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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15047/overview	Prokaryotic Metabolism Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify the macronutrients needed by prokaryotes, and explain their importance - Describe the ways in which prokaryotes get energy and carbon for life processes - Describe the roles of prokaryotes in the carbon and nitrogen cycles Prokaryotes are metabolically diverse organisms. There are many different environments on Earth with various energy and carbon sources, and variable conditions. Prokaryotes have been able to live in every environment by using whatever energy and carbon sources are available. Prokaryotes fill many niches on Earth, including being involved in nutrient cycles such as nitrogen and carbon cycles, decomposing dead organisms, and thriving inside living organisms, including humans. The very broad range of environments that prokaryotes occupy is possible because they have diverse metabolic processes. Needs of Prokaryotes The diverse environments and ecosystems on Earth have a wide range of conditions in terms of temperature, available nutrients, acidity, salinity, and energy sources. Prokaryotes are very well equipped to make their living out of a vast array of nutrients and conditions. To live, prokaryotes need a source of energy, a source of carbon, and some additional nutrients. Macronutrients Cells are essentially a well-organized assemblage of macromolecules and water. Recall that macromolecules are produced by the polymerization of smaller units called monomers. For cells to build all of the molecules required to sustain life, they need certain substances, collectively called nutrients. When prokaryotes grow in nature, they obtain their nutrients from the environment. Nutrients that are required in large amounts are called macronutrients, whereas those required in smaller or trace amounts are called micronutrients. Just a handful of elements are considered macronutrients—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. (A mnemonic for remembering these elements is the acronym CHONPS.) Why are these macronutrients needed in large amounts? They are the components of organic compounds in cells, including water. Carbon is the major element in all macromolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and many other compounds. Carbon accounts for about 50 percent of the composition of the cell. Nitrogen represents 12 percent of the total dry weight of a typical cell and is a component of proteins, nucleic acids, and other cell constituents. Most of the nitrogen available in nature is either atmospheric nitrogen (N2) or another inorganic form. Diatomic (N2) nitrogen, however, can be converted into an organic form only by certain organisms, called nitrogen-fixing organisms. Both hydrogen and oxygen are part of many organic compounds and of water. Phosphorus is required by all organisms for the synthesis of nucleotides and phospholipids. Sulfur is part of the structure of some amino acids such as cysteine and methionine, and is also present in several vitamins and coenzymes. Other important macronutrients are potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and sodium (Na). Although these elements are required in smaller amounts, they are very important for the structure and function of the prokaryotic cell. Micronutrients In addition to these macronutrients, prokaryotes require various metallic elements in small amounts. These are referred to as micronutrients or trace elements. For example, iron is necessary for the function of the cytochromes involved in electron-transport reactions. Some prokaryotes require other elements—such as boron (B), chromium (Cr), and manganese (Mn)—primarily as enzyme cofactors. The Ways in Which Prokaryotes Obtain Energy Prokaryotes can use different sources of energy to assemble macromolecules from smaller molecules. Phototrophs (or phototrophic organisms) obtain their energy from sunlight. Chemotrophs (or chemosynthetic organisms) obtain their energy from chemical compounds. Chemotrophs that can use organic compounds as energy sources are called chemoorganotrophs. Those that can also use inorganic compounds as energy sources are called chemolitotrophs. The Ways in Which Prokaryotes Obtain Carbon Prokaryotes not only can use different sources of energy but also different sources of carbon compounds. Recall that organisms that are able to fix inorganic carbon are called autotrophs. Autotrophic prokaryotes synthesize organic molecules from carbon dioxide. In contrast, heterotrophic prokaryotes obtain carbon from organic compounds. To make the picture more complex, the terms that describe how prokaryotes obtain energy and carbon can be combined. Thus, photoautotrophs use energy from sunlight, and carbon from carbon dioxide and water, whereas chemoheterotrophs obtain energy and carbon from an organic chemical source. Chemolitoautotrophs obtain their energy from inorganic compounds, and they build their complex molecules from carbon dioxide. The table below (Table) summarizes carbon and energy sources in prokaryotes. \| Carbon and Energy Sources in Prokaryotes \| \|\|\|\| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Energy Sources \| Carbon Sources \| \|\|\| \| Light \| Chemicals \| Carbon dioxide \| Organic compounds \| \| \| Phototrophs \| Chemotrophs \| Autotrophs \| Heterotrophs \| \| \| Organic chemicals \| Inorganic chemicals \| \|\|\| \| Chemo-organotrophs \| Chemolithotrophs \| Role of Prokaryotes in Ecosystems Prokaryotes are ubiquitous: There is no niche or ecosystem in which they are not present. Prokaryotes play many roles in the environments they occupy. The roles they play in the carbon and nitrogen cycles are vital to life on Earth. Prokaryotes and the Carbon Cycle Carbon is one of the most important macronutrients, and prokaryotes play an important role in the carbon cycle (Figure). Carbon is cycled through Earth’s major reservoirs: land, the atmosphere, aquatic environments, sediments and rocks, and biomass. The movement of carbon is via carbon dioxide, which is removed from the atmosphere by land plants and marine prokaryotes, and is returned to the atmosphere via the respiration of chemoorganotrophic organisms, including prokaryotes, fungi, and animals. Although the largest carbon reservoir in terrestrial ecosystems is in rocks and sediments, that carbon is not readily available. A large amount of available carbon is found in land plants. Plants, which are producers, use carbon dioxide from the air to synthesize carbon compounds. Related to this, one very significant source of carbon compounds is humus, which is a mixture of organic materials from dead plants and prokaryotes that have resisted decomposition. Consumers such as animals use organic compounds generated by producers and release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Then, bacteria and fungi, collectively called decomposers, carry out the breakdown (decomposition) of plants and animals and their organic compounds. The most important contributor of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere is microbial decomposition of dead material (dead animals, plants, and humus) that undergo respiration. In aqueous environments and their anoxic sediments, there is another carbon cycle taking place. In this case, the cycle is based on one-carbon compounds. In anoxic sediments, prokaryotes, mostly archaea, produce methane (CH4). This methane moves into the zone above the sediment, which is richer in oxygen and supports bacteria called methane oxidizers that oxidize methane to carbon dioxide, which then returns to the atmosphere. Prokaryotes and the Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen is a very important element for life because it is part of proteins and nucleic acids. It is a macronutrient, and in nature, it is recycled from organic compounds to ammonia, ammonium ions, nitrate, nitrite, and nitrogen gas by myriad processes, many of which are carried out only by prokaryotes. As illustrated in Figure, prokaryotes are key to the nitrogen cycle. The largest pool of nitrogen available in the terrestrial ecosystem is gaseous nitrogen from the air, but this nitrogen is not usable by plants, which are primary producers. Gaseous nitrogen is transformed, or “fixed” into more readily available forms such as ammonia through the process of nitrogen fixation. Ammonia can be used by plants or converted to other forms. Another source of ammonia is ammonification, the process by which ammonia is released during the decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic compounds. Ammonia released to the atmosphere, however, represents only 15 percent of the total nitrogen released; the rest is as N2 and N2O. Ammonia is catabolized anaerobically by some prokaryotes, yielding N2 as the final product. Nitrification is the conversion of ammonium to nitrite and nitrate. Nitrification in soils is carried out by bacteria belonging to the genera Nitrosomas, Nitrobacter, and Nitrospira. The bacteria performs the reverse process, the reduction of nitrate from the soils to gaseous compounds such as N2O, NO, and N2, a process called denitrification. Art Connection Which of the following statements about the nitrogen cycle is false? - Nitrogen fixing bacteria exist on the root nodules of legumes and in the soil. - Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates (NO3-) into nitrogen gas (N2). - Ammonification is the process by which ammonium ion (NH4+) is released from decomposing organic compounds. - Nitrification is the process by which nitrites (NO2-) are converted to ammonium ion (NH4+). Section Summary Prokaryotes are the most metabolically diverse organisms; they flourish in many different environments with various carbon energy and carbon sources, variable temperature, pH, pressure, and water availability. Nutrients required in large amounts are called macronutrients, whereas those required in trace amounts are called micronutrients or trace elements. Macronutrients include C, H, O, N, P, S, K, Mg, Ca, and Na. In addition to these macronutrients, prokaryotes require various metallic elements for growth and enzyme function. Prokaryotes use different sources of energy to assemble macromolecules from smaller molecules. Phototrophs obtain their energy from sunlight, whereas chemotrophs obtain energy from chemical compounds. Prokaryotes play roles in the carbon and nitrogen cycles. Carbon is returned to the atmosphere by the respiration of animals and other chemoorganotrophic organisms. Consumers use organic compounds generated by producers and release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The most important contributor of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere is microbial decomposition of dead material. Nitrogen is recycled in nature from organic compounds to ammonia, ammonium ions, nitrite, nitrate, and nitrogen gas. Gaseous nitrogen is transformed into ammonia through nitrogen fixation. Ammonia is anaerobically catabolized by some prokaryotes, yielding N2 as the final product. Nitrification is the conversion of ammonium into nitrite. Nitrification in soils is carried out by bacteria. Denitrification is also performed by bacteria and transforms nitrate from soils into gaseous nitrogen compounds, such as N2O, NO, and N2. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements about the nitrogen cycle is false? - Nitrogen fixing bacteria exist on the root nodules of legumes and in the soil. - Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates (NO3-) into nitrogen gas (N2). - Ammonification is the process by which ammonium ion (NH4+) is released from decomposing organic compounds. - Nitrification is the process by which nitrites (NO2-) are converted to ammonium ion (NH4+). Hint: Figure D Review Questions Which of the following elements is not a micronutrient? - boron - calcium - chromium - manganese Hint: B Prokaryotes that obtain their energy from chemical compounds are called _____. - phototrophs - auxotrophs - chemotrophs - lithotrophs Hint: C Ammonification is the process by which _____. - ammonia is released during the decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic compounds - ammonium is converted to nitrite and nitrate in soils - nitrate from soil is transformed to gaseous nitrogen compounds such as NO, N2O, and N2 - gaseous nitrogen is fixed to yield ammonia Hint: A Plants use carbon dioxide from the air and are therefore called _____. - consumers - producers - decomposer - carbon fixers Hint: B Free Response Think about the conditions (temperature, light, pressure, and organic and inorganic materials) that you may find in a deep-sea hydrothermal vent. What type of prokaryotes, in terms of their metabolic needs (autotrophs, phototrophs, chemotrophs, etc.), would you expect to find there? Hint: Responses will vary. In a deep-sea hydrothermal vent, there is no light, so prokaryotes would be chemotrophs instead of phototrophs. The source of carbon would be carbon dioxide dissolved in the ocean, so they would be autotrophs. There is not a lot of organic material in the ocean, so prokaryotes would probably use inorganic sources, thus they would be chemolitotrophs. The temperatures are very high in the hydrothermal vent, so the prokaryotes would be thermophilic.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.427475	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15047/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15048/overview	Bacterial Diseases in Humans Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify bacterial diseases that caused historically important plagues and epidemics - Describe the link between biofilms and foodborne diseases - Explain how overuse of antibiotic may be creating “super bugs” - Explain the importance of MRSA with respect to the problems of antibiotic resistance Devastating pathogen-borne diseases and plagues, both viral and bacterial in nature, have affected humans since the beginning of human history. The true cause of these diseases was not understood at the time, and some people thought that diseases were a spiritual punishment. Over time, people came to realize that staying apart from afflicted persons, and disposing of the corpses and personal belongings of victims of illness, reduced their own chances of getting sick. Epidemiologists study how diseases affect a population. An epidemic is a disease that occurs in an unusually high number of individuals in a population at the same time. A pandemic is a widespread, usually worldwide, epidemic. An endemic disease is a disease that is constantly present, usually at low incidence, in a population. Long History of Bacterial Disease There are records about infectious diseases as far back as 3000 B.C. A number of significant pandemics caused by bacteria have been documented over several hundred years. Some of the most memorable pandemics led to the decline of cities and nations. In the 21st century, infectious diseases remain among the leading causes of death worldwide, despite advances made in medical research and treatments in recent decades. A disease spreads when the pathogen that causes it is passed from one person to another. For a pathogen to cause disease, it must be able to reproduce in the host’s body and damage the host in some way. The Plague of Athens In 430 B.C., the Plague of Athens killed one-quarter of the Athenian troops that were fighting in the great Peloponnesian War and weakened Athens’ dominance and power. The plague impacted people living in overcrowded Athens as well as troops aboard ships that had to return to Athens. The source of the plague may have been identified recently when researchers from the University of Athens were able to use DNA from teeth recovered from a mass grave. The scientists identified nucleotide sequences from a pathogenic bacterium, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (Figure), which causes typhoid fever.Papagrigorakis MJ, Synodinos PN, and Yapijakis C. Ancient typhoid epidemic reveals possible ancestral strain of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. Infect Genet Evol 7 (2007): 126–7, Epub 2006 Jun. This disease is commonly seen in overcrowded areas and has caused epidemics throughout recorded history. Bubonic Plagues From 541 to 750, an outbreak of what was likely a bubonic plague (the Plague of Justinian), eliminated one-quarter to one-half of the human population in the eastern Mediterranean region. The population in Europe dropped by 50 percent during this outbreak. Bubonic plague would strike Europe more than once. One of the most devastating pandemics was the Black Death (1346 to 1361) that is believed to have been another outbreak of bubonic plague caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. It is thought to have originated initially in China and spread along the Silk Road, a network of land and sea trade routes, to the Mediterranean region and Europe, carried by rat fleas living on black rats that were always present on ships. The Black Death reduced the world’s population from an estimated 450 million to about 350 to 375 million. Bubonic plague struck London hard again in the mid-1600s (Figure). In modern times, approximately 1,000 to 3,000 cases of plague arise globally each year. Although contracting bubonic plague before antibiotics meant almost certain death, the bacterium responds to several types of modern antibiotics, and mortality rates from plague are now very low. Link to Learning Watch a video on the modern understanding of the Black Death—bubonic plague in Europe during the 14th century. Migration of Diseases to New Populations Over the centuries, Europeans tended to develop genetic immunity to endemic infectious diseases, but when European conquerors reached the western hemisphere, they brought with them disease-causing bacteria and viruses, which triggered epidemics that completely devastated populations of Native Americans, who had no natural resistance to many European diseases. It has been estimated that up to 90 percent of Native Americans died from infectious diseases after the arrival of Europeans, making conquest of the New World a foregone conclusion. Emerging and Re-emerging Diseases The distribution of a particular disease is dynamic. Therefore, changes in the environment, the pathogen, or the host population can dramatically impact the spread of a disease. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) an emerging disease (Figure) is one that has appeared in a population for the first time, or that may have existed previously but is rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range. This definition also includes re-emerging diseases that were previously under control. Approximately 75 percent of recently emerging infectious diseases affecting humans are zoonotic diseases, zoonoses, diseases that primarily infect animals and are transmitted to humans; some are of viral origin and some are of bacterial origin. Brucellosis is an example of a prokaryotic zoonosis that is re-emerging in some regions, and necrotizing fasciitis (commonly known as flesh-eating bacteria) has been increasing in virulence for the last 80 years for unknown reasons. Some of the present emerging diseases are not actually new, but are diseases that were catastrophic in the past (Figure). They devastated populations and became dormant for a while, just to come back, sometimes more virulent than before, as was the case with bubonic plague. Other diseases, like tuberculosis, were never eradicated but were under control in some regions of the world until coming back, mostly in urban centers with high concentrations of immunocompromised people. The WHO has identified certain diseases whose worldwide re-emergence should be monitored. Among these are two viral diseases (dengue fever and yellow fever), and three bacterial diseases (diphtheria, cholera, and bubonic plague). The war against infectious diseases has no foreseeable end. Biofilms and Disease Recall that biofilms are microbial communities that are very difficult to destroy. They are responsible for diseases such as infections in patients with cystic fibrosis, Legionnaires’ disease, and otitis media. They produce dental plaque and colonize catheters, prostheses, transcutaneous and orthopedic devices, contact lenses, and internal devices such as pacemakers. They also form in open wounds and burned tissue. In healthcare environments, biofilms grow on hemodialysis machines, mechanical ventilators, shunts, and other medical equipment. In fact, 65 percent of all infections acquired in the hospital (nosocomial infections) are attributed to biofilms. Biofilms are also related to diseases contracted from food because they colonize the surfaces of vegetable leaves and meat, as well as food-processing equipment that isn’t adequately cleaned. Biofilm infections develop gradually; sometimes, they do not cause symptoms immediately. They are rarely resolved by host defense mechanisms. Once an infection by a biofilm is established, it is very difficult to eradicate, because biofilms tend to be resistant to most of the methods used to control microbial growth, including antibiotics. Biofilms respond poorly or only temporarily to antibiotics; it has been said that they can resist up to 1,000 times the antibiotic concentrations used to kill the same bacteria when they are free-living or planktonic. An antibiotic dose that large would harm the patient; therefore, scientists are working on new ways to get rid of biofilms. Antibiotics: Are We Facing a Crisis? The word antibiotic comes from the Greek anti meaning “against” and bios meaning “life.” An antibiotic is a chemical, produced either by microbes or synthetically, that is hostile to the growth of other organisms. Today’s news and media often address concerns about an antibiotic crisis. Are the antibiotics that easily treated bacterial infections in the past becoming obsolete? Are there new “superbugs”—bacteria that have evolved to become more resistant to our arsenal of antibiotics? Is this the beginning of the end of antibiotics? All these questions challenge the healthcare community. One of the main causes of resistant bacteria is the abuse of antibiotics. The imprudent and excessive use of antibiotics has resulted in the natural selection of resistant forms of bacteria. The antibiotic kills most of the infecting bacteria, and therefore only the resistant forms remain. These resistant forms reproduce, resulting in an increase in the proportion of resistant forms over non-resistant ones. Another major misuse of antibiotics is in patients with colds or the flu, for which antibiotics are useless. Another problem is the excessive use of antibiotics in livestock. The routine use of antibiotics in animal feed promotes bacterial resistance as well. In the United States, 70 percent of the antibiotics produced are fed to animals. These antibiotics are given to livestock in low doses, which maximize the probability of resistance developing, and these resistant bacteria are readily transferred to humans. Link to Learning Watch a recent news report on the problem of routine antibiotic administration to livestock and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. One of the Superbugs: MRSA The imprudent use of antibiotics has paved the way for bacteria to expand populations of resistant forms. For example, Staphylococcus aureus, often called “staph,” is a common bacterium that can live in the human body and is usually easily treated with antibiotics. A very dangerous strain, however, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has made the news over the past few years (Figure). This strain is resistant to many commonly used antibiotics, including methicillin, amoxicillin, penicillin, and oxacillin. MRSA can cause infections of the skin, but it can also infect the bloodstream, lungs, urinary tract, or sites of injury. While MRSA infections are common among people in healthcare facilities, they have also appeared in healthy people who haven’t been hospitalized but who live or work in tight populations (like military personnel and prisoners). Researchers have expressed concern about the way this latter source of MRSA targets a much younger population than those residing in care facilities. The Journal of the American Medical Association reported that, among MRSA-afflicted persons in healthcare facilities, the average age is 68, whereas people with “community-associated MRSA” (CA-MRSA) have an average age of 23.Naimi, TS, LeDell, KH, Como-Sabetti, K, et al. Comparison of community- and health care-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. JAMA 290 (2003): 2976–84, doi: 10.1001/jama.290.22.2976. In summary, the medical community is facing an antibiotic crisis. Some scientists believe that after years of being protected from bacterial infections by antibiotics, we may be returning to a time in which a simple bacterial infection could again devastate the human population. Researchers are developing new antibiotics, but it takes many years to of research and clinical trials, plus financial investments in the millions of dollars, to generate an effective and approved drug. Foodborne Diseases Prokaryotes are everywhere: They readily colonize the surface of any type of material, and food is not an exception. Most of the time, prokaryotes colonize food and food-processing equipment in the form of a biofilm. Outbreaks of bacterial infection related to food consumption are common. A foodborne disease (colloquially called “food poisoning”) is an illness resulting from the consumption the pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or other parasites that contaminate food. Although the United States has one of the safest food supplies in the world, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has reported that “76 million people get sick, more than 300,000 are hospitalized, and 5,000 Americans die each year from foodborne illness.” The characteristics of foodborne illnesses have changed over time. In the past, it was relatively common to hear about sporadic cases of botulism, the potentially fatal disease produced by a toxin from the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Some of the most common sources for this bacterium were non-acidic canned foods, homemade pickles, and processed meat and sausages. The can, jar, or package created a suitable anaerobic environment where Clostridium could grow. Proper sterilization and canning procedures have reduced the incidence of this disease. While people may tend to think of foodborne illnesses as associated with animal-based foods, most cases are now linked to produce. There have been serious, produce-related outbreaks associated with raw spinach in the United States and with vegetable sprouts in Germany, and these types of outbreaks have become more common. The raw spinach outbreak in 2006 was produced by the bacterium E. coli serotype O157:H7. A serotype is a strain of bacteria that carries a set of similar antigens on its cell surface, and there are often many different serotypes of a bacterial species. Most E. coli are not particularly dangerous to humans, but serotype O157:H7 can cause bloody diarrhea and is potentially fatal. All types of food can potentially be contaminated with bacteria. Recent outbreaks of Salmonella reported by the CDC occurred in foods as diverse as peanut butter, alfalfa sprouts, and eggs. A deadly outbreak in Germany in 2010 was caused by E. coli contamination of vegetable sprouts (Figure). The strain that caused the outbreak was found to be a new serotype not previously involved in other outbreaks, which indicates that E. coli is continuously evolving. Career Connection EpidemiologistEpidemiology is the study of the occurrence, distribution, and determinants of health and disease in a population. It is, therefore, part of public health. An epidemiologist studies the frequency and distribution of diseases within human populations and environments. Epidemiologists collect data about a particular disease and track its spread to identify the original mode of transmission. They sometimes work in close collaboration with historians to try to understand the way a disease evolved geographically and over time, tracking the natural history of pathogens. They gather information from clinical records, patient interviews, surveillance, and any other available means. That information is used to develop strategies, such as vaccinations (Figure), and design public health policies to reduce the incidence of a disease or to prevent its spread. Epidemiologists also conduct rapid investigations in case of an outbreak to recommend immediate measures to control it. An epidemiologist has a bachelor’s degree, plus a master’s degree in public health (MPH). Many epidemiologists are also physicians (and have an M.D.), or they have a Ph.D. in an associated field, such as biology or microbiology. Section Summary Devastating diseases and plagues have been among us since early times. There are records about microbial diseases as far back as 3000 B.C. Infectious diseases remain among the leading causes of death worldwide. Emerging diseases are those rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range. They can be new or re-emerging diseases (previously under control). Many emerging diseases affecting humans, such as brucellosis, are zoonoses. The WHO has identified a group of diseases whose re-emergence should be monitored: Those caused by bacteria include bubonic plague, diphtheria, and cholera. Biofilms are considered responsible for diseases such as bacterial infections in patients with cystic fibrosis, Legionnaires’ disease, and otitis media. They produce dental plaque; colonize catheters, prostheses, transcutaneous, and orthopedic devices; and infect contact lenses, open wounds, and burned tissue. Biofilms also produce foodborne diseases because they colonize the surfaces of food and food-processing equipment. Biofilms are resistant to most of the methods used to control microbial growth. The excessive use of antibiotics has resulted in a major global problem, since resistant forms of bacteria have been selected over time. A very dangerous strain, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), has wreaked havoc recently. Foodborne diseases result from the consumption of contaminated food, pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food. Review Questions A disease that is constantly present in a population is called _____. - pandemic - epidemic - endemic - re-emerging Hint: C Which of the statements about biofilms is incorrect? - Biofilms are considered responsible for diseases such as cystic fibrosis. - Biofilms produce dental plaque, and colonize catheters and prostheses. - Biofilms colonize open wounds and burned tissue. - All statements are incorrect. Hint: D Which of these statements is true? - An antibiotic is any substance produced by a organism that is antagonistic to the growth of prokaryotes. - An antibiotic is any substance produced by a prokaryote that is antagonistic to the growth of other viruses. - An antibiotic is any substance produced by a prokaryote that is antagonistic to the growth of eukaryotic cells. - An antibiotic is any substance produced by a prokaryote that prevents growth of the same prokaryote. Hint: A Free Response Explain the reason why the imprudent and excessive use of antibiotics has resulted in a major global problem. Hint: Antibiotics kill bacteria that are sensitive to them; thus, only the resistant ones will survive. These resistant bacteria will reproduce, and therefore, after a while, there will be only resistant bacteria. Researchers have discovered that washing spinach with water several times does not prevent foodborne diseases due to E. coli. How can you explain this fact? Hint: E. coli colonizes the surface of the leaf, forming a biofilm that is more difficult to remove than free (planktonic) cells. Additionally, bacteria can be taken up in the water that plants are grown in, thereby entering the plant tissues rather than simply residing on the leaf surface.