wheat. All three wheat classes have differing uses as well as differing growing regions. HRSW is primarily grown in the norther plains (North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, northern Minnesota, and the Pacific Northwest), SRWW is primarily grown in the Midwest and upper Midwest (Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio), HRWW is primarily grown in the central plains (Kansas, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Texas, and Colorado). This doesn’t mean that HRWW cannot be grown in states like North Dakota, it is, however, the primary region is in the central plains. That is also why the major markets for the trading of those commodities are located in the cities that they are located in. Years ago, they became the major hubs for the grain to get processed into food products for consumption. What are Futures Contracts? One of the things that gets confused often is what exactly a futures contract is. Before we fully explain that concept lets focus on a cash contract. When a producer signs a cash contract (sells cash grain) they are promising to deliver a certain quantity of a certain grade of a commodity to a specific location by a certain date where they will receive an agreed upon price. Once the producer has delivered on that contract (hauled the specified quantity of the promised quality to the location agreed upon by the date agreed to) the buyer of the contract is obligated to settle the contract by paying the seller the agreed price. Futures contracts are not contracts made with your local cash purchaser. Futures contracts are actually much simpler. Take corn for example. If you want to sell a corn futures contract on the CBOT, you will be selling 5000 bushels of number 2 yellow dent corn, delivered to Chicago, IL by the expiration date of that contract. Which is why there are multiple months that corn futures contracts trade (March, May, July, September and December of each year). Say you sell a July futures contract today – May 19th 2020, since the contract already specifies that it is for 5000 bushels of #2 yellow dent corn delivered to Chicago by July 14th, 2020, the only other item that needs negotiated on the contract is the price. Negotiating price is why price discovery works in futures markets. Because thousands and thousands of contracts get traded each day on the CBOT in corn, we have an accurate representation of what the overall market feels is the correct price for corn in the US. Remember that the only negotiated component on a corn futures contract is the price! All of the other components of the contract are fixed. Click the link below to go to the current contract specifications for corn futures that are traded on the CBOT: https://www.cmegroup.com/trading/agricultural/grain-and-oilseed/corn_contract_specifications.html The delivery component to futures contract is generally where most people get hung up. Truth be told, delivery occurs in very few instances (less than 2% of contacts traded). How is this possible? To fully grasp this concept, try not to think of selling a futures contract as selling something right now at this moment, and focus more on making a “promise” to sell something in the future. Remember, when we sell July 2020 Corn today (May 19th, 2020) I am not actually selling any corn to anyone today, I’m selling a piece of paper – a contract – a futures contract (or a promise to deliver in the future) to someone that may or may not actually want those 5000 bushels in July. As long as I buy back the exact same contract – a July 2020 Corn futures at some point between now and July I remove my obligation to deliver corn to Chicago in July. That is why futures contracts get delivered on in less than 2% of traded contracts. Most sellers buy back their obligations to make a delivery and likewise most buyers sell their obligation to take delivery before the contract expires. The key is to think of futures contracts as pieces of paper that promise to make (sell) or take (buy) delivery of the commodity by a certain date. Rather than actually delivering or taking delivery of physical bushels in the cash market. This concept coupled with basis – the fact that futures and cash markets are linked together are what make the second purpose of futures markets possible –price risk management. Futures Markets Labels Futures markets use a system to label and abbreviate futures contracts. Since there are several commodities that are being traded on different exchanges and each commodity is trading in several different months, there needs to be a system that abbreviates the contracts so that they can be referred to easily and simply. The issue is that you almost need to work in the brokerage business to remember them. It is not expected that you will remember every single contract abbreviation, but you do need to know how to figure out what contract is being talked about. The following tables will help out: For the delivery month, refer to the table below: For commonly traded agricultural commodities, refer to the table below: Code \| Commodity \| MW \| Minneapolis Wheat – Hard Red Spring Wheat - HRSW \| C \| Corn \| S \| Soybeans \| ZW \| Chicago Wheat – Soft Red Winter Wheat - SRWW \| KW \| Kansas City Wheat – Hard Red Winter Wheat - HRWW \| M \| Soybean Meal \| L \| Soybean Oil \| GF \| Feeder Cattle – 700 lb steer \| GL \| Live Cattle – Fat steer ready for slaughter – over 1300 lbs \| H \| Lean Hogs – hog carcass – already slaughtered hanging on rail \| Again, you are not expected to memorize these contract codes. But when you work through the labs, often the futures contracts will be listed in there abbreviated codes, so you will need to be able to figure out what it is that you are working with. Referring to the “Contract Specifications” link above will help as well. Lab Activity – See “Futures Contract Specifications” below. Hedging – The Short Hedge Hedging – The Short Hedge We have talked about hedgers and hedging in previous units. Hedgers are traders that will have to buy or sell the physical commodity and are looking to “hedge” or lock in their prices in order to remove risk. At any point the producers might look at the price of December 2020 Corn futures and decide that they like the price being offered in the futures markets. They are able to “hedge” their position by taking an opposite position in the futures market as they have taken in the cash market. What position have they taken in the cash market – well the producer has bought the seed, the chemical, the fertilizer, paid the land rent, purchased the equipment and paid for all of the other input requirements to get the crop in the field so that they will be able to harvest corn in the fall, and then sell it in the cash market. The farmer is what is known as “long the cash”. Meaning they have bought the cash inputs and now need to sell the cash crop – corn. Since they are “long” in the cash market and the definition of hedging is taking the opposite position in the futures market, they would need to sell or “short” the futures market. Below is a table to illustrate what is occurring in this example: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00. Offered for forward contract with local buyer – Does NOT sell to local buyer \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.50. Sells corn in the spot market to the local buyer. \| $3.00. Buys back December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| The basis for cash corn delivered to the local buyer in December of 2020 does not change during the course of this example. What does change is the December 2020 Corn futures price. In May it was trading at $3.50/bu. and in November it has traded down to $3.00/bu. Because of this the cash price offered to the farmer in December is now 50 cents less than they would have received if they had sold the forward contract back in May. Instead the farmer “short hedged” or sold December 2020 Corn futures at a price of $3.50/bu. In November the farmer is able to buy back the December 2020 Corn futures contract at $3.00 – pocketing or profiting $0.50/bushel. Remember that a corn futures contract is 5000 bushels which means that the farmer profits a total of $2500. The farmer then sells the physical bushels in the cash market at the current cash price - $2.50/bu., but since they had short-hedged and earned a $0.50/bu. gain their “Net Sales Price” (NSP) is equivalent to $3.00/bu.: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.50 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.50 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.00 \| Now let’s see what happens when the basis changes or adjusts during the time of the problem. Let’s assume that basis for December delivery is at -$0.70 by the time the farmer delivers corn to the local buyer: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.30 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.70 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.30 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $2.80 \| Now let’s assume that basis for December delivery is at -$0.10 by the time the farmer delivers corn to the local buyer: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.90 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.10 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.90 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.40 \| Now let’s assume that basis for December delivery is at +$0.20 by the time the farmer delivers corn to the local buyer: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $3.20 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| +$0.20 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $3.20 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.70 \| One thing to note is how in all of the examples the Net Sales Price is always equal to the Futures price when the hedge was entered +/- the basis at the time the hedge is “lifted” (exited, bought back): \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.50 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.50 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.00 \| \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.30 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.70 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.30 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $2.80 \| \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.90 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.10 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.90 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.40 \| \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $3.20 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| +$0.20 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $3.20 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.70 \| Lab Activity – See “Short-Hedging Lab” below. Hedging – The Long Hedge Hedging – The Long Hedge The buyers of the commodities often times need protection as well, only this time from higher prices that might occur in the future. Assume that an ethanol plant needs to buy corn to process into ethanol in September. It could purchase corn in the spot market today and store it until it is needed, but that costs money to store grain, and they might not have enough storage available to hold that much corn. They could also forward contract the purchase for delivery when it is needed. Or they can long hedge their purchases. Remember that hedging is taking an opposite position in the futures market as you currently hold in the cash market. The ethanol plant is “short” the cash market. They will need corn in the future, but currently do not have it available to them. Since the are “short the cash” they will hedge that cash position by taking a long position in the futures market. To do so they go and buy September 2020 Corn futures today at $3.25/bu. Below is a table that illustrates what is occurring in this example: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00. Offered for forward contract with local seller – Does NOT buy from local buyer \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.50. Buys corn in the spot market from the local seller. \| $2.75. Buys back December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| The basis between May and September for a September delivery forward contract does not change and remains at 25 under. What does change in this example is that the September 2020 Corn futures price drops between May and September. This is actually not good for the buyer of corn. As you will see in the following table, they lose money in the futures as a result of this long hedge position: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.50 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $2.50 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $3.00 \| One tricky part to this problem is how we handle the loss on the futures position. You might notice that we had to pay $2.50/bu. to buy the cash corn in the spot market. We also lost $0.50/bu. in the futures market. So how in the world do we end up with a $3.00/bu. net purchase price? Shouldn’t we subtract the 50-cent loss? That is what we would have done in the short hedge problem! The answer is no. In all of these problems you need to focus on the direction of the money flow. In this problem, the ethanol plant has to pay their corn supplier for the corn that they are purchasing - $2.50/bu. They also lose $0.50/bu. in their futures account. Technically both amounts are negative cash flows. Both the $2.50/bu. paid for cash corn and the $0.50/bu. futures loss is paid to someone else, which means the “Net” of the transactions is a loss of $3.00/bu. for the ethanol plant. Now, it is NOT a loss, as they gain corn, an ingredient that is vital to the production of ethanol. And while it is true, they would have been better off to not hedge and just purchase the corn in the spot market when they needed it, markets don’t always do what we want them to do. That is why it is called price risk management. For the purchaser of commodities, the risk is that the price could go up, so to remove that risk they long-hedge. Removing the price risk but creating a scenario where the price could go lower and they would miss out on it. For the seller of commodities, the risk is that the price could go down, so to remove that risk they short hedge. Removing price risk but creating a scenario where the price could go higher, and they miss out on the higher prices. Now lets see what happens when the basis changes or adjusts during the time of the problem. Let’s assume that basis for September delivery is at -$0.70 by the time the ethanol plant buys corn from the local supplier: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.05 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.70 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $2.05 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $2.55 \| Now let’s assume that basis for September delivery is at -$0.10 by the time the ethanol plant buys corn from the local supplier: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.65 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.10 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $2.65 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $3.15 \| Now let’s assume that basis for September delivery is at +$0.30 by the time the ethanol plant buys corn from the local supplier: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $3.05 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| +$0.30 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $3.05 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $3.55 \| Again one thing to note is how in all of the examples the Net Purchase Price is always equal to the Futures price when the hedge was entered +/- the basis at the time the hedge is “lifted” (exited, bought back): \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.50 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $2.50 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $3.00 \| \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.05 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.70 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $2.05 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $2.55 \| \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.65 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.10 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $2.65 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $3.15 \| \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $3.05 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| +$0.30 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $3.05 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $3.55 \| Lab Activity – See “Long Hedging Lab” below. Hedging – Locking in Prices Hedging – Locking in Prices Often times you will hear hedging referred to as locking in prices. And essentially that is what you are doing. Remember that your cash price that you receive if selling grain or pay if buying grain is always a function of the futures market. That is the local cash price is derived somehow from the futures price that is quoted every second of the trading day. The only thing that we are not able to hedge is the basis. When we place a hedge, we are subject to the basis changing between the date we place the hedge and the date we lift the hedge and buy or sell the physical commodity in the cash market. Thus, hedging transfers all of the price risk from the futures market to the basis market. In all four of the examples for both the short-hedge and the long-hedge the price that we entered the futures hedge at remained constant, the only thing that changed the Net Price was the basis. That is why hedging is known as “locking in prices”. Essentially the buyer or seller decides that they can live with that price, places the hedge, and if the market moves against their position, they are OK with the futures loss because the cash market is offsetting the loss. In the case of the short hedger, as the futures price increases, they are suffering a loss in the futures market. However, since the cash market is derived from that same futures price, their cash price is increasing and offsetting the loss they are incurring in the futures market. See example below: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $3.50 \| $4.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $3.50 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.00 \| Had the farmer in the example above done nothing, they would be selling cash corn at $3.50/bu. Since the farmer hedged, they lost 50 cents in the futures market. While that stinks, the farmer made a calculated decision that they were “good with” selling $3.00 corn (given an expected -50 basis). Had the market moved the opposite way, the farmer would have felt like a genius: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.00 \| $2.50. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.00 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$1.00 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.00 \| In this example the market drops placing the hedge in a profitable position. This keeps the farmer from having to sell $2.00/bu. cash corn, and instead they are able add an additional $1.00/bu. to their selling price by having the hedge in place. Lab Activity – See “Long and Short Hedging Lab” below. Futures Accounts – Margin Futures Accounts – Margin We have talked about what futures markets are and what they do. We have examined how short-hedgers and long-hedgers can use them to manage price risk. But, where does the gain or the loss come from on the futures transaction? The answer to that is pretty easy. However, fairly complicated! In essence, if you gain $0.50/bu. in the futures market, that means that someone else had to lose $0.50/bu. Futures gains and losses are a zero-sum game. Which means if you add up the winners and losers together you would get 0. But there is a way that this works so that it is efficient, and you never need to worry about the other side of your transaction failing to pay – “margin requirements”! In order to trade futures, you first need to open a brokerage account through a Futures Broker: Once you have an account opened up, you will be able to place trades with your broker. In order to place the trades, you will need to have enough money in your brokerage account to cover the maximum amount that you can lose in one day – the price limits. Price limits exist for two primary reasons; 1) as a circuit breaker for market (simply put if the price moves by too much, the amount of the limit, the market shuts down for the day allowing the market to determine if the prices should have moved that much) and 2) to allow time for brokers to collect enough margin money from account holders with positions in the market to cover the next days possible losses. In other words, buying and selling futures does not cost you anything up front (except the brokerage commission charged by your broker), you are required to cover any losses to your account as they happen. That is why limits are so important. The price limits are set by the exchanges and are subject to change, so I don’t like to tell you what they are. Instead here is the link to the current posting for the CME Group: https://www.cmegroup.com/trading/price-limits.html#agricultural If you click on the link, you will see that corn currently as of 5/19/2020 has a 25-cent limit. That means that the price can only increase or decrease by 25 cents from the closing price of the previous day. Since corn futures contracts are for 5000 bushels, the maximum amount that you can make or lose in one day is 5000 bushels X 25 cents/bushel = $1250/contract. In other words, to place a trade, either long or short, in the corn futures, you must have at least $1250/contract traded in your account at the time you enter the market. Let’s assume you place $1500 into your brokerage account and then instruct your broker to sell 1 December 2020 Corn futures contract at $3.25/bu. The order fills and you are now short 1 December Corn futures contract at $3.25. If during the day the market goes up by 10 cents to $3.35, you will have $500 deducted from your brokerage account - $0.10/bu. * 5000 bushels = $500/contract. Your account balance will decrease to $1000, resulting in a “margin call” of $250. Essentially what will happen is that your broker will have to call you to collect $250 into your account. Why $250? Remember to trade corn you need to maintain at least a $1250 margin account (brokerage account) balance. When the clearinghouse (the arm of the exchange that handles the transfers of gains and losses between traders) debited your brokerage account for $500, you fell below the minimum threshold of $1250 or the limit per contract. By placing the $250 into your account, you are able to remain in your futures position. Now imagine the next day the market goes back up $0.10/bu. This time your margin account is credited $500. As a result, you now have $1750 in your margin account. Of which you could if you wanted to, withdraw $500 immediately, as long as you keep the required minimum of $1250 in your account. This process will go on for as long as you hold a position in the market. Assume that on May, 20, 2020 you buy (go long) 1 December 2020 Corn futures contract at $3.30/bu., place the minimum margin into your account and hold that position for 10 days. The daily gain/loss and resulting daily balance would look like the following given the price movements indicated in the table: Date \| Price as of Close Today \| Change from Previous Close \| Change in Margin Account \| Margin Call \| Margin Account Balance \| 5/20/20 \| $3.35 \| +$0.05 (from entry) \| +$250 \| - \| $1500 \| 5/21/20 \| $3.45 \| +$0.10 \| +$500 \| - \| $2000 \| 5/22/20 \| $3.64 \| +$0.20 \| +$1000 \| - \| $3000 \| 5/26/20 \| $3.50 \| -$0.15 \| -$750 \| - \| $2250 \| 5/27/20 \| $3.30 \| -$0.20 \| -$1000 \| - \| $1250 \| 5/28/20 \| $3.10 \| -$0.20 \| -$1000 \| $1000 \| $1250 \| 5/29/20 \| $3.00 \| -$0.10 \| -$500 \| $500 \| $1250 \| 6/1/20 \| $3.05 \| +$0.05 \| +$250 \| - \| $1500 \| 6/2/20 \| $3.30 \| +0.25 \| +$1250 \| - \| $2750 \| 6/3/20 \| Sell at $3.40 \| +0.10 \| +$500 \| - \| $3250 \| At the end of 10 days when the long position is exited, the trader has an account balance of $3250. However, they initially placed $1250 of initial margin in the account and then made $1500 worth of margin calls. In total $2750 in their brokerage account is their own money. So take the balance of $3250 – the $2750 that they contributed to their account = $500 gain. $500/5000 bu. = $0.10 per bushel. That happens to be the difference between the price that the trader entered the futures in the long position of $3.30 and the price that they exited the futures of $3.40. This concept of margin and adjusting daily is known as “marked to the market” and it means that daily gains and losses are credited to the winner’s brokerage accounts and debited from the loser’s accounts for that day. This is why in the video that I recommended you watch at the beginning of this unit talks about how there is no counter-party risk involved in trading futures contracts. Counter-party risk refers to the risk that when you sell grain to a buyer, there is a risk that you may NOT get paid. There have been several recent examples of this in North Dakota and all over the US. It does happen. It does NOT happen in futures markets, because of the margin requirements. I MUST have the amount that I could lose for the day posted to an account before I can stay in the market. If I receive a “margin call” and I do NOT put the money into my account to cover potential losses, I can have my position liquidated by my broker. That simply means the exit me from my trade so that I do not fail on my counter-party risk. Lab Activity – See “Margin Account Lab” below. Futures Contracts – Closing Futures Contracts – Closing The use of futures creates an ability for producers to become price makers, rather than often-cited price-taker mentality of many producers. To start with and for this course, we focus on the use of futures as a static tool. Meaning we put a hedge on and leave it until it is time to either buy or sell in the cash market depending on what type of a hedger we are. In practice though, hedging offers a lot of flexibility as well as the opportunity to add value to sales. It does carry additional risk, however. When we hedge remember we must be willing to say that we are OK with the current prices, and we are willing to give up some of the gain on the top. Futures do NOT make marketing grain easier, but the do offer a lot of tools to help the producers maximize their profitability.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.490251	Primary Source	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67069/overview", "title": "Understanding Hedging with Futures Contracts", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79851/overview	Archival Preservation Handouts Overview In this resource, you will find five archival preservation handouts and one handout addressing arrangement and description. These handouts will quickly help a user understand how to best preserve different types of materials at their home. There are both full-color and black and white versions of each of these handouts. The handouts are licensed under CC, by 4.0. You can download these handouts by clicking the "PDF" or "download" buttons below this text.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.508528	05/03/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79851/overview", "title": "Archival Preservation Handouts", "author": "Marissa Ajamian Grossman" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67212/overview	A.A.S in Information Technology - Jobs Overview This assignment is intended to encourage students to explore relevant jobs in the Information Technology arena post the completion of their A.A.S degree. Am I able to secure a job after completing my Associate in Applied Science (A.A.S) in Information Technology at Stella and Charles Guttman Community College? An A.A.S degree in Information Technology is geared to position a graduate in landing a job upon completion. For this brief assignment, you are tasked with exploring three such job opportunities that may be of interest. Watch the video below for one career path: Information security and forensics analyst: What I do Explore three (3) other positions in the Information Technology sphere that may be of interest to you. For each position, include 1-2 paragraph(s) about the job title, description, qualification, job demand/outlook, and why this job is of interest to you.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.523032	Dalvin Hill	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67212/overview", "title": "A.A.S in Information Technology - Jobs", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103896/overview	FTEC 144 Sample Assignment 2 FTEC 144 Syllabus Remix - Accessibility Demo - FTEC 144: Emergency Medical Technician Overview This resource was remixed to add places in the syllabus that might need to be updated for accessibility. Welcome to the El Camino College EMT program! Emergency Medical Technicians are professional medical responders that work to help ill and injured patients in various emergency field and clinical settings. EMT principles that are covered throughout this course include, but are not limited to: leadership, followership, communication, safety, situational awareness, basic life support (BLS), patient assessment and professionalism. EMT students learn about the practices and procedures for treating medical illnesses and traumatic injuries through facilitated discussion, skills lab, simulations, scenarios and field experience. Students who successfully complete all 170 hours with an overall grade of 80% (B) or better will qualify to take the NREMT test for certification. Once the NREMT is completed, the student would be eligible for a state EMT license. Syllabus, Sample Assignment Introduction Welcome to the El Camino College EMT program! Emergency Medical Technicians are professional medical responders that work to help ill and injured patients in various emergency field and clinical settings. EMT principles that are covered throughout this course include, but are not limited to: leadership, followership,communication, safety, situational awareness, basic life support (BLS), patient assessment and professionalism. EMT students learn about the practices and procedures for treating medical illnesses andtraumatic injuries through facilitated discussion, skills lab, simulations, scenarios and field experience. Students who successfully complete all 170 hours with an overall grade of 80% (B) or better will qualify to takethe NREMT test for certification. Once the NREMT is completed, the student would be eligible for a state EMT license.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.543074	Joanna Schimizzi	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103896/overview", "title": "Remix - Accessibility Demo - FTEC 144: Emergency Medical Technician", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76917/overview	Job Shadowing an Agriculture Career Overview This interactive lesson allows students to have an initial introduction to careers in agriculture. Students will watch the video and then have the opportunity to create their own job shadow experience. Introduction to Agriculture 115 Job shadowing can be the initial conversation regarding agriculture careers. Students will watch the short three-minute video. Upon completion of the video students will discuss career options in cluster area: agriculture mechanics, agriculture business, animal science, plant science and environmental horticulture. Once students have had discussion the lesson will begin. Activity: - Student will complete a form listing three local companies they want to job shadow - Student will create a business letter with details concerning the task. - Student will send the letter and wait for response. Teacher: Help students make connections with local companies in order to job shadow. Students: - Create a business letter - Visit the job site for a day Find out if this is a career area they want to pursue Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TOUrllIq5Vo	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:59.564378	02/02/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76917/overview", "title": "Job Shadowing an Agriculture Career", "author": "Lori Marchy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108182/overview	House-Rules Municipal Court SenateRules88 Texas Constitution Texas Government Overview Texas Government OER textbook. Written by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado. Originally written in Fall 2017, reformatted May 2022. This EBook is the first OER Texas Government textbook ever written in the United States. Unless otherwise noted, this textbook, written by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado, is CC BY 2.0 license. The textbook content was produced by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado and is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 license, except for the following changes and additions, which are (CC BY 2.0 license) 2023 by Daniel Brown and are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 license. Overview Overview Texas Government OER textbook. Written by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado. Originally written in Fall 2017, reformatted May 2022. This EBook is the first OER Texas Government textbook ever written in the United States. Unless otherwise noted, this textbook, written by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado, is CC BY 2.0 license. The textbook content was produced by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado and is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 license, except for the following changes and additions, which are (CC BY 2.0 license) 2023 by Daniel Brown and are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 license. Chapter 1 Added image credit to Figures 1.1 through 1.6 Added additional information to explain the reason for the Gonzales engagement in 1835. Added critical information to portions of the Texas Constitutions Fixed URL's within text of document Added a Key Words list Chapter 2 Added image credit to Figures 2.1 through 2.6 Added an explanation of coercive federalism Fixed URL's within text of document Updated the Texas Local Government Tax revenue Added a Key Words list Chapter 3 Added the Legislative process in Texas Added "Process for Senate Bills" diagram Added "Process for House Bills" diagram Added Key Word list Chapter 4 Added history of the Texas Governor Added the Texas Bureaucracy Added Key Word list Chapter 5 Added Structure of the Texas Court System Added section on Municipal Courts Added Figure 5.3 Court Structure of Texas Added County and Municipal Judges Education Act Added Key Word list Chapter 7 Added additional information regarding Local Governments Added Glossary of Terms Added the Texas Constitution updated as of 2021 Contents CONTENTS - Texas History and Culture - Independence for Texas - The Mexican-American War, 1846–1848 - The Constitutions of Texas - Civil Liberties and Civil Rights - State Political Culture - Federalism - Division of Powers - The Evolution of Federalism - The Texas Legislature - Qualifications and Organization - How a Bill Becomes Law in Texas - The Executive Branch - The Governor - The Texas Plural Executive - The Texas Justice System - Jurisdiction, Types of Law, and the Selection of Judges - Court Organization - Texas Criminal Justice Process - Political Participation - Voting - Elections - Public Opinion - The Media - Political Parties - Interest Groups - Texas Policy - Texas Budget and Revenue - Local Governments 1. Texas History and Culture Assessment Questions for Chapter 1 1 American political culture generally highlights which values? A democracy, freedom, happiness B* liberty, equality, democracy C democracy, equality, happiness D liberty, freedom, happiness 2 States that exhibit a distinctive culture that is the “product of their entire history” are an example of A political behavior B* political culture C politics D state's rights 3 Which of the following types of political culture stresses the importance of the individual and private initiative? A* individualistic B traditionalistic C moralistic D socialistic 4. Which of the following makes it difficult to classify Texas as having one unified political culture? A* its size and diversity B its one party dominance C its religious history D its rural traditions 5. Traditionalistic political cultures, according to Daniel Elazar, are typically found in the A Nortjwest B West C* South D Midwest 6. Political culture is a term used to describe A the level of education and learning in a particular state B the degree of public support for the arts C* the broadly shared values and beliefs about government D the amount of partisan bickering in a state 7. Approximately how long did one-party Democratic rule last in Texas? A 10 Years B 50 Years C* 100 Years D 150 Years 8. State constitutions are designed to perform which of the following functions? A to establish the mechanisms through which school districts determine grade-appropriate curricula B to ensure that power is concentrated in a unitary executive branch C to ensure that free, fair, and frequent elections are conducted by the federal government D* to prevent abuse of power by the government by establishing and protecting civil liberties 9. Thinking about the constitutions of Texas and the United States, both are based upon which fundamental idea? A* Political power is derived from the people B Political power is divided into two separate parts and placed in separate branches of government C the idea of community rights D the subordinate role that Texas has in the federal system 10. The Constitution of 1845 forbid anyone from freeing slaves, to include the Legislature. FALSE* TRUE 11. According to the __________________, the U.S. Constitution takes precedence over the Texas Constitution A* supremacy clause B separation of powers clause C necessary and proper clause D delegate powers 12. Texas became an independent republic in ________ and became part of the United States in ________. A 1827; 1861 B 1827; 1869 C* 1836; 1845 D 1845; 1876 13. The Constitution of 1869 created A* a strong governor’s office B strong local government C a unicameral legislature D the election of judges 14. In what year was Texas’s current constitution ratified? A 1828 B* 1876 C 1888 D 1969 15. Both the Texas and U.S. Constitutions require voter approval for any proposed amendments to take effect TRUE FALSE* 16. The Texas Bill of Rights guarantees the right to a republican form of government TRUE* FALSE 17. The current Texas Constitution has been amended more than 400 times. TRUE 18. Amendments to the Texas Constitution can address technical issues faced by state agencies and local governments. TRUE* FALSE 19. There are rights guaranteed to Texans in Article 1 of the Texas Constitution that go far beyond those of the U.S. Constitution. TRUE* FALSE 1. TEXAS HISTORY AND CULTURE INDEPENDENCE FOR TEXAS \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| As the incursions of the earlier filibusters into Texas demonstrated, American expansionists had desired this area of Spain’s empire in America for many years. After the 1819 Adams-Onís treaty established the boundary between Mexico and the United States, more American expansionists began to move into the northern portion of Mexico’s province of Coahuila y Texas. Following Mexico’s independence from Spain in 1821, American settlers immigrated to Texas in even larger numbers, intent on taking the land from the new and vulnerable Mexican nation in order to create a new American slave state. AMERICAN SETTLERS MOVE TO TEXAS After the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 defined the U.S.-Mexico boundary, Spain began actively encouraging Americans to settle their northern province. Texas was sparsely settled, and the few Mexican farmers and ranchers who lived there were under constant threat of attack by hostile Indian tribes, especially the Comanche, who supplemented their hunting with raids in pursuit of horses and cattle. To increase the non-Indian population in Texas and provide a buffer zone between its hostile tribes and the rest of Mexico, Spain began to recruit empresarios . An empresario was someone who brought settlers to the region in exchange for generous grants of land. Moses Austin, a once-prosperous entrepreneur reduced to poverty by the Panic of 1819, requested permission to settle three hundred English-speaking American residents in Texas. Spain agreed on the condition that the resettled people convert to Roman Catholicism. On his deathbed in 1821, Austin asked his son Stephen to carry out his plans, and Mexico, which had won independence from Spain the same year, allowed Stephen to take control of his father’s grant. Like Spain, Mexico also wished to encourage settlement in the state of Coahuila y Texas and passed colonization laws to encourage immigration. Thousands of Americans, primarily from slave states, flocked to Texas and quickly came to outnumber the Tejanos, the Mexican residents of the region. The soil and climate offered good opportunities to expand slavery and the cotton kingdom. Land was plentiful and offered at generous terms. Unlike the U.S. government, Mexico allowed buyers to pay for their land in installments and did not require a minimum purchase. Furthermore, to many whites, it seemed not only their God-given right but also their patriotic duty to populate the lands beyond the Mississippi River, bringing with them American slavery, culture, laws, and political traditions. (Figure 1.2) THE TEXAS WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE Figure 1.1 By the early 1830s, all the lands east of the Mississippi River had been settled and admitted to the Union as states. The land west of the river, though in this contemporary map united with the settled areas in the body of an eagle symbolizing the territorial ambitions of the United States, remained largely unsettled by white Americans. Texas (just southwest of the bird’s tail feathers) remained outside the U.S. border. Image Credit: Moore, I. W., Carey & Hart & Churchman, J. (1833) The eagle map of the United States. [Philadelphia: E.L. Carey & A. Hart, 1833] [Map] Retrieved from the Library of Congress. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. Many Americans who migrated to Texas at the invitation of the Mexican government did not completely shed their identity or loyalty to the United States. They brought American traditions and expectations with them (including, for many, the right to own slaves). For instance, the majority of these new settlers were Protestant, and though they were not required to attend the Catholic mass, Mexico’s prohibition on the public practice of other religions upset them and they routinely ignored it. Accustomed to representative democracy, jury trials, and the defendant’s right to appear before a judge, the Anglo-American settlers in Texas also disliked the Mexican legal system, which provided for an initial hearing by an alcalde , an administrator who often combined the duties of mayor, judge, and law enforcement officer. The alcalde sent a written record of the proceeding to a judge in Saltillo, the state capital, who decided the outcome. Settlers also resented that at most two Texas representatives were allowed in the state legislature. Their greatest source of discontent, though, was the Mexican government’s 1829 abolition of slavery. Most American settlers were from southern states, and many had brought slaves with them. Mexico tried to accommodate them by maintaining the fiction that the slaves were indentured servants. But American slaveholders in Texas distrusted the Mexican government and wanted Texas to be a new U.S. slave state. The dislike of most for Roman Catholicism (the prevailing religion of Mexico) and a widely held belief in American racial superiority led them generally to regard Mexicans as dishonest, ignorant, and backward. \| Belief in their own superiority inspired some Texans to try to undermine the power of the Mexican government. When empresario Haden Edwards attempted to evict people who had settled his land grant before he gained title to it, the Mexican government nullified its agreement with him. Outraged, Edwards and a small party of men took prisoner the alcalde of Nacogdoches. The Mexican army marched to the town, and Edwards and his troops then declared the formation of the Republic of Fredonia between the Sabine and Rio Grande Rivers. To demonstrate loyalty to their adopted country, a force led by Stephen Austin hastened to Nacogdoches to support the Mexican army. Edwards’s revolt collapsed, and the revolutionaries fled Texas. The growing presence of American settlers in Texas, their reluctance to abide by Mexican law, and their desire for independence caused the Mexican government to grow wary. In 1830, it. forbade future U.S. immigration and increased its military presence in Texas. Settlers continued to stream illegally across the long border; by 1835, after immigration resumed, there were twenty thousand Anglo-Americans in Texas. Figure 1.2 This 1833 map shows the extent of land grants made by Mexico to American settlers in Texas. Nearly all are in the eastern portion of the state, one factor that led to war with Mexico in 1846. Image credit: Holley (Armstrong & Plaskitt), Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. Fifty-five delegates from the Anglo-American settlements gathered in 1831 to demand the suspension of customs duties, the resumption of immigration from the United States, better protection from Indian tribes, the granting of promised land titles, and the creation of an independent state of Texas separate from Coahuila. Ordered to disband, the delegates reconvened in early April 1833 to write a constitution for an independent Texas. Surprisingly, Mexico’s new president, agreed to all demands, except the call for statehood. Coahuila y Texas made provisions for jury trials, increased Texas’s representation in the state legislature, and removed restrictions on commerce. Texans’ hopes for independence were quashed in 1834, however, when Santa Anna dismissed the Mexican Congress and abolished all state governments, including that of Coahuila y Texas. In January 1835, reneging on earlier promises, he dispatched troops to the town of Anahuac to collect customs duties. Lawyer and soldier William B. Travis and a small force marched on Anahuac in June, and the fort surrendered. Learning that the town of Gonzales was given a cannon to protect against Indian attacks, the Army was ordered to go and retrieve it. On October 2, Anglo-American forces met Mexican troops at the town of Gonzales; after a short skirmish the Mexican troops fled and the Americans moved on to take San Antonio. Now more cautious, delegates to the Consultation of 1835 at San Felipe de Austin voted against declaring independence, instead drafting a statement, which became known as the Declaration of Causes, promising continued loyalty if Mexico returned to a constitutional form of government. They selected Henry Smith, leader of the Independence Party, as governor of Texas and placed Sam Houston, a former soldier who had been a congressman and governor of Tennessee, in charge of its small military force. REMEMBER THE ALAMO! Mexico had no intention of losing its northern province. Santa Anna and his army of four thousand had besieged San Antonio in February 1836. Hopelessly outnumbered, its two hundred defenders, under Travis, fought fiercely from their refuge in an old mission known as the Alamo. After ten days, however, the mission was taken and all but a few of the defenders were dead, including Travis and James Bowie, the famed frontiersman who was also a land speculator and slave trader. A few male survivors, possibly including the frontier legend and former Tennessee congressmen, Davey Crockett, were led outside the walls and executed. The bodies of the slain defenders were piled into the center of the Alamo and burned. The few women and children inside the mission were allowed to leave with the only adult male survivor, a slave owned by Travis who was then freed by the Mexican Army. Santa Anna would only guarantee safe passage through his Army's lines and no further, terrified at what they witnessed inside, they fled. (Figure 1.3) Figure 1.3 The Fall of the Alamo, painted by Theodore Gentilz fewer than ten years after this pivotal moment in hundred men the Texas Revolution, depicts the 1836 assault on the Alamo complex. Image Credit: Theodore Gentilz, Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. Although hungry for revenge, the Texas forces under Sam Houston nevertheless withdrew across Texas, gathering recruits as they went. Coming upon Santa Anna’s encampment on the banks of San Jacinto River on April 21, 1836, they waited as the Mexican troops settled for an afternoon nap. Assured by Houston that “Victory is certain!” and told to “Trust in God and fear not!” the seven descended on a sleeping force nearly twice their number with cries of “Remember the Alamo!” Within fifteen minutes the S a i was over. Approximately half the Mexican troops were killed, and the survivors, including Santa Anna, taken prisoner. Santa Anna grudgingly signed a peace treaty and was sent to Washington, where he met with President Andrew Jackson and, under pressure, agreed to recognize an independent Texas with the Rio Grande River as its southwestern border. By the time the agreement had been signed, however, Santa Anna had been removed from power in Mexico. For that reason, the Mexican Congress refused to be bound by Santa Anna’s promises and continued to insist that the renegade territory still belonged to Mexico. THE LONE STAR REPUBLIC In September 1836, military hero Sam Houston was elected president of Texas, and, following the relentless logic of U.S. expansion, Texans voted in favor of annexation to the United States. This had been the dream of many settlers in Texas all along. They wanted to expand the United States west and saw Texas as the next logical step. Slaveholders there, such as Sam Houston, William Travis and James Bowie (the latter two of whom died at the Alamo), believed too in the destiny of slavery. Mindful of the vicious debates over Missouri that had led to talk of disunion and war, American politicians were reluctant to annex Texas or, indeed, even to recognize it as a sovereign nation. Annexation would almost certainly mean war with Mexico, and the admission of a state with a large slave population, though permissible under the Missouri Compromise, would bring the issue of slavery once again to the fore. Texas had no choice but to organize itself as the independent Lone Star Republic. To protect itself from Mexican attempts to reclaim it, Texas sought and received recognition from France, Great Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The United States did not officially recognize Texas as an independent nation until March 1837, nearly a year after the final victory over the Mexican army at San Jacinto Uncertainty about its future did not discourage Americans committed to expansion, especially slaveholders, from rushing to settle in the, however. Between 1836 and 1846, its population nearly tripled. By 1840, nearly twelve thousand enslaved Africans had been brought to Texas by American slaveholders. Many new settlers had suffered financial losses in the severe financial depression of 1837 and hoped for a new start in the new nation. According to folklore, across the United States, homes and farms were deserted overnight, and curious neighbors found notes reading only “GTT” (“Gone to Texas”). Many Europeans, especially Germans, also immigrated to Texas during this period. In keeping with the program of ethnic cleansing and white racial domination, as illustrated by the image at the beginning of this chapter, Americans in Texas generally treated both Tejano and Indian residents with utter contempt, eager to displace and dispossess them. Anglo-American leaders failed to return the support their Tejano neighbors had extended during the rebellion and repaid them by seizing their lands. In 1839, the republic’s militia attempted to drive out the Cherokee and Comanche. The impulse to expand did not lay dormant, and Anglo-American settlers and leaders in the newly formed Texas republic soon cast their gaze on the Mexican province of New Mexico as well. Repeating the tactics of earlier filibusters, a Texas force set out in 1841 intent on taking Santa Fe. Its members encountered an army of New Mexicans and were taken prisoner and sent to Mexico City. On Christmas Day, 1842, Texans avenged a Mexican assault on San Antonio by attacking the Mexican town of Mier. In August, another Texas army was sent to attack Santa Fe, but Mexican troops forced them to retreat. Clearly, hostilities between Texas and Mexico had not ended simply because Texas had declared its independence. • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR, 1846–1848 \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Tensions between the United States and Mexico rapidly deteriorated in the 1840s as American expansionists eagerly eyed Mexican land to the west, including the lush northern Mexican province of California. Indeed, in 1842, a U.S. naval fleet, incorrectly believing war had broken out, seized Monterey, California, a part of Mexico. Monterey was returned the next day, but the episode only added to the uneasiness with which Mexico viewed its northern neighbor. The forces of expansion, however, could not be contained, and American voters elected in 1844 because he promised to deliver more lands. President Polk fulfilled his promise by gaining Oregon and, most spectacularly, provoking a war with Mexico that ultimately fulfilled the wildest fantasies of expansionists. By 1848, the United States encompassed much of North America, a republic that stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific. JAMES K. POLK AND THE TRIUMPH OF EXPANSION Figure 1.4 This map of the Oregon territory during the period of joint occupation by the United States and Great Britain shows the area whose ownership was contested by the two powers. Image Credit: Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. A fervent belief in expansion gripped the United States in the 1840s. In 1845, a New York newspaper editor, John O’Sullivan, introduced the concept of “manifest destiny” to describe the popular idea of the special role of the United States in overspreading the continent—the divine right and duty of white Americans to seize and settle the American West, thus spreading Protestant, democratic values. In this climate of opinion, voters in 1844 elected James K. Polk, a slaveholder from Tennessee, because he vowed to annex Texas as a new slave state and take Oregon. Annexing Oregon was an important objective for U.S. foreign policy because it appeared to be an area rich in commercial possibilities. Northerners favored U.S. control of Oregon because ports in the Pacific Northwest would be gateways for trade with Asia. Southerners hoped that, in exchange for their support of expansion into the northwest, northerners would not oppose plans for expansion into the southwest. President Polk—whose campaign slogan in 1844 had been “Fifty-four forty or fight! asserted tje US' right to gain full control of what was known as Oregon Country, from its southern border at 42° latitude (the current boundary with California) to its northern border at 54° 40′ latitude. According to an 1818 agreement, Great Britain and the United States held joint ownership of this territory, but the 1827 Treaty of Joint Occupation opened the land to settlement by both countries. Realizing that the British were not willing to cede all claims to the territory, Polk proposed the land be divided at 49° latitude (the current border between Washington and Canada). The British, however, denied U.S. claims to land north of the Columbia River (Oregon’s current northern border). Indeed, the British foreign secretary refused even to relay Polk’s proposal to London. However, reports of the difficulty Great Britain would face defending Oregon in the event of a U.S. attack, combined with concerns over affairs at home and elsewhere in its empire, quickly changed the minds of the British, and in June 1846, Queen Victoria’s government agreed to a division at the forty-ninth parallel. In contrast to the diplomatic solution with Great Britain over Oregon, when it came to Mexico, Polk and the American people proved willing to use force to wrest more land for the United States. In keeping with voters’ expectations, President Polk set his sights on the Mexican state of California. After the mistaken capture of Monterey, negotiations about purchasing the port of San Francisco from Mexico broke off until September 1845. Then, following a revolt in California that left it divided in two, Polk attempted to purchase Upper California and New Mexico as well. These efforts went nowhere. The Mexican government, angered by U.S. actions, refused to recognize the independence of Texas. Finally, after nearly a decade of public clamoring for the annexation of Texas, in December 1845 Polk officially agreed to the annexation of the former Mexican state, making the Lone Star Republic an additional slave state. Incensed that the United States had annexed Texas, however, the Mexican government refused to discuss the matter of selling land to the United States. Indeed, Mexico refused even to acknowledge Polk’s emissary, John Slidell, who had been sent to Mexico City to negotiate. Not to be deterred, Polk encouraged Thomas O. Larkin, the U.S. consul in Monterey, to assist any American settlers and any Californios, the Mexican residents of the state, who wished to proclaim their independence from Mexico. By the end of 1845, having broken diplomatic ties with the United States over Texas and having grown alarmed by American actions in California, the Mexican government warily anticipated the next move. It did not have long to wait. WAR WITH MEXICO, 1846–1848 Figure 1.5 In 1845, when Texas joined the United States, Mexico insisted the United States had a right only to the territory northeast of the Nueces River. The United States argued in turn that it should have title to all land between the Nueces and the Rio Grande as well. Image Credit: Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license, Expansionistic fervor propelled the United States to war against Mexico in 1846. The United States had long argued that the d was the border between Mexico and the United States, and at the end of the Texas war for independence Santa Anna had been pressured to agree. Mexico, however, refused to be bound by Santa Anna’s promises and insisted the border lay farther north, at the Nueces River. To set it at the Rio Grande would, in effect, allow the United States to control land it had never occupied. In Mexico’s eyes, therefore, President Polk violated its sovereign territory when he ordered U.S. troops into the disputed lands in 1846. From the Mexican perspective, it appeared the United States had invaded their nation. In January 1846, the U.S. force that was ordered to the banks of the Rio Grande to build a fort on the “American” side encountered a Mexican cavalry unit on patrol. Shots rang out, and sixteen U.S. soldiers were killed or wounded. Angrily declaring that Mexico “has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil,” President Polk demanded the United States declare war on Mexico. On May 12, Congress obliged. The small but vocal antislavery faction decried the decision to go to war, arguing that Polk had deliberately provoked hostilities so the United States could annex more slave territory. Illinois representative Abraham Lincoln and other members of Congress issued the “Spot Resolutions” in which they demanded to know the precise spot on U.S. soil where American blood had been spilled. Many Whigs also denounced the war. Democrats, however, supported Polk’s decision, and volunteers for the army came forward in droves from every part of the country except New England, the seat of abolitionist activity. Enthusiasm for the war was aided by the widely held belief that Mexico was a weak, impoverished country and that the Mexican people, perceived as ignorant, lazy, and controlled by a corrupt Roman Catholic clergy, would be easy to defeat. U.S. military strategy had three main objectives: 1) Take control of northern Mexico, including New Mexico; 2) seize California; and 3) capture Mexico City. General Zachary Taylor and his Army of the Center were assigned to accomplish the first goal, and with superior weapons they soon captured the Mexican city of Monterrey. Taylor quickly became a hero in the eyes of the American people, and Polk appointed him commander of all U.S. forces. General Stephen Watts Kearny, commander of the Army of the West, accepted the surrender of Santa Fe, New Mexico, and moved on to take control of California, leaving Colonel Sterling Price in command. Despite Kearny’s assurances that New Mexicans need not fear for their lives or their property, and in fact the region’s residents rose in revolt in January 1847 in an effort to drive the Americans away. Although Price managed to put an end to the rebellion, tensions remained high. Figure 1.6 Anti-Catholic sentiment played an important role in the Mexican-American War. The American public widely regarded Roman Catholics as cowardly and vice-ridden, like the clergy in this ca. 1846 lithograph who are shown fleeing the Mexican town of Matamoros accompanied by pretty women and baskets. Image Credit: Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. Kearney in California to find it already in American hands through the joint efforts of California settlers, U.S. naval commander John D. Sloat, and John C. Fremont, a former army captain and son-in-law of Missouri senator Thomas Benton. Sloat, at anchor off the coast of Mazatlan, learned that war had begun and quickly set sail for California. He seized the town of Monterey in July 1846, less than a month after a group of American settlers led by William B. Ide had taken control of Sonoma and declared California a republic. A week after the fall of Monterey, the navy took San Francisco with no resistance. Although some Californios staged a short-lived rebellion in September 1846, many others submitted to the U.S. takeover. Thus Kearny had little to do other than take command of California as its governor. Leading the Army of the South was General Winfield Scott. Both Taylor and Scott were potential competitors for the presidency, and believing—correctly—that whoever seized Mexico City would become a hero, Polk assigned Scott the campaign to avoid elevating the more popular Taylor, who was affectionately known as “Old Rough and Ready." Scott captured in March 1847, and moving in a northwesterly direction from there (much as Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés had done in 1519), he slowly closed in on the capital. Every step of the way was a hard-fought victory, however, and Mexican soldiers and civilians both fought bravely to save their land from the American invaders. Mexico City’s defenders, including young military cadets, fought to the end. According to legend, cadet Juan Escutia’s last act was to save the Mexican flag, and he leapt from the city’s walls with it wrapped around his body. On September 14, 1847, Scott entered Mexico City’s central plaza; the city had fallen. While Polk and other expansionists called for “all Mexico,” the Mexican government and the United States negotiated for peace in 1848, resulting in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. \| The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in February 1848, was a triumph for American expansionism under which Mexico ceded nearly half its land to the United States. The Mexican Cession, as the conquest of land west of the Rio Grande was called, included the current states of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and portions of Colorado and Wyoming. Mexico also recognized the Rio Grande as the border with the United States. Mexican citizens in the ceded territory were promised U.S. citizenship in the future when the territories they were living in became states. In exchange, the United States agreed to assume $3.35 million worth of Mexican debts owed to U.S. citizens, paid Mexico $15 million for the loss of its land, and promised to guard the residents of the Mexican Cession from Indian raids. As extensive as the Mexican Cession was, some argued the United States should not be satisfied until it had taken all of Mexico. Many who were opposed to this idea weresoutherners who, while desiring the annexation of more slave territory, did not want to make Mexico’s large mestizo (people of mixed Indian and European ancestry) population part of the United States. Others did not want to absorb a large group of Roman Catholics. These expansionists could not accept the idea of new U.S. territory filled with mixed-race, Catholic populations. Figure 1.7 In General Scott’s Entrance into Mexico (1851), Carl Nebel depicts General Winfield Scott on a white horse entering Mexico City’s Plaza de la Constitución as anxious residents of the city watch. One woman peers furtively from behind the curtain of an upstairs window. On the left, a man bends down to pick up a paving stone to throw at the invaders. Image Credit: Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington. Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 1.1 The Constitutions of Texas THE CONSTITUTIONS OF TEXAS Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the constitutions of Texas - Describe the current constitution of Texas Constitutions of Texas Texas has been governed by multiple constitutions. - The Mexican Constitution of 1824 ◦ Texas was part of Mexico ◦ Called for an official religion (Catholicism) - The Constitution of Coahuila and Texas, 1827 ◦ First state constitutions under Mexican rule - The Texas Constitution of 1836 ◦ Texas gains their independence, becomes their own country (Republic of Texas) ◦ Three branches of Government ◦ Slavery allowed ◦ Citizenship except for "Africans, the descendants of Africans, and Indians" ◦ Four-Tier Judiciary - Justice of the Peace, County, District and Supreme Courts, where District is most important - The Texas Constitution of 1845 ◦ US Annexation of Texas ◦ Texas is pre-approved to split up in to as much as 5 states ◦ Must get Legislative approval before you can free any slave - The Texas Constitution of 1861 ◦ Texas secedes from the Union and joins the Confederate States of America ◦ A clause providing for emancipation of slaves was eliminated, and the freeing of slaves was declared illegal. - The Texas Constitution of 1866 ◦ Adopted as a condition for readmission to the United States of America - The Texas Constitution of 1869 ◦ State constitution rewritten to abide by Reconstruction policies ◦ Created a powerful Texas Governor - The Texas Constitution of 1876 ◦ current state constitution Texas Constitution of 1876 Texas Democrats gained control of Congress in 1873 and decided it was time to draft a new constitution for Texas. The Texas Constitutional Convention of 1875 met in Austin with the purpose of replacing the Constitution of 1869- it was believed that the new constitution should restrict the state government and hand the power back to the people. Some examples of how the government was restricted were: - Legislative sessions moved from annual to biennial sessions - Creation of a plural executive - Mandated a balanced budget - State Judges would be elected by the people - The people would vote on the ratification of amendments The structure of the current constitution of Texas (Constitution of 1876) is a Preamble, 17 Articles, and 517 Amendments (Since 2022) (Note: https://www.tlc.texas.gov/docs/legref/TxConst.pdf). The Texas Constitution is the second longest state constitution in America (2nd only to Alabama’s). - Article 1: Bill of Rights ◦ Similar civil liberties and civil rights as in the U.S. Constitution’s Bill of Rights - Article 2: The Powers of the Government ◦ Establishes three branches of government with separation of powers - Article 3: Legislative Department ◦ Specifics about the Texas Legislator - Article 4: Executive Department ◦ Specifics about the plural executive - Article 5: Judicial Department ◦ Specifics about the Texas Judicial system - Article 6: Suffrage ◦ Forbids the following from voting: ▪ any non US citizen ▪ any non-registered Texas voter ▪ any convicted felon who has not completed their sentence ▪ any person deemed mentally incompetent by the courts - Article 7: Education ◦ Mandates an “efficient” free public school system ◦ Established the Permanent School Fund - Article 8: Taxation and Revenue ◦ Places limits on the raising and spending of public funds - Article 9: Counties ◦ Authorizes the Texas Legislature to create county governments - Article 10: Railroads ◦ Regulated the railroad system - Article 11: Municipal Corporations ◦ Specifics regarding local governments, including empowering them to tax, and how to charter cities - Article 12: Private Corporations ◦ Specifics regarding private businesses, including how they would be regulated - Article 13: Spanish and Mexican Land Titles ◦ Specifics on what which land with previous claims would become state property - Article 14: Public Lands and Land Office ◦ Established the Land Office which regulated land titles • Article 15: Impeachment ◦ Specifics on how to remove a public official from office - Article 16: General Provisions ◦ Miscellaneous regulations i.e. forbid Congress from printing money, forbid U.S. public officials from holding a state office - Article 17: Mode of Amending the Constitution of this State ◦ 2/3rds proposal from Congress ◦ Registered voters vote on approval, and with a majority vote the amendment is ratified The entire Texas Constitution can be accessed at http://www.constitution.legis.state.tx.us/ • \| Constitutions of Texas. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 1.2 Civil Liberties and Civil Rights CIVIL LIBERTIES AND CIVIL RIGHTS Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Define civil liberties and civil rights \| Defining Civil Liberties and Civil Rights Defining Civil Liberties and Civil Rights To be more precise in their language, political scientists and legal experts make a distinction between civil liberties and civil rights, even though the Constitution has been interpreted to protect both. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/austincc-texasgovernment/chapter/civil-liberties-and-civil-rights/ Civil liberties We typically envision civil liberties as being limitations on government power, intended to protect freedoms that governments may not legally intrude on. For example, the Texas Constitution’s Article 1 Section 6 denies the government the power to prohibit “the freedom of worship” of religion; the states and the national government cannot forbid people to follow a religion of their choice, even if politicians and judges think the religion is misguided, blasphemous, or otherwise inappropriate. You are free to create your own religion and recruit followers to it (subject to the U.S. Supreme Court deeming it a religion), even if both society and government disapprove of its tenets. That said, the way you practice your religion may be regulated if it impinges on the rights of others. Similarly, the Texas Constitution’s Article 1 Section 13 states the government cannot impose “cruel and unusual punishments” on individuals for their criminal acts. Although the definitions of cruel and unusual have expanded over the years, as we will see later in this chapter, the courts have generally and consistently interpreted this provision as making it unconstitutional for government officials to torture suspects. (Note: http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/SOTWDocs/CN/htm/CN.1.htm) Civil Rights Civil Rights on the other hand, are guarantees that government officials will treat people equally and that decisions will be made on the basis of merit rather than race, gender, or other personal characteristics. Because of the Constitution’s civil rights guarantee, it is unlawful for a school or university run by a state government to treat students differently based on their race, ethnicity, age, sex, or national origin. In the 1960s and 1970s, many states had separate schools where only students of a certain race or gender were able to study. However, the courts decided that these policies violated the civil rights of students who could not be admitted because of those rules. (Note: Green v. County School Board of New Kent County, 391 U.S. 430 (1968); Allen v. Wright , 468 U.S. 737 (1984).) Civil Rights are, at the most fundamental level, guarantees by the government that it will treat people equally, particularly people belonging to groups that have historically been denied the same rights and opportunities as others. The proclamation that “all men are created equal” appears in the Declaration of Independence, the due process clause of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, and the Texas Constitution’s Article 1 Section 3a requires that the federal government treat people equally. According to Chief Justice Earl Warren in the Supreme Court case of Bolling v. Sharpe (1954), “discrimination may be so unjustifiable as to be violative of due process.” (Note: Bolling v. Sharpe , 347 U.S. 497 (1954).) We can contrast civil rights with civil liberties, which are limitations on government power designed to protect our fundamental freedoms. For example, the Texas Constitution’s Article 1 Section 13 the application of “cruel and unusual punishments” to those convicted of crimes, a limitation on government power. As another example, the guarantee of equal protection means the laws and the Constitution must be applied on an equal basis, limiting the government’s ability to discriminate or treat some people differently, unless the unequal treatment is based on a valid reason, such as age. A law that imprisons Asian Americans twice as long as Latinos for the same offense, or a law that says people with disabilities don’t have the right to contact members of Congress while other people do, would treat some people differently from others for no valid reason and might well be unconstitutional. According to the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the Equal Protection Clause, “all persons similarly circumstanced shall be treated alike.” (Note: Phyler v. Doe , 457 U.S. 202 (1982); F. S. Royster Guano v. Virginia, 253 U.S. 412 (1920).) • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 1.2 State Political Culture STATE POLITICAL CULTURE Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Compare Daniel Elazar’s three forms of political culture - Describe how cultural differences between the states can shape attitudes about the role of government and citizen participation - Discuss the main criticisms of Daniel Elazar’s theory Some states, such as Alaska, are endowed with natural resources. They can use their oil or natural gas reserves to their advantage to fund education or reduce taxes. Other states, like Florida, are favored with a climate that attracts tourists and retirees each winter, drawing in revenues to support infrastructure improvements throughout the state. These differences can lead to strategic advantages in the economic fortunes of a state, which can translate into differences in the levels of taxes that must be collected from citizens. But their economic fortunes are only one component of what makes individual states unique. Theorists have long proposed that states are also unique as a function of their differing political cultures, or their attitudes and beliefs about the functions and expectations of the government. In the book, American Federalism: A View from the States , Daniel first theorized in 1966 that the United States could be divided into three distinct political cultures: moralistic, individualistic, and traditionalistic. The diffusion of these cultures throughout the United States is attributed to the migratory patterns of immigrants who settled in and spread out across the country from the east to the west coast. These settlers had distinct political and religious values that influenced their beliefs about the proper role of government, the need for citizen involvement in the democratic process, and the role of political parties. Figure 1.7 Daniel Elazar posited that the United States can be divided geographically into three types of political cultures—individualistic, moralistic, and traditionalistic—which spread with the migratory patterns of immigrants across the country. Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. Moralistic Political Culture In Elazar’s framework, states with a moralistic political culture see the government as a means to better society and promote the general welfare. They expect political officials to be honest in their dealings with others, put the interests of the people they serve above their own, and commit to improving the area they represent. The political process is seen in a positive light and not as a vehicle tainted by corruption. In fact, citizens in moralistic cultures have little patience for corruption and believe that politicians should be motivated by a desire to benefit the community rather than by a need to profit financially from service. Moralistic states thus tend to support an expanded role for government. They are more likely to believe government should promote the general welfare by allocating funds to programs that will benefit the poor. In addition, they see it as the duty of public officials to advocate for new programs that will benefit marginal citizens or solve public policy problems, even when public pressure to do so is nonexistent. The moralistic political culture developed among the Puritans in upper New England. After several generations, these settlers moved westward, and their values diffused across the top of the United States to the upper Great Lakes. In the middle of the 1800s, Scandinavians and Northern Europeans joined this group of settlers and reinforced the Puritans’ values. Together, these groups pushed further west through the northern portion of the Midwest and West and then along the West Coast. (Note: Daniel Elazar. 1972. American Federalism: A View from the States , 2nd ed. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company.) States that identify with this culture value citizen engagement and desire citizen participation in all forms of political affairs. In Elazar’s model, citizens from moralistic states should be more likely to donate their time and/or resources to political campaigns and to vote. This occurs for two main reasons. First, state law is likely to make it easier for residents to register and to vote because mass participation is valued. Second, citizens who hail from moralistic states should be more likely to vote because elections are truly contested. In other words, candidates will be less likely to run unopposed and more likely to face genuine competition from a qualified opponent. According to Elazar, the heightened competition is a function of individuals’ believing that public service is a worthwhile endeavor and an honorable profession. Individualistic Political Culture States that align with Elazar’s individualistic political culture see the government as a mechanism for addressing issues that matter to individual citizens and for pursuing individual goals. People in this culture interact with the government, in the same manner, they would interact with a marketplace. They expect the government to provide goods and services they see as essential, and the public officials and bureaucrats who provide them expect to be compensated for their efforts. The focus is on meeting individual needs and private goals rather than on serving the best interests of everyone in the community. New policies will be enacted if politicians can use them to garner support from voters or other interested stakeholders, or if there is great demand for these services on the part of individuals. According to Elazar, the individualist political culture originated with settlers from non-Puritan England and Germany. The first settlements were in the mid-Atlantic region of New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey and diffused into the middle portion of the United States in a fairly straight line from Ohio to Wyoming. Given their focus on pursuing individual objectives, states with an individualistic mindset will tend to advance tax breaks as a way of trying to boost a state’s economy or as a mechanism for promoting individual initiative and entrepreneurship. For instance, New Jersey governor Chris Christie made headlines in 2015 when discussing the incentives he used to attract businesses to the state. Christie encouraged a number of businesses to move to Camden, where unemployment has risen to almost 14 percent, by providing them with hundreds of millions of dollars in tax breaks. (Note: Dean DeChiaro, "$830M in Tax Breaks Later, Christie Says His Camden Plan Won’t Work for America," U.S. News and World Report , 19 August 2015. http://www.usnews.com/news/ articles/2015/08/ 19/830m-in-tax-breaks-later-christie-says-his-camden-plan-wont-work-for-america.) The governor hopes these corporate incentives will spur job creation for citizens who need employment in an economically depressed area of the state. Since this theoretical lens assumes that the objective of politics and the government is to advance individual interests, Elazar argues that individuals are motivated to become engaged in politics only if they have a personal interest in this area or wish to be in charge of the provision of government benefits. They will tend to remain involved if they get enjoyment from their participation or rewards in the form of patronage appointments or financial compensation. As a result of these personal motivations, citizens in individualistic states will tend to be more tolerant of corruption among their political leaders and less likely to see politics as a noble profession in which all citizens should engage. Finally, Elazar argues that in individualistic states, electoral competition does not seek to identify the candidate with the best ideas. Instead it pits against each other political parties that are well organized and compete directly for votes. Voters are loyal to the candidates who hold the same party affiliation they do. As a result, unlike the case in moralistic cultures, voters do not pay much attention to the personalities of the candidates when deciding how to vote and are less tolerant of third-party candidates. Traditionalistic Political Culture Given the prominence of slavery in its formation, a traditionalistic political culture, in Elazar’s argument, sees the government as necessary to maintaining the existing social order, the status quo. Only elites belong in the political enterprise, and as a result, new public policies will be advanced only if they reinforce the beliefs and interests of those in power. Elazar associates traditionalistic political culture with the southern portion of the United States, where it developed in the upper regions of Virginia and Kentucky before spreading to the Deep South and the Southwest. Like the individualistic culture, the traditionalistic culture believes in the importance of the individual. But instead of profiting from corporate ventures, settlers in traditionalistic states tied their economic fortunes to the necessity of slavery on plantations throughout the South. When elected officials do not prioritize public policies that benefit them, those on the social and economic fringes of society can be plagued by poverty and pervasive health problems. For example, although the map below shows that poverty is a problem across the entire United States, the South has the highest incidence. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, "the South (36.3%) had the highest prevalence of obesity, followed by the Midwest (35.4%), the Northeast (29.9%), and the West (28.7%). (Note: "Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity: Data, Trends and Maps," https:// www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/prevalence-maps.html (Sept. 27, 2022).) These statistics present challenges for lawmakers not only in the short term but also in the long term, because they must prioritize fiscal constraints in the face of growing demand for services. Figure 1.8 While the greatest percentage of those living below the poverty line in the United States is found in the South, migration and immigration patterns over the past fifty years have resulted in a significant increase in the percentage of the nation’s poor being located in the West. Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. While moralistic cultures expect and encourage political participation by all citizens, traditionalistic cultures are more likely to see it as a privilege reserved for only those who meet the qualifications. As a result, voter participation will generally be lower in a traditionalistic culture, and there will be more barriers to participation (e.g., a requirement to produce a photo ID at the voting booth). Conservatives argue that these laws reduce or eliminate fraud on the part of voters, while liberals believe they dis-proportionally disenfranchise the poor and minorities and constitute a modern-day poll tax. Finally, under a traditionalistic political culture, Elazar argues that party competition will tend to occur between factions within a dominant party. Historically, the Democratic Party dominated the political structure in the South before realignment during the civil rights era. Today, depending on the office being sought, the parties are more likely to compete for voters. Texas Political Culture and Elazar’s Theory Elazar’s Theory claims that Texas is a mixture of traditional and individualistic political cultures. As a result, the voter turnout in Texas is lower than most other American states, with the argument that Texans view political participation as an economic perk versus the value of contributing to society. Critiques of Elazar’s Theory Several critiques have come to light since Elazar first introduced his theory of state political culture fifty years ago. The original theory rested on the assumption that new cultures could arise with the influx of settlers from different parts of the world; however, since immigration patterns have changed over time, it could be argued that the three cultures no longer match the country’s current reality. Today’s immigrants are less likely to come from European countries and are more likely to originate in Latin American and Asian countries. (Note: Jie Zong and Jeanne Batalova. 26 February 2015. "Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States," http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently-requested-statistics-immigrants-and-immigration-unitedstates.) In addition, advances in technology and transportation have made it easier for citizens to travel across state lines and to relocate. Therefore, the pattern of diffusion on which the original theory rests may no longer be accurate, because people are moving around in more, and often unpredictable, directions. It is also true that people migrate for more reasons than simple economics. They may be motivated by social issues such as widespread unemployment, urban decay, or low-quality health care of schools. Such trends may aggravate existing differences, for example the difference between urban and rural lifestyles (e.g., the city of Atlanta vs. other parts of Georgia, which are not accounted for in Elazar’s classification. Finally, unlike economic or demographic characteristics that lend themselves to more precise measurement, culture is a comprehensive concept that can be difficult to quantify. This can limit its explanatory power in political science research. KEY TERMS: alcalde empresario individualistic political culture mestizo moralistic political culture Tejanos traditionalistic political culture • \| Revision and Adaptation. : Daniel M. Regalado. : CC BY: Attribution \| • \| Texas Political Culture and Elazar's Theory. : Daniel M. Regalado. : CC BY: Attribution Key Terms Daniel Brown : CC BY: Attribution \| 2. Federalism, Division of Powers 2. FEDERALISM DIVISION OF POWERS Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the concept of federalism - Discuss the constitutional logic of federalism - Identify the powers and responsibilities of federal, state, and local governments Modern democracies divide governmental power in two general ways; some, like the United States, use a combination of both structures. The first and more common mechanism shares power among three branches of government—the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. The second, federalism, apportions power between two levels of government: national and subnational. In the United States, the term federal government refers to the government at the national level, while the term states means governments at the subnational level. Federalism Defined and Contrasted Fedarlism is an institutional arrangement that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government, each possessing the capacity to act directly on behalf of the people with the authority granted to it by the national constitution. (Note: See John Kincaid. 