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.460502	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15048/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15049/overview	Beneficial Prokaryotes Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the need for nitrogen fixation and how it is accomplished - Identify foods in which prokaryotes are used in the processing - Describe the use of prokaryotes in bioremediation - Describe the beneficial effects of bacteria that colonize our skin and digestive tracts Not all prokaryotes are pathogenic. On the contrary, pathogens represent only a very small percentage of the diversity of the microbial world. In fact, our life would not be possible without prokaryotes. Just think about the role of prokaryotes in biogeochemical cycles. Cooperation between Bacteria and Eukaryotes: Nitrogen Fixation Nitrogen is a very important element to living things, because it is part of nucleotides and amino acids that are the building blocks of nucleic acids and proteins, respectively. Nitrogen is usually the most limiting element in terrestrial ecosystems, with atmospheric nitrogen, N2, providing the largest pool of available nitrogen. However, eukaryotes cannot use atmospheric, gaseous nitrogen to synthesize macromolecules. Fortunately, nitrogen can be “fixed,” meaning it is converted into ammonia (NH3) either biologically or abiotically. Abiotic nitrogen fixation occurs as a result of lightning or by industrial processes. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is exclusively carried out by prokaryotes: soil bacteria, cyanobacteria, and Frankia spp. (filamentous bacteria interacting with actinorhizal plants such as alder, bayberry, and sweet fern). After photosynthesis, BNF is the second most important biological process on Earth. The equation representing the process is as follows where Pi stands for inorganic phosphate. The total fixed nitrogen through BNF is about 100 to 180 million metric tons per year. Biological processes contribute 65 percent of the nitrogen used in agriculture. Cyanobacteria are the most important nitrogen fixers in aquatic environments. In soil, members of the genus Clostridium are examples of free-living, nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Other bacteria live symbiotically with legume plants, providing the most important source of BNF. Symbionts may fix more nitrogen in soils than free-living organisms by a factor of 10. Soil bacteria, collectively called rhizobia, are able to symbiotically interact with legumes to form nodules, specialized structures where nitrogen fixation occurs (Figure). Nitrogenase, the enzyme that fixes nitrogen, is inactivated by oxygen, so the nodule provides an oxygen-free area for nitrogen fixation to take place. This process provides a natural and inexpensive plant fertilizer, as it reduces atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia, which is easily usable by plants. The use of legumes is an excellent alternative to chemical fertilization and is of special interest to sustainable agriculture, which seeks to minimize the use of chemicals and conserve natural resources. Through symbiotic nitrogen fixation, the plant benefits from using an endless source of nitrogen: the atmosphere. Bacteria benefit from using photosynthates (carbohydrates produced during photosynthesis) from the plant and having a protected niche. Additionally, the soil benefits from being naturally fertilized. Therefore, the use of rhizobia as biofertilizers is a sustainable practice. Why are legumes so important? Some, like soybeans, are key sources of agricultural protein. Some of the most important grain legumes are soybean, peanuts, peas, chickpeas, and beans. Other legumes, such as alfalfa, are used to feed cattle. Early Biotechnology: Cheese, Bread, Wine, Beer, and Yogurt According to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, biotechnology is “any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use."http://www.cbd.int/convention/articles/?a=cbd-02, United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity: Article 2: Use of Terms. The concept of “specific use” involves some sort of commercial application. Genetic engineering, artificial selection, antibiotic production, and cell culture are current topics of study in biotechnology. However, humans have used prokaryotes before the term biotechnology was even coined. In addition, some of the goods and services are as simple as cheese, bread, wine, beer, and yogurt, which employ both bacteria and other microbes, such as yeast, a fungus (Figure). Cheese production began around 4,000–7,000 years ago when humans began to breed animals and process their milk. Fermentation in this case preserves nutrients: Milk will spoil relatively quickly, but when processed as cheese, it is more stable. As for beer, the oldest records of brewing are about 6,000 years old and refer to the Sumerians. Evidence indicates that the Sumerians discovered fermentation by chance. Wine has been produced for about 4,500 years, and evidence suggests that cultured milk products, like yogurt, have existed for at least 4,000 years. Using Prokaryotes to Clean up Our Planet: Bioremediation Microbial bioremediation is the use of prokaryotes (or microbial metabolism) to remove pollutants. Bioremediation has been used to remove agricultural chemicals (pesticides, fertilizers) that leach from soil into groundwater and the subsurface. Certain toxic metals and oxides, such as selenium and arsenic compounds, can also be removed from water by bioremediation. The reduction of SeO4-2 to SeO3-2 and to Se0 (metallic selenium) is a method used to remove selenium ions from water. Mercury is an example of a toxic metal that can be removed from an environment by bioremediation. As an active ingredient of some pesticides, mercury is used in industry and is also a by-product of certain processes, such as battery production. Methyl mercury is usually present in very low concentrations in natural environments, but it is highly toxic because it accumulates in living tissues. Several species of bacteria can carry out the biotransformation of toxic mercury into nontoxic forms. These bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, can convert Hg+2 into Hg0, which is nontoxic to humans. One of the most useful and interesting examples of the use of prokaryotes for bioremediation purposes is the cleanup of oil spills. The importance of prokaryotes to petroleum bioremediation has been demonstrated in several oil spills in recent years, such as the Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska (1989) (Figure), the Prestige oil spill in Spain (2002), the spill into the Mediterranean from a Lebanon power plant (2006), and more recently, the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico (2010). To clean up these spills, bioremediation is promoted by the addition of inorganic nutrients that help bacteria to grow. Hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria feed on hydrocarbons in the oil droplet, breaking down the hydrocarbons. Some species, such as Alcanivorax borkumensis, produce surfactants that solubilize the oil, whereas other bacteria degrade the oil into carbon dioxide. In the case of oil spills in the ocean, ongoing, natural bioremediation tends to occur, inasmuch as there are oil-consuming bacteria in the ocean prior to the spill. In addition to naturally occurring oil-degrading bacteria, humans select and engineer bacteria that possess the same capability with increased efficacy and spectrum of hydrocarbon compounds that can be processed. Under ideal conditions, it has been reported that up to 80 percent of the nonvolatile components in oil can be degraded within one year of the spill. Other oil fractions containing aromatic and highly branched hydrocarbon chains are more difficult to remove and remain in the environment for longer periods of time. Everyday Connection Microbes on the Human BodyThe commensal bacteria that inhabit our skin and gastrointestinal tract do a host of good things for us. They protect us from pathogens, help us digest our food, and produce some of our vitamins and other nutrients. These activities have been known for a long time. More recently, scientists have gathered evidence that these bacteria may also help regulate our moods, influence our activity levels, and even help control weight by affecting our food choices and absorption patterns. The Human Microbiome Project has begun the process of cataloging our normal bacteria (and archaea) so we can better understand these functions. A particularly fascinating example of our normal flora relates to our digestive systems. People who take high doses of antibiotics tend to lose many of their normal gut bacteria, allowing a naturally antibiotic-resistant species called Clostridium difficile to overgrow and cause severe gastric problems, especially chronic diarrhea (Figure). Obviously, trying to treat this problem with antibiotics only makes it worse. However, it has been successfully treated by giving the patients fecal transplants from healthy donors to reestablish the normal intestinal microbial community. Clinical trials are underway to ensure the safety and effectiveness of this technique. Scientists are also discovering that the absence of certain key microbes from our intestinal tract may set us up for a variety of problems. This seems to be particularly true regarding the appropriate functioning of the immune system. There are intriguing findings that suggest that the absence of these microbes is an important contributor to the development of allergies and some autoimmune disorders. Research is currently underway to test whether adding certain microbes to our internal ecosystem may help in the treatment of these problems as well as in treating some forms of autism. Section Summary Pathogens are only a small percentage of all prokaryotes. In fact, our life would not be possible without prokaryotes. Nitrogen is usually the most limiting element in terrestrial ecosystems; atmospheric nitrogen, the largest pool of available nitrogen, is unavailable to eukaryotes. Nitrogen can be “fixed,” or converted into ammonia (NH3) either biologically or abiotically. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is exclusively carried out by prokaryotes. After photosynthesis, BNF is the second most important biological process on Earth. The most important source of BNF is the symbiotic interaction between soil bacteria and legume plants. Microbial bioremediation is the use of microbial metabolism to remove pollutants. Bioremediation has been used to remove agricultural chemicals that leach from soil into groundwater and the subsurface. Toxic metals and oxides, such as selenium and arsenic compounds, can also be removed by bioremediation. Probably one of the most useful and interesting examples of the use of prokaryotes for bioremediation purposes is the cleanup of oil spills. Human life is only possible due to the action of microbes, both those in the environment and those species that call us home. Internally, they help us digest our food, produce crucial nutrients for us, protect us from pathogenic microbes, and help train our immune systems to function correctly. Review Questions Which of these occurs through symbiotic nitrogen fixation? - The plant benefits from using an endless source of nitrogen. - The soil benefits from being naturally fertilized. - Bacteria benefit from using photosynthates from the plant. - All of the above occur. Hint: D Synthetic compounds found in an organism but not normally produced or expected to be present in that organism are called _____. - pesticides - bioremediators - recalcitrant compounds - xenobiotics Hint: D Bioremediation includes _____. - the use of prokaryotes that can fix nitrogen - the use of prokaryotes to clean up pollutants - the use of prokaryotes as natural fertilizers - All of the above Hint: B Free Response Your friend believes that prokaryotes are always detrimental and pathogenic. How would you explain to them that they are wrong? Hint: Remind them of the important roles prokaryotes play in decomposition and freeing up nutrients in biogeochemical cycles; remind them of the many prokaryotes that are not human pathogens and that fill very specialized niches. Furthermore, our normal bacterial symbionts are crucial for our digestion and in protecting us from pathogens.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.488390	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15049/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15050/overview	Introduction Humans have been familiar with macroscopic organisms (organisms big enough to see with the unaided eye) since before there was a written history, and it is likely that most cultures distinguished between animals and land plants, and most probably included the macroscopic fungi as plants. Therefore, it became an interesting challenge to deal with the world of microorganisms once microscopes were developed a few centuries ago. Many different naming schemes were used over the last couple of centuries, but it has become the most common practice to refer to eukaryotes that are not land plants, animals, or fungi as protists. This name was first suggested by Ernst Haeckel in the late nineteenth century. It has been applied in many contexts and has been formally used to represent a kingdom-level taxon called Protista. However, many modern systematists (biologists who study the relationships among organisms) are beginning to shy away from the idea of formal ranks such as kingdom and phylum. Instead, they are naming taxa as groups of organisms thought to include all the descendants of a last common ancestor (monophyletic group). During the past two decades, the field of molecular genetics has demonstrated that some protists are more related to animals, plants, or fungi than they are to other protists. Therefore, not including animals, plants and fungi make the kingdom Protista a paraphyletic group, or one that does not include all descendents of its common ancestor. For this reason, protist lineages originally classified into the kingdom Protista continue to be examined and debated. In the meantime, the term “protist” still is used informally to describe this tremendously diverse group of eukaryotes. Most protists are microscopic, unicellular organisms that are abundant in soil, freshwater, brackish, and marine environments. They are also common in the digestive tracts of animals and in the vascular tissues of plants. Others invade the cells of other protists, animals, and plants. Not all protists are microscopic. Some have huge, macroscopic cells, such as the plasmodia (giant amoebae) of myxomycete slime molds or the marine green alga Caulerpa, which can have single cells that can be several meters in size. Some protists are multicellular, such as the red, green, and brown seaweeds. It is among the protists that one finds the wealth of ways that organisms can grow.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.504815	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15050/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15051/overview	Eukaryotic Origins Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - List the unifying characteristics of eukaryotes - Describe what scientists know about the origins of eukaryotes based on the last common ancestor - Explain endosymbiotic theory Living things fall into three large groups: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. The first two have prokaryotic cells, and the third contains all eukaryotes. A relatively sparse fossil record is available to help discern what the first members of each of these lineages looked like, so it is possible that all the events that led to the last common ancestor of extant eukaryotes will remain unknown. However, comparative biology of extant organisms and the limited fossil record provide some insight into the history of Eukarya. The earliest fossils found appear to be Bacteria, most likely cyanobacteria. They are about 3.5 billion years old and are recognizable because of their relatively complex structure and, for prokaryotes, relatively large cells. Most other prokaryotes have small cells, 1 or 2 µm in size, and would be difficult to pick out as fossils. Most living eukaryotes have cells measuring 10 µm or greater. Structures this size, which might be fossils, appear in the geological record about 2.1 billion years ago. Characteristics of Eukaryotes Data from these fossils have led comparative biologists to the conclusion that living eukaryotes are all descendants of a single common ancestor. Mapping the characteristics found in all major groups of eukaryotes reveals that the following characteristics must have been present in the last common ancestor, because these characteristics are present in at least some of the members of each major lineage. - Cells with nuclei surrounded by a nuclear envelope with nuclear pores. This is the single characteristic that is both necessary and sufficient to define an organism as a eukaryote. All extant eukaryotes have cells with nuclei. - Mitochondria. Some extant eukaryotes have very reduced remnants of mitochondria in their cells, whereas other members of their lineages have “typical” mitochondria. - A cytoskeleton containing the structural and motility components called actin microfilaments and microtubules. All extant eukaryotes have these cytoskeletal elements. - Flagella and cilia, organelles associated with cell motility. Some extant eukaryotes lack flagella and/or cilia, but they are descended from ancestors that possessed them. - Chromosomes, each consisting of a linear DNA molecule coiled around basic (alkaline) proteins called histones. The few eukaryotes with chromosomes lacking histones clearly evolved from ancestors that had them. - Mitosis, a process of nuclear division wherein replicated chromosomes are divided and separated using elements of the cytoskeleton. Mitosis is universally present in eukaryotes. - Sex, a process of genetic recombination unique to eukaryotes in which diploid nuclei at one stage of the life cycle undergo meiosis to yield haploid nuclei and subsequent karyogamy, a stage where two haploid nuclei fuse together to create a diploid zygote nucleus. - Members of all major lineages have cell walls, and it might be reasonable to conclude that the last common ancestor could make cell walls during some stage of its life cycle. However, not enough is known about eukaryotes’ cell walls and their development to know how much homology exists among them. If the last common ancestor could make cell walls, it is clear that this ability must have been lost in many groups. Endosymbiosis and the Evolution of Eukaryotes In order to understand eukaryotic organisms fully, it is necessary to understand that all extant eukaryotes are descendants of a chimeric organism that was a composite of a host cell and the cell(s) of an alpha-proteobacterium that “took up residence” inside it. This major theme in the origin of eukaryotes is known as endosymbiosis, one cell engulfing another such that the engulfed cell survives and both cells benefit. Over many generations, a symbiotic relationship can result in two organisms that depend on each other so completely that neither could survive on its own. Endosymbiotic events likely contributed to the origin of the last common ancestor of today’s eukaryotes and to later diversification in certain lineages of eukaryotes (Figure). Before explaining this further, it is necessary to consider metabolism in prokaryotes. Prokaryotic Metabolism Many important metabolic processes arose in prokaryotes, and some of these, such as nitrogen fixation, are never found in eukaryotes. The process of aerobic respiration is found in all major lineages of eukaryotes, and it is localized in the mitochondria. Aerobic respiration is also found in many lineages of prokaryotes, but it is not present in all of them, and many forms of evidence suggest that such anaerobic prokaryotes never carried out aerobic respiration nor did their ancestors. While today’s atmosphere is about one-fifth molecular oxygen (O2), geological evidence shows that it originally lacked O2. Without oxygen, aerobic respiration would not be expected, and living things would have relied on fermentation instead. At some point before, about 3.5 billion years ago, some prokaryotes began using energy from sunlight to power anabolic processes that reduce carbon dioxide to form organic compounds. That is, they evolved the ability to photosynthesize. Hydrogen, derived from various sources, was captured using light-powered reactions to reduce fixed carbon dioxide in the Calvin cycle. The group of Gram-negative bacteria that gave rise to cyanobacteria used water as the hydrogen source and released O2 as a waste product. Eventually, the amount of photosynthetic oxygen built up in some environments to levels that posed a risk to living organisms, since it can damage many organic compounds. Various metabolic processes evolved that protected organisms from oxygen, one of which, aerobic respiration, also generated high levels of ATP. It became widely present among prokaryotes, including in a group we now call alpha-proteobacteria. Organisms that did not acquire aerobic respiration had to remain in oxygen-free environments. Originally, oxygen-rich environments were likely localized around places where cyanobacteria were active, but by about 2 billion years ago, geological evidence shows that oxygen was building up to higher concentrations in the atmosphere. Oxygen levels similar to today’s levels only arose within the last 700 million years. Recall that the first fossils that we believe to be eukaryotes date to about 2 billion years old, so they appeared as oxygen levels were increasing. Also, recall that all extant eukaryotes descended from an ancestor with mitochondria. These organelles were first observed by light microscopists in the late 1800s, where they appeared to be somewhat worm-shaped structures that seemed to be moving around in the cell. Some early observers suggested that they might be bacteria living inside host cells, but these hypotheses remained unknown or rejected in most scientific communities. Endosymbiotic Theory As cell biology developed in the twentieth century, it became clear that mitochondria were the organelles responsible for producing ATP using aerobic respiration. In the 1960s, American biologist Lynn Margulis developed endosymbiotic theory, which states that eukaryotes may have been a product of one cell engulfing another, one living within another, and evolving over time until the separate cells were no longer recognizable as such. In 1967, Margulis introduced new work on the theory and substantiated her findings through microbiological evidence. Although Margulis’ work initially was met with resistance, this once-revolutionary hypothesis is now widely (but not completely) accepted, with work progressing on uncovering the steps involved in this evolutionary process and the key players involved. Much still remains to be discovered about the origins of the cells that now make up the cells in all living eukaryotes. Broadly, it has become clear that many of our nuclear genes and the molecular machinery responsible for replication and expression appear closely related to those in Archaea. On the other hand, the metabolic organelles and genes responsible for many energy-harvesting processes had their origins in bacteria. Much remains to be clarified about how this relationship occurred; this continues to be an exciting field of discovery in biology. For instance, it is not known whether the endosymbiotic event that led to mitochondria occurred before or after the host cell had a nucleus. Such organisms would be among the extinct precursors of the last common ancestor of eukaryotes. Mitochondria One of the major features distinguishing prokaryotes from eukaryotes is the presence of mitochondria. Eukaryotic cells may contain anywhere from one to several thousand mitochondria, depending on the cell’s level of energy consumption. Each mitochondrion measures 1 to 10 or greater micrometers in length and exists in the cell as an organelle that can be ovoid to worm-shaped to intricately branched (Figure). Mitochondria arise from the division of existing mitochondria; they may fuse together; and they may be moved around inside the cell by interactions with the cytoskeleton. However, mitochondria cannot survive outside the cell. As the atmosphere was oxygenated by photosynthesis, and as successful aerobic prokaryotes evolved, evidence suggests that an ancestral cell with some membrane compartmentalization engulfed a free-living aerobic prokaryote, specifically an alpha-proteobacterium, thereby giving the host cell the ability to use oxygen to release energy stored in nutrients. Alpha-proteobacteria are a large group of bacteria that includes species symbiotic with plants, disease organisms that can infect humans via ticks, and many free-living species that use light for energy. Several lines of evidence support that mitochondria are derived from this endosymbiotic event. Most mitochondria are shaped like alpha-proteobacteria and are surrounded by two membranes, which would result when one membrane-bound organism was engulfed into a vacuole by another membrane-bound organism. The mitochondrial inner membrane is extensive and involves substantial infoldings called cristae that resemble the textured, outer surface of alpha-proteobacteria. The matrix and inner membrane are rich with the enzymes necessary for aerobic respiration. Mitochondria divide independently by a process that resembles binary fission in prokaryotes. Specifically, mitochondria are not formed from scratch (de novo) by the eukaryotic cell; they reproduce within it and are distributed with the cytoplasm when a cell divides or two cells fuse. Therefore, although these organelles are highly integrated into the eukaryotic cell, they still reproduce as if they are independent organisms within the cell. However, their reproduction is synchronized with the activity and division of the cell. Mitochondria have their own (usually) circular DNA chromosome that is stabilized by attachments to the inner membrane and carries genes similar to genes expressed by alpha-proteobacteria. Mitochondria also have special ribosomes and transfer RNAs that resemble these components in prokaryotes. These features all support that mitochondria were once free-living prokaryotes. Mitochondria that carry out aerobic respiration have their own genomes, with genes similar to those in alpha-proteobacteria. However, many of the genes for respiratory proteins are located in the nucleus. When these genes are compared to those of other organisms, they appear to be of alpha-proteobacterial origin. Additionally, in some eukaryotic groups, such genes are found in the mitochondria, whereas in other groups, they are found in the nucleus. This has been interpreted as evidence that genes have been transferred from the endosymbiont chromosome to the host genome. This loss of genes by the endosymbiont is probably one explanation why mitochondria cannot live without a host. Some living eukaryotes are anaerobic and cannot survive in the presence of too much oxygen. Some appear to lack organelles that could be recognized as mitochondria. In the 1970s to the early 1990s, many biologists suggested that some of these eukaryotes were descended from ancestors whose lineages had diverged from the lineage of mitochondrion-containing eukaryotes before endosymbiosis occurred. However, later findings suggest that reduced organelles are found in most, if not all, anaerobic eukaryotes, and that all eukaryotes appear to carry some genes in their nuclei that are of mitochondrial origin. In addition to the aerobic generation of ATP, mitochondria have several other metabolic functions. One of these functions is to generate clusters of iron and sulfur that are important cofactors of many enzymes. Such functions are often associated with the reduced mitochondrion-derived organelles of anaerobic eukaryotes. Therefore, most biologists accept that the last common ancestor of eukaryotes had mitochondria. Plastids Some groups of eukaryotes are photosynthetic. Their cells contain, in addition to the standard eukaryotic organelles, another kind of organelle called a plastid. When such cells are carrying out photosynthesis, their plastids are rich in the pigment chlorophyll a and a range of other pigments, called accessory pigments, which are involved in harvesting energy from light. Photosynthetic plastids are called chloroplasts (Figure). Like mitochondria, plastids appear to have an endosymbiotic origin. This hypothesis was also championed by Lynn Margulis. Plastids are derived from cyanobacteria that lived inside the cells of an ancestral, aerobic, heterotrophic eukaryote. This is called primary endosymbiosis, and plastids of primary origin are surrounded by two membranes. The best evidence is that this has happened twice in the history of eukaryotes. In one case, the common ancestor of the major lineage/supergroup Archaeplastida took on a cyanobacterial endosymbiont; in the other, the ancestor of the small amoeboid rhizarian taxon, Paulinella, took on a different cyanobacterial endosymbiont. Almost all photosynthetic eukaryotes are descended from the first event, and only a couple of species are derived from the other. Cyanobacteria are a group of Gram-negative bacteria with all the conventional structures of the group. However, unlike most prokaryotes, they have extensive, internal membrane-bound sacs called thylakoids. Chlorophyll is a component of these membranes, as are many of the proteins of the light reactions of photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria also have the peptidoglycan wall and lipopolysaccharide layer associated with Gram-negative bacteria. Chloroplasts of primary origin have thylakoids, a circular DNA chromosome, and ribosomes similar to those of cyanobacteria. Each chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes. In the group of Archaeplastida called the glaucophytes and in Paulinella, a thin peptidoglycan layer is present between the outer and inner plastid membranes. All other plastids lack this relictual cyanobacterial wall. The outer membrane surrounding the plastid is thought to be derived from the vacuole in the host, and the inner membrane is thought to be derived from the plasma membrane of the symbiont. There is also, as with the case of mitochondria, strong evidence that many of the genes of the endosymbiont were transferred to the nucleus. Plastids, like mitochondria, cannot live independently outside the host. In addition, like mitochondria, plastids are derived from the division of other plastids and never built from scratch. Researchers have suggested that the endosymbiotic event that led to Archaeplastida occurred 1 to 1.5 billion years ago, at least 5 hundred million years after the fossil record suggests that eukaryotes were present. Not all plastids in eukaryotes are derived directly from primary endosymbiosis. Some of the major groups of algae became photosynthetic by secondary endosymbiosis, that is, by taking in either green algae or red algae (both from Archaeplastida) as endosymbionts (Figureab). Numerous microscopic and genetic studies have supported this conclusion. Secondary plastids are surrounded by three or more membranes, and some secondary plastids even have clear remnants of the nucleus of endosymbiotic alga. Others have not “kept” any remnants. There are cases where tertiary or higher-order endosymbiotic events are the best explanations for plastids in some eukaryotes. Art Connection What evidence is there that mitochondria were incorporated into the ancestral eukaryotic cell before chloroplasts? Evolution Connection Secondary Endosymbiosis in ChlorarachniophytesEndosymbiosis involves one cell engulfing another to produce, over time, a coevolved relationship in which neither cell could survive alone. The chloroplasts of red and green algae, for instance, are derived from the engulfment of a photosynthetic cyanobacterium by an early prokaryote. This leads to the question of the possibility of a cell containing an endosymbiont to itself become engulfed, resulting in a secondary endosymbiosis. Molecular and morphological evidence suggest that the chlorarachniophyte protists are derived from a secondary endosymbiotic event. Chlorarachniophytes are rare algae indigenous to tropical seas and sand that can be classified into the rhizarian supergroup. Chlorarachniophytes extend thin cytoplasmic strands, interconnecting themselves with other chlorarachniophytes, in a cytoplasmic network. These protists are thought to have originated when a eukaryote engulfed a green alga, the latter of which had already established an endosymbiotic relationship with a photosynthetic cyanobacterium (Figure). Several lines of evidence support that chlorarachniophytes evolved from secondary endosymbiosis. The chloroplasts contained within the green algal endosymbionts still are capable of photosynthesis, making chlorarachniophytes photosynthetic. The green algal endosymbiont also exhibits a stunted vestigial nucleus. In fact, it appears that chlorarachniophytes are the products of an evolutionarily recent secondary endosymbiotic event. The plastids of chlorarachniophytes are surrounded by four membranes: The first two correspond to the inner and outer membranes of the photosynthetic cyanobacterium, the third corresponds to the green alga, and the fourth corresponds to the vacuole that surrounded the green alga when it was engulfed by the chlorarachniophyte ancestor. In other lineages that involved secondary endosymbiosis, only three membranes can be identified around plastids. This is currently rectified as a sequential loss of a membrane during the course of evolution. The process of secondary endosymbiosis is not unique to chlorarachniophytes. In fact, secondary endosymbiosis of green algae also led to euglenid protists, whereas secondary endosymbiosis of red algae led to the evolution of dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and stramenopiles. Section Summary The oldest fossil evidence of eukaryotes is about 2 billion years old. Fossils older than this all appear to be prokaryotes. It is probable that today’s eukaryotes are descended from an ancestor that had a prokaryotic organization. The last common ancestor of today’s Eukarya had several characteristics, including cells with nuclei that divided mitotically and contained linear chromosomes where the DNA was associated with histones, a cytoskeleton and endomembrane system, and the ability to make cilia/flagella during at least part of its life cycle. It was aerobic because it had mitochondria that were the result of an aerobic alpha-proteobacterium that lived inside a host cell. Whether this host had a nucleus at the time of the initial symbiosis remains unknown. The last common ancestor may have had a cell wall for at least part of its life cycle, but more data are needed to confirm this hypothesis. Today’s eukaryotes are very diverse in their shapes, organization, life cycles, and number of cells per individual. Art Connections Review Questions What event is thought to have contributed to the evolution of eukaryotes? - global warming - glaciation - volcanic activity - oxygenation of the atmosphere Hint: D Which characteristic is shared by prokaryotes and eukaryotes? - cytoskeleton - nuclear envelope - DNA-based genome - mitochondria Hint: C Mitochondria most likely evolved by _____________. - a photosynthetic cyanobacterium - cytoskeletal elements - endosymbiosis - membrane proliferation Hint: C Which of these protists is believed to have evolved following a secondary endosymbiosis? - green algae - cyanobacteria - red algae - chlorarachniophytes Hint: D Free Response Describe the hypothesized steps in the origin of eukaryotic cells. Hint: Eukaryotic cells arose through endosymbiotic events that gave rise to the energy-producing organelles within the eukaryotic cells such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. The nuclear genome of eukaryotes is related most closely to the Archaea, so it may have been an early archaean that engulfed a bacterial cell that evolved into a mitochondrion. Mitochondria appear to have originated from an alpha-proteobacterium, whereas chloroplasts originated as a cyanobacterium. There is also evidence of secondary endosymbiotic events. Other cell components may also have resulted from endosymbiotic events.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.537125	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15051/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15052/overview	Characteristics of Protists Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the cell structure characteristics of protists - Describe the metabolic diversity of protists - Describe the life cycle diversity of protists There are over 100,000 described living species of protists, and it is unclear how many undescribed species may exist. Since many protists live as commensals or parasites in other organisms and these relationships are often species-specific, there is a huge potential for protist diversity that matches the diversity of hosts. As the catchall term for eukaryotic organisms that are not animal, plant, or fungi, it is not surprising that very few characteristics are common to all protists. Cell Structure The cells of protists are among the most elaborate of all cells. Most protists are microscopic and unicellular, but some true multicellular forms exist. A few protists live as colonies that behave in some ways as a group of free-living cells and in other ways as a multicellular organism. Still other protists are composed of enormous, multinucleate, single cells that look like amorphous blobs of slime, or in other cases, like ferns. In fact, many protist cells are multinucleated; in some species, the nuclei are different sizes and have distinct roles in protist cell function. Single protist cells range in size from less than a micrometer to three meters in length to hectares. Protist cells may be enveloped by animal-like cell membranes or plant-like cell walls. Others are encased in glassy silica-based shells or wound with pellicles of interlocking protein strips. The pellicle functions like a flexible coat of armor, preventing the protist from being torn or pierced without compromising its range of motion. Metabolism Protists exhibit many forms of nutrition and may be aerobic or anaerobic. Protists that store energy by photosynthesis belong to a group of photoautotrophs and are characterized by the presence of chloroplasts. Other protists are heterotrophic and consume organic materials (such as other organisms) to obtain nutrition. Amoebas and some other heterotrophic protist species ingest particles by a process called phagocytosis, in which the cell membrane engulfs a food particle and brings it inward, pinching off an intracellular membranous sac, or vesicle, called a food vacuole (Figure). The vesicle containing the ingested particle, the phagosome, then fuses with a lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes to produce a phagolysosome, and the food particle is broken down into small molecules that can diffuse into the cytoplasm and be used in cellular metabolism. Undigested remains ultimately are expelled from the cell via exocytosis. Subtypes of heterotrophs, called saprobes, absorb nutrients from dead organisms or their organic wastes. Some protists can function as mixotrophs, obtaining nutrition by photoautotrophic or heterotrophic routes, depending on whether sunlight or organic nutrients are available. Motility The majority of protists are motile, but different types of protists have evolved varied modes of movement (Figure). Some protists have one or more flagella, which they rotate or whip. Others are covered in rows or tufts of tiny cilia that they coordinately beat to swim. Still others form cytoplasmic extensions called pseudopodia anywhere on the cell, anchor the pseudopodia to a substrate, and pull themselves forward. Some protists can move toward or away from a stimulus, a movement referred to as taxis. Movement toward light, termed phototaxis, is accomplished by coupling their locomotion strategy with a light-sensing organ. Life Cycles Protists reproduce by a variety of mechanisms. Most undergo some form of asexual reproduction, such as binary fission, to produce two daughter cells. In protists, binary fission can be divided into transverse or longitudinal, depending on the axis of orientation; sometimes Paramecium exhibits this method. Some protists such as the true slime molds exhibit multiple fission and simultaneously divide into many daughter cells. Others produce tiny buds that go on to divide and grow to the size of the parental protist. Sexual reproduction, involving meiosis and fertilization, is common among protists, and many protist species can switch from asexual to sexual reproduction when necessary. Sexual reproduction is often associated with periods when nutrients are depleted or environmental changes occur. Sexual reproduction may allow the protist to recombine genes and produce new variations of progeny that may be better suited to surviving in the new environment. However, sexual reproduction is often associated with resistant cysts that are a protective, resting stage. Depending on their habitat, the cysts may be particularly resistant to temperature extremes, desiccation, or low pH. This strategy also allows certain protists to “wait out” stressors until their environment becomes more favorable for survival or until they are carried (such as by wind, water, or transport on a larger organism) to a different environment, because cysts exhibit virtually no cellular metabolism. Protist life cycles range from simple to extremely elaborate. Certain parasitic protists have complicated life cycles and must infect different host species at different developmental stages to complete their life cycle. Some protists are unicellular in the haploid form and multicellular in the diploid form, a strategy employed by animals. Other protists have multicellular stages in both haploid and diploid forms, a strategy called alternation of generations that is also used by plants. Habitats Nearly all protists exist in some type of aquatic environment, including freshwater and marine environments, damp soil, and even snow. Several protist species are parasites that infect animals or plants. A few protist species live on dead organisms or their wastes, and contribute to their decay. Section Summary Protists are extremely diverse in terms of their biological and ecological characteristics, partly because they are an artificial assemblage of phylogenetically unrelated groups. Protists display highly varied cell structures, several types of reproductive strategies, virtually every possible type of nutrition, and varied habitats. Most single-celled protists are motile, but these organisms use diverse structures for transportation. Review Questions Protists that have a pellicle are surrounded by ______________. - silica dioxide - calcium carbonate - carbohydrates - proteins Hint: D Protists with the capabilities to perform photosynthesis and to absorb nutrients from dead organisms are called ______________. - photoautotrophs - mixotrophs - saprobes - heterotrophs Hint: B Which of these locomotor organs would likely be the shortest? - a flagellum - a cilium - an extended pseudopod - a pellicle Hint: B Alternation of generations describes which of the following? - The haploid form can be multicellular; the diploid form is unicellular. - The haploid form is unicellular; the diploid form can be multicellular. - Both the haploid and diploid forms can be multicellular. - Neither the haploid nor the diploid forms can be multicellular. Hint: C Free Response Explain in your own words why sexual reproduction can be useful if a protist’s environment changes. Hint: The ability to perform sexual reproduction allows protists to recombine their genes and produce new variations of progeny that may be better suited to the new environment. In contrast, asexual reproduction generates progeny that are clones of the parent. Giardia lamblia is a cyst-forming protist parasite that causes diarrhea if ingested. Given this information, against what type(s) of environments might G. lamblia cysts be particularly resistant? Hint: As an intestinal parasite, Giardia cysts would be exposed to low pH in the stomach acids of its host. To survive this environment and reach the intestine, the cysts would have to be resistant to acidic conditions.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.564858	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15052/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15053/overview	Groups of Protists Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe representative protist organisms from each of the six presently recognized supergroups of eukaryotes - Identify the evolutionary relationships of plants, animals, and fungi within the six presently recognized supergroups of eukaryotes In the span of several decades, the Kingdom Protista has been disassembled because sequence analyses have revealed new genetic (and therefore evolutionary) relationships among these eukaryotes. Moreover, protists that exhibit similar morphological features may have evolved analogous structures because of similar selective pressures—rather than because of recent common ancestry. This phenomenon, called convergent evolution, is one reason why protist classification is so challenging. The emerging classification scheme groups the entire domain Eukaryota into six “supergroups” that contain all of the protists as well as animals, plants, and fungi that evolved from a common ancestor (Figure). The supergroups are believed to be monophyletic, meaning that all organisms within each supergroup are believed to have evolved from a single common ancestor, and thus all members are most closely related to each other than to organisms outside that group. There is still evidence lacking for the monophyly of some groups. The classification of eukaryotes is still in flux, and the six supergroups may be modified or replaced by a more appropriate hierarchy as genetic, morphological, and ecological data accumulate. Keep in mind that the classification scheme presented here is just one of several hypotheses, and the true evolutionary relationships are still to be determined. When learning about protists, it is helpful to focus less on the nomenclature and more on the commonalities and differences that define the groups themselves. Excavata Many of the protist species classified into the supergroup Excavata are asymmetrical, single-celled organisms with a feeding groove “excavated” from one side. This supergroup includes heterotrophic predators, photosynthetic species, and parasites. Its subgroups are the diplomonads, parabasalids, and euglenozoans. Diplomonads Among the Excavata are the diplomonads, which include the intestinal parasite, Giardia lamblia (Figure). Until recently, these protists were believed to lack mitochondria. Mitochondrial remnant organelles, called mitosomes, have since been identified in diplomonads, but these mitosomes are essentially nonfunctional. Diplomonads exist in anaerobic environments and use alternative pathways, such as glycolysis, to generate energy. Each diplomonad cell has two identical nuclei and uses several flagella for locomotion. Parabasalids A second Excavata subgroup, the parabasalids, also exhibits semi-functional mitochondria. In parabasalids, these structures function anaerobically and are called hydrogenosomes because they produce hydrogen gas as a byproduct. Parabasalids move with flagella and membrane rippling. Trichomonas vaginalis, a parabasalid that causes a sexually transmitted disease in humans, employs these mechanisms to transit through the male and female urogenital tracts. T. vaginalis causes trichamoniasis, which appears in an estimated 180 million cases worldwide each year. Whereas men rarely exhibit symptoms during an infection with this protist, infected women may become more susceptible to secondary infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and may be more likely to develop cervical cancer. Pregnant women infected with T. vaginalis are at an increased risk of serious complications, such as pre-term delivery. Euglenozoans Euglenozoans includes parasites, heterotrophs, autotrophs, and mixotrophs, ranging in size from 10 to 500 µm. Euglenoids move through their aquatic habitats using two long flagella that guide them toward light sources sensed by a primitive ocular organ called an eyespot. The familiar genus, Euglena, encompasses some mixotrophic species that display a photosynthetic capability only when light is present. In the dark, the chloroplasts of Euglena shrink up and temporarily cease functioning, and the cells instead take up organic nutrients from their environment. The human parasite, Trypanosoma brucei, belongs to a different subgroup of Euglenozoa, the kinetoplastids. The kinetoplastid subgroup is named after the kinetoplast, a DNA mass carried within the single, oversized mitochondrion possessed by each of these cells. This subgroup includes several parasites, collectively called trypanosomes, which cause devastating human diseases and infect an insect species during a portion of their life cycle. T. brucei develops in the gut of the tsetse fly after the fly bites an infected human or other mammalian host. The parasite then travels to the insect salivary glands to be transmitted to another human or other mammal when the infected tsetse fly consumes another blood meal. T. brucei is common in central Africa and is the causative agent of African sleeping sickness, a disease associated with severe chronic fatigue, coma, and can be fatal if left untreated. Link to Learning Watch this video to see T. brucei swimming. Chromalveolata Current evidence suggests that species classified as chromalveolates are derived from a common ancestor that engulfed a photosynthetic red algal cell, which itself had already evolved chloroplasts from an endosymbiotic relationship with a photosynthetic prokaryote. Therefore, the ancestor of chromalveolates is believed to have resulted from a secondary endosymbiotic event. However, some chromalveolates appear to have lost red alga-derived plastid organelles or lack plastid genes altogether. Therefore, this supergroup should be considered a hypothesis-based working group that is subject to change. Chromalveolates include very important photosynthetic organisms, such as diatoms, brown algae, and significant disease agents in animals and plants. The chromalveolates can be subdivided into alveolates and stramenopiles. Alveolates: Dinoflagellates, Apicomplexians, and Ciliates A large body of data supports that the alveolates are derived from a shared common ancestor. The alveolates are named for the presence of an alveolus, or membrane-enclosed sac, beneath the cell membrane. The exact function of the alveolus is unknown, but it may be involved in osmoregulation. The alveolates are further categorized into some of the better-known protists: the dinoflagellates, the apicomplexans, and the ciliates. Dinoflagellates exhibit extensive morphological diversity and can be photosynthetic, heterotrophic, or mixotrophic. Many dinoflagellates are encased in interlocking plates of cellulose. Two perpendicular flagella fit into the grooves between the cellulose plates, with one flagellum extending longitudinally and a second encircling the dinoflagellate (Figure). Together, the flagella contribute to the characteristic spinning motion of dinoflagellates. These protists exist in freshwater and marine habitats, and are a component of plankton, the typically microscopic organisms that drift through the water and serve as a crucial food source for larger aquatic organisms. Some dinoflagellates generate light, called bioluminescence, when they are jarred or stressed. Large numbers of marine dinoflagellates (billions or trillions of cells per wave) can emit light and cause an entire breaking wave to twinkle or take on a brilliant blue color (Figure). For approximately 20 species of marine dinoflagellates, population explosions (also called blooms) during the summer months can tint the ocean with a muddy red color. This phenomenon is called a red tide, and it results from the abundant red pigments present in dinoflagellate plastids. In large quantities, these dinoflagellate species secrete an asphyxiating toxin that can kill fish, birds, and marine mammals. Red tides can be massively detrimental to commercial fisheries, and humans who consume these protists may become poisoned. The apicomplexan protists are so named because their microtubules, fibrin, and vacuoles are asymmetrically distributed at one end of the cell in a structure called an apical complex (Figure). The apical complex is specialized for entry and infection of host cells. Indeed, all apicomplexans are parasitic. This group includes the genus Plasmodium, which causes malaria in humans. Apicomplexan life cycles are complex, involving multiple hosts and stages of sexual and asexual reproduction. The ciliates, which include Paramecium and Tetrahymena, are a group of protists 10 to 3,000 micrometers in length that are covered in rows, tufts, or spirals of tiny cilia. By beating their cilia synchronously or in waves, ciliates can coordinate directed movements and ingest food particles. Certain ciliates have fused cilia-based structures that function like paddles, funnels, or fins. Ciliates also are surrounded by a pellicle, providing protection without compromising agility. The genus Paramecium includes protists that have organized their cilia into a plate-like primitive mouth, called an oral groove, which is used to capture and digest bacteria (Figure). Food captured in the oral groove enters a food vacuole, where it combines with digestive enzymes. Waste particles are expelled by an exocytic vesicle that fuses at a specific region on the cell membrane, called the anal pore. In addition to a vacuole-based digestive system, Paramecium also uses contractile vacuoles, which are osmoregulatory vesicles that fill with water as it enters the cell by osmosis and then contract to squeeze water from the cell. Link to Learning Watch the video of the contractile vacuole of Paramecium expelling water to keep the cell osmotically balanced. Paramecium has two nuclei, a macronucleus and a micronucleus, in each cell. The micronucleus is essential for sexual reproduction, whereas the macronucleus directs asexual binary fission and all other biological functions. The process of sexual reproduction in Paramecium underscores the importance of the micronucleus to these protists. Paramecium and most other ciliates reproduce sexually by conjugation. This process begins when two different mating types of Paramecium make physical contact and join with a cytoplasmic bridge (Figure). The diploid micronucleus in each cell then undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid micronuclei. Three of these degenerate in each cell, leaving one micronucleus that then undergoes mitosis, generating two haploid micronuclei. The cells each exchange one of these haploid nuclei and move away from each other. A similar process occurs in bacteria that have plasmids. Fusion of the haploid micronuclei generates a completely novel diploid pre-micronucleus in each conjugative cell. This pre-micronucleus undergoes three rounds of mitosis to produce eight copies, and the original macronucleus disintegrates. Four of the eight pre-micronuclei become full-fledged micronuclei, whereas the other four perform multiple rounds of DNA replication and go on to become new macronuclei. Two cell divisions then yield four new Paramecia from each original conjugative cell. Art Connection Which of the following statements about Paramecium sexual reproduction is false? - The macronuclei are derived from micronuclei. - Both mitosis and meiosis occur during sexual reproduction. - The conjugate pair swaps macronucleii. - Each parent produces four daughter cells. Stramenopiles: Diatoms, Brown Algae, Golden Algae and Oomycetes The other subgroup of chromalveolates, the stramenopiles, includes photosynthetic marine algae and heterotrophic protists. The unifying feature of this group is the presence of a textured, or “hairy,” flagellum. Many stramenopiles also have an additional flagellum that lacks hair-like projections (Figure). Members of this subgroup range in size from single-celled diatoms to the massive and multicellular kelp. The diatoms are unicellular photosynthetic protists that encase themselves in intricately patterned, glassy cell walls composed of silicon dioxide in a matrix of organic particles (Figure). These protists are a component of freshwater and marine plankton. Most species of diatoms reproduce asexually, although some instances of sexual reproduction and sporulation also exist. Some diatoms exhibit a slit in their silica shell, called a raphe. By expelling a stream of mucopolysaccharides from the raphe, the diatom can attach to surfaces or propel itself in one direction. During periods of nutrient availability, diatom populations bloom to numbers greater than can be consumed by aquatic organisms. The excess diatoms die and sink to the sea floor where they are not easily reached by saprobes that feed on dead organisms. As a result, the carbon dioxide that the diatoms had consumed and incorporated into their cells during photosynthesis is not returned to the atmosphere. In general, this process by which carbon is transported deep into the ocean is described as the biological carbon pump, because carbon is “pumped” to the ocean depths where it is inaccessible to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. The biological carbon pump is a crucial component of the carbon cycle that maintains lower atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. Like diatoms, golden algae are largely unicellular, although some species can form large colonies. Their characteristic gold color results from their extensive use of carotenoids, a group of photosynthetic pigments that are generally yellow or orange in color. Golden algae are found in both freshwater and marine environments, where they form a major part of the plankton community. The brown algae are primarily marine, multicellular organisms that are known colloquially as seaweeds. Giant kelps are a type of brown algae. Some brown algae have evolved specialized tissues that resemble terrestrial plants, with root-like holdfasts, stem-like stipes, and leaf-like blades that are capable of photosynthesis. The stipes of giant kelps are enormous, extending in some cases for 60 meters. A variety of algal life cycles exists, but the most complex is alternation of generations, in which both haploid and diploid stages involve multicellularity. Compare this life cycle to that of humans, for instance. Haploid gametes produced by meiosis (sperm and egg) combine in fertilization to generate a diploid zygote that undergoes many rounds of mitosis to produce a multicellular embryo and then a fetus. However, the individual sperm and egg themselves never become multicellular beings. Terrestrial plants also have evolved alternation of generations. In the brown algae genus Laminaria, haploid spores develop into multicellular gametophytes, which produce haploid gametes that combine to produce diploid organisms that then become multicellular organisms with a different structure from the haploid form (Figure). Certain other organisms perform alternation of generations in which both the haploid and diploid forms look the same. Art Connection Which of the following statements about the Laminaria life cycle is false? - 1n zoospores form in the sporangia. - The sporophyte is the 2n plant. - The gametophyte is diploid. - Both the gametophyte and sporophyte stages are multicellular. The water molds, oomycetes (“egg fungus”), were so-named based on their fungus-like morphology, but molecular data have shown that the water molds are not closely related to fungi. The oomycetes are characterized by a cellulose-based cell wall and an extensive network of filaments that allow for nutrient uptake. As diploid spores, many oomycetes have two oppositely directed flagella (one hairy and one smooth) for locomotion. The oomycetes are nonphotosynthetic and include many saprobes and parasites. The saprobes appear as white fluffy growths on dead organisms (Figure). Most oomycetes are aquatic, but some parasitize terrestrial plants. One plant pathogen is Phytophthora infestans, the causative agent of late blight of potatoes, such as occurred in the nineteenth century Irish potato famine. Rhizaria The Rhizaria supergroup includes many of the amoebas, most of which have threadlike or needle-like pseudopodia (Figure). Pseudopodia function to trap and engulf food particles and to direct movement in rhizarian protists. These pseudopods project outward from anywhere on the cell surface and can anchor to a substrate. The protist then transports its cytoplasm into the pseudopod, thereby moving the entire cell. This type of motion, called cytoplasmic streaming, is used by several diverse groups of protists as a means of locomotion or as a method to distribute nutrients and oxygen. Link to Learning Take a look at this video to see cytoplasmic streaming in a green alga. Forams Foraminiferans, or forams, are unicellular heterotrophic protists, ranging from approximately 20 micrometers to several centimeters in length, and occasionally resembling tiny snails (Figure). As a group, the forams exhibit porous shells, called tests that are built from various organic materials and typically hardened with calcium carbonate. The tests may house photosynthetic algae, which the forams can harvest for nutrition. Foram pseudopodia extend through the pores and allow the forams to move, feed, and gather additional building materials. Typically, forams are associated with sand or other particles in marine or freshwater habitats. Foraminiferans are also useful as indicators of pollution and changes in global weather patterns. Radiolarians A second subtype of Rhizaria, the radiolarians, exhibit intricate exteriors of glassy silica with radial or bilateral symmetry (Figure). Needle-like pseudopods supported by microtubules radiate outward from the cell bodies of these protists and function to catch food particles. The shells of dead radiolarians sink to the ocean floor, where they may accumulate in 100 meter-thick depths. Preserved, sedimented radiolarians are very common in the fossil record. Archaeplastida Red algae and green algae are included in the supergroup Archaeplastida. It was from a common ancestor of these protists that the land plants evolved, since their closest relatives are found in this group. Molecular evidence supports that all Archaeplastida are descendents of an endosymbiotic relationship between a heterotrophic protist and a cyanobacterium. The red and green algae include unicellular, multicellular, and colonial forms. Red Algae Red algae, or rhodophytes, are primarily multicellular, lack flagella, and range in size from microscopic, unicellular protists to large, multicellular forms grouped into the informal seaweed category. The red algae life cycle is an alternation of generations. Some species of red algae contain phycoerythrins, photosynthetic accessory pigments that are red in color and