1975. "Federalism." In Civitas: A Framework for Civil Education, eds.Charles Quigley and Charles Bahmueller. Calabasas, CA: Center for Civic Education, 391–392; William S. Riker. 1975. "Federalism." In Handbook of Political Science, eds. Fred Greenstein and Nelson Polsby. Reading, MA:Addison-Wesley, 93–172.) Although today’s federal systems vary in design, five structural characteristics are common to the United States and other federal systems around the world, including Germany and Mexico. First, all federal systems establish two levels of government, with both levels being elected by the people and each level assigned different functions. The national government is responsible for handling matters that affect the country as a whole, for example, defending the nation against foreign threats and promoting national economic prosperity. Subnational, or state governments, are responsible for matters that lie within their regions, which include ensuring the well-being of their people by administering education, health care, public safety, and other public services. By definition, a system like this requires that different levels of government cooperate, because the institutions at each level form an interacting network. In the U.S. federal system, all national matters are handled by the federal government, which is led by the president and members of Congress, all of whom are elected by voters across the country. All matters at the subnational level are the responsibility of the fifty states, each headed by an elected governor and legislature. Thus, there is a separation of functions between the federal and state governments, and voters choose the leader at each level. (Note: Garry Willis, ed. 1982. The Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay. New York: Bantam Books, 237.) The second characteristic common to all federal systems is a written national constitution that cannot be changed without the substantial consent of subnational governments. In the American federal system, the twenty-seven amendments added to the Constitution since its adoption were the result of an arduous process that required approval by two-thirds of both houses of Congress and three-fourths of the states. The main advantage of this supermajority requirement is that no changes to the Constitution can occur unless there is broad support within Congress and among states. The potential drawback is that numerous national amendment initiatives—such as the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which aims to guarantee equal rights regardless of sex—have failed because they cannot garner sufficient consent among members of Congress or, in the case of the ERA, the states. Third, the constitutions of countries with federal systems formally allocate legislative, judicial, and executive authority to the two levels of government in such a way as to ensure each level some degree of autonomy from the other. Under the U.S. Constitution, the president assumes executive power, Congress exercises legislative powers, and the federal courts (e.g., U.S. district courts, appellate courts, and the Supreme Court) assume judicial powers. In each of the fifty states, a governor assumes executive authority, a state legislature makes laws, and state-level courts (e.g., trial courts, intermediate appellate courts, and supreme courts) possess judicial authority. While each level of government is somewhat independent of the others, a great deal of interaction occurs among them. In fact, the ability of the federal and state governments to achieve their objectives often depends on the cooperation of the other level of government. For example, the federal government’s efforts to ensure homeland security are bolstered by the involvement of law enforcement agents working at local and state levels. On the other hand, the ability of states to provide their residents with public education and health care is enhanced by the federal government’s financial assistance. Another common characteristic of federalism around the world is that national courts commonly resolve disputes between levels and departments of government. In the United States, conflicts between states and the federal government are adjudicated by federal courts, with the U.S. Supreme Court being the final arbiter. The resolution of such disputes can preserve the autonomy of one level of government, as illustrated recently when the Supreme Court ruled that states cannot interfere with the federal government’s actions relating to immigration. (Note: Arizona v. United States, 567 U.S. __ (2012).) In other instances, a Supreme Court ruling can erode that autonomy, as demonstrated in the 1940s when, in United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co., the Court enabled the federal government to regulate commercial activities that occurred within states, a function previously handled exclusively by the states. (Note: United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co., 315 U.S. 110 (1942).) Finally, subnational governments are always represented in the upper house of the national legislature, enabling regional interests to influence national lawmaking. (Note: Ronald L. Watts. 1999. Comparing Federal Systems, 2nd ed. Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen’s University, 6–7; Daniel J. Elazar. 1992. Federal Systems of the World: A Handbook of Federal, Confederal and Autonomy Arrangements. Harlow, Essex: Longman Current Affairs.) In the American federal system, the U.S. Senate functions as a territorial body by representing the fifty states: Each state elects two senators to ensure equal representation regardless of state population differences. Thus, federal laws are shaped in part by state interests, which senators convey to the federal policymaking process. Division of power can also occur via a unitary structure or confederation. In contrast to federalism, a unitary system makes subnational governments dependent on the national government, where significant authority is concentrated. Before the late 1990s, the United Kingdom’s unitary system was centralized to the extent that the national government held the most important levers of power. Since then, power has been gradually decentralized through a process of devolution, leading to the creation of regional governments in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland as well as the delegation of specific responsibilities to them. Other democratic countries with unitary systems, such as France, Japan, and Sweden, have followed a similar path of decentralization. Figure 2.1. There are three general systems of government—unitary systems, federations, and confederations—each of which allocates power differently. Public Domain In a confederation, authority is decentralized, and the central government’s ability to act depends on the consent of the subnational governments. Under the Articles of Confederation (the first constitution of the United States), states were sovereign and powerful while the national government was subordinate and weak. Because states were reluctant to give up any of their power, the national government lacked authority in the face of challenges such as servicing the war debt, ending commercial disputes among states, negotiating trade agreements with other countries, and addressing popular uprisings that were sweeping the country. As the brief American experience with confederation clearly shows, the main drawback with this system of government is that it maximizes regional self-rule at the expense of effective national governance. Federalism and the Constitution The Constitution contains several provisions that direct the functioning of U.S. federalism. Some delineate the scope of national and state power, while others restrict it. The remaining provisions shape relationships among the states and between the states and the federal government. he enumerated powers of the national legislature are found in Article I, Section 8. These powers define the jurisdictional boundaries within which the federal government has authority. In seeking not to replay the problems that plagued the young country under the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution’s framers granted Congress specific powers that ensured its authority over national and foreign affairs. To provide for the general welfare of the populace, it can tax, borrow money, regulate interstate and foreign commerce, and protect property rights, for example. To provide for the common defense of the people, the federal government can raise and support armies and declare war. Furthermore, national integration and unity are fostered with the government’s powers over the coining of money, naturalization, postal services, and other responsibilities. The last clause of Article I, Section 8, commonly referred to as the elastic clause or the necessary and proper cause , enables Congress “to make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying” out its constitutional responsibilities. While the enumerated powers define the policy areas in which the national government has authority, the elastic clause allows it to create the legal means to fulfill those responsibilities. However, the open-ended construction of this clause has enabled the national government to expand its authority beyond what is specified in the Constitution, a development also motivated by the expansive interpretation of the commerce clause, which empowers the federal government to regulate interstate economic transactions. The powers of the state governments were never listed in the original Constitution. The consensus among the framers was that states would retain any powers not prohibited by the Constitution or delegated to the national government. (Note: Jack Rakove. 2007. James Madison and the Creation of the American Republic. New York: Pearson; Samuel H. Beer. 1998. To Make a Nation: The Rediscovery of American Federalism . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.) However, when it came time to ratify the Constitution, a number of states requested that an amendment be added explicitly identifying the reserved powers of the states. What these Anti-Federalists sought was further assurance that the national government’s capacity to act directly on behalf of the people would be restricted, which the first ten amendments (Bill of Rights) provided. The 10th Amendment affirms the states’ reserved powers: “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” Indeed, state constitutions had bills of rights, which the first Congress used as the source for the first ten amendments to the Constitution. Some of the states’ reserved powers are no longer exclusively within state domain, however. For example, since the 1940s, the federal government has also engaged in administering health, safety, income security, education, and welfare to state residents. The boundary between intrastate and interstate commerce has become indefinable as a result of broad interpretation of the commerce clause. Shared and overlapping powers have become an integral part of contemporary U.S. federalism. These concurrent powers range from taxing, borrowing, and making and enforcing laws to establishing court systems. (Note: Elton E. Richter. 1929. "Exclusive and Concurrent Powers in the Federal Constitution," Notre Dame Law Review 4, No. 8: 513–542. http://scholarship.law.nd.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4416&context=ndlr) Article I, Sections 9 and 10, along with several constitutional amendments, lay out the restrictions on federal and state authority. The most important restriction Section 9 places on the national government prevents measures that cause the deprivation of personal liberty. Specifically, the government cannot suspend the writ of habeas corpus, which enables someone in custody to petition a judge to determine whether that person’s detention is legal; pass a bill of attainder a legislative action declaring someone guilty without a trial; or enact an ex post facto law which criminalizes an act retroactively. The Bill of Rights affirms and expands these constitutional restrictions, ensuring that the government cannot encroach on personal freedoms. Figure 2.2. Constitutional powers and responsibilities are divided between the U.S. federal and state governments. The two levels of government also share concurrent powers. Public Domain. The states are also constrained by the Constitution. Article I, Section 10, prohibits the states from entering into treaties with other countries, coining money, and levying taxes on imports and exports. Like the federal government, the states cannot violate personal freedoms by suspending the writ of habeas corpus, passing bills of attainder, or enacting ex post facto laws. Furthermore, the 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, prohibits the states from denying citizens the rights to which they are entitled by the Constitution, due process of law, or the equal protection of the laws. Lastly, three civil rights amendments—the Fifteenth, Nineteenth, and Twenty Sixth—prevent both the states and the federal government from abridging citizens’ right to vote based on race, sex, and age. This topic remains controversial because states have not always ensured equal protection. The supremacy clause in Article VI of the Constitution regulates relationships between the federal and state governments by declaring that the Constitution and federal law are the supreme law of the land. This means that if a state law clashes with a federal law found to be within the national government’s constitutional authority, the federal law prevails. The intent of the supremacy clause is not to subordinate the states to the federal government; rather, it affirms that one body of laws binds the country. In fact, all national and state government officials are bound by oath to uphold the Constitution regardless of the offices they hold. Yet enforcement is not always that simple. In the case of marijuana use, which the federal government defines to be illegal, twenty-three states and the District of Columbia have nevertheless established medical marijuana laws, others have decriminalized its recreational use, and four states have completely legalized it. The federal government could act in this area if it wanted to. For example, in addition to the legalization issue, there is the question of how to treat the money from marijuana sales, which the national government designates as drug money and regulates under laws regarding its deposit in banks. The Distribution of Finances Federal, state, and local governments depend on different sources of revenue to finance their annual expenditures. "In FY 2023, total US government revenue, federal, state, and local, is “guesstimated” to be $8.59 trillion, with federal $4.8 trillion; state $2.18 trillion; local $1.61 trillion." (Note: Data reported by http://www.usgovernmentrevenue.com/federal_revenue.) Two important developments have fundamentally changed the allocation of revenue since the early 1900s. First, the ratification of the 16th Amendment in 1913 authorized Congress to impose income taxes without apportioning it among the states on the basis of population, a burdensome provision that Article I, Section 9, had imposed on the national government. (Note: Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust Co., 158 U.S. 601 (1895).) With this change, the federal government’s ability to raise revenue significantly increased and so did its ability to spend. The second development regulates federal grants, that is, transfers of federal money to state and local governments. These transfers, which do not have to be repaid, are designed to support the activities of the recipient governments, but also to encourage them to pursue federal policy objectives they might not otherwise adopt. The expansion of the federal government’s spending power has enabled it to transfer more grant money to lower government levels, which has accounted for an increasing share of their total revenue.(Note: See Robert Jay Dilger, "Federal Grants to State and Local Governments: A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Issues," Congressional Research Service, Report 40638, 22 May 2019. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R40638) The sources of revenue for federal, state, and local governments are detailed in Figure 3. Although the data reflect 2013 results, the patterns we see in the figure give us a good idea of how governments have funded their activities in recent years. For the federal government, 47 percent of 2013 revenue came from individual income taxes and 34 percent from payroll taxes, which combine SS and Medicare tax. Figure 2.3. As these charts indicate, federal, state, and local governments raise revenue from different sources. Public Domain. https://www.usgovernmentrevenue.com/year_revenue_2023USbs_24bs1n For state governments, 50 percent of revenue came from taxes, while 30 percent consisted of federal grants. Sales tax—which includes taxes on purchased food, clothing, alcohol, amusements, insurance, motor fuels, tobacco products, and public utilities, for example—accounted for about 47 percent of total tax revenue, and individual income taxes represented roughly 35 percent. Revenue from service charges (e.g., tuition revenue from public universities and fees for hospital-related services accounted for 11 percent. The tax structure of states varies. Alaska, Florida, Nevada, South Dakota, Texas, Washington, and Wyoming do not have individual income taxes. Figure 2.4 illustrates yet another difference: Fuel tax across the United States. Fuel tax revenue is typically used to finance state highway transportation projects, although some states do use it to fund non-transportation projects. Figure 2.4. Fuel Taxes across states. Public Domain. By Wikideas1 - Own work https://www.taxadmin.org/assets/docs/Research/Rates/mf.pdfLiberationreport.com, CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. The most important sources of revenue for local governments in 2022 were taxes, federal and state grants, and service charges. Local governments in Texas rely heavily on property tax revenue to pay for salaries of police officers and firefighters, as well as for government services including roads, libraries and public schools. According to the comptroller’s office, property tax collections have risen more than 20% since 2017. Federal and state grants accounted for 37 percent of local government revenue. State grants made up 87 percent of total local grants. In 2019, state lawmakers passed two pieces of legislation to address rising property taxes and, they said, to create more transparency for Texas homeowners. The bills, which were signed into law by Gov. Greg Abbott, require taxing bodies such as counties and cities to win voter approval if they want to raise property tax revenues more than 3.5% from the previous year’s tax base. Under the new legislation, school districts are essentially limited to 2.5% growth in tax revenue each year. Prior to this the regulation only allow an increase of 1% without voter approval. Charges for hospital-related services, sewage and solid-waste management, public city university tuition, and airport services are important sources of general revenue for local governments, these are know as Municipal Utility Districts. The bulk of the stimulus funds apportioned to state and local governments was used to create and protect existing jobs through public works projects and to fund various public welfare programs such as unemployment insurance. (Note: James Feyrer and Bruce Sacerdote. 2011. "Did the Stimulus Stimulate? Real Time Estimates of the Effects of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act" (Working Paper No. 16759), Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. http://www.nber.org/papers/w16759.pdf) How are the revenues generated by our tax dollars, fees we pay to use public services and obtain licenses, and monies from other sources put to use by the different levels of government? A good starting point to gain insight on this question as it relates to the federal government is Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution. Recall, for instance, that the Constitution assigns the federal government various powers that allow it to affect the nation as a whole. A look at the federal budget in 2014 shows that the three largest spending categories were Social Security (24 percent of the total budget); Medicare, Medicaid, the Children’s Health Insurance Program, and marketplace subsidies under the Affordable Care Act (24 percent); and defense and international security assistance (18 percent). The rest was divided among categories such as safety net programs (11 percent), including the Earned Income Tax Credit and Child Tax Credit, unemployment insurance, food stamps, and other low-income assistance programs; interest on federal debt (7 percent); benefits for federal retirees and veterans (8 percent); and transportation infrastructure (3 percent). (Note: Data reported by the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. 2015. "Policy Basics: Where Do Our Federal Tax Dollars Go?" March 11. http://www.cbpp.org/research/policybasics-where-do-our-federal-tax-dollars-go) It is clear from the 2022 federal budget that providing for the general welfare and national defense consumes much of the government’s resources—not just its revenue, but also its administrative capacity and labor power. Figure 2.5. CBO: U.S. Federal spending and revenue components for fiscal year 2023. Major expenditure categories are healthcare, Social Security, and defense; income and payroll taxes are the primary revenue sources. Public Domain. https://www.usgovernmentspending.com/us_fed_spending_pie_chart Figure 2.6 compares recent spending activities of local and state governments. Educational expenditures constitute a major category for both. However, whereas the states spend comparatively more than local governments on university education, local governments spend even more on elementary and secondary education. That said, nationwide, state funding for public higher education has declined as a percentage of university revenues; this is primarily because states have taken in lower amounts of sales taxes as Internet commerce has increased. Local governments allocate more funds to police protection, fire protection, housing and community development, and public utilities such as water, sewage, and electricity. And while state governments allocate comparatively more funds to public welfare programs, such as health care, income support, and highways, both local and state governments spend roughly similar amounts on judicial and legal services and correctional services. Figure 2.6. This list includes some of the largest expenditure items for state and local governments. Public Domain. https://www.usgovernmentspending.com/US_statelocal_spending_pie_chart Federalism is a system of government that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government, each possessing authority granted to them by the national constitution. Federal systems like the one in the United States are different from unitary systems, which concentrate authority in the national government, and from confederations, which concentrate authority in subnational governments. The U.S. Constitution allocates powers to the states and federal government, structures the relationship between these two levels of government, and guides state-to-state relationships. Federal, state, and local governments rely on different sources of revenue to enable them to fulfill their public responsibilities. • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 2.2 The Evolution of Federalism THE EVOLUTION OF FEDERALISM Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe how federalism has evolved in the United States - Compare different conceptions of federalism The Constitution sketches a federal framework that aims to balance the forces of decentralized and centralized governance in general terms; it does not flesh out standard operating procedures that say precisely how the states and federal governments are to handle all policy contingencies imaginable. Therefore, officials at the state and national levels have had some room to maneuver as they operate within the Constitution’s federal design. This has led to changes in the configuration of federalism over time, changes corresponding to different historical phases that capture distinct balances between state and federal authority. The Struggle Between National Power and State Power As George Washington’s secretary of the treasury from 1789 to 1795, Alexander championed legislative efforts to create a publicly chartered bank. For Hamilton, the establishment of the was fully within Congress’s authority, and he hoped the bank would foster economic development, print and circulate paper money, and provide loans to the government. Although Thomas , Washington’s secretary of state, staunchly opposed Hamilton’s plan on the constitutional grounds that the national government had no authority to create such an instrument, Hamilton managed to convince the reluctant president to sign the legislation. (Note: The Lehrman Institute. "The Founding Trio: Washington, Hamilton and Jefferson." http://lehrmaninstitute.org/ history/FoundingTrio.asp) When the bank’s charter expired in 1811, Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans prevailed in blocking its renewal. However, the fiscal hardships that plagued the government during the War of 1812, coupled with the fragility of the country’s financial system, convinced Congress and then-president James to create the 2nd Bank pf the US in 1816. Many states rejected the Second Bank, arguing that the national government was infringing upon the states’ constitutional jurisdiction. A political showdown between Maryland and the national government emerged when James McCulloch, an agent for the Baltimore branch of the Second Bank, refused to pay a tax that Maryland had imposed on all out-of-state chartered banks. The standoff raised two constitutional questions: Did Congress have the authority to charter a national bank? Were states allowed to tax federal property? In McCulloch v. Maryland, Chief Justice John h ll argued that Congress could create a national bank even though the Constitution did not expressly authorize it. (Note: McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. 316 (1819).) Under the necessary and proper clause of Article 1, Section 8, the Supreme Court asserted that Congress could establish “all means which are appropriate” to fulfill “the legitimate ends” of the Constitution. In other words, the bank was an appropriate instrument that enabled the national government to carry out several of its enumerated powers, such as regulating interstate commerce, collecting taxes, and borrowing money. The period between 1819 and the 1860s demonstrated that the national government sought to establish its role within the newly created federal design, which in turn often provoked the states to resist as they sought to protect their interests. With the exception of the Civil War, the Supreme Court settled the power struggles between the states and national government. From a historical perspective, the national supremacy principle introduced during this period did not so much narrow the states’ scope of constitutional authority as restrict their encroachment on national powers. (Note: Joseph R. Marbach, Troy E. Smith, and Ellis Katz. 2005. Federalism in America: An Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing.) Dual Federalism The late 1870s ushered in a new phase in the evolution of U.S. federalism. Under , the states and national government exercise exclusive authority in distinctly delineated spheres of jurisdiction. Like the layers of a cake, the levels of government do not blend with one another but rather are clearly defined. Two factors contributed to the emergence of this conception of federalism. First, several Supreme Court rulings blocked attempts by both state and federal governments to step outside their jurisdictional boundaries. Second, the prevailing economic philosophy at the time loathed government interference in the process of industrial development. Industrialization changed the socioeconomic landscape of the United States. One of its adverse effects was the concentration of market power. Because there was no national regulatory supervision to ensure fairness in market practices, collusive behavior among powerful firms emerged in several industries. (Note: Marc Allen Eisner. 2014. The American Political Economy: Institutional Evolution of Market and State. New York: Routledge.) The new federal regulatory regime was dealt a legal blow early in its existence. In 1895, in United States v. E. C. Knight, the Supreme Court ruled that the national government lacked the authority to regulate manufacturing. (Note: United States v. E. C. Knight, 156 U.S. 1 (1895).) The case came about when the government, using its regulatory power under the Sherman Act, attempted to override American Sugar’s purchase of four sugar refineries, which would give the company a commanding share of the industry. Distinguishing between commerce among states and the production of goods, the court argued that the national government’s regulatory authority applied only to commercial activities. If manufacturing activities fell within the purview of the commerce clause of the Constitution, then “comparatively little of business operations would be left for state control,” the court argued. Cooperative Federalism The Great Depression of the 1930s brought economic hardships the nation had never witnessed before. Between 1929 and 1933, the national unemployment rate reached 25 percent, industrial output dropped by half, stock market assets lost more than half their value, thousands of banks went out of business, and the gross domestic product shrunk by one-quarter. (Note: Nicholas Crafts and Peter Fearon. 2010. "Lessons from the 1930s Great Depression," Oxford Review of Economic Policy 26: 286–287; Gene Smiley. "The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics: Great Depression." http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html) Given the magnitude of the economic depression, there was pressure on the national government to coordinate a robust national response along with the states. While the era of cooperative federalism witnessed a broadening of federal powers in concurrent and state policy domains, it is also the era of a deepening coordination between the states and the federal government in Washington. Nowhere is this clearer than with respect to the social welfare and social insurance programs created during the New Deal and Great Society eras, most of which are administered by both state and federal authorities and are jointly funded. Thus, the era of cooperative federalism left two lasting attributes on federalism in the United States. First, a nationalization of politics emerged as a result of federal legislative activism aimed at addressing national problems such as marketplace inefficiencies, social and political inequality, and poverty. The nationalization process expanded the size of the federal administrative apparatus and increased the flow of federal grants to state and local authorities, which have helped offset the financial costs of maintaining a host of New Deal- and Great Society–era programs. The second lasting attribute is the flexibility that states and local authorities were given in the implementation of federal social welfare programs. One consequence of administrative flexibility, however, is that it has led to cross-state differences in the levels of benefits and coverage. (Note: R. Kent Weaver. 2000. Ending Welfare as We Know It. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.) New Federalism During the administrations of Presidents Richard Nixon (1969–1974) and Ronald Reagan (1981–1989), attempts were made to reverse the process of nationalization—that is, to restore states’ prominence in policy areas into which the federal government had moved in the past. New federalism is premised on the idea that the decentralization of policies enhances administrative efficiency, reduces overall public spending, and improves policy outcomes. However, Reagan’s track record in promoting new federalism was inconsistent. This was partly due to the fact that the president’s devolution agenda met some opposition from Democrats in Congress, moderate Republicans, and interest groups, preventing him from making further advances on that front. For example, his efforts to completely devolve Aid to Families With Dependent Children (a New Deal-era program) and food stamps (a Great Society-era program) to the states were rejected by members of Congress, who feared states would underfund both programs, and by members of the National Governors’ Association, who believed the proposal would be too costly for states. Reagan terminated general revenue sharing in 1986. (Note: Dilger, "Federal Grants to State and Local Governments," 30–31.) Several Supreme Court rulings also promoted new federalism by hemming in the scope of the national government’s power, especially under the commerce clause. For example, in United States v. Lopez , the court struck down the of 1990 Gun-Free School Zones Act, which banned gun possession in school zones. It argued that the regulation in question did not “substantively affect interstate commerce.” The ruling ended a nearly sixty-year period in which the court had used a broad interpretation of the commerce clause that by the 1960s allowed it to regulate numerous local commercial activities. (Note: United States v. Lopez , 514 U.S. 549 (1995).) he Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act (Brady Bill) required "local chief law enforcement officers" (CLEOs) to perform background-checks on prospective handgun purchasers, until such time as the Attorney General establishes a federal system for this purpose. County sheriffs Jay Printz and Richard Mack, separately challenged the constitutionality of this interim provision of the Brady Bill on behalf of CLEOs in Montana and Arizona respectively. The Court concluded that the Necessary and Proper Clause does not empower th eCongress to compel state CLEOs to fulfill its federal tasks for it - even temporarily.(Note: See Printz v. United States , 521 U.S. 898 (1997).) Federalism in Action: Campus Carry On August 1, 1966, Charles Whitman climbed to the top of the clock tower at the University of Texas at Austin (UT Austin) and started shooting people in what is widely considered to be the first mass shooting in the United States. Exactly fifty years later, in 2016, a new law went into effect that required all public universities in Texas to allow individuals with concealed carry licenses to bring guns onto college campuses. The law, commonly referred to as campus carry, was passed in 2015 by the Texas Legislature. Among the issues in the campus carry debate is which level of government should pass laws relating to guns. The federal government has enacted several laws restricting guns, such as the National Firearms Act of 1934, mandating the registration and restricting the sale of certain types of firearms, and the Gun Control Act of 1968, regulating interstate commerce of firearms. Individual states have passed additional legislation, such as Texas’s campus carry law. The matter of gun legislation in Texas isn’t just one between the federal and state governments, however. Campus carry also involves a fight over elements of local control. The original campus carry legislation included a provision that allowed public universities to opt out, and several campuses across Texas indicated they would likely do that. But when the legislation was reintroduced in the 84th legislative session, that option was notably absent. In the Texas debate over campus carry, much of the pushback concerns the opt-out option. Cooperative Federalism versus New Federalism Morton Grodzins coined the cake analogy of federalism in the 1950s while conducting research on the evolution of American federalism. Until then most scholars had thought of federalism as a layer cake, but according to Grodzins the 1930s ushered in “marble-cake federalism”: “The American form of government is often, but erroneously, symbolized by a three-layer cake. A far more accurate image is the rainbow or marble cake, characterized by an inseparable mingling of differently colored ingredients, the colors appearing in vertical and diagonal strands and unexpected whirls. As colors are mixed in the marble cake, so functions are mixed in the American federal system.” (Note: Morton Grodzins. 2004. "The Federal System." In American Government Readings and Cases, ed. P. Woll. New York: Pearson Longman, 74–78.) Federalism in the United States has gone through several phases of evolution during which the relationship between the federal and state governments has varied. In the era of dual federalism, both levels of government stayed within their own jurisdictional spheres. During the era of cooperative federalism, the federal government became active in policy areas previously handled by the states. The 1970s ushered in an era of new federalism and attempts to decentralize policy management. The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Obergefell v. Hodges in 2015 made same-sex marriage legal in the United States and, in effect, overturned the Proposition 2 state constitutional ban in Texas by declaring that same-sex marriage is part of the fundamental right to marry and cannot be banned in the United States. Some states and municipalities responded with laws to protect state and local officials who do not wish to issue marriage licenses or perform civil marriage ceremonies for same-sex couples. Vertical Federalism and the Limits on Federal Commerce and Spending Power. Vertical federalism protects our liberties and makes us the envy of the world, first, because the states are an important counterbalance to the federal government. The framers used power to limit power. Second, because when the independent states go their independent ways they implement what the economists call the “wisdom of crowds.” States retain some reserved power that the federal government cannot reach. The term, “states’ rights” or “state sovereignty” became a code word of racial segregation in the 1940s and 1950s, when Southern politicians used it to justify “separate but equal.” We often forget that the original (and present) purpose of “states’ right” is not to protect states, as incorporeal entities. The purpose of states’ rights is to protect us, the people. James Madison wrote that our system of federalism provides “a double security . . . to the rights of the people.” The thirteen states then, and the fifty states now, are shields to protect individual rights. The most recent case demonstrating that there are limits to the federal power over commerce and the federal power to attach conditions to federal spending is National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius. Granted, the Court (5 to 4) upheld the constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act, popularly called Obamacare. However, to reach that result, the majority engaged in a creative reinterpretation of the statute— reading the law so that what the statute says is not a tax is really a tax. Later, the Court reinterpreted the law so that it read “state” to mean “state or federal”—again, to save the law. The Court’s multiple exercises in dramatic statutory reinterpretation should not mask the significant holding that a clear majority in Sebelius did embrace. First, the Court held (5 to 4) that Congress does not have the constitutional power under the Commerce Clause to regulate omissions (the failure to buy medical insurance) because an omission is not a commercial act. Omissions are not commerce and an omission is not an act; it is just an omission, the failure to act. Second, the Court held (6 to 2), for the first time, that Congress exceeded its power under the Spending Clause. (See Ronald D. Rotunda, Vertical Federalism, the New States’ Rights, and the Wisdom of Crowds, 11 FIU L. Rev. 307 pp.308-309 (2016). Coercive Federalism Coercive federalism is a period of American federalism that began in the late 1960's. It is characterized by substantial growth in the power of the federal government relative to the states and by the ability of the federal government to override state powers and impose policies on the states. The term refers to the predominant mode of federal-state relations, especially in policy making, and does not exclude elements of cooperative and dual federalism that still operate in the federal system. Coercive federalism has ten significant characteristics. One has been an unprecedented increase of policy conditions attached to grants-in-aid, conditions that enable the federal government to achieve national objectives that lie beyond Congress’s constitutionally enumerated powers and also to extract more spending on federal objectives from state and local governments. An example is the 21-year-old alcoholic-beverage purchase-age condition attached to federal highway aid in 1984. Any state that does not increase the drinking age to 21 will lose up to 10 percent of its federal highway funding per year. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld this condition as being non-coercive in South Dakota v. Dole (1987). Only once has the Court struck down a condition of aid as being coercive (in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, 2012). Second, there was a sharp rise in congressional earmarking of specific projects in grants-in-aid, thus denying discretion to state and local officials. The number of earmarks increased from under 2,000 in 1998 to thousands more by 2011. Congress officially prohibited earmarking in 2011 due to public criticism of fiscal wastefulness; however, Congress revived earmarks in 2021. Third, federal aid has shifted substantially from places to persons; that is, almost three-quarters of federal aid is now dedicated for payments to individuals (i.e., social welfare). For example, Medicaid alone accounts for about 65 percent of all federal aid. As a result, place-oriented aid for such functions as infrastructure, economic development, criminal justice, and education has declined steeply, and increased aid for social welfare has locked state budgets into programs subject to rising federal regulation and matching state costs. On average, Medicaid is the single largest category of state spending. Mandates are a fourth characteristic of coercive federalism. Congress enacted one major mandate in 1931, one in 1940, none during 1941–63, nine during 1964–69, twenty-five during the 1970's, and twenty-seven in the 1980's. The Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995 sharply cut new expensive unfunded mandate enactments, but did not eliminate standing mandates and new less costly mandates. According to the Congressional Budget Office, Congress enacted 57 intergovernmental mandates in 1997-99, 240 in 2000-09, and 308 in 2010-19. Fifth, federal preemptions of state powers have risen to historically unprecedented levels. From 1970 to 2014, a period of 45 years, Congress enacted 522 explicit preemptions compared to 206 preemptions enacted from 1789 to 1969, a period of 181 years. No post-2014 count is available, but most observers agree that Congress continues to enact large numbers of preemptions. In turn, preemptions are frequently upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court. A sixth feature of coercive federalism has been federal constraints on [tax competition\|state taxation and borrowing]], beginning especially with the enactment of limits on tax-exempt private activity bonds in 1984. Federal judicial and statutory prohibitions of state taxation of Internet services and sales are among the most prominent, current constraints. National Bellas Hess v. Department of Revenue of Illinois (1967) and Quill v. North Dakota (1992) prohibited states from requiring all out-of-state mail-order vendors to collect state and local sales taxes on purchases made by states’ residents. However, in South Dakota v. Wayfair (2018), the Court opened the door for such taxation. The Internet Tax Freedom Act (2015) permanently bans many forms of state and local taxation of the Internet. The ban had been initiated by temporary legislation in 1998 and renewed periodically. The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 limited the state and local government tax deduction for federal taxpayers. This was the first time Congress limited this deduction since enactment of the first federal income-tax in 1862 and today’s income-tax in 1913. A seventh characteristic has been the federalization of state criminal law. There are now more than 4,500 federal criminal offenses, over half of which have been enacted since the mid-1960s. The number of federal prisoners increased from about 20,000 in 1981 to about 226,000 in 2019 after peaking at more than 219,000 in 2013, and the number of federal prosecutors jumped from 1,500 in 1981 to more than 7,000. Generally, federal criminal laws (e.g., drug laws) require longer prison sentences than comparable state laws and make prosecutions and convictions easier than under state laws. Coercive federalism has been marked, as well, by the demise of executive and congressional intergovernmental institutions established during the era of cooperative federalism to enhance cooperation. Most notable was the death of the U.S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (ACIR) in 1996 after thirty-seven years of operation. Ninth, there has been a decline in federal-state cooperation in major grant programs such as Medicaid and surface transportation, with Congress earmarking and altering programs more in response to national and regional interest groups than to elected state and local officials. Tenth, coercive federalism has been marked by unprecedented numbers of federal court orders and large numbers of lawsuits filed against state and local governments in federal courts. Although federal court orders dictating major and costly changes in such institutions as schools, prisons, and mental health facilities have declined since the early 1990's, state and local governments are subject to high levels of litigation in federal courts, with various interests often trying to block major state policy initiatives through litigation. The U.S. Supreme Court resurrected the Eleventh Amendment in the 1990's to restrain some types of such litigation, but the Court’s decisions have been quite limited. (See John Kincaid, “The Rise of Social Welfare and Onward March of Coercive Federalism,” Networked Governance: The Future of Intergovernmental Management, eds., Jack W. Meek and Kurt Thurmaier. Los Angeles: Sage/CQ Press, 2011, pp. 8-38; John Kincaid, “From Cooperation to Coercion in American Federalism: Housing, Fragmentation, and Preemption, 1780–1992,” Journal of Law and Politics 9 (Winter 1993): 333–433; John Kincaid, “From Cooperative to Coercive Federalism,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 509 (May 1990): 139–52; and Congressional Budget Office’s annual report, Activities Under the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act.) KEY TERMS: bill of attainder bill of rights coercive federalism concurrent powers cooperative federalism devolution dual federalism elastic clause enumerated powers ex post facto law federalism new federalism reserved powers unitary systems writ of habeas corpus • • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| • \| Key Terms \| : Daniel Brown \| 3. The Texas Legislature, Qualifications and Organization 3. THE TEXAS LEGISLATURE QUALIFICATIONS AND ORGANIZATION \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Structure of Texas Legislature & Congressional Districts Article 3 of the Texas Constitution describes the legislative department (branch) of Texas. Texas Legislature utilizes a system with the Texas Senate being the upper house, and the Texas House of Representatives the lower house. There are a total of 181 members of the Texas Legislature: 31 Senators, and 150 members of the House. Texas uses “single-member districts,” meaning each member of the Texas Legislature represents one congressional district. Every ten years, after the U.S. census, the congressional districts are redrawn to maintain proportional representation (This is also called reapportionment). (Note: https://dvr.capitol.texas.gov/Senate/56/PLANS2168) (Note: https://dvr.capitol.texas.gov/House/56/PLANH2316) The redistricting process in Texas is as follows: 1. U.S. Census conducted every 10 years and data is delivered to the Texas Legislator no later than April 1st of the year following the census; 2. Texas Legislature begins to draw plans and enact a bill for the new state congressional district lines; 3. If Legislature cannot enact a new congressional district map during the first regular session after the census has been conducted, then the Legislative Redistricting Board (LRB) becomes responsible for reapportionment (Note: Texas Constitution, Article 3, Section 28 (1951) created the LRB). The LRB is made up of the: Lieutenant Governor, Speaker of the House, Attorney General, Comptroller, and Commission of the General Land Office. (Note: http://www.tlc.state.tx.us/redist/process/LRB.html) Texas Legislature uses biennial sessions which means they meet every two years on odd-numbered years, for 140 days. The Governor has the power to call a special session outside of the “140 days.” Texas Legislature has two presiding officers: The Lieutenant Governor (currently Dan Patrick), who is elected by Texans, presides over the Texas Senate. The Speaker of the House (currently Dade Phelan, is elected by members of the Texas House of Representatives, presides over the lower house. The President pro tempore of the Texas Senate is Sen. Joan Huffman (Note: http://www.capitol.state.tx.us/). Qualifications to become a member of Texas Legislature The following are the legal requirements in order for someone to meet the qualifications to become a member of the Texas Legislature. The Texas Ethics Commission sets the Texas legislators annual salary at $7,200, plus a per diem for every day they are in session. The Lt. Governor's salary is also set by the Ethics Commission at $7,200 a year. (Note: http://www.sos.state.tx.us/elections/candidates/guide/qualifications.shtml#b) - Texas Senator ◦ U.S. Citizen ◦ 5 years as a resident of Texas ◦ 12 months as a resident of their District ◦ At least 26 years old ◦ 4 year terms with unlimited term limit - Texas Representative (House) ◦ U.S. Citizen ◦ 2 years as a resident of Texas ◦ 12 months as a resident of their District ◦ At least 21 years old ◦ 2 year terms with unlimited term limit • \| Qualifications and Organization. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 3.1 The Legislative Process in Texas The Legislative Process in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to explain how legislation is passed in the Texas Legislature. The Texas legislative process is governed by the Texas Constitution and applicable statutes (available on the Texas Constitution and Statutes web page) and by the rules of procedure of the Senate and House of Representatives that are adopted at the beginning of a regular session. This publication provides a general summary of the different phases of the legislative process. The process described specifies “bill,” although resolutions follow similar steps. See the subsequent discussion regarding the legislative process for joint resolutions, concurrent resolutions, and simple resolutions for differences specific to those documents. HOW A BILL ORIGINATES The bill is the most common type of legislative document and is the only means by which a law may be enacted, amended, or repealed. Only a legislator may introduce a bill into the legislative process, although the idea for a bill may originate from a source other than the legislator, such as an interested outside party or the findings of a committee study. The text of a bill may be drafted by the legislator personally (see the Texas Legislative Council Drafting Manual), by an interested outside party, or, as is often the case, by the professional staff of the Texas Legislative Council or another appropriate legislative entity. INTRODUCING A BILL A bill is first introduced by a legislator in the legislator’s own chamber, which is considered the bill’s originating chamber. Following the passage of the bill by that chamber, the bill moves to the opposite chamber for approval before proceeding to the governor. The steps in a bill’s progress are basically the same in each chamber, with many opportunities for the amendment or defeat of the bill. To introduce a bill, a legislator must file the bill with the chief clerk of the House or the secretary of the Senate, as appropriate. Bill filing for a regular legislative session begins the first Monday after the general election preceding the session and continues unrestricted through the first 60 calendar days of the session. After the 60-day deadline, the introduction of any bill, other than a local bill, an emergency appropriations bill, or a bill to address emergency matters submitted by the governor, requires the consent of at least four-fifths of those representatives present and voting if the bill is to be introduced in the House, or the consent of at least four-fifths of the members of the Senate if the bill is to be introduced in the Senate. THE ROLE OF COMMITTEES The size of the legislature and the volume of work confronting it each session make lengthy deliberation on all proposed measures by the entire membership a difficult task. For this reason, the basic business in both chambers is conducted according to the committee system. Each chamber’s rules provide for the creation of committees to consider introduced bills and advise on their disposition, and committees are formed at the beginning of each regular session. Although nearly all bills are referred to a committee, a large number of bills are never reported out of committee and are considered to have “died” in committee. For most House committees, membership is determined in part by seniority and in part by appointments by the speaker of the House. Each representative sits on at least one committee, while most sit on two or three. For Senate committees, membership is determined entirely by appointments by the lieutenant governor, and senators generally sit on four or five committees. REFERRAL TO A COMMITTEE When a bill is introduced or received from the opposite chamber for consideration, it is officially read into the record, using its caption only, and is referred by the speaker or lieutenant governor to an appropriate committee. In the House rules, each committee is assigned jurisdiction over a specific subject matter, and the speaker refers legislation to House committees based on those subject matter jurisdictions. While the Senate rules do not specify subject matter jurisdictions for Senate committees, the lieutenant governor is required to refer bills to a “proper” Senate committee, and in practice unofficial subject matter jurisdictions are usually followed. After a bill has been referred to a House committee, the committee chair must make a determination as to whether a fiscal note or other impact statement is required, and if so, the Legislative Budget Board (LBB) prepares the note or statement. For bills referred to Senate committees, fiscal notes are automatically prepared by the LBB, and other impact statements are prepared at the discretion of the LBB. Additionally, the House rules require the preparation of a bill analysis for bills considered in a committee meeting, and both the House and Senate rules require the preparation of a bill analysis for bills reported out of committee. These fiscal notes, impact statements, and bill analyses accompany a bill throughout the legislative process. COMMITTEE MEETINGS The chair of each committee decides when the committee will meet and which bills will be considered. The House rules permit a House committee or subcommittee to meet: • in a public hearing where testimony is heard and official action may be taken on bills, resolutions, or other matters; • in a formal meeting where the committee may discuss and take official action on bills, resolutions, or other matters without testimony; or • in a work session where the committee may discuss bills, resolutions, or other matters but take no formal action. Meetings of a House committee or subcommittee are generally required to be open to the public. The Senate rules do not explicitly provide for different types of meetings but do require that a public hearing allowing public testimony be held on a bill before it can be reported from the committee. Testimony may be heard and official action may be taken at any meeting of a Senate committee or subcommittee. A Senate committee or subcommittee must post notice of a meeting at least 24 hours before the meeting and a House committee or subcommittee must comply with the following notice requirements, unless the applicable rule is suspended by a vote of the members on the House floor: • for a public hearing held during a regular legislative session, notice must be posted at least five calendar days before the hearing; • for a public hearing held during a special session, notice must be posted at least 24 hours before the hearing; and • for a formal meeting or a work session, written notice must be posted and transmitted to each member of the committee two hours in advance of the meeting, or an announcement must be filed with the journal clerk and read in the House while the House is in session. COMMITTEE REPORTS After considering a bill, a committee may choose to take no action or may issue a report on the bill to the chamber at large. In a favorable report, the committee may recommend passage of the bill without amendments, recommend amendments to the bill, or substitute a new bill for the original bill. An unfavorable report generally kills the bill, but bills have rarely been reported unfavorably and are typically left pending in committee if they do not have enough support. A committee report includes: • the committee’s recommendations and vote regarding the bill; • the text of the bill as reported by the committee, which may be the introduced text or a substitute; • any proposed amendments; • a bill analysis; • a fiscal note or other impact statement; and • other attachments as necessary. In the House, all committee reports are referred to the committee coordinator. After printing, the chief clerk delivers a certified copy of a committee report to the appropriate calendars committee (the Committee on Calendars or, if recommended by the reporting committee, the Committee on Local and Consent Calendars) for placement of the bill on a calendar for consideration by the full House. Calendars committees are given wide discretion in scheduling bills for floor consideration. The Senate rules also require committee reports to be printed. After being printed, a copy of the Senate committee report printing is placed in the bill book on each senator’s desk in the Senate chamber. Bills reported out of committee are listed on the Senate’s regular order of business. Local and uncontested bills are referred to the Administration Committee for scheduling on a local and uncontested calendar. HOUSE CALENDARS AND LIST OF ITEMS ELIGIBLE FOR CONSIDERATION The House rules provide for four types of printed calendars: 1. the daily House calendar, which contains a list of new bills scheduled by the Committee on Calendars for consideration by the House, is sorted into the following categories in order of priority: » Emergency Calendar; » Major State Calendar; » Constitutional Amendments Calendar; » General State Calendar; and » Resolutions Calendar. 2. the supplemental House calendar, which is prepared by the Committee on Calendars and may contain: » bills passed to third reading on the previous legislative day; » bills on the daily House calendar for a previous calendar day that were not reached for consideration; » postponed business from a previous calendar day; » notice to call from the table a bill laid on the table subject to call on a previous legislative day; and » bills from a daily House calendar that will be eligible for consideration; 3. the local, consent, and resolutions calendar, which contains a list of local or noncontroversial bills scheduled by the Committee on Local and Consent Calendars for consideration by the House; and 4. the congratulatory and memorial calendar, which contains a list of congratulatory and memorial resolutions scheduled by the Committee on Resolutions Calendars for consideration by the House. The supplemental House calendar, because it includes bills listed on the daily House calendar, is generally the primary agenda followed by the House during its deliberations. The local, consent, and resolutions calendars and the congratulatory and memorial calendars are special calendars that are prepared approximately once a week during the last half of a regular session. The House normally considers all bills listed on its calendars before adjourning or recessing for the day, except during the latter part of the regular session, when calendars become especially lengthy. When the volume of legislation warrants it (normally during the last few weeks of a regular session), the chief clerk of the House prepares a list of items eligible for consideration on request of the speaker. The list contains: • House bills with Senate amendments eligible to be considered; • Senate bills for which the Senate has requested the appointment of a conference committee; and • conference committee reports eligible to be considered. Senate bills pending in the House follow the same procedures with regard to calendars as House bills, but Senate bills are required to be listed on the calendars separate from House bills. Wednesday and Thursday are designated as Senate bill days, which are the days on which Senate bills are considered in the House and have priority in the order of House business. SENATE REGULAR ORDER OF BUSINESS AND INTENT CALENDAR The Senate’s regular order of business lists all bills that have been reported from committee and are eligible for second reading consideration in the order in which they were reported. In practice, it functions more as a listing of reported bills than as the day’s agenda, since the Senate’s usual practice is to consider bills out of the regular order through the use of a blocker bill and the suspension of the regular order. Traditionally, a blocker bill is a bill that has been quickly passed out of committee at the beginning of a regular session but which the Senate has no intention of immediately addressing. Because Senate rules require bills to be considered on second reading in the order in which they were reported from committee and the blocker bill thus takes priority, a suspension of the rules by a vote of five-ninths of the members present is necessary for consideration of a bill other than the blocker bill by the full Senate. In order to suspend the regular order of business and take up a bill other than the blocker bill, a senator must first give prior notice to the secretary of the Senate for placement of the bill on the Intent Calendar. Bills on the Intent Calendar are not taken up in any particular order, and the Senate routinely considers only a portion of those measures listed on the Intent Calendar for a given day. The Senate also has a Local and Uncontested Calendar for the consideration of local and uncontested bills at times designated by the Senate. Wednesday and Thursday are designated as House bill days, which are the days on which House bills are considered in the Senate and have priority in the order of Senate business. FLOOR ACTION Floor consideration of a bill begins on the second reading when the bill is first subject to debate and amendment by the entire membership of a chamber. A bill may be amended on second reading by a simple majority of those members present and voting, and a separate vote is taken on each amendment proposed. After the bill is debated and amended, if applicable, the members vote on the bill for passage to the third reading, where the bill is then considered for final passage. A bill may be amended on the third reading, but adoption of an amendment at this stage requires a vote of a two-thirds majority of the members present. Although the Texas Constitution requires a bill to be read on three separate legislative days in each chamber before it can have the force of law, this constitutional rule may be suspended by a four-fifths vote of the members present and voting from the chamber in which the bill is pending. In such cases, the bill is given an immediate third reading following its passage from the second reading. The Senate routinely suspends the constitutional provision in order to give a bill an immediate third reading. The House, however, rarely suspends this provision, and the third reading consideration of a bill in the House normally occurs on the day following the second reading consideration. After a bill has been read a third time, a vote is taken for final passage. If the bill receives a simple majority vote, it is considered passed. When the bill is passed in the originating chamber, the bill is engrossed (all corrections and amendments are incorporated into it) and an exact and accurate copy of the engrossed bill is prepared and sent to the opposite chamber for consideration. CONSIDERATION OF LOCAL AND NONCONTROVERSIAL BILLS The House and Senate rules both provide for special calendars for the consideration of local and noncontroversial bills. The calendar used for consideration of these bills in the House is the local, consent, and resolutions calendar, which is set by the Committee on Local and Consent Calendars. Placement of a bill on the local, consent, and resolutions calendar requires the unanimous recommendation of the present and voting members of the committee from which the bill was reported. Normally local, consent, and resolutions calendars are prepared for consideration by the House once a week during the last half of the regular session. These calendars usually are lengthy, but consideration of them is expedited because debate and amendments are limited, and contested bills are removed from the calendar. The calendar used for consideration of local and noncontroversial bills in the Senate is the local and uncontested calendar, which is set by the Senate Committee on Administration. A bill may not be considered for placement on the local and uncontested calendar unless requested by the sponsor of the bill and the chair of the committee from which the bill was reported. Local and uncontested calendars normally are prepared for consideration by the Senate once or twice a week during the last half of the regular session. Measures on these calendars are considered without a suspension of the regular order of business, which generally is required for consideration of legislation in the Senate. As in the House, consideration of local and uncontested calendars in the Senate is expedited because the measures on these calendars usually are not debated, floor amendments to measures on these calendars are prohibited, and contested bills are removed from consideration. RETURN OF A BILL TO THE ORIGINATING CHAMBER After a bill has passed through committee and floor deliberation in the opposite chamber, the bill is sent back to the originating chamber. If the bill was not amended in the opposite chamber, or if it was amended and the originating chamber concurs with the changes, the bill is enrolled, signed by both presiding officers in the presence of their respective chambers, and sent to the governor. Any bill making an appropriation must be sent to the Comptroller of public accounts for certification before going to the governor. If a bill was amended in the opposite chamber and the originating chamber does not concur with the changes, the originating chamber may request the appointment of a conference committee to resolve the differences between the House and Senate versions of the bill. CONFERENCE COMMITTEE If a conference committee is requested, the presiding officers each appoint five members from their respective chambers to serve on the committee. A conference committee’s charge is limited to reconciling differences between the two chambers, and the committee may not change, alter, amend, or omit text that is not in disagreement without the adoption of an “out of bounds” resolution by both chambers. The committee also may not add text on any matter that is not in disagreement or that is not included in either version of the bill in question without such a resolution. After the committee has reached an agreement, a report is prepared for submission to the House and Senate. The report must be approved by at least three conferees from each chamber and must contain the text of the bill as approved by the conference committee, a side-by-side analysis comparing the text of the compromise bill to both the House and the Senate versions, an updated fiscal note, and the signatures of those members of the conference committee who approved the report. A conference committee report is not subject to amendment by the House or Senate and must be accepted or rejected in its entirety. Should the proposed compromise remain unacceptable to either chamber, it may be returned to the same conference committee for further deliberation, with or without specific instructions, or the appointment of a new conference committee may be requested. Failure of the conference committee to reach an agreement kills the bill. If the conference committee report is acceptable to both chambers, the bill is enrolled, signed by both presiding officers in the presence of their respective chambers, and sent to the governor. GOVERNOR’S ACTION On receiving an enrolled bill, the governor has the option to sign it, veto it, or allow it to become law without a signature. The governor has 10 days in which to act unless the bill was sent to the governor within 10 days of final adjournment, in which case the governor has until 20 days after final adjournment to act. If the governor elects to veto the bill and the legislature is still in session, the bill is returned to the chamber in which it originated with an explanation of the governor’s objections. A two-thirds majority in each chamber is required to override the veto. If the governor neither vetoes nor signs the bill within the allotted time, the bill becomes law. EFFECTIVE DATE By default, if a bill does not specify an effective date, the bill becomes effective on the 91st day after the date of final adjournment of the session in which it was enacted. A bill may specify a different effective date, but in order to take effect before the default date, a bill must receive a vote of two-thirds of all the members elected to each chamber. If a bill specifying that it takes effect immediately receives the requisite two-thirds vote of the members, the bill takes effect on the date of the last action necessary for it to become law, which is: • the date the governor approves the bill; • the date the governor files the bill with the office of the secretary of state, having neither approved nor vetoed it; • the date the appropriate period for gubernatorial action expires, if the governor fails to act within that period; or • in the event of a veto, the date the veto is overridden. In addition, a bill may make its effective date contingent on an event, on the expiration of a specified period after an event takes place or on the adoption of a proposed constitutional amendment. Parts of a bill may take effect on different dates, or particular sections or applications of a bill may be delayed or accelerated. FILING AND PUBLICATION OF LAWS Once an enrolled bill is signed by the governor or the governor allows an enrolled bill to become law without a signature, the bill is forwarded to the secretary of state, where it is considered filed once the secretary of state signs it. The secretary of state is required to bind all enrolled bills into volumes and to electronically publish all enacted bills on the secretary of state’s website. The bound volumes are located at the Texas State Library and Archives Commission. Copies of enacted bills are compiled, certified, and sent to a publisher for inclusion in The General and Special Laws of Texas, also known as the session laws. The secretary of state assigns a session law chapter to each enacted bill based on the date the bill is filed with the secretary of state; bills that are filed on the same date are placed in chronological bill number order for chapter number assignment. OTHER LEGISLATION—RESOLUTIONS While the bill is the most common type of legislation, the legislature also uses three types of resolutions, which follow somewhat different processes. Resolutions are used to handle specific activities of the legislature and must be introduced, assigned numbers, and acted on by the legislature. The three types of legislative resolutions are joint resolutions, concurrent resolutions, and simple resolutions. Of these, only concurrent resolutions are subject to veto by the governor. JOINT RESOLUTIONS. Joint resolutions are used to propose amendments to the Texas Constitution, ratify proposed amendments to the U.S. Constitution, or request a constitutional convention to propose amendments to the U.S. Constitution. Joint resolutions proposing amendments to the Texas Constitution require a vote of two-thirds of the total membership of each chamber for adoption. Other joint resolutions require a simple majority vote in each chamber for adoption. A joint resolution follows the same course that a bill follows through both chambers and is like a bill in most respects, except that in the House, the resolution may be adopted on second reading if it receives the required number of votes. Three readings are required to adopt a joint resolution in the Senate. Joint resolutions adopted by the legislature are not submitted to the governor for signing but are filed directly with the secretary of state. An amendment to the Texas Constitution proposed by an adopted joint resolution requires approval by Texas voters at a general election. The secretary of state conducts a drawing to determine the order in which the proposed constitutional amendments will appear on the ballot. CONCURRENT RESOLUTIONS. A concurrent resolution is used when both chambers have an interest in a particular matter. Such resolutions may originate in either chamber but must be adopted by both. Concurrent resolutions may be used for matters affecting operations and procedures of the legislature, such as joint sessions or adjournment sine die. They are also used to petition the U.S. Congress, give directions to a state agency, board, or commission, express the views of the legislature, designate an official state symbol, adopt an official place or date designation, or express congratulations or condolences. Concurrent resolutions must be submitted to the governor for approval, except for those that pertain solely to procedural matters between the two chambers, and they are filed with the secretary of state. SIMPLE RESOLUTIONS. Simple resolutions pertain to matters considered by the originating chamber only. They are used to adopt or change rules of procedure, name a mascot, express congratulations or condolences, or petition the U.S. Congress. Simple resolutions may also express the views of a single chamber, initiate a study by that chamber, or urge a state agency, board, or commission to take action. They are not submitted to the governor for signing or filed with the secretary of state. Copies of this publication have been distributed in compliance with the state depository law (Subchapter G, Chapter 441, Government Code) and are available for public use through the Texas State Publications Depository Program at the Texas State Library and other state depository libraries. This publication can be found at https://www.tlc.texas.gov/publications. The Legislative Process in Texas : Daniel Brown : CC BY: Attribution 3.2 How a Bill Becomes Law in Texas HOW A BILL BECOMES LAW IN TEXAS \| By the end of this section, you will be able to explain how a bill becomes law in Texas \| \| How a Bill becomes Law in Texas How a Bill becomes Law in Texas \| 1. \| Introduction: Only a member of Texas Legislature can introduce a bill to their respective chamber. For example only a Texas Senator can introduce a bill in the Senate. The bill will also be assigned a number according to the order it was introduced (i.e. first bill introduced in the House would be HB-1). The bill must be introduced separately in both chambers and if increasing taxes or raising funds are required from the bill, it must begin in the House. Bills must be introduced the first 60 days of the regular session, after that introduction of the bill requires a four-fifths from either chamber, unless the Governor has declared an emergency and the bill pertains to that emergency. Once the bill is introduced a caption (short description of the bill) is read aloud, this is also considered the first reading, where after the presiding officer assigns the bill to a committee. \| 2. \| Committee Action: The Committee (Also called “Little Legislators") will hear testimony for or against the bill, and decide to take no action or issue a report on the bill. If no action is ever taken the bill dies; the Committee’s Report will include a record of how everyone voted, the recommendations regarding the bill. \| 3. \| Floor Action: Once a copy of the Committee’s Report is sent to all members of the Texas Legislature, the bill is read again by caption, then debated by Legislators. The members of that chamber then cast their votes, either through voice or a record voted, on the bill. The bill needs to obtain a majority vote in order for it to pass; once it passes it is sent to the other side of the chamber. \| 4. \| Conference Committee: A Conference Committee is only necessary if there are two different versions of the same bill. Conference Committees are made up of 5 members from each chamber, and at least 3 out of the 5 members from each chamber must approve the bill in order for it to be considered passing- If this occurs the bill is signed by the presiding officers of each chamber and sent to the Governor. \| 5. \| Governor's Desk: The Texas Governor has 4 options when a bill reaches his or her desk: a) Sign it into law; b) Not sign it, and if the Legislature is in session the bill becomes law within 10 days without his/her signature, or within 20 days if the Legislature is not in session; c) Veto the bill, which means it is denied, the veto can be overridden by a 2/3rds vote from the Legislature, but only if the Legislature is still in session; or d) line-item, which means the Governor eliminates certain parts of the bill without killing the entire document (this type of veto can only be used on state budget bill) \| Note: Proposed occur in joint resolutions, instead of bills, and need a 2/ 3rds vote from both chambers- if approved the joint resolution is sent to the where the people will decide the fate of the proposed amendment. (Note: http://www.tlc.state.tx.us/docs/ legref/gtli.pdf#page=7) KEY TERMS biennial session bill conference committee gerrymandering legislative budget redistricting single-member districts special sessions • \| Texas Capitol. : Texas State Library and Archives Commission. : Texas State Library and Archives Commission. : https://www.flickr.com/photos/tslac/8619251251/in/photolist-e8DV7cCQGfH-4EPD7T-an1UKq-aJPWjK-e13S9c-a5kCQy-atYGQu-7EJfYc-82beA1-7EN5WL-i3kPXv-67VwVM-ibHLrR-5sGTr9-aJPW3r-bkucK-5sGTq1-4HNWa7-nVYqiX-kQeQ7i-zjuf7N-qVCNnm-58k5dg-btnkhM-kidp7g-a8dQZg-9BPb1ra69Xrg-58mvch-bCj5Ne-oVCmTi-dT52gB-b5AXGX-51oSqh-7oLm68-9BP4qB-6uMPby-8nFLUC-bxLLWH-jvHg9-65PeeB-7SWsjL-7MWnb3-qNGs1V-6CuxRw-dek42u-bCstQr-6Cuxkh-e1cXnv. : Public Domain: No Known \| • \| How a Bill Becomes Law in Texas. : Daniel M. Regalado. : CC BY: Attribution \| 4. The Executive Branch, the Governor 4. THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH THE GOVERNOR \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Qualifications and Roles for Texas Governor The Governor of Texas is elected by Texans every four years with unlimited terms, with the following qualifications: - Must be at least 30 years old; - Resident of Texas for at least 5 years immediately before the election; - Must be a U.S. citizen. The roles and responsibilities of the Texas Governor are: - Signing or vetoing bills passed by the Legislature. - Serving as commander-in-chief of the state’s military forces. - Convening special sessions of the Legislature for specific purposes. - Delivering a report on the condition of the state to the Legislature at the beginning of each regular session. - Estimating of the amounts of money required to be raised by taxation. - Accounting for all public monies received and paid out by him and recommending a budget for the next two years. - Granting reprieves and commutations of punishment and pardons upon the recommendation of the Board of Pardons and Paroles and revoking conditional pardons. - Declaring special elections to fill vacancies in certain elected offices. - Filling judicial vacancies. - Appointing qualified Texans to state offices that carry out the laws and direct the policies of state government. Some of these offices are filled by appointment only. Others are ordinarily elected by the people, but the governor must occasionally appoint individuals to fill vacancies. The governor also appoints Texans to a wide range of advisory bodies and task forces that assist him with specific issues. (Note: http://gov.texas.gov/about/duties) The History of the Governor's Office in Texas: 1. Consistently, Texas governors have been conservative and, up until 1978, solidly Democratic. 2. Longest serving Governor was Rick Perry 2000 - 2014 3. Miriam A. “Ma” Ferguson was the first female governor of Texas, running as a proxy for her husband. - Appointed Emma G. Meharg, Texas’s first female Secretary of State. - Plagued by accusations of corruption, particularly with regard to a high volume of pardons. 4. Ann Richards was the second woman elected governor of Texas. - Decentralized education policy. - Encouraged economic growth. - Promoted women and minorities 5. Order of succession, high to low: - Lieutenant governor. - President pro tempore of Texas Senate. - Speaker of the Texas House. - Attorney general. 6. When the governor is out of state, the lieutenant governor serves as acting governor. 7. Governor makes about $153,000 a year. 8. Rule of 80 - Retirement is permitted under the “rule of eighty,” beginning when age + years of service total at least 80 years. 9. Perks for the Texas governor: - Travel allowance (state limousine, helicopter, and airplane travel). - Governor’s residence, plus a staff of 200–300. - Security detail for their own protection. 10. “Pa” Ferguson was the only governor to have been impeached; he wanted the University of Texas faculty fired and vetoed their appropriations when they denied his demand. 11. Texas governor’s weak enumerated powers are a direct result of the powerful centralized governorship of E.J. Davis. - Particularly that many believed his government did not represent Texans’ desires. - Resulted in limited appointment power, veto power, and budget power. 12. Governor directs state bureaucracy to administer laws passed by the state legislature. - May do so by appointing individuals, issuing executing orders or emergency declarations, and exerting influence on the state budget. 13. Plural executive: When traditional executive functions have been divided among several officeholders rather than residing in a single person, the governor. - Used in the 1876 Constitution to remove gubernatorial power. - If plural executives are from split parties, work becomes even more difficult. 14. The single most significant gubernatorial appointment is that of secretary of state, but a governor makes approximately 3000 appointments over four years. - Governor also appoints candidates to fill elected positions vacated before the holder’s term has expired. 15. Staggered terms: An arrangement whereby the terms of the members of a Texas board or agency do not expire at the same time, so only a third of the board is replaced in a given year. - Ensures only governors who secure a second term will be able to appoint a majority of any board/commission. 16. Recess appointment: An appointment made by the governor while the Texas Senate is not in session; requires Texas Senate approval within 10 days of the next legislative session. 17. Removal power: The power of the governor, with the consent of the Texas Senate, to remove his or her appointees. - Requires two-thirds support of the Texas Senate. - Cannot remove previous governor’s appointees. 18. Executive order: An order issued by the governor to direct existing agencies or coordinate the state’s response to address a particular issue or crisis. - Fine line between using executive orders to direct state bureaucracies (in order to execute the legislature’s laws) and using executive orders to pass laws. - Should not be used to circumvent the legislature. 19. Budget power: The executive’s ability to exert influence on the state’s budget process. - In Texas, the governor’s budget powers are remarkably weak. - Legislative Budget Board (LBB) was created in 1949 to seize budgetary power from the executive branch. 20. Line-item veto: The ability of the executive to selectively veto only some parts of a bill; in Texas, available only on appropriations bills. - In a practice previously ruled unconstitutional, Governor Abbott increased the power of line-item vetoes by striking out both appropriation items and the descriptive riders attached to them but went unchallenged. 21. Veto power: The formal power of the executive to reject bills that have been passed by the legislature; in Texas, a veto can be overridden only by a two-thirds vote in both houses. - Post-adjournment veto: A veto that occurs after the legislature has adjourned, leaving the legislature unable to overturn it. - One of the most important powers of a governor in terms of legislative influence. - Many vetoes can be seen as a sign of weakness. 22. In 1876, the framers of the Texas Constitution attempted to limit the governor’s power by making all state- and county-level judges elected posts. - However, the governor often makes many judicial appointments to fill vacancies in between elections—while it remains subject to senatorial approval. - Most incumbent judges in Texas win reelection, so these appointments are a source of power. 23. Pardon: To release from punishment in a criminal case; in Texas, the governor can grant a pardon only upon the recommendation of the state’s Board of Pardons and Paroles. - Governor’s power to pardon was curbed after Ma and Pa Ferguson were accused of selling pardons. 24. Governor is commander in chief of the Texas National Guard and the Texas State Guard. - Cam appoint the Adjutant General to command these units. - A governor’s power over the National Guard was restricted in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina; the president was permitted to take control of National Guard troops should the state authorities be incapable of maintaining public order. • \| The Governor. History of the Office of the Texas Governor \| : Daniel M. Regalado. : Daniel Brown \| 4.1 The Texas Plural Executive and Bureaucracy in Texas. The Texas Plural Executive and Bureaucracy in Texas. \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Texas Plural Executive Article 4 of the Texas Constitution describes the executive department (branch) of Texas. Texas utilizes a “plural executive” which means the power of the Governor is limited and distributed amongst other government officials. In other words, there is not one government official in Texas that is solely responsible for the Texas Executive Branch. Below are some of the members of the Texas Plural Executive and their roles: - Lt. Governor- Serves as the presiding officer of the Texas Senate, first in the line of succession for Governor, member of the Legislative Redistricting Board, Chair of the Legislative Budget Board, elected to 4-year terms by the public with no term limits. (Note: https://www.ltgov.state.tx.us/) - Attorney General- Serves as the lawyer for the state of Texas, including representing the state on civil matters, and responsible for the interpretation of the constitutionality of laws. The Attorney General is elected by the people to 4-year terms with no term limits. (Note:https://www.texasattorneygeneral.gov/) - The Texas Secretary of State is appointed by the Texas Governor and confirmed by the Texas Senate. The Secretary of State serves as the chief election officer (meaning the office ensures that county election rules), officially attests to the signature of the Texas Governor on official documents, and advises the Governor on Texas border and Mexican affairs. (Note:http://www.sos.state.tx.us/index.html) - The Commissioner of the General Land Office is elected by the people to one 4 year term. The Texas General Land Office manages and administers mineral leases and state lands. Even though this office is part of the Executive Branch, the Office of the Commissioner of the General Land Office is authorized by Article 14, Section 1 of the Texas Constitution. (Note: http://www.glo.texas.gov/) - The Texas Comptroller and is elected by the people to 4 years terms with no term limits. The Comptroller serves as the chief tax collector and accounting officer. This office is also responsible for certifying the biennial budget of the state. (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/) - The Agriculture Commissioner is elected by the people to 4 years terms with no term limits. The Texas Agriculture Commissioner is charged to both promote and regulate Texas agriculture, which some perceive as a potential conflict. The Texas Department of Agriculture's duties include the regulation and inspection of all weights and measures devices, such as grocery store scales and retail price scanners, to ensure consumers are charged advertised prices. Regulates pesticide use and application from residential to commercial use. Certifies organically-produced products to help ensure consumers have a reliable supply of organic products. (https://www.texasagriculture.gov/) The Texas State Bureaucracy has numerous state boards, commissions, councils, and committees as well as major agencies. These include bodies that are: - Run by multimember boards - Led by single executives - Run by boards appointed by several persons - Run by multimember boards elected by the people 1. Governor Perry’s lengthy service gave him enormous influence; he is the only Texas governor in modern history to have made every appointment a governor can make. 2. Nearly 300 boards and commissions. - Some created in the constitution. - Others created by the legislature. - Some elected, others appointed. 