outcompete the green tint of chlorophyll, making these species appear as varying shades of red. Other protists classified as red algae lack phycoerythrins and are parasites. Red algae are common in tropical waters where they have been detected at depths of 260 meters. Other red algae exist in terrestrial or freshwater environments. Green Algae: Chlorophytes and Charophytes The most abundant group of algae is the green algae. The green algae exhibit similar features to the land plants, particularly in terms of chloroplast structure. That this group of protists shared a relatively recent common ancestor with land plants is well supported. The green algae are subdivided into the chlorophytes and the charophytes. The charophytes are the closest living relatives to land plants and resemble them in morphology and reproductive strategies. Charophytes are common in wet habitats, and their presence often signals a healthy ecosystem. The chlorophytes exhibit great diversity of form and function. Chlorophytes primarily inhabit freshwater and damp soil, and are a common component of plankton. Chlamydomonas is a simple, unicellular chlorophyte with a pear-shaped morphology and two opposing, anterior flagella that guide this protist toward light sensed by its eyespot. More complex chlorophyte species exhibit haploid gametes and spores that resemble Chlamydomonas. The chlorophyte Volvox is one of only a few examples of a colonial organism, which behaves in some ways like a collection of individual cells, but in other ways like the specialized cells of a multicellular organism (Figure). Volvox colonies contain 500 to 60,000 cells, each with two flagella, contained within a hollow, spherical matrix composed of a gelatinous glycoprotein secretion. Individual Volvox cells move in a coordinated fashion and are interconnected by cytoplasmic bridges. Only a few of the cells reproduce to create daughter colonies, an example of basic cell specialization in this organism. True multicellular organisms, such as the sea lettuce, Ulva, are represented among the chlorophytes. In addition, some chlorophytes exist as large, multinucleate, single cells. Species in the genus Caulerpa exhibit flattened fern-like foliage and can reach lengths of 3 meters (Figure). Caulerpa species undergo nuclear division, but their cells do not complete cytokinesis, remaining instead as massive and elaborate single cells. Amoebozoa The amoebozoans characteristically exhibit pseudopodia that extend like tubes or flat lobes, rather than the hair-like pseudopodia of rhizarian amoeba (Figure). The Amoebozoa include several groups of unicellular amoeba-like organisms that are free-living or parasites. Slime Molds A subset of the amoebozoans, the slime molds, has several morphological similarities to fungi that are thought to be the result of convergent evolution. For instance, during times of stress, some slime molds develop into spore-generating fruiting bodies, much like fungi. The slime molds are categorized on the basis of their life cycles into plasmodial or cellular types. Plasmodial slime molds are composed of large, multinucleate cells and move along surfaces like an amorphous blob of slime during their feeding stage (Figure). Food particles are lifted and engulfed into the slime mold as it glides along. Upon maturation, the plasmodium takes on a net-like appearance with the ability to form fruiting bodies, or sporangia, during times of stress. Haploid spores are produced by meiosis within the sporangia, and spores can be disseminated through the air or water to potentially land in more favorable environments. If this occurs, the spores germinate to form ameboid or flagellate haploid cells that can combine with each other and produce a diploid zygotic slime mold to complete the life cycle. The cellular slime molds function as independent amoeboid cells when nutrients are abundant (Figure). When food is depleted, cellular slime molds pile onto each other into a mass of cells that behaves as a single unit, called a slug. Some cells in the slug contribute to a 2–3-millimeter stalk, drying up and dying in the process. Cells atop the stalk form an asexual fruiting body that contains haploid spores. As with plasmodial slime molds, the spores are disseminated and can germinate if they land in a moist environment. One representative genus of the cellular slime molds is Dictyostelium, which commonly exists in the damp soil of forests. Link to Learning View this video to see the formation of a fruiting body by a cellular slime mold. Opisthokonta The opisthokonts include the animal-like choanoflagellates, which are believed to resemble the common ancestor of sponges and, in fact, all animals. Choanoflagellates include unicellular and colonial forms, and number about 244 described species. These organisms exhibit a single, apical flagellum that is surrounded by a contractile collar composed of microvilli. The collar uses a similar mechanism to sponges to filter out bacteria for ingestion by the protist. The morphology of choanoflagellates was recognized early on as resembling the collar cells of sponges, and suggesting a possible relationship to animals. The Mesomycetozoa form a small group of parasites, primarily of fish, and at least one form that can parasitize humans. Their life cycles are poorly understood. These organisms are of special interest, because they appear to be so closely related to animals. In the past, they were grouped with fungi and other protists based on their morphology. Section Summary The process of classifying protists into meaningful groups is ongoing, but genetic data in the past 20 years have clarified many relationships that were previously unclear or mistaken. The majority view at present is to order all eukaryotes into six supergroups: Excavata, Chromalveolata, Rhizaria, Archaeplastida, Amoebozoa, and Opisthokonta. The goal of this classification scheme is to create clusters of species that all are derived from a common ancestor. At present, the monophyly of some of the supergroups are better supported by genetic data than others. Although tremendous variation exists within the supergroups, commonalities at the morphological, physiological, and ecological levels can be identified. Art Connections Review Questions Which protist group exhibits mitochondrial remnants with reduced functionality? - slime molds - diatoms - parabasalids - dinoflagellates Hint: C Conjugation between two Paramecia produces ________ total daughter cells. - 2 - 4 - 8 - 16 Hint: C What is the function of the raphe in diatoms? - locomotion - defense - capturing food - photosynthesis Hint: A What genus of protists appears to contradict the statement that unicellularity restricts cell size? - Dictyostelium - Ulva - Plasmodium - Caulerpa Hint: D Free Response The chlorophyte (green algae) genera Ulva and Caulerpa both have macroscopic leaf-like and stem-like structures, but only Ulva species are considered truly multicellular. Explain why. Hint: Unlike Ulva, protists in the genus Caulerpa actually are large, multinucleate, single cells. Because these organisms undergo mitosis without cytokinesis and lack cytoplasmic divisions, they cannot be considered truly multicellular. Why might a light-sensing eyespot be ineffective for an obligate saprobe? Suggest an alternative organ for a saprobic protist. Hint: By definition, an obligate saprobe lacks the ability to perform photosynthesis, so it cannot directly obtain nutrition by searching for light. Instead, a chemotactic mechanism that senses the odors released during decay might be a more effective sensing organ for a saprobe.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.609084	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15053/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15054/overview	Ecology of Protists Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the role that protists play in the ecosystem - Describe important pathogenic species of protists Protists function in various ecological niches. Whereas some protist species are essential components of the food chain and generators of biomass, others function in the decomposition of organic materials. Still other protists are dangerous human pathogens or causative agents of devastating plant diseases. Primary Producers/Food Sources Protists are essential sources of nutrition for many other organisms. In some cases, as in plankton, protists are consumed directly. Alternatively, photosynthetic protists serve as producers of nutrition for other organisms. For instance, photosynthetic dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae use sunlight to fix inorganic carbon. In this symbiotic relationship, these protists provide nutrients for coral polyps (Figure) that house them, giving corals a boost of energy to secrete a calcium carbonate skeleton. In turn, the corals provide the protist with a protected environment and the compounds needed for photosynthesis. This type of symbiotic relationship is important in nutrient-poor environments. Without dinoflagellate symbionts, corals lose algal pigments in a process called coral bleaching, and they eventually die. This explains why reef-building corals do not reside in waters deeper than 20 meters: insufficient light reaches those depths for dinoflagellates to photosynthesize. The protists themselves and their products of photosynthesis are essential—directly or indirectly—to the survival of organisms ranging from bacteria to mammals (Figure). As primary producers, protists feed a large proportion of the world’s aquatic species. (On land, terrestrial plants serve as primary producers.) In fact, approximately one-quarter of the world’s photosynthesis is conducted by protists, particularly dinoflagellates, diatoms, and multicellular algae. Protists do not create food sources only for sea-dwelling organisms. For instance, certain anaerobic parabasalid species exist in the digestive tracts of termites and wood-eating cockroaches, where they contribute an essential step in the digestion of cellulose ingested by these insects as they bore through wood. Human Pathogens A pathogen is anything that causes disease. Parasites live in or on an organism and harm the organism. A significant number of protists are pathogenic parasites that must infect other organisms to survive and propagate. Protist parasites include the causative agents of malaria, African sleeping sickness, and waterborne gastroenteritis in humans. Other protist pathogens prey on plants, effecting massive destruction of food crops. Plasmodium Species Members of the genus Plasmodium must colonize both a mosquito and a vertebrate to complete their life cycle. In vertebrates, the parasite develops in liver cells and goes on to infect red blood cells, bursting from and destroying the blood cells with each asexual replication cycle (Figure). Of the four Plasmodium species known to infect humans, P. falciparum accounts for 50 percent of all malaria cases and is the primary cause of disease-related fatalities in tropical regions of the world. In 2010, it was estimated that malaria caused between one-half and one million deaths, mostly in African children. During the course of malaria, P. falciparum can infect and destroy more than one-half of a human’s circulating blood cells, leading to severe anemia. In response to waste products released as the parasites burst from infected blood cells, the host immune system mounts a massive inflammatory response with episodes of delirium-inducing fever as parasites lyse red blood cells, spilling parasite waste into the bloodstream. P. falciparum is transmitted to humans by the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. Techniques to kill, sterilize, or avoid exposure to this highly aggressive mosquito species are crucial to malaria control. Link to Learning This movie depicts the pathogenesis of Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of malaria. Trypanosomes Trypanosoma brucei, the parasite that is responsible for African sleeping sickness, confounds the human immune system by changing its thick layer of surface glycoproteins with each infectious cycle (Figure). The glycoproteins are identified by the immune system as foreign antigens, and a specific antibody defense is mounted against the parasite. However, T. brucei has thousands of possible antigens, and with each subsequent generation, the protist switches to a glycoprotein coating with a different molecular structure. In this way, T. brucei is capable of replicating continuously without the immune system ever succeeding in clearing the parasite. Without treatment, T. brucei attacks red blood cells, causing the patient to lapse into a coma and eventually die. During epidemic periods, mortality from the disease can be high. Greater surveillance and control measures lead to a reduction in reported cases; some of the lowest numbers reported in 50 years (fewer than 10,000 cases in all of sub-Saharan Africa) have happened since 2009. Link to Learning This movie discusses the pathogenesis of Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent of African sleeping sickness. In Latin America, another species, T. cruzi, is responsible for Chagas disease. T. cruzi infections are mainly caused by a blood-sucking bug. The parasite inhabits heart and digestive system tissues in the chronic phase of infection, leading to malnutrition and heart failure due to abnormal heart rhythms. An estimated 10 million people are infected with Chagas disease, and it caused 10,000 deaths in 2008. Plant Parasites Protist parasites of terrestrial plants include agents that destroy food crops. The oomycete Plasmopara viticola parasitizes grape plants, causing a disease called downy mildew (Figure). Grape plants infected with P. viticola appear stunted and have discolored, withered leaves. The spread of downy mildew nearly collapsed the French wine industry in the nineteenth century. Phytophthora infestans is an oomycete responsible for potato late blight, which causes potato stalks and stems to decay into black slime (Figure). Widespread potato blight caused by P. infestans precipitated the well-known Irish potato famine in the nineteenth century that claimed the lives of approximately 1 million people and led to the emigration of at least 1 million more from Ireland. Late blight continues to plague potato crops in certain parts of the United States and Russia, wiping out as much as 70 percent of crops when no pesticides are applied. Agents of Decomposition The fungus-like protist saprobes are specialized to absorb nutrients from nonliving organic matter, such as dead organisms or their wastes. For instance, many types of oomycetes grow on dead animals or algae. Saprobic protists have the essential function of returning inorganic nutrients to the soil and water. This process allows for new plant growth, which in turn generates sustenance for other organisms along the food chain. Indeed, without saprobe species, such as protists, fungi, and bacteria, life would cease to exist as all organic carbon became “tied up” in dead organisms. Section Summary Protists function at several levels of the ecological food web: as primary producers, as direct food sources, and as decomposers. In addition, many protists are parasites of plants and animals that can cause deadly human diseases or destroy valuable crops. Review Questions An example of carbon fixation is _____________. - photosynthesis - decomposition - phagocytosis - parasitism Hint: A Which parasitic protist evades the host immune system by altering its surface proteins with each generation? - Paramecium caudatum - Trypanosoma brucei - Plasmodium falciparum - Phytophthora infestans Hint: B Free Response How does killing Anopheles mosquitoes affect the Plasmodium protists? Hint: Plasmodium parasites infect humans and cause malaria. However, they must complete part of their life cycle within Anopheles mosquitoes, and they can only infect humans via the bite wound of a mosquito. If the mosquito population is decreased, then fewer Plasmodium would be able to develop and infect humans, thereby reducing the incidence of human infections with this parasite. Without treatment, why does African sleeping sickness invariably lead to death? Hint: The trypanosomes that cause this disease are capable of expressing a glycoprotein coat with a different molecular structure with each generation. Because the immune system must respond to specific antigens to raise a meaningful defense, the changing nature of trypanosome antigens prevents the immune system from ever clearing this infection. Massive trypanosome infection eventually leads to host organ failure and death.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.636561	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15054/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15055/overview	Introduction The word fungus comes from the Latin word for mushrooms. Indeed, the familiar mushroom is a reproductive structure used by many types of fungi. However, there are also many fungi species that don't produce mushrooms at all. Being eukaryotes, a typical fungal cell contains a true nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles. The kingdom Fungi includes an enormous variety of living organisms collectively referred to as Eucomycota, or true Fungi. While scientists have identified about 100,000 species of fungi, this is only a fraction of the 1.5 million species of fungus likely present on Earth. Edible mushrooms, yeasts, black mold, and the producer of the antibiotic penicillin, Penicillium notatum, are all members of the kingdom Fungi, which belongs to the domain Eukarya. Fungi, once considered plant-like organisms, are more closely related to animals than plants. Fungi are not capable of photosynthesis: they are heterotrophic because they use complex organic compounds as sources of energy and carbon. Some fungal organisms multiply only asexually, whereas others undergo both asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction with alternation of generations. Most fungi produce a large number of spores, which are haploid cells that can undergo mitosis to form multicellular, haploid individuals. Like bacteria, fungi play an essential role in ecosystems because they are decomposers and participate in the cycling of nutrients by breaking down organic materials to simple molecules. Fungi often interact with other organisms, forming beneficial or mutualistic associations. For example most terrestrial plants form symbiotic relationships with fungi. The roots of the plant connect with the underground parts of the fungus forming mycorrhizae. Through mycorrhizae, the fungus and plant exchange nutrients and water, greatly aiding the survival of both species Alternatively, lichens are an association between a fungus and its photosynthetic partner (usually an alga). Fungi also cause serious infections in plants and animals. For example, Dutch elm disease, which is caused by the fungus Ophiostoma ulmi, is a particularly devastating type of fungal infestation that destroys many native species of elm (Ulmus sp.) by infecting the tree’s vascular system. The elm bark beetle acts as a vector, transmitting the disease from tree to tree. Accidentally introduced in the 1900s, the fungus decimated elm trees across the continent. Many European and Asiatic elms are less susceptible to Dutch elm disease than American elms. In humans, fungal infections are generally considered challenging to treat. Unlike bacteria, fungi do not respond to traditional antibiotic therapy, since they are eukaryotes. Fungal infections may prove deadly for individuals with compromised immune systems. Fungi have many commercial applications. The food industry uses yeasts in baking, brewing, and cheese and wine making. Many industrial compounds are byproducts of fungal fermentation. Fungi are the source of many commercial enzymes and antibiotics.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.653856	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15055/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15056/overview	Characteristics of Fungi Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - List the characteristics of fungi - Describe the composition of the mycelium - Describe the mode of nutrition of fungi - Explain sexual and asexual reproduction in fungi Although humans have used yeasts and mushrooms since prehistoric times, until recently, the biology of fungi was poorly understood. Up until the mid-20th century, many scientists classified fungi as plants. Fungi, like plants, arose mostly sessile and seemingly rooted in place. They possess a stem-like structure similar to plants, as well as having a root-like fungal mycelium in the soil. In addition, their mode of nutrition was poorly understood. Progress in the field of fungal biology was the result of mycology: the scientific study of fungi. Based on fossil evidence, fungi appeared in the pre-Cambrian era, about 450 million years ago. Molecular biology analysis of the fungal genome demonstrates that fungi are more closely related to animals than plants. They are a polyphyletic group of organisms that share characteristics, rather than sharing a single common ancestor. Career Connection MycologistMycologists are biologists who study fungi. Mycology is a branch of microbiology, and many mycologists start their careers with a degree in microbiology. To become a mycologist, a bachelor's degree in a biological science (preferably majoring in microbiology) and a master's degree in mycology are minimally necessary. Mycologists can specialize in taxonomy and fungal genomics, molecular and cellular biology, plant pathology, biotechnology, or biochemistry. Some medical microbiologists concentrate on the study of infectious diseases caused by fungi (mycoses). Mycologists collaborate with zoologists and plant pathologists to identify and control difficult fungal infections, such as the devastating chestnut blight, the mysterious decline in frog populations in many areas of the world, or the deadly epidemic called white nose syndrome, which is decimating bats in the Eastern United States. Government agencies hire mycologists as research scientists and technicians to monitor the health of crops, national parks, and national forests. Mycologists are also employed in the private sector by companies that develop chemical and biological control products or new agricultural products, and by companies that provide disease control services. Because of the key role played by fungi in the fermentation of alcohol and the preparation of many important foods, scientists with a good understanding of fungal physiology routinely work in the food technology industry. Oenology, the science of wine making, relies not only on the knowledge of grape varietals and soil composition, but also on a solid understanding of the characteristics of the wild yeasts that thrive in different wine-making regions. It is possible to purchase yeast strains isolated from specific grape-growing regions. The great French chemist and microbiologist, Louis Pasteur, made many of his essential discoveries working on the humble brewer’s yeast, thus discovering the process of fermentation. Cell Structure and Function Fungi are eukaryotes, and as such, have a complex cellular organization. As eukaryotes, fungal cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus. The DNA in the nucleus is wrapped around histone proteins, as is observed in other eukaryotic cells. A few types of fungi have structures comparable to bacterial plasmids (loops of DNA); however, the horizontal transfer of genetic information from one mature bacterium to another rarely occurs in fungi. Fungal cells also contain mitochondria and a complex system of internal membranes, including the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Unlike plant cells, fungal cells do not have chloroplasts or chlorophyll. Many fungi display bright colors arising from other cellular pigments, ranging from red to green to black. The poisonous Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) is recognizable by its bright red cap with white patches (Figure). Pigments in fungi are associated with the cell wall and play a protective role against ultraviolet radiation. Some fungal pigments are toxic. Like plant cells, fungal cells have a thick cell wall. The rigid layers of fungal cell walls contain complex polysaccharides called chitin and glucans. Chitin, also found in the exoskeleton of insects, gives structural strength to the cell walls of fungi. The wall protects the cell from desiccation and predators. Fungi have plasma membranes similar to other eukaryotes, except that the structure is stabilized by ergosterol: a steroid molecule that replaces the cholesterol found in animal cell membranes. Most members of the kingdom Fungi are nonmotile. Flagella are produced only by the gametes in the primitive Phylum Chytridiomycota. Growth The vegetative body of a fungus is a unicellular or multicellular thallus. Dimorphic fungi can change from the unicellular to multicellular state depending on environmental conditions. Unicellular fungi are generally referred to as yeasts. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast) and Candida species (the agents of thrush, a common fungal infection) are examples of unicellular fungi (Figure). Most fungi are multicellular organisms. They display two distinct morphological stages: the vegetative and reproductive. The vegetative stage consists of a tangle of slender thread-like structures called hyphae (singular, hypha), whereas the reproductive stage can be more conspicuous. The mass of hyphae is a mycelium (Figure). It can grow on a surface, in soil or decaying material, in a liquid, or even on living tissue. Although individual hyphae must be observed under a microscope, the mycelium of a fungus can be very large, with some species truly being “the fungus humongous.” The giant Armillaria solidipes (honey mushroom) is considered the largest organism on Earth, spreading across more than 2,000 acres of underground soil in eastern Oregon; it is estimated to be at least 2,400 years old. Most fungal hyphae are divided into separate cells by endwalls called septa (singular, septum) (Figurea, c). In most phyla of fungi, tiny holes in the septa allow for the rapid flow of nutrients and small molecules from cell to cell along the hypha. They are described as perforated septa. The hyphae in bread molds (which belong to the Phylum Zygomycota) are not separated by septa. Instead, they are formed by large cells containing many nuclei, an arrangement described as coenocytic hyphae (Figureb). Fungi thrive in environments that are moist and slightly acidic, and can grow with or without light. They vary in their oxygen requirement. Most fungi are obligate aerobes, requiring oxygen to survive. Other species, such as the Chytridiomycota that reside in the rumen of cattle, are are obligate anaerobes, in that they only use anaerobic respiration because oxygen will disrupt their metabolism or kill them. Yeasts are intermediate, being faculative anaerobes. This means that they grow best in the presence of oxygen using aerobic respiration, but can survive using anaerobic respiration when oxygen is not available. The alcohol produced from yeast fermentation is used in wine and beer production. Nutrition Like animals, fungi are heterotrophs; they use complex organic compounds as a source of carbon, rather than fix carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as do some bacteria and most plants. In addition, fungi do not fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. Like animals, they must obtain it from their diet. However, unlike most animals, which ingest food and then digest it internally in specialized organs, fungi perform these steps in the reverse order; digestion precedes ingestion. First, exoenzymes are transported out of the hyphae, where they process nutrients in the environment. Then, the smaller molecules produced by this external digestion are absorbed through the large surface area of the mycelium. As with animal cells, the polysaccharide of storage is glycogen, rather than starch, as found in plants. Fungi are mostly saprobes (saprophyte is an equivalent term): organisms that derive nutrients from decaying organic matter. They obtain their nutrients from dead or decomposing organic matter: mainly plant material. Fungal exoenzymes are able to break down insoluble polysaccharides, such as the cellulose and lignin of dead wood, into readily absorbable glucose molecules. The carbon, nitrogen, and other elements are thus released into the environment. Because of their varied metabolic pathways, fungi fulfill an important ecological role and are being investigated as potential tools in bioremediation. For example, some species of fungi can be used to break down diesel oil and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Other species take up heavy metals, such as cadmium and lead. Some fungi are parasitic, infecting either plants or animals. Smut and Dutch elm disease affect plants, whereas athlete’s foot and candidiasis (thrush) are medically important fungal infections in humans. In environments poor in nitrogen, some fungi resort to predation of nematodes (small non-segmented roundworms). Species of Arthrobotrys fungi have a number of mechanisms to trap nematodes. One mechanism involves constricting rings within the network of hyphae. The rings swell when they touch the nematode, gripping it in a tight hold. The fungus penetrates the tissue of the worm by extending specialized hyphae called haustoria. Many parasitic fungi possess haustoria, as these structures penetrate the tissues of the host, release digestive enzymes within the host's body, and absorb the digested nutrients. Reproduction Fungi reproduce sexually and/or asexually. Perfect fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually, while the so-called imperfect fungi reproduce only asexually (by mitosis). In both sexual and asexual reproduction, fungi produce spores that disperse from the parent organism by either floating on the wind or hitching a ride on an animal. Fungal spores are smaller and lighter than plant seeds. The giant puffball mushroom bursts open and releases trillions of spores. The huge number of spores released increases the likelihood of landing in an environment that will support growth (Figure). Asexual Reproduction Fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation, budding, or producing spores. Fragments of hyphae can grow new colonies. Somatic cells in yeast form buds. During budding (a type of cytokinesis), a bulge forms on the side of the cell, the nucleus divides mitotically, and the bud ultimately detaches itself from the mother cell (Figure). The most common mode of asexual reproduction is through the formation of asexual spores, which are produced by one parent only (through mitosis) and are genetically identical to that parent (Figure). Spores allow fungi to expand their distribution and colonize new environments. They may be released from the parent thallus either outside or within a special reproductive sac called a sporangium. There are many types of asexual spores. Conidiospores are unicellular or multicellular spores that are released directly from the tip or side of the hypha. Other asexual spores originate in the fragmentation of a hypha to form single cells that are released as spores; some of these have a thick wall surrounding the fragment. Yet others bud off the vegetative parent cell. Sporangiospores are produced in a sporangium (Figure). Sexual Reproduction Sexual reproduction introduces genetic variation into a population of fungi. In fungi, sexual reproduction often occurs in response to adverse environmental conditions. During sexual reproduction, two mating types are produced. When both mating types are present in the same mycelium, it is called homothallic, or self-fertile. Heterothallic mycelia require two different, but compatible, mycelia to reproduce sexually. Although there are many variations in fungal sexual reproduction, all include the following three stages (Figure). First, during plasmogamy (literally, “marriage or union of cytoplasm”), two haploid cells fuse, leading to a dikaryotic stage where two haploid nuclei coexist in a single cell. During karyogamy (“nuclear marriage”), the haploid nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote nucleus. Finally, meiosis takes place in the gametangia (singular, gametangium) organs, in which gametes of different mating types are generated. At this stage, spores are disseminated into the environment. Link to Learning Review the characteristics of fungi by visiting this interactive site from Wisconsin-online. Section Summary Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that appeared on land more than 450 million years ago. They are heterotrophs and contain neither photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll, nor organelles such as chloroplasts. Because fungi feed on decaying and dead matter, they are saprobes. Fungi are important decomposers that release essential elements into the environment. External enzymes digest nutrients that are absorbed by the body of the fungus, which is called a thallus. A thick cell wall made of chitin surrounds the cell. Fungi can be unicellular as yeasts, or develop a network of filaments called a mycelium, which is often described as mold. Most species multiply by asexual and sexual reproductive cycles and display an alternation of generations. Another group of fungi do not have a sexual cycle. Sexual reproduction involves plasmogamy (the fusion of the cytoplasm), followed by karyogamy (the fusion of nuclei). Meiosis regenerates haploid individuals, resulting in haploid spores. Review Questions Which polysaccharide is usually found in the cell wall of fungi? - starch - glycogen - chitin - cellulose Hint: C Which of these organelles is not found in a fungal cell? - chloroplast - nucleus - mitochondrion - Golgi apparatus Hint: A The wall dividing individual cells in a fungal filament is called a - thallus - hypha - mycelium - septum Hint: D During sexual reproduction, a homothallic mycelium contains - all septated hyphae - all haploid nuclei - both mating types - none of the above Hint: C Free Response What are the evolutionary advantages for an organism to reproduce both asexually and sexually? Hint: Asexual reproduction is fast and best under favorable conditions. Sexual reproduction allows the recombination of genetic traits and increases the odds of developing new adaptations better suited to a changed environment. Compare plants, animals, and fungi, considering these components: cell wall, chloroplasts, plasma membrane, food source, and polysaccharide storage. Be sure to indicate fungi’s similarities and differences to plants and animals. Hint: Animals have no cell walls; fungi have cell walls containing chitin; plants have cell walls containing cellulose. Chloroplasts are absent in both animals and fungi but are present in plants. Animal plasma membranes are stabilized with cholesterol, while fungi plasma membranes are stabilized with ergosterol, and plant plasma membranes are stabilized with phytosterols. Animals obtain N and C from food sources via internal digestion. Fungi obtain N and C from food sources via external digestion. Plants obtain organic N from the environment or through symbiotic N-fixing bacteria; they obtain C from photosynthesis. Animals and fungi store polysaccharides as glycogen, while plants store them as starch.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.684816	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15056/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15057/overview	Classifications of Fungi Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Classify fungi into the five major phyla - Describe each phylum in terms of major representative species and patterns of reproduction The kingdom Fungi contains five major phyla that were established according to their mode of sexual reproduction or using molecular data. Polyphyletic, unrelated fungi that reproduce without a sexual cycle, are placed for convenience in a sixth group called a “form phylum”. Not all mycologists agree with this scheme. Rapid advances in molecular biology and the sequencing of 18S rRNA (a part of RNA) continue to show new and different relationships between the various categories of fungi. The five true phyla of fungi are the Chytridiomycota (Chytrids), the Zygomycota (conjugated fungi), the Ascomycota (sac fungi), the Basidiomycota (club fungi) and the recently described Phylum Glomeromycota. An older classification scheme grouped fungi that strictly use asexual reproduction into Deuteromycota, a group that is no longer in use. Note: “-mycota” is used to designate a phylum while “-mycetes” formally denotes a class or is used informally to refer to all members of the phylum. Chytridiomycota: The Chytrids The only class in the Phylum Chytridiomycota is the Chytridiomycetes. The chytrids are the simplest and most primitive Eumycota, or true fungi. The evolutionary record shows that the first recognizable chytrids appeared during the late pre-Cambrian period, more than 500 million years ago. Like all fungi, chytrids have chitin in their cell walls, but one group of chytrids has both cellulose and chitin in the cell wall. Most chytrids are unicellular; a few form multicellular organisms and hyphae, which have no septa between cells (coenocytic). They produce gametes and diploid zoospores that swim with the help of a single flagellum. The ecological habitat and cell structure of chytrids have much in common with protists. Chytrids usually live in aquatic environments, although some species live on land. Some species thrive as parasites on plants, insects, or amphibians (Figure), while others are saprobes. The chytrid species Allomyces is well characterized as an experimental organism. Its reproductive cycle includes both asexual and sexual phases. Allomyces produces diploid or haploid flagellated zoospores in a sporangium. Zygomycota: The Conjugated Fungi The zygomycetes are a relatively small group of fungi belonging to the Phylum Zygomycota. They include the familiar bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer, which rapidly propagates on the surfaces of breads, fruits, and vegetables. Most species are saprobes, living off decaying organic material; a few are parasites, particularly of insects. Zygomycetes play a considerable commercial role. The metabolic products of other species of Rhizopus are intermediates in the synthesis of semi-synthetic steroid hormones. Zygomycetes have a thallus of coenocytic hyphae in which the nuclei are haploid when the organism is in the vegetative stage. The fungi usually reproduce asexually by producing sporangiospores (Figure). The black tips of bread mold are the swollen sporangia packed with black spores (Figure). When spores land on a suitable substrate, they germinate and produce a new mycelium. Sexual reproduction starts when conditions become unfavorable. Two opposing mating strains (type + and type –) must be in close proximity for gametangia from the hyphae to be produced and fuse, leading to karyogamy. The developing diploid zygospores have thick coats that protect them from desiccation and other hazards. They may remain dormant until environmental conditions are favorable. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis and produces haploid spores, which will, in turn, grow into a new organism. This form of sexual reproduction in fungi is called conjugation (although it differs markedly from conjugation in bacteria and protists), giving rise to the name “conjugated fungi”. Ascomycota: The Sac Fungi The majority of known fungi belong to the Phylum Ascomycota, which is characterized by the formation of an ascus (plural, asci), a sac-like structure that contains haploid ascospores. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance. Some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts used in baking, brewing, and wine fermentation, plus truffles and morels, which are held as gourmet delicacies. Aspergillus oryzae is used in the fermentation of rice to produce sake. Other ascomycetes parasitize plants and animals, including humans. For example, fungal pneumonia poses a significant threat to AIDS patients who have a compromised immune system. Ascomycetes not only infest and destroy crops directly; they also produce poisonous secondary metabolites that make crops unfit for consumption. Filamentous ascomycetes produce hyphae divided by perforated septa, allowing streaming of cytoplasm from one cell to the other. Conidia and asci, which are used respectively for asexual and sexual reproductions, are usually separated from the vegetative hyphae by blocked (non-perforated) septa. Asexual reproduction is frequent and involves the production of conidiophores that release haploid conidiospores (Figure). Sexual reproduction starts with the development of special hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains (Figure). The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine in plasmogamy without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei in karyogamy. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The diploid nucleus gives rise to haploid nuclei by meiosis. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia (Figure). Art Connection Which of the following statements is true? - A dikaryotic ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to form eight ascospores. - A diploid ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to form eight ascospores. - A haploid zygote that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to form eight ascospores. - A dikaryotic ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes plasmogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to form eight ascospores. Basidiomycota: The Club Fungi The fungi in the Phylum Basidiomycota are easily recognizable under a light microscope by their club-shaped fruiting bodies called basidia (singular, basidium), which are the swollen terminal cell of a hypha. The basidia, which are the reproductive organs of these fungi, are often contained within the familiar mushroom, commonly seen in fields after rain, on the supermarket shelves, and growing on your lawn (Figure). These mushroom-producing basidiomyces are sometimes referred to as “gill fungi” because of the presence of gill-like structures on the underside of the cap. The “gills” are actually compacted hyphae on which the basidia are borne. This group also includes shelf fungus, which cling to the bark of trees like small shelves. In addition, the basidiomycota includes smuts and rusts, which are important plant pathogens; toadstools, and shelf fungi stacked on tree trunks. Most edible fungi belong to the Phylum Basidiomycota; however, some basidiomycetes produce deadly toxins. For example, Cryptococcus neoformans causes severe respiratory illness. The lifecycle of basidiomycetes includes alternation of generations (Figure). Spores are generally produced through sexual reproduction, rather than asexual reproduction. The club-shaped basidium carries spores called basidiospores. In the basidium, nuclei of two different mating strains fuse (karyogamy), giving rise to a diploid zygote that then undergoes meiosis. The haploid nuclei migrate into basidiospores, which germinate and generate monokaryotic hyphae. The mycelium that results is called a primary mycelium. Mycelia of different mating strains can combine and produce a secondary mycelium that contains haploid nuclei of two different mating strains. This is the dikaryotic stage of the basidiomyces lifecyle and and it is the dominant stage. Eventually, the secondary mycelium generates a basidiocarp, which is a fruiting body that protrudes from the ground—this is what we think of as a mushroom. The basidiocarp bears the developing basidia on the gills under its cap. Art Connection Which of the following statements is true? - A basidium is the fruiting body of a mushroom-producing fungus, and it forms four basidiocarps. - The result of the plasmogamy step is four basidiospores. - Karyogamy results directly in the formation of mycelia. - A basidiocarp is the fruiting body of a mushroom-producing fungus. Asexual Ascomycota and Basidiomycota Imperfect fungi—those that do not display a sexual phase—use to be classified in the form phylum Deuteromycota, , a classification group no longer used in the present, ever-developing classification of organisms. While Deuteromycota use to be a classification group, recent moleclular analysis has shown that the members classified in this group belong to the Ascomycota or the Basidiomycota classifications. Since they do not possess the sexual structures that are used to classify other fungi, they are less well described in comparison to other members. Most members live on land, with a few aquatic exceptions. They form visible mycelia with a fuzzy appearance and are commonly known as mold. Reproduction of the fungi in this group is strictly asexual and occurs mostly by production of asexual conidiospores (Figure). Some hyphae may recombine and form heterokaryotic hyphae. Genetic recombination is known to take place between the different nuclei. The fungi in this group have a large impact on everyday human life. The food industry relies on them for ripening some cheeses. The blue veins in Roquefort cheese and the white crust on Camembert are the result of fungal growth. The antibiotic penicillin was originally discovered on an overgrown Petri plate, on which a colony of Penicillium fungi killed the bacterial growth surrounding it. Other fungi in this group cause serious diseases, either directly as parasites (which infect both plants and humans), or as producers of potent toxic compounds, as seen in the aflatoxins released by fungi of the genus Aspergillus. Glomeromycota The Glomeromycota is a newly established phylum which comprises about 230 species that all live in close association with the roots of trees. Fossil records indicate that trees and their root symbionts share a long evolutionary history. It appears that all members of this family form arbuscular mycorrhizae: the hyphae interact with the root cells forming a mutually beneficial association where the plants supply the carbon source and energy in the form of carbohydrates to the fungus, and the fungus supplies essential minerals from the soil to the plant. The glomeromycetes do not reproduce sexually and do not survive without the presence of plant roots. Although they have coenocytic hyphae like the zygomycetes, they do not form zygospores. DNA analysis shows that all glomeromycetes probably descended from a common ancestor, making them a monophyletic lineage. Section Summary Chytridiomycota (chytrids) are considered the most primitive group of fungi. They are mostly aquatic, and their gametes are the only fungal cells known to have flagella. They reproduce both sexually and asexually; the asexual spores are called zoospores. Zygomycota (conjugated fungi) produce non-septated hyphae with many nuclei. Their hyphae fuse during sexual reproduction to produce a zygospore in a zygosporangium. Ascomycota (sac fungi) form spores in sacs called asci during sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is their most common form of reproduction. Basidiomycota (club fungi) produce showy fruiting bodies that contain basidia in the form of clubs. Spores are stored in the basidia. Most familiar mushrooms belong to this division. Fungi that have no known sexual cycle were classified in the form phylum Deuteromycota, which the present classification puts in the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Glomeromycota form tight associations (called mycorrhizae) with the roots of plants. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements is true? - A dikaryotic ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to form eight ascospores. - A diploid ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to form eight ascospores. - A haploid zygote that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to form eight ascospores. - A dikaryotic ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes plasmogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to form eight ascospores. Hint: Figure A Figure Which of the following statements is true? - A basidium is the fruiting body of a mushroom-producing fungus, and it forms four basidiocarps. - The result of the plasmogamy step is four basidiospores. - Karyogamy results directly in the formation of mycelia. - A basidiocarp is the fruiting body of a mushroom-producing fungus. Hint: Figure D Review Questions The most primitive phylum of fungi is the ________. - Chytridiomycota - Zygomycota - Glomeromycota - Ascomycota Hint: A Members of which phylum produce a club-shaped structure that contains spores? - Chytridiomycota - Basidiomycota - Glomeromycota - Ascomycota Hint: B Members of which phylum establish a successful symbiotic relationship with the roots of trees? - Ascomycota - Deuteromycota - Basidiomycota - Glomeromycota Hint: D The fungi that do not reproduce sexually use to be classified as ________. - Ascomycota - Deuteromycota - Basidiomycota - Glomeromycota Hint: B Free Response What is the advantage for a basidiomycete to produce a showy and fleshy fruiting body? Hint: By ingesting spores and disseminating them in the environment as waste, animals act as agents of dispersal. The benefit to the fungus outweighs the cost of producing fleshy fruiting bodies. For each of the four groups of perfect fungi (Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota), compare the body structure and features, and provide an example. Hint: Chytridiomycota (Chytrids) may have a unicellular or multicellular body structure; some are aquatic with motile spores with flagella; an example is the Allomyces. Zygomycota (conjugated fungi) have a multicellular body structure; features include zygospores and presence in soil; examples are bread and fruit molds. Ascomycota (sac fungi) may have unicellular or multicellular body structure; a feature is sexual spores in sacs (asci); examples include the yeasts used in bread, wine, and beer production. Basidiomycota (club fungi) have multicellular bodies; features includes sexual spores in the basidiocarp (mushroom) and that they are mostly decomposers; mushroom-producing fungi are an example.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.720633	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15057/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15058/overview	Ecology of Fungi Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the role of fungi in the ecosystem - Describe mutualistic relationships of fungi with plant roots and photosynthetic organisms - Describe the beneficial relationship between some fungi and insects Fungi play a crucial role in the balance of ecosystems. They colonize most habitats on Earth, preferring dark, moist conditions. They can thrive in seemingly hostile environments, such as the tundra, thanks to a most successful symbiosis with photosynthetic organisms like algae to produce lichens. Fungi are not obvious in the way large animals or tall trees appear. Yet, like bacteria, they are the major decomposers of nature. With their versatile metabolism, fungi break down organic matter, which would not otherwise be recycled. Habitats Although fungi are primarily associated with humid and cool environments that provide a supply of organic matter, they colonize a surprising diversity of habitats, from seawater to human skin and mucous membranes. Chytrids are found primarily in aquatic environments. Other fungi, such as Coccidioides immitis, which causes pneumonia when its spores are inhaled, thrive in the dry and sandy soil of the southwestern United States. Fungi that parasitize coral reefs live in the ocean. However, most members of the Kingdom Fungi grow on the forest floor, where the dark and damp environment is rich in decaying debris from plants and animals. In these environments, fungi play a major role as decomposers and recyclers, making it possible for members of the other kingdoms to be supplied with nutrients and live. Decomposers and Recyclers The food web would be incomplete without organisms that decompose organic matter (Figure). Some elements—such as nitrogen and phosphorus—are required in large quantities by biological systems, and yet are not abundant in the environment. The action of fungi releases these elements from decaying matter, making them available to other living organisms. Trace elements present in low amounts in many habitats are essential for growth, and would remain tied up in rotting organic matter if fungi and bacteria did not return them to the environment via their metabolic activity. The ability of fungi to degrade many large and insoluble molecules is due to their mode of nutrition. As seen earlier, digestion precedes ingestion. Fungi produce a variety of exoenzymes to digest nutrients. The enzymes are either released into the substrate or remain bound to the outside of the fungal cell wall. Large molecules are broken down into small molecules, which are transported into the cell by a system of protein carriers embedded in the cell membrane. Because the movement of small molecules and enzymes is dependent on the presence of water, active growth depends on a relatively high percentage of moisture in the environment. As saprobes, fungi help maintain a sustainable ecosystem for the animals and plants that share the same habitat. In addition to replenishing the environment with nutrients, fungi interact directly with other organisms in beneficial, and sometimes damaging, ways (Figure). Mutualistic Relationships Symbiosis is the ecological interaction between two organisms that live together. The definition does not describe the quality of the interaction. When both members of the association benefit, the symbiotic relationship is called mutualistic. Fungi form mutualistic associations with many types of organisms, including cyanobacteria, algae, plants, and animals. Fungus/Plant Mutualism One of the most remarkable associations between fungi and plants is the establishment of mycorrhizae. Mycorrhiza, which comes from the Greek words myco meaning fungus and rhizo meaning root, refers to the association between vascular plant roots and their symbiotic fungi. Somewhere between 80 and 90 percent of all plant species have mycorrhizal partners. In a mycorrhizal association, the fungal mycelia use their extensive network of hyphae and large surface area in contact with the soil to channel water and minerals from the soil into the plant. In exchange, the plant supplies the products of photosynthesis to fuel the metabolism of the fungus. There are a number of types of mycorrhizae. Ectomycorrhizae (“outside” mycorrhiza) depend on fungi enveloping the roots in a sheath (called a mantle) and a Hartig net of hyphae that extends into the roots between cells (Figure). The fungal partner can belong to the Ascomycota, Basidiomycota or Zygomycota. In a second type, the Glomeromycete fungi form vesicular–arbuscular interactions with arbuscular mycorrhiza (sometimes called endomycorrhizae). In these mycorrhiza, the fungi form arbuscules that penetrate root cells and are the site of the metabolic exchanges between the fungus and the host plant (Figure and Figure). The arbuscules (from the Latin for little trees) have a shrub-like appearance. Orchids rely on a third type of mycorrhiza. Orchids are epiphytes that form small seeds without much storage to sustain germination and growth. Their seeds will not germinate without a mycorrhizal partner (usually a Basidiomycete). After nutrients in the seed are depleted, fungal symbionts support the growth of the orchid by providing necessary carbohydrates and minerals. Some orchids continue to be mycorrhizal throughout their lifecycle. Art Connection If symbiotic fungi are absent from the soil, what impact do you think this would have on plant growth? Other examples of fungus–plant mutualism include the endophytes: fungi that live inside tissue without damaging the host plant. Endophytes release toxins that repel herbivores, or confer resistance to environmental stress factors, such as infection by microorganisms, drought, or heavy metals in soil. Evolution Connection Coevolution of Land Plants and MycorrhizaeMycorrhizae are the mutually beneficial symbiotic association between roots of vascular plants and fungi. A well-accepted theory proposes that fungi were instrumental in the evolution of the root system in plants and contributed to the success of Angiosperms. The bryophytes (mosses and liverworts), which are considered the most primitive plants and the first to survive on dry land, do not have a true root system; some have vesicular–arbuscular mycorrhizae and some do not. They depend on a simple rhizoid (an underground organ) and cannot survive in dry areas. True roots appeared in vascular plants. Vascular plants that developed a system of thin extensions from the rhizoids (found in mosses) are thought to have had a selective advantage because they had a greater surface area of contact with the fungal partners than the mosses and liverworts, thus availing themselves of more nutrients in the ground. Fossil records indicate that fungi preceded plants on dry land. The first association between fungi and photosynthetic organisms on land involved moss-like plants and endophytes. These early associations developed before roots appeared in plants. Slowly, the benefits of the endophyte and rhizoid interactions for both partners led to present-day mycorrhizae; up to about 90 percent of today’s vascular plants have associations with fungi in their rhizosphere. The fungi involved in mycorrhizae display many characteristics of primitive fungi; they produce simple spores, show little diversification, do not have a sexual reproductive cycle, and cannot live outside of a mycorrhizal association. The plants benefited from the association because mycorrhizae allowed them to move into new habitats because of increased uptake of nutrients, and this gave them a selective advantage over plants that did not establish symbiotic relationships. Lichens Lichens display a range of colors and textures (Figure) and can survive in the most unusual and hostile habitats. They cover rocks, gravestones, tree bark, and the ground in the tundra where plant roots cannot penetrate. Lichens can survive extended periods of drought, when they become completely desiccated, and then rapidly become active once water is available again. Link to Learning Explore the world of lichens using this site from Oregon State University. Lichens are not a single organism, but rather an example of a mutualism, in which a fungus (usually a member of the Ascomycota or Basidiomycota phyla) lives in close contact with a photosynthetic organism (a eukaryotic alga or a prokaryotic cyanobacterium) (Figure). Generally, neither the fungus nor the photosynthetic organism can survive alone outside of the symbiotic relationship. The body of a lichen, referred to as a thallus, is formed of hyphae wrapped around the photosynthetic partner. The photosynthetic organism provides carbon and energy in the form of carbohydrates. Some cyanobacteria fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, contributing nitrogenous compounds to the association. In return, the fungus supplies minerals and protection from dryness and excessive light by encasing the algae in its mycelium. The fungus also attaches the symbiotic organism to the substrate. The thallus of lichens grows very slowly, expanding its diameter a few millimeters per year. Both the fungus and the alga participate in the formation of dispersal units for reproduction. Lichens produce soredia, clusters of algal cells surrounded by mycelia. Soredia are dispersed by wind and water and form new lichens. Lichens are extremely sensitive to air pollution, especially to abnormal levels of nitrogen and sulfur. The U.S. Forest Service and National Park Service can monitor air quality by measuring the relative abundance and health of the lichen population in an area. Lichens fulfill many ecological roles. Caribou and reindeer eat lichens, and they provide cover for small invertebrates that hide in the mycelium. In the production of textiles, weavers used lichens to dye wool for many centuries until the advent of synthetic dyes. Link to Learning Lichens are used to monitor the quality of air. Read more on this site from the United States Forest Service. Fungus/Animal Mutualism Fungi have evolved mutualisms with numerous insects in Phylum Arthropoda: jointed, legged invertebrates. Arthropods depend on the fungus for protection from predators and pathogens, while the fungus obtains nutrients and a way to disseminate spores into new environments. The association between species of Basidiomycota and scale insects is one example. The fungal mycelium covers and protects the insect colonies. The scale insects foster a flow of nutrients from the parasitized plant to the fungus. In a second example, leaf-cutting ants of Central and South America literally farm fungi. They cut disks of leaves from plants and pile them up in gardens (Figure). Fungi are cultivated in these disk gardens, digesting the cellulose in the leaves that the ants cannot break down. Once smaller sugar molecules are produced and consumed by the fungi, the fungi in turn become a meal for the ants. The insects also patrol their garden, preying on competing fungi. Both ants and fungi benefit from the association. The fungus receives a steady supply of leaves and freedom from competition, while the ants feed on the fungi they cultivate. Fungivores Animal dispersal is important for some fungi because an animal may carry spores considerable distances from the source. Fungal spores are rarely completely degraded in the gastrointestinal tract of an animal, and many are able to germinate when they are passed in the feces. Some dung fungi actually require passage through the digestive system of herbivores to complete their lifecycle. The black truffle—a prized gourmet delicacy—is the fruiting body of an underground mushroom. Almost all truffles are ectomycorrhizal, and are usually found in close association with trees. Animals eat truffles and disperse the spores. In Italy and France, truffle hunters use female pigs to sniff out truffles. Female pigs are attracted to truffles because the fungus releases a volatile compound closely related to a pheromone produced by male pigs. Section Summary Fungi have colonized nearly all environments on Earth, but are frequently found in cool, dark, moist places with a supply of decaying material. Fungi are saprobes that decompose organic matter. Many successful mutualistic relationships involve a fungus and another organism. Many fungi establish complex mycorrhizal associations with the roots of plants. Some ants farm fungi as a supply of food. Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthetic organism, usually an alga or cyanobacterium. The photosynthetic organism provides energy derived from light and carbohydrates, while the fungus supplies minerals and protection. Some animals that consume fungi help disseminate spores over long distances. Art Connections Review Questions What term describes the close association of a fungus with the root of a tree? - a rhizoid - a lichen - a mycorrhiza - an endophyte Hint: C Why are fungi important decomposers? - They produce many spores. - They can grow in many different environments. - They produce mycelia. - They recycle carbon and inorganic minerals by the process of decomposition. Hint: D Free Response Why does protection from light actually benefit the photosynthetic partner in lichens? Hint: Protection from excess light that may bleach photosynthetic pigments allows the photosynthetic partner to survive in environments unfavorable to plants.