3. Six of the most important state agencies are: - Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) - Texas Health and Human Services (THHS) - Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TJC) - Railroad Commission of Texas - State Board of Education (SBOE) - Public Utility Commission of Texas (PUC) 4. Texas Department of Transportation (https://www.txdot.gov/) - TxDOT is governed by the Texas Transportation Commission and an executive director selected by the commission. - TxDOT oversees construction/maintenance of roads inside Texas, including federal interstate highways and roadways within Texas borders. - Plans and makes policy for location, construction, and maintenance of roads. - Develops statewide transportation plan. - Awards state contracts. - Develops mass transit. 5. Texas Health and Human Services which includes the Texas Health and Human Services Commission and the Texas Department of State Health Services — has hundreds of programs and services that help more than 7.5 million Texans a month live better lives, and it’s our strong foundation of dedicated people who make it happen every single day. (https://www.hhs.texas.gov/) It is one of the largest agencies in Texas whose duties include: - Consumer affairs. - Border health. - Mental health. - Emergency preparedness. - Personnel issues. - Vital statistics on public health. - Epidemiological databases. - Licensing and overseeing hospitals and facilities. - Regulating food and drugs. - Overseeing tattooing, tanning, and body piercing. - Licensing of professions including athletic trainers, social workers, emergency medical technicians, midwives, opticians, social workers, and speech pathologists. 6. Texas Department of Criminal Justice - Oversees state corrections. - State prisons, jails, and other correctional facilities. - Supervises released offenders. - Nine-member board heads the department, appointed by the governor for staggered six-year terms. - Board hires an executive director, sets rules and policies, and serves as the board of trustees for the school district for juvenile offenders (Windham School District). 7. Railroad Commission of Texas - Created to regulate railroads, decrease corruption, and protect the agrarian population from railroad business practices. - First regulatory agency of Texas. - Three members, independently elected to serve overlapping six-year terms. - Subagencies oversee areas of energy policy: - Alternative energy. - Natural gas services. - Oil and gas. - Subagencies oversee areas of energy policy: 8. State Board of Education - Fifteen members, four-year terms. - Selected from single-member districts (SMDs). - Leadership and roles of SBOE. - Commissioner is appointed by the Governor, is the administrative head of the Texas Education Agency, and is an advisor to the SBOE. - Sets policy for Public Education (Pre-K - 12 grade that is supported by the Texas Government) - Approving state curriculum/texts. - Determining passing scores for state testing. - Managing Permanent School Fund (PSF). - Texas Education Agency (TEA) is responsible for enforcing the SBOE rules and regulations. 9. Public Utility Commission of Texas - Appointed regulatory commission. - Three members, six-year terms. - Oversee electric and telecommunication industries in Texas. - Protect customers from unreasonable rates. 10. Sunset review process requires that most commissions/agencies be reviewed every 12 years. - A formal assessment of the effectiveness of all statutory boards, commissions, and state agencies. - It is comprised of Twelve members: - Five from House, appointed by the Speaker. - Five from Senate, appointed by the lieutenant governor. - Two public members, one appointed each by Speaker and lieutenant governor. - Requires examinations every twelve years consisting of self-evaluation, its own reports, and public hearings, which conclude agency should be: - Continued - Reorganized - Merged - If no action is taken, the sun sets on that agency. 11. Sunshine laws: Laws designed to make government transparent and accessible. - Citizens have access to government records. - Governmental bodies must notify the public of scheduled meetings, opening them to the public. 12. To sum it up the Texas Government employs over 313,000 Texans KEY TERMS appointment attorney general bureaucracy comptroller land commissioner lieutenant governor line-item veto plural executive secretary of state sunshine laws veto • \| The Texas Plural Executive. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 5. The Texas Justice System- Jurisdiction, Types of Law, and the Selection of Judges 5. THE TEXAS JUSTICE SYSTEM JURISDICTION, TYPES OF LAW, AND THE SELECTION OF JUDGES \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Types of Jurisdictions Every court system has jurisdiction over certain cases, from enforcing traffic laws to hearing capital murder charges. There are three types of jurisdictions: - Origianl jurisdiction– the court that gets to hear the case first. For example Municipal courts typically have original jurisdiction over traffic offenses the occur within city limits. - Appellate jurisdiction– the power for a higher court to review a lower courts decision. For example, the Texas Court of Appeals has appellate jurisdiction over the District Courts (See the hierarchy of Texas Court Structure in this Unit). - Exclusive Jurisdiction– only that court can hear a specific case. For example only the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals Court can hear appeals for death penalty sentences. Types of Law There are two basic types of law in any legal system- Civil and Criminal. Below is a table differentiating the two: There are two types of crime: misdemeanors and felonies. Misdemeanors are considered minor crimes, and felonies are defined as major crimes. (Note: Texas Penal Code http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/?link=PE) Selection of Judges There are two basic methods used to select judges: 1. election 2. merit plan. Sometimes the merit plan is referred to as the Missouri Plan, and consists of an individual selected to become a judge based on their qualifications and/or experience. Texas elects their judges (except at some of the municipal levels), and the table below depicts the specifics for each level of court. (Note: http://courts.state.tx.us/) Selection and Qualification of Texas Judges Judicial federalism is a system in which judicial authority is shared between levels of government. The United States Supreme Court’s jurisdiction is spelled out in the Constitution—Article III, Sec. 1 "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office." Article III, Sec 2 "The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority" The Justices on the Supreme Court serve for life once they have been confirmed by the U.S. Senate. The Texas Court System is spelled out in the Texas Constitution - Article V, Sec. 1 "JUDICIAL POWER VESTED IN COURTS; LEGISLATIVE POWER REGARDING COURTS. The judicial power of this State shall be vested in one Supreme Court, in one Court of Criminal Appeals, in Courts of Appeals, in District Courts, in County Courts, in Commissioners Courts, in Courts of Justices of the Peace, and in such other courts as may be provided by law." Under Sec. 1a the length of service is spelled out, "The office of every such Justice and Judge shall become vacant on the expiration of the term during which the incumbent reaches the age of seventy-five (75) years or such earlier age, not less than seventy (70) years, as the Legislature may prescribe..." Section 1a goes on to explain the Commission on Judicial Conduct, an agency created by the Texas Legislature to investigate the Judicial Branch should it be required. "The State Commission on Judicial Conduct consists of thirteen (13) members, to wit: (i) one (1) Justice of a Court of Appeals; (ii) one (1) District Judge; (iii) two (2) members of the State Bar, who have respectively practiced as such for over ten (10) consecutive years next preceding their selection; (iv) five (5) citizens, at least thirty (30) years of age, not licensed to practice law nor holding any salaried public office or employment; (v) one (1) Justice of the Peace; (vi) one (1) Judge of a Municipal Court; (vii) one (1) Judge of a County Court at Law; and (viii) one (1) Judge of a Constitutional County Court... Commissioners of classes (i), (ii), (vii), and (viii) above shall be chosen by the Supreme Court with advice and consent of the Senate, those of class (iii) by the Board of Directors of the State Bar under regulations to be prescribed by the Supreme Court with advice and consent of the Senate, those of class (iv) by appointment of the Governor with advice and consent of the Senate, and the commissioners of classes (v) and (vi) by appointment of the Supreme Court as provided by law, with the advice and consent of the Senate." Article V, Sec. 2 SUPREME COURT; JUSTICES gives the requirements to hold the position of Supreme Court Justice within the State of Texas. Sec. 2 (a) The Supreme Court shall consist of the Chief Justice and eight Justices, any five of whom shall constitute a quorum, and the concurrence of five shall be necessary to a decision of a case; provided, that when the business of the court may require, the court may sit in sections as designated by the court to hear argument of causes and to consider applications for writs of error or other preliminary matters. (b) No person shall be eligible to serve in the office of Chief Justice or Justice of the Supreme Court unless the person: - (1) is licensed to practice law in the State of Texas; - (2) is, at the time of election, a citizen of the United States and a resident of the State of Texas; - (3) has attained the age of thirty-five years; - (4) has been either: - (A) a practicing lawyer licensed in the State of Texas for at least ten years; or - (B) a practicing lawyer licensed in the State of Texas and judge of a state court or county court established by the Legislature by statute for a combined total of at least ten years; and - (5) during the time required by Subdivision (4) of this subsection has not had the person’s license to practice law revoked, suspended, or subject to a probated suspension. - (c) Said Justices shall be elected (three of them each two years) by the qualified voters of the state at a general election; shall hold their offices six years; and shall each receive such compensation as shall be provided by law." Article V, Sec. 4. COURT OF CRIMINAL APPEALS; JUDGES. (a) The Court of Criminal Appeals shall consist of eight Judges and one Presiding Judge. The Judges shall have the same qualifications and receive the same salaries as the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, and the Presiding Judge shall have the same qualifications and receive the same salary as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The Presiding Judge and the Judges shall be elected by the qualified voters of the state at a general election and shall hold their offices for a term of six years. (b) For the purpose of hearing cases, the Court of Criminal Appeals may sit in panels of three Judges, the designation thereof to be under rules established by the court. In a panel of three Judges, two Judges shall constitute a quorum and the concurrence of two Judges shall be necessary for a decision. The Presiding Judge, under rules established by the court, shall convene the court en banc for the transaction of all other business and may convene the court en banc for the purpose of hearing cases. The court must sit en banc during proceedings involving capital punishment and other cases as required by law. When convened en banc, five Judges shall constitute a quorum and the concurrence of five Judges shall be necessary for a decision. Article V, Sec. 6. COURTS OF APPEALS; JUSTICES; JURISDICTION. (a) The state shall be divided into courts of appeals districts, with each district having a Chief Justice, two or more other Justices, and such other officials as may be provided by law. The Justices shall have the qualifications prescribed for Justices of the Supreme Court. The Court of Appeals may sit in sections as authorized by law. The concurrence of a majority of the judges sitting in a section is necessary to decide a case. Said Court of Appeals shall have appellate jurisdiction co-extensive with the limits of their respective districts, which shall extend to all cases of which the District Courts or County Courts have original or appellate jurisdiction, under such restrictions and regulations as may be prescribed by law Article V, Sec. 7. JUDICIAL DISTRICTS; DISTRICT JUDGES; TERMS OR SESSIONS; ABSENCE, DISABILITY, OR DISQUALIFICATION OF DISTRICT JUDGE. (a) The State shall be divided into judicial districts, with each district having one or more Judges as may be provided by law or by this Constitution. (b) Each district judge shall be elected by the qualified voters at a General Election. To be eligible for appointment or election as a district judge, a person must: (1) be a citizen of the United States and a resident of this State; (2) be licensed to practice law in this State; (3) have been a practicing lawyer or a Judge of a Court in this State, or both combined, for eight years next preceding the judge’s election, during which time the judge’s license to practice law has not been revoked, suspended, or subject to a probated suspension; (4) have resided in the district in which the judge was elected for two years next preceding the election; and (5) reside in the district during the judge’s term of office. (c) A district judge shall hold the office for the term of four years and shall receive for the judge’s services an annual salary to be fixed by the Legislature. (d) A District Court shall conduct its proceedings at the county seat of the county in which the case is pending, except as otherwise provided by law. The Court shall hold the regular terms at the County Seat of each County in the Court’s district in such manner as may be prescribed by law. The Legislature shall have power by General or Special Laws to make such provisions concerning the terms or sessions of each District Court as it may deem necessary. (e) The Legislature shall also provide for the holding of the District Court when the Judge thereof is absent or is from any cause disabled or disqualified from presiding. Article V, Sec. 8. JURISDICTION OF DISTRICT COURTS. District Court jurisdiction consists of exclusive, appellate, and original jurisdiction of all actions, proceedings, and remedies, except in cases where exclusive, appellate, or original jurisdiction may be conferred by this Constitution or other law on some other court, tribunal, or administrative body. District Court judges shall have the power to issue writs necessary to enforce their jurisdiction. Article V, Sec. 13. GRAND AND PETIT JURIES IN DISTRICT COURTS: COMPOSITION AND VERDICT. Grand and petit juries in the District Courts shall be composed of twelve persons, except that petit juries in a criminal case below the grade of felony shall be composed of six persons; but nine members of a grand jury shall be a quorum to transact business and present bills. In trials of civil cases in the District Courts, nine members of the jury, concurring, may render a verdict, but when the verdict shall be rendered by less than the whole number, it shall be signed by every member of the jury concurring in it. When, pending the trial of any case, one or more jurors not exceeding three, may die, or be disabled from sitting, the remainder of the jury shall have the power to render the verdict; provided, that the Legislature may change or modify the rule authorizing less than the whole number of the jury to render a verdict. Texas has two types of county-level courts: Those mandated in the Texas Constitution (Constitutional County Courts) and those generated through a specific piece of legislation (County Courts at Law and Statutory Probate Courts). County courts are both original and appellate jurisdictions. Criminal and civil jurisdiction at this level are permitted to be more serious and have more significant punishments compared to municipal and JP levels. The jurisdiction of statutory courts varies considerably, depending on the specific legislation that created each court. Article V, Sec. 15. COUNTY COURT; COUNTY JUDGE. There shall be established in each county in this State a County Court, which shall be a court of record; and there shall be elected in each county, by the qualified voters, a County Judge, who shall be well informed in the law of the State; shall be a conservator of the peace, and shall hold his office for four years, and until his successor shall be elected and qualified. He shall receive as compensation for his services such fees and perquisites as may be prescribed by law. Exclusive, original jurisdiction over misdemeanors where fines exceed $500 and jail time may be imposed (Class A or Class B). Extends to $200–$20,000 cases concurrently with JP courts and district courts. In larger counties, it is primarily an administrative role. So for these counties, additional county-level courts called “county courts at law” for judicial work were authorized. The County Judge is also the Head the County Commissioners Court and Exercise's administrative duties over the county government. County Courts at Law and Statutory Probate Courts Created by statute, not constitution, there are approximately 248 spread amid larger counties. Jurisdiction varies but is generally similar to the jurisdiction of constitutional county courts; Civil, criminal, probate, or all. Civil jurisdiction extends up to $200,000, which is concurrent with jurisdiction of district courts. Nineteen statutory probate courts in 10 of the state’s largest metro areas as of January 2021. Article V, Sec. 18. DIVISION OF COUNTIES INTO PRECINCTS; JUSTICES OF THE PEACE AND CONSTABLES; COUNTY COMMISSIONERS AND COUNTY COMMISSIONERS COURT. (a) Each county in the State with a population of 50,000 or more, according to the most recent federal census, from time to time, for the convenience of the people, shall be divided into not less than four and not more than eight precincts. Each county in the State with a population of 18,000 or more but less than 50,000, according to the most recent federal census, from time to time, for the convenience of the people, shall be divided into not less than two and not more than eight precincts. Each county in the State with a population of less than 18,000, according to the most recent federal census, from time to time, for the convenience of the people, shall be designated as a single precinct or, if the Commissioners Court determines that the county needs more than one precinct, shall be divided into not more than four precincts. A division or designation under this subsection shall be made by the Commissioners Court provided for by this Constitution. Except as provided by this section, in each such precinct there shall be elected one Justice of the Peace and one Constable, each of whom shall hold his office for four years and until his successor shall be elected and qualified; provided that in a county with a population of less than 150,000, according to the most recent federal census, in any precinct in which there may be a city of 18,000 or more inhabitants, there shall be elected two Justices of the Peace, and in a county with a population of 150,000 or more, according to the most recent federal census, each precinct may contain more than one Justice of the Peace Court. (b) Each county shall, in the manner provided for justice of the peace and constable precincts, be divided into four commissioners precincts in each of which there shall be elected by the qualified voters thereof one County Commissioner, who shall hold his office for four years and until his successor shall be elected and qualified. The County Commissioners so chosen, with the County Judge as presiding officer, shall compose the County Commissioners Court, which shall exercise such powers and jurisdiction over all county business, as is conferred by this Constitution and the laws of the State, or as may be hereafter prescribed. Article V, Sec. 19. JURISDICTION OF JUSTICE OF THE PEACE COURTS; EX OFFICIO NOTARIES PUBLIC. Justice of the peace courts shall have original jurisdiction in criminal matters of misdemeanor cases punishable by fine only, $200 or less. Exclusive jurisdiction in civil matters where the amount in controversy is $10,000 or less, and such other jurisdiction as may be provided by law. Justices of the peace shall be ex officio notaries public. The JP acts as a coroner in counties without medical examiners, currently only 84 counties in Texas have a Medical Examiner. Criminal jurisdiction involves mostly traffic cases and appeals from this court are heard de novo at the County Court. According to txcourt.gov, about 8% of the current serving Justices of the Peace were licensed lawyers. Requirements for this office are that you must be a U.S. Citizen, 18 years or older, have lived in your precinct for 6 months, and lived in Texas for 1 year. Article V, Sec. 21. COUNTY ATTORNEYS; DISTRICT ATTORNEYS. A County Attorney, for counties in which there is not a resident Criminal District Attorney, shall be elected by the qualified voters of each county, who shall be commissioned by the Governor, and hold his office for the term of four years. In case of vacancy the Commissioners Court of the county shall have the power to appoint a County Attorney until the next general election. The County Attorneys shall represent the State in all cases in the District and inferior courts in their respective counties; but if any county shall be included in a district in which there shall be a District Attorney, the respective duties of District Attorneys and County Attorneys shall in such counties be regulated by the Legislature. The Legislature may provide for the election of District Attorneys in such districts, as may be deemed necessary, and make provision for the compensation of District Attorneys and County Attorneys. District Attorneys shall hold office for a term of four years, and until their successors have qualified. Article V, Sec. 23. SHERIFFS. There shall be elected by the qualified voters of each county a Sheriff, who shall hold his office for the term of four years, whose duties, qualifications, perquisites, and fees of office, shall be prescribed by the Legislature, and vacancies in whose office shall be filled by the Commissioners Court until the next general election. Article V, Sec. 30. TERM OF OFFICE OF JUDGES OF COUNTY-WIDE COURTS AND OF CRIMINAL DISTRICT ATTORNEYS. The Judges of all Courts of county-wide jurisdiction heretofore or hereafter created by the Legislature of this State, and all Criminal District Attorneys now or hereafter authorized by the laws of this State, shall be elected for a term of four years, and shall serve until their successors have qualified. Judicial Removal There are three strategies to removing a Justice from the Court. 1. Most common strategy is not reelecting incumbent or for Municipal Judges, renewing their contract. 2. Impeachment and trial requires two-thirds vote of Texas Senate. 3. If appointed by the Governor, can be removed by the Governor. Under special circumstances the Removal by the State Supreme Court or by recommendation of the Commission on Judicial Conduct: 1. Supreme Court of Texas may remove district judges for incompetence, official misconduct, or negligence. 2. A thirteen-member organization, the Commission on Judicial Conduct, investigates allegations. - Willful or persistent violations of Supreme Court rules. - Incompetence in performing office’s duties. - Willful violation of Code of Judicial Conduct. - Willful or persistent conduct inconsistent with proper performance or the dignity of the judiciary. • \| Jurisdiction, Types of Law, and the Selection of Judges. Selection and Qualification of Texas Judges \| : Daniel M. Regalado. Daniel Brown \| 5.1 Texas Court Organization COURT ORGANIZATION \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Discuss the structure of the Texas Court System \| Structure of the Texas Court System The current structure of the court system of Texas was established by an 1891 amendment to the Texas Constitution of 1876. The amendment established the Supreme Court as the highest state appellate court for civil matters, and the Court of Criminal Appeals as the highest state appellate court in criminal matters. The amendment also established courts of appeals that exercise intermediate appellate jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases.(1) District courts are the state’s trial courts of general jurisdiction. The geographical area served by each district court is established by the specific statute creating the court. Note that Juvenile Courts fall under the District Courts- In Texas a juvenile is defined as young as 10 years old, and a juvenile can be convicted as an adult as young as 14 years old. In addition to these state courts, the Texas Constitution provides for a county court in each county, presided over by the county judge. The county judge also serves as head of the county commissioners' court, the governing body of the county. To aid the constitutional county court with its judicial functions, the Legislature has established statutory county courts, generally designated as county courts at law or statutory probate courts, in the more populous counties. The Texas Constitution also authorizes not less than one nor more than 16 justices of the peace in each county. The justice courts generally have exclusive jurisdiction of civil matters when the amount in controversy does not exceed $200 and concurrent jurisdiction with the county courts when the amount in controversy exceeds $200 but does not exceed $20,000. These courts also have jurisdiction in misdemeanor cases where punishment upon conviction may be by fine only. By statute, the Legislature has created municipal courts in each incorporated city in the state. These courts have original jurisdiction over violations of municipal ordinances and concurrent jurisdiction with the justice courts over misdemeanor state law violations, limited to the geographical confines of the municipality. Municipal courts also have civil jurisdiction limited to a few specific types of cases. https://statutes.capitol.texas.gov/Docs/GV/htm/GV.29.htm Trials in the justice courts and most municipal courts are not of record and appeals therefrom are by new trial (“trial de novo”) to the county court, except in certain counties, where the appeal is to a county court at law or to a district court. When an appeal is by trial de novo, the case is tried again in the higher court, just as if the original trial had not occurred. Jurisdiction of the various levels of courts is established by constitutional provision and by statute. Statutory jurisdiction is established by general statutes providing jurisdiction for all courts on a particular level, as well as by the statutes establishing individual courts. Thus, to determine the jurisdiction of a particular court, one must examine the Constitution; the general statutes establishing jurisdiction for that level of court; the specific statute authorizing the establishment of the particular court in question; the statutes creating other courts in the same county (whose jurisdictional provisions may affect the court in question); and the statutes dealing with specific subject matter (such as the Family Code, which requires, for example, that judges who are lawyers hear appeals from cases heard by non-lawyer judges in juvenile cases). (1)The courts of appeals were given appellate criminal jurisdiction in 1981. https://www.txcourts.gov/media/1454127/fy-21-annual-statistical-report-final.pdf Municipal Courts GOVERNMENT CODE, TITLE 2. JUDICIAL BRANCH. SUBTITLE A. COURTS, CHAPTER 29. MUNICIPAL COURTS SUBCHAPTER A. GENERAL PROVISIONS Sec. 29.001. DEFINITION. In this chapter, "municipality" means an incorporated city, town, or village. Acts 1985, 69th Leg., ch. 480, Sec. 1, eff. Sept. 1, 1985. Sec. 29.002. CREATION. A municipal court is created in each municipality. A reference in state law to a "corporation court" means a "municipal court." Acts 1985, 69th Leg., ch. 480, Sec. 1, eff. Sept. 1, 1985. Sec. 29.003. JURISDICTION. (a) A municipal court, including a municipal court of record, shall have exclusive original jurisdiction within the municipality's territorial limits and property owned by the municipality located in the municipality's extraterritorial jurisdiction in all criminal cases that: (1) arise under: (A) the ordinances of the municipality; or (B) a resolution, rule, or order of a joint board operating an airport under Section 22.074, Transportation Code; and (2) are punishable by a fine not to exceed: (A) $2,000 in all cases arising under municipal ordinances or resolutions, rules, or orders of a joint board that govern fire safety, zoning, or public health and sanitation, other than the dumping of refuse; (B) $4,000 in cases arising under municipal ordinances that govern the dumping of refuse; or (C) $500 in all other cases arising under a municipal ordinance or a resolution, rule, or order of a joint board. (b) The municipal court has concurrent jurisdiction with the justice court of a precinct in which the municipality is located in all criminal cases arising under state law that arise within the municipality's territorial limits or property owned by the municipality located in the municipality's extraterritorial jurisdiction and that: (1) are punishable only by a fine, as defined in Subsection (c); or (2) arise under Chapter 106, Alcoholic Beverage Code, and do not include confinement as an authorized sanction. (c) In this section, an offense which is punishable by "fine only" is defined as an offense that is punishable by fine and such sanctions, if any, as authorized by statute not consisting of confinement in jail or imprisonment. (d) The fact that a conviction in a municipal court has as a consequence the imposition of a penalty or sanction by an agency or entity other than the court, such as a denial, suspension, or revocation of a privilege, does not affect the original jurisdiction of the municipal court. (e) The municipal court has jurisdiction in the forfeiture and final judgment of all bail bonds and personal bonds taken in criminal cases of which the court has jurisdiction. (f) This section does not affect the powers given exclusively to a joint board operating an airport under Section 22.074(d), Transportation Code. (g) Repealed by Acts 2019, 86th Leg., R.S., Ch. 372 (H.B. 1631), Sec. 6(1), eff. June 2, 2019. (h) A municipality with a population of 1.19 million or more and another municipality contiguous to that municipality may enter into an agreement providing concurrent jurisdiction for the municipal courts of either jurisdiction for all criminal cases arising from offenses under state law that are: (1) committed on the boundary of those municipalities or in one or both of the following areas: (A) within 200 yards of that boundary; or (B) within 2.25 miles of that boundary on a segment of highway in the state highway system that traverses a major water supply reservoir; and (2) punishable by fine only. (i) A municipality may enter into an agreement with a contiguous municipality or a municipality with boundaries that are within one-half mile of the municipality seeking to enter into the agreement to establish concurrent jurisdiction of the municipal courts in the municipalities and provide original jurisdiction to a municipal court in which a case is brought as if the municipal court were located in the municipality in which the case arose, for: (1) all cases in which either municipality has jurisdiction under Subsection (a) or (b); and (2) cases that arise under Section 821.022, Health and Safety Code, or Section 65.003(a), Family Code. Damon Allen Act and Educational Requirements for County and Municipal Judges The Texas Legislature passed Senate Bill 6 (known as the Damon Allen Act for a trooper killed in the line of duty in 2017) during the second special session of the 2021 legislative session. The bill was signed into law by Gov. Greg Abbott on Sept. 13, 2021. This bill significantly changes the process for setting bail by giving magistrates additional information about defendants, including their criminal history and any required bond conditions, prohibiting the release of a defendant on a personal bond in certain situations, and increasing educational requirements for magistrates. The bill includes the development, use and training stages of the Public Safety Report System (PSRS), which must be created by the Office of Court Administration by April 1, 2022. Additionally, Government Code Section 72.038 mandates that a bail form containing certain information must be submitted to the OCA through the PSRS every time that bail is set under Chapter 17 of the Code of Criminal Procedure. EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS UNDER SB 6: Important note: Training requirements of Article 17.024 are applicable to all judges exercising authority over criminal matters. For all county judges serving on April 1, 2022: Those who make decisions regarding bail must be in compliance with educational requirements. These include an eight-hour course on magistrate duties by Dec, 1, 2022, for judges in office on April 1, 2022, including a Department of Public Safety course on accessing criminal history records. Additionally, two hours of education on a magistrate’s duties must be completed each subsequent state fiscal biennium (the two-year period beginning on Sept. 1 in odd-numbered years, such as Sept. 1, 2023-Aug. 31, 2025). Code of Criminal Procedure Articles 17.023, 17.024. For all new county judges taking office after April 1, 2022: They will need an eight-hour course on magistrate duties within 90 days of taking office, including a DPS course on accessing criminal history records (see the FAQ below for more details). Additionally, a two-hour course on a magistrate’s duties must be completed each subsequent state fiscal biennium (the two-year period beginning on Sept. 1 in odd-numbered years, such as Sept. 1, 2023-Aug. 31, 2025). Code of Criminal Procedure Articles 17.023, 17.024. https:// www.tjctc.org/bail.html https://www.txcourts.gov/media/1454127/fy-21-annual-statistical-report-final.pdf Key Terms: appellate jurisdiction arraignment capital case civil law complaint courts of appeal criminal law defendant de novo District courts due process exclusive jurisdiction felony hierarchical justice of the peace courts juvenile courts misdemeanor municipal courts original jurisdiction plaintiff plea bargaining precedent probate courts Texas Supreme Court • \| Court Organization. Structure of the Texas Court System. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. : Daniel Brown \| 5.2 Texas Criminal Justice Process TEXAS CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROCESS \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Discuss the steps in the Texas Criminal Justice process \| Texas Criminal Justice Process The Texas court systems have two conflicting goals: they must protect the people and the accused. Therefore the state of Texas must ensure that every person is treated equally in legal matters- this is known as due process. The steps in the Texas criminal justice process are: 1. Arrest, 2. Indictment, 3. Plea bargaining, 4. Trial, and 5. Post-trial. - Arrest. One aspect pertinent to arrest are the Miranda Rights. Miranda Rights derived from the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Miranda vs. Arizona (1966). During the Miranda case the question was whether or not procedures must be utilized by law enforcement officials to ensure that an individual’s 5th Amendment Self-incrimination rights are not violated. The United States Supreme Court ruled that a person must be made aware of their rights prior to being questioned. (Note: http://www.uscourts.gov/ educational-resources/educational-activities/facts-and-case-summary-miranda-v-arizona) Once an arrest is made, the defendant is arraigned and bond is set. Arraignment is when a defendant is formally charged and made aware of their rights. After this the defendant may receive bail, although bail is not guaranteed (Texas Constitution Article 1, Section 11 & 11a-b). - Indictment. If the charge is a felony then an indictment must occur for the process to continue. A grand jury is in charge of determining whether there is enough evidence to move forward with the charge- 9 out of 12 grand jury members must agree that the process can move forward. If this occurs it is known as a "true bill" (indictment), if not it is known as a “no bill.” - Plea bargaining. Due to the fact that there are overcrowded dockets, plea bargaining is the mostcommon method for resolving criminal cases in Texas. Plea bargaining is when the defendant and the prosecutor negotiate a deal to avoid having to go to trial- the concept is that this saves time and money. - Trial. If the case reaches trial, the defendant may choose to have a trial by jury (guaranteed by the Texas Constitution Article 1, Section 15); or waive that right and choose trial by a presiding judge. Texas utilizes an adversary system, which means the two sides will attempt to convince the jury or judge why they are correct. - Post Trial. Post trial is the final step where the defendant, if found guilty, will receive a form of rehabilitation or punishment. Some examples of rehabilitation or punishment are prison time, probation, parole, house arrest, and fines. • \| Texas Criminal Justice Process. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 6. Political Participation, Voting 6. POLITICAL PARTICIPATION VOTING Learning Objectives By the end of this section you will be able to: - Identify ways the U.S. government has promoted voter rights and registration - Summarize similarities and differences in states’ voter registration methods - Analyze ways states increase voter registration and decrease fraud - Discuss the voting requirements in Texas - Understand the factors that affect voter turnout - Analyze the factors that typically affect a voter’s decision Before most voters are allowed to cast a ballot, they must register to vote in their state. This process may be as simple as checking a box on a driver’s license application or as difficult as filling out a long form with complicated questions. Registration allows governments to determine which citizens are allowed to vote and, in some cases, from which list of candidates they may select a party nominee. Ironically, while government wants to increase voter turnout, the registration process may prevent various groups of citizens and non-citizens from participating in the electoral process. Voter Registration Across the United States Elections are state-by-state contests. They include general elections for president and statewide offices (e.g., governor and U.S. senator), and they are often organized and paid for by the states. Because political cultures vary from state to state, the process of voter registration similarly varies. For example, suppose an 85-year-old retiree with an expired driver’s license wants to register to vote. He or she might be able to register quickly in California or Florida, but a current government ID might be required prior to registration in Texas or Indiana. The varied registration and voting laws across the United States have long caused controversy. In the aftermath of the Civil War, southern states enacted literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and other requirements intended to disenfranchise black voters in Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi. Literacy tests were long and detailed exams on local and national politics, history, and more. They were often administered arbitrarily with more blacks required to take them than whites. (Note: Stephen Medvic. 2014. Campaigns and Elections: Players and Processes, 2nd ed. New York: Routledge.) Poll Taxes required voters to pay a fee to vote. Grandfather clauses exempted individuals from taking literacy tests or paying poll taxes if they or their fathers or grandfathers had been permitted to vote prior to a certain point in time. While the Supreme Court determined that grandfather clauses were unconstitutional in 1915, states continued to use poll taxes and literacy tests to deter potential voters from registering. (Note: Guinn v. United States, 238 U.S. 347 (1915).) States also ignored instances of violence and intimidation against African Americans wanting to register or vote. (Note: Medvic, Campaigns and Elections.) 1939 Harris County poll tax receipt number 38861 for John J. Herrera. It includes demographic information about Herrera and is signed by the deputy of the Harris County Assessor and Collector of Taxes. The dates of elections are listed on the back. Public Domain The ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1964 ended poll taxes, but the passage of the Voting Rights Amendment (VRA) in 1965 had a more profound effect. The act protected the rights of minority voters by prohibiting state laws that denied voting rights based on race. The VRA gave the attorney general of the United States authority to order federal examiners to areas with a history of discrimination. These examiners had the power to oversee and monitor voter registration and elections. States found to violate provisions of the VRA were required to get any changes in their election laws approved by the U.S. attorney general or by going through the court system. However, in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, threw out the standards and process of the VRA, effectively gutting the landmark legislation. (Note: Shelby County v. Holder, 570 U.S. ___ (2013).) The Voting Rights Act (a) was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson (b, left) on August 6, 1965, in the presence of major figures of the civil rights movement, including Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. (b, center). The effects of the VRA were visible almost immediately. In Mississippi, only 6.7 percent of blacks were registered to vote in 1965; however, by the fall of 1967, nearly 60 percent were registered. Alabama experienced similar effects, with African American registration increasing from 19.3 percent to 51.6 percent. Voter turnout across these two states similarly increased. Mississippi went from 33.9 percent turnout to 53.2 percent, while Alabama increased from 35.9 percent to 52.7 percent between the 1964 and 1968 presidential elections. (Note: Bernard Grofman, Lisa Handley, and Richard G. Niemi. 1992. Minority Representation and the Quest for Voting Equality. New York: Cambridge University Press, 25.) Following the implementation of the VRA, many states have sought other methods of increasing voter registration. Several states make registering to vote relatively easy for citizens who have government documentation. Oregon has few requirements for registering and registers many of its voters automatically. North Dakota has no registration at all. In 2002, Arizona was the first state to offer online voter registration, which allowed citizens with a driver’s license to register to vote without any paper application or signature. The system matches the information on the application to information stored at the Department of Motor Vehicles, to ensure each citizen is registering to vote in the right precinct. Citizens without a driver’s license still need to file a paper application. More than eighteen states have moved to online registration or passed laws to begin doing so. The National Conference of State Legislatures estimates, however, that adopting an online voter registration system can initially cost a state between $250,000 and $750,000. (Note: "The Canvass," April 2014, Issue 48, http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/states-and-election-reform-the-canvass-april-2014.aspx.) Other states have decided against online registration due to concerns about voter fraud and security. Legislators also argue that online registration makes it difficult to ensure that only citizens are registering and that they are registering in the correct precincts. As technology continues to update other areas of state recordkeeping, online registration may become easier and safer. In some areas, citizens have pressured the states and pushed the process along. A bill to move registration online in Florida stalled for over a year in the legislature, based on security concerns. With strong citizen support, however, it was passed and signed in 2015, despite the governor’s lingering concerns. In other states, such as Texas, both the government and citizens are concerned about identity fraud, so traditional paper registration is still preferred. How Does Someone Register to Vote? The National Commission on Voting Rights completed a study in September 2015 that found state registration laws can either raise or reduce voter turnout rates, especially among citizens who are young or whose income falls below the poverty line. States with simple voter registration had more registered citizens. (Note: Tova Wang and Maria Peralta. 22 September 2015. "New Report Released by National Commission on Voting Rights: More Work Needed to Improve Registration and Voting in the U.S." http://votingrightstoday.org/ncvr/resources/ electionadmin.) In all states except North Dakota, a citizen wishing to vote must complete an application. Whether the form is online or on paper, the prospective voter will list his or her name, residency address, and in many cases party identification (with Independent as an option) and affirm that he or she is competent to vote. States may also have a residency requirement, which establishes how long a citizen must live in a state before becoming eligible to register: it is often 30 days. Beyond these requirements, there may be an oath administered or more questions asked, such as felony convictions. If the application is completely online and the citizen has government documents (e.g., driver’s license or state identification card), the system will compare the application to other state records and accept an online signature or affidavit if everything matches up correctly. Citizens who do not have these state documents are often required to complete paper applications. States without online registration often allow a citizen to fill out an application on a website, but the citizen will receive a paper copy in the mail to sign and mail back to the state. Another aspect of registering to vote is the timeline. States may require registration to take place as much as thirty days before voting, or they may allow same-day registration. Maine first implemented in 1973. Fourteen states and the District of Columbia now allow voters to register the day of the election if they have proof of residency, such as a driver’s license or utility bill. Many of the more populous states (e.g., Michigan and Texas), require registration forms to be mailed thirty days before an election. Moving means citizens must reregister or update addresses. College students, for example, may have to re-register or update addresses each year as they move. States that use same-day registration had a 4 percent higher voter turnout in the 2012 presidential election than states that did not. (Note: Ibid.) Moving requires a voter to re-register or update his or her address in the system. Depending on the state, this notification can sometimes be completed through the Department of Motor Vehicles, as in California. Some attempts have been made to streamline voter registration. The National Voter Registration Act (1993), often referred to as Motor Voter, was enacted to expedite the registration process and make it as simple as possible for voters. The act required states to allow citizens to register to vote when they sign up for driver’s licenses and Social Security benefits. On each government form, the citizen need only mark an additional box to also register to vote. Unfortunately, while increasing registrations by 7 percent between 1992 and 2012, Motor Voter did not dramatically increase voter turnout. (Note: Royce Crocker, "The National Voter Registration Act of 1993: History, Implementation, and Effects," Congressional Research Service, CRS Report R40609, September 18, 2013, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40609.pdf.) In fact, for two years following the passage of the act, voter turnout decreased slightly. (Note: "National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789–Present," http://www.electproject.org/national-1789-present (November 4, 2015).) It appears that the main users of the expedited system were those already intending to vote. One study, however, found that preregistration may have a different effect on youth than on the overall voter pool; in Florida, it increased turnout of young voters by 13 percent. (Note: John B. Holbein, D. Sunshine Hillygus. 2015. "Making Young Voters: The Impact of Preregistration on Youth Turnout." American Journal of Political Science (March). doi:10.1111/ajps.12177.) In 2015, Oregon made news when it took the concept of Motor Voter further. When citizens turn eighteen, the state now automatically registers most of them using driver’s license and state identification information. When a citizen moves, the voter rolls are updated when the license is updated. While this policy has been controversial, with some arguing that private information may become public or that Oregon is moving toward mandatory voting, automatic registration is consistent with the state’s efforts to increase registration and turnout. (Note: Russell Berman, "Should Voter Registration Be Automatic?" Atlantic, 20 March 2015; Maria L. La Ganga, "Under New Oregon Law, All Eligible Voters are Registered Unless They Opt Out," Los Angeles Times, 17 March 2015.) Oregon’s example offers a possible solution to a recurring problem for states—maintaining accurate voter registration rolls. During the 2000 election, in which George W. Bush won Florida’s electoral votes by a slim majority, attention turned to the state’s election procedures and voter registration rolls. Journalists found that many states, including Florida, had large numbers of phantom voters on their rolls, voters had moved or died but remained on the states’ voter registration rolls. (Note: "'Unusable' Voter Rolls," Wall Street Journal, 7 November 2000.) Over a decade later, there has been some progress. In Louisiana, voters are placed on ineligible lists if a voting registrar is notified that they have moved or become ineligible to vote. If the voter remains on this list for two general elections, his or her registration is cancelled. In Oklahoma, the registrar receives a list of deceased residents from the Department of Health. (Note: "Voter List Accuracy,"11 February 2014. http://www.ncsl.org/ research/elections-and-campaigns/voter-list-accuracy.aspx) Who Is Allowed to Register? In order to be eligible to vote in the United States, a person must be a citizen, resident, and eighteen years old. But states often place additional requirements on the right to vote. The most common requirement is that voters must be mentally competent and not currently serving time in jail. Some states enforce more stringent or unusual requirements on citizens who have committed crimes. Florida and Kentucky permanently bar felons and ex-felons from voting unless they obtain a pardon from the governor, while Mississippi and Nevada allow former felons to apply to have their voting rights restored. (Note: "Felon Voting Rights," 15 July 2014. http://www.ncsl.org/ research/elections-and-campaigns/felon-voting-rights.aspx.) On the other end of the spectrum, Vermont does not limit voting based on incarceration unless the crime was election fraud. (Note: Wilson Ring, "Vermont, Maine Only States to Let Inmates Vote," Associated Press, 22 October 2008.) Maine citizens serving in Maine prisons also may vote in elections. Beyond those jailed, some citizens have additional expectations placed on them when they register to vote. Wisconsin requires that voters “not wager on an election,” and Vermont citizens must recite the “Voter’s Oath” before they register, swearing to cast votes with a conscience and “without fear or favor of any person.” (Note: "Voter’s Qualifications and Oath," https://votesmart.org/elections/ballot-measure/1583/voters-qualifications-andoath#.VjQOJH6rS00 (November 12, 2015).) Voter Decision Making When citizens do vote, how do they make their decisions? The election environment is complex and most voters don’t have time to research everything about the candidates and issues. Yet they will need to make a fully rational assessment of the choices for an elected office. To meet this goal, they tend to take shortcuts. One popular shortcut is simply to vote using party affiliation. Many political scientists consider party-line voting to be rational behavior because citizens register for parties based upon either position preference or socialization. Similarly, candidates align with parties based upon their issue positions. A Democrat who votes for a Democrat is very likely selecting the candidate closest to his or her personal ideology. While party identification is a voting cue, it also makes for a logical decision. Citizens also use party identification to make decisions via straight ticket voting—choosing every Republican or Democratic Party member on the ballot. In some states, such as Texas or Michigan, selecting one box at the top of the ballot gives a single party all the votes on the ballot. Straight-ticket voting does cause problems in states that include non-partisan positions on the ballot. In Michigan, for example, the top of the ballot (presidential, gubernatorial, senatorial and representative seats) will be partisan, and a straight-ticket vote will give a vote to all the candidates in the selected party. But the middle or bottom of the ballot includes seats for local offices or judicial seats, which are non-partisan. These offices would receive no vote, because the straight-ticket votes go only to partisan seats. In 2010, actors from the former political drama The West Wing came together to create an advertisement for Mary McCormack’s sister Bridget, who was running for a non-partisan seat on the Michigan Supreme Court. The ad reminded straight-ticket voters to cast a ballot for the court seats as well; otherwise, they would miss an important election. McCormack won the seat. Voters in Michigan can use straight-ticket voting. To fill out their ballot, they select one box at the top to give a single party all the votes on the ballot. Straight-ticket voting does have the advantage of reducing ballot fatigue. Ballot fatigue occurs when someone votes only for the top or important ballot positions, such as president or governor, and stops voting rather than continue to the bottom of a long ballot. In 2012, for example, 70 percent of registered voters in Colorado cast a ballot for the presidential seat, yet only 54 percent voted yes or no on retaining Nathan B. Coats for the state supreme court. (Note: "Presidential Electors," http://www.sos.state.co.us/pubs/elections/Results/Abstract/2012/ general/president.html (July 15, 2015); "Judicial Retention–Supreme Court," http://www.sos.state.co.us/pubs/ elections/Results/Abstract/2012/general/retention/supremeCourt.html (July 15, 2015).) Voters make decisions based upon candidates’ physical characteristics, such as attractiveness or facial features. (Note: Lasse Laustsen. 2014. "Decomposing the Relationship Between Candidates’ Facial Appearance and Electoral Success," Political Behavior 36, No. 4: 777–791.) They may also vote based on gender or race, because they assume the elected official will make policy decisions based on a demographic shared with the voters. Candidates are very aware of voters’ focus on these non-political traits. In 2008, a sizable portion of the electorate wanted to vote for either Hillary Clinton or Barack Obama because they offered new demographics—either the first woman or the first black president. Demographics hurt John McCain that year, because many people believed that at 71 he was too old to be president. (Note: Alan Silverleib. 15 June 2008. "Analysis: Age an Issue in the 2008 Campaign?" http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/ 06/15/mccain.age/index.html?iref=newssearch.) Hillary Clinton was criticized in 2008 on the grounds that she had not aged gracefully and wore pantsuits. In essence, attractiveness can make a candidate appear more competent, which in turn can help him or her ultimately win. (Note: Laustsen. "Decomposing the Relationship," 777–791.) Aside from party identification and demographics, voters will also look at issues or the economy when making a decision. For some single-issue voters, a candidate’s stance on abortion rights will be a major factor, while other voters may look at the candidates’ beliefs on the Second Amendment and gun control. Single-issue voting may not require much more effort by the voter than simply using party identification; however, many voters are likely to seek out a candidate’s position on a multitude of issues before making a decision. They will use the information they find in several ways. Retrospective voting occurs when the voter looks at the candidate’s past actions and the past economic climate and makes a decision only using these factors. This behavior may occur during economic downturns or after political scandals, when voters hold politicians accountable and do not wish to give the representative a second chance. Pocketbook voting occurs when the voter looks at his or her personal finances and circumstances to decide how to vote. Someone having a harder time finding employment or seeing investments suffer during a particular candidate or party’s control of government will vote for a different candidate or party than the incumbent. Prospective voting occurs when the voter applies information about a candidate’s past behavior to decide how the candidate will act in the future. For example, will the candidate’s voting record or actions help the economy and better prepare him or her to be president during an economic downturn? The challenge of this voting method is that the voters must use a lot of information, which might be conflicting or unrelated, to make an educated guess about how the candidate will perform in the future. Voters do appear to rely on prospective and retrospective voting more often than on pocketbook voting. In some cases, a voter may cast a ballot strategically. In these cases, a person may vote for a second- or thirdchoice candidate, either because his or her preferred candidate cannot win or in the hope of preventing another candidate from winning. This type of voting is likely to happen when there are multiple candidates for one position or multiple parties running for one seat. (Note: R. Michael Alvarez and Jonathan Nagler. 2000. "A New Approach for Modelling Strategic Voting in Multiparty Elections," British Journal of Political Science 30, No. 1: 57–75.) In Florida and Oregon, for example, Green Party voters (who tend to be liberal) may choose to vote for a Democrat if the Democrat might otherwise lose to a Republican. Similarly, in Georgia, while a Libertarian may be the preferred candidate, the voter would rather have the Republican candidate win over the Democrat and will vote accordingly. (Note: Nathan Thomburgh, "Could Third-Party Candidates Be Spoilers?" Time, 3 November 2008.) One other way voters make decisions is through incumbency. In essence, this is retrospective voting, but it requires little of the voter. In congressional and local elections, incumbents win reelection up to 90 percent of the time, a result called the incumbency advantage. What contributes to this advantage and often persuades competent challengers not to run? First, incumbents have name recognition and voting records. The media is more likely to interview them because they have advertised their name over several elections and have voted on legislation affecting the state or district. Incumbents also have won election before, which increases the odds that political action committees and interest groups will give them money; most interest groups will not give money to a candidate destined to lose. Incumbents also have franking privileges, which allows them a limited amount of free mail to communicate with the voters in their district. While these mailings may not be sent in the days leading up to an election—sixty days for a senator and ninety days for a House member—congressional representatives are able to build a free relationship with voters through them. (Note: Matthew E. Glassman, "Congressional Franking Privilege: Background and Current Legislation," Congressional Research Service, CRS Report RS22771, December 11, 2007, http://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS22771.pdf.) Moreover, incumbents have exiting campaign organizations, while challengers must build new organizations from the ground up. Lastly, incumbents have more money in their war chests than most challengers. Another incumbent advantage is gerrymandering, the drawing of district lines to guarantee a desired electoral outcome. Every ten years, following the U.S. Census, the number of House of Representatives members allotted to each state is determined based on a state’s population. If a state gains or loses seats in the House, the state must redraw districts to ensure each district has an equal number of citizens. States may also choose to redraw these districts at other times and for other reasons. (Note: League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry, 548 U.S. 399 (2006).) If the district is drawn to ensure that it includes a majority of Democratic or Republican Party members within its boundaries, for instance, then candidates from those parties will have an advantage. Gerrymandering helps local legislative candidates and members of the House of Representatives, who win reelection over 90 percent of the time. Senators and presidents do not benefit from gerrymandering because they are not running in a district. Presidents and senators win states, so they benefit only from war chests and name recognition. This is one reason why senators running in 2014, for example, won reelection only 82 percent of the time. (Note: "Reelection Rates of the Years," https://www.opensecrets.org/bigpicture/reelect.php (November 2, 2015).) Texas Voter Requirements Texas voter requirements are: (Note: http://www.votetexas.gov/register-to-vote/need-id) - Must be a U.S. citizen - Must be a resident of the county - Must be at least 18 years old (a person may register to vote at 17 years and 10 months) - Not a convicted felon (Eligible to vote once the person’s sentence, to include probation and restitution are complete) - Not declared mentally incapacitated by a court of law - Must present an acceptable form of photo identification Texas also has (where an individual does not need to be physically present at the poll to cast their ballot), and early voting (17 days before and 4 days until the regular election). • \| Revision and Adaptation. : Daniel M. Regalado. : CC BY: Attribution \| \| • \| Texas Voter Requirements. : Daniel M. Regalado. CC BY: Attribution \| \| 6.1 Elections ELECTIONS \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Primary Election versus Caucus The most common method of picking a party nominee for state, local, and presidential contests is the primary. Party members use a ballot to indicate which candidate they desire for the party nominee. Despite the ease of voting using a ballot, have a number of rules and variations that can still cause confusion for citizens. In a closed primary, only members of the political party selecting nominees may vote. A registered Green Party member, for example, is not allowed to vote in the Republican or Democratic primary. Parties prefer this method, because it ensures the nominee is picked by voters who legitimately support the party. An open primary allows all voters to vote. In this system, a Green Party member is allowed to pick either a Democratic or Republican ballot when voting. Despite the common use of the primary system, at least five states (Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Colorado, and Iowa) regularly use caucuses for presidential, state, and local-level nominations. A caucus is a meeting of party members in which nominees are selected informally. Caucuses are less expensive than primaries because they rely on voting methods such as dropping marbles in a jar, placing names in a hat, standing under a sign bearing the candidate’s name, or taking a voice vote. Volunteers record the votes and no poll workers need to be trained or compensated. The party members at the caucus also help select delegates, who represent their choice at the party’s state- or national-level nominating convention.The caucus has its proponents and opponents. Many argue that it is more interesting than the primary and brings out more sophisticated voters, who then benefit from the chance to debate the strengths and weaknesses of the candidates. The caucus system is also more transparent than ballots. The local party members get to see the election outcome and pick the delegates who will represent them at the national convention. There is less of a possibility for deception or dishonesty. Opponents point out that caucuses take two to three hours and are intimidating to less experienced voters. These factors, they argue, lead to lower voter turnout. And they have a point—voter turnout for a caucus is generally 20 percent lower than for a primary. (Note: "Voter Turnout," http://www.electproject.org/home/voter-turnout/voter-turnout-data. (November 3, 2015).) Regardless of which nominating system the states and parties choose, states must also determine which day they wish to hold their nomination. When the nominations are for state-level office, such as governor, the state legislatures receive little to no input from the national political parties. In presidential election years, however, the national political parties pressure most states to hold their primaries or caucuses in March or later. Only Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina are given express permission by the national parties to hold presidential primaries or caucuses in January or February. Both political parties protect the three states’ status as the first states to host caucuses and primaries, due to tradition and the relative ease of campaigning in these smaller states. Types of Elections in Texas Texas uses three types of elections: 1. Primaries, 2. General, and 3. Special. - Primary Elections in Texas are open-primaries, although if a majority vote is not reached a run off election is required. Run off elections are closed-primaries. The goal of Texas primary elections is to choose the best candidate to represent their political party. - General, or regular, elections will determine a winner and a plurality vote is required. The goal of a general election is to win office. - Special elections are called by the Texas Legislature and are typically used for constitutional amendments or filling vacant offices. • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| \| • \| Types of Elections in Texas. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 6.2 Public Opinion PUBLIC OPINION Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| The collection of public opinion through polling and interviews is a part of American political culture. Politicians want to know what the public thinks. Campaign managers want to know how citizens will vote. Media members seek to write stories about what Americans want. Every day, polls take the pulse of the people and report the results. And yet we have to wonder: Why do we care what people think? What Is Public Opinion? Public opinion is a collection of popular views about something, perhaps a person, a local or national event, or a new idea. For example, each day, a number of polling companies call Americans at random to ask whether they approve or disapprove of the way the president is guiding the economy. (Note: Gallup. 2015. "Gallup Daily: Obama Job Approval." Gallup. June 6, 2015. http://www.gallup.com/poll/113980/Gallup-Daily-Obama-JobApproval.aspx (February 17, 2016); Rasmussen Reports. 2015. "Daily Presidential Tracking Poll." Rasmussen Reports June 6, 2015. http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/obama_administration/ daily_presidential_tracking_poll (February 17, 2016); Roper Center. 2015. "Obama Presidential Approval." Roper Center. June 6, 2015. http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/polls/presidential-approval/ (February 17, 2016).) When situations arise internationally, polling companies survey whether citizens support U.S. intervention in places like Syria or Ukraine. These individual opinions are collected together to be analyzed and interpreted for politicians and the media. The analysis examines how the public feels or thinks, so politicians can use the information to make decisions about their future legislative votes, campaign messages, or propaganda. But where do people’s opinions come from? Most citizens base their political opinions on their beliefs (Note: V. O. Key, Jr. 1966. The Responsible Electorate. Harvard University: Belknap Press.) and their attitudes, both of which begin to form in childhood. Beliefs are closely held ideas that support our values and expectations about life and politics. For example, the idea that we are all entitled to equality, liberty, freedom, and privacy is a belief most people in the United States share. We may acquire this belief by growing up in the United States or by having come from a country that did not afford these valued principles to its citizens. Our attitudes are also affected by our personal beliefs and represent the preferences we form based on our life experiences and values. A person who has suffered racism or bigotry may have a skeptical attitude toward the actions of authority figures, for example. Over time, our beliefs and our attitudes about people, events, and ideas will become a set of norms, or accepted ideas, about what we may feel should happen in our society or what is right for the government to do in a situation. In this way, attitudes and beliefs form the foundation for opinions. Political Socialization At the same time that our beliefs and attitudes are forming during childhood, we are also being socialized; that is, we are learning from many information sources about the society and community in which we live and how we are to behave in it. Political socialization is the process by which we are trained to understand and join a country’s political world, and, like most forms of socialization, it starts when we are very young. We may first become aware of politics by watching a parent or guardian vote, for instance, or by hearing presidents and candidates speak on television or the Internet, or seeing adults honor the American flag at an event. As socialization continues, we are introduced to basic political information in school. We recite the Pledge of Allegiance and learn about the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the two major political parties, the three branches of government, and the economic system. Political socialization begins early. Hans Enoksen, former prime minister of Greenland, receives a helping hand at the polls from five-year-old Pipaluk Petersen (a). Intelligence Specialist Second Class Tashawbaba McHerrin (b) hands a U.S. flag to a child visiting the USS Enterprise during Fleet Week in Port Everglades, Florida. (credit a: modification of work by Leiff Josefsen; credit b: modification of work by Matthew Keane, U.S. Navy) By the time we complete school, we have usually acquired the information necessary to form political views and be contributing members of the political system. A young man may realize he prefers the Democratic Party because it supports his views on social programs and education, whereas a young woman may decide she wants to vote for the Republican Party because its platform echoes her beliefs about economic growth and family values. Accounting for the process of socialization is central to our understanding of public opinion, because the beliefs we acquire early in life are unlikely to change dramatically as we grow older. (Note: John Zaller. 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.) Our political ideology, made up of the attitudes and beliefs that help shape our opinions on political theory and policy, is rooted in who we are as individuals. Our ideology may change subtly as we grow older and are introduced to new circumstances or new information, but our underlying beliefs and attitudes are unlikely to change very much, unless we experience events that profoundly affect us. For example, family members of 9/11 victims became more Republican and more political following the terrorist attacks. (Note: Eitan Hersh. 2013. "Long-Term Effect of September 11 on the Political Behavior of Victims’ Families and Neighbors." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110 (52): 20959–63.) Similarly, young adults who attended political protest rallies in the 1960s and 1970s were more likely to participate in politics in general than their peers who had not protested. (Note: M. Kent Jennings. 2002. "Generation Units and the Student Protest Movement in the United States: An Intra- and Intergenerational Analysis." Political Psychology 23 (2): 303–324.) If enough beliefs or attitudes are shattered by an event, such as an economic catastrophe or a threat to personal safety, ideology shifts may affect the way we vote. During the 1920s, the Republican Party controlled the House of Representatives and the Senate, sometimes by wide margins. (Note: United States Senate. 2015. "Party Division in the Senate, 1789-Present," United States Senate. June 5, 2015. http://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/ history/one_item_and_teasers/partydiv.htm (February 17, 2016). History, Art & Archives. 2015. "Party Divisions of the House of Representatives: 1789–Present." United States House of Representatives. June 5, 2015. http://history.house.gov/Institution/Party-Divisions/Party-Divisions/ (February 17, 2016).) After the stock market collapsed and the nation slid into the Great Depression, many citizens abandoned the Republican Party. In 1932, voters overwhelmingly chose Democratic candidates, for both the presidency and Congress. The Democratic Party gained registered members and the Republican Party lost them. (Note: V. O. Key Jr. 1955. "A Theory of Critical Elections." Journal of Politics 17 (1): 3–18.) Citizens’ beliefs had shifted enough to cause the control of Congress to change from one party to the other, and Democrats continued to hold Congress for several decades. Another sea change occurred in Congress in the 1994 elections when the Republican Party took control of both the House and the Senate for the first time in over forty years. Today, polling agencies have noticed that citizens’ beliefs have become far more polarized, or widely opposed, over the last decade. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2014. "Political Polarization in the American Public." Pew Research Center. June 12, 2014. http://www.people-press.org/2014/06/12/political-polarization-in-the-americanpublic/ (February 17, 2016).) To track this polarization, Pew Research conducted a study of Republican and Democratic respondents over a twenty-five-year span. Every few years, Pew would poll respondents, asking them whether they agreed or disagreed with statements. These statements are referred to as “value questions” or “value statements,” because they measure what the respondent values. Examples of statements include “Government regulation of business usually does more harm than good,” “Labor unions are necessary to protect the working person,” and “Society should ensure all have equal opportunity to succeed.” After comparing such answers for twenty-five years, Pew Research found that Republican and Democratic respondents are increasingly answering these questions very differently. This is especially true for questions about the government and politics. In 1987, 58 percent of Democrats and 60 percent of Republicans agreed with the statement that the government controlled too much of our daily lives. In 2012, 47 percent of Democrats and 77 percent of Republicans agreed with the statement. This is an example of polarization, in which members of one party see government from a very different perspective than the members of the other party. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2015. "American Values Survey." Pew Research Center. http://www.people-press.org/values-questions/ (February 17, 2016).) Over the years, Democrats and Republicans have moved further apart in their beliefs about the role of government. In 1987, Republican and Democratic answers to forty-eight values questions differed by an average of only 10 percent, but that difference has grown to 18 percent over the last twenty-five years. Political scientists noted this and other changes in beliefs following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States, including an increase in the level of trust in government (Note: Virginia Chanley. 2002. "Trust in Government in the Aftermath of 9/11: Determinants and Consequences." Political Psychology 23 (3): 469–483.) and a new willingness to limit liberties for groups or citizens who “[did] not fit into the dominant cultural type.” (Note: Deborah Schildkraut. 2002. "The More Things Change... American Identity and Mass and Elite Responses to 9/11." Political Psychology 23 (3): 532.) According to some scholars, these shifts led partisanship to become more polarized than in previous decades, as more citizens began thinking of themselves as conservative or liberal rather than moderate. (Note: Joseph Bafumi and Robert Shapiro. 2009. "A New Partisan Voter." The Journal of Politics 71 (1): 1–24.) Some believe 9/11 caused a number of citizens to become more conservative overall, although it is hard to judge whether such a shift will be permanent. (Note: Liz Marlantes, "After 9/11, the Body Politic Tilts to Conservatism," Christian Science Monitor, 16 January 2002.) Socialization Agents An agent of political socialization is a source of political information intended to help citizens understand how to act in their political system and how to make decisions on political matters. The information may help a citizen decide how to vote, where to donate money, or how to protest decisions made by the government. The most prominent agents of socialization are family and school. Other influential agents are social groups, such as religious institutions and friends, and the media. Political socialization is not unique to the United States. Many nations have realized the benefits of socializing their populations. China, for example, stresses nationalism in schools as a way to increase national unity. (Note: Liping Weng. 2010. "Shanghai Children’s Value Socialization and Its Change: A Comparative Analysis of Primary School Textbooks." China Media Research 6 (3): 36–43.) In the United States, one benefit of socialization is that our political system enjoys diffuse support, which is support characterized by a high level of stability in politics, acceptance of the government as legitimate, and a common goal of preserving the system. (Note: David Easton. 1965. A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York: John Wiley.) These traits keep a country steady, even during times of political or social upheaval. But diffuse support does not happen quickly, nor does it occur without the help of agents of political socialization. For many children, family is the first introduction to politics. Children may hear adult conversations at home and piece together the political messages their parents support. They often know how their parents or grandparents plan to vote, which in turn can socialize them into political behavior such as political party membership. (Note: Angus Campbell, Philip Converse, Warren Miller, and Donald Stokes. 2008. The American Voter: Unabridged Edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Michael S. Lewis-Beck, William G. Jacoby, Helmut Norpoth, and Herbert F. Weisberg. 2008. American Vote Revisited. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.) Children who accompany their parents on Election Day in November are exposed to the act of voting and the concept of civic duty, which is the performance of actions that benefit the country or community. Families active in community projects or politics make children aware of community needs and politics. Introducing children to these activities has an impact on their future behavior. Both early and recent findings suggest that children adopt some of the political beliefs and attitudes of their parents. (Note: Russell Dalton. 1980. "Reassessing Parental Socialization: Indicator Unreliability versus Generational Transfer." American Political Science Review 74 (2): 421–431.) Children of Democratic parents often become registered Democrats, whereas children in Republican households often become Republicans. Children living in households where parents do not display a consistent political party loyalty are less likely to be strong Democrats or strong Republicans, and instead are often independents. (Note: Michael S. Lewis-Beck, William G. Jacoby, Helmut Norpoth, and Herbert F. Weisberg. 2008. American Vote Revisited. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.) A parent’s political orientation often affects the political orientation of his or her child. While family provides an informal political education, schools offer a more formal and increasingly important one. The early introduction is often broad and thematic, covering explorers, presidents, victories, and symbols, but generally the lessons are idealized and do not discuss many of the specific problems or controversies connected with historical figures and moments. George Washington’s contributions as our first president are highlighted, for instance, but teachers are unlikely to mention that he owned slaves. Lessons will also try to personalize government and make leaders relatable to children. A teacher might discuss Abraham Lincoln’s childhood struggle to get an education despite the death of his mother and his family’s poverty. Children learn to respect government, follow laws, and obey the requests of police, firefighters, and other first responders. The Pledge of Allegiance becomes a regular part of the school day, as students learn to show respect to our country’s symbols such as the flag and to abstractions such as liberty and equality. As students progress to higher grades, lessons will cover more detailed information about the history of the United States, its economic system, and the workings of the government. Complex topics such as the legislative process, checks and balances, and domestic policymaking are covered. Introductory economics classes teach about the various ways to build an economy, explaining how the capitalist system works. Many high schools have implemented civic volunteerism requirements as a way to encourage students to participate in their communities. Many offer Advanced Placement classes in U.S. government and history, or other honors-level courses, such as International Baccalaureate or dual-credit courses. These courses can introduce detail and realism, raise controversial topics, and encourage students to make comparisons and think critically about the United States in a global and historical context. College students may choose to pursue their academic study of the U.S. political system further, become active in campus advocacy or rights groups, or run for any of a number of elected positions on campus or even in the local community. Each step of the educational system’s socialization process will ready students to make decisions and be participating members of political society. We are also socialized outside our homes and schools. When citizens attend religious ceremonies, as 70 percent of Americans in a recent survey claimed, (Note: Michael Lipka. 2013. "What Surveys Say about Workshop Attendance—and Why Some Stay Home." Pew Research Center. September 13, 2013. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/09/13/what-surveys-say-about-worship-attendance-and-why-somestay-home/ (February 17, 2016).) they are socialized to adopt beliefs that affect their politics. Religion leaders often teach on matters of life, death, punishment, and obligation, which translate into views on political issues such as abortion, euthanasia, the death penalty, and military involvement abroad. Political candidates speak at religious centers and institutions in an effort to meet like-minded voters. For example, Senator Ted Cruz (R-TX) announced his 2016 presidential bid at Liberty University, a fundamentalist Christian institution. This university matched Cruz’s conservative and religious ideological leanings and was intended to give him a boost from the faith-based community. Friends and peers too have a socializing effect on citizens. Communication networks are based on trust and common interests, so when we receive information from friends and neighbors, we often readily accept it because we trust them. (Note: Arthur Lupia and Mathew D. McCubbins. 1998. The Democratic Dilemma: Can Citizens Learn What They Need to Know? New York: Cambridge University Press. John Barry Ryan. 2011. "Social Networks as a Shortcut to Correct Voting." American Journal of Political Science 55 (4): 753–766.) Information transmitted through social media like Facebook is also likely to have a socializing effect. Friends “like” articles and information, sharing their political beliefs and information with one another. Media—newspapers, television, radio, and the Internet—also socialize citizens through the information they provide. For a long time, the media served as gatekeepers of our information, creating reality by choosing what to present. If the media did not cover an issue or event, it was as if it did not exist. With the rise of the Internet and social media, however, traditional media have become less powerful agents of this kind of socialization. Another way the media socializes audiences is through framing, or choosing the way information is presented. Framing can affect the way an event or story is perceived. Candidates described with negative adjectives, for instance, may do poorly on Election Day. Consider the recent demonstrations over the deaths of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, and of Freddie Gray in Baltimore, Maryland. Both deaths were caused by police actions against unarmed African American men. Brown was shot to death by an officer on August 9, 2014. Gray died from spinal injuries sustained in transport to jail in April 2015. Following each death, family, friends, and sympathizers protested the police actions as excessive and unfair. While some television stations framed the demonstrations as riots and looting, other stations framed them as protests and fights against corruption. The demonstrations contained both riot and protest, but individuals’ perceptions were affected by the framing chosen by their preferred information sources. (Note: Sarah Bowen. 2015. "A Framing Analysis of Media Coverage of the Rodney King Incident and Ferguson, Missouri, Conflicts." Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications 6 (1): 114–124.) Images of protestors from the Baltimore “uprising” (a) and from the Baltimore “riots” (b) of April 25, 2015. (credit a: modification of work by Pete Santilli Live Stream/YouTube; credit b: modification of work by “Newzulu”/YouTube) Finally, media information presented as fact can contain covert or overt political material. Covert content is political information provided under the pretense that it is neutral. A magazine might run a story on climate change by interviewing representatives of only one side of the policy debate and downplaying the opposing view, all without acknowledging the one-sided nature of its coverage. In contrast, when the writer or publication makes clear to the reader or viewer that the information offers only one side of the political debate, the political message is overt content. Political commentators like Rush Limbaugh and publications like Mother Jones openly state their ideological viewpoints. While such overt political content may be offensive or annoying to a reader or viewer, all are offered the choice whether to be exposed to the material. Socialization and Ideology The socialization process leaves citizens with attitudes and beliefs that create a personal ideology. Ideologies depend on attitudes and beliefs, and on the way we prioritize each belief over the others. Most citizens hold a great number of beliefs and attitudes about government action. Many think government should provide for the common defense, in the form of a national military. They also argue that government should provide services to its citizens in the form of free education, unemployment benefits, and assistance for the poor. When asked how to divide the national budget, Americans reveal priorities that divide public opinion. Should we have a smaller military and larger social benefits, or a larger military budget and limited social benefits? This is the guns versus butter debate, which assumes that governments have a finite amount of money and must choose whether to spend a larger part on the military or on social programs. The choice forces citizens into two opposing groups. Divisions like these appear throughout public opinion. Assume we have four different people named Garcia, Chin, Smith, and Dupree. Garcia may believe that the United States should provide a free education for every citizen all the way through college, whereas Chin may believe education should be free only through high school. Smith might believe children should be covered by health insurance at the government’s expense, whereas Dupree believes all citizens should be covered. In the end, the way we prioritize our beliefs and what we decide is most important to us determines whether we are on the liberal or conservative end of the political spectrum, or somewhere in between. Ideologies and the Ideological Spectrum One useful way to look at ideologies is to place them on a spectrum that visually compares them based on what they prioritize. Liberal ideologies are traditionally put on the left and conservative ideologies on the right. (This placement dates from the French Revolution and is why liberals are called left-wing and conservatives are called right-wing.) The ideologies at the ends of the spectrum are the most extreme; those in the middle are moderate. Thus, people who identify with left- and right-wing ideologies identify with beliefs to the left and right ends of the spectrum, while moderates balance the beliefs at the extremes of the spectrum. In the United States, ideologies at the right side of the spectrum prioritize government control over personal freedoms. They range from fascism to authoritarianism to conservatism. Ideologies on the left side of the spectrum prioritize equality and range from communism to socialism to liberalism. Moderate ideologies fall in the middle and try to balance the two extremes. People who espouse left-wing ideologies in the United States identify with beliefs on the left side of the spectrum that prioritize equality, whereas those on the right side of the spectrum emphasize control. Fascism promotes total control of the country by the ruling party or political leader. This form of government will run the economy, the military, society, and culture, and often tries to control the private lives of its citizens. Authoritarian leaders control the politics, military, and government of a country, and often the economy as well. Conservative governments attempt to hold tight to the traditions of a nation by balancing individual rights with the good of the community. Traditional conservatism supports the authority of the monarchy and the church, believing government provides the rule of law and maintains a society that is safe and organized. Modern conservatism differs from traditional conservatism in assuming elected government will guard individual liberties and provide laws. Modern conservatives also prefer a smaller government that stays out of the economy, allowing the market and business to determine prices, wages, and supply. Classical liberalism believes in individual liberties and rights. It is based on the idea of free will, that people are born equal with the right to make decisions without government intervention. It views government with suspicion, since history includes many examples of monarchs and leaders who limited citizens’ rights. Today, modern liberalism focuses on equality and supports government intervention in society and the economy if it promotes equality. Liberals expect government to provide basic social and educational programs to help everyone have a chance to succeed. Under socialism, the government uses its authority to promote social and economic equality within the country. Socialists believe government should provide everyone with expanded services and public programs, such as health care, subsidized housing and groceries, childhood education, and inexpensive college tuition. Socialism sees the government as a way to ensure all citizens receive both equal opportunities and equal outcomes. Citizens with more wealth are expected to contribute more to the state’s revenue through higher taxes that pay for services provided to all. Socialist countries are also likely to have higher minimum wages than non-socialist countries. In theory, communism promotes common ownership of all property, means of production, and materials. This means that the government, or states, should own the property, farms, manufacturing, and businesses. By controlling these aspects of the economy, Communist governments can prevent the exploitation of workers while creating an equal society. Extreme inequality of income, in which some citizens earn millions of dollars a year and other citizens merely hundreds, is prevented by instituting wage controls or by abandoning currency altogether. Communism presents a problem, however, because the practice differs from the theory. The theory assumes the move to communism is supported and led by the proletariat, or the workers and citizens of a country. (Note: Frederick Engels. 1847. The Principles of Communism. Trans. Paul Sweezy. https://www.marxists.org/archive/ marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm (February 17, 2016).) Human rights violations by governments of actual Communist countries make it appear the movement has been driven not by the people, but by leadership. We can characterize economic variations on these ideologies by adding another dimension to the ideological spectrum above—whether we prefer that government control the state economy or stay out of it. The extremes are a command economy, such as existed in the former Soviet Russia, and a laissez-faire (“leave it alone”) economy, such as in the United States prior to the 1929 market crash, when banks and corporations were largely unregulated. Communism prioritizes control of both politics and economy, while libertarianism is its near-opposite. Libertarians believe in individual rights and limited government intervention in private life and personal economic decisions. Government exists to maintain freedom and life, so its main function is to ensure domestic peace and national defense. Libertarians also believe the national government should maintain a military in case of international threats, but that it should not engage in setting minimum wages or ruling in private matters, like same-sex marriage or the right to abortion. (Note: Libertarian Party. 2014. "Libertarian Party Platform." June. http://www.lp.org/platform (February 17, 2016).) The point where a person’s ideology falls on the spectrum gives us some insight to his or her opinions. Though people can sometimes be liberal on one issue and conservative on another, a citizen to the left of liberalism, near socialism, would likely be happy with the passage of the Raise the Wage Act of 2015, which would eventually increase the minimum wage from $7.25 to $12 an hour. A citizen falling near conservatism would believe the Patriot Act is reasonable, because it allows the FBI and other government agencies to collect data on citizens’ phone calls and social media communications to monitor potential terrorism. A citizen to the right of the spectrum is more likely to favor cutting social services like unemployment and Medicaid. Public opinion on a given issue may differ dramatically depending on the political ideology or party of those polled. Taking a Poll Most public opinion polls aim to be accurate, but this is not an easy task. is a science. From design to implementation, polls are complex and require careful planning and care. Mitt Romney’s campaign polls are only a recent example of problems stemming from polling methods. Our history is littered with examples of polling companies producing results that incorrectly predicted public opinion due to poor survey design or bad polling methods. In 1936, Literary Digest continued its tradition of polling citizens to determine who would win the presidential election. The magazine sent opinion cards to people who had a subscription, a phone, or a car registration. Only some of the recipients sent back their cards. The result? Alf Landon was predicted to win 55.4 percent of the popular vote; in the end, he received only 38 percent. (Note: Arthur Evans, "Predict Landon Electoral Vote to be 315 to 350," Chicago Tribune, 18 October 1936.) Franklin D. Roosevelt won another term, but the story demonstrates the need to be scientific in conducting polls. A few years later, Thomas Dewey lost the 1948 presidential election to Harry Truman, despite polls showing Dewey far ahead and Truman destined to lose. More recently, John Zogby, of Zogby Analytics, went public with his prediction that John Kerry would win the presidency against incumbent president George W. Bush in 2004, only to be proven wrong on election night. These are just a few cases, but each offers a different lesson. In 1948, pollsters did not poll up to the day of the election, relying on old numbers that did not include a late shift in voter opinion. Zogby’s polls did not represent likely voters and incorrectly predicted who would vote and for whom. These examples reinforce the need to use scientific methods when conducting polls, and to be cautious when reporting the results. Polling process errors can lead to incorrect predictions. On November 3, the day after the 1948 presidential election, a jubilant Harry S. Truman triumphantly displays the inaccurate headline of the Chicago Daily Tribune announcing Thomas Dewey’s supposed victory (credit: David Erickson/Flickr). Most polling companies employ statisticians and methodologists trained in conducting polls and analyzing data. A number of criteria must be met if a poll is to be completed scientifically. First, the methodologists identify the desired population, or group, of respondents they want to interview. For example, if the goal is to project who will win the presidency, citizens from across the United States should be interviewed. If we wish to understand how voters in Colorado will vote on a proposition, the population of respondents should only be Colorado residents. When surveying on elections or policy matters, many polling houses will interview only respondents who have a history of voting in previous elections, because these voters are more likely to go to the polls on Election Day. Politicians are more likely to be influenced by the opinions of proven voters than of everyday citizens. Once the desired population has been identified, the researchers will begin to build a sample that is both random and representative. A sample consists of a limited number of people from the overall population, selected in such a way that each has an equal chance of being chosen. In the early years of polling, telephone numbers of potential respondents were arbitrarily selected from various areas to avoid regional bias. While landline phones allow polls to try to ensure randomness, the increasing use of cell phones makes this process difficult. Cell phones, and their numbers, are portable and move with the owner. To prevent errors, polls that include known cellular numbers may screen for zip codes and other geographic indicators to prevent regional bias. A representative sample consists of a group whose demographic distribution is similar to that of the overall population. For example, nearly 51 percent of the U.S. population is female. (Note: United States Census Bureau. 2012. "Age and Sex Composition in the United States: 2012." United States Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/population/age/data/2012comp.html (February 17, 2016).) To match this demographic distribution of women, any poll intended to measure what most Americans think about an issue should survey a sample containing slightly more women than men. Pollsters try to interview a set number of citizens to create a reasonable sample of the population. This will vary based on the size of the population being interviewed and the level of accuracy the pollster wishes to reach. If the poll is trying to reveal the opinion of a state or group, such as the opinion of Wisconsin voters about changes to the education system, the sample size may vary from five hundred to one thousand respondents and produce results with relatively low error. For a poll to predict what Americans think nationally, such as about the White House’s policy on greenhouse gases, the sample size should be larger. The sample size varies with each organization and institution due to the way the data are processed. Gallup often interviews only five hundred respondents, while Rasmussen Reports and Pew Research often interview one thousand to fifteen hundred respondents. (Note: Rasmussen Reports. 2015. "Daily Presidential Tracking Poll." Rasmussen Reports. September 27, 2015. http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/ obama_administration/daily_presidential_tracking_poll (February 17, 2016); Pew Research Center. 2015. "Sampling." Pew Research Center. http://www.pewresearch.org/methodology/u-s-survey-research/sampling/ (February 17, 2016).) Academic organizations, like the American National Election Studies, have interviews with over twenty-five-hundred respondents. (Note: American National Election Studies Data Center. 2016. http://electionstudies.org/studypages/download/datacenter_all_NoData.php (February 17, 2016).) A larger sample makes a poll more accurate, because it will have relatively fewer unusual responses and be more representative of the actual population. Pollsters do not interview more respondents than necessary, however. Increasing the number of respondents will increase the accuracy of the poll, but once the poll has enough respondents to be representative, increases in accuracy become minor and are not cost-effective. (Note: Michael W. Link and Robert W. Oldendick. 1997. "Good" Polls / "Bad" Polls—How Can You Tell? Ten Tips for Consumers of Survey Research." South Carolina Policy Forum. http://www.ipspr.sc.edu/publication/Link.htm (February 17, 2016); Pew Research Center. 2015. "Sampling." Pew Research Center. http://www.pewresearch.org/ methodology/u-s-survey-research/sampling/ (February 17, 2016).) When the sample represents the actual population, the poll’s accuracy will be reflected in a lower margin of error. The margin of error is a number that states how far the poll results may be from the actual opinion of the total population of citizens. The lower the margin of error, the more predictive the poll. Large margins of error are problematic. For example, if a poll that claims Hillary Clinton is likely to win 30 percent of the vote in the 2016 New York Democratic primary has a margin of error of +/-6, it tells us that Clinton may receive as little as 24 percent of the vote (30 – 6) or as much as 36 percent (30 + 6). A lower of margin of error is clearly desirable because it gives us the most precise picture of what people actually think or will do. With many polls out there, how do you know whether a poll is a good poll and accurately predicts what a group believes? First, look for the numbers. Polling companies include the margin of error, polling dates, number of respondents, and population sampled to show their scientific reliability. Was the poll recently taken? Is the question clear and unbiased? Was the number of respondents high enough to predict the population? Is the margin of error small? It is worth looking for this valuable information when you interpret poll results. While most polling agencies strive to create quality polls, other organizations want fast results and may prioritize immediate numbers over random and representative samples. For example, instant polling is often used by news networks to quickly assess how well candidates are performing in a debate. Technology and Polling The days of randomly walking neighborhoods and phone book cold-calling to interview random citizens are gone. Scientific polling has made interviewing more deliberate. Historically, many polls were conducted in person, yet this was expensive and yielded problematic results. In some situations and countries, face-to-face interviewing still exists. Exit polls, focus groups, and some public opinion polls occur in which the interviewer and respondents communicate in person. Exit polls are conducted in person, with an interviewer standing near a polling location and requesting information as voters leave the polls. Focus groups often select random respondents from local shopping places or pre-select respondents from Internet or phone surveys. The respondents show up to observe or discuss topics and are then surveyed. On November 6, 2012, the Connect2Mason.com team conducts exit surveys at the polls on the George Mason University campus. (credit: Mason Votes/Flickr). When organizations like Gallup or Roper decide to conduct face-to-face public opinion polls, however, it is a timeconsuming and expensive process. The organization must randomly select households or polling locations within neighborhoods, making sure there is a representative household or location in each neighborhood. (Note: "Roper Center. 2015. "Polling Fundamentals – Sampling." Roper. http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/support/pollingfundamentals-sampling/ (February 17, 2016).) Then it must survey a representative number of neighborhoods from within a city. At a polling location, interviewers may have directions on how to randomly select voters of varied demographics. If the interviewer is looking to interview a person in a home, multiple attempts are made to reach a respondent if he or she does not answer. Gallup conducts face-to-face interviews in areas where less than 80 percent of the households in an area have phones, because it gives a more representative sample. (Note: Gallup. 2015. "How Does the Gallup World Poll Work?" Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/178667/gallup-world-poll-work.aspx (February 17, 2016).) News networks use face-to-face techniques to conduct exit polls on Election Day. Most polling now occurs over the phone or through the Internet. Some companies, like Harris Interactive, maintain directories that include registered voters, consumers, or previously interviewed respondents. If pollsters need to interview a particular population, such as political party members or retirees of a specific pension fund, the company may purchase or access a list of phone numbers for that group. Other organizations, like Gallup, use random-digit-dialing (RDD), in which a computer randomly generates phone numbers with desired area codes. Using RDD allows the pollsters to include respondents who may have unlisted and cellular numbers. (Note: Gallup. 2015. "Does Gallup Call Cellphones?" Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/poll/110383/does-gallup-call-cellphones.aspx (February 17, 2016).) Questions about ZIP code or demographics may be asked early in the poll to allow the pollsters to determine which interviews to continue and which to end early. The interviewing process is also partly computerized. Many polls are now administered through computerassisted telephone interviewing (CATI) or through robo-polls. A CATI system calls random telephone numbers until it reaches a live person and then connects the potential respondent with a trained interviewer. As the respondent provides answers, the interviewer enters them directly into the computer program. These polls may have some errors if the interviewer enters an incorrect answer. The polls may also have reliability issues if the interviewer goes off the script or answers respondents’ questions. Robo-polls are entirely computerized. A computer dials random or pre-programmed numbers and a prerecorded electronic voice administers the survey. The respondent listens to the question and possible answers and then presses numbers on the phone to enter responses. Proponents argue that respondents are more honest without an interviewer. However, these polls can suffer from error if the respondent does not use the correct keypad number to answer a question or misunderstands the question. Robo-polls may also have lower response rates, because there is no live person to persuade the respondent to answer. There is also no way to prevent children from answering the survey. Lastly, the Telephone Consumer Protection Act (1991) made automated calls to cell phones illegal, which leaves a large population of potential respondents inaccessible to robo-polls. (Note: Mark Blumenthal, "The Case for Robo-Pollsters: Automated Interviewers Have Their Drawbacks, But Fewer Than Their Critics Suggest," National Journal, 14 September 2009.) The latest challenges in telephone polling come from the shift in phone usage. A growing number of citizens, especially younger citizens, use only cell phones, and their phone numbers are no longer based on geographic areas. The millennial generation (currently aged 18–33) is also more likely to text than to answer an unknown call, so it is harder to interview this demographic group. Polling companies now must reach out to potential respondents using email and social media to ensure they have a representative group of respondents. Yet, the technology required to move to the Internet and handheld devices presents further problems. Web surveys must be designed to run on a varied number of browsers and handheld devices. Online polls cannot detect whether a person with multiple email accounts or social media profiles answers the same poll multiple times, nor can they tell when a respondent misrepresents demographics in the poll or on a social media profile used in a poll. These factors also make it more difficult to calculate response rates or achieve a representative sample. Yet, many companies are working with these difficulties, because it is necessary to reach younger demographics in order to provide accurate data. (Note: Mark Blumenthal, "Is Polling As We Know It Doomed?" National Journal, 10 August 2009.) Problems in Polling For a number of reasons, polls may not produce accurate results. Two important factors a polling company faces are timing and human nature. Unless you conduct an exit poll during an election and interviewers stand at the polling places on Election Day to ask voters how they voted, there is always the possibility the poll results will be wrong. The simplest reason is that if there is time between the poll and Election Day, a citizen might change his or her mind, lie, or choose not to vote at all. Timing is very important during elections, because surprise events can shift enough opinions to change an election result. Of course, there are many other reasons why polls, even those not time-bound by elections or events, may be inaccurate. Polls begin with a list of carefully written questions. The questions need to be free of framing, meaning they should not be worded to lead respondents to a particular answer. For example, take two questions about presidential approval. Question 1 might ask, “Given the high unemployment rate, do you approve of the job President Obama is doing?” Question 2 might ask, “Do you approve of the job President Obama is doing?” Both questions want to know how respondents perceive the president’s success, but the first question sets up a frame for the respondent to believe the economy is doing poorly before answering. This is likely to make the respondent’s answer more negative. Similarly, the way we refer to an issue or concept can affect the way listeners perceive it. The phrase “estate tax” did not rally voters to protest the inheritance tax, but the phrase “death tax” sparked debate about whether taxing estates imposed a double tax on income. (Note: Frank Luntz. 2007. Words That Work: It’s Not What You Say, It’s What People Hear. New York: Hyperion.) Many polling companies try to avoid leading questions, which lead respondents to select a predetermined answer, because they want to know what people really think. Some polls, however, have a different goal. Their questions are written to guarantee a specific outcome, perhaps to help a candidate get press coverage or gain momentum. These are called push polls. In the 2016 presidential primary race, MoveOn tried to encourage Senator Elizabeth Warren (D-MA) to enter the race for the Democratic nomination. Its poll used leading questions for what it termed an “informed ballot,” and, to show that Warren would do better than Hillary Clinton, it included ten positive statements about Warren before asking whether the respondent would vote for Clinton or Warren. (Note: Aaron Blake, "This terrible polls shows Elizabeth Warren beating Hillary Clinton," Washington Post, 11 February 2015.) The poll results were blasted by some in the media for being fake. Senator Elizabeth Warren (a) poses with Massachusetts representatives Joseph P. Kennedy III (left) and Barney Frank (right) at the 2012 Boston Pride Parade. Senator Hillary Clinton (b) during her 2008 presidential campaign in Concord, New Hampshire (credit a: modification of work by “ElizabethForMA”/Flickr; credit b: modification of work by Marc Nozell) Sometimes lack of knowledge affects the results of a poll. Respondents may not know that much about the polling topic but are unwilling to say, “I don’t know.” For this reason, surveys may contain a quiz with questions that determine whether the respondent knows enough about the situation to answer survey questions accurately. A poll to discover whether citizens support changes to the Affordable Care Act or Medicaid might first ask who these programs serve and how they are funded. Polls about territory seizure by the Islamic State (or ISIS) or Russia’s aid to rebels in Ukraine may include a set of questions to determine whether the respondent reads or hears any international news. Respondents who cannot answer correctly may be excluded from the poll, or their answers may be separated from the others. People may also feel social pressure to answer questions in accordance with the norms of their area or peers. (Note: Nate Silver. 2010. "The Broadus Effect? Social Desirability Bias and California Proposition 19." FiveThirtyEightPolitics. July 27, 2010. http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/broadus-effect-social-desirability-bias/ (February 18, 2016).) If they are embarrassed to admit how they would vote, they may lie to the interviewer. In the 1982 governor’s race in California, Tom Bradley was far ahead in the polls, yet on Election Day he lost. This result was nicknamed the Bradley effect, on the theory that voters who answered the poll were afraid to admit they would not vote for a black man because it would appear politically incorrect and racist. In 2010, Proposition 19, which would have legalized and taxed marijuana in California, met with a new version of the Bradley effect. Nate Silver, a political blogger, noticed that polls on the marijuana proposition were inconsistent, sometimes showing the proposition would pass and other times showing it would fail. Silver compared the polls and the way they were administered, because some polling companies used an interviewer and some used robo-calling. He then proposed that voters speaking with a live interviewer gave the socially acceptable answer that they would vote against Proposition 19, while voters interviewed by a computer felt free to be honest. (Note: Nate Silver. 2010. "The Broadus Effect? Social Desirability Bias and California Proposition 19." FiveThirtyEightPolitics. July 27, 2010. http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/broadus-effect-social-desirability-bias/ (February 18, 2016).) While this theory has not been proven, it is consistent with other findings that interviewer demographics can affect respondents’ answers. African Americans, for example, may give different responses to interviewers who are white than to interviewers who are black. (Note: D. Davis. 1997. "The Direction of Race of Interviewer Effects among African-Americans: Donning the Black Mask." American Journal of Political Science 41 (1): 309–322.) In 2010, polls about California’s Proposition 19 were inconsistent, depending on how they were administered, with voters who spoke with a live interviewer declaring they would vote against Proposition 19 and voters who were interviewed via a computer declaring support for the legislation. The measure was defeated on Election Day. Push Polls One of the newer byproducts of polling is the creation of push polls, which consist of political campaign information presented as polls. A respondent is called and asked a series of questions about his or her position or candidate selections. If the respondent’s answers are for the wrong candidate, the next questions will give negative information about the candidate in an effort to change the voter’s mind. In 2014, a fracking ban was placed on the ballot in a town in Texas. Fracking, which includes injecting pressurized water into drilled wells, helps energy companies collect additional gas from the earth. It is controversial, with opponents arguing it causes water pollution, sound pollution, and earthquakes. During the campaign, a number of local voters received a call that polled them on how they planned to vote on the proposed fracking ban. (Note: Kate Sheppard, "Top Texas Regulator: Could Russia be Behind City’s Proposed Fracking Ban?" Huffington Post, 16 July 2014. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/07/16/fracking-ban-denton-russia_n_5592661.html (February 18, 2016).) If the respondent was unsure about or planned to vote for the ban, the questions shifted to provide negative information about the organizations proposing the ban. One question asked, “If you knew the following, would it change your vote . . . two Texas railroad commissioners, the state agency that oversees oil and gas in Texas, have raised concerns about Russia’s involvement in the anti-fracking efforts in the U.S.?” The question played upon voter fears about Russia and international instability in order to convince them to vote against the fracking ban. These techniques are not limited to issue votes; candidates have used them to attack their opponents. The hope is that voters will think the poll is legitimate and believe the negative information provided by a “neutral” source. Public Opinion and Elections Elections are the events on which opinion polls have the greatest measured effect. Public opinion polls do more than show how we feel on issues or project who might win an election. The media use public opinion polls to decide which candidates are ahead of the others and therefore of interest to voters and worthy of interview. From the moment President Obama was inaugurated for his second term, speculation began about who would run in the 2016 presidential election. Within a year, potential candidates were being ranked and compared by a number of newspapers. (Note: Paul Hitlin. 2013. "The 2016 Presidential Media Primary Is Off to a Fast Start." Pew Research Center. October 3, 2013. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/10/03/the-2016-presidentialmedia-primary-is-off-to-a-fast-start/ (February 18, 2016).) The speculation included favorability polls on Hillary Clinton, which measured how positively voters felt about her as a candidate. The media deemed these polls important because they showed Clinton as the frontrunner for the Democrats in the next election. (Note: Pew Research Center, 2015. "Hillary Clinton’s Favorability Ratings over Her Career." Pew Research Center. June 6, 2015. http://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/themes/pewresearch/ static/hillary-clintons-favorability-ratings-over-her-career/ (February 18, 2016).) During presidential primary season, we see examples of the bandwagon effect, in which the media pays more attention to candidates who poll well during the fall and the first few primaries. Bill Clinton was nicknamed the “Comeback Kid” in 1992, after he placed second in the New Hampshire primary despite accusations of adultery with Gennifer Flowers. The media’s attention on Clinton gave him the momentum to make it through the rest of the primary season, ultimately winning the Democratic nomination and the presidency. Polling is also at the heart of horserace coverage, in which, just like an announcer at the racetrack, the media calls out every candidate’s move throughout the presidential campaign. Horserace coverage can be neutral, positive, or negative, depending upon what polls or facts are covered. During the 2012 presidential election, the Pew Research Center found that both Mitt Romney and President Obama received more negative than positive horserace coverage, with Romney’s growing more negative as he fell in the polls. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2012. "Winning the Media Campaign." Pew Research Center. November 2, 2012. http://www.journalism.org/2012/ 11/02/winning-media-campaign-2012/ (February 18, 2016).) Horserace coverage is often criticized for its lack of depth; the stories skip over the candidates’ issue positions, voting histories, and other facts that would help voters make an informed decision. Yet, horserace coverage is popular because the public is always interested in who will win, and it often makes up a third or more of news stories about the election. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2012. "Fewer Horserace Stories-and Fewer Positive Obama Stories-Than in 2008." Pew Research Center. November 2, 2012. http://www.journalism.org/2012/11/01/ press-release-6/ (February 18, 2016).) Exit polls, taken the day of the election, are the last election polls conducted by the media. Announced results of these surveys can deter voters from going to the polls if they believe the election has already been decided. In 2016, Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump became the center of the media’s horserace coverage. As the field winnowed from over twenty candidates down to three, the media incessantly compared everyone else in the field to Trump. (credit: Max Goldberg) Public opinion polls also affect how much money candidates receive in campaign donations. Donors assume public opinion polls are accurate enough to determine who the top two to three primary candidates will be, and they give money to those who do well. Candidates who poll at the bottom will have a hard time collecting donations, increasing the odds that they will continue to do poorly. This was apparent in the run-up to the 2016 presidential election. Bernie Sanders, Hillary Clinton, and Martin O’Malley each campaigned in the hope of becoming the Democratic presidential nominee. In June 2015, 75 percent of Democrats likely to vote in their state primaries said they would vote for Clinton, while 15 percent of those polled said they would vote for Sanders. Only 2 percent said they would vote for O’Malley. (Note: Patrick O’Connor. 2015. "WSJ/NBC Poll Finds Hillary Clinton in a Strong Position." Wall Street Journal. June 23, 2015. http://www.wsj.com/articles/new-poll-finds-hillaryclinton-tops-gop-presidential-rivals-1435012049.) During this same period, Clinton raised $47 million in campaign donations, Sanders raised $15 million, and O’Malley raised $2 million. (Note: Federal Elections Commission. 2015. "Presidential Receipts." http://www.fec.gov/press/summaries/2016/tables/presidential/presreceipts_2015_q2.pdf (February 18, 2016).) By September 2015, 23 percent of likely Democratic voters said they would vote for Sanders, (Note: Susan Page and Paulina Firozi, "Poll: Hillary Clinton Still Leads Sanders and Biden But By Less," USA Today, 1 October 2015.) and his summer fundraising total increased accordingly. (Note: Dan Merica, and Jeff Zeleny. 2015. "Bernie Sanders Nearly Outraises Clinton, Each Post More Than $20 Million." CNN. October 1, 2015. http://www.cnn.com/2015/09/30/politics/bernie-sanders-hillary-clinton-fundraising/index.html?eref=rss_politics (February 18, 2016).) Presidents running for reelection also must perform well in public opinion polls, and being in office may not provide an automatic advantage. Americans often think about both the future and the past when they decide which candidate to support. (Note: Robert S. Erikson, Michael B. MacKuen, and James A. Stimson. 2000. "Bankers or Peasants Revisited: Economic Expectations and Presidential Approval." Electoral Studies 19: 295–312.) They have three years of past information about the sitting president, so they can better predict what will happen if the incumbent is reelected. That makes it difficult for the president to mislead the electorate. Voters also want a future that is prosperous. Not only should the economy look good, but citizens want to know they will do well in that economy. (Note: Erikson et al, "Bankers or Peasants Revisited: Economic Expectations and Presidential Approval.) For this reason, daily public approval polls sometimes act as both a referendum of the president and a predictor of success. Public Opinion and Government The relationship between public opinion polls and government action is murkier than that between polls and elections. Like the news media and campaign staffers, members of the three branches of government are aware of public opinion. But do politicians use public opinion polls to guide their decisions and actions? The short answer is “sometimes.” The public is not perfectly informed about politics, so politicians realize public opinion may not always be the right choice. Yet many political studies, from the American Voter in the 1920s to the American Voter Revisited in the 2000s, have found that voters behave rationally despite having limited information. Individual citizens do not take the time to become fully informed about all aspects of politics, yet their collective behavior and the opinions they hold as a group make sense. They appear to be informed just enough, using preferences like their political ideology and party membership, to make decisions and hold politicians accountable during an election year. Overall, the collective public opinion of a country changes over time, even if party membership or ideology does not change dramatically. As James Stimson’s prominent study found, the public’s mood, or collective opinion, can become more or less liberal from decade to decade. While the initial study on public mood revealed that the economy has a profound effect on American opinion, (Note: Michael B. MacKuen, Robert S. Erikson, and James A. Stimson. 1989. "Macropartisanship." American Political Science Review 83 (4): 1125–1142.) further studies have gone beyond to determine whether public opinion, and its relative liberalness, in turn affect politicians and institutions. This idea does not argue that opinion never affects policy directly, rather that collective opinion also affects the politician’s decisions on policy. (Note: James A. Stimson, Michael B. Mackuen, and Robert S. Erikson. 1995. "Dynamic Representation." American Political Science Review 89 (3): 543–565.) Individually, of course, politicians cannot predict what will happen in the future or who will oppose them in the next few elections. They can look to see where the public is in agreement as a body. If public mood changes, the politicians may change positions to match the public mood. The more savvy politicians look carefully to recognize when shifts occur. When the public is more or less liberal, the politicians may make slight adjustments to their behavior to match. Politicians who frequently seek to win office, like House members, will pay attention to the long- and short-term changes in opinion. By doing this, they will be less likely to lose on Election Day. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") Presidents and justices, on the other hand, present a more complex picture. Public opinion of the president is different from public opinion of Congress. Congress is an institution of 535 members, and opinion polls look at both the institution and its individual members. The president is both a person and the head of an institution. The media pays close attention to any president’s actions, and the public is generally well informed and aware of the office and its current occupant. Perhaps this is why public opinion has an inconsistent effect on presidents’ decisions. As early as Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration in the 1930s, presidents have regularly polled the public, and since Richard Nixon’s term (1969–1974), they have admitted to using polling as part of the decision-making process. Presidential responsiveness to public opinion has been measured in a number of ways, each of which tells us something about the effect of opinion. One study examined whether presidents responded to public opinion by determining how often they wrote amicus briefs and asked the court to affirm or reverse cases. It found that the public’s liberal (or non-liberal) mood had an effect, causing presidents to pursue and file briefs in different cases. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") But another author found that the public’s level of liberalness is ignored when conservative presidents, such as Ronald Reagan or George W. Bush, are elected and try to lead. In one example, our five most recent presidents’ moods varied from liberal to non-liberal, while public sentiment stayed consistently liberal. (Note: Dan Wood. 2009. Myth of Presidential Representation. New York: Cambridge University Press, 96-97.) While the public supported liberal approaches to policy, presidential action varied from liberal to non-liberal. Overall, it appears that presidents try to move public opinion towards personal positions rather than moving themselves towards the public’s opinion. (Note: Wood, Myth of Presidential Representation.) If presidents have enough public support, they use their level of public approval indirectly as a way to get their agenda passed. Immediately following Inauguration Day, for example, the president enjoys the highest level of public support for implementing campaign promises. This is especially true if the president has a mandate, which is more than half the popular vote. Barack Obama’s recent 2008 victory was a mandate with 52.9 percent of the popular vote and 67.8 percent of the Electoral College vote. (Note: U.S. Election Atlas. 2015. "United States Presidential Election Results." U.S. Election Atlas. June 22, 2015. http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/ (February 18, 2016).) When presidents have high levels of public approval, they are likely to act quickly and try to accomplish personal policy goals. They can use their position and power to focus media attention on an issue. This is sometimes referred to as the bully pulpit approach. The term “bully pulpit” was coined by President Theodore Roosevelt, who believed the presidency commanded the attention of the media and could be used to appeal directly to the people. Roosevelt used his position to convince voters to pressure Congress to pass laws. Increasing partisanship has made it more difficult for presidents to use their power to get their own preferred issues through Congress, however, especially when the president’s party is in the minority in Congress. (Note: Richard Fleisher, and Jon R. Bond. 1996. "The President in a More Partisan Legislative Arena." Political Research Quarterly 49 no. 4 (1996): 729–748.) For this reason, modern presidents may find more success in using their popularity to increase media and social media attention on an issue. Even if the president is not the reason for congressional action, he or she can cause the attention that leads to change. (Note: George C. Edwards III, and B. Dan Wood. 1999. "Who Influences Whom? The President, Congress, and the Media." American Political Science Review 93 (2): 327–344.) Presidents may also use their popularity to ask the people to act. In October 2015, following a shooting at Umpqua Community College in Oregon, President Obama gave a short speech from the West Wing of the White House. After offering his condolences and prayers to the community, he remarked that prayers and condolences were no longer enough, and he called on citizens to push Congress for a change in gun control laws. President Obama had proposed gun control reform following the 2012 shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary in Connecticut, but it did not pass Congress. This time, the president asked citizens to use gun control as a voting issue and push for reform via the ballot box. In the wake of a shooting at Umpqua Community College in Oregon in October 2015, President Obama called for a change in gun control laws (credit: The White House). In some instances, presidents may appear to directly consider public opinion before acting or making decisions. In 2013, President Obama announced that he was considering a military strike on Syria in reaction to the Syrian government’s illegal use of sarin gas on its own citizens. Despite agreeing that this chemical attack on the Damascan suburbs was a war crime, the public was against U.S. involvement. Forty-eight percent of respondents said they opposed airstrikes, and only 29 percent were in favor. Democrats were especially opposed to military intervention. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2013. "Public Opinion Runs Against Syrian Airstrikes." Pew Research Center. September 4, 2013. http://www.people-press.org/2013/09/03/public-opinion-runs-against-syrian-airstrikes/ (February 18, 2016).) President Obama changed his mind and ultimately allowed Russian president Vladimir Putin to negotiate Syria’s surrender of its chemical weapons. However, further examples show that presidents do not consistently listen to public opinion. After taking office in 2009, President Obama did not order the closing of Guantanamo Bay prison, even though his proposal to do so had garnered support during the 2008 election. President Bush, despite growing public disapproval for the war in Iraq, did not end military support in Iraq after 2006. And President Bill Clinton, whose White House pollsters were infamous for polling on everything, sometimes ignored the public if circumstances warranted. (Note: Paul Bedard. 2013. "Poll-Crazed Clinton Even Polled on His Dog’s Name." Washington Examiner. April 30, 2013. http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/poll-crazed-bill-clinton-even-polled-on-his-dogs-name/article/2528486.) In 1995, despite public opposition, Clinton guaranteed loans for the Mexican government to help the country out of financial insolvency. He followed this decision with many speeches to help the American public understand the importance of stabilizing Mexico’s economy. Individual examples like these make it difficult to persuasively identify the direct effects of public opinion on the presidency. While presidents have at most only two terms to serve and work, members of Congress can serve as long as the public returns them to office. We might think that for this reason public opinion is important to representatives and senators, and that their behavior, such as their votes on domestic programs or funding, will change to match the expectation of the public. In a more liberal time, the public may expect to see more social programs. In a nonliberal time, the public mood may favor austerity, or decreased government spending on programs. Failure to recognize shifts in public opinion may lead to a politician’s losing the next election. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") House of Representatives members, with a two-year term, have a more difficult time recovering from decisions that anger local voters. And because most representatives continually fundraise, unpopular decisions can hurt their campaign donations. For these reasons, it seems representatives should be susceptible to polling pressure. Yet one study, by James Stimson, found that the public mood does not directly affect elections, and shifts in public opinion do not predict whether a House member will win or lose. These elections are affected by the president on the ticket, presidential popularity (or lack thereof) during a midterm election, and the perks of incumbency, such as name recognition and media coverage. In fact, a later study confirmed that the incumbency effect is highly predictive of a win, and public opinion is not. (Note: Suzanna De Boef, and James A. Stimson. 1995. "The Dynamic Structure of Congressional Elections." Journal of Politics 57 (3): 630–648.) In spite of this, we still see policy shifts in Congress, often matching the policy preferences of the public. When the shifts happen within the House, they are measured by the way members vote. The study’s authors hypothesize that House members alter their votes to match the public mood, perhaps in an effort to strengthen their electoral chances. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") The Senate is quite different from the House. Senators do not enjoy the same benefits of incumbency, and they win reelection at lower rates than House members. Yet, they do have one advantage over their colleagues in the House: Senators hold six-year terms, which gives them time to engage in fence-mending to repair the damage from unpopular decisions. In the Senate, Stimson’s study confirmed that opinion affects a senator’s chances at reelection, even though it did not affect House members. Specifically, the study shows that when public opinion shifts, fewer senators win reelection. Thus, when the public as a whole becomes more or less liberal, new senators are elected. Rather than the senators shifting their policy preferences and voting differently, it is the new senators who change the policy direction of the Senate. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") Beyond voter polls, congressional representatives are also very interested in polls that reveal the wishes of interest groups and businesses. If AARP, one of the largest and most active groups of voters in the United States, is unhappy with a bill, members of the relevant congressional committees will take that response into consideration. If the pharmaceutical or oil industry is unhappy with a new patent or tax policy, its members’ opinions will have some effect on representatives’ decisions, since these industries contribute heavily to election campaigns. There is some disagreement about whether the Supreme Court follows public opinion or shapes it. The lifetime tenure the justices enjoy was designed to remove everyday politics from their decisions, protect them from swings in political partisanship, and allow them to choose whether and when to listen to public opinion. More often than not, the public is unaware of the Supreme Court’s decisions and opinions. When the justices accept controversial cases, the media tune in and ask questions, raising public awareness and affecting opinion. But do the justices pay attention to the polls when they make decisions? Studies that look at the connection between the Supreme Court and public opinion are contradictory. Early on, it was believed that justices were like other citizens: individuals with attitudes and beliefs who would be affected by political shifts. (Note: Benjamin Cardozo. 1921. The Nature of the Judicial Process. New Haven: Yale University Press.) Later studies argued that Supreme Court justices rule in ways that maintain support for the institution. Instead of looking at the short term and making decisions day to day, justices are strategic in their planning and make decisions for the long term. (Note: Jack Knight, and Lee Epstein. 1998. The Choices Justices Make. Washington DC: CQ Press.) Other studies have revealed a more complex relationship between public opinion and judicial decisions, largely due to the difficulty of measuring where the effect can be seen. Some studies look at the number of reversals taken by the Supreme Court, which are decisions with which the Court overturns the decision of a lower court. In one study, the authors found that public opinion slightly affects cases accepted by the justices. (Note: Kevin T. Mcguire, Georg Vanberg, Charles E Smith, and Gregory A. Caldeira. 2009. "Measuring Policy Content on the U.S. Supreme Court." Journal of Politics 71 (4): 1305–1321.) In a study looking at how often the justices voted liberally on a decision, a stronger effect of public opinion was revealed. (Note: Kevin T. McGuire, and James A. Stimson. 2004. "The Least Dangerous Branch Revisited: New Evidence on Supreme Court Responsiveness to Public Preferences." Journal of Politics 66 (4): 1018–1035.) Whether the case or court is currently in the news may also matter. A study found that if the majority of Americans agree on a policy or issue before the court, the court’s decision is likely to agree with public opinion. (Note: Thomas Marshall. 1989. Public Opinion and the Supreme Court. Boston: Unwin Hyman.) A second study determined that public opinion is more likely to affect ignored cases than heavily reported ones. (Note: Christopher J. Casillas, Peter K. Enns, and Patrick C. Wohlfarth. 2011. "How Public Opinion Constrains the U.S. Supreme Court." American Journal of Political Science 55 (1): 74–88.) In these situations, the court was also more likely to rule with the majority opinion than against it. For example, in Town of Greece v. Galloway (2014), a majority of the justices decided that ceremonial prayer before a town meeting was not a violation of the Establishment Clause. (Note: Town of Greece v. Galloway 572 U.S. ___ (2014).) The fact that 78 percent of U.S. adults recently said religion is fairly to very important to their lives Gallup. 2015. (Note: "Religion." Gallup. June 18, 2015. http://www.gallup.com/poll/1690/Religion.aspx (February 18, 2016).) and 61 percent supported prayer in school (Note: Rebecca Riffkin. 2015. "In U.S., Support for Daily Prayer in Schools Dips Slightly." Gallup. September 25, 2015. http://www.gallup.com/poll/177401/support-dailyprayer-schools-dips-slightly.aspx.) may explain why public support for the Supreme Court did not fall after this decision. (Note: Gallup. 2015. "Supreme Court." Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/poll/4732/supreme-court.aspx (February 18, 2016).) Overall, however, it is clear that public opinion has a less powerful effect on the courts than on the other branches and on politicians. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") Perhaps this is due to the lack of elections or justices’ lifetime tenure, or perhaps we have not determined the best way to measure the effects of public opinion on the Court. • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 6.3 The Media THE MEDIA Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Ours is an exploding media system. What started as print journalism was subsequently supplemented by radio coverage, then network television, followed by cable television. Now, with the addition of the Internet, blogs and social media—a set of applications or web platforms that allow users to immediately communicate with one another—give citizens a wide variety of sources for instant news of all kinds. The Internet also allows citizens to initiate public discussion by uploading images and video for viewing, such as videos documenting interactions between citizens and the police, for example. Provided we are connected digitally, we have a bewildering amount of choices for finding information about the world. In fact, some might say that compared to the tranquil days of the 1970s, when we might read the morning newspaper over breakfast and take in the network news at night, there are now too many choices in today’s increasingly complex world of information. This reality may make the news media all the more important to structuring and shaping narratives about U.S. politics. Or the proliferation of competing information sources like blogs and social media may actually weaken the power of the news media relative to the days when news media monopolized our attention. Media Basics The term media defines a number of different communication formats from television media, which share information through broadcast airwaves, to print media, which rely on printed documents. The collection of all forms of media that communicate information to the general public is called mass media, including television, print, radio, and Internet. One of the primary reasons citizens turn to the media is for news. We expect the media to cover important political and social events and information in a concise and neutral manner. To accomplish its work, the media employs a number of people in varied positions. Journalists and reporters are responsible for uncovering news stories by keeping an eye on areas of public interest, like politics, business, and sports. Once a journalist has a lead or a possible idea for a story, he or she researches background information and interviews people to create a complete and balanced account. Editors work in the background of the newsroom, assigning stories, approving articles or packages, and editing content for accuracy and clarity. Publishers are people or companies that own and produce print or digital media. They oversee both the content and finances of the publication, ensuring the organization turns a profit and creates a high-quality product to distribute to consumers. Producers oversee the production and finances of visual media, like television, radio, and film. The work of the news media differs from public relations, which is communication carried out to improve the image of companies, organizations, or candidates for office. Public relations is not a neutral information form. While journalists write stories to inform the public, a public relations spokesperson is paid to help an individual or organization get positive press. Public relations materials normally appear as press releases or paid advertisements in newspapers and other media outlets. Some less reputable publications, however, publish paid articles under the news banner, blurring the line between journalism and public relations. Media Types Each form of media has its own complexities and is used by different demographics. (currently aged 18–33) are more likely to get news and information from social media, such as YouTube, Twitter, and Facebook, while (currently aged 50–68) are most likely to get their news from television, either national broadcasts or local news. Age greatly influences the choice of news sources. Baby boomers are more likely to get news and information from television, while members of generation X and millennials are more likely to use social media. Television alone offers viewers a variety of formats. Programming may be scripted, like dramas or comedies. It may be unscripted, like game shows or reality programs, or informative, such as news programming. Although most programs are created by a television production company, national networks—like CBS or NBC—purchase the rights to programs they distribute to local stations across the United States. Most local stations are affiliated with a national network corporation, and they broadcast national network programming to their local viewers. Before the existence of cable and fiber optics, networks needed to own local affiliates to have access to the local station’s transmission towers. Towers have a limited radius, so each network needed an affiliate in each major city to reach viewers. While cable technology has lessened networks’ dependence on aerial signals, some viewers still use antennas and receivers to view programming broadcast from local towers. Affiliates, by agreement with the networks, give priority to network news and other programming chosen by the affiliate’s national media corporation. Local affiliate stations are told when to air programs or commercials, and they diverge only to inform the public about a local or national emergency. For example, ABC affiliates broadcast the popular television show Once Upon a Time at a specific time on a specific day. Should a fire threaten homes and businesses in a local area, the affiliate might preempt it to update citizens on the fire’s dangers and return to regularly scheduled programming after the danger has ended. Most affiliate stations will show local news before and after network programming to inform local viewers of events and issues. Network news has a national focus on politics, international events, the economy, and more. Local news, on the other hand, is likely to focus on matters close to home, such as regional business, crime, sports, and weather. (Note: Jeremy Lipschultz and Michael Hilt. 2003. "Race and Local Television News Crime Coverage," Studies in Media & Information Literacy Education 3, No. 4: 1–10.) The NBC Nightly News, for example, covers presidential campaigns and the White House or skirmishes between North Korea and South Korea, while the NBC affiliate in Los Angeles (KNBC-TV) and the NBC affiliate in Dallas (KXAS-TV) report on the governor’s activities or weekend festivals in the region. Cable programming offers national networks a second method to directly reach local viewers. As the name implies, cable stations transmit programming directly to a local cable company hub, which then sends the signals to homes through coaxial or fiber optic cables. Because cable does not broadcast programming through the airwaves, cable networks can operate across the nation directly without local affiliates. Instead they purchase broadcasting rights for the cable stations they believe their viewers want. For this reason, cable networks often specialize in different types of programming. The Cable News Network (CNN) was the first news station to take advantage of this specialized format, creating a 24-hour news station with live coverage and interview programs. Other news stations quickly followed, such as MSNBC and FOX News. A viewer might tune in to Nickelodeon and catch family programs and movies or watch ESPN to catch up with the latest baseball or basketball scores. The Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network, known better as C-SPAN, now has three channels covering Congress, the president, the courts, and matters of public interest. Cable and satellite providers also offer on-demand programming for most stations. Citizens can purchase cable, satellite, and Internet subscription services (like Netflix) to find programs to watch instantly, without being tied to a schedule. Initially, on-demand programming was limited to rebroadcasting old content and was commercial-free. Yet many networks and programs now allow their new programming to be aired within a day or two of its initial broadcast. In return they often add commercials the user cannot fast-forward or avoid. Thus networks expect advertising revenues to increase. (Note: Lucas Shaw, "TV Networks Offering More On Demand to Reduce AdSkipping," Bloomberg Technology, 24 September 2014.) The on-demand nature of the Internet has created many opportunities for news outlets. While early media providers were those who could pay the high cost of printing or broadcasting, modern media require just a URL and ample server space. The ease of online publication has made it possible for more niche media outlets to form. The websites of the New York Times and other newspapers often focus on matters affecting the United States, while channels like BBC America present world news. FOX News presents political commentary and news in a conservative vein, while the Internet site Daily Kos offers a liberal perspective on the news. Politico.com is perhaps the leader in niche journalism. Unfortunately, the proliferation of online news has also increased the amount of poorly written material with little editorial oversight, and readers must be cautious when reading Internet news sources. Sites like Buzzfeed allow members to post articles without review by an editorial board, leading to articles of varied quality and accuracy. The Internet has also made publication speed a consideration for professional journalists. No news outlet wants to be the last to break a story, and the rush to publication often leads to typographical and factual errors. Even large news outlets, like the Associated Press, have published articles with errors in their haste to get a story out. The Internet also facilitates the flow of information through social media, which allows users to instantly communicate with one another and share with audiences that can grow exponentially. Facebook and Twitter have millions of daily users. Social media changes more rapidly than the other media formats. While people in many different age groups use sites like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, other sites like Snapchat and Yik Yak appeal mostly to younger users. The platforms also serve different functions. Tumblr and Reddit facilitate discussion that is topic-based and controversial, while Instagram is mostly social. A growing number of these sites also allow users to comment anonymously, leading to increases in threats and abuse. The site 4chan, for example, was linked to the 2015 shooting at an Oregon community college. (Note: Daniel Marans, "Did the Oregon Shooter Warn of His Plans on 4chan?" Huffington Post, 1 October 2015.) Regardless of where we get our information, the various media avenues available today, versus years ago, make it much easier for everyone to be engaged. The question is: Who controls the media we rely on? Most media are controlled by a limited number of conglomerates. A conglomerate is a corporation made up of a number of companies, organizations, and media networks. In the 1980s, more than fifty companies owned the majority of television and radio stations and networks. Now, only six conglomerates control most of the broadcast media in the United States: CBS Corporation, Comcast, Time Warner, 21st Century Fox (formerly News Corporation), Viacom, and The Walt Disney Company. (Note: Vanna Le, "Global 2000: The World’s Largest Media Companies of 2014," Forbes, 7 May 2014.) The Walt Disney Company, for example, owns the ABC Television Network, ESPN, A&E, and Lifetime, in addition to the Disney Channel. Viacom owns BET, Comedy Central, MTV, Nickelodeon, and Vh2. Time Warner owns Cartoon Network, CNN, HBO, and TNT, among others. While each of these networks has its own programming, in the end, the conglomerate can make a policy that affects all stations and programming under its control. In 1983, fifty companies owned 90 percent of U.S. media. By 2012, just six conglomerates controlled the same percentage of U.S. media outlets. Conglomerates can create a monopoly on information by controlling a sector of a market. When a media conglomerate has policies or restrictions, they will apply to all stations or outlets under its ownership, potentially limiting the information citizens receive. Conglomerate ownership also creates circumstances in which censorship may occur. iHeartMedia (formerly Clear Channel Media) owns music, radio, and billboards throughout the United States, and in 2010, the company refused to run several billboard ads for the St. Pete Pride Festival and Promenade in St. Petersburg, Florida. The festival organizers said the content of two ads, a picture of same-sex couples in close contact with one another, was the reason the ads were not run. Because iHeartMedia owns most of the billboards in the area, this limitation was problematic for the festival and decreased awareness of the event. Those in charge of the festival viewed the refusal as censorship. (Note: Stephanie Hayes, "Clear Channel Rejects St. Pete Pride Billboards, Organizers Say," Tampa Bay Times, 11 June 2010.) Newspapers too have experienced the pattern of concentrated ownership. Gannett Company, while also owning television media, holds a large number of newspapers and news magazines in its control. Many of these were acquired quietly, without public notice or discussion. Gannett’s 2013 acquisition of publishing giant A.H. Belo Corporation caused some concern and news coverage, however. The sale would have allowed Gannett to own both an NBC and a CBS affiliate in St. Louis, Missouri, giving it control over programming and advertising rates for two competing stations. The U.S. Department of Justice required Gannett to sell the station owned by Belo to ensure market competition and multi-ownership in St. Louis. (Note: Meg James, "DOJ Clears Gannett-Belo Deal but Demands Sale of St. Louis TV Station," Los Angeles Times, 16 December 2013.) These changes in the format and ownership of media raise the question whether the media still operate as an independent source of information. Is it possible that corporations and CEOs now control the information flow, making profit more important than the impartial delivery of information? The reality is that media outlets, whether newspaper, television, radio, or Internet, are businesses. They have expenses and must raise revenues. Yet at the same time, we expect the media to entertain, inform, and alert us without bias. They must provide some public services, while following laws and regulations. Reconciling these goals may not always be possible. Functions of the Media The media exist to fill a number of functions. Whether the medium is a newspaper, a radio, or a television newscast, a corporation behind the scenes must bring in revenue and pay for the cost of the product. Revenue comes from advertising and sponsors, like McDonald’s, Ford Motor Company, and other large corporations. But corporations will not pay for advertising if there are no viewers or readers. So all programs and publications need to entertain, inform, or interest the public and maintain a steady stream of consumers. In the end, what attracts viewers and advertisers is what survives. The media are also of society and of public officials. Some refer to the media as the fourth estate, with the branches of government being the first three estates and the media equally participating as the fourth. This role helps maintain democracy and keeps the government accountable for its actions, even if a branch of the government is reluctant to open itself to public scrutiny. As much as social scientists would like citizens to be informed and involved in politics and events, the reality is that we are not. So the media, especially journalists, keep an eye on what is happening and sounds an alarm when the public needs to pay attention. (Note: John Zaller. 2003. "A New Standard of News Quality: Burglar Alarms for the Monitorial Citizen," Political Communication 20, No. 2: 109–130.) The media also engages in agenda setting, which is the act of choosing which issues or topics deserve public discussion. For example, in the early 1980s, famine in Ethiopia drew worldwide attention, which resulted in increased charitable giving to the country. Yet the famine had been going on for a long time before it was discovered by western media. Even after the discovery, it took video footage to gain the attention of the British and U.S. populations and start the aid flowing. (Note: Suzanne Ranks, "Ethiopian Famine: How Landmark BBC Report Influenced Modern Coverage," Guardian, 22 October 2014.) Today, numerous examples of agenda setting show how important the media are when trying to prevent further emergencies or humanitarian crises. In the spring of 2015, when the Dominican Republic was preparing to exile Haitians and undocumented (or under documented) residents, major U.S. news outlets remained silent. However, once the story had been covered several times by Al Jazeera, a state-funded broadcast company based in Qatar, ABC, the New York Times, and other network outlets followed. (Note: Hisham Aidi, "Haitians in the Dominican Republic in Legal Limbo," Al Jazeera, 10 April 2015.) With major network coverage came public pressure for the U.S. government to act on behalf of the Haitians. (Note: "Pressure the Government of the Dominican Republic to Stop its Planned ‘Cleaning’ of 250,000 Black Dominicans," https://petitions.whitehouse.gov/petition/pressuregovernment-dominican-republic-stop-its-planned-cleaning-250000-black-dominicans (November 26, 2015); Led Black, "Prevent Humanitarian Tragedy in Dominican Republic," CNN, 23 June 2015.) Before the Internet, traditional media determined whether citizen photographs or video footage would become “news.” In 1991, a private citizen’s camcorder footage showed four police officers beating an African American motorist named Rodney King in Los Angeles. After appearing on local independent television station, KTLA-TV, and then the national news, the event began a national discussion on police brutality and ignited riots in Los Angeles. (Note: Erik Ortiz, "George Holliday, Who Taped Rodney King Beating, Urges Others to Share Videos," NBC, 9 June 2015.) The agenda-setting power of traditional media has begun to be appropriated by social media and smartphones, however. Tumblr, Facebook, YouTube, and other Internet sites allow witnesses to instantly upload images and accounts of events and forward the link to friends. Some uploads go viral and attract the attention of the mainstream media, but large network newscasts and major newspapers are still more powerful at initiating or changing a discussion. The media also promote the public good by offering a platform for public debate and improving citizen awareness. Network news informs the electorate about national issues, elections, and international news. The New York Times, Los Angeles Times, NBC Nightly News, and other outlets make sure voters can easily find out what issues affect the nation. Is terrorism on the rise? Is the dollar weakening? The network news hosts national debates during presidential elections, broadcasts major presidential addresses, and interviews political leaders during times of crisis. Cable news networks now provide coverage of all these topics as well. Local news has a larger job, despite small budgets and fewer resources. Local government and local economic policy have a strong and immediate effect on citizens. Is the city government planning on changing property tax rates? Will the school district change the way Common Core tests are administered? When and where is the next town hall meeting or public forum to be held? Local and social media provide a forum for protest and discussion of issues that matter to the community. Meetings of local governance, such as this meeting of the Independence City Council in Missouri, are rarely attended by more than gadflies and journalists. (credit: “MoBikeFed”/Flickr) While journalists reporting the news try to present information in an unbiased fashion, sometimes the public seeks opinion and analysis of complicated issues that affect various populations differently, like healthcare reform and the Affordable Care Act. This type of coverage may come in the form of editorials, commentaries, Op-Ed columns, and blogs. These forums allow the editorial staff and informed columnists to express a personal belief and attempt to persuade. If opinion writers are trusted by the public, they have influence. Walter Cronkite, reporting from Vietnam, had a loyal following. In a broadcast following the Tet Offensive in 1968, Cronkite expressed concern that the United States was mired in a conflict that would end in a stalemate. (Note: "Walter Cronkite’s ‘We Are Mired in Stalemate’ Broadcast, February 27, 1968" Digital History, http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/vietnam/cronkite.cfm (November 29, 2015).) His coverage was based on opinion after viewing the war from the ground. (Note: Joel Achenbach, "Cronkite and Vietnam," Washington Post, 18 May 2012.) Although the number of people supporting the war had dwindled by this time, Cronkite’s commentary bolstered opposition. Like editorials, commentaries contain opinion and are often written by specialists in a field. Larry Sabato, a prominent political science professor at the University of Virginia, occasionally writes his thoughts for the New York Times. These pieces are based on his expertise in politics and elections. (Note: Larry Sabato, "Our Leaders, Surprise, Have Strong Views," New York Times, 23 February 2009.) Blogs offer more personalized coverage, addressing specific concerns and perspectives for a limited group of readers. Nate Silver’s blog, FiveThirtyEight, focuses on elections and politics. Media Effects and Bias Concerns about the effects of media on consumers and the existence and extent of media bias go back to the 1920s. Reporter and commentator Walter Lippmann noted that citizens have limited personal experience with government and the world and posited that the media, through their stories, place ideas in citizens’ minds. These ideas become part of the citizens’ frame of reference and affect their decisions. Lippmann’s statements led to the hypodermic theory, which argues that information is “shot” into the receiver’s mind and readily accepted. (Note: Walter Lippmann. 1922. Public Opinion. http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/Lippman/contents.html (August 29, 2015).) Yet studies in the 1930s and 1940s found that information was transmitted in two steps, with one person reading the news and then sharing the information with friends. People listened to their friends, but not to those with whom they disagreed. The newspaper’s effect was thus diminished through conversation. This discovery led to the minimal effects theory, which argues the media have little effect on citizens and voters. (Note: Bernard Berelson, Paul Lazarsfeld, and William McPhee. 1954. Voting. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.) By the 1970s, a new idea, the cultivation theory, hypothesized that media develop a person’s view of the world by presenting a perceived reality. (Note: George Gerbner, Larry Gross, Michael Morgan, Nancy Signorielli, and Marilyn Jackson-Beeck. 1979. "The Demonstration of Power: Violence Profile," Journal of Communication 29, No.10: 177–196.) What we see on a regular basis is our reality. Media can then set norms for readers and viewers by choosing what is covered or discussed. In the end, the consensus among observers is that media have some effect, even if the effect is subtle. This raises the question of how the media, even general newscasts, can affect citizens. One of the ways is through framing: the creation of a narrative, or context, for a news story. The news often uses frames to place a story in a context so the reader understands its importance or relevance. Yet, at the same time, framing affects the way the reader or viewer processes the story. Episodic framing occurs when a story focuses on isolated details or specifics rather than looking broadly at a whole issue. Thematic framing takes a broad look at an issue and skips numbers or details. It looks at how the issue has changed over a long period of time and what has led to it. For example, a large, urban city is dealing with the problem of an increasing homeless population, and the city has suggested ways to improve the situation. If journalists focus on the immediate statistics, report the current percentage of homeless people, interview a few, and look at the city’s current investment in a homeless shelter, the coverage is episodic. If they look at homelessness as a problem increasing everywhere, examine the reasons people become homeless, and discuss the trends in cities’ attempts to solve the problem, the coverage is thematic. Episodic frames may create more sympathy, while a thematic frame may leave the reader or viewer emotionally disconnected and less sympathetic. Civil war in Syria has led many to flee the country, including this woman living in a Syrian refugee camp in Jordan in September 2015. Episodic framing of the stories of Syrian refugees, and their deaths, turned government inaction into action. (credit: Enes Reyhan) Framing can also affect the way we see race, socioeconomics, or other generalizations. For this reason, it is linked to priming: when media coverage predisposes the viewer or reader to a particular perspective on a subject or issue. If a newspaper article focuses on unemployment, struggling industries, and jobs moving overseas, the reader will have a negative opinion about the economy. If then asked whether he or she approves of the president’s job performance, the reader is primed to say no. Readers and viewers are able to fight priming effects if they are aware of them or have prior information about the subject. Coverage Effects on Governance and Campaigns When it is spotty, the media’s coverage of campaigns and government can sometimes affect the way government operates and the success of candidates. In 1972, for instance, the McGovern-Fraser reforms created a votercontrolled primary system, so party leaders no longer pick the presidential candidates. Now the media are seen as kingmakers and play a strong role in influencing who will become the Democratic and Republican nominees in presidential elections. They can discuss the candidates’ messages, vet their credentials, carry sound bites of their speeches, and conduct interviews. The candidates with the most media coverage build momentum and do well in the first few primaries and caucuses. This, in turn, leads to more media coverage, more momentum, and eventually a winning candidate. Thus, candidates need the media. In the 1980s, campaigns learned that tight control on candidate information created more favorable media coverage. In the presidential election of 1984, candidates Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush began using an issue-of-the-day strategy, providing quotes and material on only one topic each day. This strategy limited what journalists could cover because they had only limited quotes and sound bites to use in their reports. In 1992, both Bush’s and Bill Clinton’s campaigns maintained their carefully drawn candidate images by also limiting photographers and television journalists to photo opportunities at rallies and campaign venues. The constant control of the media became known as the “bubble,” and journalists were less effective when they were in the campaign’s bubble. Reporters complained this coverage was campaign advertising rather than journalism, and a new model emerged with the 1996 election. (Note: Elizabeth A. Skewes. 2007. Message Control: How News Is Made on the Presidential Campaign Trail. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 79.) Campaign coverage now focuses on the spectacle of the season, rather than providing information about the candidates. Colorful personalities, strange comments, lapse of memories, and embarrassing revelations are more likely to get air time than the candidates’ issue positions. Candidate Donald Trump may be the best example of shallower press coverage of a presidential election. Some argue that newspapers and news programs are limiting the space they allot to discussion of the campaigns. (Note: Stephen Farnsworth and S. Robert Lichter. 2012. "Authors’ Response: Improving News Coverage in the 2012 Presidential Campaign and Beyond," Politics & Policy 40, No. 4: 547–556.) Others argue that citizens want to see updates on the race and electoral drama, not boring issue positions or substantive reporting. (Note: "Early Media Coverage Focuses on Horse Race," PBS News Hour, 12 June 2007.) It may also be that journalists have tired of the information games played by politicians and have taken back control of the news cycles. (Note: Stephen Ansolabehere, Roy Behr, and Shanto Iyengar. 1992. The Media Game: American Politics in the Television Age. New York: Macmillan.) All these factors have likely led to the shallow press coverage we see today, sometimes dubbed pack journalism because journalists follow one another rather than digging for their own stories. Television news discusses the strategies and blunders of the election, with colorful examples. Newspapers focus on polls. In an analysis of the 2012 election, Pew Research found that 64 percent of stories and coverage focused on campaign strategy. Only 9 percent covered domestic issue positions; 6 percent covered the candidates’ public records; and, 1 percent covered their foreign policy positions. (Note: "Frames of Campaign Coverage," Pew Research Center, 23 April 2012, http://www.journalism.org/2012/04/23/frames-campaign-coverage.) For better or worse, coverage of the candidates’ statements get less air time on radio and television, and sound bites, or clips, of their speeches have become even shorter. In 1968, the average sound bite from Richard Nixon was 42.3 seconds, while a recent study of television coverage found that sound bites had decreased to only eight seconds in the 2004 election. (Note: Kiku Adatto. May 28, 1990. "The Incredible Shrinking Sound Bite," New Republic 202, No. 22: 20–23.) The clips chosen to air were attacks on opponents 40 percent of the time. Only 30 percent contained information about the candidate’s issues or events. The study also found the news showed images of the candidates, but for an average of only twenty-five seconds while the newscaster discussed the stories. (Note: Erik Bucy and Maria Elizabeth Grabe. 2007. "Taking Television Seriously: A Sound and Image Bite Analysis of Presidential Campaign Coverage, 1992–2004," Journal of Communication 57, No. 4: 652–675.) This study supports the argument that shrinking sound bites are a way for journalists to control the story and add their own analysis rather than just report on it. (Note: Craig Fehrman, "The Incredible Shrinking Sound Bite," Boston Globe, 2 January 2011, http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2011/01/02/the_incredible_shrinking_sound_bite/.) Candidates are given a few minutes to try to argue their side of an issue, but some say television focuses on the argument rather than on information. In 2004, Jon Stewart of Comedy Central’s The Daily Show began attacking the CNN program Crossfire for being theater, saying the hosts engaged in reactionary and partisan arguing rather than true debating. (Note: "Crossfire: Jon Stewart’s America," CNN, 15 October 2004, http://www.cnn.com/ TRANSCRIPTS/0410/15/cf.01.html.) Some of Stewart’s criticisms resonated, even with host Paul Begala, and Crossfire was later pulled from the air. (Note: Paul Begala, "Begala: The day Jon Stewart blew up my show," CNN, 12 February 2015.) The media’s discussion of campaigns has also grown negative. Although biased campaign coverage dates back to the period of the partisan press, the increase in the number of cable news stations has made the problem more visible. Stations like FOX News and MSNBC are overt in their use of bias in framing stories. During the 2012 campaign, seventy-one of seventy-four MSNBC stories about Mitt Romney were highly negative, while FOX News’ coverage of Obama had forty-six out of fifty-two stories with negative information. The major networks—ABC, CBS, and NBC—were somewhat more balanced, yet the overall coverage of both candidates tended to be negative. (Note: Pew Research Center: Journalism & Media Staff, "Coverage of the Candidates by Media Sector and Cable Outlet," 1 November 2012.) Media coverage of campaigns is increasingly negative, with cable news stations demonstrating more bias in their framing of stories during the 2012 campaign. Due in part to the lack of substantive media coverage, campaigns increasingly use social media to relay their message. Candidates can create their own sites and pages and try to spread news through supporters to the undecided. In 2012, both Romney and Obama maintained Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube accounts to provide information to voters. Yet, on social media, candidates still need to combat negativity, from both the opposition and supporters. Stories about Romney that appeared in the mainstream media were negative 38 percent of the time, while his coverage in Facebook news was negative 62 percent of the time and 58 percent of the time on Twitter. (Note: "Winning the Media Campaign 2012," Pew Research Center, 2 November 2012.) Once candidates are in office, the chore of governing begins, with the added weight of media attention. Historically, if presidents were unhappy with their press coverage, they used personal and professional means to change its tone. Franklin D. Roosevelt, for example, was able to keep journalists from printing stories through gentleman’s agreements, loyalty, and the provision of additional information, sometimes off the record. The journalists then wrote positive stories, hoping to keep the president as a source. John F. Kennedy hosted press conferences twice a month and opened the floor for questions from journalists, in an effort to keep press coverage positive. (Note: Fred Greenstein. 2009. The Presidential Difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.) When presidents and other members of the White House are not forthcoming with information, journalists must press for answers. Dan Rather, a journalist for CBS, regularly sparred with presidents in an effort to get information. When Rather interviewed Richard Nixon about Vietnam and Watergate, Nixon was hostile and uncomfortable. (Note: "Dan Rather versus Richard Nixon, 1974," YouTube video, :46, from the National Association of Broadcasters annual convention in Houston on March 19,1974, posted by "thecelebratedmisterk," https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZGBLAKq8xwc (November 30, 2015); "‘A Conversation With the President,’ Interview With Dan Rather of the Columbia Broadcasting System," The American Presidency Project, 2 January 1972, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3351.) In a 1988 interview with then-vice president George H. W. Bush, Bush accused Rather of being argumentative about the possible cover-up of a secret arms sale with Iran: Rather: I don’t want to be argumentative, Mr. Vice President. Bush: You do, Dan. Rather: No—no, sir, I don’t. Bush: This is not a great night, because I want to talk about why I want to be president, why those 41 percent of the people are supporting me. And I don’t think it’s fair to judge my whole career by a rehash of Iran. How would you like it if I judged your career by those seven minutes when you walked off the set in New York? (Note: Wolf Blitzer, "Dan Rather’s Stand," CNN, 10 September 2004.) Cabinet secretaries and other appointees also talk with the press, sometimes making for conflicting messages. The creation of the position of press secretary and the White House Office of Communications both stemmed from the need to send a cohesive message from the executive branch. Currently, the White House controls the information coming from the executive branch through the Office of Communications and decides who will meet with the press and what information will be given. But stories about the president often examine personality, or the president’s ability to lead the country, deal with Congress, or respond to national and international events. They are less likely to cover the president’s policies or agendas without a lot of effort on the president’s behalf. (Note: Matthew Eshbaugh-Soha and Jeffrey Peake. 2011. Breaking Through the Noise: Presidential Leadership, Public Opinion, and the News Media. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.) When Obama first entered office in 2009, journalists focused on his battles with Congress, critiquing his leadership style and inability to work with Representative Nancy Pelosi, then Speaker of the House. To gain attention for his policies, specifically the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA), Obama began traveling the United States to draw the media away from Congress and encourage discussion of his economic stimulus package. Once the ARRA had been passed, Obama began travelling again, speaking locally about why the country needed the Affordable Care Act and guiding media coverage to promote support for the act. (Note: Ibid.) Congressional representatives have a harder time attracting media attention for their policies. House and Senate members who use the media well, either to help their party or to show expertise in an area, may increase their power within Congress, which helps them bargain for fellow legislators’ votes. Senators and high-ranking House members may also be invited to appear on cable news programs as guests, where they may gain some media support for their policies. Yet, overall, because there are so many members of Congress, and therefore so many agendas, it is harder for individual representatives to draw media coverage. (Note: Gary Lee Malecha and Daniel J. Reagan. 2011. The Public Congress: Congressional Deliberation in a New Media Age. New York: Routledge.) It is less clear, however, whether media coverage of an issue leads Congress to make policy, or whether congressional policymaking leads the media to cover policy. In the 1970s, Congress investigated ways to stem the number of drug-induced deaths and crimes. As congressional meetings dramatically increased, the press was slow to cover the topic. The number of hearings was at its highest from 1970 to 1982, yet media coverage did not rise to the same level until 1984. (Note: Frank R. Baumgartner, Bryan D. Jones, and Beth L. Leech. 1997. "Media Attention and Congressional Agendas," In Do The Media Govern? Politicians, Voters, and Reporters in America, eds. Shanto Iyengar and Richard Reeves. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.) Subsequent hearings and coverage led to national policies like DARE and First Lady Nancy Reagan’s “Just Say No” campaign. First Lady Nancy Reagan speaks at a “Just Say No” rally in Los Angeles on May 13, 1987 (a). The Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) is an anti-drug, anti-gang program founded in 1983 by a joint initiative of the Los Angeles Police Department and the Los Angeles Unified School District. Later studies of the media’s effect on both the president and Congress report that the media has a stronger agenda-setting effect on the president than on Congress. What the media choose to cover affects what the president thinks is important to voters, and these issues were often of national importance. The media’s effect on Congress was limited, however, and mostly extended to local issues like education or child and elder abuse. (Note: George Edwards and Dan Wood. 1999. "Who Influences Whom? The President, Congress, and the Media," American Political Science Review 93, No 2: 327–344; Yue Tan and David Weaver. 2007. "AgendaSetting Effects Among the Media, the Public, and Congress, 1946–2004," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 84, No. 4: 729–745.) If the media are discussing a topic, chances are a member of Congress has already submitted a relevant bill, and it is waiting in committee. Coverage Effects on Society The media choose what they want to discuss. This agenda setting creates a reality for voters and politicians that affects the way people think, act, and vote. Even if the crime rate is going down, for instance, citizens accustomed to reading stories about assault and other offenses still perceive crime to be an issue. (Note: Ally Fogg, "Crime Is Falling. Now Let’s Reduce Fear of Crime," Guardian, 24 April 24 2013.) Studies have also found that the media’s portrayal of race is flawed, especially in coverage of crime and poverty. One study revealed that local news shows were more likely to show pictures of criminals when they were African American, so they overrepresented blacks as perpetrators and whites as victims. (Note: Travis L. Dixon. 2008. "Crime News and Racialized Beliefs: Understanding the Relationship between Local News Viewing and Perceptions of African Americans and Crime," Journal of Communication 58, No. 1: 106–125.) A second study found a similar pattern in which Latinos were underrepresented as victims of crime and as police officers, while whites were overrepresented as both. (Note: Travis Dixon. 2015. "Good Guys Are Still Always in White? Positive Change and Continued Misrepresentation of Race and Crime on Local Television News," Communication Research, doi:10.1177/0093650215579223.) Voters were thus more likely to assume that most criminals are black and most victims and police officers are white, even though the numbers do not support those assumptions. Network news similarly misrepresents the victims of poverty by using more images of blacks than whites in its segments. Viewers in a study were left believing African Americans were the majority of the unemployed and poor, rather than seeing the problem as one faced by many races. (Note: Travis L. Dixon. 2008. "Network News and Racial Beliefs: Exploring the Connection between National Television News Exposure and Stereotypical Perceptions of African Americans," Journal of Communication 58, No. 2: 321–337.) The misrepresentation of race is not limited to news coverage, however. A study of images printed in national magazines, like Time and Newsweek, found they also misrepresented race and poverty. The magazines were more likely to show images of young African Americans when discussing poverty and excluded the elderly and the young, as well as whites and Latinos, which is the true picture of poverty. (Note: Martin Gilens. 1996. "Race and Poverty in America: Public Misperceptions and the American News Media," Public Opinion Quarterly 60, No. 4: 515–541.) ia f a , even if unintentional, affects perceptions and policies. If viewers are continually presented with images of African Americans as criminals, there is an increased chance they will perceive members of this group as violent or aggressive. (Note: Dixon. "Crime News and Racialized Beliefs.") The perception that most recipients of welfare are working-age African Americans may have led some citizens to vote for candidates who promised to reduce welfare benefits. (Note: Gilens. "Race and Poverty in America.") When survey respondents were shown a story of a white unemployed individual, 71 percent listed unemployment as one of the top three problems facing the United States, while only 53 percent did so if the story was about an unemployed African American. (Note: Shanto Iyengar and Donald R. Kinder. 1987. News That Matters. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.) W oi e may also have a priming effect. News organizations like the Los Angeles Times and the Associated Press no longer use the phrase “illegal immigrant” to describe undocumented residents. This may be due to the desire to create a “sympathetic” frame for the immigration situation rather than a “threat” frame. (Note: Daniel C. Hallin. 2015. "The Dynamics of Immigration Coverage in Comparative Perspective," American Behavioral Scientist 59, No. 7: 876–885.) Media coverage of women has been similarly biased. Most journalists in the early 1900s were male, and women’s issues were not part of the newsroom discussion. As journalist Kay Mills put it, the women’s movement of the 1960s and 1970s was about raising awareness of the problems of equality, but writing about rallies “was like trying to nail Jell-O to the wall.” (Note: Kay Mills. 1996. "What Difference Do Women Journalists Make?" In Women, the Media and Politics, ed. Pippa Norris. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 43.) Most politicians, business leaders, and other authority figures were male, and editors’ reactions to the stories were lukewarm. The lack of women in the newsroom, politics, and corporate leadership encouraged silence. (Note: Kim Fridkin Kahn and Edie N. Goldenberg. 1997. "The Media: Obstacle or Ally of Feminists?" In Do the Media Govern? eds. Shanto Iyengar and Richard Reeves. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.) In 1976, journalist Barbara Walters became the first female coanchor on a network news show, The ABC Evening News. She was met with great hostility from her coanchor Harry Reasoner and received critical coverage from the press. (Note: Barbara Walters, "Ms. Walters Reflects," Vanity Fair, 31 May 2008. http://www.vanityfair.com/ culture/2008/06/walters_excerpt200806) On newspaper staffs, women reported having to fight for assignments to well-published beats, or to be assigned areas or topics, such as the economy or politics, that were normally reserved for male journalists. Once female journalists held these assignments, they feared writing about women’s issues. Would it make them appear weak? Would they be taken from their coveted beats? (Note: Mills. "What Difference Do Women Journalists Make?") This apprehension allowed poor coverage of women and the women’s movement to continue until women were better represented as journalists and as editors. Strength of numbers allowed them to be confident when covering issues like health care, childcare, and education. (Note: Mills. "What Difference Do Women Journalists Make?") The media’s historically uneven coverage of women continues in its treatment of female candidates. Early coverage was sparse. The stories that did appear often discussed the candidate’s viability, or ability to win, rather than her stand on the issues. (Note: Kahn and Goldenberg, "The Media: Obstacle or Ally of Feminists?") Women were seen as a novelty rather than as serious contenders who needed to be vetted and discussed. Modern media coverage has changed slightly. One study found that female candidates receive more favorable coverage than in prior generations, especially if they are incumbents. (Note: Kim Fridkin Kahn. 1994. "Does Gender Make a Difference? An Experimental Examination of Sex Stereotypes and Press Patterns in Statewide Campaigns," American Journal of Political Science 38, No. 1: 162–195.) Yet a different study found that while there was increased coverage for female candidates, it was often negative. (Note: John David Rausch, Mark Rozell, and Harry L. Wilson. 1999. "When Women Lose: A Study of Media Coverage of Two Gubernatorial Campaigns," Women & Politics 20, No. 4: 1–22.) And it did not include Latina candidates. (Note: Sarah Allen Gershon. 2013. "Media Coverage of Minority Congresswomen and Voter Evaluations: Evidence from an Online Experimental Study," Political Research Quarterly 66, No. 3: 702–714.) Without coverage, they are less likely to win. The historically negative media coverage of female candidates has had another concrete effect: Women are less likely than men to run for office. One common reason is the effect negative media coverage has on families. (Note: Jennifer Lawless and Richard Logan Fox. 2005. It Takes a Candidate: Why Women Don’t Run for Office. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.) Many women do not wish to expose their children or spouses to criticism. (Note: Brittany L. Stalsburg, "Running with Strollers: The Impact of Family Life on Political Ambition," Eagleton Institute of Politics, Spring 2012, Unpublished Paper, http://www.eagleton.rutgers.edu/research/ documents/Stalsburg-FamilyLife-Political-Ambition.pdf (August 28, 2015).) In 2008, the nomination of Sarah as Republican candidate John McCain’s running mate validated this concern. Some articles focused on her qualifications to be a potential future president or her record on the issues. But others questioned whether she had the right to run for office, given she had young children, one of whom has developmental disabilities. (Note: Christina Walker, "Is Sarah Palin Being Held to an Unfair Standard?" CNN, 8 September 2008.) Her daughter, Bristol, was criticized for becoming pregnant while unmarried. (Note: Dana Bash, "Palin’s Teen Daughter is Pregnant," CNN, 1 September 2008.) Her husband was called cheap for failing to buy her a high-priced wedding ring. (Note: Jimmy Orr, "Palin Wardrobe Controversy Heightens - Todd is a Cheapo!" Christian Science Monitor, 26 October 2008.) Even when candidates ask that children and families be off-limits, the press rarely honors the requests. So women with young children may wait until their children are grown before running for office, if they choose to run at all. When Sarah Palin found herself on the national stage at the Republican Convention in September 2008, media coverage about her selection as John McCain’s running mate included numerous questions about her ability to serve based on personal family history. Attacks on candidates’ families lead many women to postpone or avoid running for office. (credit: Carol Highsmith) • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 6.4 Political Parties POLITICAL PARTIES Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| At some point, most of us have found ourselves part of a group trying to solve a problem, like picking a restaurant or movie to attend, or completing a big project at school or work. Members of the group probably had various opinions about what should be done. Some may have even refused to help make the decision or to follow it once it had been made. Still others may have been willing to follow along but were less interested in contributing to a workable solution. Because of this disagreement, at some point, someone in the group had to find a way to make a decision, negotiate a compromise, and ultimately do the work needed for the group to accomplish its goals. This kind of collective action problem is very common in societies, as groups and entire societies try to solve problems or distribute scarce resources. In modern U.S. politics, such problems are usually solved by two important types of organizations: interest groups and political parties. There are many interest groups, all with opinions about what should be done and a desire to influence policy. Because they are usually not officially affiliated with any political party, they generally have no trouble working with either of the major parties. But at some point, a society must find a way of taking all these opinions and turning them into solutions to real problems. That is where political parties come in. Essentially, political parties are groups of people with similar interests who work together to create and implement policies. They do this by gaining control over the government by winning elections. Party platforms guide members of Congress in drafting legislation. Parties guide proposed laws through Congress and inform party members how they should vote on important issues. Political parties also nominate candidates to run for state government, Congress, and the presidency. Finally, they coordinate political campaigns and mobilize voters. Political Parties as Unique Organizations In Federalist No. 10, written in the late eighteenth century, James Madison noted that the formation of self-interested groups, which he called factions, was inevitable in any society, as individuals started to work together to protect themselves from the government. Interest groups and political parties are two of the most easily identified forms of factions in the United States. These groups are similar in that they are both mediating institutions responsible for communicating public preferences to the government. They are not themselves government institutions in a formal sense. Neither is directly mentioned in the U.S. Constitution nor do they have any real, legal authority to influence policy. But whereas interest groups often work indirectly to influence our leaders, political parties are organizations that try to directly influence public policy through its members who seek to win and hold public office. Parties accomplish this by identifying and aligning sets of issues that are important to voters in the hopes of gaining support during elections; their positions on these critical issues are often presented in documents known as a party platform, which is adopted at each party’s presidential nominating convention every four years. If successful, a party can create a large enough electoral coalition to gain control of the government. Once in power, the party is then able to deliver, to its voters and elites, the policy preferences they choose by electing its partisans to the government. In this respect, parties provide choices to the electorate, something they are doing that is in such sharp contrast to their opposition. Winning elections and implementing policy would be hard enough in simple political systems, but in a country as complex as the United States, political parties must take on great responsibilities to win elections and coordinate behavior across the many local, state, and national governing bodies. Indeed, political differences between states and local areas can contribute much complexity. If a party stakes out issue positions on which few people agree and therefore builds too narrow a coalition of voter support, that party may The party platform adopted at the first national convention of the Progressive Party in 1912. Among other items, this platform called for disclosure requirements for campaign contributions, an eight-hour workday, a federal income tax, and women’s suffrage. find itself marginalized. But if the party takes too broad a position on issues, it might find itself in a situation where the members of the party disagree with one another, making it difficult to pass legislation, even if the party can secure victory. It should come as no surprise that the story of U.S. political parties largely mirrors the story of the United States itself. The United States has seen sweeping changes to its size, its relative power, and its social and demographic composition. These changes have been mirrored by the political parties as they have sought to shift their coalitions to establish and maintain power across the nation and as party leadership has changed. As you will learn later, this also means that the structure and behavior of modern parties largely parallel the social, demographic, and geographic divisions within the United States today. To understand how this has happened, we look at the origins of the U.S. party system. How Political Parties Formed National political parties as we understand them today did not really exist in the United States during the early years of the republic. Most politics during the time of the nation’s founding were local in nature and based on elite politics, limited suffrage (or the ability to vote in elections), and property ownership. Residents of the various colonies, and later of the various states, were far more interested in events in their state legislatures than in those occurring at the national level or later in the nation’s capital. To the extent that national issues did exist, they were largely limited to collective security efforts to deal with external rivals, such as the British or the French, and with perceived internal threats, such as conflicts with Native Americans. Soon after the United States emerged from the Revolutionary War, however, a rift began to emerge between two groups that had very different views about the future direction of U.S. politics. Thus, from the very beginning of its history, the United States has had a system of government dominated by two different philosophies. Federalists, who were largely responsible for drafting and ratifying the U.S. Constitution, generally favored the idea of a stronger, more centralized republic that had greater control over regulating the economy. (Note: Larry Sabato and Howard R. Ernst. 2007. Encyclopedia of American Political Parties and Elections. New York: Checkmark Books, 151.) Anti-Federalists preferred a more confederate system built on state equality and autonomy. (Note: Saul Cornell. 2016. The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America. Chapel Hill, NC: UNC Press, 11.) The Federalist faction, led by Alexander Hamilton, largely dominated the government in the years immediately after the Constitution was ratified. Included in the Federalists was President George Washington, who was initially against the existence of parties in the United States. When Washington decided to exit politics and leave office, he warned of the potential negative effects of parties in his farewell address to the nation, including their potentially divisive nature and the fact that they might not always focus on the common good but rather on partisan ends. However, members of each faction quickly realized that they had a vested interest not only in nominating and electing a president who shared their views, but also in winning other elections. Two loosely affiliated party coalitions, known as the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans, soon emerged. The Federalists succeeded in electing their first leader, John Adams, to the presidency in 1796, only to see the Democratic-Republicans gain victory under Thomas Jefferson four years later in 1800. Growing regional tensions eroded the Federalist Party’s ability to coordinate elites, and it eventually collapsed following its opposition to the War of 1812. (Note: James H. Ellis. 2009. A Ruinous and Unhappy War: New England and the War of 1812. New York: Algora Publishing, 80.) The Democratic-Republican Party, on the other hand, eventually divided over whether national resources should be focused on economic and mercantile development, such as tariffs on imported goods and government funding of internal improvements like roads and canals, or on promoting populist issues that would help the “common man,” such as reducing or eliminating state property requirements that had prevented many men from voting. (Note: Alexander Keyssar. 2009. The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States. New York: Basic Books.) In the election of 1824, numerous candidates contended for the presidency, all members of the DemocraticRepublican Party. Andrew Jackson won more popular votes and more votes in the Electoral College than any other candidate. However, because he did not win the majority (more than half) of the available electoral votes, the election was decided by the House of Representatives, as required by the Twelfth Amendment. The Twelfth Amendment limited the House’s choice to the three candidates with the greatest number of electoral votes. Thus, Andrew Jackson, with 99 electoral votes, found himself in competition with only John Quincy Adams, the second place finisher with 84 electoral votes, and William H. Crawford, who had come in third with 41. The fourth-place finisher, Henry Clay, who was no longer in contention, had won 37 electoral votes. Clay strongly disliked Jackson, and his ideas on government support for tariffs and internal improvements were similar to those of Adams. Clay thus gave his support to Adams, who was chosen on the first ballot. Jackson considered the actions of Clay and Adams, the son of the Federalist president John Adams, to be an unjust triumph of supporters of the elite and referred to it as “the corrupt bargain.” (Note: R. R. Stenberg, "Jackson, Buchanan, and the "Corrupt Bargain" Calumny," The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 58, no. 1 (1934): 61–85.) This marked the beginning of what historians call the Second Party System (the first parties had been the Federalists and the Jeffersonian Republicans), with the splitting of the Democratic-Republicans and the formation of two new political parties. One half, called simply the Democratic Party, was the party of Jackson; it continued to advocate for the common people by championing westward expansion and opposing a national bank. The branch of the Democratic-Republicans that believed that the national government should encourage economic (primarily industrial) development was briefly known as the National Republicans and later became the Whig Party. (Note: 2009. "Democratic-Republican Party," In UXL Encyclopedia of U.S. History, eds. Sonia Benson, Daniel E. Brannen, Jr., and Rebecca Valentine. Detroit: UXL, 435–436; "Jacksonian Democracy and Modern America," http://www.ushistory.org/us/23f.asp (March 6, 2016).) In the election of 1828, Democrat Andrew Jackson was triumphant. Three times as many people voted in 1828 as had in 1824, and most cast their ballots for him. (Note: Virginia Historical Society. "Elections from 1789–1828." http://www.vahistorical.org/collections-and-resources/virginia-history-explorer/getting-message-out-presidentialcampaign-0 (March 11, 2016).) The formation of the Democratic Party marked an important shift in U.S. politics. Rather than being built largely to coordinate elite behavior, the Democratic Party worked to organize the electorate by taking advantage of state-level laws that had extended suffrage from male property owners to nearly all white men. (Note: William G. Shade. 1983. "The Second Party System." In Evolution of American Electoral Systems, eds. Paul Kleppner, et al. Westport, CT: Greenwood Pres, 77–111.) This change marked the birth of what is often considered the first modern political party in any democracy in the world. (Note: Jules Witcover. 2003. Party of the People: A History of the Democrats. New York: Random House, 3.) It also dramatically changed the way party politics was, and still is, conducted. For one thing, this new party organization was built to include structures that focused on organizing and mobilizing voters for elections at all levels of government. The party also perfected an existing spoils system, in which support for the party during elections was rewarded with jobs in the government bureaucracy after victory. (Note: Daniel Walker Howe. 2007. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. New York: Oxford University Press, 330-34.) Many of these positions were given to party bosses and their friends. These men were the leaders of political machines, organizations that secured votes for the party’s candidates or supported the party in other ways. Perhaps more importantly, this election-focused organization also sought to maintain power by creating a broader coalition and thereby expanding the range of issues upon which the party was constructed. (Note: Sean Wilentz. 2006. The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln. New York: Norton.) The Democratic Party emphasized personal politics, which focused on building direct relationships with voters rather than on promoting specific issues. This party dominated national politics from Andrew Jackson’s presidential victory in 1828 until the mid-1850s, when regional tensions began to threaten the nation’s very existence. The growing power of industrialists, who preferred greater national authority, combined with increasing tensions between the northern and southern states over slavery, led to the rise of the Republican Party and its leader Abraham Lincoln in the election of 1860, while the Democratic Party dominated in the South. Like the Democrats, the Republicans also began to utilize a mass approach to party design and organization. Their opposition to the expansion of slavery, and their role in helping to stabilize the Union during Reconstruction, made them the dominant player in national politics for the next several decades. (Note: Calvin Jillson. 1994. "Patterns and Periodicity." In The Dynamics of American Politics: Approaches and Interpretations, eds. Lawrence C. Dodd and Calvin C. Jillson. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 38–41.) The Democratic and Republican parties have remained the two dominant players in the U.S. party system since the Civil War (1861–1865). That does not mean, however, that the system has been stagnant. Every political actor and every citizen has the ability to determine for him- or herself whether one of the two parties meets his or her needs and provides an appealing set of policy options, or whether another option is preferable. At various points in the past 170 years, elites and voters have sought to create alternatives to the existing party system. Political parties that are formed as alternatives to the Republican and Democratic parties are known as h d pa ies, or minor parties. In 1892, a third party known as the Populist Party formed in reaction to what its constituents perceived as the domination of U.S. society by big business and a decline in the power of farmers and rural communities. The Populist Party called for the regulation of railroads, an income tax, and the popular election of U.S. senators, who at this time were chosen by state legislatures and not by ordinary voters. (Note: Norman Pollack. 1976. The Populist Response to Industrial America: Midwestern Populist Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 11–12.) The party’s candidate in the 1892 elections, James B. Weaver, did not perform as well as the two main party candidates, and, in the presidential election of 1896, the Populists supported the Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan. Bryan lost, and the Populists once again nominated their own presidential candidates in 1900, 1904, and 1908. The party disappeared from the national scene after 1908, but its ideas were similar to those of the Progressive Party, a new political party created in 1912. Various third parties, also known as minor parties, have appeared in the United States over the years. Some, like the Socialist Party, still exist in one form or another. Others, like the Anti-Masonic Party, which wanted to protect the United States from the influence of the Masonic fraternal order and garnered just under 8 percent of the popular vote in 1832, are gone. In 1912, former Republican president Theodore Roosevelt attempted to form a third party, known as the Progressive Party, as an alternative to the more business-minded Republicans. The Progressives sought to correct the many problems that had arisen as the United States transformed itself from a rural, agricultural nation into an increasingly urbanized, industrialized country dominated by big business interests. Among the reforms that the Progressive Party called for in its 1912 platform were women’s suffrage, an eight-hour workday, and workers’ compensation. The party also favored some of the same reforms as the Populist Party, such as the direct election of U.S. senators and an income tax, although Populists tended to be farmers while the Progressives were from the middle class. In general, Progressives sought to make government more responsive to the will of the people and to end political corruption in government. They wished to break the power of party bosses and political machines, and called upon states to pass laws allowing voters to vote directly on proposed legislation, propose new laws, and recall from office incompetent or corrupt elected officials. The Progressive Party largely disappeared after 1916, and most members returned to the Republican Party. (Note: 1985. Congressional Quarterly’s Guide to U.S. Elections. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 75–78, 387–388.) The party enjoyed a brief resurgence in 1924, when Robert “Fighting Bob” La Follette ran unsuccessfully for president under the Progressive banner. In 1948, two new third parties appeared on the political scene. Henry A. Wallace, a vice president under Franklin Roosevelt, formed a new Progressive Party, which had little in common with the earlier Progressive Party. Wallace favored racial desegregation and believed that the United States should have closer ties to the Soviet Union. Wallace’s campaign was a failure, largely because most people believed his policies, including national healthcare, were too much like those of communism, and this party also vanished. The other third party, the States’ Rights Democrats, also known as the Dixiecrats, were white, southern Democrats who split from the Democratic Party when Harry Truman, who favored civil rights for African Americans, became the party’s nominee for president. The Dixiecrats opposed all attempts by the federal government to end segregation, extend voting rights, prohibit discrimination in employment, or otherwise promote social equality among races. (Note: "Platform of the States Rights Democratic Party," http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25851 (March 12, 2016).) They remained a significant party that threatened Democratic unity throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Other examples of third parties in the United States include the American Independent Party, the Libertarian Party, United We Stand America, the Reform Party, and the Green Party. None of these alternatives to the two major political parties had much success at the national level, and most are no longer viable parties. All faced the same fate. Formed by charismatic leaders, each championed a relatively narrow set of causes and failed to gain broad support among the electorate. Once their leaders had been defeated or discredited, the party structures that were built to contest elections collapsed. And within a few years, most of their supporters were eventually pulled back into one of the existing parties. To be sure, some of these parties had an electoral impact. For example, the Progressive Party pulled enough votes away from the Republicans to hand the 1912 election to the Democrats. Thus, the third-party rival’s principal accomplishment was helping its least-preferred major party win, usually at the short-term expense of the very issue it championed. In the long run, however, many third parties have brought important issues to the attention of the major parties, which then incorporated these issues into their platforms. Understanding why this is the case is an important next step in learning about the issues and strategies of the modern Republican and Democratic parties. In the next section, we look at why the United States has historically been dominated by only two political parties. The Party-in-the-Electorate A key fact about the U.S. political party system is that it’s all about the votes. If voters do not show up to vote for a party’s candidates on Election Day, the party has no chance of gaining office and implementing its preferred policies. As we have seen, for much of their history, the two parties have been adapting to changes in the size, composition, and preferences of the U.S. electorate. It only makes sense, then, that parties have found it in their interest to build a permanent and stable presence among the voters. By fostering a sense of loyalty, a party can insulate itself from changes in the system and improve its odds of winning elections. The party-in-the-electorate are those members of the voting public who consider themselves to be part of a political party and/or who consistently prefer the candidates of one party over the other. What it means to be part of a party depends on where a voter lives and how much he or she chooses to participate in politics. At its most basic level, being a member of the party-in-the-electorate simply means a voter is more likely to voice support for a party. These voters are often called party identifiers, since they usually represent themselves in public as being members of a party, and they may attend some party events or functions. Party identifiers are also more likely to provide financial support for the candidates of their party during election season. This does not mean self-identified Democrats will support all the party’s positions or candidates, but it does mean that, on the whole, they feel their wants or needs are more likely to be met if the Democratic Party is successful. Party identifiers make up the majority of the voting public. Gallup, the polling agency, has been collecting data on voter preferences for the past several decades. Its research suggests that historically, over half of American adults have called themselves “Republican” or “Democrat” when asked how they identify themselves politically. Even among self-proclaimed independents, the overwhelming majority claim to lean in the direction of one party or the other, suggesting they behave as if they identified with a party during elections even if they preferred not to publicly pick a side. Partisan support is so strong that, in a poll conducted from August 5 to August 9, 2015, about 88 percent of respondents said they either identified with or, if they were independents, at least leaned toward one of the major political parties. (Note: "Party Affiliation," http://www.gallup.com/poll/15370/party-affiliation.aspx (March 1, 2016).) Thus, in a poll conducted in January 2016, even though about 42 percent of respondents said they were independent, this does not mean that they are not, in fact, more likely to favor one party over the other. (Note: Jeffrey L. Jones, "Democratic, Republican Identification Near Historical Lows," http://www.gallup.com/poll/188096/ democratic-republican-identification-near-historical-lows.aspx (March 14, 2016).) As the chart reveals, generation affects party identification. Millennials (ages 18–34) are more likely to identify as or lean towards the Democratic Party and less likely to favor Republicans than are their baby boomer parents and grandparents (born between 1946 and 1964). Strictly speaking, party identification is not quite the same thing as party membership. People may call themselves Republicans or Democrats without being registered as a member of the party, and the Republican and Democratic parties do not require individuals to join their formal organization in the same way that parties in some other countries do. Many states require voters to declare a party affiliation before participating in primaries, but primary participation is irregular and infrequent, and a voter may change his or her identity long before changing party registration. For most voters, party identification is informal at best and often matters only in the weeks before an election. It does matter, however, because party identification guides some voters, who may know little about a particular issue or candidate, in casting their ballots. If, for example, someone thinks of him- or herself as a Republican and always votes Republican, he or she will not be confused when faced with a candidate, perhaps in a local or county election, whose name is unfamiliar. If the candidate is a Republican, the voter will likely cast a ballot for him or her. Party ties can manifest in other ways as well. The actual act of registering to vote and selecting a party reinforces party loyalty. Moreover, while pundits and scholars often deride voters who blindly vote their party, the selection of a party in the first place can be based on issue positions and ideology. In that regard, voting your party on Election Day is not a blind act—it is a shortcut based on issue positions. The Party Organization A significant subset of American voters views their party identification as something far beyond simply a shortcut to voting. These individuals get more energized by the political process and have chosen to become more active in the life of political parties. They are part of what is known as the party organization. The party organization is the formal structure of the political party, and its active members are responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting party candidates. It is a vital component of any successful party because it bears most of the responsibility for building and maintaining the party “brand.” It also plays a key role in helping select, and elect, candidates for public office. Local Organizations Since winning elections is the first goal of the political party, it makes sense that the formal party organization mirrors the local-state-federal structure of the U.S. political system. While the lowest level of party organization is technically the precinct, many of the operational responsibilities for local elections fall upon the county-level organization. The county-level organization is in many ways the workhorse of the party system, especially around election time. This level of organization frequently takes on many of the most basic responsibilities of a democratic system, including identifying and mobilizing potential voters and donors, identifying and training potential candidates for public office, and recruiting new members for the party. County organizations are also often responsible for finding rank and file members to serve as volunteers on Election Day, either as officials responsible for operating the polls or as monitors responsible for ensuring that elections are conducted honestly and fairly. They may also hold regular meetings to provide members the opportunity to meet potential candidates and coordinate strategy. Of course, all this is voluntary and relies on dedicated party members being willing to pitch in to run the party. Political parties are bottom-up structures, with lower levels often responsible for selecting delegates to higher-level offices or conventions. State Organizations Most of the county organizations’ formal efforts are devoted to supporting party candidates running for county and city offices. But a fair amount of political power is held by individuals in statewide office or in state-level legislative or judicial bodies. While the county-level offices may be active in these local competitions, most of the coordination for them will take place in the state-level organizations. Like their more local counterparts, state-level organizations are responsible for key party functions, such as statewide candidate recruitment and campaign mobilization. Most of their efforts focus on electing high-ranking officials such as the governor or occupants of other statewide offices (e.g., the state’s treasurer or attorney general) as well as candidates to represent the state and its residents in the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives. The greater value of state- and national-level offices requires state organizations to take on several key responsibilities in the life of the party. First, state-level organizations usually accept greater fundraising responsibilities than do their local counterparts. Statewide races and races for national office have become increasingly expensive in recent years. The average cost of a successful House campaign was $1.2 million in 2014; for Senate races, it was $8.6 million. (Note: Russ Choma, "Money Won on Tuesday, But Rules of the Game Changed," 5 November 2014, http://www.opensecrets.org/news/2014/11/money-won-on-tuesday-but-rules-of-the-game-changed/ (March 1, 2016).) While individual candidates are responsible for funding and running their own races, it is typically up to the state-level organization to coordinate giving across multiple races and to develop the staffing expertise that these candidates will draw upon at election time. State organizations are also responsible for creating a sense of unity among members of the state party. Building unity can be very important as the party transitions from sometimes-contentious nomination battles to the allimportant general election. The state organization uses several key tools to get its members working together towards a common goal. First, it helps the party’s candidates prepare for state primary elections or caucuses that allow voters to choose a nominee to run for public office at either the state or national level. Caucuses are a form of town hall meeting at which voters in a precinct get together to voice their preferences, rather than voting individually throughout the day. Caucus-goers gather at a Democratic precinct caucus on January 3, 2008, in Iowa City, Iowa. Caucuses are held every two years in more than 1650 Iowa precincts. Second, the state organization is also responsible for drafting a state platform that serves as a policy guide for partisans who are eventually selected to public office. These platforms are usually the result of a negotiation between the various coalitions within the party and are designed to ensure that everyone in the party will receive some benefits if their candidates win the election. Finally, state organizations hold a statewide convention at which delegates from the various county organizations come together to discuss the needs of their areas. The state conventions are also responsible for selecting delegates to the national convention. National Party Organization The local and state-level party organizations are the workhorses of the political process. They take on most of the responsibility for party activities and are easily the most active participants in the party formation and electoral processes. They are also largely invisible to most voters. The average citizen knows very little of the local party’s behavior unless there is a phone call or a knock on the door in the days or weeks before an election. The same is largely true of the activities of the state-level party. Typically, the only people who notice are those who are already actively engaged in politics or are being targeted for donations. But most people are aware of the presence and activity of the national party organizations for several reasons. First, many Americans, especially young people, are more interested in the topics discussed at the national level than at the state or local level. According to John Green of the Ray C. Bliss Institute of Applied Politics, “Local elections tend to be about things like sewers, and roads and police protection—which are not as dramatic an issue as same-sex marriage or global warming or international affairs.” (Note: Elizabeth Lehman, "Trend Shows Generation Focuses Mostly on Social, National Issues," http://www.thenewsoutlet.org/survey-local-millennialsmore-interested-in-big-issues/ (March 15, 2016).) Presidential elections and the behavior of the U.S. Congress are also far more likely to make the news broadcasts than the activities of county commissioners, and the national-level party organization is mostly responsible for coordinating the activities of participants at this level. The national party is a fundraising army for presidential candidates and also serves a key role in trying to coordinate and direct the efforts of the House and Senate. For this reason, its leadership is far more likely to become visible to media consumers, whether they intend to vote or not. A second reason for the prominence of the national organization is that it usually coordinates the grandest spectacles in the life of a political party. Most voters are never aware of the numerous county-level meetings or coordinating activities. Primary elections, one of the most important events to take place at the state level, have a much lower turnout than the nationwide general election. In 2012, for example, only one-third of the eligible voters in New Hampshire voted in the state’s primary, one of the earliest and thus most important in the nation; however, 70 percent of eligible voters in the state voted in the general election in November 2012. (Note: "Voter Turnout," http://www.electproject.org/home/voter-turnout/voter-turnout-data (March 14, 2016).) People may see or read an occasional story about the meetings of the state committees or convention but pay little attention. But the national conventions, organized and sponsored by the national-level party, can dominate the national discussion for several weeks in late summer, a time when the major media outlets are often searching for news. These conventions are the definition of a media circus at which high-ranking politicians, party elites, and sometimes celebrities, such as actor/director Clint Eastwood, along with individuals many consider to be the future leaders of the party are brought before the public so the party can make its best case for being the one to direct the future of the country. (Note: Abdullah Halimah, "Eastwood, the Empty Chair, and the Speech Everyone’s Talking About," 31 August 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/08/31/politics/eastwood-speech/ (March 14, 2016).) National party conventions culminate in the formal nomination of the party nominees for the offices of president and vice president, and they mark the official beginning of the presidential competition between the two parties. In August 2012, Clint Eastwood—actor, director, and former mayor of Carmel-by-the-Sea, California—spoke at the Republican National Convention accompanied by an empty chair representing the Democratic incumbent president Barack Obama. In the past, national conventions were often the sites of high drama and political intrigue. As late as 1968, the identities of the presidential and/or vice-presidential nominees were still unknown to the general public when the convention opened. It was also common for groups protesting key events and issues of the day to try to raise their profile by using the conventions to gain the media spotlight. National media outlets would provide “gavel to gavel” coverage of the conventions, and the relatively limited number of national broadcast channels meant most viewers were essentially forced to choose between following the conventions or checking out of the media altogether. Much has changed since the 1960s, however, and between 1960 and 2004, viewership of both the Democratic National Convention and the Republican National Convention had declined by half. (Note: "Influence of Democratic and Republican Conventions on Opinions of the Presidential Candidates," http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/elections/personal-individual-effects-presidential-conventionscandidate-evaluations (March 14, 2016).) National conventions are not the spectacles they once were, and this fact is almost certainly having an impact on the profile of the national party organization. Both parties have come to recognize the value of the convention as a medium through which they can communicate to the average viewer. To ensure that they are viewed in the best possible light, the parties have worked hard to turn the public face of the convention into a highly sanitized, highly orchestrated media event. Speakers are often required to have their speeches prescreened to ensure that they do not deviate from the party line or run the risk of embarrassing the eventual nominee—whose name has often been known by all for several months. And while protests still happen, party organizations have becoming increasingly adept at keeping protesters away from the convention sites, arguing that safety and security are more important than First Amendment rights to speech and peaceable assembly. For example, protestors were kept behind concrete barriers and fences at the Democratic National Convention in 2004. (Note: Timothy Zick, "Speech and Spatial Tactics," Texas Law Review February (2006): 581.) With the advent of cable TV news and the growth of internet blogging, the major news outlets have found it unnecessary to provide the same level of coverage they once did. Between 1976 and 1996, ABC and CBS cut their coverage of the nominating conventions from more than fifty hours to only five. NBC cut its coverage to fewer than five hours. (Note: Thomas E. Patterson, "Is There a Future for On-the-Air Televised Conventions?" http://journalistsresource.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/vv_conv_paper1.pdf (March 14, 2016).) One reason may be that the outcome of nominating conventions are also typically known in advance, meaning there is no drama. Today, the nominee’s acceptance speech is expected to be no longer than an hour, so it will not take up more than one block of prime-time TV programming. This is not to say the national conventions are no longer important, or that the national party organizations are becoming less relevant. The conventions, and the organizations that run them, still contribute heavily to a wide range of key decisions in the life of both parties. The national party platform is formally adopted at the convention, as are the key elements of the strategy for contesting the national campaign. And even though the media is paying less attention, key insiders and major donors often use the convention as a way of gauging the strength of the party and its ability to effectively organize and coordinate its members. They are also paying close attention to the rising stars who are given time at the convention’s podium, to see which are able to connect with the party faithful. Most observers credit Barack Obama’s speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention with bringing him to national prominence. (Note: Todd Leopold, "The Day America Met Barack Obama," http://www.cnn.com/ 2008/POLITICS/11/05/obama.meeting/index.html?iref=werecommend (March 14, 2016).) The Party-in-Government One of the first challenges facing the party-in-government, or the party identifiers who have been elected or appointed to hold public office, is to achieve their policy goals. The means to do this is chosen in meetings of the two major parties; Republican meetings are called party conferences and Democrat meetings are called party caucuses. Members of each party meet in these closed sessions and discuss what items to place on the legislative agenda and make decisions about which party members should serve on the committees that draft proposed laws. Party members also elect the leaders of their respective parties in the House and the Senate, and their party whips. Leaders serve as party managers and are the highest-ranking members of the party in each chamber of Congress. The party whip ensures that members are present when a piece of legislation is to be voted on and directs them how to vote. The whip is the second-highest ranking member of the party in each chamber. Thus, both the Republicans and the Democrats have a leader and a whip in the House, and a leader and a whip in the Senate. The leader and whip of the party that holds the majority of seats in each house are known as the majority leader and the majority whip. The leader and whip of the party with fewer seats are called the minority leader and the minority whip. The party that controls the majority of seats in the House of Representatives also elects someone to serve as Speaker of the House. People elected to Congress as independents (that is, not members of either the Republican or Democratic parties) must choose a party to conference or caucus with. For example, Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, who ran for Senate as an independent candidate, caucuses with the Democrats in the Senate. One problem facing the party-in-government relates to the design of the country’s political system. The U.S. government is based on a complex principle of separation of powers, with power divided among the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches. The system is further complicated by federalism, which relegates some powers to the states, which also have separation of powers. This complexity creates a number of problems for maintaining party unity. The biggest is that each level and unit of government has different constituencies that the office holder must satisfy. The person elected to the White House is more beholden to the national party organization than are members of the House or Senate, because members of Congress must be reelected by voters in very different states, each with its own state-level and county-level parties. Some of this complexity is eased for the party that holds the executive branch of government. Executive offices are typically more visible to the voters than the legislature, in no small part because a single person holds the office. Voters are more likely to show up at the polls and vote if they feel strongly about the candidate running for president or governor, but they are also more likely to hold that person accountable for the government’s failures. (Note: Sidney R. Waldman. 2007. America and the Limits of the Politics of Selfishness. New York: Lexington Books, 27.) Members of the legislature from the executive’s party are under a great deal of pressure to make the executive look good, because a popular president or governor may be able to help other party members win office. Even so, partisans in the legislature cannot be expected to simply obey the executive’s orders. First, legislators may serve a constituency that disagrees with the executive on key matters of policy. If the issue is important enough to voters, as in the case of gun control or abortion rights, an office holder may feel his or her job will be in jeopardy if he or she too closely follows the party line, even if that means disagreeing with the executive. A good example occurred when the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which desegregated public accommodations and prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of race, was introduced in Congress. The bill was supported by Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson, both of whom were Democrats. Nevertheless, many Republicans, such as William McCulloch, a conservative representative from Ohio, voted in its favor while many southern Democrats opposed it. (Note: Alicia W. Stewart and Tricia Escobedo, "What You Might Not Know About the 1964 Civil Rights Act," 10 April 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/04/10/politics/civil-rights-act-interesting-facts/ (March 16, 2016).) A second challenge is that each house of the legislature has its own leadership and committee structure, and those leaders may not be in total harmony with the president. Key benefits like committee appointments, leadership positions, and money for important projects in their home district may hinge on legislators following the lead of the party. These pressures are particularly acute for the majority party, so named because it controls more than half the seats in one of the two chambers. The Speaker of the House and the Senate majority leader, the majority party’s congressional leaders, have significant tools at their disposal to punish party members who defect on a particular vote. Finally, a member of the minority party must occasionally work with the opposition on some issues in order to accomplish any of his or her constituency’s goals. This is especially the case in the Senate, which is a super-majority institution. Sixty votes (of the 100 possible) are required to get anything accomplished, because Senate rules allow individual members to block legislation via holds and filibusters. The only way to block the blocking is to invoke cloture, a procedure calling for a vote on an issue, which takes 60 votes. The Problem of Divided Government The problem of majority versus minority politics is particularly acute under conditions of divided government. Divided government occurs when one or more houses of the legislature are controlled by the party in opposition to the executive. Unified government occurs when the same party controls the executive and the legislature entirely. Divided government can pose considerable difficulties for both the operations of the party and the government as a whole. It makes fulfilling campaign promises extremely difficult, for instance, since the cooperation (or at least the agreement) of both Congress and the president is typically needed to pass legislation. Furthermore, one party can hardly claim credit for success when the other side has been a credible partner, or when nothing can be accomplished. Party loyalty may be challenged too, because individual politicians might be forced to oppose their own party agenda if it will help their personal reelection bids. Divided government can also be a threat to government operations, although its full impact remains unclear. (Note: David R. Mayhew. 1991. Divided We Govern. New Haven: Yale University Press; George C. Edwards, Andrew Barrett and Jeffrey S. Peake, "The Legislative Impact of Divided Government," American Journal of Political Science 41, no. 2 (1997): 545–563.) For example, when the divide between the parties is too great, government may shut down. A 1976 dispute between Republican president Gerald Ford and a Democratcontrolled Congress over the issue of funding for certain cabinet departments led to a ten-day shutdown of the government (although the federal government did not cease to function entirely). But beginning in the 1980s, the interpretation that Republican president Ronald Reagan’s attorney general gave to a nineteenth-century law required a complete shutdown of federal government operations until a funding issue was resolved. (Note: Dylan Matthews, "Here is Every Previous Government Shutdown, Why They Happened and How They Ended," The Washington Post, 25 September 2013.) Clearly, the parties’ willingness to work together and compromise can be a very good thing. However, the past several decades have brought an increased prevalence of divided government. Since 1969, the U.S. electorate has sent the president a Congress of his own party in only seven of twenty-three congressional elections, and during George W. Bush’s first administration, the Republican majority was so narrow that a combination of resignations and defections gave the Democrats control before the next election could be held. Over the short term, however, divided government can make for very contentious politics. A well-functioning government usually requires a certain level of responsiveness on the part of both the executive and the legislative branches. This responsiveness is hard enough if government is unified under one party. During the presidency of Democrat Jimmy Carter (1977–1980), despite the fact that both houses of Congress were controlled by Democratic majorities, the government was shut down on five occasions because of conflict between the executive and legislative branches. (Note: Matthews, "Here is Every Previous Government Shutdown, Why They Happened and How They Ended.") Shutdowns are even more likely when the president and at least one house of Congress are of opposite parties. During the presidency of Ronald Reagan, for example, the federal government shut down eight times; on seven of those occasions, the shutdown was caused by disagreements between Reagan and the Republican-controlled Senate on the one hand and the Democrats in the House on the other, over such issues as spending cuts, abortion rights, and civil rights. (Note: Matthews, "Here is Every Previous Government Shutdown, Why They Happened and How They Ended.") More such disputes and government shutdowns took place during the administrations of George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Barack Obama, when different parties controlled Congress and the presidency. For the first few decades of the current pattern of divided government, the threat it posed to the government appears to have been muted by a high degree of bipartisanship, or cooperation through compromise. Many pieces of legislation were passed in the 1960s and 1970s with reasonably high levels of support from both parties. Most members of Congress had relatively moderate voting records, with regional differences within parties that made bipartisanship on many issues more likely. In the early 1980s, Republican president Ronald Reagan (left) and Democratic Speaker of the House Tip O’Neil (right) worked together to pass key pieces of legislation, even though they opposed each other on several issues. (credit: Ronald Reagan Presidential Library & Museum) For example, until the 1980s, northern and midwestern Republicans were often fairly progressive, supporting racial equality, workers’ rights, and farm subsidies. Southern Democrats were frequently quite socially and racially conservative and were strong supporters of states’ rights. Cross-party cooperation on these issues was fairly frequent. But in the past few decades, the number of moderates in both houses of Congress has declined. This has made it more difficult for party leadership to work together on a range of important issues, and for members of the minority party in Congress to find policy agreement with an opposing party president. The Implications of Polarization The past thirty years have brought a dramatic change in the relationship between the two parties as fewer conservative Democrats and liberal Republicans have been elected to office. As political moderates, or individuals with ideologies in the middle of the ideological spectrum, leave the political parties at all levels, the parties have grown farther apart ideologically, a result called party polarization. In other words, at least organizationally and in government, Republicans and Democrats have become increasingly dissimilar from one another. In the party-ingovernment, this means fewer members of Congress have mixed voting records; instead they vote far more consistently on issues and are far more likely to side with their party leadership. (Note: Drew Desilver, "The Polarized Congress of Today Has Its Roots in the 1970s," 12 June 2014, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/ 2014/06/12/polarized-politics-in-congress-began-in-the-1970s-and-has-been-getting-worse-ever-since/ (March 16, 2016).) It also means a growing number of moderate voters aren’t participating in party politics. Either they are becoming independents, or they are participating only in the general election and are therefore not helping select party candidates in primaries. The number of moderates has dropped since 1973 as both parties have moved toward ideological extremes. What is most interesting about this shift to increasingly polarized parties is that it does not appear to have happened as a result of the structural reforms recommended by APSA. Rather, it has happened because moderate politicians have simply found it harder and harder to win elections. There are many conflicting theories about the causes of polarization, some of which we discuss below. But whatever its origin, party polarization in the United States does not appear to have had the net positive effects that the APSA committee was hoping for. With the exception of providing voters with more distinct choices, positives of polarization are hard to find. The negative impacts are many. For one thing, rather than reducing interparty conflict, polarization appears to have only amplified it. For example, the Republican Party (or the GOP, standing for Grand Old Party) has historically been a coalition of two key and overlapping factions: pro-business rightists and social conservatives. The GOP has held the coalition of these two groups together by opposing programs designed to redistribute wealth (and advocating small government) while at the same time arguing for laws preferred by conservative Christians. But it was also willing to compromise with pro-business Democrats, often at the expense of social issues, if it meant protecting long-term business interests. Recently, however, a new voice has emerged that has allied itself with the Republican Party. Born in part from an older third-party movement known as the Libertarian Party, the Tea Party is more hostile to government and views government intervention in all forms, and especially taxation and the regulation of business, as a threat to capitalism and democracy. It is less willing to tolerate interventions in the market place, even when they are designed to protect the markets themselves. Although an anti-tax faction within the Republican Party has existed for some time, some factions of the Tea Party movement are also active at the intersection of religious liberty and social issues, especially in opposing such initiatives as same-sex marriage and abortion rights. (Note: "The Tea Party and Religion," 23 February 2011, http://www.pewforum.org/2011/02/23/tea-party-and-religion/ (March 16, 2016).) The Tea Party has argued that government, both directly and by neglect, is threatening the ability of evangelicals to observe their moral obligations, including practices some perceive as endorsing social exclusion. Although the Tea Party is a movement and not a political party, 86 percent of Tea Party members who voted in 2012 cast their votes for Republicans. (Note: "The Tea Party and Religion.") Some members of the Republican Party are closely affiliated with the movement, and before the 2012 elections, Tea Party activist Grover Norquist exacted promises from many Republicans in Congress that they would oppose any bill that sought to raise taxes. (Note: Paul Waldman, "Nearly All the GOP Candidates Bow Down to Grover Norquist, The Washington Post, 13 August 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/wp/2015/08/13/nearly-all-the-gop-candidates-bowdown-to-grover-norquist/ (March 1, 2016).) The inflexibility of Tea Party members has led to tense floor debates and was ultimately responsible for the 2014 primary defeat of Republican majority leader Eric Cantor and the 2015 resignation of the sitting Speaker of the House John Boehner. In 2015, Chris Christie, John Kasich, Ben Carson, Marco Rubio, and Ted Cruz, all of whom were Republican presidential candidates, signed Norquist’s pledge as well. Vying for the Republican nomination, 2016 presidential candidates Ted Cruz (a) and John Kasich (b), like many other Republicans, signed a pledge not to raise taxes if elected. Movements on the left have also arisen. The Occupy Wall Street movement was born of the government’s response to the Great Recession of 2008 and its assistance to endangered financial institutions, provided through the Troubled Asset Relief Program, TARP. The Occupy Movement believed the recession was caused by a failure of the government to properly regulate the banking industry. The Occupiers further maintained that the government moved swiftly to protect the banking industry from the worst of the recession but largely failed to protect the average person, thereby worsening the growing economic inequality in the United States. On September 30, 2011, Occupy Wall Street protesters marched to the headquarters of the New York Police Department to protest police brutality that occurred in response to the movement’s occupation of Zuccotti Park in Lower Manhattan. (credit: modification of work by David Shankbone) While the Occupy Movement itself has largely fizzled, the anti-business sentiment to which it gave voice continues within the Democratic Party, and many Democrats have proclaimed their support for the movement and its ideals, if not for its tactics. (Note: Beth Fouhy, "Occupy Wall Street and Democrats Remain Wary of Each Other," Huffington Post, 17 November 2011.) Champions of the left wing of the Democratic Party, however, such as presidential candidate Senator Bernie Sanders and Massachusetts Senator Elizabeth Warren, have ensured that the Occupy Movement’s calls for more social spending and higher taxes on the wealthy remain a prominent part of the national debate. Their popularity, and the growing visibility of race issues in the United States, have helped sustain the left wing of the Democratic Party. Bernie Sanders’ presidential run made these topics and causes even more salient, especially among younger voters. To date, however, the Occupy Movement has had fewer electoral effects than has the Tea Party. Yet, as manifested in Sanders’ candidacy, it has the potential to affect races at lower levels in the 2016 national elections. Unfortunately, party factions haven’t been the only result of party polarization. By most measures, the U.S. government in general and Congress in particular have become less effective in recent years. Congress has passed fewer pieces of legislation, confirmed fewer appointees, and been less effective at handling the national purse than in recent memory. If we define effectiveness as legislative productivity, the 106th Congress (1999–2000) passed 463 pieces of substantive legislation (not including commemorative legislation, such as bills proclaiming an official doughnut of the United States). The 107th Congress (2000–2001) passed 294 such pieces of legislation. By 2013–2014, the total had fallen to 212. (Note: Drew Desilver, "In Late Spurt of Activity, Congress Avoids ‘Least Productive’ Title," 29 December 2014, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/12/29/in-latespurt-of-activity-congress-avoids-least-productive-title/ (March 16, 2016).) Perhaps the clearest sign of Congress’ ineffectiveness is that the threat of government shutdown has become a constant. Shutdowns occur when Congress and the president are unable to authorize and appropriate funds before the current budget runs out. This is now an annual problem. Relations between the two parties became so bad that financial markets were sent into turmoil in 2014 when Congress failed to increase the government’s line of credit before a key deadline, thus threatening a U.S. government default on its loans. While any particular trend can be the result of multiple factors, the decline of key measures of institutional confidence and trust suggest the negative impact of polarization. Public approval ratings for Congress have been near single digits for several years, and a poll taken in February 2016 revealed that only 11 percent of respondents thought Congress was doing a “good or excellent job.” (Note: "Congressional Performance," http://www.rasmussenreports.com/ public_content/politics/mood_of_america/congressional_performance (March 16, 2016).) President Obama’s average approval rating has remained low, despite an overall trend of economic growth since the end of the 2008 recession. (Note: "Presidential Approval Ratings – Barack Obama," http://www.gallup.com/poll/116479/barackobama-presidential-job-approval.aspx (March 16, 2016).) Typically, economic conditions are a significant driver of presidential approval, suggesting the negative effect of partisanship on presidential approval. The Causes of Polarization Scholars agree that some degree of polarization is occurring in the United States, even if some contend it is only at the elite level. But they are less certain about exactly why, or how, polarization has become such a mainstay of American politics. Several conflicting theories have been offered. The first and perhaps best argument is that polarization is a party-in-government phenomenon driven by a decades-long sorting of the voting public, or a change in party allegiance in response to shifts in party position. (Note: Morris Fiorina, "Americans Have Not Become More Politically Polarized," The Washington Post, 23 June 2014.) According to the sorting thesis, before the 1950s, voters were mostly concerned with state-level party positions rather than national party concerns. Since parties are bottom-up institutions, this meant local issues dominated elections; it also meant national-level politicians typically paid more attention to local problems than to national party politics. But over the past several decades, voters have started identifying more with national-level party politics, and they began to demand their elected representatives become more attentive to national party positions. As a result, they have become more likely to pick parties that consistently represent national ideals, are more consistent in their candidate selection, and are more willing to elect office-holders likely to follow their party’s national agenda. One example of the way social change led to party sorting revolves around race. The Democratic Party returned to national power in the 1930s largely as the result of a coalition among low socioeconomic status voters in northern and midwestern cities. These new Democratic voters were religiously and ethnically more diverse than the mostly white, mostly Protestant voters who supported Republicans. But the southern United States (often called the “Solid South”) had been largely dominated by Democratic politicians since the Civil War. These politicians agreed with other Democrats on most issues, but they were more evangelical in their religious beliefs and less tolerant on racial matters. The federal nature of the United States meant that Democrats in other parts of the country were free to seek alliances with minorities in their states. But in the South, African Americans were still largely disenfranchised well after Franklin Roosevelt had brought other groups into the Democratic tent. The Democratic alliance worked relatively well through the 1930s and 1940s when post-Depression politics revolved around supporting farmers and helping the unemployed. But in the late 1950s and early 1960s, social issues became increasingly prominent in national politics. Southern Democrats, who had supported giving the federal government authority for economic redistribution, began to resist calls for those powers to be used to restructure society. Many of these Democrats broke away from the party only to find a home among Republicans, who were willing to help promote smaller national government and greater states’ rights. (Note: Ian Haney-Lopez, "How the GOP Became the ‘White Man’s Party,’" 22 December 2013, https://www.salon.com/2013/12/22/ how_the_gop_became_the_white_mans_party/ (March 16, 2016).) This shift was largely completed with the rise of the evangelical movement in politics, when it shepherded its supporters away from Jimmy Carter, an evangelical Christian, to Ronald Reagan in the 1980 presidential election. At the same time social issues were turning the Solid South towards the Republican Party, they were having the opposite effect in the North and West. Moderate Republicans, who had been champions of racial equality since the time of Lincoln, worked with Democrats to achieve social reform. These Republicans found it increasing difficult to remain in their party as it began to adjust to the growing power of the small government–states’ rights movement. A good example was Senator Arlen Specter, a moderate Republican who represented Pennsylvania and ultimately switched to become a Democrat before the end of his political career. A second possible culprit in increased polarization is the impact of technology on the public square. Before the 1950s, most people got their news from regional newspapers and local radio stations. While some national programming did exist, most editorial control was in the hands of local publishers and editorial boards. These groups served as a filter of sorts as they tried to meet the demands of local markets. As described in detail in the media chapter, the advent of television changed that. Television was a powerful tool, with national news and editorial content that provided the same message across the country. All viewers saw the same images of the women’s rights movement and the war in Vietnam. The expansion of news coverage to cable, and the consolidation of local news providers into big corporate conglomerates, amplified this nationalization. Average citizens were just as likely to learn what it meant to be a Republican from a politician in another state as from one in their own, and national news coverage made it much more difficult for politicians to run away from their votes. The information explosion that followed the heyday of network TV by way of cable, the Internet, and blogs has furthered this nationalization trend. A final possible cause for polarization is the increasing sophistication of gerrymandering, or the manipulation of legislative districts in an attempt to favor a particular candidate. According to the gerrymandering thesis, the more moderate or heterogeneous a voting district, the more moderate the politician’s behavior once in office. Taking extreme or one-sided positions on a large number of issues would be hazardous for a member who needs to build a diverse electoral coalition. But if the district has been drawn to favor a particular group, it now is necessary for the elected official to serve only the portion of the constituency that dominates. This cartoon, which inspired the term gerrymander, was printed in the Boston Gazette on March 26, 1812, after the Massachusetts legislature redistricted the state to favor the party of the sitting governor, Elbridge Gerry. Gerrymandering is a centuries-old practice. There has always been an incentive for legislative bodies to draw districts in such a way that sitting legislators have the best chance of keeping their jobs. But changes in law and technology have transformed gerrymandering from a crude art into a science. The first advance came with the introduction of the “one-person-one-vote” principle by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1962. Before then, it was common for many states to practice redistricting, or redrawing of their electoral maps, only if they gained or lost seats in the U.S. House of Representatives. This can happen once every ten years as a result of a constitutionally mandated reapportionment process, in which the number of House seats given to each state is adjusted to account for population changes. But if there was no change in the number of seats, there was little incentive to shift district boundaries. After all, if a legislator had won election based on the current map, any change to the map could make losing seats more likely. Even when reapportionment led to new maps, most legislators were more concerned with protecting their own seats than with increasing the number of seats held by their party. As a result, some districts had gone decades without significant adjustment, even as the U.S. population changed from largely rural to largely urban. By the early 1960s, some electoral districts had populations several times greater than those of their more rural neighbors. However, in its one-person-one-vote decision in Reynolds v. Simms (1964), the Supreme Court argued that everyone’s vote should count roughly the same regardless of where they lived. (Note: Reynolds v. Simms, 379 U.S. 870 (1964).) Districts had to be adjusted so they would have roughly equal populations. Several states therefore had to make dramatic changes to their electoral maps during the next two redistricting cycles (1970–1972 and 1980–1982). Map designers, no longer certain how to protect individual party members, changed tactics to try and create safe seats so members of their party could be assured of winning by a comfortable margin. The basic rule of thumb was that designers sought to draw districts in which their preferred party had a 55 percent or better chance of winning a given district, regardless of which candidate the party nominated. Of course, many early efforts at post-Reynolds gerrymandering were crude since map designers had no good way of knowing exactly where partisans lived. At best, designers might have a rough idea of voting patterns between precincts, but they lacked the ability to know voting patterns in individual blocks or neighborhoods. They also had to contend with the inherent mobility of the U.S. population, which meant the most carefully drawn maps could be obsolete just a few years later. Designers were often forced to use crude proxies for party, such as race or the socio-economic status of a neighborhood. Some maps were so crude they were ruled unconstitutionally discriminatory by the courts. Examples of gerrymandering in Texas, where the Republican-controlled legislature redrew House districts to reduce the number of Democratic seats by combining voters in Austin with those near the border, several hundred miles away. Today, Austin is represented by six different congressional representatives. Proponents of the gerrymandering thesis point out that the decline in the number of moderate voters began during this period of increased redistricting. But it wasn’t until later, they argue, that the real effects could be seen. A second advance in redistricting, via computer-aided map making, truly transformed gerrymandering into a science. Refined computing technology, the ability to collect data about potential voters, and the use of advanced algorithms have given map makers a good deal of certainty about where to place district boundaries to best predetermine the outcomes. These factors also provided better predictions about future population shifts, making the effects of gerrymandering more stable over time. Proponents argue that this increased efficiency in map drawing has led to the disappearance of moderates in Congress. According to political scientist Nolan McCarty, there is little evidence to support the redistricting hypothesis alone. First, he argues, the Senate has become polarized just as the House of Representatives has, but people vote for Senators on a statewide basis. There are no gerrymandered voting districts in elections for senators. Research showing that more partisan candidates first win election to the House before then running successfully for the Senate, however, helps us understand how the Senate can also become partisan. (Note: Sean Theriault. 2013. The Gingrich Senators: The Roots of Partisan Warfare in Congress. New York: Oxford University Press.) Furthermore, states like Wyoming and Vermont, which have only one Representative and thus elect House members on a statewide basis as well, have consistently elected people at the far ends of the ideological spectrum. (Note: Nolan McCarty, "Hate Our Polarized Politics? Why You Can’t Blame Gerrymandering," The Washington Post, 26 October 2012.) Redistricting did contribute to polarization in the House of Representatives, but it took place largely in districts that had undergone significant change. (Note: Jamie L. Carson et al., "Redistricting and Party Polarization in the U.S. House of Representatives," American Politics Research 35, no. 6 (2007): 878–904.) Furthermore, polarization has been occurring throughout the country, but the use of increasingly polarized district design has not. While some states have seen an increase in these practices, many states were already largely dominated by a single party (such as in the Solid South) but still elected moderate representatives. Some parts of the country have remained closely divided between the two parties, making overt attempts at gerrymandering difficult. But when coupled with the sorting phenomenon discussed above, redistricting probably is contributing to polarization, if only at the margins. • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 6.5 Interest Groups INTEREST GROUPS Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| While the term interest group is not mentioned in the U.S. Constitution, the framers were aware that individuals would band together in an attempt to use government in their favor. In Federalist No. 10, James Madison warned of the dangers of “factions,” minorities who would organize around issues they felt strongly about, possibly to the detriment of the majority. But Madison believed limiting these factions was worse than facing the evils they might produce, because such limitations would violate individual freedoms. Instead, the natural way to control factions was to let them flourish and compete against each other. The sheer number of interests in the United States suggests that many have, indeed, flourished. They compete with similar groups for membership, and with opponents for access to decision-makers. Some people suggest there may be too many interests in the United States. Others argue that some have gained a disproportionate amount of influence over public policy, whereas many others are underrepresented. Madison’s definition of factions can apply to both interest groups and political parties. But unlike political parties, interest groups do not function primarily to elect candidates under a certain party label or to directly control the operation of the government. Political parties in the United States are generally much broader coalitions that represent a significant proportion of citizens. In the American two-party system, the Democratic and Republican Parties spread relatively wide nets to try to encompass large segments of the population. In contrast, while interest groups may support or oppose political candidates, their goals are usually more issue-specific and narrowly focused on areas like taxes, the environment, and gun rights or gun control, or their membership is limited to specific professions. They may represent interests ranging from well-known organizations, such as the Sierra Club, IBM, or the American Lung Association, to obscure ones, such as the North Carolina Gamefowl Breeders Association. Thus, with some notable exceptions, specific interest groups have much more limited membership than do political parties. Political parties and interest groups both work together and compete for influence, although in different ways. While interest group activity often transcends party lines, many interests are perceived as being more supportive of one party than the other. The American Conservative Union, Citizens United, the National Rifle Association, and National Right to Life are more likely to have relationships with Republican lawmakers than with Democratic ones. Americans for Democratic Action, Moveon.org, and the Democratic Governors Association all have stronger relationships with the Democratic Party. Parties and interest groups do compete with each other, however, often for influence. At the state level, we typically observe an inverse relationship between them in terms of power. Interest groups tend to have greater influence in states where political parties are comparatively weaker. What Are Interest Groups and What Do They Want? Definitions abound when it comes to interest groups, which are sometimes referred to as special interests, interest organizations, pressure groups, or just interests. Most definitions specify that interest group indicates any formal association of individuals or organizations that attempt to influence government decision-making and/ or the making of public policy. Often, this influence is exercised by a lobbyist or a lobbying firm. Formally, a lobbyist is someone who represents the interest organization before government, is usually compensated for doing so, and is required to register with the government in which he or she lobbies, whether state or federal. The lobbyist’s primary goal is usually to influence policy. Most interest organizations engage in lobbying activity to achieve their objectives. As you might expect, the interest hires a lobbyist, employs one internally, or has a member volunteer to lobby on its behalf. For present purposes, we might restrict our definition to the relatively broad one in the Lobbying Disclosure Act. (Note: Anthony J. Nownes. 