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.749427	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15058/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15059/overview	Fungal Parasites and Pathogens Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe fungal parasites and pathogens of plants - Describe the different types of fungal infections in humans - Explain why antifungal therapy is hampered by the similarity between fungal and animal cells Parasitism describes a symbiotic relationship in which one member of the association benefits at the expense of the other. Both parasites and pathogens harm the host; however, the pathogen causes a disease, whereas the parasite usually does not. Commensalism occurs when one member benefits without affecting the other. Plant Parasites and Pathogens The production of sufficient good-quality crops is essential to human existence. Plant diseases have ruined crops, bringing widespread famine. Many plant pathogens are fungi that cause tissue decay and eventual death of the host (Figure). In addition to destroying plant tissue directly, some plant pathogens spoil crops by producing potent toxins. Fungi are also responsible for food spoilage and the rotting of stored crops. For example, the fungus Claviceps purpurea causes ergot, a disease of cereal crops (especially of rye). Although the fungus reduces the yield of cereals, the effects of the ergot's alkaloid toxins on humans and animals are of much greater significance. In animals, the disease is referred to as ergotism. The most common signs and symptoms are convulsions, hallucination, gangrene, and loss of milk in cattle. The active ingredient of ergot is lysergic acid, which is a precursor of the drug LSD. Smuts, rusts, and powdery or downy mildew are other examples of common fungal pathogens that affect crops. Aflatoxins are toxic, carcinogenic compounds released by fungi of the genus Aspergillus. Periodically, harvests of nuts and grains are tainted by aflatoxins, leading to massive recall of produce. This sometimes ruins producers and causes food shortages in developing countries. Animal and Human Parasites and Pathogens Fungi can affect animals, including humans, in several ways. A mycosis is a fungal disease that results from infection and direct damage. Fungi attack animals directly by colonizing and destroying tissues. Mycotoxicosis is the poisoning of humans (and other animals) by foods contaminated by fungal toxins (mycotoxins). Mycetismus describes the ingestion of preformed toxins in poisonous mushrooms. In addition, individuals who display hypersensitivity to molds and spores develop strong and dangerous allergic reactions. Fungal infections are generally very difficult to treat because, unlike bacteria, fungi are eukaryotes. Antibiotics only target prokaryotic cells, whereas compounds that kill fungi also harm the eukaryotic animal host. Many fungal infections are superficial; that is, they occur on the animal’s skin. Termed cutaneous (“skin”) mycoses, they can have devastating effects. For example, the decline of the world’s frog population in recent years may be caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which infects the skin of frogs and presumably interferes with gaseous exchange. Similarly, more than a million bats in the United States have been killed by white-nose syndrome, which appears as a white ring around the mouth of the bat. It is caused by the cold-loving fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans, which disseminates its deadly spores in caves where bats hibernate. Mycologists are researching the transmission, mechanism, and control of P. destructans to stop its spread. Fungi that cause the superficial mycoses of the epidermis, hair, and nails rarely spread to the underlying tissue (Figure). These fungi are often misnamed “dermatophytes”, from the Greek words dermis meaning skin and phyte meaning plant, although they are not plants. Dermatophytes are also called “ringworms” because of the red ring they cause on skin. They secrete extracellular enzymes that break down keratin (a protein found in hair, skin, and nails), causing conditions such as athlete’s foot and jock itch. These conditions are usually treated with over-the-counter topical creams and powders, and are easily cleared. More persistent superficial mycoses may require prescription oral medications. Systemic mycoses spread to internal organs, most commonly entering the body through the respiratory system. For example, coccidioidomycosis (valley fever) is commonly found in the southwestern United States, where the fungus resides in the dust. Once inhaled, the spores develop in the lungs and cause symptoms similar to those of tuberculosis. Histoplasmosis is caused by the dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum. It also causes pulmonary infections, and in rarer cases, swelling of the membranes of the brain and spinal cord. Treatment of these and many other fungal diseases requires the use of antifungal medications that have serious side effects. Opportunistic mycoses are fungal infections that are either common in all environments, or part of the normal biota. They mainly affect individuals who have a compromised immune system. Patients in the late stages of AIDS suffer from opportunistic mycoses that can be life threatening. The yeast Candida sp., a common member of the natural biota, can grow unchecked and infect the vagina or mouth (oral thrush) if the pH of the surrounding environment, the person’s immune defenses, or the normal population of bacteria are altered. Mycetismus can occur when poisonous mushrooms are eaten. It causes a number of human fatalities during mushroom-picking season. Many edible fruiting bodies of fungi resemble highly poisonous relatives, and amateur mushroom hunters are cautioned to carefully inspect their harvest and avoid eating mushrooms of doubtful origin. The adage “there are bold mushroom pickers and old mushroom pickers, but are there no old, bold mushroom pickers” is unfortunately true. Scientific Method Connection Dutch Elm Disease Question: Do trees resistant to Dutch elm disease secrete antifungal compounds? Hypothesis: Construct a hypothesis that addresses this question. Background: Dutch elm disease is a fungal infestation that affects many species of elm (Ulmus) in North America. The fungus infects the vascular system of the tree, which blocks water flow within the plant and mimics drought stress. Accidently introduced to the United States in the early 1930s, it decimated shade trees across the continent. It is caused by the fungus Ophiostoma ulmi. The elm bark beetle acts as a vector and transmits the disease from tree to tree. Many European and Asiatic elms are less susceptible to the disease than are American elms. Test the hypothesis: A researcher testing this hypothesis might do the following. Inoculate several Petri plates containing a medium that supports the growth of fungi with fragments of Ophiostoma mycelium. Cut (with a metal punch) several disks from the vascular tissue of susceptible varieties of American elms and resistant European and Asiatic elms. Include control Petri plates inoculated with mycelia without plant tissue to verify that the medium and incubation conditions do not interfere with fungal growth. As a positive control, add paper disks impregnated with a known fungicide to Petri plates inoculated with the mycelium. Incubate the plates for a set number of days to allow fungal growth and spreading of the mycelium over the surface of the plate. Record the diameter of the zone of clearing, if any, around the tissue samples and the fungicide control disk. Record your observations in the following table. \| Results of Antifungal Testing of Vascular Tissue from Different Species of Elm \| \| \|---\|---\| \| Disk \| Zone of Inhibition (mm) \| \| Distilled Water \| \| \| Fungicide \| \| \| Tissue from Susceptible Elm #1 \| \| \| Tissue from Susceptible Elm #2 \| \| \| Tissue from Resistant Elm #1 \| \| \| Tissue from Resistant Elm #2 \| Analyze the data and report the results. Compare the effect of distilled water to the fungicide. These are negative and positive controls that validate the experimental set up. The fungicide should be surrounded by a clear zone where the fungus growth was inhibited. Is there a difference among different species of elm? Draw a conclusion: Was there antifungal activity as expected from the fungicide? Did the results support the hypothesis? If not, how can this be explained? There are several possible explanations for resistance to a pathogen. Active deterrence of infection is only one of them. Section Summary Fungi establish parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Fungal diseases can decimate crops and spoil food during storage. Compounds produced by fungi can be toxic to humans and other animals. Mycoses are infections caused by fungi. Superficial mycoses affect the skin, whereas systemic mycoses spread through the body. Fungal infections are difficult to cure. Review Questions A fungus that climbs up a tree reaching higher elevation to release its spores in the wind and does not receive any nutrients from the tree or contribute to the tree’s welfare is described as a ________. - commensal - mutualist - parasite - pathogen Hint: A A fungal infection that affects nails and skin is classified as ________. - systemic mycosis - mycetismus - superficial mycosis - mycotoxicosis Hint: C Free Response Why can superficial mycoses in humans lead to bacterial infections? Hint: Dermatophytes that colonize skin break down the keratinized layer of dead cells that protects tissues from bacterial invasion. Once the integrity of the skin is breached, bacteria can enter the deeper layers of tissues and cause infections.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.775232	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15059/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15060/overview	Importance of Fungi in Human Life Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the importance of fungi to the balance of the environment - Summarize the role of fungi in food and beverage preparation - Describe the importance of fungi in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries - Discuss the role of fungi as model organisms Although we often think of fungi as organisms that cause disease and rot food, fungi are important to human life on many levels. As we have seen, they influence the well-being of human populations on a large scale because they are part of the nutrient cycle in ecosystems. They have other ecosystem roles as well. As animal pathogens, fungi help to control the population of damaging pests. These fungi are very specific to the insects they attack, and do not infect animals or plants. Fungi are currently under investigation as potential microbial insecticides, with several already on the market. For example, the fungus Beauveria bassiana is a pesticide being tested as a possible biological control agent for the recent spread of emerald ash borer. It has been released in Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia and Maryland (Figure). The mycorrhizal relationship between fungi and plant roots is essential for the productivity of farm land. Without the fungal partner in root systems, 80–90 percent of trees and grasses would not survive. Mycorrhizal fungal inoculants are available as soil amendments from gardening supply stores and are promoted by supporters of organic agriculture. We also eat some types of fungi. Mushrooms figure prominently in the human diet. Morels, shiitake mushrooms, chanterelles, and truffles are considered delicacies (Figure). The humble meadow mushroom, Agaricus campestris, appears in many dishes. Molds of the genus Penicillium ripen many cheeses. They originate in the natural environment such as the caves of Roquefort, France, where wheels of sheep milk cheese are stacked in order to capture the molds responsible for the blue veins and pungent taste of the cheese. Fermentation—of grains to produce beer, and of fruits to produce wine—is an ancient art that humans in most cultures have practiced for millennia. Wild yeasts are acquired from the environment and used to ferment sugars into CO2 and ethyl alcohol under anaerobic conditions. It is now possible to purchase isolated strains of wild yeasts from different wine-making regions. Louis Pasteur was instrumental in developing a reliable strain of brewer’s yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, for the French brewing industry in the late 1850s. This was one of the first examples of biotechnology patenting. Many secondary metabolites of fungi are of great commercial importance. Antibiotics are naturally produced by fungi to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, limiting their competition in the natural environment. Important antibiotics, such as penicillin and the cephalosporins, are isolated from fungi. Valuable drugs isolated from fungi include the immunosuppressant drug cyclosporine (which reduces the risk of rejection after organ transplant), the precursors of steroid hormones, and ergot alkaloids used to stop bleeding. Psilocybin is a compound found in fungi such as Psilocybe semilanceata and Gymnopilus junonius, which have been used for their hallucinogenic properties by various cultures for thousands of years. As simple eukaryotic organisms, fungi are important model research organisms. Many advances in modern genetics were achieved by the use of the red bread mold Neurospora crassa. Additionally, many important genes originally discovered in S. cerevisiae served as a starting point in discovering analogous human genes. As a eukaryotic organism, the yeast cell produces and modifies proteins in a manner similar to human cells, as opposed to the bacterium Escherichia coli, which lacks the internal membrane structures and enzymes to tag proteins for export. This makes yeast a much better organism for use in recombinant DNA technology experiments. Like bacteria, yeasts grow easily in culture, have a short generation time, and are amenable to genetic modification. Section Summary Fungi are important to everyday human life. Fungi are important decomposers in most ecosystems. Mycorrhizal fungi are essential for the growth of most plants. Fungi, as food, play a role in human nutrition in the form of mushrooms, and also as agents of fermentation in the production of bread, cheeses, alcoholic beverages, and numerous other food preparations. Secondary metabolites of fungi are used as medicines, such as antibiotics and anticoagulants. Fungi are model organisms for the study of eukaryotic genetics and metabolism. Review Questions Yeast is a facultative anaerobe. This means that alcohol fermentation takes place only if: - the temperature is close to 37°C - the atmosphere does not contain oxygen - sugar is provided to the cells - light is provided to the cells Hint: B The advantage of yeast cells over bacterial cells to express human proteins is that: - yeast cells grow faster - yeast cells are easier to manipulate genetically - yeast cells are eukaryotic and modify proteins similarly to human cells - yeast cells are easily lysed to purify the proteins Hint: C Free Response Historically, artisanal breads were produced by capturing wild yeasts from the air. Prior to the development of modern yeast strains, the production of artisanal breads was long and laborious because many batches of dough ended up being discarded. Can you explain this fact? Hint: The dough is often contaminated by toxic spores that float in the air. It was one of Louis Pasteur’s achievements to purify reliable strains of baker’s yeast to produce bread consistently.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.796980	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15060/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15061/overview	Introduction An incredible variety of seedless plants populates the terrestrial landscape. Mosses may grow on a tree trunk, and horsetails may display their jointed stems and spindly leaves across the forest floor. Today, seedless plants represent only a small fraction of the plants in our environment; yet, three hundred million years ago, seedless plants dominated the landscape and grew in the enormous swampy forests of the Carboniferous period. Their decomposition created large deposits of coal that we mine today. Current evolutionary thought holds that all plants—green algae as well as land dwellers—are monophyletic; that is, they are descendants of a single common ancestor. The evolutionary transition from water to land imposed severe constraints on plants. They had to develop strategies to avoid drying out, to disperse reproductive cells in air, for structural support, and for capturing and filtering sunlight. While seed plants developed adaptations that allowed them to populate even the most arid habitats on Earth, full independence from water did not happen in all plants. Most seedless plants still require a moist environment.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.813153	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15061/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15062/overview	Early Plant Life Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the challenges to plant life on land - Describe the adaptations that allowed plants to colonize the land - Describe the timeline of plant evolution and the impact of land plants on other living things The kingdom Plantae constitutes large and varied groups of organisms. There are more than 300,000 species of catalogued plants. Of these, more than 260,000 are seed plants. Mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants are all members of the plant kingdom. Most biologists also consider green algae to be plants, although others exclude all algae from the plant kingdom. The reason for this disagreement stems from the fact that only green algae, the Charophytes, share common characteristics with land plants (such as using chlorophyll a and b plus carotene in the same proportion as plants). These characteristics are absent in other types of algae. Evolution Connection Algae and Evolutionary Paths to PhotosynthesisSome scientists consider all algae to be plants, while others assert that only the Charophytes belong in the kingdom Plantae. These divergent opinions are related to the different evolutionary paths to photosynthesis selected for in different types of algae. While all algae are photosynthetic—that is, they contain some form of a chloroplast—they didn’t all become photosynthetic via the same path. The ancestors to the green algae became photosynthetic by endosymbiosing a green, photosynthetic bacterium about 1.65 billion years ago. That algal line evolved into the Charophytes, and eventually into the modern mosses, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. Their evolutionary trajectory was relatively straight and monophyletic. In contrast, the other algae—red, brown, golden, stramenopiles, and so on—all became photosynthetic by secondary, or even tertiary, endosymbiotic events; that is, they endosymbiosed cells that had already endosymbiosed a cyanobacterium. These latecomers to photosynthesis are parallels to the Charophytes in terms of autotrophy, but they did not expand to the same extent as the Charophytes, nor did they colonize the land. The different views on whether all algae are Plantae arise from how these evolutionary paths are viewed. Scientists who solely track evolutionary straight lines (that is, monophyly), consider only the Charophytes as plants. To biologists who cast a broad net over living things that share a common characteristic (in this case, photosynthetic eukaryotes), all algae are plants. Link to Learning Go to this interactive website to get a more in-depth view of the Charophytes. Plant Adaptations to Life on Land As organisms adapted to life on land, they had to contend with several challenges in the terrestrial environment. Water has been described as “the stuff of life.” The cell’s interior is a watery soup: in this medium, most small molecules dissolve and diffuse, and the majority of the chemical reactions of metabolism take place. Desiccation, or drying out, is a constant danger for an organism exposed to air. Even when parts of a plant are close to a source of water, the aerial structures are likely to dry out. Water also provides buoyancy to organisms. On land, plants need to develop structural support in a medium that does not give the same lift as water. The organism is also subject to bombardment by mutagenic radiation, because air does not filter out ultraviolet rays of sunlight. Additionally, the male gametes must reach the female gametes using new strategies, because swimming is no longer possible. Therefore, both gametes and zygotes must be protected from desiccation. The successful land plants developed strategies to deal with all of these challenges. Not all adaptations appeared at once. Some species never moved very far from the aquatic environment, whereas others went on to conquer the driest environments on Earth. To balance these survival challenges, life on land offers several advantages. First, sunlight is abundant. Water acts as a filter, altering the spectral quality of light absorbed by the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll. Second, carbon dioxide is more readily available in air than in water, since it diffuses faster in air. Third, land plants evolved before land animals; therefore, until dry land was colonized by animals, no predators threatened plant life. This situation changed as animals emerged from the water and fed on the abundant sources of nutrients in the established flora. In turn, plants developed strategies to deter predation: from spines and thorns to toxic chemicals. Early land plants, like the early land animals, did not live very far from an abundant source of water and developed survival strategies to combat dryness. One of these strategies is called tolerance. Many mosses, for example, can dry out to a brown and brittle mat, but as soon as rain or a flood makes water available, mosses will absorb it and are restored to their healthy green appearance. Another strategy is to colonize environments with high humidity, where droughts are uncommon. Ferns, which are considered an early lineage of plants, thrive in damp and cool places such as the understory of temperate forests. Later, plants moved away from moist or aquatic environments using resistance to desiccation, rather than tolerance. These plants, like cacti, minimize the loss of water to such an extent they can survive in extremely dry environments. The most successful adaptation solution was the development of new structures that gave plants the advantage when colonizing new and dry environments. Four major adaptations are found in all terrestrial plants: the alternation of generations, a sporangium in which the spores are formed, a gametangium that produces haploid cells, and apical meristem tissue in roots and shoots. The evolution of a waxy cuticle and a cell wall with lignin also contributed to the success of land plants. These adaptations are noticeably lacking in the closely related green algae—another reason for the debate over their placement in the plant kingdom. Alternation of Generations Alternation of generations describes a life cycle in which an organism has both haploid and diploid multicellular stages (Figure). Haplontic refers to a lifecycle in which there is a dominant haploid stage, and diplontic refers to a lifecycle in which the diploid is the dominant life stage. Humans are diplontic. Most plants exhibit alternation of generations, which is described as haplodiplodontic: the haploid multicellular form, known as a gametophyte, is followed in the development sequence by a multicellular diploid organism: the sporophyte. The gametophyte gives rise to the gametes (reproductive cells) by mitosis. This can be the most obvious phase of the life cycle of the plant, as in the mosses, or it can occur in a microscopic structure, such as a pollen grain, in the higher plants (a common collective term for the vascular plants). The sporophyte stage is barely noticeable in lower plants (the collective term for the plant groups of mosses, liverworts, and lichens). Towering trees are the diplontic phase in the lifecycles of plants such as sequoias and pines. Protection of the embryo is a major requirement for land plants. The vulnerable embryo must be sheltered from desiccation and other environmental hazards. In both seedless and seed plants, the female gametophyte provides protection and nutrients to the embryo as it develops into the new generation of sporophyte. This distinguishing feature of land plants gave the group its alternate name of embryophytes. Sporangia in Seedless Plants The sporophyte of seedless plants is diploid and results from syngamy (fusion) of two gametes. The sporophyte bears the sporangia (singular, sporangium): organs that first appeared in the land plants. The term “sporangia” literally means “spore in a vessel,” as it is a reproductive sac that contains spores Figure. Inside the multicellular sporangia, the diploid sporocytes, or mother cells, produce haploid spores by meiosis, where the 2n chromosome number is reduced to 1n (note that many plant sporophytes are polyploid: for example, durum wheat is tetraploid, bread wheat is hexaploid, and some ferns are 1000-ploid). The spores are later released by the sporangia and disperse in the environment. Two different types of spores are produced in land plants, resulting in the separation of sexes at different points in the lifecycle. Seedless non-vascular plants produce only one kind of spore and are called homosporous. The gametophyte phase is dominant in these plants. After germinating from a spore, the resulting gametophyte produces both male and female gametangia, usually on the same individual. In contrast, heterosporous plants produce two morphologically different types of spores. The male spores are called microspores, because of their smaller size, and develop into the male gametophyte; the comparatively larger megaspores develop into the female gametophyte. Heterospory is observed in a few seedless vascular plants and in all seed plants. When the haploid spore germinates in a hospitable environment, it generates a multicellular gametophyte by mitosis. The gametophyte supports the zygote formed from the fusion of gametes and the resulting young sporophyte (vegetative form). The cycle then begins anew. The spores of seedless plants are surrounded by thick cell walls containing a tough polymer known as sporopollenin. This complex substance is characterized by long chains of organic molecules related to fatty acids and carotenoids: hence the yellow color of most pollen. Sporopollenin is unusually resistant to chemical and biological degradation. In seed plants, which use pollen to transfer the male sperm to the female egg, the toughness of sporopollenin explains the existence of well-preserved pollen fossils. Sporopollenin was once thought to be an innovation of land plants; however, the green algae Coleochaetes forms spores that contain sporopollenin. Gametangia in Seedless Plants Gametangia (singular, gametangium) are structures observed on multicellular haploid gametophytes. In the gametangia, precursor cells give rise to gametes by mitosis. The male gametangium (antheridium) releases sperm. Many seedless plants produce sperm equipped with flagella that enable them to swim in a moist environment to the archegonia: the female gametangium. The embryo develops inside the archegonium as the sporophyte. Gametangia are prominent in seedless plants, but are very rarely found in seed plants. Apical Meristems Shoots and roots of plants increase in length through rapid cell division in a tissue called the apical meristem, which is a small zone of cells found at the shoot tip or root tip (Figure). The apical meristem is made of undifferentiated cells that continue to proliferate throughout the life of the plant. Meristematic cells give rise to all the specialized tissues of the organism. Elongation of the shoots and roots allows a plant to access additional space and resources: light in the case of the shoot, and water and minerals in the case of roots. A separate meristem, called the lateral meristem, produces cells that increase the diameter of tree trunks. Additional Land Plant Adaptations As plants adapted to dry land and became independent from the constant presence of water in damp habitats, new organs and structures made their appearance. Early land plants did not grow more than a few inches off the ground, competing for light on these low mats. By developing a shoot and growing taller, individual plants captured more light. Because air offers substantially less support than water, land plants incorporated more rigid molecules in their stems (and later, tree trunks). In small plants such as single-celled algae, simple diffusion suffices to distribute water and nutrients throughout the organism. However, for plants to evolve larger forms, the evolution of vascular tissue for the distribution of water and solutes was a prerequisite. The vascular system contains xylem and phloem tissues. Xylem conducts water and minerals absorbed from the soil up to the shoot, while phloem transports food derived from photosynthesis throughout the entire plant. A root system evolved to take up water and minerals from the soil, and to anchor the increasingly taller shoot in the soil. In land plants, a waxy, waterproof cover called a cuticle protects the leaves and stems from desiccation. However, the cuticle also prevents intake of carbon dioxide needed for the synthesis of carbohydrates through photosynthesis. To overcome this, stomata or pores that open and close to regulate traffic of gases and water vapor appeared in plants as they moved away from moist environments into drier habitats. Water filters ultraviolet-B (UVB) light, which is harmful to all organisms, especially those that must absorb light to survive. This filtering does not occur for land plants. This presented an additional challenge to land colonization, which was met by the evolution of biosynthetic pathways for the synthesis of protective flavonoids and other compounds: pigments that absorb UV wavelengths of light and protect the aerial parts of plants from photodynamic damage. Plants cannot avoid being eaten by animals. Instead, they synthesize a large range of poisonous secondary metabolites: complex organic molecules such as alkaloids, whose noxious smells and unpleasant taste deter animals. These toxic compounds can also cause severe diseases and even death, thus discouraging predation. Humans have used many of these compounds for centuries as drugs, medications, or spices. In contrast, as plants co-evolved with animals, the development of sweet and nutritious metabolites lured animals into providing valuable assistance in dispersing pollen grains, fruit, or seeds. Plants have been enlisting animals to be their helpers in this way for hundreds of millions of years. Evolution of Land Plants No discussion of the evolution of plants on land can be undertaken without a brief review of the timeline of the geological eras. The early era, known as the Paleozoic, is divided into six periods. It starts with the Cambrian period, followed by the Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian. The major event to mark the Ordovician, more than 500 million years ago, was the colonization of land by the ancestors of modern land plants. Fossilized cells, cuticles, and spores of early land plants have been dated as far back as the Ordovician period