2013. Interest Groups in American Politics. Routledge: New York.) This act requires the registration of lobbyists representing any interest group and devoting more than 20 percent of their time to it. (Note: Nownes, Interest Groups in American Politics.) Clients and lobbying firms must also register with the federal government based on similar requirements. Moreover, campaign finance laws require disclosure of campaign contributions given to political candidates by organizations. Lobbying is not limited to Washington, DC, however, and many interests lobby there as well as in one or more states. Each state has its own laws describing which individuals and entities must register, so the definitions of lobbyists and interests, and of what lobbying is and who must register to do it, also vary from state to state. Therefore, while a citizen contacting a lawmaker to discuss an issue is generally not viewed as lobbying, an organization that devotes a certain amount of time and resources to contacting lawmakers may be classified as lobbying, depending on local, state, or federal law. Largely for this reason, there is no comprehensive list of all interest groups to tell us how many there are in the United States. Estimates of the number vary widely, suggesting that if we use a broad definition and include all interests at all levels of government, there may be more than 200,000. (Note: Nownes, Interest Groups in American Politics.) Following the passage of the Lobbying Disclosure Act in 1995, we had a much better understanding of the number of interests registered in Washington, DC; however, it was not until several years later that we had a complete count and categorization of the interests registered in each of the fifty states. (Note: Jennifer Wolak, Adam J. Newmark, Todd McNoldy, David Lowery, and Virginia Gray, "Much of Politics is Still Local: Multistate Representation in State Interest Communities," Legislative Studies Quarterly 27 (2002): 527–555.) Political scientists have categorized interest groups in a number of ways. (Note: Anthony J. Nownes and Adam J. Newmark. 2013. "Interest Groups in the States." In Politics in the American States. Washington, DC: CQ Press, 105–131.) First, interest groups may take the form of membership organizations, which individuals join voluntarily and to which they usually pay dues. Membership groups often consist of people who have common issues or concerns, or who want to be with others who share their views. The National Rifle Association (NRA) is a membership group consisting of members who promote gun rights. For those who advocate greater regulation of access to firearms, such as background checks prior to gun purchases, the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence is a membership organization that weighs in on the other side of the issue. (Note: The Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence was founded by James and Sarah Brady, after James Brady was permanently disabled by a gunshot following an assassination attempt on then-president Ronald Reagan. At the time of the shooting, Brady was Reagan’s press secretary. http://www.bradycampaign.org/jim-and-sarah-brady (March 1, 2016).) A Florida member of the NRA proudly displays his support of gun rights (a). In December 2012, CREDO, a San Francisco telecommunications company that supports progressive causes, called on the NRA to stop blocking Congress from passing gun control legislation (b). (credit a: modification of work by Daniel Oines; credit b: modification of work by Josh Lopez) Interest groups may also form to represent companies, corporate organizations, and governments. These groups do not have individual members but rather are offshoots of corporate or governmental entities with a compelling interest to be represented in front of one or more branches of government. Verizon and Coca-Cola will register to lobby in order to influence policy in a way that benefits them. These corporations will either have one or more inhouse lobbyists, who work for one interest group or firm and represent their organization in a lobbying capacity, and/or will hire a contract lobbyist, individuals who work for firms that represent a multitude of clients and are often hired because of their resources and their ability to contact and lobby lawmakers, to represent them before the legislature. Governments such as municipalities and executive departments such as the Department of Education register to lobby in an effort to maximize their share of budgets or increase their level of autonomy. These government institutions are represented by a legislative liaison, whose job is to present issues to decision-makers. For example, a state university usually employs a lobbyist, legislative liaison, or government affairs person to represent its interests before the legislature. This includes lobbying for a given university’s share of the budget or for its continued autonomy from lawmakers and other state-level officials who may attempt to play a greater oversight role. In 2015, thirteen states had their higher education budgets cut from the previous year, and nearly all states have seen some cuts to higher education funding since the recession began in 2008. (Note: Michael Mitchell and Michael Leachman, "Years of Cuts Threaten to Put College Out of Reach for More Students," Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 13 May 2015, http://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/years-of-cuts-threaten-toput-college-out-of-reach-for-more-students.) In 2015, as in many states, universities and community colleges in Mississippi lobbied the legislature over pending budget cuts. (Note: Robert Davidson, "Higher Ed Lobbies for More Funds," http://www.wcbi.com/local-news/higher-ed-lobbies-for-more-funds/ (November 3, 2015).) These examples highlight the need for universities and state university systems to have representation before the legislature. On the federal level, universities may lobby for research funds from government departments. For example, the Departments of Defense and Homeland Security may be willing to fund scientific research that might better enable them to defend the nation. Interest groups also include associations, which are typically groups of institutions that join with others, often within the same trade or industry (trade associations), and have similar concerns. The American Beverage Association (Note: http://www.ameribev.org/ (March 1, 2016).) includes Coca-Cola, Red Bull North America, ROCKSTAR, and Kraft Foods. Despite the fact that these companies are competitors, they have common interests related to the manufacturing, bottling, and distribution of beverages, as well as the regulation of their business activities. The logic is that there is strength in numbers, and if members can lobby for tax breaks or eased regulations for an entire industry, they may all benefit. These common goals do not, however, prevent individual association members from employing in-house lobbyists or contract lobbying firms to represent their own business or organization as well. Indeed, many members of associations are competitors who also seek representation individually before the legislature. Finally, sometimes individuals volunteer to represent an organization. They are called amateur or volunteer lobbyists, and are typically not compensated for their lobbying efforts. In some cases, citizens may lobby for pet projects because they care about some issue or cause. They may or may not be members of an interest group, but if they register to lobby, they are sometimes nicknamed “hobbyists.” Lobbyists representing a variety of organizations employ different techniques to achieve their objectives. One method is inside lobbying or direct lobbying, which takes the interest group’s message directly to a government official such as a lawmaker. (Note: Nownes and Newmark, "Interest Groups in the States.") Inside lobbying tactics include testifying in legislative hearings and helping to draft legislation. Numerous surveys of lobbyists have confirmed that the vast majority rely on these inside strategies. For example, nearly all report that they contact lawmakers, testify before the legislature, help draft legislation, and contact executive agencies. Trying to influence government appointments or providing favors to members of government are somewhat less common insider tactics. Many lobbyists also use outside lobbying or indirect lobbying tactics, whereby the interest attempts to get its message out to the public. (Note: Ken Kollman. 1998. Outside Lobbying: Public Opinion and Interest Groups Strategies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.) These tactics include issuing press releases, placing stories and articles in the media, entering coalitions with other groups, and contacting interest group members, hoping that they will individually pressure lawmakers to support or oppose legislation. An environmental interest group like the Sierra Club, for example, might issue a press release or encourage its members to contact their representatives in Congress about legislation of concern to the group. It might also use outside tactics if there is a potential threat to the environment and the group wants to raise awareness among its members and the public. Members of Congress are likely to pay attention when many constituents contact them about an issue or proposed bill. Many interest groups, including the Sierra Club, will use a combination of inside and outside tactics in their lobbying efforts, choosing whatever strategy is most likely to help them achieve their goals. In February 2013, members of the Sierra Club joined a march on Los Angeles City Hall to demand action on climate change and protest the development of the Keystone pipeline. (credit: Charlie Kaijo) The primary goal of most interests, no matter their lobbying approach, is to influence decision-makers and public policies. For example, National Right to Life, an anti-abortion interest group, lobbies to encourage government to enact laws that restrict abortion access, while NARAL Pro-Choice America lobbies to promote the right of women to have safe choices about abortion. Environmental interests like the Sierra Club lobby for laws designed to protect natural resources and minimize the use of pollutants. On the other hand, some interests lobby to reduce regulations that an organization might view as burdensome. Air and water quality regulations designed to improve or protect the environment may be viewed as onerous by industries that pollute as a byproduct of their production or manufacturing process. Other interests lobby for budgetary allocations; the farm lobby, for example, pressures Congress to secure new farm subsidies or maintain existing ones. Farm subsidies are given to some farmers because they grow certain crops and to other farmers so they will not grow certain crops. (Note: "Milking Taxpayers," The Economist, 14 February 2015, http://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21643191-cropprices-fall-farmers-grow-subsidies-instead-milking-taxpayers.) As expected, any bill that might attempt to alter these subsidies raises the antennae of many agricultural interests. Interest Group Functions While influencing policy is the primary goal, interest groups also monitor government activity, serve as a means of political participation for members, and provide information to the public and to lawmakers. According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, by November 2015, thirty-six states had laws requiring that voters provide identification at the polls. (Note: http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/voter-id.aspx (November 78, 2015).) A civil rights group like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) will keep track of proposed voter-identification bills in state legislatures that might have an effect on voting rights. This organization will contact lawmakers to voice approval or disapproval of proposed legislation (inside lobbying) and encourage group members to take action by either donating money to it or contacting lawmakers about the proposed bill (outside lobbying). Thus, a member of the organization or a citizen concerned about voting rights need not be an expert on the legislative process or the technical or legal details of a proposed bill to be informed about potential threats to voting rights. Other interest groups function in similar ways. For example, the NRA monitors attempts by state legislatures to tighten gun control laws. Interest groups facilitate political participation in a number of ways. Some members become active within a group, working on behalf of the organization to promote its agenda. Some interests work to increase membership, inform the public about issues the group deems important, or organize rallies and promote get-out-the-vote efforts. Sometimes groups will utilize events to mobilize existing members or encourage new members to join. For example, following Barack Obama’s presidential victory in 2008, the NRA used the election as a rallying cry for its supporters, and it continues to attack the president on the issue of guns, despite the fact that gun rights have in some ways expanded over the course of the Obama presidency. Interest groups also organize letter-writing campaigns, stage protests, and sometimes hold fundraisers for their cause or even for political campaigns. Some interests are more broadly focused than others. AARP (formerly the American Association of Retired Persons) has approximately thirty-seven million members and advocates for individuals fifty and over on a variety of issues including health care, insurance, employment, financial security, and consumer protection. (Note: http://www.aarp.org/about-aarp/ (October 3, 2015).) This organization represents both liberals and conservatives, Democrats and Republicans, and many who do not identify with these categorizations. On the other hand, the Association of Black Cardiologists is a much smaller and far-narrower organization. Over the last several decades, some interest groups have sought greater specialization and have even fragmented. As you may imagine, the Association of Black Cardiologists is more specialized than the American Medical Association, which tries to represent all physicians regardless of race or specialty. Health care is an important concern for AARP and its members, so the organization makes sure to maintain connections with key policymakers in this area, such as Katherine Sebelius, secretary of Health and Human Services from 2009 to 2014, shown here with John Rother, director of legislation and public policy for AARP. (credit: modification of work by Chris Smith, HHS) Public vs. Private Interest Groups Interest groups and organizations represent both private and public interests in the United States. Private interests usually seek particularized benefits from government that favor either a single interest or a narrow set of interests. For example, corporations and political institutions may lobby government for tax exemptions, fewer regulations, or favorable laws that benefit individual companies or an industry more generally. Their goal is to promote private goods. Private goods are items individuals can own, including corporate profits. An automobile is a private good; when you purchase it, you receive ownership. Wealthy individuals are more likely to accumulate private goods, and they can sometimes obtain private goods from governments, such as tax benefits, government subsidies, or government contracts. On the other hand, public interest groups attempt to promote public, or collective, goods. Such collective goods are benefits—tangible or intangible—that help most or all citizens. These goods are often produced collectively, and because they may not be profitable and everyone may not agree on what public goods are best for society, they are often underfunded and thus will be underproduced unless there is government involvement. The Tennessee Valley Authority, a government corporation, provides electricity in some places where it is not profitable for private firms to do so. Other examples of collective goods are public safety, highway safety, public education, and environmental protection. With some exceptions, if an environmental interest promotes clean air or water, most or all citizens are able to enjoy the result. So if the Sierra Club encourages Congress to pass legislation that improves national air quality, citizens receive the benefit regardless of whether they are members of the organization or even support the legislation. Many environmental groups are public interest groups that lobby for and raise awareness of issues that affect large segments of the population. (Note: Jeffrey M. Berry and Clyde Wilcox. 2009. The Interest Group Society. New York: Pearson.) As the clean air example above suggests, collective goods are generally nonexcludable, meaning all or most people are entitled to the public good and cannot be prevented from enjoying it. Furthermore, collective goods are generally not subject to crowding, so that even as the population increases, people still have access to the entire public good. Thus, the military does not protect citizens only in Texas and Maryland while neglecting those in New York and Idaho, but instead it provides the collective good of national defense equally to citizens in all states. As another example, even as more cars use a public roadway, under most circumstances, additional drivers still have the option of using the same road. (High-occupancy vehicle lanes may restrict some lanes of a highway for drivers who do not car pool.) Influence in Elections Interest groups support candidates who are sympathetic to their views in hopes of gaining access to them once they are in office. (Note: John R. Wright. 1996. Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon; Mark J. Rozell, Clyde Wilcox, and Michael M. Franz. 2012. Interest Groups in American Campaigns: The New Face of Electioneering. New York: Oxford University Press.) For example, an organization like the NRA will back candidates who support Second Amendment rights. Both the NRA and the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence (an interest group that favors background checks for firearm purchases) have grading systems that evaluate candidates and states based on their records of supporting these organizations. (Note: https://www.nrapvf.org/grades/; http://www.bradycampaign.org/ 2013-state-scorecard (March 1, 2016).) To garner the support of the NRA, candidates must receive an A+ rating for the group. In much the same way, Americans for Democratic Action, a liberal interest group, and the American Conservative Union, a conservative interest group, both rate politicians based on their voting records on issues these organizations view as important. (Note: http://www.adaction.org/pages/publications/voting-records.php; http://acuratings.conservative.org/ (March 1, 2016).) These ratings, and those of many other groups, are useful for interests and the public in deciding which candidates to support and which to oppose. Incumbents have electoral advantages in terms of name recognition, experience, and fundraising abilities, and they often receive support because interest groups want access to the candidate who is likely to win. Some interest groups will offer support to the challenger, particularly if the challenger better aligns with the interest’s views or the incumbent is vulnerable. Sometimes, interest groups even hedge their bets and give to both major party candidates for a particular office in the hopes of having access regardless of who wins. Some interests groups form political action committees (PACs), groups that collect funds from donors and distribute them to candidates who support their issues. As the chart below makes apparent, many large corporations like Honeywell International, AT&T, and Lockheed Martin form PACs to distribute money to candidates. (Note: https://www.opensecrets.org/pacs/ (March 1, 2016).) Other PACs are either politically or ideologically oriented. For example, the MoveOn.org PAC is a progressive group that formed following the impeachment trial of President Bill Clinton, whereas GOPAC is a Republican PAC that promotes state and local candidates of that party. PACs are limited in the amount of money that they can contribute to individual candidates or to national party organizations; they can contribute no more than $5,000 per candidate per election and no more than $15,000 a year to a national political party. Individual contributions to PACs are also limited to $5,000 a year. Corporations and associations spend large amounts of money on elections via affiliated PACs. This chart reveals the amount donated to Democratic (blue) and Republican (red) candidates by the top ten PACs during the most recent election cycle. PACs through which corporations and unions can spend virtually unlimited amounts of money on behalf of political candidates are called super PACs. (Note: Conor M. Dowling and Michael G. Miller. 2014. Super PAC! Money, Elections, and Voters after Citizens United. New York: Routledge.) As a result of a 2010 Supreme Court decision, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, there is no limit to how much money unions or corporations can donate to super PACs. Unlike PACs, however, super PACs cannot contribute money directly to individual candidates. If the 2014 elections were any indication, super PACs will continue to spend large sums of money in an attempt to influence future election results. Influencing Governmental Policy Interest groups support candidates in order to have access to lawmakers once they are in office. Lawmakers, for their part, lack the time and resources to pursue every issue; they are policy generalists. Therefore, they (and their staff members) rely on interest groups and lobbyists to provide them with information about the technical details of policy proposals, as well as about fellow lawmakers’ stands and constituents’ perceptions. These voting cues give lawmakers an indication of how to vote on issues, particularly those with which they are unfamiliar. But lawmakers also rely on lobbyists for information about ideas they can champion and that will benefit them when they run for reelection. (Note: Wright, Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence.) Interest groups likely cannot target all 535 lawmakers in both the House and the Senate, nor would they wish to do so. There is little reason for the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence to lobby members of Congress who vehemently oppose any restrictions on gun access. Instead, the organization will often contact lawmakers who are amenable to some restrictions on access to firearms. Thus, interest groups first target lawmakers they think will consider introducing or sponsoring legislation. Second, they target members of relevant committees. (Note: Richard L. Hall and Frank W. Wayman, "Buying Time: Moneyed Interests and the Mobilization of Bias in Congressional Committees," American Political Science Review 84.3 (1990): 797-820.) If a company that makes weapons systems wants to influence a defense bill, it will lobby members of the Armed Services Committees in the House and the Senate or the House and Senate appropriations committees if the bill requires new funding. Many members of these committees represent congressional districts with military bases, so they often sponsor or champion bills that allow them to promote policies popular with their districts or state. Interest groups attempt to use this to their advantage. But they also conduct strategic targeting because legislatures function by respectfully considering fellow lawmakers’ positions. Since lawmakers cannot possess expertise on every issue, they defer to their trusted colleagues on issues with which they are unfamiliar. So targeting committee members also allows the lobbyist to inform other lawmakers indirectly. Third, interest groups target lawmakers when legislation is on the floor of the House and/or Senate, but again, they rely on the fact that many members will defer to their colleagues who are more familiar with a given issue. Finally, since legislation must past both chambers in identical form, interest groups may target members of the conference committees whose job it is to iron out differences across the chambers. At this negotiation stage, a 1 percent difference in, say, the corporate income tax rate could mean millions of dollars in increased or decreased revenue or taxation for various interests. Interest groups also target the budgetary process in order to maximize benefits to their group. In some cases, their aim is to influence the portion of the budget allocated to a given policy, program, or policy area. For example, interests for groups that represent the poor may lobby for additional appropriations for various welfare programs; those interests opposed to government assistance to the poor may lobby for reduced funding to certain programs. It is likely that the legislative liaison for your university or college spends time trying to advocate for budgetary allocations in your state. Interest groups also try to defeat legislation that may be detrimental to their views. For example, when Congress considers legislation to improve air quality, it is not unusual for some industries to oppose it if it requires additional regulations on factory emissions. In some cases, proposed legislation may serve as a disturbance, resulting in group formation or mobilization to help defeat the bill. For example, a proposed tax increase may result in the formation or mobilization of anti-tax groups that will lobby the legislature and try to encourage the public to oppose the proposed legislation. Prior to the election in 2012, political activist Grover Norquist, the founder of Americans for Tax Reform (ATR), asked all Republican members of Congress to sign a “Taxpayer Protection Pledge” that they would fight efforts to raise taxes or to eliminate any deductions that were not accompanied by tax cuts. Ninety-five percent of the Republicans in Congress signed the pledge. (Note: Sean Lengell, "Boehner: Grover Norquist Just a ‘Random’ Guy," Washington Times, 3 November 2011, http://www.washingtontimes.com/blog/ inside-politics/2011/nov/3/boehner-grover-norquist-just-random-guy/.) Some interests arise solely to defeat legislation and go dormant after they achieve their immediate objectives. Once legislation has been passed, interest groups may target the executive branch of government, whose job is to implement the law. The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs has some leeway in providing care for military veterans, and interests representing veterans’ needs may pressure this department to address their concerns or issues. Other entities within the executive branch, like the Securities and Exchange Commission, which maintains and regulates financial markets, are not designed to be responsive to the interests they regulate, because to make such a response would be a conflict of interest. Interest groups may lobby the executive branch on executive, judicial, and other appointments that require Senate confirmation. As a result, interest group members may be appointed to positions in which they can influence proposed regulation of the industry of which they are a part. In addition to lobbying the legislative and executive branches of government, many interest groups also lobby the judicial branch. Lobbying the judiciary takes two forms, the first of which was mentioned above. This is lobbying the executive branch about judicial appointments the president makes and lobbying the Senate to confirm these appointments. The second form of lobbying consists of filing amicus briefs, which are also known as “friend of the court” briefs. These documents present legal arguments stating why a given court should take a case and/or why a court should rule a certain way. In Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), the Supreme Court case that legalized samesex marriage nationwide, numerous interest groups filed amicus briefs. (Note: Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S. ___ (2015).) For example, the Human Rights Campaign filed a brief arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment’s due process and equal protection clauses required that same-sex couples be afforded the same rights to marry as oppositesex couples. In a 5–4 decision, the U.S. Supreme Court agreed. Members of the Human Rights Campaign, an interest that supports LGBT rights, march toward the Supreme Court on June 26, 2015, the day that the Obergefell v. Hodges decision is announced. (credit: modification of work by Matt Popovich) Measuring the effect of interest groups’ influence is somewhat difficult because lobbyists support lawmakers who would likely have supported them in the first place. Thus, National Right to Life, an anti-abortion interest group, does not generally lobby lawmakers who favor abortion rights; instead, it supports lawmakers and candidates who have professed “pro-life” positions. While some scholars note that lobbyists sometimes try to influence those on the fence or even their enemies, most of the time, they support like-minded individuals. Thus, contributions are unlikely to sway lawmakers to change their views; what they do buy is access, including time with lawmakers. The problem for those trying to assess whether interest groups influence lawmakers, then, is that we are uncertain what would happen in the absence of interest group contributions. For example, we can only speculate what the ACA might have looked like had lobbyists from a host of interests not lobbied on the issue. How are lobbying and interest group activity regulated? As we noted earlier in the chapter, James Madison viewed factions as a necessary evil and thought preventing people from joining together would be worse than any ills groups might cause. The First Amendment guarantees, among other things, freedom of speech, petition, and assembly. However, people have different views on how far this freedom extends. For example, should freedom of speech as afforded to individuals in the U.S. Constitution also apply to corporations and unions? To what extent can and should government restrict the activities of lobbyists and lawmakers, limiting who may lobby and how they may do it? Interest Groups and Free Speech Most people would agree that interest groups have a right under the Constitution to promote a particular point of view. What people do not necessarily agree upon, however, is the extent to which certain interest group and lobbying activities are protected under the First Amendment. In addition to free speech rights, the First Amendment grants people the right to assemble. We saw above that pluralists even argued that assembling in groups is natural and that people will gravitate toward others with similar views. Most people acknowledge the right of others to assemble to voice unpopular positions, but this was not always the case. At various times, groups representing racial and religious minorities, communists, and members of the LGBT community have had their First Amendment rights to speech and assembly curtailed. And as noted above, organizations like the ACLU support free speech rights regardless of whether the speech is popular. Today, the debate about interest groups often revolves around whether the First Amendment protects the rights of individuals and groups to give money, and whether government can regulate the use of this money. In 1971, the Federal Election Campaign Act was passed, setting limits on how much presidential and vice-presidential candidates and their families could donate to their own campaigns. (Note: Wright, Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence; Rozell, Wilcox, and Franz, Interest Groups in American Campaigns: The New Face of Electioneering.) The law also allowed corporations and unions to form PACs and required public disclosure of campaign contributions and their sources. In 1974, the act was amended in an attempt to limit the amount of money spent on congressional campaigns. The amended law banned the transfer of union, corporate, and trade association money to parties for distribution to campaigns. In Buckley v. Valeo (1976), the Supreme Court upheld Congress’s right to regulate elections by restricting contributions to campaigns and candidates. However, at the same time, it overturned restrictions on expenditures by candidates and their families, as well as total expenditures by campaigns. (Note: Buckley v. Valeo, 75-436, 424 U.S. 1 (1976).) In 1979, an exemption was granted to get-out-the vote and grassroots voter registration drives, creating what has become known as the soft-money loophole; soft money was a way in which interests could spend money on behalf of candidates without being restricted by federal law. To close this loophole, Senators John McCain and Russell Feingold sponsored the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act in 2002 to ban parties from collecting and distributing unregulated money. Some continued to argue that campaign expenditures are a form of speech, a position with which two recent Supreme Court decisions are consistent. The Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (Note: Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 08-205, 558 U.S. 310 (2010).) and the McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (Note: McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission, 12-536, 572 U.S. ___ (2014).) cases opened the door for a substantially greater flow of money into elections. Citizens United overturned the soft money ban of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act and allowed corporations and unions to spend unlimited amounts of money on elections. Essentially, the Supreme Court argued in a 5–4 decision that these entities had free speech rights, much like individuals, and that free speech included campaign spending. The McCutcheon decision further extended spending allowances based on the First Amendment by striking down aggregate contribution limits. These limits put caps on the total contributions allowed and some say have contributed to a subsequent increase in groups and lobbying activities. With his Harper’s Weekly cartoon of William “Boss” Tweed with a moneybag for a head, Thomas Nast provided an enduring image of the corrupting power of money on politics. Some denounce “fat cat” lobbyists and the effects of large sums of money in lobbying, while others suggest that interests have every right to spend money to achieve their objectives. Regulating Lobbying and Interest Group Activity While the Supreme Court has paved the way for increased spending in politics, lobbying is still regulated in many ways. (Note: Adam J. Newmark, "Measuring State Legislative Lobbying Regulation, 1990–2003." State Politics and Policy Quarterly 5 (2005): 182–191; Nownes and Newmark, "Interest Groups in the States.") The 1995 Lobbying Disclosure Act defined who can and cannot lobby, and requires lobbyists and interest groups to register with the federal government. (Note: Nownes, Interest Groups in American Politics.) The Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007 further increased restrictions on lobbying. For example, the act prohibited contact between members of Congress and lobbyists who were the spouses of other Congress members. The laws broadened the definition of lobbyist and require detailed disclosure of spending on lobbying activity, including who is lobbied and what bills are of interest. In addition, President Obama’s Executive Order 13490 prohibited appointees in the executive branch from accepting gifts from lobbyists and banned them from participating in matters, including the drafting of any contracts or regulations, involving the appointee’s former clients or employer for a period of two years. The states also have their own registration requirements, with some defining lobbying broadly and others more narrowly. Second, the federal and state governments prohibit certain activities like providing gifts to lawmakers and compensating lobbyists with commissions for successful lobbying. Many activities are prohibited to prevent accusations of vote buying or currying favor with lawmakers. Some states, for example, have strict limits on how much money lobbyists can spend on lobbying lawmakers, or on the value of gifts lawmakers can accept from lobbyists. According to the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act, lobbyists must certify that they have not violated the law regarding gift giving, and the penalty for knowingly violating the law increased from a fine of $50,000 to one of $200,000. Also, revolving door laws also prevent lawmakers from lobbying government immediately after leaving public office. Members of the House of Representatives cannot register to lobby for a year after they leave office, while senators have a two-year “cooling off” period before they can officially lobby. Former cabinet secretaries must wait the same period of time after leaving their positions before lobbying the department of which they had been the head. These laws are designed to restrict former lawmakers from using their connections in government to give them an advantage when lobbying. Still, many former lawmakers do become lobbyists, including former Senate majority leader Trent Lott and former House minority leader Richard Gephardt. Third, governments require varying levels of disclosure about the amount of money spent on lobbying efforts. The logic here is that lawmakers will think twice about accepting money from controversial donors. The other advantage to disclosure requirements is that they promote transparency. Many have argued that the public has a right to know where candidates get their money. Candidates may be reluctant to accept contributions from donors affiliated with unpopular interests such as hate groups. This was one of the key purposes of the Lobbying Disclosure Act and comparable laws at the state level. Finally, there are penalties for violating the law. Lobbyists and, in some cases, government officials can be fined, banned from lobbying, or even sentenced to prison. While state and federal laws spell out what activities are legal and illegal, the attorneys general and prosecutors responsible for enforcing lobbying regulations may be understaffed, have limited budgets, or face backlogs of work, making it difficult for them to investigate or prosecute alleged transgressions. While most lobbyists do comply with the law, exactly how the laws alter behavior is not completely understood. We know the laws prevent lobbyists from engaging in certain behaviors, such as by limiting campaign contributions or preventing the provision of certain gifts to lawmakers, but how they alter lobbyists’ strategies and tactics remains unclear. The need to strictly regulate the actions of lobbyists became especially relevant after the activities of lobbyist Jack Abramoff were brought to light. A prominent lobbyist with ties to many of the Republican members of Congress, Abramoff used funds provided by his clients to fund reelection campaigns, pay for trips, and hire the spouses of members of Congress. Between 1994 and 2001, Abramoff, who then worked as a lobbyist for a prominent law firm, paid for eighty-five members of Congress to travel to the Northern Mariana Islands, a U.S. territory in the Pacific. The territory’s government was a client of the firm for which he worked. At the time, Abramoff was lobbying Congress to exempt the Northern Mariana Islands from paying the federal minimum wage and to allow the territory to continue to operate sweatshops in which people worked in deplorable conditions. In 2000, while representing Native American casino interests who sought to defeat anti-gambling legislation, Abramoff paid for a trip to Scotland for Tom DeLay, the majority whip in the House of Representatives, and an aide. Shortly thereafter, DeLay helped to defeat anti-gambling legislation in the House. He also hired DeLay’s wife Christine to research the favorite charity of each member of Congress and paid her $115,000 for her efforts. (Note: Geov Parrish, "Making Sense of the Abramoff Scandal," 19 December 2005 http://www.alternet.org/story/29827/ making_sense_of_the_abramoff_scandal (March 1, 2016).) In 2008, Jack Abramoff was sentenced to four years in prison for tax evasion, fraud, and corruption of public officials. (Note: Neil A. Lewis, "Abramoff Gets 4 Years in Prison for Corruption," New York Times, 4 September 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/05/washington/ 05abramoff.html?_r=0.) He was released early, in December 2010. Jack Abramoff (center) began his lifetime engagement in politics with his involvement in the 1980 presidential campaign of Ronald Reagan (left) while an undergraduate at Brandeis University and continued it with his election to chair of the College Republican National Committee in a campaign managed by Grover Norquist (right). Abramoff thus gained unique access to influential politicians, upon which he capitalized in his later work as a DC lobbyist. Since his release from federal prison in 2010 after being convicted for illegal lobbying activity, Abramoff has become an outspoken critic of the lobbying industry.[footnote]http://gawker.com/5856082/corrupt-lobbyist-jack-abramoffs-plan-to-endcorrupt-lobbying (March 1, 2016).[/footnote] • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 7. Texas Policy, Texas Budget and Revenue 7. TEXAS POLICY TEXAS BUDGET AND REVENUE \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Taxation Any government relies on a variety of taxes in order to make revenue to spend on public services.There are different types of taxes: - Income tax– taxes collected from an individual’s income (There is no state income tax in Texas); - General sales tax – based on taxes collected from retail prices of items; - Excise taxes– taxes collected on specific products such as tobacco and gasoline; - Ad valorem tax– taxes based according to the value of the property. The federal government’s number one tax source for revenue is income tax- The 16th Amendment of the United States Constitution authorized an income tax. The state of Texas’ main revenue source are from sales tax. Article 8 of the Texas Constitution describes the “Taxation and Revenue” specifics. Local governments heavily rely on property taxes as their main source of tax revenue. (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/) Other Revenue Sources There are also no tax revenue sources that the state of Texas receives from various sources such as: - Federal grants in aid– these types of funds come from the federal government to aid state or local governments, and sometimes require matching monies from the receiving government and/or are to be used for a specific use. - Borrowing– The Texas Constitution does allow for the state or local governments to borrow funds through bonds. There are two types of bonds: ◦ General-obligation bonds: Bonds repaid from taxes, usually approved by taxpayers through vote; ◦ Revenue bonds: Typically paid through the revenue made from the projects created by the bond i.e. sports facilities, public college dorms. (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/) - Economic Stablization Fund– The “Rainy Day Fund” is a type of savings account for the state of Texas. Since 1990, any surplus from previous budget cycles, and collections from oil and gas production are deposited in to this account- the Texas Constitution limits the balance of the Rainy Day Fund to no more than 10% of the general revenue deposited during the preceding budget cycle. At the end of fiscal year 2016, Texas’ Rainy Day Fund was approximately $9.7 billion dollars. The Texas Constitution authorizes the Legislature to utilize monies from the Rainy Day Fund for a budget deficit, projected revenue shortfall, or any other purpose they choose. ◦ “Appropriations for the first two circumstances require approval by three-fifths of the Legislature, while a general-purpose appropriation needs a two-thirds majority for passage. The Legislature has made seven appropriations totaling $10.6 billion from the ESF since its inception, most recently in 2013. All were approved by two-thirds votes. The purposes for these appropriations have included water projects, disaster relief, public education, economic development and health and human services. Only one appropriation—$3.2 billion in 2011, representing 34 percent of the fund balance at that time—was made to cover a budget gap (for fiscal 2011).” (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/economy/fiscal-notes/2016/september/rainy-day.php) Texas Budgetary Process The budget process for Texas is outlined below (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/transparency/revenue/): - Request for Funds. On even numbered years all government agencies submit a strategic planrequesting funds to the Legislative Budget Board (LBB) and the Governor’s Office of Budget, Planning and Policy (GOBPP). The strategic plans’ request for funds must adhere to Texas’s mission statement provided by the Governor and the LBB. The instructions and forms to submit the request for funds are prepared by the LBB. - Analysis of Requests. The requests for funds and strategic plans are then reviewed by the LBB and the GOBPP. The LBB is made up of ten members from the Texas Senate and Texas House and Co-Chaired by the Lieutenant Governor and the Speaker of the House. The GOBPP is an agency in the Executive Branch that answers to the Governor. - Budget proposal sent to Legislature. The LBB and Governor then submit their budget proposals tothe Texas Legislature. The Texas Legislature then reviews the proposals through the Senate and House Finance Committees. After both chambers approve an appropriations bill, then the bill is sent to each respective chamber for a vote . - Comptroller Verfiesi. Once the Texas Legislature has approved the appropriations bill, then the Texas State Comptroller must certify that enough tax revenue will be generated to fund the budget. The Texas Constitution mandates a balance budget (Article 3, Section 49). If the Comptroller cannot certify the appropriations bill, then the Texas Legislature has the option to vote on allowing the state to go in to debt by a 4/5ths vote from each chamber. - Governor. Once the Comptroller certifies the appropriations bill, then the Governor is allowed to sign the bill in to law. The Governor of Texas also has the power of line item veto, where only parts of the budget are rejected. Texas Revenue The tax revenue of Texas for 2016-2017 biennium (Note: http://www.lbb.state.tx.us/Documents/Publications/ Fiscal_SizeUp/Fiscal_SizeUp.pdf) The estimated total state revenue for the 2016-2017 biennium is $214 billion dollars. The percentage breakdown for certain line items is: 34% will come from federal funds; 28% will be derived from sales taxes; 8% from licenses, fees, fines and penalties; 2.4% from cigarette, tobacco, and alcohol taxes; and 1.8% from the lottery. Texas Budget Expenditures The state of Texas spends over half of their budget on Health and Human Services & Education. 36.8% of the state’s budget is spent on Health and Human Services, and 36.7 was spent on Education. Health and Human Services includes Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), Medicaid, Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP), and the Department of Aging and Disability Services. Education is split in to two categories: Public education, and Higher education. (Note: [footnote]http://www.lbb.state.tx.us/Documents/Publications/ Fiscal_SizeUp/Fiscal_SizeUp.pdf)[/footnote] • \| Texas Budget and Revenue. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 7.1 Local Governments LOCAL GOVERNMENTS Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: • \| Identify the differences between county and municipal governments in terms of their responsibilities and funding sources \| • \| Describe the two primary types of municipal government and the three basic types of county government \| Local governments generally include two tiers: counties, also known as boroughs in Alaska and parishes in Louisiana, and municipalities, or cities/towns. In some States, counties are divided into townships. Municipalities can be structured in many ways, as defined by State constitutions, and are called, variously, townships, villages, boroughs, cities, or towns. Various kinds of districts also provide functions in local government outside county or municipal boundaries, such as school districts or fire protection districts. (https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-whitehouse/our-government/state-local-government/) Municipal governments—those defined as cities, towns, boroughs (except in Alaska), villages, and townships—are generally organized around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota. (https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/) Municipalities generally take responsibility for parks and recreation services, police and fire departments, housing services, emergency medical services, municipal courts, transportation services (including public transportation), and public works (streets, sewers, snow removal, signage, and so forth). Whereas the Federal Government and State governments share power in countless ways, a local government must be granted power by the State. In general, mayors, city councils, and other governing bodies are directly elected by the people. (https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/) County and city governments make up an important component of the overall structure of the government. Not only do they affect citizens directly; it is also easier for citizens to interact with local government officials because their offices and the community’s school board or city council meetings are often close by. Despite this fact, voter turnout in local elections tends to be lower than in state and national elections. Municipal and county governments differ in structure and purpose in several ways. County Government County governments serve a larger geographical area than cities and towns, but a smaller area than states. They are created by the state government and typically operate under provisions set out in the state constitution. As such, they are essentially administrative units of the state. Census estimates from 2017 indicate that there are approximately 90,000 state and local governments that includes approximately 3,000 counties and 35,000 cities and towns, 13,000 independent school districts, and 39,000 special districts. County systems usually take one of three basic forms: the commission system, the council-administrator system, and the council-elected executive system. The most common form of county government is the commission system. Under this structure, an elected commission, which generally consists of a small number of commissioners, serves as the governing body within the county, performing all legislative and executive functions. These include adopting a budget, passing county resolutions, and hiring and firing county officials. (Note: Frank Coppa. 2000. County Government: A Guide to Efficient and Accountable Government. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing.) Under the council-adminstrator system, the voters elect council members to serve for a specified period of time, and the council in turn appoints an administrator to oversee the operation of the government. The administrator serves at the directive of the council and can be terminated by the council. The goal of this arrangement is to divide administrative and policymaking responsibilities between the elected council and the appointed administrator. (Note: Coppa, County Government: A Guide to Efficient and Accountable Government .) Under a council-elected executive system, the voters elect both the members of the council and the executive. The executive performs functions similar to those of the state governor. For instance, he or she can veto the actions of the council, draft a budget, and provide suggestions regarding public policy.(Note: Coppa, County Government: A Guide to Efficient and Accountable Government.) Although the tasks they perform can vary from state to state, most counties have a courthouse that houses county officials, such as the sheriff, the county clerk, the assessor, the treasurer, the coroner, and the engineer. These officials carry out a variety of important functions and oversee the responsibilities of running a county government. For instance, the county coroner investigates the cause of death when suspicious circumstances are present. The county clerk oversees the registration of voters and also certifies election results for the county. In addition, this officeholder typically keeps the official birth, death, and marriage records. The county treasurer oversees the collection and distribution of funds within the county, while the county assessor conducts property tax evaluations and informs individual citizens or business owners of their right to contest the appraised value of their property. Finally, a county engineer will oversee the maintenance and construction of county infrastructure. (Note: Coppa, County Government: A Guide to Efficient and Accountable Government .) In short, counties help to maintain roads and bridges, courthouses and jails, parks and pools, and public libraries, hospitals, and clinics. (Note: http:// www.naco.org/counties (March 14, 2016).) To provide these services, county governments typically rely on property tax revenue, a portion of sales tax receipts, and funds from intergovernmental transfers by way of federal or state grants. City Government The authority of a Texas city to enact and enforce ordinances is conditioned on the type of city. An ordinance is defined as “a local law of a municipal corporation, duly enacted by the proper authorities, prescribing general, uniform, and permanent rules of conduct relating the corporate affairs of the municipality.” In other words, an ordinance is the equivalent of a municipal statute, passed by the city council, governing matters not already covered by federal or state law. Municipal governments oversee the operation and functions of cities and towns. The vast majority of municipal governments operate on one of two governing models: a mayor-council system or a council-manager system. (Texas Municipal League. www.tml.org) The Different Forms of Government in Texas Cities are the General Law Cities and Home Rule Cities. Every city starts out as a General Law City and there are three types of General Law Cities, Type A, B, and C. A home rule city may do anything authorized by its charter that is not specifically prohibited or preempted by the Texas Constitution or state or federal law. A general law city has no charter and may only exercise those powers that are specifically granted or implied by statute. (Texas Municipal League. www.tml.org) Type A general law cities operate under the aldermanic form of government. The term “alderman” is often used interchangeably with the term city council, and the modern name of the board of aldermen is the city council. The size of the council is determined by whether the city is divided into wards (e.g., special districts). In cities where there are no wards (which includes most Type A cities), the council is made up of the mayor and five council members. If the city has been divided into wards, the council is made up of a mayor and two council members from each ward. Type B general law cities operate under the aldermanic form of government in which the “board of aldermen” is the governing body of the city. The board contains a mayor and five aldermen, all of whom are elected at-large. The governing body must elect one alderman to serve as mayor pro tem for a term of one year at the first meeting of each new governing body. The mayor is the president of the governing body. The aldermen, mayor, and marshal serve one year terms unless the governing body passes an ordinance allowing for staggered two year terms. Type C general law cities operate under the commission form of government and the governing body is known as the “commission.” The commission always consists of a mayor and two commissioners. The commissioners and the mayor have a two-year term of office unless a longer term of office of up to four years is adopted by election under the Texas Constitution. Any general law city that is not divided into wards and elects its aldermen at large may provide by ordinance for the election of aldermen under a place system, if the ordinance is adopted at least 60 days before the regular election. A home rule city may adopt and operate under any form of government, including aldermanic or commission form. Id. § 26.021. The city may create officers, determine the method of selecting officers, and prescribe qualifications, duties, and tenure of office for officers. Id. § 26.041. Home rule cities can extend an officer’s term from two to four years with a charter amendment. (Texas Municipal League. www.tml.org) A Type B or C city may change to a Type A city once it has reached 600 inhabitants or gains a manufacturing facility. To change to a Type A city, a city must follow Section 6.012 of the Local Government Code, which provides that: (1) there must be an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the city council; (2) a record taken and signed by the mayor; and (3) the record must be filed and recorded in the county clerk’s office. A city can change its designation from “town” to “city” by ordinance once it becomes Type A. Once a city changes to Type A, it continues to retain its powers, rights, immunities, privileges and franchises, as well as any rights it had to impose fines, penalties or be involved in causes of action, it had before the change. The boundaries of the city also remain the same after changing to Type A. Once a general law city gains inhabitants over 5,000, it may change to the home rule form of government by adopting a charter through an election. The city’s governing body, through a two-thirds vote, may order an election to create a charter commission to write a charter, or the governing body must create a charter commission if asked to do so by at least ten percent of the city’s qualified voters. (Texas Municipal League. www.tml.org) Under the mayor-council system voters elect both a mayor and members of the city council. The city council performs legislative functions and the mayor the executive functions. Under this system, the mayor may be given a great deal of authority or only limited powers. (Note: "Forms of Municipal Government," http:// www.nlc.org/buildskills-and-networks/resources/cities-101/city-structures/forms-of-municipal-government (March 14, 2016).) Under a strong mayor system, the mayor will be able to veto the actions of the council, appoint and fire the heads of city departments, and produce a budget. Under a weak mayor system, the mayor has little authority compared to the council and acts in a ceremonial capacity as a spokesperson for the city. (Note: "Mayoral Powers," http://www.nlc.org/build-skills-and-networks/resources/cities-101/city-officials/mayoral-powers (March 14, 2016).) In a council-manager system of government, either the members of the city council are elected by voters along with a mayor who presides over the council, or the voters elect members of the city council and the mayor is chosen from among them. In either case, the city council will then appoint a city manager to carry out the administrative functions of the municipal government. This frees the city council to address political functions such as setting policy and formulating the budget. (Note: "Forms of Municipal Government.") Any general law city with less than 5,000 population may adopt the city manager form of government under Chapter 25 of the Local Government Code. The city manager is the budget officer for the city. The governing body by ordinance may delegate to the city manager any additional powers or duties the governing body considers proper for the efficient administration of city affairs. (Texas Municipal League. www.tml.org) Municipal governments are responsible for providing clean water as well as sewage and garbage disposal. They must maintain city facilities, such as parks, streetlights, and stadiums. In addition, they address zoning and building regulations, promote the city’s economic development, and provide law enforcement, public transportation, and fire protection. Municipal governments typically rely on property tax revenue, user fees from trash collection and the provision of water and sewer services, a portion of sales tax receipts, and taxes on business. (Texas Municipal League. www.tml.org) • \| Revision and Adaptation. Local Government Revision \| : Daniel M. Regalado. : Daniel Brown \| Glossary Glossary: alcalde: an administrator who often combined the duties of mayor, judge, and law enforcement officer. Agriculture Commissioner: a member of the Plural Executive, is elected to both promote and regulate Texas agriculture, administers the Texas Agriculture Department, whose duties include weights and measures - including gasoline. appellate jurisdiction: The authority to hear an appeal from a lower court that has already rendered a decision; reviews the court record from the original trial and does not hear new evidence. appointment: the power of the chief executive, whether the president of the United States or the governor of the state, to appoint persons to office. arraignment: when a defendant is formally charged and made aware of their rights. Attorney General: Serves as the lawyer for the state of Texas, including representing the state on civil matters, and responsible for the interpretation of the constitutionality of laws. The Attorney General is elected by the people to 4 year terms with no term limits. biennial sessions: In Texas, legislative sessions meet once every odd-numbered year, for 140 days. bill: a proposed law that has been sponsored by a member of the legislature and submitted to the clerk of the House or Senate. bill of attainder: a legislative action declaring someone guilty without a trial; prohibited under the Constitution. bill of rights: a list of the most important rights to the citizens found in Artcle I of the Texas Constitution. bureaucracy: the complex structure of offices, tasks, rules, and principles of organization that is employed by all large-scale institutions to coordinate the work of their personnel. capital case: a criminal case in which the death penalty is a possible punishment. civil case: A case in which an aggrieved party sues for damages claiming that he or she has been wronged by another individual. civil law: a branch of law that deals with disputes, usually between private individual over relationships, obligations, and responsibility. civil liberties: limitations on the power of government, designed to ensure personal freedoms. civil rights: guarantees of equal treatment by government authorities. coercive federalism: federal policies that force states to change their policies to achieve national goals. Commissioner of the General Land Office: runs the Texas General Land Office, which manages and administers mineral leases and state lands. Even though this office is part of the Executive Branch, the Office of the Commissioner of the General Land Office is authorized by Article 14, Section 1 of the Texas Constitution. Texas Court of Criminal Appeals: the highest appeals court in the state for criminal cases. Exclusive jurisdiction over automatic appeals of the death penalty. courts of appeal: the 14 intermediate-level appellate courts that hear appeals from district and county courts to determine whether the decisions of these lower courts followed legal principles and court procedures. complaint: the presentation of a grievance by the plaintiff in a civil case. Comptroller of Public Accounts: a member of the Plural Executive, serves as the chief tax collector and accounting officer. This office is also responsible for certifying the biennial budget of the state. concurrent jurisdiction: A system in which different levels of courts have overlapping jurisdiction or authority to try the same type of case. concurrent powers: shared state and federal powers that range from taxing, borrowing, and making and enforcing laws to establishing court systems. constituent: a person living in the district from which an official is elected. constitution: the legal structure of a government which establishes its power and authority, as well as the limits on that power. cooperative federalism: a type of federalism existing since the New Deal era in which grants-in-aid have been used to encourage states and localities (without commanding them) to pursue nationally defined goals; also known as "intergovernmental cooperation". criminal case: A case in which an individual is charged by the state with violating the law, and the state brings the suit. criminal law: the branch of law that regulates the conduct of individuals, defines crimes, and specifies punishments for criminal acts. de novo: When a court hears a case “de novo,” or sometimes called "Trial de novo" it is deciding the issues without reference to any legal conclusion or assumption made by the previous court to hear the case. defendant: an individual, company, or institution sued or accused in a court of law. devolution: a process in which powers from the central government in a unitary system are delegated to subnational units. distributive policy: a policy that collects payments or resources broadly but concentrates direct benefits on relatively few. district courts: the major trial courts in Texas, which usually have general jurisdiction over a broad range of civil and criminal cases. dual federalism: the system of government that prevailed in the U.S. from 1789 to 1937, during which most fundamental governmental powers were strictly separated between the federal and state governments. exclusive jurisdiction: A particular court given the sole right to hear a specific type of case. ex post facto law: a law that criminalizes an act retroactively; prohibited under the Constitution. due process: in the Texas criminal justice system, the state must ensure that every person is treated equally in legal matters. elastic clause: the last clause of Article I, Section 8, which enables the national government “to make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying” out all its constitutional responsibilities. empresario: a person who brought new settlers to Texas in exchange for a grant of land. federalism: an institutional arrangement that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government, each possessing the capacity to act directly on the people with authority granted by the national constitution. felony: a serious criminal offense, punishable by a prison sentence or a fine; a capital felony is punishable by death or a life sentence. full faith and credit: clause found in Article IV, Section 1, of the Constitution, this clause requires states to accept court decisions, public acts, and contracts of other states; also referred to as the comity provision. gerrymandering: the process in which voting districts are redrawn in a way to favor one party during elections. grandfather clause: Part of the system of Jim Crow in southern states used to enforce segregation in primary elections. In its typical usage, a voter could vote in Democratic primary elections if his grandfather had been able to vote in Democratic primaries. Blacks whose ancestors had been slaves were thereby excluded but whites were made eligible, even poor whites who might otherwise be disenfranchised by the burden of a poll tax or by literacy requirements. hierarchical: In the Texas court system, cases start in local trial courts, then work their way up to appeals courts. individualistic political culture: the belief that government should limit its role to providing order in society so that citizens can pursue their economic self-interests. Jim Crow Laws: This term, which came to be used to designate any law requiring racial segregation, was borrowed from a racially stereotyped black character in a common nineteenth-century song-and-dance act. justice of the peace courts: local trial courts with limited jurisdiction over small claims and very minor criminal misdemeanors. juvenile courts: in Texas, a juvenile is defined as young as 10 years old, and a juvenile can be convicted as an adult as young as 14 years old. Juvenile courts preside in the District Courts. land commissioner: an elected state official that acts as the manager of the most publicly-owned lands. legislative budget: the state budget that is prepared and submitted by the Legislative Budget Board (LBB) and that is fully considered by the House and Senate. lieutenant governor: a member of the Plural Executive and the second-highest elected official in the state and president of the state senate. line-item veto: the power of executive authority to nullify or cancel specific provisions of a bill, usually a budget appropriations bill, without vetoing the entire legislative package. Not available at the Federal Level. literacy test: A test of a voter's ability to read and understand and hence vote intelligently, typically used in a discriminatory manner in some states until Congress suspended the use of such tests in the Voting Rights Acts of 1970 and 1975. mestizo: people of mixed Indian and European ancestry. misdemeanor: a minor criminal offense usually punishable by a small fine or short jail sentence. moralistic political culture: the belief that government should be active in promoting the public good and that citizens should participate in politics and civic activities to ensure that good. municipal courts: local trial courts with limited jurisdiction over violations of city ordinances and very minor criminal misdemeanors new federalism: is premised on the idea that the decentralization of policies enhances administrative efficiency, reduces overall public spending, and improves policy outcomes. Origin: Specified in the constitution: JP courts, county courts, district courts, appellate courts, and two high courts. Created by state legislature: municipal courts, statutory county courts, probate courts, and specialized courts. Original jurisdiction: The authority to hear the initial case; evidence is submitted to establish the facts of the case. plaintiff: the party who initiates a lawsuit (also known as an action) before a court in order to seek a legal remedy. plea bargaining: occurs when the defendant and the prosecutor negotiate a deal to avoid having to go to trial. plural executive: a group of officers or major officials that functions in making current decisions or in giving routine orders typically the responsibility of an individual executive officer or official. In Texas, the power of the Governor is limited and distributed amongst other government officials. poll tax: a state tax imposed on voters as a prerequisite for voting; poll taxes were determined unconstitutional in national elections by the Twenty-Fourth Amendment, and in state elections by the Supreme Court in 1966. precedent: in common law legal systems, a principle or rule established in a previous legal case that is either binding on or persuasive for a court or other tribunal when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues or facts. privileges and immunities clause: found in Article IV, Section 2, of the Constitution, this clause prohibits states from discriminating against out-of-state residents by denying such guarantees as access to courts, legal protection, and property and travel rights. probate courts: handle wills and estates for deceased persons in Texas’ largest counties. re-distributive policy: a policy in which costs are born by a relatively small number of groups or individuals, but benefits are expected to be enjoyed by a diﬀerent group in society. redistricting: the process of redrawing election districts and redistributing legislative representatives in the Texas House, Texas Senate, and U.S. House. Redistricting typically occurs every 10 years to reflect shifts in population or in response to legal challenges in existing districts. Secretary of State: appointed by the governor and a member of the Plural Executive, serves as the chief election officer, officially attests the signature of the Texas Governor on official documents, and advises the Governor on Texas border and Mexican affairs. separation of powers: the division of governmental power among several institutions that must cooperate in decision making. single-member district: a district in which one official is elected rather than multiple officials. special session: a legislative session called by the governor that addresses an agenda set by him or her; lasts no longer than 30 days. states: governments at the subnational level. suffrage: term referring to the right to vote. Tejanos: Mexican residents of Texas. Texas Supreme Court: the highest civil court in Texas; consists of nine justices and has final state appellate authority over civil cases. traditionalistic political culture: the belief that government should be dominated by political elites and guided by tradition. unitary system: a centralized system of government in which the subnational government is dependent on the central government, where substantial authority is concentrated. veto: the governor's power to turn down legislation; can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both the House and Senate. voting Rights Act of 1965: mandates that electoral district lines cannot be drawn in such a manner as to “improperly dilute minorities’ voting power”. white primary: primary election in which only white voters are eligible to participate. writ of habeas corpus: a petition that enables someone in custody to petition a judge to determine whether that person’s detention is legal. Texas Constitution Attached is the Texas Constitution, it can also be found at: https://www.tlc.texas.gov/docs/legref/TxConst.pdf	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.464021	Daniel Brown	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108182/overview", "title": "Texas Government", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15303/overview	Introduction Have you ever taken a device apart to find out how it works? Many of us have done so, whether to attempt a repair or simply to satisfy our curiosity. A device’s internal workings are often distinct from its user interface on the outside. For example, we don’t think about microchips and circuits when we turn up the volume on a mobile phone; instead, we think about getting the volume just right. Similarly, the inner workings of the human body are often distinct from the external expression of those workings. It is the job of psychologists to find the connection between these—for example, to figure out how the firings of millions of neurons become a thought. This chapter strives to explain the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior. These physiological and anatomical foundations are the basis for many areas of psychology. In this chapter, you will learn how genetics influence both physiological and psychological traits. You will become familiar with the structure and function of the nervous system. And, finally, you will learn how the nervous system interacts with the endocrine system. References Arnst, C. (2003, November). Commentary: Getting rational about health-care rationing. Bloomberg Businessweek Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2003-11-16/commentary-getting-rational-about-health-care-rationing Berridge, K. C., & Robinson, T. E. (1998). What is the role of dopamine in reward: Hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? Brain Research Reviews, 28, 309–369. Chandola, T., Brunner, E., & Marmot, M. (2006). Chronic stress at work and the metabolic syndrome: A prospective study. BMJ, 332, 521–524. Comings, D. E., Gonzales, N., Saucier, G., Johnson, J. P., & MacMurray, J. P. (2000). The DRD4 gene and the spiritual transcendence scale of the character temperament index. Psychiatric Genetics, 10, 185–189. Confer, J. C., Easton, J. A., Fleischman, D. S., Goetz, C. D., Lewis, D. M. G, Perilloux, C., & Buss, D. M. (2010). Evolutionary psychology: Controversies, questions, prospects, and limitations. American Psychologist, 65, 110–126. Gaines, C. (2013, August). An A-Rod suspension would save the Yankees as much as $37.5 million in 2014 alone. Business Insider. Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/an-a-rod-suspension-would-save-the-yankees-as-much-as-375-million-in-2014-2013-8 Gardner, E. L. (2011). Addiction and brain reward and antireward pathways. Advances in Psychosomatic Medicine, 30, 22–60. George, O., Le Moal, M., & Koob, G. F. (2012). Allostasis and addiction: Role of the dopamine and corticotropin-releasing factor systems. Physiology & Behavior, 106, 58–64. Glaser, R., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (2005). Stress-induced immune dysfunction: Implications for health. Nature Reviews Immunology, 5, 243–251. Gong, L., Parikh, S., Rosenthal, P. J., & Greenhouse, B. (2013). Biochemical and immunological mechanisms by which sickle cell trait protects against malaria. Malaria Journal. Advance online publication. doi:10.1186/1475-2875-12-317 Hardt, O., Einarsson, E. Ö., & Nader, K. (2010). A bridge over troubled water: Reconsolidation as a link between cognitive and neuroscientific memory research traditions. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 141–167. Macmillan, M. (1999). The Phineas Gage Information Page. Retrieved from http://www.uakron.edu/gage March, J. S., Silva, S., Petrycki, S., Curry, J., Wells, K., Fairbank, J., … Severe, J. (2007). The treatment for adolescents with depression study (TADS): Long-term effectiveness and safety outcomes. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 64, 1132–1143. Mustanski, B. S., DuPree, M. G., Nievergelt, C. M., Bocklandt, S., Schork, N. J., & Hamer, D. H. (2005). A genome wide scan of male sexual orientation. Human Genetics, 116, 272–278. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2001, July). Anabolic steroid abuse: What are the health consequences of steroid abuse? National Institutes of Health. Retrieved from http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/anabolic-steroid-abuse/what-are-health-consequences-steroid-abuse Squire, L. R. (2009). The legacy of patient H. M. for neuroscience. Neuron, 61, 6–9. Tienari, P., Wynne, L. C., Sorri, A., et al. (2004). Genotype–environment interaction in schizophrenia spectrum disorder: long-term follow-up study of Finnish adoptees. British Journal of Psychiatry, 184, 216–222. University of Utah Genetic Science Learning Center. (n.d.). What are genetic disorders? Retrieved from http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/disorders/whataregd/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.525384	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15303/overview", "title": "Psychology, Biopsychology", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15304/overview	Human Genetics Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the basic principles of the theory of evolution by natural selection - Describe the differences between genotype and phenotype - Discuss how gene-environment interactions are critical for expression of physical and psychological characteristics Psychological researchers study genetics in order to better understand the biological basis that contributes to certain behaviors. While all humans share certain biological mechanisms, we are each unique. And while our bodies have many of the same parts—brains and hormones and cells with genetic codes—these are expressed in a wide variety of behaviors, thoughts, and reactions. Why do two people infected by the same disease have different outcomes: one surviving and one succumbing to the ailment? How are genetic diseases passed through family lines? Are there genetic components to psychological disorders, such as depression or schizophrenia? To what extent might there be a psychological basis to health conditions such as childhood obesity? To explore these questions, let’s start by focusing on a specific disease, sickle-cell anemia, and how it might affect two infected sisters. Sickle-cell anemia is a genetic condition in which red blood cells, which are normally round, take on a crescent-like shape (Figure). The changed shape of these cells affects how they function: sickle-shaped cells can clog blood vessels and block blood flow, leading to high fever, severe pain, swelling, and tissue damage. Many people with sickle-cell anemia—and the particular genetic mutation that causes it—die at an early age. While the notion of “survival of the fittest” may suggest that people suffering from this disease have a low survival rate and therefore the disease will become less common, this is not the case. Despite the negative evolutionary effects associated with this genetic mutation, the sickle-cell gene remains relatively common among people of African descent. Why is this? The explanation is illustrated with the following scenario. Imagine two young women—Luwi and Sena—sisters in rural Zambia, Africa. Luwi carries the gene for sickle-cell anemia; Sena does not carry the gene. Sickle-cell carriers have one copy of the sickle-cell gene but do not have full-blown sickle-cell anemia. They experience symptoms only if they are severely dehydrated or are deprived of oxygen (as in mountain climbing). Carriers are thought to be immune from malaria (an often deadly disease that is widespread in tropical climates) because changes in their blood chemistry and immune functioning prevent the malaria parasite from having its effects (Gong, Parikh, Rosenthal, & Greenhouse, 2013). However, full-blown sickle-cell anemia, with two copies of the sickle-cell gene, does not provide immunity to malaria. While walking home from school, both sisters are bitten by mosquitos carrying the malaria parasite. Luwi does not get malaria because she carries the sickle-cell mutation. Sena, on the other hand, develops malaria and dies just two weeks later. Luwi survives and eventually has children, to whom she may pass on the sickle-cell mutation. Visit this website to learn more about how a mutation in DNA leads to sickle-cell anemia. Malaria is rare in the United States, so the sickle-cell gene benefits nobody: the gene manifests primarily in health problems—minor in carriers, severe in the full-blown disease—with no health benefits for carriers. However, the situation is quite different in other parts of the world. In parts of Africa where malaria is prevalent, having the sickle-cell mutation does provide health benefits for carriers (protection from malaria). This is precisely the situation that Charles Darwin describes in the theory of evolution by natural selection (Figure). In simple terms, the theory states that organisms that are better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their environment will die off. In our example, we can see that as a carrier, Luwi’s mutation is highly adaptive in her African homeland; however, if she resided in the United States (where malaria is much less common), her mutation could prove costly—with a high probability of the disease in her descendants and minor health problems of her own. Two Perspectives on Genetics and Behavior It’s easy to get confused about two fields that study the interaction of genes and the environment, such as the fields of evolutionary psychology and behavioral genetics. How can we tell them apart? In both fields, it is understood that genes not only code for particular traits, but also contribute to certain patterns of cognition and behavior. Evolutionary psychology focuses on how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time. Therefore, variations in cognition and behavior would make individuals more or less successful in reproducing and passing those genes to their offspring. Evolutionary psychologists study a variety of psychological phenomena that may have evolved as adaptations, including fear response, food preferences, mate selection, and cooperative behaviors (Confer et al., 2010). Whereas evolutionary psychologists focus on universal patterns that evolved over millions of years, behavioral geneticists study how individual differences arise, in the present, through the interaction of genes and the environment. When studying human behavior, behavioral geneticists often employ twin and adoption studies to research questions of interest. Twin studies compare the rates that a given behavioral trait is shared among identical and fraternal twins; adoption studies compare those rates among biologically related relatives and adopted relatives. Both approaches provide some insight into the relative importance of genes and environment for the expression of a given trait. Watch this interview with renowned evolutionary psychologist Davis Buss for an explanation of how a psychologist approaches evolution and how this approach fits within the field of social science. Genetic Variation Genetic variation, the genetic difference between individuals, is what contributes to a species’ adaptation to its environment. In humans, genetic variation begins with an egg, about 100 million sperm, and fertilization. Fertile women ovulate roughly once per month, releasing an egg from follicles in the ovary. The egg travels, via the fallopian tube, from the ovary to the uterus, where it may be fertilized by a sperm. The egg and the sperm each contain 23 chromosomes. Chromosomes are long strings of genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is a helix-shaped molecule made up of nucleotide base pairs. In each chromosome, sequences of DNA make up genes that control or partially control a number of visible characteristics, known as traits, such as eye color, hair color, and so on. A single gene may have multiple possible variations, or alleles. An allele is a specific version of a gene. So, a given gene may code for the trait of hair color, and the different alleles of that gene affect which hair color an individual has. When a sperm and egg fuse, their 23 chromosomes pair up and create a zygote with 23 pairs of chromosomes. Therefore, each parent contributes half the genetic information carried by the offspring; the resulting physical characteristics of the offspring (called the phenotype) are determined by the interaction of genetic material supplied by the parents (called the genotype). A person’s genotype is the genetic makeup of that individual. Phenotype, on the other hand, refers to the individual’s inherited physical characteristics (Figure). Most traits are controlled by multiple genes, but some traits are controlled by one gene. A characteristic like cleft chin, for example, is influenced by a single gene from each parent. In this example, we will call the gene for cleft chin “B,” and the gene for smooth chin “b.” Cleft chin is a dominant trait, which means that having the dominant allele either from one parent (Bb) or both parents (BB) will always result in the phenotype associated with the dominant allele. When someone has two copies of the same allele, they are said to be homozygous for that allele. When someone has a combination of alleles for a given gene, they are said to be heterozygous. For example, smooth chin is a recessive trait, which means that an individual will only display the smooth chin phenotype if they are homozygous for that recessive allele (bb). Imagine that a woman with a cleft chin mates with a man with a smooth chin. What type of chin will their child have? The answer to that depends on which alleles each parent carries. If the woman is homozygous for cleft chin (BB), her offspring will always have cleft chin. It gets a little more complicated, however, if the mother is heterozygous for this gene (Bb). Since the father has a smooth chin—therefore homozygous for the recessive allele (bb)—we can expect the offspring to have a 50% chance of having a cleft chin and a 50% chance of having a smooth chin (Figure). Sickle-cell anemia is just one of many genetic disorders caused by the pairing of two recessive genes. For example, phenylketonuria (PKU) is a condition in which individuals lack an enzyme that normally converts harmful amino acids into harmless byproducts. If someone with this condition goes untreated, he or she will experience significant deficits in cognitive function, seizures, and increased risk of various psychiatric disorders. Because PKU is a recessive trait, each parent must have at least one copy of the recessive allele in order to produce a child with the condition (Figure). So far, we have discussed traits that involve just one gene, but few human characteristics are controlled by a single gene. Most traits are polygenic: controlled by more than one gene. Height is one example of a polygenic trait, as are skin color and weight. Where do harmful genes that contribute to diseases like PKU come from? Gene mutations provide one source of harmful genes. A mutation is a sudden, permanent change in a gene. While many mutations can be harmful or lethal, once in a while, a mutation benefits an individual by giving that person an advantage over those who do not have the mutation. Recall that the theory of evolution asserts that individuals best adapted to their particular environments are more likely to reproduce and pass on their genes to future generations. In order for this process to occur, there must be competition—more technically, there must be variability in genes (and resultant traits) that allow for variation in adaptability to the environment. If a population consisted of identical individuals, then any dramatic changes in the environment would affect everyone in the same way, and there would be no variation in selection. In contrast, diversity in genes and associated traits allows some individuals to perform slightly better than others when faced with environmental change. This creates a distinct advantage for individuals best suited for their environments in terms of successful reproduction and genetic transmission. Gene-Environment Interactions Genes do not exist in a vacuum. Although we are all biological organisms, we also exist in an environment that is incredibly important in determining not only when and how our genes express themselves, but also in what combination. Each of us represents a unique interaction between our genetic makeup and our environment; range of reaction is one way to describe this interaction. Range of reaction asserts that our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall. For example, if an individual’s genetic makeup predisposes her to high levels of intellectual potential and she is reared in a rich, stimulating environment, then she will be more likely to achieve her full potential than if she were raised under conditions of significant deprivation. According to the concept of range of reaction, genes set definite limits on potential, and environment determines how much of that potential is achieved. Some disagree with this theory and argue that genes do not set a limit on a person’s potential. Another perspective on the interaction between genes and the environment is the concept of genetic environmental correlation. Stated simply, our genes influence our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes (Figure). Not only do our genes and environment interact, as in range of reaction, but they also influence one another bidirectionally. For example, the child of an NBA player would probably be exposed to basketball from an early age. Such exposure might allow the child to realize his or her full genetic, athletic potential. Thus, the parents’ genes, which the child shares, influence the child’s environment, and that environment, in turn, is well suited to support the child’s genetic potential. In another approach to gene-environment interactions, the field of epigenetics looks beyond the genotype itself and studies how the same genotype can be expressed in different ways. In other words, researchers study how the same genotype can lead to very different phenotypes. As mentioned earlier, gene expression is often influenced by environmental context in ways that are not entirely obvious. For instance, identical twins share the same genetic information (identical twins develop from a single fertilized egg that split, so the genetic material is exactly the same in each; in contrast, fraternal twins develop from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm, so the genetic material varies as with non-twin siblings). But even with identical genes, there remains an incredible amount of variability in how gene expression can unfold over the course of each twin’s life. Sometimes, one twin will develop a disease and the other will not. In one example, Tiffany, an identical twin, died from cancer at age 7, but her twin, now 19 years old, has never had cancer. Although these individuals share an identical genotype, their phenotypes differ as a result of how that genetic information is expressed over time. The epigenetic perspective is very different from range of reaction, because here the genotype is not fixed and limited. Visit this site for an engaging video primer on the epigenetics of twin studies. Genes affect more than our physical characteristics. Indeed, scientists have found genetic linkages to a number of behavioral characteristics, ranging from basic personality traits to sexual orientation to spirituality (for examples, see Mustanski et al., 2005; Comings, Gonzales, Saucier, Johnson, & MacMurray, 2000). Genes are also associated with temperament and a number of psychological disorders, such as depression and schizophrenia. So while it is true that genes provide the biological blueprints for our cells, tissues, organs, and body, they also have significant impact on our experiences and our behaviors. Let’s look at the following findings regarding schizophrenia in light of our three views of gene-environment interactions. Which view do you think best explains this evidence? In a study of people who were given up for adoption, adoptees whose biological mothers had schizophrenia and who had been raised in a disturbed family environment were much more likely to develop schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder than were any of the other groups in the study: - Of adoptees whose biological mothers had schizophrenia (high genetic risk) and who were raised in disturbed family environments, 36.8% were likely to develop schizophrenia. - Of adoptees whose biological mothers had schizophrenia (high genetic risk) and who were raised in healthy family environments, 5.8% were likely to develop schizophrenia. - Of adoptees with a low genetic risk (whose mothers did not have schizophrenia) and who were raised in disturbed family environments, 5.3% were likely to develop schizophrenia. - Of adoptees with a low genetic risk (whose mothers did not have schizophrenia) and who were raised in healthy family environments, 4.8% were likely to develop schizophrenia (Tienari et al., 2004). The study shows that adoptees with high genetic risk were especially likely to develop schizophrenia only if they were raised in disturbed home environments. This research lends credibility to the notion that both genetic vulnerability and environmental stress are necessary for schizophrenia to develop, and that genes alone do not tell the full tale. Summary Genes are sequences of DNA that code for a particular trait. Different versions of a gene are called alleles—sometimes alleles can be classified as dominant or recessive. A dominant allele always results in the dominant phenotype. In order to exhibit a recessive phenotype, an individual must be homozygous for the recessive allele. Genes affect both physical and psychological characteristics. Ultimately, how and when a gene is expressed, and what the outcome will be—in terms of both physical and psychological characteristics—is a function of the interaction between our genes and our environments. Review Questions A(n) ________ is a sudden, permanent change in a sequence of DNA. - allele - chromosome - epigenetic - mutation Hint: D ________ refers to a person’s genetic makeup, while ________ refers to a person’s physical characteristics. - Phenotype; genotype - Genotype; phenotype - DNA; gene - Gene; DNA Hint: B ________ is the field of study that focuses on genes and their expression. - Social psychology - Evolutionary psychology - Epigenetics - Behavioral neuroscience Hint: C Humans have ________ pairs of chromosomes. - 15 - 23 - 46 - 78 Hint: B Critical Thinking Questions The theory of evolution by natural selection requires variability of a given trait. Why is variability necessary and where does it come from? Hint: Variability is essential for natural selection to work. If all individuals are the same on a given trait, there will be no relative difference in their reproductive success because everyone will be equally adapted to their environments on that trait. Mutations are one source of variability, but sexual reproduction is another important source of variation given that individuals inherit half of their genetic makeup from each of their parents. Personal Application Questions You share half of your genetic makeup with each of your parents, but you are no doubt very different from both of them. Spend a few minutes jotting down the similarities and differences between you and your parents. How do you think your unique environment and experiences have contributed to some of the differences you see?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.558439	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15304/overview", "title": "Psychology, Biopsychology", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15305/overview	Cells of the Nervous System Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify the basic parts of a neuron - Describe how neurons communicate with each other - Explain how drugs act as agonists or antagonists for a given neurotransmitter system Psychologists striving to understand the human mind may study the nervous system. Learning how the cells and organs (like the brain) function, help us understand the biological basis behind human psychology. The nervous system is composed of two basic cell types: glial cells (also known as glia) and neurons. Glial cells, which outnumber neurons ten to one, are traditionally thought to play a supportive role to neurons, both physically and metabolically. Glial cells provide scaffolding on which the nervous system is built, help neurons line up closely with each other to allow neuronal communication, provide insulation to neurons, transport nutrients and waste products, and mediate immune responses. Neurons, on the other hand, serve as interconnected information processors that are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system. This section briefly describes the structure and function of neurons. Neuron Structure Neurons are the central building blocks of the nervous system, 100 billion strong at birth. Like all cells, neurons consist of several different parts, each serving a specialized function (Figure). A neuron’s outer surface is made up of a semipermeable membrane. This membrane allows smaller molecules and molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules. The nucleus of the neuron is located in the soma, or cell body. The soma has branching extensions known as dendrites. The neuron is a small information processor, and dendrites serve as input sites where signals are received from other neurons. These signals are transmitted electrically across the soma and down a major extension from the soma known as the axon, which ends at multiple terminal buttons. The terminal buttons contain synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers of the nervous system. Axons range in length from a fraction of an inch to several feet. In some axons, glial cells form a fatty substance known as the myelin sheath, which coats the axon and acts as an insulator, increasing the speed at which the signal travels. The myelin sheath is crucial for the normal operation of the neurons within the nervous system: the loss of the insulation it provides can be detrimental to normal function. To understand how this works, let’s consider an example. Multiple sclerosis (MS), an autoimmune disorder, involves a large-scale loss of the myelin sheath on axons throughout the nervous system. The resulting interference in the electrical signal prevents the quick transmittal of information by neurons and can lead to a number of symptoms, such as dizziness, fatigue, loss of motor control, and sexual dysfunction. While some treatments may help to modify the course of the disease and manage certain symptoms, there is currently no known cure for multiple sclerosis. In healthy individuals, the neuronal signal moves rapidly down the axon to the terminal buttons, where synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synapse (Figure). The synapse is a very small space between two neurons and is an important site where communication between neurons occurs. Once neurotransmitters are released into the synapse, they travel across the small space and bind with corresponding receptors on the dendrite of an adjacent neuron. Receptors, proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach, vary in shape, with different shapes “matching” different neurotransmitters. How does a neurotransmitter “know” which receptor to bind to? The neurotransmitter and the receptor have what is referred to as a lock-and-key relationship—specific neurotransmitters fit specific receptors similar to how a key fits a lock. The neurotransmitter binds to any receptor that it fits. Neuronal Communication Now that we have learned about the basic structures of the neuron and the role that these structures play in neuronal communication, let’s take a closer look at the signal itself—how it moves through the neuron and then jumps to the next neuron, where the process is repeated. We begin at the neuronal membrane. The neuron exists in a fluid environment—it is surrounded by extracellular fluid and contains intracellular fluid (i.e., cytoplasm). The neuronal membrane keeps these two fluids separate—a critical role because the electrical signal that passes through the neuron depends on the intra- and extracellular fluids being electrically different. This difference in charge across the membrane, called the membrane potential, provides energy for the signal. The electrical charge of the fluids is caused by charged molecules (ions) dissolved in the fluid. The semipermeable nature of the neuronal membrane somewhat restricts the movement of these charged molecules, and, as a result, some of the charged particles tend to become more concentrated either inside or outside the cell. Between signals, the neuron membrane’s potential is held in a state of readiness, called the resting potential. Like a rubber band stretched out and waiting to spring into action, ions line up on either side of the cell membrane, ready to rush across the membrane when the neuron goes active and the membrane opens its gates (i.e., a sodium-potassium pump that allows movement of ions across the membrane). Ions in high-concentration areas are ready to move to low-concentration areas, and positive ions are ready to move to areas with a negative charge. In the resting state, sodium (Na+) is at higher concentrations outside the cell, so it will tend to move into the cell. Potassium (K+), on the other hand, is more concentrated inside the cell, and will tend to move out of the cell (Figure). In addition, the inside of the cell is slightly negatively charged compared to the outside. This provides an additional force on sodium, causing it to move into the cell. From this resting potential state, the neuron receives a signal and its state changes abruptly (Figure). When a neuron receives signals at the dendrites—due to neurotransmitters from an adjacent neuron binding to its receptors—small pores, or gates, open on the neuronal membrane, allowing Na+ ions, propelled by both charge and concentration differences, to move into the cell. With this influx of positive ions, the internal charge of the cell becomes more positive. If that charge reaches a certain level, called the threshold of excitation, the neuron becomes active and the action potential begins. Many additional pores open, causing a massive influx of Na+ ions and a huge positive spike in the membrane potential, the peak action potential. At the peak of the spike, the sodium gates close and the potassium gates open. As positively charged potassium ions leave, the cell quickly begins repolarization. At first, it hyperpolarizes, becoming slightly more negative than the resting potential, and then it levels off, returning to the resting potential. This positive spike constitutes the action potential: the electrical signal that typically moves from the cell body down the axon to the axon terminals. The electrical signal moves down the axon like a wave; at each point, some of the sodium ions that enter the cell diffuse to the next section of the axon, raising the charge past the threshold of excitation and triggering a new influx of sodium ions. The action potential moves all the way down the axon to the terminal buttons. The action potential is an all-or-none phenomenon. In simple terms, this means that an incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation. There is no in-between, and there is no turning off an action potential once it starts. Think of it like sending an email or a text message. You can think about sending it all you want, but the message is not sent until you hit the send button. Furthermore, once you send the message, there is no stopping it. Because it is all or none, the action potential is recreated, or propagated, at its full strength at every point along the axon. Much like the lit fuse of a firecracker, it does not fade away as it travels down the axon. It is this all-or-none property that explains the fact that your brain perceives an injury to a distant body part like your toe as equally painful as one to your nose. As noted earlier, when the action potential arrives at the terminal button, the synaptic vesicles release their neurotransmitters into the synapse. The neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptors on the dendrites of the adjacent neuron, and the process repeats itself in the new neuron (assuming the signal is sufficiently strong to trigger an action potential). Once the signal is delivered, excess neurotransmitters in the synapse drift away, are broken down into inactive fragments, or are reabsorbed in a process known as reuptake. Reuptake involves the neurotransmitter being pumped back into the neuron that released it, in order to clear the synapse (Figure). Clearing the synapse serves both to provide a clear “on” and “off” state between signals and to regulate the production of neurotransmitter (full synaptic vesicles provide signals that no additional neurotransmitters need to be produced). Neuronal communication is often referred to as an electrochemical event. The movement of the action potential down the length of the axon is an electrical event, and movement of the neurotransmitter across the synaptic space represents the chemical portion of the process. Click through this interactive simulation for a closer look at neuronal communication. Neurotransmitters and Drugs There are several different types of neurotransmitters released by different neurons, and we can speak in broad terms about the kinds of functions associated with different neurotransmitters (Table). Much of what psychologists know about the functions of neurotransmitters comes from research on the effects of drugs in psychological disorders. Psychologists who take a biological perspective and focus on the physiological causes of behavior assert that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems. In this perspective, psychotropic medications can help improve the symptoms associated with these disorders. Psychotropic medications are drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance. \| Neurotransmitter \| Involved in \| Potential Effect on Behavior \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Acetylcholine \| Muscle action, memory \| Increased arousal, enhanced cognition \| \| Beta-endorphin \| Pain, pleasure \| Decreased anxiety, decreased tension \| \| Dopamine \| Mood, sleep, learning \| Increased pleasure, suppressed appetite \| \| Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) \| Brain function, sleep \| Decreased anxiety, decreased tension \| \| Glutamate \| Memory, learning \| Increased learning, enhanced memory \| \| Norepinephrine \| Heart, intestines, alertness \| Increased arousal, suppressed appetite \| \| Serotonin \| Mood, sleep \| Modulated mood, suppressed appetite \| Psychoactive drugs can act as agonists or antagonists for a given neurotransmitter system. Agonists are chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site and, thus, strengthen its effects. An antagonist, on the other hand, blocks or impedes the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor. Agonist and antagonist drugs are prescribed to correct the specific neurotransmitter imbalances underlying a person’s condition. For example, Parkinson's disease, a progressive nervous system disorder, is associated with low levels of dopamine. Therefore dopamine agonists, which mimic the effects of dopamine by binding to dopamine receptors, are one treatment strategy. Certain symptoms of schizophrenia are associated with overactive dopamine neurotransmission. The antipsychotics used to treat these symptoms are antagonists for dopamine—they block dopamine’s effects by binding its receptors without activating them. Thus, they prevent dopamine released by one neuron from signaling information to adjacent neurons. In contrast to agonists and antagonists, which both operate by binding to receptor sites, reuptake inhibitors prevent unused neurotransmitters from being transported back to the neuron. This leaves more neurotransmitters in the synapse for a longer time, increasing its effects. Depression, which has been consistently linked with reduced serotonin levels, is commonly treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). By preventing reuptake, SSRIs strengthen the effect of serotonin, giving it more time to interact with serotonin receptors on dendrites. Common SSRIs on the market today include Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft. The drug LSD is structurally very similar to serotonin, and it affects the same neurons and receptors as serotonin. Psychotropic drugs are not instant solutions for people suffering from psychological disorders. Often, an individual must take a drug for several weeks before seeing improvement, and many psychoactive drugs have significant negative side effects. Furthermore, individuals vary dramatically in how they respond to the drugs. To improve chances for success, it is not uncommon for people receiving pharmacotherapy to undergo psychological and/or behavioral therapies as well. Some research suggests that combining drug therapy with other forms of therapy tends to be more effective than any one treatment alone (for one such example, see March et al., 2007). Summary Glia and neurons are the two cell types that make up the nervous system. While glia generally play supporting roles, the communication between neurons is fundamental to all of the functions associated with the nervous system. Neuronal communication is made possible by the neuron’s specialized structures. The soma contains the cell nucleus, and the dendrites extend from the soma in tree-like branches. The axon is another major extension of the cell body; axons are often covered by a myelin sheath, which increases the speed of transmission of neural impulses. At the end of the axon are terminal buttons that contain synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters. Neuronal communication is an electrochemical event. The dendrites contain receptors for neurotransmitters released by nearby neurons. If the signals received from other neurons are sufficiently strong, an action potential will travel down the length of the axon to the terminal buttons, resulting in the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse. Action potentials operate on the all-or-none principle and involve the movement of Na+ and K+ across the neuronal membrane. Different neurotransmitters are associated with different functions. Often, psychological disorders involve imbalances in a given neurotransmitter system. Therefore, psychotropic drugs are prescribed in an attempt to bring the neurotransmitters back into balance. Drugs can act either as agonists or as antagonists for a given neurotransmitter system. Review Questions The ________ receive(s) incoming signals from other neurons. - soma - terminal buttons - myelin sheath - dendrites Hint: D A(n) ________ facilitates or mimics the activity of a given neurotransmitter system. - axon - SSRI - agonist - antagonist Hint: C Multiple sclerosis involves a breakdown of the ________. - soma - myelin sheath - synaptic vesicles - dendrites Hint: B An action potential involves Na+ moving ________ the cell and K+ moving ________ the cell. - inside; outside - outside; inside - inside; inside - outside; outside Hint: A Critical Thinking Questions Cocaine has two effects on synaptic transmission: it impairs reuptake of dopamine and it causes more dopamine to be released into the synapse. Would cocaine be classified as an agonist or antagonist? Why? Hint: As a reuptake inhibitor, cocaine blocks the normal activity of dopamine at the receptor. The function causing more dopamine to be released into the synapse is agonist because it mimics and strengthens the effect of the neurotransmitter. Cocaine would be considered an agonist because by preventing the enzymatic degradation of the neurotransmitters, it increases the potential time that these neurotransmitters might be active in the synapse. Drugs such as lidocaine and novocaine act as Na+ channel blockers. In other words, they prevent sodium from moving across the neuronal membrane. Why would this particular effect make these drugs such effective local anesthetics? Hint: The action potential is initiated by an influx of Na+ into the neuron. If this process is prevented, then no action potentials in neurons in a given area will occur. Therefore, any painful stimuli would not result in action potentials carrying that information to the brain. Personal Application Queation Have you or someone you know ever been prescribed a psychotropic medication? If so, what side effects were associated with the treatment?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.593989	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15305/overview", "title": "Psychology, Biopsychology", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15306/overview	Parts of the Nervous System Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the difference between the central and peripheral nervous systems - Explain the difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems - Differentiate between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system The nervous system can be divided into two major subdivisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), shown in Figure. The CNS is comprised of the brain and spinal cord; the PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body. In this section, we focus on the peripheral nervous system; later, we look at the brain and spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System The peripheral nervous system is made up of thick bundles of axons, called nerves, carrying messages back and forth between the CNS and the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the body (i.e., everything outside the CNS). The PNS has two major subdivisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system is associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary. It is involved in the relay of sensory and motor information to and from the CNS; therefore, it consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons. Motor neurons, carrying instructions from the CNS to the muscles, are efferent fibers (efferent means “moving away from”). Sensory neurons, carrying sensory information to the CNS, are afferent fibers (afferent means “moving toward”). Each nerve is basically a two-way superhighway, containing thousands of axons, both efferent and afferent. The autonomic nervous system controls our internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control. It can be further subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions (Figure). The sympathetic nervous system is involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities; the parasympathetic nervous system is associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations. The two systems have complementary functions, operating in tandem to maintain the body’s homeostasis. Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium, in which biological conditions (such as body temperature) are maintained at optimal levels. The sympathetic nervous system is activated when we are faced with stressful or high-arousal situations. The activity of this system was adaptive for our ancestors, increasing their chances of survival. Imagine, for example, that one of our early ancestors, out hunting small game, suddenly disturbs a large bear with her cubs. At that moment, his body undergoes a series of changes—a direct function of sympathetic activation—preparing him to face the threat. His pupils dilate, his heart rate and blood pressure increase, his bladder relaxes, his liver releases glucose, and adrenaline surges into his bloodstream. This constellation of physiological changes, known as the fight or flight response, allows the body access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that it might fight off a threat or run away to safety. Reinforce what you’ve learned about the nervous system by playing this BBC-produced interactive game about the nervous system. While it is clear that such a response would be critical for survival for our ancestors, who lived in a world full of real physical threats, many of the high-arousal situations we face in the modern world are more psychological in nature. For example, think about how you feel when you have to stand up and give a presentation in front of a roomful of people, or right before taking a big test. You are in no real physical danger in those situations, and yet you have evolved to respond to any perceived threat with the fight or flight response. This kind of response is not nearly as adaptive in the modern world; in fact, we suffer negative health consequences when faced constantly with psychological threats that we can neither fight nor flee. Recent research suggests that an increase in susceptibility to heart disease (Chandola, Brunner, & Marmot, 2006) and impaired function of the immune system (Glaser & Kiecolt-Glaser, 2005) are among the many negative consequences of persistent and repeated exposure to stressful situations. Once the threat has been resolved, the parasympathetic nervous system takes over and returns bodily functions to a relaxed state. Our hunter’s heart rate and blood pressure return to normal, his pupils constrict, he regains control of his bladder, and the liver begins to store glucose in the form of glycogen for future use. These processes are associated with activation of the parasympathetic nervous system. Summary The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is comprised of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system transmits sensory and motor signals to and from the central nervous system. The autonomic nervous system controls the function of our organs and glands, and can be divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Sympathetic activation prepares us for fight or flight, while parasympathetic activation is associated with normal functioning under relaxed conditions. Review Questions Our ability to make our legs move as we walk across the room is controlled by the ________ nervous system. - autonomic - somatic - sympathetic - parasympathetic Hint: B If your ________ is activated, you will feel relatively at ease. - somatic nervous system - sympathetic nervous system - parasympathetic nervous system - spinal cord Hint: C The central nervous system is comprised of ________. - sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems - organs and glands - somatic and autonomic nervous systems - brain and spinal cord Hint: D Sympathetic activation is associated with ________. - pupil dilation - storage of glucose in the liver - increased heart rate - both A and C Hint: D Critical Thinking Questions What are the implications of compromised immune function as a result of exposure to chronic stress? Hint: Chronic stress can lead to increased susceptibility to bacterial and viral infections, and potentially an increased risk of cancer. Ultimately, this could be a vicious cycle with stress leading to increased risk of disease, disease states leading to increased stress and so on. Examine Figure, illustrating the effects of sympathetic nervous system activation. How would all of these things play into the fight or flight response? Hint: Most of these effects directly impact energy availability and redistribution of key resources and heightened sensory capacity. The individual experiencing these effects would be better prepared to fight or flee. Personal Application Questions Hopefully, you do not face real physical threats from potential predators on a daily basis. However, you probably have your fair share of stress. What situations are your most common sources of stress? What can you do to try to minimize the negative consequences of these particular stressors in your life?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.621114	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15306/overview", "title": "Psychology, Biopsychology", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15307/overview	The Brain and Spinal Cord Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the functions of the spinal cord - Identify the hemispheres and lobes of the brain - Describe the types of techniques available to clinicians and researchers to image or scan the brain The brain is a remarkably complex organ comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia. It is a bilateral, or two-sided, structure that can be separated into distinct lobes. Each lobe is associated with certain types of functions, but, ultimately, all of the areas of the brain interact with one another to provide the foundation for our thoughts and behaviors. In this section, we discuss the overall organization of the brain and the functions associated with different brain areas, beginning with what can be seen as an extension of the brain, the spinal cord. The Spinal Cord It can be said that the spinal cord is what connects the brain to the outside world. Because of it, the brain can act. The spinal cord is like a relay station, but a very smart one. It not only routes messages to and from the brain, but it also has its own system of automatic processes, called reflexes. The top of the spinal cord merges with the brain stem, where the basic processes of life are controlled, such as breathing and digestion. In the opposite direction, the spinal cord ends just below the ribs—contrary to what we might expect, it does not extend all the way to the base of the spine. The spinal cord is functionally organized in 30 segments, corresponding with the vertebrae. Each segment is connected to a specific part of the body through the peripheral nervous system. Nerves branch out from the spine at each vertebra. Sensory nerves bring messages in; motor nerves send messages out to the muscles and organs. Messages travel to and from the brain through every segment. Some sensory messages are immediately acted on by the spinal cord, without any input from the brain. Withdrawal from heat and knee jerk are two examples. When a sensory message meets certain parameters, the spinal cord initiates an automatic reflex. The signal passes from the sensory nerve to a simple processing center, which initiates a motor command. Seconds are saved, because messages don’t have to go the brain, be processed, and get sent back. In matters of survival, the spinal reflexes allow the body to react extraordinarily fast. The spinal cord is protected by bony vertebrae and cushioned in cerebrospinal fluid, but injuries still occur. When the spinal cord is damaged in a particular segment, all lower segments are cut off from the brain, causing paralysis. Therefore, the lower on the spine damage is, the fewer functions an injured individual loses. The Two Hemispheres The surface of the brain, known as the cerebral cortex, is very uneven, characterized by a distinctive pattern of folds or bumps, known as gyri (singular: gyrus), and grooves, known as sulci (singular: sulcus), shown in Figure. These gyri and sulci form important landmarks that allow us to separate the brain into functional centers. The most prominent sulcus, known as the longitudinal fissure, is the deep groove that separates the brain into two halves or hemispheres: the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. There is evidence of some specialization of function—referred to as lateralization—in each hemisphere, mainly regarding differences in language ability. Beyond that, however, the differences that have been found have been minor. What we do know is that the left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left half of the body. The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the corpus callosum, consisting of about 200 million axons. The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate with each other and allows for information being processed on one side of the brain to be shared with the other side. Normally, we are not aware of the different roles that our two hemispheres play in day-to-day functions, but there are people who come to know the capabilities and functions of their two hemispheres quite well. In some cases of severe epilepsy, doctors elect to sever the corpus callosum as a means of controlling the spread of seizures (Figure). While this is an effective treatment option, it results in individuals who have split brains. After surgery, these split-brain patients show a variety of interesting behaviors. For instance, a split-brain patient is unable to name a picture that is shown in the patient’s left visual field because the information is only available in the largely nonverbal right hemisphere. However, they are able to recreate the picture with their left hand, which is also controlled by the right hemisphere. When the more verbal left hemisphere sees the picture that the hand drew, the patient is able to name it (assuming the left hemisphere can interpret what was drawn by the left hand). This interactive animation on the Nobel Prize website walks users through the hemispheres of the brain. Much of what we know about the functions of different areas of the brain comes from studying changes in the behavior and ability of individuals who have suffered damage to the brain. For example, researchers study the behavioral changes caused by strokes to learn about the functions of specific brain areas. A stroke, caused by an interruption of blood flow to a region in the brain, causes a loss of brain function in the affected region. The damage can be in a small area, and, if it is, this gives researchers the opportunity to link any resulting behavioral changes to a specific area. The types of deficits displayed after a stroke will be largely dependent on where in the brain the damage occurred. Consider Theona, an intelligent, self-sufficient woman, who is 62 years old. Recently, she suffered a stroke in the front portion of her right hemisphere. As a result, she has great difficulty moving her left leg. (As you learned earlier, the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body; also, the brain’s main motor centers are located at the front of the head, in the frontal lobe.) Theona has also experienced behavioral changes. For example, while in the produce section of the grocery store, she sometimes eats grapes, strawberries, and apples directly from their bins before paying for them. This behavior—which would have been very embarrassing to her before the stroke—is consistent with damage in another region in the frontal lobe—the prefrontal cortex, which is associated with judgment, reasoning, and impulse control. Forebrain Structures The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are part of the forebrain (Figure), which is the largest part of the brain. The forebrain contains the cerebral cortex and a number of other structures that lie beneath the cortex (called subcortical structures): thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the limbic system (collection of structures). The cerebral cortex, which is the outer surface of the brain, is associated with higher level processes such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory. Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes, each associated with different functions. Lobes of the Brain The four lobes of the brain are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes (Figure). The frontal lobe is located in the forward part of the brain, extending back to a fissure known as the central sulcus. The frontal lobe is involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language. It contains the motor cortex, which is involved in planning and coordinating movement; the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; and Broca’s area, which is essential for language production. People who suffer damage to Broca’s area have great difficulty producing language of any form (Figure). For example, Padma was an electrical engineer who was socially active and a caring, involved mother. About twenty years ago, she was in a car accident and suffered damage to her Broca’s area. She completely lost the ability to speak and form any kind of meaningful language. There is nothing wrong with her mouth or her vocal cords, but she is unable to produce words. She can follow directions but can’t respond verbally, and she can read but no longer write. She can do routine tasks like running to the market to buy milk, but she could not communicate verbally if a situation called for it. Probably the most famous case of frontal lobe damage is that of a man by the name of Phineas Gage. On September 13, 1848, Gage (age 25) was working as a railroad foreman in Vermont. He and his crew were using an iron rod to tamp explosives down into a blasting hole to remove rock along the railway’s path. Unfortunately, the iron rod created a spark and caused the rod to explode out of the blasting hole, into Gage’s face, and through his skull (Figure). Although lying in a pool of his own blood with brain matter emerging from his head, Gage was conscious and able to get up, walk, and speak. But in the months following his accident, people noticed that his personality had changed. Many of his friends described him as no longer being himself. Before the accident, it was said that Gage was a well-mannered, soft-spoken man, but he began to behave in odd and inappropriate ways after the accident. Such changes in personality would be consistent with loss of impulse control—a frontal lobe function. Beyond the damage to the frontal lobe itself, subsequent investigations into the rod's path also identified probable damage to pathways between the frontal lobe and other brain structures, including the limbic system. With connections between the planning functions of the frontal lobe and the emotional processes of the limbic system severed, Gage had difficulty controlling his emotional impulses. However, there is some evidence suggesting that the dramatic changes in Gage’s personality were exaggerated and embellished. Gage's case occurred in the midst of a 19th century debate over localization—regarding whether certain areas of the brain are associated with particular functions. On the basis of extremely limited information about Gage, the extent of his injury, and his life before and after the accident, scientists tended to find support for their own views, on whichever side of the debate they fell (Macmillan, 1999). The brain’s parietal lobe is located immediately behind the frontal lobe, and is involved in processing information from the body’s senses. It contains the somatosensory cortex, which is essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain. The somatosensory cortex is organized topographically, which means that spatial relationships that exist in the body are maintained on the surface of the somatosensory cortex (Figure). For example, the portion of the cortex that processes sensory information from the hand is adjacent to the portion that processes information from the wrist. The temporal lobe is located on the side of the head (temporal means “near the temples”), and is associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language. The auditory cortex, the main area responsible for processing auditory information, is located within the temporal lobe. Wernicke’s area, important for speech comprehension, is also located here. Whereas individuals with damage to Broca’s area have difficulty producing language, those with damage to Wernicke’s area can produce sensible language, but they are unable to understand it (Figure). The occipital lobe is located at the very back of the brain, and contains the primary visual cortex, which is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information. The occipital cortex is organized retinotopically, which means there is a close relationship between the position of an object in a person’s visual field and the position of that object’s representation on the cortex. You will learn much more about how visual information is processed in the occipital lobe when you study sensation and perception. Other Areas of the Forebrain Other areas of the forebrain, located beneath the cerebral cortex, include the thalamus and the limbic system. The thalamus is a sensory relay for the brain. All of our senses, with the exception of smell, are routed through the thalamus before being directed to other areas of the brain for processing (Figure). The limbic system is involved in processing both emotion and memory. Interestingly, the sense of smell projects directly to the limbic system; therefore, not surprisingly, smell can evoke emotional responses in ways that other sensory modalities cannot. The limbic system is made up of a number of different structures, but three of the most important are the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus (Figure). The hippocampus is an essential structure for learning and memory. The amygdala is involved in our experience of emotion and in tying emotional meaning to our memories. The hypothalamus regulates a number of homeostatic processes, including the regulation of body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure. The hypothalamus also serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system and in the regulation of sexual motivation and behavior. The Case of Henry Molaison (H.M.) In 1953, Henry Gustav Molaison (H. M.) was a 27-year-old man who experienced severe seizures. In an attempt to control his seizures, H. M. underwent brain surgery to remove his hippocampus and amygdala. Following the surgery, H.M’s seizures became much less severe, but he also suffered some unexpected—and devastating—consequences of the surgery: he lost his ability to form many types of new memories. For example, he was unable to learn new facts, such as who was president of the United States. He was able to learn new skills, but afterward he had no recollection of learning them. For example, while he might learn to use a computer, he would have no conscious memory of ever having used one. He could not remember new faces, and he was unable to remember events, even immediately after they occurred. Researchers were fascinated by his experience, and he is considered one of the most studied cases in medical and psychological history (Hardt, Einarsson, & Nader, 2010; Squire, 2009). Indeed, his case has provided tremendous insight into the role that the hippocampus plays in the consolidation of new learning into explicit memory. Clive Wearing, an accomplished musician, lost the ability to form new memories when his hippocampus was damaged through illness. Check out the first few minutes of this documentary video for an introduction to this man and his condition. Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures The midbrain is comprised of structures located deep within the brain, between the forebrain and the hindbrain. The reticular formation is centered in the midbrain, but it actually extends up into the forebrain and down into the hindbrain. The reticular formation is important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity. The substantia nigra (Latin for “black substance”) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) are also located in the midbrain (Figure). Both regions contain cell bodies that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, and both are critical for movement. Degeneration of the substantia nigra and VTA is involved in Parkinson’s disease. In addition, these structures are involved in mood, reward, and addiction (Berridge & Robinson, 1998; Gardner, 2011; George, Le Moal, & Koob, 2012). The hindbrain is located at the back of the head and looks like an extension of the spinal cord. It contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum (Figure). The medulla controls the automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system, such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate. The word pons literally means “bridge,” and as the name suggests, the pons serves to connect the brain and spinal cord. It also is involved in regulating brain activity during sleep. The medulla, pons, and midbrain together are known as the brainstem. The cerebellum (Latin for “little brain”) receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in our ear to control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills. The cerebellum is also thought to be an important area for processing some types of memories. In particular, procedural memory, or memory involved in learning and remembering how to perform tasks, is thought to be associated with the cerebellum. Recall that H. M. was unable to form new explicit memories, but he could learn new tasks. This is likely due to the fact that H. M.’s cerebellum remained intact. Brain Dead and on Life Support What would you do if your spouse or loved one was declared brain dead but his or her body was being kept alive by medical equipment? Whose decision should it be to remove a feeding tube? Should medical care costs be a factor? On February 25, 1990, a Florida woman named Terri Schiavo went into cardiac arrest, apparently triggered by a bulimic episode. She was eventually revived, but her brain had been deprived of oxygen for a long time. Brain scans indicated that there was no activity in her cerebral cortex, and she suffered from severe and permanent cerebral atrophy. Basically, Schiavo was in a vegetative state. Medical professionals determined that she would never again be able to move, talk, or respond in any way. To remain alive, she required a feeding tube, and there was no chance that her situation would ever improve. On occasion, Schiavo’s eyes would move, and sometimes she would groan. Despite the doctors’ insistence to the contrary, her parents believed that these were signs that she was trying to communicate with them. After 12 years, Schiavo’s husband argued that his wife would not have wanted to be kept alive with no feelings, sensations, or brain activity. Her parents, however, were very much against removing her feeding tube. Eventually, the case made its way to the courts, both in the state of Florida and at the federal level. By 2005, the courts found in favor of Schiavo’s husband, and the feeding tube was removed on March 18, 2005. Schiavo died 13 days later. Why did Schiavo’s eyes sometimes move, and why did she groan? Although the parts of her brain that control thought, voluntary movement, and feeling were completely damaged, her brainstem was still intact. Her medulla and pons maintained her breathing and caused involuntary movements of her eyes and the occasional groans. Over the 15-year period that she was on a feeding tube, Schiavo’s medical costs may have topped $7 million (Arnst, 2003). These questions were brought to popular conscience 25 years ago in the case of Terri Schiavo, and they persist today. In 2013, a 13-year-old girl who suffered complications after tonsil surgery was declared brain dead. There was a battle between her family, who wanted her to remain on life support, and the hospital’s policies regarding persons declared brain dead. In another complicated 2013–14 case in Texas, a pregnant EMT professional declared brain dead was kept alive for weeks, despite her spouse’s directives, which were based on her wishes should this situation arise. In this case, state laws designed to protect an unborn fetus came into consideration until doctors determined the fetus unviable. Decisions surrounding the medical response to patients declared brain dead are complex. What do you think about these issues? Brain Imaging You have learned how brain injury can provide information about the functions of different parts of the brain. Increasingly, however, we are able to obtain that information using brain imaging techniques on individuals who have not suffered brain injury. In this section, we take a more in-depth look at some of the techniques that are available for imaging the brain, including techniques that rely on radiation, magnetic fields, or electrical activity within the brain. Techniques Involving Radiation A computerized tomography (CT) scan involves taking a number of x-rays of a particular section of a person’s body or brain (Figure). The x-rays pass through tissues of different densities at different rates, allowing a computer to construct an overall image of the area of the body being scanned. A CT scan is often used to determine whether someone has a tumor, or significant brain atrophy. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans create pictures of the living, active brain (Figure). An individual receiving a PET scan drinks or is injected with a mildly radioactive substance, called a tracer. Once in the bloodstream, the amount of tracer in any given region of the brain can be monitored. As brain areas become more active, more blood flows to that area. A computer monitors the movement of the tracer and creates a rough map of active and inactive areas of the brain during a given behavior. PET scans show little detail, are unable to pinpoint events precisely in time, and require that the brain be exposed to radiation; therefore, this technique has been replaced by the fMRI as an alternative diagnostic tool. However, combined with CT, PET technology is still being used in certain contexts. For example, CT/PET scans allow better imaging of the activity of neurotransmitter receptors and open new avenues in schizophrenia research. In this hybrid CT/PET technology, CT contributes clear images of brain structures, while PET shows the brain’s activity. Techniques Involving Magnetic Fields In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a person is placed inside a machine that generates a strong magnetic field. The magnetic field causes the hydrogen atoms in the body’s cells to move. When the magnetic field is turned off, the hydrogen atoms emit electromagnetic signals as they return to their original positions. Tissues of different densities give off different signals, which a computer interprets and displays on a monitor. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) operates on the same principles, but it shows changes in brain activity over time by tracking blood flow and oxygen levels. The fMRI provides more detailed images of the brain’s structure, as well as better accuracy in time, than is possible in PET scans (Figure). With their high level of detail, MRI and fMRI are often used to compare the brains of healthy individuals to the brains of individuals diagnosed with psychological disorders. This comparison helps determine what structural and functional differences exist between these populations. Visit this virtual lab to learn more about MRI and fMRI. Techniques Involving Electrical Activity In some situations, it is helpful to gain an understanding of the overall activity of a person’s brain, without needing information on the actual location of the activity. Electroencephalography (EEG) serves this purpose by providing a measure of a brain’s electrical activity. An array of electrodes is placed around a person’s head (Figure). The signals received by the electrodes result in a printout of the electrical activity of his or her brain, or brainwaves, showing both the frequency (number of waves per second) and amplitude (height) of the recorded brainwaves, with an accuracy within milliseconds. Such information is especially helpful to researchers studying sleep patterns among individuals with sleep disorders. Summary The brain consists of two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body. Each hemisphere can be subdivided into different lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. In addition to the lobes of the cerebral cortex, the forebrain includes the thalamus (sensory relay) and limbic system (emotion and memory circuit). The midbrain contains the reticular formation, which is important for sleep and arousal, as well as the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. These structures are important for movement, reward, and addictive processes. The hindbrain contains the structures of the brainstem (medulla, pons, and midbrain), which control automatic functions like breathing and blood pressure. The hindbrain also contains the cerebellum, which helps coordinate movement and certain types of memories. Individuals with brain damage have been studied extensively to provide information about the role of different areas of the brain, and recent advances in technology allow us to glean similar information by imaging brain structure and function. These techniques include CT, PET, MRI, fMRI, and EEG. Review Questions The ________ is a sensory relay station where all sensory information, except for smell, goes before being sent to other areas of the brain for further processing. - amygdala - hippocampus - hypothalamus - thalamus Hint: D Damage to the ________ disrupts one’s ability to comprehend language, but it leaves one’s ability to produce words intact. - amygdala - Broca’s Area - Wernicke’s Area - occipital lobe Hint: C A(n) ________ uses magnetic fields to create pictures of a given tissue. - EEG - MRI - PET scan - CT scan Hint: B Which of the following is not a structure of the forebrain? - thalamus - hippocampus - amygdala - substantia nigra Hint: D Critical Thinking Questions Before the advent of modern imaging techniques, scientists and clinicians relied on autopsies of people who suffered brain injury with resultant change in behavior to determine how different areas of the brain were affected. What are some of the limitations associated with this kind of approach? Hint: The same limitations associated with any case study would apply here. In addition, it is possible that the damage caused changes in other areas of the brain, which might contribute to the behavioral deficits. Such changes would not necessarily be obvious to someone performing an autopsy, as they may be functional in nature, rather than structural. Which of the techniques discussed would be viable options for you to determine how activity in the reticular formation is related to sleep and wakefulness? Why? Hint: The most viable techniques are fMRI and PET because of their ability to provide information about brain activity and structure simultaneously. Personal Application Questions You read about H. M.’s memory deficits following the bilateral removal of his hippocampus and amygdala. Have you encountered a character in a book, television program, or movie that suffered memory deficits? How was that character similar to and different from H. M.?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.663062	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15307/overview", "title": "Psychology, Biopsychology", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15308/overview	The Endocrine System Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify the major glands of the endocrine system - Identify the hormones secreted by each gland - Describe each hormone’s role in regulating bodily functions The endocrine system consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones (Figure). Like neurotransmitters, hormones are chemical messengers that must bind to a receptor in order to send their signal. However, unlike neurotransmitters, which are released in close proximity to cells with their receptors, hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body, affecting any cells that contain receptors for them. Thus, whereas neurotransmitters’ effects are localized, the effects of hormones are widespread. Also, hormones are slower to take effect, and tend to be longer lasting. Hormones are involved in regulating all sorts of bodily functions, and they are ultimately controlled through interactions between the hypothalamus (in the central nervous system) and the pituitary gland (in the endocrine system). Imbalances in hormones are related to a number of disorders. This section explores some of the major glands that make up the endocrine system and the hormones secreted by these glands. Major Glands The pituitary gland descends from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and acts in close association with it. The pituitary is often referred to as the “master gland” because its messenger hormones control all the other glands in the endocrine system, although it mostly carries out instructions from the hypothalamus. In addition to messenger hormones, the pituitary also secretes growth hormone, endorphins for pain relief, and a number of key hormones that regulate fluid levels in the body. Located in the neck, the thyroid gland releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite. In hyperthyroidism, or Grave’s disease, the thyroid secretes too much of the hormone thyroxine, causing agitation, bulging eyes, and weight loss. In hypothyroidism, reduced hormone levels cause sufferers to experience tiredness, and they often complain of feeling cold. Fortunately, thyroid disorders are often treatable with medications that help reestablish a balance in the hormones secreted by the thyroid. The adrenal glands sit atop our kidneys and secrete hormones involved in the stress response, such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). The pancreas is an internal organ that secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon. These pancreatic hormones are essential for maintaining stable levels of blood sugar throughout the day by lowering blood glucose levels (insulin) or raising them (glucagon). People who suffer from diabetes do not produce enough insulin; therefore, they must take medications that stimulate or replace insulin production, and they must closely control the amount of sugars and carbohydrates they consume. The gonads secrete sexual hormones, which are important in reproduction, and mediate both sexual motivation and behavior. The female gonads are the ovaries; the male gonads are the testis. Ovaries secrete estrogens and progesterone, and the testes secrete androgens, such as testosterone. Athletes and Anabolic Steroids Although it is against most laws to do so, many professional athletes and body builders use anabolic steroid drugs to improve their athletic performance and physique. Anabolic steroid drugs mimic the effects of the body’s own steroid hormones, like testosterone and its derivatives. These drugs have the potential to provide a competitive edge by increasing muscle mass, strength, and endurance, although not all users may experience these results. Moreover, use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) does not come without risks. Anabolic steroid use has been linked with a wide variety of potentially negative outcomes, ranging in severity from largely cosmetic (acne) to life threatening (heart attack). Furthermore, use of these substances can result in profound changes in mood and can increase aggressive behavior (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2001). Baseball player Alex Rodriguez (A-Rod) has been at the center of a media storm regarding his use of illegal PEDs. Rodriguez’s performance on the field was unparalleled while using the drugs; his success played a large role in negotiating a contract that made him the highest paid player in professional baseball. Although Rodriguez maintains that he has not used PEDs for the several years, he received a substantial suspension in 2013 that, if upheld, will cost him more than 20 million dollars in earnings (Gaines, 2013). What are your thoughts on athletes and doping? Why or why not should the use of PEDs be banned? What advice would you give an athlete who was considering using PEDs? Summary The glands of the endocrine system secrete hormones to regulate normal body functions. The hypothalamus serves as the interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system, and it controls the secretions of the pituitary. The pituitary serves as the master gland, controlling the secretions of all other glands. The thyroid secretes thyroxine, which is important for basic metabolic processes and growth; the adrenal glands secrete hormones involved in the stress response; the pancreas secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels; and the ovaries and testes produce sex hormones that regulate sexual motivation and behavior. Review Questions The two major hormones secreted from the pancreas are: - estrogen and progesterone - norepinephrine and epinephrine - thyroxine and oxytocin - glucagon and insulin Hint: D The ________ secretes messenger hormones that direct the function of the rest of the endocrine glands. - ovary - thyroid - pituitary - pancreas Hint: C The ________ gland secretes epinephrine. - adrenal - thyroid - pituitary - master Hint: A The ________ secretes hormones that regulate the body’s fluid levels. - adrenal - pituitary - testis - thyroid Hint: B Critical Thinking Questions Hormone secretion is often regulated through a negative feedback mechanism, which means that once a hormone is secreted it will cause the hypothalamus and pituitary to shut down the production of signals necessary to secrete the hormone in the first place. Most oral contraceptives are made of small doses of estrogen and/or progesterone. Why would this be an effective means of contraception? Hint: The introduction of relatively low, yet constant, levels of gonadal hormones places the hypothalamus and pituitary under inhibition via negative feedback mechanisms. This prevents the alterations in both estrogen and progesterone concentrations that are necessary for successful ovulation and implantation. Chemical messengers are used in both the nervous system and the endocrine system. What properties do these two systems share? What properties are different? Which one would be faster? Which one would result in long-lasting changes? Hint: Both systems involve chemical messengers that must interact with receptors in order to have an effect. The relative proximity of the release site and target tissue varies dramatically between the two systems. In neurotransmission, reuptake and enzymatic breakdown immediately clear the synapse. Metabolism of hormones must occur in the liver. Therefore, while neurotransmission is much more rapid in signaling information, hormonal signaling can persist for quite some time as the concentrations of the hormone in the bloodstream vary gradually over time. Personal Application Questions Given the negative health consequences associated with the use of anabolic steroids, what kinds of considerations might be involved in a person’s decision to use them?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.690223	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15308/overview", "title": "Psychology, Biopsychology", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98655/overview	Supplemental Resources for "A Good Time for the Truth" Overview A Good Time for the Truth explores race and intersectionality in Minnesota. Published in 2016, it experienced a resurgence after the murder of George Floyd. The authors, all from Minnesota, write personal memoirs about how race in Minnesota has affected their lives. The book provides a lot of great material for freshman composition courses. Plus, it is, quite simply, a book that everyone must read. General resources for "A Good Time for the Truth" The following resources are useful for any section of "A Good Time for the Truth" (GTFTT). - We Are Meant to Rise: Voices for Justice from Minneapolis to the World: GTFTT was written a few years before George Floyd's murder. This anthology, from many of the same GTFTT contributors, is a reaction to George Floyd's murder. There are also new contributors in this anthology, including Louise Erdrich. - "One Book, One Minnesota": This Youtube author panel, below, features seven of the book contributors: Sun Yung Shin, Taiyon Coleman, Shannon Gibney, David Lawrence Grant Carolyn Holbrook, IBe, and Andrea Jenkins. Shannon Gibney Shannon Gibney's "Fear of a Black Mother" is the first chapter in the anthology. The title is a word play on the two separate meanings suggested by fear of. She writes about her fears for her black son and also about how others fear her, as a black mother. It is a powerful read. The following resources will add depth and perspective for teachers and students interested in delving further into the topic. - Shannon Gibney This is Shannon's home page. She provides a carefully curated collection of her work, ranging from teaching at a community college, race, pregnancy loss and grief, adoption, and LIberian immigrants. Shannon Gibney Interview \| The Loft Literary Center Shannon talks about what was going on in her life when she wrote "Fear of a Black Mother". She also discusses her identity as a "mixed black transracially adopted woman" and how that impacts her writing. She also provides insights into how the writing process for women might be different than the writing process for men. Shannon Gibney on Youtube: Shannon talks about her experience as a transracial adoptee in this podcast that is specifically targeted for the adoptee audience. Her quote setting up the talk is that "there is loss inhererent in in taking a child from their first family and grafting them into another." She comments that adoption is a very "layered set of relationships." Carolyn Holbrook In "Say What?", Carolyn tells a compelling anecdote from her young adult life that shows racism is not merely limited to perceptions of people's skin color. The anecdote has a rather shocking ending. - Carolyn Holbook's home page: Carolyn provides us with a rich panoply of her personal life, writing, and community work here. - In "The Life you LIve is the Legacy You Leave" (below), Carolyn discusses how our legacies are not the possessions and money we leave behind but rather the impact we have on others that they then pass down to subsequent generations. Andrea Jenkins In "The Price We Pay: How Race and Gender Identity Converge", Andrea Jenkins weaves a tight narrative exploring how her family's poverty, her trans gender identity, and her African-American heritage converge. It is a powerful essay. - Minneapolis Ward 8 profile: Andrea is the first African American openly trans woman to be elected to public office in the United States. - Tetter Transgender Oral History Project: Andrea curated these interviews from 2019 to 2021. In the interviews, trans people share their stories, experience, and wisdom. - In Why I Wear Purple", below, Andrea talks about coming of age through her own trans childhood and adolescence. She also dismantles the transgender panic defense legal argument. - In "Storied", below, Andrea reflects on the gains that the LGBT community has made since Stonewall and what still remains to be done. Sherry Quan Lee A Chinese father. A black mother. Raised in "south Scandinavian Minneapolis". In "Discomfort Zone", Sherry talks about coming to terms with her intersectional heritages. She writes that "most black people identify me as black; most Asians identify me as Asian. White people don't have a clue." - Sherry Quan Lee's blog: Sherry provides a comprehensive overview of all her written work in this up-to-date blog. - Minneapolis Interview Project (MIP): You can find Sherry's interview here. Look under the interview tab. She describes her growing awareness of herself as a mixed-race person through high school and her early professional career. She also describes her work as a political activist. The purpose of the MIP is to provide "life stories through a social justice lens". - In "Sherry Quan Lee at the Loft" (below), Sherry reads from one of her more famous works. Bao Phi In "Brutal", Bao Phi pushes back against the stereotype that Asians are the good immigrants and that they don't experience racism or police brutality. His commentary aptly fits the essay title. Bao Phi's home page: In addition to his essay in A Good Time for the Truth, Bao is primarily a spoken-word poet. His homepage, although slightly outdated, does provide useful links to listen to and watch some of his featured performances. You can also find his "Friends of Bao" Facebook page here, which is up-to-date. Broken English: A brief performance piece. Bao reads a poem about his mother, who is a refugee, and her struggles to correct a cashier error at a greenhouse. Mouse: Another brief performance piece. Bao reflects on a midnight mouse, its lack of concern about his struggles, and what that means. The Nguyens: A four-minute poem about the struggles and triumphs, of Vietnamese people in the United States. Kao Kalia Yang In "A Good Time for the Truth", Kao talks about her racially mixed marriage. She is Hmong, and her partner is white. They have a strong relationship, but it is complex in ways that same-race marriages aren't. One of the most interesting facets of her essay is her discussion on how her experience of racism in the world has changed. When she was single, of course, she experienced racism. Now that she is in public with her white partner she experiences racism less often, but the tenor of that racism has a different quality. - The impossible happens every day in the life of a refugee: In this compelling fifteen-minute Youtube memoir, Kao recounts her family's struggles to escape the war in Laos, survive the refugee camp in Thailand, and settle in the United States. - The power in sharing our stories: In this seventeen-minute Youtube talk, Kao discusses how stories gave her, as a young girl, hope in the Thai refugee camp. She also discusses how, as a young girl here in the United States, she was a "selective mute". She decided that, if people here in the United States didn't lsten to her mom and dad's newcomer English, the world wouldn't listen to her either. So, school was very difficult for her. - Kao Kalia Yang brings Hmong Storytelling to the American Canon: In this six-minute Youtube video, Kao talks the power of stories and how, as a writer, she "calms our hearts when we're not looking so that our hearts do not flutter and fly away". She also talks about how important the BookMobile was to her as a girl growing up in Minnesota.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.714019	Higher Education	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98655/overview", "title": "Supplemental Resources for \"A Good Time for the Truth\"", "author": "Ethnic Studies" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108071/overview	OER Resources for College-level Music Appreciation Courses Overview This collection of OER was curated as part of an OER Background Research mini-grant to locate and evaluate resources for a college-level music appreciation course. OER Resources for a College-level Music Appreciation Course OER Resources for a College-Level Music Appreciation Course There is a wide range of perspectives on and approaches to what ‘Music Appreciation’ is considered to be: the resources below aptly demonstrate this premise. The materials listed are by no means comprehensive. They are taken from the websites listed above and the ‘rabbit hole’ if you will that we experience as researchers. Meaning, by clicking on one link, we are often taken to others and this is what happened as the digging into materials took place. Arguably, some resources you may come across are not necessarily relevant or appropriate for a college level traditional Music Appreciation class based on the Western Art music Tradition. With that being said, an instructor may choose to extrapolate materials deemed appropriate for the class being taught at the college level. This researcher was excited to see how materials were linked. For example, you may look for Music Appreciation materials and then come across materials for Jazz, Theatre, Film and Media, World Music and Music Theory among others. Since many college music instructors also teach other courses, this would prove useful. Perhaps click on some of the links provided and explore! Licensing at the bottom of each page; material presented chronologically; it is a Full Music Appreciation textbook and contains all materials needed for a ‘traditional’ music appreciation course. 2. Course Hero: Music Appreciation Study Guide Site also has classes that may be taken at different schools. - Early time periods not a part of the materials: begins with the Baroque era. - Overview of times periods presented and then works (musical examples) pertaining to period or specifics of a period, eg.: Comic Opera/Composer/Russian Five, etc. - Works/pieces are standard and thorough. 3. Resonance: Engaging Music in its Cultural Context. UNG Press, PDF Available, may also purchase for $43.95. - This book does not come across as a complete music appreciation course. - Resources have additional materials that may be beneficial for a course that is already established. In other words, use in conjunction with another text. 4. Music Appreciation (Georgia Gwinnett College), Summer 2017, Multiple authors/contributors. Galileo-open learning materials. Does need additional materials, will not stand on its own as a text. Into material is not broken down into time periods, and is presented more like an introductory guide to music theory. Could use links to pieces. - What is Music-has references - Musical Instruments - Rhythm-examples of meters-too complicated? Non-western - Melody, harmony, and texture - Form - Multiple modules /reference lists 5. Music Appreciation: Its Language, History, and Culture. Could not access through OER Commons-said verboten!! 6. Music Appreciation-Open ALG Textbooks-ALG Textbook Grant. Multiple contributors. Created January 2021, Modified March 2021. - Lower division, website, English - OER Licensing: CC EY-NC - TOC set by modules/reference lists-Into materials does not go through time periods. Would not consider this an undergraduate music appreciation textbook. More introductory materials to fundamentals, terminology, etc. 7. Merlot.org-Merlot collection materials - Predominantly for younger non-college level students; there is a great deal of material out there like this; quite a bit on OER Commons. - Interactive materials-some of the material may be used in a college level course, but instructor must parse through to make decisions. - If you follow links, one may access BBC materials and there are good quality musical examples. The website or link might be incorporated in to a course. Would use similarly to YouTube examples. This indicates that the instructor would need to be aware if the link is removed and replace accordingly. - There is also a link to America’s Jazz Heritage-Smithsonian Link to concerts and recordings. 8. Understanding Music: Past and Present - Multiple authors and universities across Georgia - Fundamentals of music, physics of sound, explore Middle Ages (MA) to present and chapter on Music in the U.S. - ISBN: 978-1-940771-335 - OER Licensing: CC-BY-SA - Links to YouTube listening; picture and explanations; charts/graphs; listening guides with attributions; Glossary and TOC; some information on World Music in the Appendix	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.762023	Textbook	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108071/overview", "title": "OER Resources for College-level Music Appreciation Courses", "author": "Student Guide" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77937/overview	Gram Stain Activity Overview This is a powerpoint interactive exercise for the gram stain proceedure. Microbiology_Gram Stain All images were obtained by clicking the creative commons lisence option during google search for images. I've added short descriptions of each single image when they initially appear in the alterative text boxes (subsequent images that are the same exact image shapes (over 400 images) are sometimes abbreviated as 'de' for decoration in the alternative text box). All references are included at the end of the powerpoint. The powerpoint must be in siide share mode for interactives to function. This is a short interactive powerpoint exercise that can help framilurize students with the general gram stain proceedure before entering the lab.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.778923	03/08/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77937/overview", "title": "Gram Stain Activity", "author": "Tyra McCray" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100244/overview	Welcome Letter Overview This is a welcome letter that I use for my English 101 class at Modesto Junior College but could be used for any course. ENGL 101 (F2F) I usually include a picture of myself (and my animals), along with my contact information. It is also helpful to add the link to any welcome quizzes, syllabus, or "getting to know you" surveys from Canvas. I try to send this note out a week before the start of classes. I find it really does help start making connections with students. Have a great semester! Dear Students, Welcome to our English 101 class. I am so excited to be working with you this semester. Below are some details about our class. When and how will we meet? (add details) On the first day of class, please bring a computer or other device where you can easily complete in-class assignments and a writing journal/notebook. If you do not have your own computer, you can borrow one for the semester at the Library and Learning Center just a few buildings down from Founders Hall. How will I know what to do and where to turn my work in? All class assignments and information will be posted on Canvas. We will go through some of the features of Canvas our first day of class. However, please take some time to poke around if you have some time. The more you feel comfortable with this learning system the easier it will be for you when classes start. I encourage you to play around with these tools that we will be using throughout the semester. Please complete the following as soon as you are able: Please go to your Canvas account and complete the “Getting to Know You Survey." Starting from our dashboard, click on modules. You will find the survey under “Course Introduction (Start Here!)” in the top portion. This is an opportunity for me to get to know you better and assess any needs you may have while you explore Canvas. Sign up for Remind (insert link) - This will be how we communicate with each other. I will also post announcements here. Keys for success: Please take the time now to think about your schedule and establish a realistic routine. Be kind to yourself along the way! Sincerely,	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.793858	01/26/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100244/overview", "title": "Welcome Letter", "author": "Christine Knight" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114442/overview	Adapting OER to Incorporate UDL Madera Community College Overview This template supports faculty and staff as they interrogate their OER and iterate the resource. This template is part of a Canvas course titled Adapting OER to Incorporate UDL. The initial course is offered by ISKME to California Community College faculty and staff and was created with support from the Michelson Foundatin's Spark Grant Program. Background on the Resource and Collaborators Prompts are provided below. Please replace the prompts with your own information. Please note: one template will be created per team unless a team has decided that each person is interrogating a separate OER. In that instance, this section could be copied and pasted into each person's template. Madera Community College Team Michelle Abou-Naoum (Biology Faculty) Antoniette Aizon (Psychology and Human Services Faculty) Hillary Biehler (Math Faculty) George Cartwright (Criminology Faculty) Jerry Rude (Physics and Astronomy Faculty) William Warm (Criminology Faculty) Resource to Interrogate PSY-42 Statistics in Social Sciences: Guide to Statistics for Social Sciences - Chapter 3. Central Tendency Goals with Interrogating and Adapting this Resource - Ensuring that the appropriate licensing is affix to the material. - Review images for proper attribution. - Ensure that the document is accessible (it meets the Accessibility checker). - Work on adding UDL Principles to this book. Considerations Statistics OER book using Microsoft Word as embedding the Office 365 version allows for the immersive reader. Word does not allow you to embed interactive type activities like Panopto Video or H5P activities. Plan Keep the Immersive Office 365 Word version AND create a copy of the text in LibreTexts to allow me to natively place these interactive videos. Using Chapter 2: Central Tendency, I will propose the following: - With the definitions of Mean, Median, Mode – do a concept check by providing a definition and using matching, they will match which term belongs to what definition. - For practice computation, I will record using Panopto walking through a sample problem for concept demonstration. In a secondary video, the students will follow along with the video but will have built-in quiz questions. With each step of the process, the Panopto video will pause and ask a multiple-choice question of solution. If the student got the answer correctly, the video would move into the next step. If the student did not get the answer correctly, they will have additional attempts until they got the right answer before the video continues to play. - Students will then have practice problems to demonstrate what they have learned. - They will be asked to complete a problem where they must calculate the results of the data. - For interpretation, the student not only has to get the correct answer, but the requirement of the problem is to interpret the results – what does the data mean. LibreText Central Tendency Section - in progress Impact to Students By allowing more guided practice and knowledge-based checks using different concepts from UDL, this should help the student with learning the content. Impact on Other Faculty and Staff at your Institution By providing an example of a project that followed the various Rubrics, this could help faculty review and consider how they can adopt UDL into their own OER / ZTC work product. This will help the institution to apply for additional funding as it will justify updating current OER / ZTC that is in used. Additionally, this will also help provide some guidance on faculty who would be applying for OER / ZTC grants on how they should approach updating their content. Adaptations to support Open Educational Practices Prompts are provided below. Please replace the prompts with your own information. Please refer to the Characteristics of OER tool. Based on your interrogation of your resource, please share: - What are you planning to adapt to increase the features of the open licensing on this resource? - How long will this take and who will be the main point person working on this? - How will your team keep track of the changes and future impact on students and faculty? Adaptations to support Accessibility Prompts are provided below. Please replace the prompts with your own information. Please refer to the Characteristics of Accessibility tool. Based on your interrogation of your resource, please share: - What are you planning to adapt to increase the features of Accessibility on this resource? - How long will this take and who will be the main point person working on this? - How will your team keep track of the changes and future impact on students and faculty? Adaptations to support UDL Prompts are provided below. Please replace the prompts with your own information. Please refer to the Characteristics of UDL tool. Based on your interrogation of your resource, please share: - What are you planning to adapt to increase the features of UDL on this resource? - DId your team identify any opportunities to co-create with students and what might that look like? - How long will this take and who will be the main point person working on this? - How will your team keep track of the changes and future impact on students and faculty? Sharing your iteration Prompts are provided below. Please replace the prompts with your own information. Please attach or link your iterated resource in this section. To help make your experience visible to others who pursue similar work, please share the following: - What aspect of this process stretched your thinking about your resource? - What next steps is your team considering?