in the early Paleozoic era. The oldest-known vascular plants have been identified in deposits from the Devonian. One of the richest sources of information is the Rhynie chert, a sedimentary rock deposit found in Rhynie, Scotland (Figure), where embedded fossils of some of the earliest vascular plants have been identified. Paleobotanists distinguish between extinct species, as fossils, and extant species, which are still living. The extinct vascular plants, classified as zosterophylls and trimerophytes, most probably lacked true leaves and roots and formed low vegetation mats similar in size to modern-day mosses, although some trimetophytes could reach one meter in height. The later genus Cooksonia, which flourished during the Silurian, has been extensively studied from well-preserved examples. Imprints of Cooksonia show slender branching stems ending in what appear to be sporangia. From the recovered specimens, it is not possible to establish for certain whether Cooksonia possessed vascular tissues. Fossils indicate that by the end of the Devonian period, ferns, horsetails, and seed plants populated the landscape, giving rising to trees and forests. This luxuriant vegetation helped enrich the atmosphere in oxygen, making it easier for air-breathing animals to colonize dry land. Plants also established early symbiotic relationships with fungi, creating mycorrhizae: a relationship in which the fungal network of filaments increases the efficiency of the plant root system, and the plants provide the fungi with byproducts of photosynthesis. Career Connection PaleobotanistHow organisms acquired traits that allow them to colonize new environments—and how the contemporary ecosystem is shaped—are fundamental questions of evolution. Paleobotany (the study of extinct plants) addresses these questions through the analysis of fossilized specimens retrieved from field studies, reconstituting the morphology of organisms that disappeared long ago. Paleobotanists trace the evolution of plants by following the modifications in plant morphology: shedding light on the connection between existing plants by identifying common ancestors that display the same traits. This field seeks to find transitional species that bridge gaps in the path to the development of modern organisms. Fossils are formed when organisms are trapped in sediments or environments where their shapes are preserved. Paleobotanists collect fossil specimens in the field and place them in the context of the geological sediments and other fossilized organisms surrounding them. The activity requires great care to preserve the integrity of the delicate fossils and the layers of rock in which they are found. One of the most exciting recent developments in paleobotany is the use of analytical chemistry and molecular biology to study fossils. Preservation of molecular structures requires an environment free of oxygen, since oxidation and degradation of material through the activity of microorganisms depend on its presence. One example of the use of analytical chemistry and molecular biology is the identification of oleanane, a compound that deters pests. Up to this point, oleanane appeared to be unique to flowering plants; however, it has now been recovered from sediments dating from the Permian, much earlier than the current dates given for the appearance of the first flowering plants. Paleobotanists can also study fossil DNA, which can yield a large amount of information, by analyzing and comparing the DNA sequences of extinct plants with those of living and related organisms. Through this analysis, evolutionary relationships can be built for plant lineages. Some paleobotanists are skeptical of the conclusions drawn from the analysis of molecular fossils. For example, the chemical materials of interest degrade rapidly when exposed to air during their initial isolation, as well as in further manipulations. There is always a high risk of contaminating the specimens with extraneous material, mostly from microorganisms. Nevertheless, as technology is refined, the analysis of DNA from fossilized plants will provide invaluable information on the evolution of plants and their adaptation to an ever-changing environment. The Major Divisions of Land Plants The green algae and land plants are grouped together into a subphylum called the Streptophytina, and thus are called Streptophytes. In a further division, land plants are classified into two major groups according to the absence or presence of vascular tissue, as detailed in Figure. Plants that lack vascular tissue, which is formed of specialized cells for the transport of water and nutrients, are referred to as non-vascular plants. Liverworts, mosses, and hornworts are seedless, non-vascular plants that likely appeared early in land plant evolution. Vascular plants developed a network of cells that conduct water and solutes. The first vascular plants appeared in the late Ordovician and were probably similar to lycophytes, which include club mosses (not to be confused with the mosses) and the pterophytes (ferns, horsetails, and whisk ferns). Lycophytes and pterophytes are referred to as seedless vascular plants, because they do not produce seeds. The seed plants, or spermatophytes, form the largest group of all existing plants, and hence dominate the landscape. Seed plants include gymnosperms, most notably conifers (Gymnosperms), which produce “naked seeds,” and the most successful of all plants, the flowering plants (Angiosperms). Angiosperms protect their seeds inside chambers at the center of a flower; the walls of the chamber later develop into a fruit. Art Connection Which of the following statements about plant divisions is false? - Lycophytes and pterophytes are seedless vascular plants. - All vascular plants produce seeds. - All nonvascular embryophytes are bryophytes. - Seed plants include angiosperms and gymnosperms. Section Summary Land plants acquired traits that made it possible to colonize land and survive out of the water. All land plants share the following characteristics: alternation of generations, with the haploid plant called a gametophyte, and the diploid plant called a sporophyte; protection of the embryo, formation of haploid spores in a sporangium, formation of gametes in a gametangium, and an apical meristem. Vascular tissues, roots, leaves, cuticle cover, and a tough outer layer that protects the spores contributed to the adaptation of plants to dry land. Land plants appeared about 500 million years ago in the Ordovician period. Art Connections Review Questions The land plants are probably descendants of which of these groups? - green algae - red algae - brown algae - angiosperms Hint: A Alternation of generations means that plants produce: - only haploid multicellular organisms - only diploid multicellular organisms - only diploid multicellular organisms with single-celled haploid gametes - both haploid and diploid multicellular organisms Hint: D Which of the following traits of land plants allows them to grow in height? - alternation of generations - waxy cuticle - tracheids - sporopollenin Hint: C Free Response Why did land plants lose some of the accessory pigments present in brown and red algae? Hint: Sunlight is not filtered by water or other algae on land; therefore, there is no need to collect light at additional wavelengths made available by other pigment coloration. What is the difference between extant and extinct? Hint: Paleobotanists distinguish between extinct species, which no longer live, and extant species, which are still living.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.847182	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15062/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15063/overview	Green Algae: Precursors of Land Plants Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the traits shared by green algae and land plants - Explain the reasons why Charales are considered the closest relative to land plants - Understand that current phylogenetic relationships are reshaped by comparative analysis of DNA sequences Streptophytes Until recently, all photosynthetic eukaryotes were considered members of the kingdom Plantae. The brown, red, and gold algae, however, have been reassigned to the Protista kingdom. This is because apart from their ability to capture light energy and fix CO2, they lack many structural and biochemical traits that distinguish plants from protists. The position of green algae is more ambiguous. Green algae contain the same carotenoids and chlorophyll a and b as land plants, whereas other algae have different accessory pigments and types of chlorophyll molecules in addition to chlorophyll a. Both green algae and land plants also store carbohydrates as starch. Cells in green algae divide along cell plates called phragmoplasts, and their cell walls are layered in the same manner as the cell walls of embryophytes. Consequently, land plants and closely related green algae are now part of a new monophyletic group called Streptophyta. The remaining green algae, which belong to a group called Chlorophyta, include more than 7000 different species that live in fresh or brackish water, in seawater, or in snow patches. A few green algae even survive on soil, provided it is covered by a thin film of moisture in which they can live. Periodic dry spells provide a selective advantage to algae that can survive water stress. Some green algae may already be familiar, in particular Spirogyra and desmids. Their cells contain chloroplasts that display a dizzying variety of shapes, and their cell walls contain cellulose, as do land plants. Some green algae are single cells, such as Chlorella and Chlamydomonas, which adds to the ambiguity of green algae classification, because plants are multicellular. Other algae, like Ulva (commonly called sea lettuce), form colonies (Figure). Reproduction of Green Algae Green algae reproduce both asexually, by fragmentation or dispersal of spores, or sexually, by producing gametes that fuse during fertilization. In a single-celled organism such as Chlamydomonas, there is no mitosis after fertilization. In the multicellular Ulva, a sporophyte grows by mitosis after fertilization. Both Chlamydomonas and Ulva produce flagellated gametes. Charales Green algae in the order Charales, and the coleochaetes (microscopic green algae that enclose their spores in sporopollenin), are considered the closest living relatives of embryophytes. The Charales can be traced back 420 million years. They live in a range of fresh water habitats and vary in size from a few millimeters to a meter in length. The representative species is Chara (Figure), often called muskgrass or skunkweed because of its unpleasant smell. Large cells form the thallus: the main stem of the alga. Branches arising from the nodes are made of smaller cells. Male and female reproductive structures are found on the nodes, and the sperm have flagella. Unlike land plants, Charales do not undergo alternation of generations in their lifecycle. Charales exhibit a number of traits that are significant in their adaptation to land life. They produce the compounds lignin and sporopollenin, and form plasmodesmata that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells. The egg, and later, the zygote, form in a protected chamber on the parent plant. New information from recent, extensive DNA sequence analysis of green algae indicates that the Zygnematales are more closely related to the embryophytes than the Charales. The Zygnematales include the familiar genus Spirogyra. As techniques in DNA analysis improve and new information on comparative genomics arises, the phylogenetic connections between species will change. Clearly, plant biologists have not yet solved the mystery of the origin of land plants. Section Summary Green algae share more traits with land plants than other algae, according to structure and DNA analysis. Charales form sporopollenin and precursors of lignin, phragmoplasts, and have flagellated sperm. They do not exhibit alternation of generations. Review Questions What characteristic of Charales would enable them to survive a dry spell? - sperm with flagella - phragmoplasts - sporopollenin - chlorophyll a Hint: C Which one of these characteristics is present in land plants and not in Charales? - alternation of generations - flagellated sperm - phragmoplasts - plasmodesmata Hint: A Free Response To an alga, what is the main advantage of producing drought-resistant structures? Hint: It allows for survival through periodic droughts and colonization of environments where the supply of water fluctuates.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.870224	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15063/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15064/overview	Bryophytes Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify the main characteristics of bryophytes - Describe the distinguishing traits of liverworts, hornworts, and mosses - Chart the development of land adaptations in the bryophytes - Describe the events in the bryophyte lifecycle Bryophytes are the group of plants that are the closest extant relative of early terrestrial plants. The first bryophytes (liverworts) most likely appeared in the Ordovician period, about 450 million years ago. Because of the lack of lignin and other resistant structures, the likelihood of bryophytes forming fossils is rather small. Some spores protected by sporopollenin have survived and are attributed to early bryophytes. By the Silurian period, however, vascular plants had spread through the continents. This compelling fact is used as evidence that non-vascular plants must have preceded the Silurian period. More than 25,000 species of bryophytes thrive in mostly damp habitats, although some live in deserts. They constitute the major flora of inhospitable environments like the tundra, where their small size and tolerance to desiccation offer distinct advantages. They generally lack lignin and do not have actual tracheids (xylem cells specialized for water conduction). Rather, water and nutrients circulate inside specialized conducting cells. Although the term non-tracheophyte is more accurate, bryophytes are commonly called nonvascular plants. In a bryophyte, all the conspicuous vegetative organs—including the photosynthetic leaf-like structures, the thallus, stem, and the rhizoid that anchors the plant to its substrate—belong to the haploid organism or gametophyte. The sporophyte is barely noticeable. The gametes formed by bryophytes swim with a flagellum, as do gametes in a few of the tracheophytes. The sporangium—the multicellular sexual reproductive structure—is present in bryophytes and absent in the majority of algae. The bryophyte embryo also remains attached to the parent plant, which protects and nourishes it. This is a characteristic of land plants. The bryophytes are divided into three phyla: the liverworts or Hepaticophyta, the hornworts or Anthocerotophyta, and the mosses or true Bryophyta. Liverworts Liverworts (Hepaticophyta) are viewed as the plants most closely related to the ancestor that moved to land. Liverworts have colonized every terrestrial habitat on Earth and diversified to more than 7000 existing species (Figure). Some gametophytes form lobate green structures, as seen in Figure. The shape is similar to the lobes of the liver, and hence provides the origin of the name given to the phylum. Openings that allow the movement of gases may be observed in liverworts. However, these are not stomata, because they do not actively open and close. The plant takes up water over its entire surface and has no cuticle to prevent desiccation. Figure represents the lifecycle of a liverwort. The cycle starts with the release of haploid spores from the sporangium that developed on the sporophyte. Spores disseminated by wind or water germinate into flattened thalli attached to the substrate by thin, single-celled filaments. Male and female gametangia develop on separate, individual plants. Once released, male gametes swim with the aid of their flagella to the female gametangium (the archegonium), and fertilization ensues. The zygote grows into a small sporophyte still attached to the parent gametophyte. It will give rise, by meiosis, to the next generation of spores. Liverwort plants can also reproduce asexually, by the breaking of branches or the spreading of leaf fragments called gemmae. In this latter type of reproduction, the gemmae—small, intact, complete pieces of plant that are produced in a cup on the surface of the thallus (shown in Figure)—are splashed out of the cup by raindrops. The gemmae then land nearby and develop into gametophytes. Hornworts The hornworts (Anthocerotophyta) belong to the broad bryophyte group. They have colonized a variety of habitats on land, although they are never far from a source of moisture. The short, blue-green gametophyte is the dominant phase of the lifecycle of a hornwort. The narrow, pipe-like sporophyte is the defining characteristic of the group. The sporophytes emerge from the parent gametophyte and continue to grow throughout the life of the plant (Figure). Stomata appear in the hornworts and are abundant on the sporophyte. Photosynthetic cells in the thallus contain a single chloroplast. Meristem cells at the base of the plant keep dividing and adding to its height. Many hornworts establish symbiotic relationships with cyanobacteria that fix nitrogen from the environment. The lifecycle of hornworts (Figure) follows the general pattern of alternation of generations. The gametophytes grow as flat thalli on the soil with embedded gametangia. Flagellated sperm swim to the archegonia and fertilize eggs. The zygote develops into a long and slender sporophyte that eventually splits open, releasing spores. Thin cells called pseudoelaters surround the spores and help propel them further in the environment. Unlike the elaters observed in horsetails, the hornwort pseudoelaters are single-celled structures. The haploid spores germinate and give rise to the next generation of gametophyte. Mosses More than 10,000 species of mosses have been catalogued. Their habitats vary from the tundra, where they are the main vegetation, to the understory of tropical forests. In the tundra, the mosses’ shallow rhizoids allow them to fasten to a substrate without penetrating the frozen soil. Mosses slow down erosion, store moisture and soil nutrients, and provide shelter for small animals as well as food for larger herbivores, such as the musk ox. Mosses are very sensitive to air pollution and are used to monitor air quality. They are also sensitive to copper salts, so these salts are a common ingredient of compounds marketed to eliminate mosses from lawns. Mosses form diminutive gametophytes, which are the dominant phase of the lifecycle. Green, flat structures—resembling true leaves, but lacking vascular tissue—are attached in a spiral to a central stalk. The plants absorb water and nutrients directly through these leaf-like structures. Some mosses have small branches. Some primitive traits of green algae, such as flagellated sperm, are still present in mosses that are dependent on water for reproduction. Other features of mosses are clearly adaptations to dry land. For example, stomata are present on the stems of the sporophyte, and a primitive vascular system runs up the sporophyte’s stalk. Additionally, mosses are anchored to the substrate—whether it is soil, rock, or roof tiles—by multicellular rhizoids. These structures are precursors of roots. They originate from the base of the gametophyte, but are not the major route for the absorption of water and minerals. The lack of a true root system explains why it is so easy to rip moss mats from a tree trunk. The moss lifecycle follows the pattern of alternation of generations as shown in Figure. The most familiar structure is the haploid gametophyte, which germinates from a haploid spore and forms first a protonema—usually, a tangle of single-celled filaments that hug the ground. Cells akin to an apical meristem actively divide and give rise to a gametophore, consisting of a photosynthetic stem and foliage-like structures. Rhizoids form at the base of the gametophore. Gametangia of both sexes develop on separate gametophores. The male organ (the antheridium) produces many sperm, whereas the archegonium (the female organ) forms a single egg. At fertilization, the sperm swims down the neck to the venter and unites with the egg inside the archegonium. The zygote, protected by the archegonium, divides and grows into a sporophyte, still attached by its foot to the gametophyte. Art Connection Which of the following statements about the moss life cycle is false? - The mature gametophyte is haploid. - The sporophyte produces haploid spores. - The calyptra buds to form a mature gametophyte. - The zygote is housed in the venter. The slender seta (plural, setae), as seen in Figure, contains tubular cells that transfer nutrients from the base of the sporophyte (the foot) to the sporangium or capsule. A structure called a peristome increases the spread of spores after the tip of the capsule falls off at dispersal. The concentric tissue around the mouth of the capsule is made of triangular, close-fitting units, a little like “teeth”; these open and close depending on moisture levels, and periodically release spores. Section Summary Seedless nonvascular plants are small, having the gametophyte as the dominant stage of the lifecycle. Without a vascular system and roots, they absorb water and nutrients on all their exposed surfaces. Collectively known as bryophytes, the three main groups include the liverworts, the hornworts, and the mosses. Liverworts are the most primitive plants and are closely related to the first land plants. Hornworts developed stomata and possess a single chloroplast per cell. Mosses have simple conductive cells and are attached to the substrate by rhizoids. They colonize harsh habitats and can regain moisture after drying out. The moss sporangium is a complex structure that allows release of spores away from the parent plant. Art Connections Review Questions Which of the following structures is not found in bryophytes? - a cellulose cell wall - chloroplast - sporangium - root Hint: D Stomata appear in which group of plants? - Charales - liverworts - hornworts - mosses Hint: C The chromosome complement in a moss protonema is: - 1n - 2n - 3n - varies with the size of the protonema Hint: A Why do mosses grow well in the Arctic tundra? - They grow better at cold temperatures. - They do not require moisture. - They do not have true roots and can grow on hard surfaces. - There are no herbivores in the tundra. Hint: C Free Response In areas where it rains often, mosses grow on roofs. How do mosses survive on roofs without soil? Hint: Mosses absorb water and nutrients carried by the rain and do not need soil because they do not derive much nutrition from the soil. What are the three classes of bryophytes? Hint: The bryophytes are divided into three phyla: the liverworts or Hepaticophyta, the hornworts or Anthocerotophyta, and the mosses or true Bryophyta.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.900243	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15064/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15065/overview	Seedless Vascular Plants Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify the new traits that first appear in tracheophytes - Discuss the importance of adaptations to life on land - Describe the classes of seedless tracheophytes - Describe the lifecycle of a fern - Explain the role of seedless vascular plants in the ecosystem The vascular plants, or tracheophytes, are the dominant and most conspicuous group of land plants. More than 260,000 species of tracheophytes represent more than 90 percent of Earth’s vegetation. Several evolutionary innovations explain their success and their ability to spread to all habitats. Bryophytes may have been successful at the transition from an aquatic habitat to land, but they are still dependent on water for reproduction, and absorb moisture and nutrients through the gametophyte surface. The lack of roots for absorbing water and minerals from the soil, as well as a lack of reinforced conducting cells, limits bryophytes to small sizes. Although they may survive in reasonably dry conditions, they cannot reproduce and expand their habitat range in the absence of water. Vascular plants, on the other hand, can achieve enormous heights, thus competing successfully for light. Photosynthetic organs become leaves, and pipe-like cells or vascular tissues transport water, minerals, and fixed carbon throughout the organism. In seedless vascular plants, the diploid sporophyte is the dominant phase of the lifecycle. The gametophyte is now an inconspicuous, but still independent, organism. Throughout plant evolution, there is an evident reversal of roles in the dominant phase of the lifecycle. Seedless vascular plants still depend on water during fertilization, as the sperm must swim on a layer of moisture to reach the egg. This step in reproduction explains why ferns and their relatives are more abundant in damp environments. Vascular Tissue: Xylem and Phloem The first fossils that show the presence of vascular tissue date to the Silurian period, about 430 million years ago. The simplest arrangement of conductive cells shows a pattern of xylem at the center surrounded by phloem. Xylem is the tissue responsible for the storage and long-distance transport of water and nutrients, as well as the transfer of water-soluble growth factors from the organs of synthesis to the target organs. The tissue consists of conducting cells, known as tracheids, and supportive filler tissue, called parenchyma. Xylem conductive cells incorporate the compound lignin into their walls, and are thus described as lignified. Lignin itself is a complex polymer that is impermeable to water and confers mechanical strength to vascular tissue. With their rigid cell walls, the xylem cells provide support to the plant and allow it to achieve impressive heights. Tall plants have a selective advantage by being able to reach unfiltered sunlight and disperse their spores or seeds further away, thus expanding their range. By growing higher than other plants, tall trees cast their shadow on shorter plants and limit competition for water and precious nutrients in the soil. Phloem is the second type of vascular tissue; it transports sugars, proteins, and other solutes throughout the plant. Phloem cells are divided into sieve elements (conducting cells) and cells that support the sieve elements. Together, xylem and phloem tissues form the vascular system of plants. Roots: Support for the Plant Roots are not well preserved in the fossil record. Nevertheless, it seems that roots appeared later in evolution than vascular tissue. The development of an extensive network of roots represented a significant new feature of vascular plants. Thin rhizoids attached bryophytes to the substrate, but these rather flimsy filaments did not provide a strong anchor for the plant; neither did they absorb substantial amounts of water and nutrients. In contrast, roots, with their prominent vascular tissue system, transfer water and minerals from the soil to the rest of the plant. The extensive network of roots that penetrates deep into the soil to reach sources of water also stabilizes trees by acting as a ballast or anchor. The majority of roots establish a symbiotic relationship with fungi, forming mycorrhizae, which benefit the plant by greatly increasing the surface area for absorption of water and soil minerals and nutrients. Leaves, Sporophylls, and Strobili A third innovation marks the seedless vascular plants. Accompanying the prominence of the sporophyte and the development of vascular tissue, the appearance of true leaves improved their photosynthetic efficiency. Leaves capture more sunlight with their increased surface area by employing more chloroplasts to trap light energy and convert it to chemical energy, which is then used to fix atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. The carbohydrates are exported to the rest of the plant by the conductive cells of phloem tissue. The existence of two types of morphology suggests that leaves evolved independently in several groups of plants. The first type of leaf is the microphyll, or “little leaf,” which can be dated to 350 million years ago in the late Silurian. A microphyll is small and has a simple vascular system. A single unbranched vein—a bundle of vascular tissue made of xylem and phloem—runs through the center of the leaf. Microphylls may have originated from the flattening of lateral branches, or from sporangia that lost their reproductive capabilities. Microphylls are present in the club mosses and probably preceded the development of megaphylls, or “big leaves”, which are larger leaves with a pattern of branching veins. Megaphylls most likely appeared independently several times during the course of evolution. Their complex networks of veins suggest that several branches may have combined into a flattened organ, with the gaps between the branches being filled with photosynthetic tissue. In addition to photosynthesis, leaves play another role in the life of the plants. Pine cones, mature fronds of ferns, and flowers are all sporophylls—leaves that were modified structurally to bear sporangia. Strobili are cone-like structures that contain sporangia. They are prominent in conifers and are commonly known as pine cones. Ferns and Other Seedless Vascular Plants By the late Devonian period, plants had evolved vascular tissue, well-defined leaves, and root systems. With these advantages, plants increased in height and size. During the Carboniferous period, swamp forests of club mosses and horsetails—some specimens reaching heights of more than 30 m (100 ft)—covered most of the land. These forests gave rise to the extensive coal deposits that gave the Carboniferous its name. In seedless vascular plants, the sporophyte became the dominant phase of the lifecycle. Water is still required for fertilization of seedless vascular plants, and most favor a moist environment. Modern-day seedless tracheophytes include club mosses, horsetails, ferns, and whisk ferns. Phylum Lycopodiophyta: Club Mosses The club mosses, or phylum Lycopodiophyta, are the earliest group of seedless vascular plants. They dominated the landscape of the Carboniferous, growing into tall trees and forming large swamp forests. Today’s club mosses are diminutive, evergreen plants consisting of a stem (which may be branched) and microphylls (Figure). The phylum Lycopodiophyta consists of close to 1,200 species, including the quillworts (Isoetales), the club mosses (Lycopodiales), and spike mosses (Selaginellales), none of which are true mosses or bryophytes. Lycophytes follow the pattern of alternation of generations seen in the bryophytes, except that the sporophyte is the major stage of the lifecycle. The gametophytes do not depend on the sporophyte for nutrients. Some gametophytes develop underground and form mycorrhizal associations with fungi. In club mosses, the sporophyte gives rise to sporophylls arranged in strobili, cone-like structures that give the class its name. Lycophytes can be homosporous or heterosporous. Phylum Monilophyta: Class Equisetopsida (Horsetails) Horsetails, whisk ferns and ferns belong to the phylum Monilophyta, with horsetails placed in the Class Equisetopsida. The single genus Equisetum is the survivor of a large group of plants, known as Arthrophyta, which produced large trees and entire swamp forests in the Carboniferous. The plants are usually found in damp environments and marshes (Figure). The stem of a horsetail is characterized by the presence of joints or nodes, hence the name Arthrophyta (arthro- = "joint"; -phyta = "plant"). Leaves and branches come