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.823846	Michelle Abou Naoum	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114442/overview", "title": "Adapting OER to Incorporate UDL Madera Community College", "author": "Antoniette Aizon" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96671/overview	Fennel stem p000087 Overview Fennel. Cross section stem. 8X Image and content credit: Fernando Agudelo-Silva. Micrograph Light background with green ring.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.840628	Forestry and Agriculture	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96671/overview", "title": "Fennel stem p000087", "author": "Botany" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96663/overview	Fern p000079 Overview Golden back fern. Back of pinnae. Image credit: Fernando Agudelo-Silva Micrograph Golden lobes of fern around dark stem	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.857067	Emily Fox	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96663/overview", "title": "Fern p000079", "author": "Diagram/Illustration" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96672/overview	p000088 fen2 Fennel stem p000088 Overview Fennel stem. 17X Image and content credit: Fernando Agudelo-Silva Micrograph Light background with green ring filled with white circles. Micrograph Light background with green ring filled with white circles.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.875165	Forestry and Agriculture	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96672/overview", "title": "Fennel stem p000088", "author": "Botany" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123161/overview	Open Textbooks for Rural AZ Publishing Template Overview Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona participants are invited to remix this template to share their courses, textbooks, and other OER material on our Hub. BIO/AGS 103 Plant Biology This is a fully OER course on Plant Biology using the textbook OpenStax Biology 2e. The course is designed to be used as a fully face to face or a hybrid class. The labs are intended to be done in person but could be adapted for an online course if needed. If you need assistance with accessing the materials in the course you can reach me at amy.bell@yc.edu. See below for a link to the course within Canvas Commons https://lor.instructure.com/resources/280a852057aa436987178b0665cc9393?shared Link to the Course - https://lor.instructure.com/resources/280a852057aa436987178b0665cc9393?shared Attach the resource here by clicking the Attach Section paperclick image below, then choose the correct file form from your computer, name your material(s), and save.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.889213	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123161/overview", "title": "Open Textbooks for Rural AZ Publishing Template", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66114/overview	Basic understanding of Microeconomics Overview This paper enable to have a better understanding of microeconomics. It helps the student to apply the concepts in real life. Syllabus Unit I -Introduction Nature and Scope of Microeconomics-Concepts of microeconomics-Types of goods-Utility--cardinal utility-ordinal utility Unit – II: Study of Markets Demand-factors determining demand -exceptions of demad -types of demand-supply-market demand- market equilibrium Unit-III- Measurement of Utility Indifference curve-Properties-MRS-Isoquant-Isocost curves-MRTS-Expansion path Unit-IV- Production Cost curves and Revenue curves-short run and Long run curves- Unit V-Markets Meaning of markets-types of market-features of perfect competition, Price and output determination under perfect competition. Books for study - Douglas B. Bernheim and Michael D. Whinston. (2009). Microeconomics, Tata McGraw-Hill (India). - Hal R. Varian (2010). Intermediate Microeconomics: A Modern Approach, W.W. Norton and Company/Affiliated East-West Press (India), 8th edition. - Ahuja. H.L (2010). Advanced Economic Theory, S. Chand & Company Ltd. New Delhi. - Joseph E. Stiglitz and Carl E. Walsh (2007). Economics, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York, International Student Edition, 4th edition. - Gregory N Mankiw (2007). Economics: Principles and Applications, India edition by South Western, a part of Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning India Private Limited, 4th edition. Assignment: Unit I- Identify the various types of goods that you use. Unit-II-Calculate the demand and supply of a product at different prices and measure the market equilibrium price Unit III- Calculate MRS and MRTS using assumed values Unit IV- Calculate all the cost and revenue of a firm Unit V – Mini Project	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.915755	05/03/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66114/overview", "title": "Basic understanding of Microeconomics", "author": "Chithra Regis" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96668/overview	Alder p000084 Overview \| Alder module. Image and content credit: Fernando Agudelo-Silva \| Micrograph Light background with brown and golden blob	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.932610	Emily Fox	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96668/overview", "title": "Alder p000084", "author": "Diagram/Illustration" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85704/overview	Inventions from US History Open Stax Gilded Age Readings Overview Test Inventions Introductory text Infant Mortality Readings Inventions Copy & Paste The late nineteenth century was an energetic era of inventions and entrepreneurial spirit. Building upon the mid-century Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, as well as answering the increasing call from Americans for efficiency and comfort, the country found itself in the grip of invention fever, with more people working on their big ideas than ever before. In retrospect, harnessing the power of steam and then electricity in the nineteenth century vastly increased the power of man and machine, thus making other advances possible as the century progressed. Facing an increasingly complex everyday life, Americans sought the means by which to cope with it. Inventions often provided the answers, even as the inventors themselves remained largely unaware of the life-changing nature of their ideas. To understand the scope of this zeal for creation, consider the U.S. Patent Office, which, in 1790—its first decade of existence—recorded only 276 inventions. By 1860, the office had issued a total of 60,000 patents. But between 1860 and 1890, that number exploded to nearly 450,000, with another 235,000 in the last decade of the century. While many of these patents came to naught, some inventions became lynchpins in the rise of big business and the country’s move towards an industrial-based economy, in which the desire for efficiency, comfort, and abundance could be more fully realized by most Americans. AN EXPLOSION OF INVENTIVE ENERGY From corrugated rollers that could crack hard, homestead-grown wheat into flour to refrigerated train cars and garment-sewing machines (Figure 18.3), new inventions fueled industrial growth around the country. As late as 1880, fully one-half of all Americans still lived and worked on farms, whereas fewer than one in seven—mostly men, except for long-established textile factories in which female employees tended to dominate—were employed in factories. However, the development of commercial electricity by the close of the century, to complement the steam engines that already existed in many larger factories, permitted more industries to concentrate in cities, away from the previously essential water power. In turn, newly arrived immigrants sought employment in new urban factories. Immigration, urbanization, and industrialization coincided to transform the face of American society from primarily rural to significantly urban. From 1880 to 1920, the number of industrial workers in the nation quadrupled from 2.5 million to over 10 million, while over the same period urban populations doubled, to reach one-half of the country’s total population. Figure 18.3 Advertisements of the late nineteenth century promoted the higher quality and lower prices that people could expect from new inventions. Here, a knitting factory promotes the fact that its machines make seamless hose, while still acknowledging the traditional role of women in the garment industry, from grandmothers who used to sew by hand to young women who now used machines. In offices, worker productivity benefited from the typewriter, invented in 1867, the cash register, invented in 1879, and the adding machine, invented in 1885. These tools made it easier than ever to keep up with the rapid pace of business growth. Inventions also slowly transformed home life. The vacuum cleaner arrived during this era, as well as the flush toilet. These indoor “water closets” improved public health through the reduction in contamination associated with outhouses and their proximity to water supplies and homes. Tin cans and, later, Clarence Birdseye’s experiments with frozen food, eventually changed how women shopped for, and prepared, food for their families, despite initial health concerns over preserved foods. With the advent of more easily prepared food, women gained valuable time in their daily schedules, a step that partially laid the groundwork for the modern women’s movement. Women who had the means to purchase such items could use their time to seek other employment outside of the home, as well as broaden their knowledge through education and reading. Such a transformation did not occur overnight, as these inventions also increased expectations for women to remain tied to the home and their domestic chores; slowly, the culture of domesticity changed. Perhaps the most important industrial advancement of the era came in the production of steel. Manufacturers and builders preferred steel to iron, due to its increased strength and durability. After the Civil War, two new processes allowed for the creation of furnaces large enough and hot enough to melt the wrought iron needed to produce large quantities of steel at increasingly cheaper prices. The Bessemer process, named for English inventor Henry Bessemer, and the open-hearth process, changed the way the United States produced steel and, in doing so, led the country into a new industrialized age. As the new material became more available, builders eagerly sought it out, a demand that steel mill owners were happy to supply. In 1860, the country produced thirteen thousand tons of steel. By 1879, American furnaces were producing over one million tons per year; by 1900, this figure had risen to ten million. Just ten years later, the United States was the top steel producer in the world, at over twenty-four million tons annually. As production increased to match the overwhelming demand, the price of steel dropped by over 80 percent. When quality steel became cheaper and more readily available, other industries relied upon it more heavily as a key to their growth and development, including construction and, later, the automotive industry. As a result, the steel industry rapidly became the cornerstone of the American economy, remaining the primary indicator of industrial growth and stability through the end of World War II. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL AND THE TELEPHONE Advancements in communications matched the pace of growth seen in industry and home life. Communication technologies were changing quickly, and they brought with them new ways for information to travel. In 1858, British and American crews laid the first transatlantic cable lines, enabling messages to pass between the United States and Europe in a matter of hours, rather than waiting the few weeks it could take for a letter to arrive by steamship. Although these initial cables worked for barely a month, they generated great interest in developing a more efficient telecommunications industry. Within twenty years, over 100,000 miles of cable crisscrossed the ocean floors, connecting all the continents. Domestically, Western Union, which controlled 80 percent of the country’s telegraph lines, operated nearly 200,000 miles of telegraph routes from coast to coast. In short, people were connected like never before, able to relay messages in minutes and hours rather than days and weeks. One of the greatest advancements was the telephone, which Alexander Graham Bell patented in 1876 (Figure 18.4). While he was not the first to invent the concept, Bell was the first one to capitalize on it; after securing the patent, he worked with financiers and businessmen to create the National Bell Telephone Company. Western Union, which had originally turned down Bell’s machine, went on to commission Thomas Edison to invent an improved version of the telephone. It is actually Edison’s version that is most like the modern telephone used today. However, Western Union, fearing a costly legal battle they were likely to lose due to Bell’s patent, ultimately sold Edison’s idea to the Bell Company. With the communications industry now largely in their control, along with an agreement from the federal government to permit such control, the Bell Company was transformed into the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, which still exists today as AT&T. By 1880, fifty thousand telephones were in use in the United States, including one at the White House. By 1900, that number had increased to 1.35 million, and hundreds of American cities had obtained local service for their citizens. Quickly and inexorably, technology was bringing the country into closer contact, changing forever the rural isolation that had defined America since its beginnings.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.955438	09/08/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85704/overview", "title": "Gilded Age Readings", "author": "Greta Grond" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98603/overview	Child Development Overview Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona participants are invited to remix this template to share their courses, textbooks, and other OER material on our Hub. "Volunteers can work as support staff for the teachers at the Early Child Development Centre" by Moving Mountains Trust is licensed under CC BY 2.0. Child Development (ECE/PSY 234) ECE/PSY Canvas OER Shell (Yavapai College) Child Development at Yavapai College Material Description ECE/PSY 234, Child Development Course Description: Exploration of children’s development from conception through adolescence, assuming a transactional approach to understanding development focusing on family relationships, brain development, and social-emotional development. Risk and protective factors are analyzed with respect to the interplay of attachment, brain development, and social-emotional development. Developmental periods include prenatal, infancy, toddlerhood, preschool years, middle childhood, and adolescence with an examination of biological influences, cognition, behavioral characteristics, social interaction, and cultural resources typified at each developmental period. Additional Information: 3 credit hours. Reading proficiency prerequisite. This course fulfills 3 credits of the Social and Behavioral Science (SBS) requirement of the AGEC. Required Text: Understanding the Whole Child: Prenatal Development through Adolescence, Paris, et. al (2022). Course Content - Genetics, prenatal, and birth - Physical development through adolescence - Cognitive development through adolescence - Language development through adolescence - Emotional development through adolescence - Social development through adolescence - Cultural influences on child development Course Objectives/Learning Outcomes - Summarize research methods applied to various theoretical perspectives of child development. - Describe major developmental themes (e.g. nature-nurture, stability and change, early-late experiences, and continuity - discontinuity) as applied to child development theories. - Evaluate various theories of child development. - Delineate genetic and prenatal influences on child development. - Analyze the interplay of physical, cognitive, emotional and social development. - Identify the probable effects of parents, family, peers, teachers, and community on child development. - Conduct research on topics related to child development. - Discuss the cultural influences on child development. Context for sharing: I am sharing this resource so that other educators and students can benefit from the OER materials created. Canvas Access the resource in the Canvas Commons here: https://lor.instructure.com/resources/9d9b7ba211ae4807b42c05e2005fafe3?shared Native Format Access the Canvas common cartridge file here.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:00.980615	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98603/overview", "title": "Child Development", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96853/overview	Hangman Part 10 Run and Test the Game Hangman Part 11 do-while loop Hangman Part 1 an Introduction Hangman Part 2 Setup Game Hangman Part 3 if else Statement Hangman Part 4 else Statement Hangman Part 5 while Loop Hangman Part 6 Replace char and Drawing the Board Hangman part 7 for Loop Hangman Part 8 for loop and manipulating the board Hangman Part 9 equal Sign 4- First Game in Java: Hangman Overview Learn how to develop the famous and simple Hangman game in Java Hangman Game (Lecture Videos) Step-by-step learning of how to develop the famous and simple Hangman Game in Java! We learn: 1- if-else statement 2- while loops 3- for loops 4- do-while loops Java Source File The Java source code of Hangman Game	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.005679	08/29/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96853/overview", "title": "4- First Game in Java: Hangman", "author": "Saeid Samadidana" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56698/overview	2.1 Chemical Foundations of Life 2.1 Chemical Foundations of Life This animated video lecture corresponds with Openstax Chapter 2 Chemical foundations of Life. Cover atoms and molecules. This animated video lecture corresponds with Openstax Chapter 2 Chemical foundations of Life. Cover atoms and molecules.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.021923	08/05/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56698/overview", "title": "2.1 Chemical Foundations of Life", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123426/overview	OER for World Mythology - HUM115 Overview A comprehensive list of resources related to myths and mythology. OER for World Mythology This document is a comprehensive list of resources related to myths and mythology, including primary texts such as the Internet Sacred Text Archive, Project Gutenberg, the Icelandic Saga Database, and Theoi Project, as well as didactic materials like the World History Encyclopedia and scholarly works. The compilation also includes notable courses, such as those from MIT OpenCourseWare and Georgia Virtual Learning, along with Crash Course on Mythology videos. This resource serves as a valuable guide for educators and students exploring the benefits of OERs and the diverse world of mythology. Title Image: Detail of a miniature from a thirteenth-century Icelandic manuscript / CC0	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.039652	12/27/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123426/overview", "title": "OER for World Mythology - HUM115", "author": "Red Rocks CC" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56665/overview	5.4 Types of transport (diffusion, active transport, hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic Overview Corresponds with Chapter 5 Openstax Biology 2e "Structure and Function of Plasma Membrane" Cell Plasma Membrane : Types of transport (diffusion, active transport, hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic) Video Lecture on factors that affect tonicity, diffusion, and flow of water. Corresponds with Chapter 5 Openstax Biology 2e "Structure and Function of Plasma Membrane"	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.052404	08/05/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56665/overview", "title": "5.4 Types of transport (diffusion, active transport, hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114868/overview	When Learners Become Creators: Mind-Blowing (and Adaptable) Open Pedagogy Projects Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: When Learners Become Creators: Mind-Blowing (and Adaptable) Open Pedagogy Projects. This resource includes the session abstract, presenter(s), resources, and recording. Session Abstract, Presenters, Resources, and Recording Session Abstract When educators use open pedagogy strategies to engage students as information creators, rather than just as information consumers, they elevate learning and transform assessment. This session showcases five visionary open pedagogy projects that re-imagine the learning experience by engaging students as full partners in the educational journey. See how educators in diverse disciplines use open pedagogy techniques, paired with technology (including generative AI) to enrich learning in information literacy education, college success, foreign language learning, media studies, and more. Learn how to easily find, clone, and adapt these and other student-led open pedagogy projects. Discover helpful resources and frameworks for planning and supporting open pedagogy in the classroom. Presenter(s) - John McLeod, Account Executive, Pressbooks Resources Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.070786	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114868/overview", "title": "When Learners Become Creators: Mind-Blowing (and Adaptable) Open Pedagogy Projects", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114875/overview	Where to Find OER, How to Customize OER for Your Class, and How to Share OER with the Community Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Where to Find OER, How to Customize OER for Your Class, and How to Share OER with the Community. This resource includes the session abstract, presenter(s), and recording. Session Abstract, Presenter(s), and Recording Session Abstract This session will be a conversation about the resources out there that will help colleges move towards an OER culture and ensure that students get the best learning experience possible. The presenter will share his experience in finding and enhancing OER and the participants will also have the opportunity to share their OER experiences and needs. We will see first hand how OER allows us to be part of a community of educators. Presenter(s) - Larry Green, Lake Tahoe Community College Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.084047	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114875/overview", "title": "Where to Find OER, How to Customize OER for Your Class, and How to Share OER with the Community", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114885/overview	Chewing More Than you can Bite Off: How to Leverage OER at the Departmental Level Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Chewing More Than you can Bite Off: How to Leverage OER at the Departmental Level. This resource includes the session abstract, presenter(s), resources, and recording. Session Abstract, Presenters, Resources, and Recording Session Abstract This session focuses on developing a sustainable OER project at the departmental level. By scaling up to a departmental initiative, faculty embrace core benefits of OER (collaboratively sharing, adapting, adopting, and creating), while maximizing the impact on student learning and success in their program. Join three faculty from the Phoenix College Dental and Allied Health Department to discuss how they leveraged individual OER projects into a collaborative effort to infuse their curriculum and program with OER and open pedagogy. During the session, participants will identify challenges, discuss potential solutions, and develop strategies for implementing OER engagement across their program or department. Each presenter will share their OER projects while discussing how it fits within the departmental scope by supporting curriculum, addressing the needs of students, and creating opportunities beyond the typical text or assignment. The session will provide an open dialogue so that participants can share ideas and generate a plan to grow OER within their respective departments. Presenter(s) - LaQuera Darrow, Phoenix College - Rosa Querry, Phoenix College - Andreea Catana, Phoenix College - Ben Aloe, Phoenix College Resources Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.102634	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114885/overview", "title": "Chewing More Than you can Bite Off: How to Leverage OER at the Departmental Level", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114850/overview	Day 2 Welcome & Keynote Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Day 2 welcome and keynote. This resource includes the session abstract, presenter(s) information, and recording. Session Abstract and Recording Session Abstract Welcome remarks from conference host institutions and sponsors. Presenter(s) - Matthew Bloom, Scottsdale Community College - John Doherty, Norther Arizona University - Jessica Parsons, Paradise Valley Community College - Josie Milliken, Pima Community College Keynote Presentation Title & Abstract Title: Finding annd Enhancing OER for your College Open Educational Resources not only save students money, but they also provide the opportunity to customize the material for the needs of the specific course and the specific instructor. This presentation will give examples on how to bring the OER culture into a college. It will also guide the audience on how to find the particular OER learning materials for a course and then enhance these materials to best address the learning needs of the students. Presenter - Larry Green, Lake Tahoe Community College - Larry Green has taught at Lake Tahoe Community College for 27 years. He is the lead for the California community colleges OER in mathematics, a past president of the California Mathematics Council Community College (CMC3), the Math and Statistics chair for MERLOT, the Statistics head of the LibreTexts project, and is on the California Education Learning Lab team for bringing together the projects. He has authored OER materials every year since 1995 and has led his college in its OER movement which has resulted in more than half of all classes at the college becoming ZTC and several AA degrees fully ZTC. He spoke in front of the California state senate and state assembly to achieve a unanimous vote for its first OER ititiative, a bill that he helped author. Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.117645	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114850/overview", "title": "Day 2 Welcome & Keynote", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114880/overview	OER Commons 101 Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: OER Commons 101. This resource includes the session abstract, presenter(s), and recording. Session Abstract, Presenter(s), and Recording Session Abstract OER Commons is a large library of OER resources available for adopting and adapting. Educators can search, create, and share resources on the Commons. The OERizona Network has launched its own Hub within OER Commons which will be a statewide shared repository for making resources created by Arizona educators available for others to use. This session will walk users through the basics of OER Commons and support individuals with creating their account and getting access to the OERizona Network's Hub. Presenter(s) - Megan Simmons, ISKME - Micah Weedman, Yavapai College Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.131229	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114880/overview", "title": "OER Commons 101", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96824/overview	Steps and Examples for Writing Personal Narratives Overview A Personal Narrative Essay is a creative form of writing that explains a memorable event in a student's life. Like other types of essays, it follows a specific structure and includes an introduction, several paragraphs of body content, and a conclusion. The main purpose of a personal narrative essay is to convince the reader of why the applicant would be a good fit for the college or university they apply to. A Personal Narrative Essay is a creative form of writing that explains a memorable event in a student's life. Like other types of essays, it follows a specific structure and includes an introduction, several paragraphs of body content, and a conclusion. The main purpose of a personal narrative essay is to convince the reader of why the applicant would be a good fit for the college or university they apply to. What is a personal narrative? Defining personal narratives is an important step to writing a story that will inspire and touch the reader. A personal narrative is an essay in the first person, often a true story, that reflects a writer's personal experiences. You can take a look at this resource for various free online examples of personal narratives that may inspire your writing. Though this type of essay usually differs from author to author, there are some basic guidelines that all personal narratives must follow. These include an introduction, key points, and conclusion. You can also structure your personal narrative to include the elements of plot, character, setting, and climax. A personal narrative usually follows a three-part structure, with the introduction focusing on the 'hook' that will 'hook' the reader. The hook can be in the form of an event or an emotion. In any case, it must be relevant to the subject matter explored. For example, the hook may focus on an external event or an internal one, and give the reader a hint as to why these events matter. The detailed answer to the why of a narrative may be reserved for the conclusion. Choose your topic When writing a personal narrative essay, you need to find a topic that you enjoy writing about. It is essential to pick a topic that excites you, but still reflects on your own life. You can choose to write about a memorable moment or describe a philosophical thought. Personal narrative essays can range from a brief account of a single experience to a voluminous autobiography. For example, you can write about an event that happened to you as a child. When writing a personal narrative essay, there are a few important aspects to remember. There are three basic parts: an introduction, middle, and end. When writing a personal narrative essay, it's best to begin with a strong introduction and then follow this up with detailed descriptions and the climax. After that, you can write your personal narrative essay according to the structure outlined below. Then, follow the same process to write a solid conclusion. Your topic for your personal narrative essay should be something that excites you. Choose a memorable moment from your childhood, a trip, or an experience that has affected your life. You can write about your professional or personal journey as well. Make sure your topic is unique and engaging, so readers will be interested in reading your personal story! Here are some helpful tips for choosing a topic: Outline your paper The first step in writing a personal narrative is to make an outline. It should focus on a topic or aspect of the personal narrative that will interest the reader. The outline should be as detailed as possible, and it should also include keywords to designate minor pieces of information. You should also include a body, an introduction, and a conclusion. To save time, outline your paper first and write the paper last. A personal narrative essay will often have a beginning, middle, and end, and should be structured in chronological order. Then, you will need to write your draft, revise it, and submit it to your teacher for review. This process is similar to writing other college assignments. To start off, you should choose a topic, write an outline, then write a draft. The final draft should include a call to action or a thesis statement that ties everything together. Write and edit draft Personal narratives follow the flow of a life experience and are usually written from the perspective of the author. They can range from childhood memories to a special vacation. It could also be about a professional journey. Regardless of the subject, it is important to ensure that your writing reflects your personal experiences. Here are some tips to help you write a personal narrative. Start with choosing a topic. Choose something that is meaningful to you, such as a favorite memory, trip, or memory. After you have written your first draft, you should print it out and make notes. Circle sentences or draw lines to make them fit together better. This will help you identify weak passages and sections that need more examples or evidence. You may also need to rewrite a portion to improve its structure. Once you've edited your draft, you'll have a finished product that you're proud of. A final step is to make any changes you feel necessary and to make the writing more engaging.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.147627	08/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96824/overview", "title": "Steps and Examples for Writing Personal Narratives", "author": "Erik Fender" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102049/overview	Open For Antiracism (OFAR) [Connor's Test] Overview The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Action Plan Describe how OER and open pedagogy help your class to be antiracist here. End of Section 1 Course Description Add your course description here including the course name and number, and learning outcomes. Attach your syllabus here clicking the Attach Section paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer, name your syllabus, and save. End of Section 2 Antiracist Assignment / Module Describe your antiracist assignment or module. Attach your assignment or module here clicking the Attach Section paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer, name your assignment or module, and save. Paste any relevant links that others would find helpful. End of Section 3	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.162739	03/22/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102049/overview", "title": "Open For Antiracism (OFAR) [Connor's Test]", "author": "Connor Van Leeuwen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91964/overview	German Level 4, Activity 03: Ab ins Kino / Off to the Movies (Online) Overview Students will plan a trip to a movie in Vienna, using the computer to plan the travel, figure out how to purchase their tickets, discuss favorite movies and actors/actresses, and figure out what snacks to have at the movie. Activity Information Did you know that you can access the complete collection of Pathways Project German activities in our new Let’s Chat! German pressbook? View the book here: https://boisestate.pressbooks.pub/pathwaysgerman Please Note: Many of our activities were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact pathwaysproject@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. Off to the Movies / Ab ins Kino Description Students will plan a trip to a movie in Vienna, using the computer to plan the travel, figure out how to purchase their tickets, discuss favorite movies and actors/actresses, and figure out what snacks to have at the movie. Semantic Topics Movies, Film, Movie Theater Food, Essen im Kino, Freindship, Freundschaft Products Music video about a relationship. Musikvideo über eine Beziehung Practices How to interact in a relationship. Determining what is important in relationships. Wie man in einer Beziehung interagiert. Bestimmen, was in Beziehungen wichtig ist Perspectives Cultural norms in relationships both with an English speaking individual and German speaking individual. Kulturelle Normen in Beziehungen sowohl zu einer englischsprachigen als auch zu einer deutschsprachigen Person NCSSFL-ACTFL World-Readiness Standards - Standard 1.2 Students understand and interpret spoken and written language on a variety of topics - Standard 5.1 Students use German both within and beyond the school setting - Standard 3.1 Students reinforce and further their knowledge of other disciplines through German. Idaho State Content Standards - Objective: Comm 1.1 Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions. - Objective: Conn 1.2 Relation information studied in other subjects to the target language and culture. - Objective Comt 1.2 Discuss personal preferences in activities and events both within and beyond the classroom. NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can figure out how to get from one place to another in a foreign city. - I can discuss my preferences about and describe movies. - I can invite someone to a movie with me. Materials Needed Warm-Up 1. Discuss the Can-Do Statements. - Diskutieren Sie die Kann-Aussagen. 2. Divide the students up into breakout rooms of twos or threes. - Teilen Sie die Schüler in Zweier- oder Dreier-Breakout Rooms auf. 3. The students are friends studying abroad in Vienna. - Die Studenten sind Freunde, die in Wien im Ausland studieren. 4. One student asks another if they would like to go to the movies. - Ein Student fragt einen anderen, ob er ins Kino gehen möchte. 5. The Students discuss their favorite German/Austrian Actors/Actresses, Filmmaker, and Films. - Die Studierenden diskutieren ihre liebsten deutschen/österreichischen Schauspieler/innen, Filmemacher und Filme. - use the links below to compare and discuss the 2021 Box office #1 films in Austria against the 2021 Box office #1 films in the United States. - Wenn es die Zeit erlaubt, verwenden Sie die nachstehenden Links, um die 2021 Box Office #1-Filme in Österreich mit den 2021 Box Office #1-Filmen in den Vereinigten Staaten zu vergleichen und zu diskutieren. - List of 2021 Box Office Number one Films in Austria - List of 2021 Box Office Number one Films in the United States Main Activity In the zoom rooms have the students... - In den Zoom-Räumen haben die Schüler... 1. Research the movies available to see in Vienna. - Recherchieren Sie die Filme, die in Wien zu sehen sind. 2. Decide on which movie to see. - Entscheiden Sie, welchen Film Sie sehen möchten. 3. Create directions to the Theater from the University of Vienna, Universitätsring 1, 1010 Wien, Austria. - Erstellung einer Anfahrtsbeschreibung zum Theater der Universität Wien, Universitätsring 1, 1010 Wien, Österreich. 4. Decide what food/snacks they will be ordering and eating at the movie theater. - Entscheiden, welche Speisen/Snacks sie im Kino bestellen und essen. Wrap-Up Have the students present their movie plans to the rest of the class. - Lassen Sie die Schüler ihre Filmpläne dem Rest der Klasse präsentieren. Have the students invite the others to the movie, give a short description of the movie, and see who would like to join them. - Lassen Sie die Schüler die anderen zum Film einladen, geben Sie eine kurze Beschreibung des Films und sehen Sie, wer mitmachen möchte.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.245578	Mimi Fahnstrom	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91964/overview", "title": "German Level 4, Activity 03: Ab ins Kino / Off to the Movies (Online)", "author": "Shawn Moak" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88502/overview	IndependantPractice TheAccountingEquation Lesson Plan for The Basic Accounting Equation Overview This is a simple lesson plan to teach the basic accounting equation. In this lesson, students will see a video and have a lecture on the equation and its components. They will have a chance to practice what they have learned (homework) and will be assessed on what they learned at the end (quiz). The Basic Accounting Equation Quiz can be convertd to dropdown quiz in Canvas Introduction Students will learn the basic accounting equation and how to use the equation to analyze business transactions. Objectives - Students will be able to identify each part of the accounting equation. - Students will be able to check the balance of the accounting equation after a business transaction has been analyzed and recorded. - Students will be able to apply basic accounting terminology. Introductory Video Lecture Power Point lecture will give students an overview of the accounting equation as well as some basic vocabulary. Recommend students answer questions on their own paper from beginning of lecture to use as assessment of understanding. Accounting Equation PowerPoint Lecture Slides	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.265458	12/06/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88502/overview", "title": "Lesson Plan for The Basic Accounting Equation", "author": "Melody Barta" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83318/overview	CM2_LearningStyles&SensoryModalities CM3_Cognitive&Physical CM4_Spiritual&Social CM5_Materials&Environment CM6_All_Together CM7_Evaluation CM_Syllabus Children's Ministries - Alaska Christian College Overview A series of modules for Alaska Christian College's seminars on Children's Ministries. Includes scans of powerpoint print-outs. Syllabus & Intro Materials The attached resource is the syllabus & introductory materials, with images of powerpoint slides and text. Session 1 Introduction The attached resource is Session 1 Introduction, with images of powerpoint slides and text. Session 2 Learning Styles & Sensory Modalities The attached resource is Session 2 Learning Styles & Sensory Modalities, with images of powerpoint slides and text. Session 3 Cognitive & Physical Development The attached resource is Session 3 Cognitive & Physical Development, with images of powerpoint slides and text. Session 4 Spiritual & Social Development The attached resource is Session 4 Spiritual & Social Development, with images of powerpoint slides and text. Session 5 Materials & Environment The attached resource is Session 5 Materials & Environment, with images of powerpoint slides and text. Session 6 Putting It All Together The attached resource is Session 6 Putting It All Together, with images of powerpoint slides and text. Session 7 Evaluation & Assessment The attached resource is Session 7 Evaluation & Assessment, with images of powerpoint slides and text.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.295707	07/08/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83318/overview", "title": "Children's Ministries - Alaska Christian College", "author": "Elizabeth Sandell" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93464/overview	Instructor's Manual Parent Seminar Session 1 Parent Seminar Session 2 Participant's Manual Participant's Manual Translated to Chinese Parent Seminar: Supporting International Students during the Transition to University Overview This is a seminar that I created as part of the requirements for completing my M.S. in Education through Cairn University. It contains the professional paper that I wrote about the research and process underlying the seminar, two PowerPoint presentations for the two sessions of the seminar, an instructor's manual with slide-by-slide breakdowns of each of the PowerPoint presentations, a participant's manual for the seminar's participants to take notes and provide feedback, and the participant's manual translated to Chinese. Please note that the PowerPoint presentations have been designed with Master Slides templates to ensure correct reading order for screen readers. Video has captions in both English and Chinese. Supporting Stressed Students: Educating the Parents of Asian International Students This is a professional paper that I wrote as part of the requirements for completing my M.S. in Education through Cairn University. It describes both the background research that I did and the process that I went through to create a parent seminar about supporting Asian international students during their transition to Western universities. Parent Seminar, Session 1 This is the first of two PowerPoint presentations that I put together for this parent seminar about supporting Asian international students during their transition to Western universities. It includes the following topics: international student adjustment, strong parent-child relationships, and three stressors that Asian international students can face during their transition to university. Interactive discussion questions are interspersed throughout the presentation. Parent Seminar, Session 2 PPT This is the second of two PowerPoint presentations that I put together for this parent seminar about supporting Asian international students during their transition to Western universities. It includes the following topics: two stressors that Asian international students can face during their transition to university, social support networks, and a summary of parental support strategies. Interactive discussion questions are interspersed throughout the presentation. Instructor's Manual This instructor's manual goes along with the Parent Seminar Session 1 and Session 2 PowerPoint presentations. It describes the purpose of the seminar, the learning objectives for the participants, the materials and equipment necessary for presenting the seminar, and slide-by-slide breakdowns of each of the PowerPoint presentations. Participant's Manual This participant's manual goes along with the Parent Seminar Session 1 and Session 2 PowerPoint presentations, and it is intended for use by the parents attending the seminar. It provides a written introduction to the seminar, gives background information, and defines important terminology. It also has space for note-taking for each of the seminar's topics and discussion questions. The last page of the participant's manual is an evaluation form that can be turned back in to the presenter with feedback about the seminar. Participant's Manual Translated to Chinese This translated participant's manual goes along with the Parent Seminar Session 1 and Session 2 PowerPoint presentations. It contains all the same information as the English-language version of the participant's manual, but translated to Chinese (simplified characters).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.320656	World Cultures	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93464/overview", "title": "Parent Seminar: Supporting International Students during the Transition to University", "author": "Languages" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102976/overview	A Study on the Relationship between Kwon Beop and the Traditional Martial Art Subak in Martial Arts Dobotongji Overview muyedobotongji, published during the reign of King Jeongjo of the Joseon Dynasty, is currently listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in North Korea. It was registered as a documentary heritage, and it is a cultural heritage that was designated as Seoul Intangible Cultural Heritage No. 51 in 2019 by the Seoul Metropolitan Government Department of History and Culture. A Study on the Relationship between Kwon Beop and the Traditional Martial Art Subak in Muyedobotongji muyedobotongji, published during the reign of King Jeongjo of the Joseon Dynasty, is currently listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in North Korea. It was registered as a documentary heritage, and it is a cultural heritage that was designated as Seoul Intangible Cultural Heritage No. 51 in 2019 by the Seoul Metropolitan Government Department of History and Culture. As a field expert, the author cross-validated through substantial and technical comparisons. There are several movements that do not appear in Cheok Gye-gwang's Gihyosinseo in muyedobotongji and previous translations of martial arts. Muyedobotongji was reconstructed by subjectively accepting Chinese martial arts in Joseon. Muyedobotongji Kwonbeop is standardized like Taekwondo Poomsae so that two people practice each movement according to a certain order, and the things traditionally performed in our military camp are loaded together.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.337919	Jun-ho Song	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102976/overview", "title": "A Study on the Relationship between Kwon Beop and the Traditional Martial Art Subak in Martial Arts Dobotongji", "author": "Unit of Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71802/overview	Image of homeless female Overview This is an image of a homeless female from Wikipedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Homeless_female_holding_up_sign,_Los_Angeles_California_2012.jpg This is an image of a homeless female from Wikipedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Homeless_female_holding_up_sign,_Los_Angeles_California_2012.jpg	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.352992	Visual Arts	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71802/overview", "title": "Image of homeless female", "author": "Sociology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86001/overview	Two applications of ion exchange chromatography Overview The topic includes two applications of ion exchange chromatography . I have illustrated it using the app "Mindomo'. This illustration explains in detail about the two applications of ion exchange chromatography.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.365647	09/20/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86001/overview", "title": "Two applications of ion exchange chromatography", "author": "Kimberly Pereira" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/13264/overview	Introduction to Water Polo Overview This module will provide a brief introduction to the background and rules of the sport of water polo Water Polo . Water Polo is a team sport. It is played in a pool, preferably with a depth of 12 feet deep. It is played in a 4 quarter match between two teams. There are two goals on opposite sides of the pool. The objective is to throw the ball into the opponents goal to score a goal. The team with the most goals at the end of 4 quarters win. Rules . -A team is made up of 6 field players and one goalie. -One of the defining rules of water polo is that field players may only use one hand at all times. Only the goalie may use 2 hands. -All players tread water at all times. There is no holding the wall or touching the bottom during play. Pool Setup . There are 3 important lines in a water polo court: All lines are marked by different color cones on the outside of the pool. - The first is the two meter line. This line is two meters away from the goal on both ends. Offensive players are not allowed to be inside of this line. It is marked by a red cone. - The next is the five meter line. This line is five meters away from the goal on both ends. Goalies cannot use two hands pass this line. This is also the line that penalty shots are taken from. It is marked by a yellow cone. - The final line is mid pool. This is where the ball is dropped to begin the game. It is marked by a green pool. Fouls . There are three major types of fouls in water polo: 1). Common foul. This is for a non malicious violation. This results in a free throw for the other team. 2). 20 second exclusion. This is for a malicious foul. It results in the offending player being excluded from the game for 20 seconds or until a change of posession. Goalies can be excluded as well. 3). 5 meter penalty shot. This is for a malicious foul in front of the goal or on the goalie. The result is a penalty shot taken from the 5 meter line. It is one on one with the goalkeeper. Positions . There are four different positions in water polo. They are Hole set, Point, Wing drivers, and a goalkeeper. The typical offensive allignment in water polo is three players lined across the two meter line, and another three players lined around the five meter line. The hole set is positioned in the center of the pool at the two meter line. They are considered the focal point of the offense. Defensively they defend the point position typically. The point is the middle of the pool position at the five meter line. They are in charge of running the offense. Defensively they typically defend the hole set position. The other outside four players are the wing drivers. Water Polo consists of a motion offense, where all of the positions tend to rotate and switch positions. Conditioning . Water Polo requires a vigorous conditioning program. Due to its nature, it requires a three fold workout routine. Swimming conditioning, treading conditioning, and dry land running and lifting. It is considered one of the most enduring and physical sports in the world. To excel, it requires a year long routine. Water Polo Gameplay . Water Polo Key Vocabulary . 30 seconds: The amount of time on the typical shot clock Attacker: (Flat, Wing, Point, Driver) Also called a "utility player," a versatile player who is a secondary two-meter defender but who is also capable of playing the hole and driver positions. Backhand: a deceptive shot or pass flipped backward Ball under: one example of an ordinary foul, punished by the opposing team earning a free throw. A player may take or hold the ball underwater when being attacked by an opponent. Corner throw: a throw used to restart play if a defensive player touched the ball last before it went out over the goal line Dribble: to swim with the ball Drive: to swim quickly into the space in front of the goal on offense without the ball Eggbeater: the alternating leg kick used to tread water and lift players vertically out of the water, also known as a flutter kick. Key Vocabulary Continued . Exclusion area: The designated area outside the field of play where excluded players wait to return to the game after their punishment for an exclusion foul. Lane ropes and buoys: are used to distinguish the field of play and imaginary distances from the goals Man up: a 20 second period of time for the offensive team where it has one more player than the defensive team after a defensive player commits an exclusion foul. Red: The period of time immediately prior to the expiration of the shot clock or game clock. Some teams yell "Red" when either of these clocks indicates 10 seconds or less. Swim off: a race for the ball in the center of the field to start each period Wet pass: a pass from one player to another that is designated to land in the water	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.387978	03/02/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/13264/overview", "title": "Introduction to Water Polo", "author": "Nicholas Lowry" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107930/overview	Fractions - Supplemental Learning Module Overview The Fraction module is separated into five pages. Each page except the first page has videos and lecture notes. At the end of the entire module are review problems. The review problems are a set of exercises in Derivita that correspond to the skills covered in the lecture pages and the videos. The instructors can choose to assign the practice problems based on their students' needs. This work was created by Kathryn Kozak, and it is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. CC-BY Fractions - Learning Module The Fraction module is separated into five pages. Each page except the first page has videos and lecture notes. At the end of the entire module are review problems. The review problems are a set of exercises in Derivita that correspond to the skills covered in the lecture pages and the videos. The instructors can choose to assign the practice problems based on their students' needs. This work was created by Kathryn Kozak, and it is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License CC-BY Material Attachment It is preferred if you include the material in multiple formats, such as a public link and an attachment. Fractions Learning Module (common cartridge) Fractions Common Cartridge Common Cartridge to import into your learning management system. Instructions for Module Import 1. Go to the Canvas Course where you want to import the module into ... 2. Click Home. 3. Click Import Existing Content. 4. Content Type: Select – Common Cartridge 1.x Package. 5. Click Choose File. ... 6. Content: Click – Select Content. … 7. Click the check box next to everything EXCEPT course settings 7. Click Import. 8. Wait for Canvas to complete processing the file.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.410153	Trigonometry	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107930/overview", "title": "Fractions - Supplemental Learning Module", "author": "Mathematics" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121411/overview	https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2kbgkyY0XXk&themeRefresh=1 What is Sports Broadcasting? Overview A quick start quide to different ways to get involved in sports management. Learning about one of the subsections of the sports industry. Learning Objectives: - Identify the key roles in sports broadcasting - Understand the production process behind sports news broadcasts. - Recognize the impact of technology on sports broadcasting. Sports broadcasting is a dynamic and essential part of the entertainment industry, bringing live sports events to millions of viewers around the world. Whether it’s a football game on TV, a tennis match on the radio, or an online streaming broadcast, sports broadcasters play a crucial role in keeping fans connected to the action. They provide real-time descriptions of the game, offer expert insights, and help audiences understand the significance of key moments. But behind every broadcast is a team of professionals working together—announcers, producers, camera operators, and technical staff—all contributing to the overall experience. With the rise of new technology, sports broadcasting has evolved significantly in recent years. Today’s broadcasts feature instant replays, detailed graphics, and interactive elements that enhance the viewer's understanding of the game. Online streaming platforms have also allowed fans to access sports events from anywhere in the world, breaking down geographic and language barriers. From the announcers who bring the action to life to the behind-the-scenes work that makes it all possible, sports broadcasting continues to grow and adapt, offering exciting new ways for fans to experience the games they love. Sports reporting vs. sports broadcasting: What’s the difference? Dean College. (n.d.). https://www.dean.edu/news-events/dean-college-blog/story/sports-reporting-vs-sports-broadcasting-what-difference/ Roles in Sports Broadcasting In sports broadcasting, there are several key roles that help bring the action to viewers or listeners. The most important are the play-by-play announcers, who describe the events of the game as they happen. Their job is to keep the audience informed about what’s going on in real time, such as calling out scores, describing plays, and mentioning key moments. Play-by-play announcers need to be quick, clear, and accurate in their descriptions to keep the audience engaged. Another crucial role is the color commentator, who provides analysis and expert opinions during the broadcast. Color commentators help explain strategies, break down plays, and offer insights into the players’ performances. They add context to the game, making it more enjoyable and easier to understand for the audience. Together, the play-by-play announcer and color commentator work as a team, giving fans a complete picture of the event. Attached, find a video that discusses the role of a color commentator as an example. Production Process Sports broadcasts involve a team of people who work behind the scenes to make sure everything goes smoothly. The production crew is in charge of things like camera angles, sound, and graphics. Camera operators capture the action from different views, while audio technicians make sure the announcers and crowd noise sound clear. The graphics team shows important details, like scores and player stats, to help viewers follow the game. There are also technical staff who handle the equipment that gets the broadcast to the audience. They make sure the signal reaches TV screens, radios, or online platforms without any problems. Everyone on the team works together to create a smooth, enjoyable experience for fans watching or listening from home. Technology in Broadcasting Technology has changed sports broadcasting in many exciting ways. Today, broadcasts include things like instant replays, which show key moments of the game again right after they happen. This helps viewers see important plays from different angles and understand them better. On-screen graphics also provide extra information, such as player stats or scores, so fans can stay updated during the game. Another big change is online streaming, which allows people to watch sports events from anywhere, on any device. Fans don’t have to be in front of a TV anymore; they can stream games live on their phones or computers. This technology also helps broadcasters reach a global audience, offering broadcasts in different languages to connect with more fans around the world. These advancements have made watching sports more interactive and accessible than ever before.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.431929	10/27/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121411/overview", "title": "What is Sports Broadcasting?", "author": "Madison Walker" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102867/overview	Your Course Title-Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Overview The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Action Plan Describe how OER and open pedagogy help your class to be antiracist here. Course Description Add your course description here including the course name and number, and learning outcomes. Attach your syllabus here clicking the Attach Section paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer, name your syllabus, and save. Antiracist Assignment / Module Describe your antiracist assignment or module. Attach your assignment or module here clicking the Attach Section paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer, name your assignment or module, and save. Paste any relevant links that others would find helpful.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.445988	04/12/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102867/overview", "title": "Your Course Title-Open For Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Connor Van Leeuwen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121396/overview	Presentation Design Principles Overview This module teaches the 7 basic design principles for effective presentations. Overview of Design Principles There are 7 basic Design Principles that we will review in this module. These principles are useful in creating visually engaging and captivating presentations while effectively communicating the desired content to your audience. The Principles are: - Signal vs Noise Ratio - Picture Superiority Effect - Empty Space - Contrast - Repetition - Alignment - Proximity Signal vs Noise Ratio The signal vs. noise ratio is a reference to the amount of relevant information versus irrelevant information. Whether it's text, data, or graphics, the goal is to have the highest ratio of valuable content without anything extra that might detract from the presentation. Extra content degrades the message and distracts the attention of the viewer. It also is an extraneous cognitive load for the viewer as they try to process too much information at the same time. Picture Superiority Effect Pictures can tell a story quickly and without words. They are also remembered better than words, especially when exposure to the material is limited. The picture superiority effect can be utilized in design by presenting material with both pictures and text to relay a broader message that will be remembered. Images used should be natural and already understood by the viewer. This helps connect the new information to that which is already known. Empty Space Effective use of empty space is resisting the urge to completely fill in the available area of a presentation area. Leaving out extra images, charts, and logos, highlights the material that is presented. Empty space can be balanced with images, and it is effective in directing the viewer's eyes to the central message. It conveys clarity of message as well as a sense of elegance. Contrast Contrast is a visual element that highlights the difference between objects. A viewer's eyes are drawn to the highlighted or contrasted image displayed. This dominant image stands out and is typically a focal point or primary message to be relayed to the viewer. Contrast should be clearly different between the images and it might be obtained through color, space, text, or position. Repetition One way to connect several slides in a presentation is through the use of repetition. This is similar to a theme where elements of one slide are repeated throughout other slides conveying a sense of unity and cohesiveness. There should be subtle changes so that the elements are not identical but yet similar enough for the viewer to make the connection from one slide to another. Alignment Nothing in a presentation slide should be placed randomly. Instead, the use of a grid allows for the elements to be aligned in a way that is cohesive and intentional. An aligned presentation is cleaner, and it makes it easier for the viewer to understand and make sense of the content. A scattered and misaligned presentation requires work from the viewer to process the content to make sense of what is being presented to them. Proximity Proximity refers to the various elements used in a presentation and their distance or closeness to one another. If elements are not close to one another, the viewer assumes that they are not related to one another and are instead, unique elements. If elements are placed closely together, the viewer connects them and assumes similarity and likeness of the message relayed. The use of proximity is used to make connections obvious and to make it easier for the viewer to understand the image being viewed. Conclusion So, what do you think? You probably are already thinking of ads, websites, or presentations that you've seen before that utilize a few of these principles. If not, look for these principles the next time you see an ad or visit a website. Does the principle they used help communicate their intended message? The next time you need to prepare a presentation, try these out for yourself. Your audience will appreciate it and you'll be a more effective communicator.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.465561	Lance Griffis	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121396/overview", "title": "Presentation Design Principles", "author": "Module" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99481/overview	Health and well being Overview Jhoshue veras Health and well being Me and my group members were concentrating on sustainability goal #3,17 which was centered on 'health and well-being". Even while health and well being are closely related, they can be obtained in various ways. That is why my group members and I concentrated on various aspects of health and well-being. Jhoshue was concentrating on immunizations because they are one of the most effective methods to keep healthy. Makayla concentrated on organic foods since they are healthy for your body. Travis concentrated on the gym since exercise is really good for the human body. We observed throughout our investigation that while things like vaccines are fairly easy to get, things like the gym and organic food are incredibly expensive, making it impossible for folks to keep healthy because the life to live healthily is only designed for the wealthy. As a healthy lifestyle is regarded as too expensive, we are seeing an increase in mental health and physical health problems across the country as the lifestyle is inaccessible to certain populations. Ultimately, being healthy in this nation will cost you an arm and a leg, and it is a lifestyle reserved for those with money.. In anthropology, health and well-being are inextricably linked with sustainability since they are all interlinked and interdependent. The ability to maintain and preserve natural and cultural systems throughout time, including the health and well-being of individuals and communities, is referred to as sustainability. In anthropology, health and well-being are frequently viewed holistically, taking into consideration not just physical health but also mental, emotional, and social health. This viewpoint acknowledges that all elements of health are interrelated and that improving one component can have a positive influence on others. Sustainability and health are also closely connected because the health of individuals and communities is often directly impacted by the sustainability of the natural and cultural systems they depend on. For example, if a community's natural resources are not being managed sustainably, it can lead to environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity, which can in turn impact the health and well-being of the community by reducing the availability of clean air, water, and food, and increasing the risk of exposure to pollution and disease. Furthermore, sustainability and health are frequently linked through the social and economic structures that affect people's lives. For example, if a community lacks access to adequate healthcare or education, or if it faces economic inequality or social prejudice, it can have a detrimental influence on its residents' health and well-being. Overall, sustainability, health, and well-being are inextricably linked and interconnected, and addressing one can benefit the others. In anthropology, researching these relationships might help us better understand and manage the complex difficulties confronting societies worldwide. Health and well-being are closely connected with reparatory justice because reparatory justice aims to repair harm and address inequality, and health and well-being are often negatively impacted by harm and inequality. Reparatory justice is a concept that refers to the idea that those who have been harmed or disadvantaged by injustice should be provided with remedies that address the harm and restore justice. This can include a variety of approaches, such as providing compensation, making amends, or making changes to systems or policies that have contributed to the harm or disadvantage. Health and well-being are often negatively impacted by harm and inequality, and addressing these issues can be an important part of the reparatory justice process. For example, if a community has been subjected to environmental pollution that has led to health problems, reparatory justice might involve addressing the pollution and providing compensation or other remedies to the community to address the harm that has been done. Similarly, if a community has faced discrimination or exclusion that has led to economic or social disadvantage, reparatory justice might involve efforts to address these issues and provide support and resources to help the community overcome these challenges and improve their health and well-being. Overall, health and well-being are closely connected with reparatory justice because both involve efforts to address harm, inequality, and injustice, and to promote the well-being and prosperity of individuals and communities.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.479422	12/16/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99481/overview", "title": "Health and well being", "author": "Jhoshue veras" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97534/overview	ESL 47--Intermediate-Low Reading/Writing for English Learners: Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Overview In this module we discuss community in a variety of ways, from fiction and non-fiction. The module is mostly face to face, with online follow-up to practice written expression of their experience. The module finishes with a guest speaker from a First Nation, Miwok Rancheria. This guest builds on the readings, expands our ideas of who is in our community (city), and provides a face-to-face introduction and discussion with a member of the Miwok Nation (an experience no student had up to this point). Syllabus ESL 47 -- Intermediate-Low Integrated Reading and Writing ESL 47 Syllabus Professor: Duane Leonard (call me “Duane” please :) Contact: phone#, email, or text me on googlechat or our google space Tea-time with Duane: See CANVAS home page Student Description: In this course, you will learn how to read, understand, talk about AND write about stories and true stories (like the news). I will show you a number of steps (a process) you will practice several times this semester and one I know you will get better at! These skills will help you understand readings better and will help your English develop too. One final point is that we will talk about how these readings show “U.S. culture” and how this new culture is similar and different from all the cultures we have in our classroom. My teaching philosophy Become an ACTIVIST: A - Ask about assignment (build academic knowledge) C - Connect to the topic (build cultural connections, and vocabulary) T - Try new structures and drafts (grammar, vocabulary, ideas!) I - Investigate, deconstruct, and use previous models and examples to improve your drafts stronger! V - Value your effort, your mistakes!, your experience, opinions, drafts, and notes I - Invite feedback and grow from some of it S - Simplify your final draft -- end with a clear answer to the question that looks like the models you investigated T - Think through what worked and what didn’t; how can the next time be easier/clearer/more efficient? We are an ACTIVIST team. If we work together, this semester will be a success. Please communicate with me a lot. Ask questions when you have them. Give suggestions when you have them. I have a job -- I will do my best to give interesting assignments, clear instructions, and helpful feedback, and this will make your learning easier, and faster. You have a job -- Good news, you are responsible for your learning! If you have time, if you try consistently (a little each day), then you will become better at reading, writing, listening, and speaking in English. Also, at the end of every Unit, we will reflect on this process. How did your ideas, feelings, and/or vocabulary change from the beginning of this process (look at your “knowledge” portion to show evidence of this change/growth). If you did something right, repeat it! When you find that you’re doing something that is not helpful, make it difficult to repeat that negative action. This, again, is actively trying to improve. Communication Guidelines Proper communication means a safe space to learn Hi Students! The guidelines below show how I want us to communicate and interact in our online class. This means communication in discussion boards, emails, zoom meetings, and assignments with me and with each other. If we all know these guidelines, and if we all follow them, I know we will all feel safer to share our (interesting and different!) opinions, answers, and most importantly, ask our questions! Following these guidelines will make our class friendlier and focused, so you can concentrate on your goal -- improving your English! Student-to-Student Communication Expectations: - Be respectful -- you’re all adults, and many of you have different backgrounds, languages, cultures, and opinions. Please show respect to everyone. - Share the space -- once you have shared your question or opinion, let others in your groups share too. Try not to be the only one posting answers, or talking, in our discussions and meetings. If you are always the only one talking or posting, especially if you have a higher level of language then your team, others might feel shy and not try. - Mistakes are important, be kind when your classmates make them! -- when you work with classmates, friends, tutors, even me during office hours, don’t worry about making mistakes. Mistakes mean that you’re trying! Encourage each other when you notice mistakes so that you (as a team) can build a better answer together. If you all share your work equally, you can see how hard everyone is trying to learn at the same level. - Encourage each other -- you should not try to learn a language alone, or even try to do an assignment on your own. Your classmates will have different problems (family, jobs, money, food, grades, English, and many other stressors) all through the semester. It is better for everyone if you tell each other, “It’s OK, you can do this!” When you know you have a team who cares about you and wants you to improve, it is easier to keep trying. Student-to-Teacher Communication Expectations - Be respectful - Read instructions -- please read my instructions from the beginning to the end. I try to make them clear to you, so reading them slowly means you’re trying to understand me also. Also, bonus points if you find mistakes! - Ask questions -- This is the most important skill you can develop as a student, maybe even as a person. Please ask all your questions because if you have a question, it means many of your classmates have the same question. - Make mistakes -- these show me your language level and mean that you’re becoming better at English! And, when you make mistakes I can show you different ways of speaking and writing. Teacher-to-Student Communication Expectations - I respect you. I will try to develop each assignment and each discussion to be respectful towards your language, culture, and individuality. - I will challenge you. I believe the only way to learn is to be pushed. My assignments will not be easy, but I know you can do them. I push you because I am confident in your abilities. - I will ask you questions. Please answer :) - I will make mistakes too. Every class, every semester, I try to be clear, kind, respectful, interesting, funny, and still every class I make mistakes. I will try not to, again, but please tell me when I am making a mistake. I will apologize, and I will fix it so that you understand the assignment more clearly and feel more comfortable in my classroom. Attendance Engaged Effort: You’re taking this class to improve your English. The quickest way to get better at a language, or better at any new skill, is to try on purpose. Showing up, and “attending” is only one step, but I want more. I want you to engage and try. Online, this will mean to show up at least twice weekly prepared to discuss, share, listen in English, to improve your English. You won’t be able to move forward in the course without completing what we do first, but I will give you plenty of guidance and support so you can keep a steady pace. So, keep showing up, keep trying, keep asking questions and I know you’ll do great! Grading: Grading will be done on CANVAS and can be found in our CANVAS classroom. Completing assignments on time will get you the highest grade, but you will be encouraged to revise for a high grade as well. I will show you how it is acceptable and unacceptable to use the work of other people. So, copied work will be returned to you with instructions on how to revise, but you will get a zero for a copied assignment until it is revised appropriately. If you are late, or miss assignments, please let me know and we can discuss how you can still complete the assignment for full or partial credit. Class Activities: I will send an announcement every week explaining the week’s lesson and assignment. I will have short videos to help explain and model assignments, and you will have to complete online discussions, quizzes, projects, and assignments. My student hours are available to help you with all these assignments and explanations. Please come to my student hours often. Please ask questions even more often. Homework and Home Study: You should expect to do around 9-12 hours of homework per week for this class. If you are doing more, please let me know. It is very important that you understand the assignment before you try it. If you do not understand the assignment, STOP and contact me with a question. Then, you can restart in the right way once you understand. College Support Services: Academic and SCC Community Resources -- click the links below to explore and join: - CalWORKS - CA Work Opportunity and Responsibility to Kids - RISE -- Student run by student leaders! - EOPS -- Extended Opportunity Programs, please apply! - DSPS -- Disability Services and Programs. If you are having a harder time learning than your classmates, please think about talking with DSPS to get right support to help you learn and succeed. - Main Campus Writing Center -- with reading and writing tutors! - Student Clubs - And so many more! Counselors: - List of ESL-knowledgeable counselors. Click on their names for to email them: - UC/CSU Transfer Contact: - Undocumented Scholars Contact: - EOPS Contacts: - Or, our excellent team of complete Required Materials: Notebook, Computer (Chromebook ok, we have loaners), internet access, and a desire to learn! ESL 47 in Units/Weeks \| Unit \| Reading Unit \| Number of Weeks \| \| Learning how to succeed in an online ESL 47 \| TBD \| 1 \| \| Reading and Writing Process I -- Trying it out! \| TBD \| 5 \| \| Reading and Writing Process II -- Second time is better! \| TBD \| 5 \| \| Reading and Writing Process III - Getting easier isn’t this?! \| TBD \| 4 \| \| Review and Wrap-up \| 1 \| \| \| Final Exam \| .05 \| Important Dates: DATE EVENT/ACTION January 15 Classes start January 28 Last day to drop classes and qualify for a tuition refund January 30 Last day to drop classes without notation on record January 30 Last day to enroll in classes February 18 Last day to petition for pass/no pass April 17 Last day to withdraw from classes with a "W" notation on record May 12 to 18 Final exams May 18 Last day of classes May 18 Deadline to submit a refund request to Business Services Office Course Objectives Socrates: Upon completion of this course, you will be able to: - employ a variety of reading strategies to understand and analyze the content and structure of short fiction and nonfiction texts. - recognize, use, and acquire vocabulary with correct spelling as presented in the course. - apply the writing process to compose, revise, and edit simple summaries, responses, and academic paragraphs of at least 150 words. - discuss U.S. academic and cultural expectations. Building Community Module In this module we build our understanding of community in a variety of ways, through fiction, non-fiction, our experiences, and our discussions. The module is mostly face to face, with online tasks follow-up to practice written expression of their experience. The module finishes with a guest speaker from a First Nation, Miwok Rancheria. This guest builds on the readings, expands our ideas of who is in our community (city), and provides a face-to-face introduction and discussion with a member of the Miwok Nation (an experience no student had up to this point). This module is based on my ACTIVIST learning/teaching philosophy: Become an ACTIVIST: A - Ask about assignment (build academic knowledge) C - Connect to the topic (build cultural connections, and vocabulary) T - Try new structures and drafts (grammar, vocabulary, ideas!) I - Investigate, deconstruct, and use previous models and examples to improve your drafts stronger! V - Value your effort, your mistakes!, your experience, opinions, drafts, and notes I - Invite feedback and grow from some of it S - Simplify your final draft -- end with a clear focused answer to the question that looks like the models you investigated T - Think through what worked and what didn’t; how can the next time be easier/clearer/more efficient?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.517987	09/27/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97534/overview", "title": "ESL 47--Intermediate-Low Reading/Writing for English Learners: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95191/overview	منتجع إب السياحي Overview الراحة والترفيه وقضاء الوقت بماء في ذلك توفير الخدمات الترفيهية في السياحة والترفيه. الصفحة الرئيسية منتجع إب السياحي إعداد / غيداء بشير علي إشراف د / أنور الوحش المواضيع الموقع العام للمنتجع السياحي \| الهدف من عمل منتجع إب السياحي \| نبذة عن مشروع منتجع إب السياحي \| آلية بناء مشروع المنتجع السياحي \| وصف عام للمنتجع السياحي \| مبررات ومتطلبات منتجع إب السياحي \| من نحن من نحن نحن طلاب قسم تكنولوجيا التعليم والمعلومات جامعة إب – كلية التربية شعبة ( المعلومات) الدفعة التاسعة للعام الجامعي 2021-2022م نبذه عن مشروع منتجع إب نبذه عن مشروع منتجع إب نتيجة للتطور الاقتصادي والاجتماعي وتحسن مستوى دخل المواطنين يضاف لذلك التغير الثقافي والفكري الذي أصبح من مميزات العصر حيث ظهرت مفاهيم وأساليب اجتماعية ونظريات فلسفية ونفسية لم تكن في الماضي ذات أهمية حيث شهدت مختلف المجتمعات أنماط معيشية للأسرة وتعدد الادوات التي تحتاجها وتستعملها سواء لمستلزمات المعيشة أو قضاء أوقات الفراغ. والأسرة في العادة تهتم بتربية ورعاية أطفالها والمحافظة عليهم، وكما هو معروف فان الطفل في بداية عمره يكون لديه شغف ومحباً للعب وان هنالك كثير من الألعاب ما تنمي طريقة تفكير الطفل كما تنمي مواهبه وحيث ان وسائل التسلية والترفيه أصبحت من المتطلبات الضرورية والأساسية للأطفال . حتى ان كثير من علماء النفس يضعون ضمن نظرياتهم فيما يتعلق بأسلوب تربية الأطفال وتعليمهم وتنمية مواهبهم ببرامج تتيح للطفل ان يقضي جزءا من وقته في اللعب واللهو والتسلية، حتى انه نتيجة لضغط العمل والإرهاق الفكري والجسدي الذي يرتبط بمسيرة الفرد للحصول على مستلزمات الحياة ان أصبحت وسائل التسلية والترفيه من ضروريات الحياة ويلاحظ ان كثير من الأسر تقضي وقت فراغها بمرافقة أطفالها في الرحلات أو النوادي أو الذهاب إلى مدن الملاهي الموقع العام للمشروع الموقع العام للمشروع الموقع العام للمشروع : يمكن إقامة المشروع المقترح في ضواحي أي من مراكز محافظات المملكة، ويفضل إقامته قرب المواقع التي تشهد كثافة سكانية عالية وذلك للحصول على اكبر عدد من الرواد للمشروع. كما ان سهولة نقل الألعاب من مكان إلى آخر يمكن ان تحقق ميزة للمشروع للتنقل من مدينة إلى مدينة أخرى. وصف المشروع وصف المشروع المشروع المقترح عبارة عن إقامة مدينة العاب للأطفال بحيث تكون الألعاب مصنعة من مواد بلاستيكية أو لدائن مختلفة أو من البلاستيك القابل للنفخ والتشكيل بنماذج مختلفة مثل المنازل والحيوانات والطيور وتقليد للآليات والمعدات الإنشائية والسيارات والقطارات أو الطائرات أو العاب على شكل بعض أنواع الخضروات والفواكه، وهذه الألعاب مصممة بحيث تعطي الطفل طريقة بالتفكير بكيفية اللعب والتغلب على العوائق وهذه الألعاب إما ان تكون Toys You Can Ride, Trampolines, Club Houses, Climbing Toys ... الخ. لغايات هذه الدراسة سيفترض ان المشروع المقترح غير متنقل وذلك لتوفير بعض المرافق الضرورية لخدمة الرواد مثل إيجاد صالة كفتيريا لتناول الوجبات الخفيفة (سندوتشات) أو المشروبات الساخنة والمرطبات أو بيع بعض أنواع الحلويات والتسالي المغلفة (مثل الشوكولاتة والشيبس) والمكسرات وبعض أنواع المثلجات للصغار أو مرافقيهم، ويمكن لصاحب المشروع إقامة أكثر من مدينة العاب في حال نجاحه وتحقيق عائد مجزي في عدد من مدن المملكة الرئيسية. الهدف من عمل منتجع إب السياحي الهدف من عمل منتجع إب السياحي هدف المشروع المقترح إلى إنشاء مدينة العاب للأطفال بحيث تكون الألعاب مصنوعة من مواد البلاستيك والبلاستيك القابل للنفخ باشكال مختلفة مثل المنازل والحيوانات والطيور أو تقليد للآليات والقطارات والسيارات والطائرات أو العاب على شكل بعض أنواع الفواكه والخضروات والأشجار، وقد صممت هذه الألعاب بحيث تعطي للطفل طريقة في التفكير وإيجاد الحلول المناسبة للمعيقات التي تعترض طريقه للوصول إلى الهدف مثل لعبة المربعات أو ما يسمى ( العاب المتاهات). مبررات ومتطلبات منتجع إب السياحي مبررات ومتطلبات منتجع إب السياحي توفير مرفق ترفيهي من نوع جديد يلبي رغبات الأطفال في قضاء بعض أوقات الفراغ وتغير نمط الألعاب التقليدية بتقديم العاب تنمي الفكر والمواهب. توفير أقصى درجات الحماية والأمان بمثل الألعاب المقترحة للمشروع حيث تعتبر هذه الألعاب مناسبة للأطفال لخفة وزنها وسهولة نقلها من مكان لآخر كما أنها ليست عرضة للكسر كغيرها من الألعاب الخشبية أو المعدنية مما يمكن ان تسبب الأذى للأطفال. خلق فرص استثمارية جديدة في المنطقة وتوفير فرص عمل. تحقيق عائد جيد لصاحب/ أصحاب المشروع . آلية بناء مشروع المنتجع السياحي آلية بناء مشروع المنتجع السياحي	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:01.541763	Graphic Arts	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95191/overview", "title": "منتجع إب السياحي", "author": "Arts and Humanities" }

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