out as whorls from the evenly spaced joints. The needle-shaped leaves do not contribute greatly to photosynthesis, the majority of which takes place in the green stem (Figure). Silica collects in the epidermal cells, contributing to the stiffness of horsetail plants. Underground stems known as rhizomes anchor the plants to the ground. Modern-day horsetails are homosporous and produce bisexual gametophytes. Phylum Monilophyta: Class Psilotopsida (Whisk Ferns) While most ferns form large leaves and branching roots, the whisk ferns, Class Psilotopsida, lack both roots and leaves, probably lost by reduction. Photosynthesis takes place in their green stems, and small yellow knobs form at the tip of the branch stem and contain the sporangia. Whisk ferns were considered an early pterophytes. However, recent comparative DNA analysis suggests that this group may have lost both vascular tissue and roots through evolution, and is more closely related to ferns. Phylum Monilophyta: Class Psilotopsida (Ferns) With their large fronds, ferns are the most readily recognizable seedless vascular plants. They are considered the most advanced seedless vascular plants and display characteristics commonly observed in seed plants. More than 20,000 species of ferns live in environments ranging from tropics to temperate forests. Although some species survive in dry environments, most ferns are restricted to moist, shaded places. Ferns made their appearance in the fossil record during the Devonian period and expanded during the Carboniferous. The dominant stage of the lifecycle of a fern is the sporophyte, which consists of large compound leaves called fronds. Fronds fulfill a double role; they are photosynthetic organs that also carry reproductive organs. The stem may be buried underground as a rhizome, from which adventitious roots grow to absorb water and nutrients from the soil; or, they may grow above ground as a trunk in tree ferns (Figure). Adventitious organs are those that grow in unusual places, such as roots growing from the side of a stem. The tip of a developing fern frond is rolled into a crozier, or fiddlehead (Figurea and Figureb). Fiddleheads unroll as the frond develops. The lifecycle of a fern is depicted in Figure. Art Connection Which of the following statements about the fern life cycle is false? - Sporangia produce haploid spores. - The sporophyte grows from a gametophyte. - The sporophyte is diploid and the gametophyte is haploid. - Sporangia form on the underside of the gametophyte. Link to Learning To see an animation of the lifecycle of a fern and to test your knowledge, go to the website. Most ferns produce the same type of spores and are therefore homosporous. The diploid sporophyte is the most conspicuous stage of the lifecycle. On the underside of its mature fronds, sori (singular, sorus) form as small clusters where sporangia develop (Figure). Inside the sori, spores are produced by meiosis and released into the air. Those that land on a suitable substrate germinate and form a heart-shaped gametophyte, which is attached to the ground by thin filamentous rhizoids (Figure). The inconspicuous gametophyte harbors both sex gametangia. Flagellated sperm released from the antheridium swim on a wet surface to the archegonium, where the egg is fertilized. The newly formed zygote grows into a sporophyte that emerges from the gametophyte and grows by mitosis into the next generation sporophyte. Career Connection Landscape DesignerLooking at the well-laid parterres of flowers and fountains in the grounds of royal castles and historic houses of Europe, it’s clear that the gardens’ creators knew about more than art and design. They were also familiar with the biology of the plants they chose. Landscape design also has strong roots in the United States’ tradition. A prime example of early American classical design is Monticello: Thomas Jefferson’s private estate. Among his many interests, Jefferson maintained a strong passion for botany. Landscape layout can encompass a small private space, like a backyard garden; public gathering places, like Central Park in New York City; or an entire city plan, like Pierre L’Enfant’s design for Washington, DC. A landscape designer will plan traditional public spaces—such as botanical gardens, parks, college campuses, gardens, and larger developments—as well as natural areas and private gardens. The restoration of natural places encroached on by human intervention, such as wetlands, also requires the expertise of a landscape designer. With such an array of necessary skills, a landscape designer’s education includes a solid background in botany, soil science, plant pathology, entomology, and horticulture. Coursework in architecture and design software is also required for the completion of the degree. The successful design of a landscape rests on an extensive knowledge of plant growth requirements, such as light and shade, moisture levels, compatibility of different species, and susceptibility to pathogens and pests. Mosses and ferns will thrive in a shaded area, where fountains provide moisture; cacti, on the other hand, would not fare well in that environment. The future growth of individual plants must be taken into account, to avoid crowding and competition for light and nutrients. The appearance of the space over time is also of concern. Shapes, colors, and biology must be balanced for a well-maintained and sustainable green space. Art, architecture, and biology blend in a beautifully designed and implemented landscape. The Importance of Seedless Vascular Plants Mosses and liverworts are often the first macroscopic organisms to colonize an area, both in a primary succession—where bare land is settled for the first time by living organisms—or in a secondary succession, where soil remains intact after a catastrophic event wipes out many existing species. Their spores are carried by the wind, birds, or insects. Once mosses and liverworts are established, they provide food and shelter for other species. In a hostile environment, like the tundra where the soil is frozen, bryophytes grow well because they do not have roots and can dry and rehydrate rapidly once water is again available. Mosses are at the base of the food chain in the tundra biome. Many species—from small insects to musk oxen and reindeer—depend on mosses for food. In turn, predators feed on the herbivores, which are the primary consumers. Some reports indicate that bryophytes make the soil more amenable to colonization by other plants. Because they establish symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria, mosses replenish the soil with nitrogen. At the end of the nineteenth century, scientists observed that lichens and mosses were becoming increasingly rare in urban and suburban areas. Since bryophytes have neither a root system for absorption of water and nutrients, nor a cuticle layer that protects them from desiccation, pollutants in rainwater readily penetrate their tissues; they absorb moisture and nutrients through their entire exposed surfaces. Therefore, pollutants dissolved in rainwater penetrate plant tissues readily and have a larger impact on mosses than on other plants. The disappearance of mosses can be considered a bioindicator for the level of pollution in the environment. Ferns contribute to the environment by promoting the weathering of rock, accelerating the formation of topsoil, and slowing down erosion by spreading rhizomes in the soil. The water ferns of the genus Azolla harbor nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria and restore this important nutrient to aquatic habitats. Seedless plants have historically played a role in human life through uses as tools, fuel, and medicine. Dried peat moss, Sphagnum, is commonly used as fuel in some parts of Europe and is considered a renewable resource. Sphagnum bogs (Figure) are cultivated with cranberry and blueberry bushes. The ability of Sphagnum to hold moisture makes the moss a common soil conditioner. Florists use blocks of Sphagnum to maintain moisture for floral arrangements. The attractive fronds of ferns make them a favorite ornamental plant. Because they thrive in low light, they are well suited as house plants. More importantly, fiddleheads are a traditional spring food of Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest, and are popular as a side dish in French cuisine. The licorice fern, Polypodium glycyrrhiza, is part of the diet of the Pacific Northwest coastal tribes, owing in part to the sweetness of its rhizomes. It has a faint licorice taste and serves as a sweetener. The rhizome also figures in the pharmacopeia of Native Americans for its medicinal properties and is used as a remedy for sore throat. LInk to Learning Go to this website to learn how to identify fern species based upon their fiddleheads. By far the greatest impact of seedless vascular plants on human life, however, comes from their extinct progenitors. The tall club mosses, horsetails, and tree-like ferns that flourished in the swampy forests of the Carboniferous period gave rise to large deposits of coal throughout the world. Coal provided an abundant source of energy during the Industrial Revolution, which had tremendous consequences on human societies, including rapid technological progress and growth of large cities, as well as the degradation of the environment. Coal is still a prime source of energy and also a major contributor to global warming. Section Summary Vascular systems consist of xylem tissue, which transports water and minerals, and phloem tissue, which transports sugars and proteins. With the development of the vascular system, there appeared leaves to act as large photosynthetic organs, and roots to access water from the ground. Small uncomplicated leaves are microphylls. Large leaves with vein patterns are megaphylls. Modified leaves that bear sporangia are sporophylls. Some sporophylls are arranged in cone structures called strobili. The seedless vascular plants include club mosses, which are the most primitive; whisk ferns, which lost leaves and roots by reductive evolution; and horsetails and ferns. Ferns are the most advanced group of seedless vascular plants. They are distinguished by large leaves called fronds and small sporangia-containing structures called sori, which are found on the underside of the fronds. Mosses play an essential role in the balance of the ecosystems; they are pioneering species that colonize bare or devastated environments and make it possible for a succession to occur. They contribute to the enrichment of the soil and provide shelter and nutrients for animals in hostile environments. Mosses and ferns can be used as fuels and serve culinary, medical, and decorative purposes. Art Connections Review Questions Microphylls are characteristic of which types of plants? - mosses - liverworts - club mosses - ferns Hint: C A plant in the understory of a forest displays a segmented stem and slender leaves arranged in a whorl. It is probably a ________. - club moss - whisk fern - fern - horsetail Hint: D The following structures are found on the underside of fern leaves and contain sporangia: - sori - rhizomes - megaphylls - microphylls Hint: A The dominant organism in fern is the ________. - sperm - spore - gamete - sporophyte Hint: D What seedless plant is a renewable source of energy? - club moss - horsetail - sphagnum moss - fern Hint: C How do mosses contribute to returning nitrogen to the soil? - Mosses fix nitrogen from the air. - Mosses harbor cyanobacteria that fix nitrogen. - Mosses die and return nitrogen to the soil. - Mosses decompose rocks and release nitrogen. Hint: D Free Response How did the development of a vascular system contribute to the increase in size of plants? Hint: Plants became able to transport water and nutrients and not be limited by rates of diffusion. Vascularization allowed the development of leaves, which increased efficiency of photosynthesis and provided more energy for plant growth. Which plant is considered the most advanced seedless vascular plant and why? Hint: Ferns are considered the most advanced seedless vascular plants, because they display characteristics commonly observed in seed plants—they form large leaves and branching roots.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.941183	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15065/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15066/overview	Introduction The lush palms on tropical shorelines do not depend on water for the dispersal of their pollen, fertilization, or the survival of the zygote—unlike mosses, liverworts, and ferns of the terrain. Seed plants, such as palms, have broken free from the need to rely on water for their reproductive needs. They play an integral role in all aspects of life on the planet, shaping the physical terrain, influencing the climate, and maintaining life as we know it. For millennia, human societies have depended on seed plants for nutrition and medicinal compounds: and more recently, for industrial by-products, such as timber and paper, dyes, and textiles. Palms provide materials including rattans, oils, and dates. Wheat is grown to feed both human and animal populations. The fruit of the cotton boll flower is harvested as a boll, with its fibers transformed into clothing or pulp for paper. The showy opium poppy is valued both as an ornamental flower and as a source of potent opiate compounds.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.958463	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15066/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15067/overview	Evolution of Seed Plants Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain when seed plants first appeared and when gymnosperms became the dominant plant group - Describe the two major innovations that allowed seed plants to reproduce in the absence of water - Discuss the purpose of pollen grains and seeds - Describe the significance of angiosperms bearing both flowers and fruit The first plants to colonize land were most likely closely related to modern day mosses (bryophytes) and are thought to have appeared about 500 million years ago. They were followed by liverworts (also bryophytes) and primitive vascular plants—the pterophytes—from which modern ferns are derived. The lifecycle of bryophytes and pterophytes is characterized by the alternation of generations, like gymnosperms and angiosperms; what sets bryophytes and pterophytes apart from gymnosperms and angiosperms is their reproductive requirement for water. The completion of the bryophyte and pterophyte life cycle requires water because the male gametophyte releases sperm, which must swim—propelled by their flagella—to reach and fertilize the female gamete or egg. After fertilization, the zygote matures and grows into a sporophyte, which in turn will form sporangia or "spore vessels." In the sporangia, mother cells undergo meiosis and produce the haploid spores. Release of spores in a suitable environment will lead to germination and a new generation of gametophytes. In seed plants, the evolutionary trend led to a dominant sporophyte generation, and at the same time, a systematic reduction in the size of the gametophyte: from a conspicuous structure to a microscopic cluster of cells enclosed in the tissues of the sporophyte. Whereas lower vascular plants, such as club mosses and ferns, are mostly homosporous (produce only one type of spore), all seed plants, or spermatophytes, are heterosporous. They form two types of spores: megaspores (female) and microspores (male). Megaspores develop into female gametophytes that produce eggs, and microspores mature into male gametophytes that generate sperm. Because the gametophytes mature within the spores, they are not free-living, as are the gametophytes of other seedless vascular plants. Heterosporous seedless plants are seen as the evolutionary forerunners of seed plants. Seeds and pollen—two critical adaptations to drought, and to reproduction that doesn’t require water—distinguish seed plants from other (seedless) vascular plants. Both adaptations were required for the colonization of land begun by the bryophytes and their ancestors. Fossils place the earliest distinct seed plants at about 350 million years ago. The first reliable record of gymnosperms dates their appearance to the Pennsylvanian period, about 319 million years ago (Figure). Gymnosperms were preceded by progymnosperms, the first naked seed plants, which arose about 380 million years ago. Progymnosperms were a transitional group of plants that superficially resembled conifers (cone bearers) because they produced wood from the secondary growth of the vascular tissues; however, they still reproduced like ferns, releasing spores into the environment. Gymnosperms dominated the landscape in the early (Triassic) and middle (Jurassic) Mesozoic era. Angiosperms surpassed gymnosperms by the middle of the Cretaceous (about 100 million years ago) in the late Mesozoic era, and today are the most abundant plant group in most terrestrial biomes. Pollen and seed were innovative structures that allowed seed plants to break their dependence on water for reproduction and development of the embryo, and to conquer dry land. The pollen grains are the male gametophytes, which contain the sperm (gametes) of the plant. The small haploid (1n) cells are encased in a protective coat that prevents desiccation (drying out) and mechanical damage. Pollen grains can travel far from their original sporophyte, spreading the plant’s genes. The seed offers the embryo protection, nourishment, and a mechanism to maintain dormancy for tens or even thousands of years, ensuring germination can occur when growth conditions are optimal. Seeds therefore allow plants to disperse the next generation through both space and time. With such evolutionary advantages, seed plants have become the most successful and familiar group of plants, in part because of their size and striking appearance. Evolution of Gymnosperms The fossil plant Elkinsia polymorpha, a "seed fern" from the Devonian period—about 400 million years ago—is considered the earliest seed plant known to date. Seed ferns (Figure) produced their seeds along their branches without specialized structures. What makes them the first true seed plants is that they developed structures called cupules to enclose and protect the ovule—the female gametophyte and associated tissues—which develops into a seed upon fertilization. Seed plants resembling modern tree ferns became more numerous and diverse in the coal swamps of the Carboniferous period. Fossil records indicate the first gymnosperms (progymnosperms) most likely originated in the Paleozoic era, during the middle Devonian period: about 390 million years ago. Following the wet Mississippian and Pennsylvanian periods, which were dominated by giant fern trees, the Permian period was dry. This gave a reproductive edge to seed plants, which are better adapted to survive dry spells. The Ginkgoales, a group of gymnosperms with only one surviving species—the Gingko biloba—were the first gymnosperms to appear during the lower Jurassic. Gymnosperms expanded in the Mesozoic era (about 240 million years ago), supplanting ferns in the landscape, and reaching their greatest diversity during this time. The Jurassic period was as much the age of the cycads (palm-tree-like gymnosperms) as the age of the dinosaurs. Gingkoales and the more familiar conifers also dotted the landscape. Although angiosperms (flowering plants) are the major form of plant life in most biomes, gymnosperms still dominate some ecosystems, such as the taiga (boreal forests) and the alpine forests at higher mountain elevations (Figure) because of their adaptation to cold and dry growth conditions. Seeds and Pollen as an Evolutionary Adaptation to Dry Land Unlike bryophyte and fern spores (which are haploid cells dependent on moisture for rapid development of gametophytes), seeds contain a diploid embryo that will germinate into a sporophyte. Storage tissue to sustain growth and a protective coat give seeds their superior evolutionary advantage. Several layers of hardened tissue prevent desiccation, and free reproduction from the need for a constant supply of water. Furthermore, seeds remain in a state of dormancy—induced by desiccation and the hormone abscisic acid—until conditions for growth become favorable. Whether blown by the wind, floating on water, or carried away by animals, seeds are scattered in an expanding geographic range, thus avoiding competition with the parent plant. Pollen grains (Figure) are male gametophytes and are carried by wind, water, or a pollinator. The whole structure is protected from desiccation and can reach the female organs without dependence on water. Male gametes reach female gametophyte and the egg cell gamete though a pollen tube: an extension of a cell within the pollen grain. The sperm of modern gymnosperms lack flagella, but in cycads and the Gingko, the sperm still possess flagella that allow them to swim down the pollen tube to the female gamete; however, they are enclosed in a pollen grain. Evolution of Angiosperms Undisputed fossil records place the massive appearance and diversification of angiosperms in the middle to late Mesozoic era. Angiosperms (“seed in a vessel”) produce a flower containing male and/or female reproductive structures. Fossil evidence (Figure) indicates that flowering plants first appeared in the Lower Cretaceous, about 125 million years ago, and were rapidly diversifying by the Middle Cretaceous, about 100 million years ago. Earlier traces of angiosperms are scarce. Fossilized pollen recovered from Jurassic geological material has been attributed to angiosperms. A few early Cretaceous rocks show clear imprints of leaves resembling angiosperm leaves. By the mid-Cretaceous, a staggering number of diverse flowering plants crowd the fossil record. The same geological period is also marked by the appearance of many modern groups of insects, including pollinating insects that played a key role in ecology and the evolution of flowering plants. Although several hypotheses have been offered to explain this sudden profusion and variety of flowering plants, none have garnered the consensus of paleobotanists (scientists who study ancient plants). New data in comparative genomics and paleobotany have, however, shed some light on the evolution of angiosperms. Rather than being derived from gymnosperms, angiosperms form a sister clade (a species and its descendents) that developed in parallel with the gymnosperms. The two innovative structures of flowers and fruit represent an improved reproductive strategy that served to protect the embryo, while increasing genetic variability and range. Paleobotanists debate whether angiosperms evolved from small woody bushes, or were basal angiosperms related to tropical grasses. Both views draw support from cladistics studies, and the so-called woody magnoliid hypothesis—which proposes that the early ancestors of angiosperms were shrubs—also offers molecular biological evidence. The most primitive living angiosperm is considered to be Amborella trichopoda, a small plant native to the rainforest of New Caledonia, an island in the South Pacific. Analysis of the genome of A. trichopoda has shown that it is related to all existing flowering plants and belongs to the oldest confirmed branch of the angiosperm family tree. A few other angiosperm groups called basal angiosperms, are viewed as primitive because they branched off early from the phylogenetic tree. Most modern angiosperms are classified as either monocots or eudicots, based on the structure of their leaves and embryos. Basal angiosperms, such as water lilies, are considered more primitive because they share morphological traits with both monocots and eudicots. Flowers and Fruits as an Evolutionary Adaptation Angiosperms produce their gametes in separate organs, which are usually housed in a flower. Both fertilization and embryo development take place inside an anatomical structure that provides a stable system of sexual reproduction largely sheltered from environmental fluctuations. Flowering plants are the most diverse phylum on Earth after insects; flowers come in a bewildering array of sizes, shapes, colors, smells, and arrangements. Most flowers have a mutualistic pollinator, with the distinctive features of flowers reflecting the nature of the pollination agent. The relationship between pollinator and flower characteristics is one of the great examples of coevolution. Following fertilization of the egg, the ovule grows into a seed. The surrounding tissues of the ovary thicken, developing into a fruit that will protect the seed and often ensure its dispersal over a wide geographic range. Not all fruits develop from an ovary; such structures are “false fruits.” Like flowers, fruit can vary tremendously in appearance, size, smell, and taste. Tomatoes, walnut shells and avocados are all examples of fruit. As with pollen and seeds, fruits also act as agents of dispersal. Some may be carried away by the wind. Many attract animals that will eat the fruit and pass the seeds through their digestive systems, then deposit the seeds in another location. Cockleburs are covered with stiff, hooked spines that can hook into fur (or clothing) and hitch a ride on an animal for long distances. The cockleburs that clung to the velvet trousers of an enterprising Swiss hiker, George de Mestral, inspired his invention of the loop and hook fastener he named Velcro. Evolution Connection Building Phylogenetic Trees with Analysis of DNA Sequence AlignmentsAll living organisms display patterns of relationships derived from their evolutionary history. Phylogeny is the science that describes the relative connections between organisms, in terms of ancestral and descendant species. Phylogenetic trees, such as the plant evolutionary history shown in Figure, are tree-like branching diagrams that depict these relationships. Species are found at the tips of the branches. Each branching point, called a node, is the point at which a single taxonomic group (taxon), such as a species, separates into two or more species. Phylogenetic trees have been built to describe the relationships between species since Darwin’s time. Traditional methods involve comparison of homologous anatomical structures and embryonic development, assuming that closely related organisms share anatomical features during embryo development. Some traits that disappear in the adult are present in the embryo; for example, a human fetus, at one point, has a tail. The study of fossil records shows the intermediate stages that link an ancestral form to its descendants. Most of these approaches are imprecise and lend themselves to multiple interpretations. As the tools of molecular biology and computational analysis have been developed and perfected in recent years, a new generation of tree-building methods has taken shape. The key assumption is that genes for essential proteins or RNA structures, such as the ribosomal RNA, are inherently conserved because mutations (changes in the DNA sequence) could compromise the survival of the organism. DNA from minute amounts of living organisms or fossils can be amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced, targeting the regions of the genome that are most likely to be conserved between species. The genes encoding the ribosomal RNA from the small 18S subunit and plastid genes are frequently chosen for DNA alignment analysis. Once the sequences of interest are obtained, they are compared with existing sequences in databases such as GenBank, which is maintained by The National Center for Biotechnology Information. A number of computational tools are available to align and analyze sequences. Sophisticated computer analysis programs determine the percentage of sequence identity or homology. Sequence homology can be used to estimate the evolutionary distance between two DNA sequences and reflect the time elapsed since the genes separated from a common ancestor. Molecular analysis has revolutionized phylogenetic trees. In some cases, prior results from morphological studies have been confirmed: for example, confirming Amborella trichopoda as the most primitive angiosperm known. However, some groups and relationships have been rearranged as a result of DNA analysis. Section Summary Seed plants appeared about one million years ago, during the Carboniferous period. Two major innovations—seed and pollen—allowed seed plants to reproduce in the absence of water. The gametophytes of seed plants shrank, while the sporophytes became prominent structures and the diploid stage became the longest phase of the lifecycle. Gymnosperms became the dominant group during the Triassic. In these, pollen grains and seeds protect against desiccation. The seed, unlike a spore, is a diploid embryo surrounded by storage tissue and protective layers. It is equipped to delay germination until growth conditions are optimal. Angiosperms bear both flowers and fruit. The structures protect the gametes and the embryo during its development. Angiosperms appeared during the Mesozoic era and have become the dominant plant life in terrestrial habitats. Review Questions Seed plants are ________. - all homosporous. - mostly homosporous with some heterosporous. - mostly heterosporous with some homosporous. - all heterosporous. Hint: D Besides the seed, what other major structure diminishes a plant’s reliance on water for reproduction? - flower - fruit - pollen - spore Hint: A In which of the following geological periods would gymnosperms dominate the landscape? - Carboniferous - Permian - Triassic - Eocene (present) Hint: C Which of the following structures widens the geographic range of a species and is an agent of dispersal? - seed - flower - leaf - root Hint: A Free Response The Triassic Period was marked by the increase in number and variety of angiosperms. Insects also diversified enormously during the same period. Can you propose the reason or reasons that could foster coevolution? Hint: Both pollination and herbivory contributed to diversity, with plants needing to attract some insects and repel others. What role did the adaptations of seed and pollen play in the development and expansion of seed plants? Hint: Seeds and pollen allowed plants to reproduce in absence of water. This allowed them to expand their range onto dry land and to survive drought conditions.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:13.988008	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15067/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15068/overview	Gymnosperms Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the type of seeds produced by gymnosperms, as well as other characteristics of gymnosperms - State which period saw the first appearance of gymnosperms and explain when they were the dominant plant life - List the four groups of modern-day gymnosperms and provide examples of each Gymnosperms, meaning “naked seeds,” are a diverse group of seed plants and are paraphyletic. Paraphyletic groups are those in which not all members are descendants of a single common ancestor. Their characteristics include naked seeds, separate female and male gametes, pollination by wind, and tracheids (which transport water and solutes in the vascular system). Gymnosperm seeds are not enclosed in an ovary; rather, they are exposed on cones or modified leaves. Sporophylls are specialized leaves that produce sporangia. The term strobilus (plural = strobili) describes a tight arrangement of sporophylls around a central stalk, as seen in cones. Some seeds are enveloped by sporophyte tissues upon maturation. The layer of sporophyte tissue that surrounds the megasporangium, and later, the embryo, is called the integument. Gymnosperms were the dominant phylum in Mesozoic era. They are adapted to live where fresh water is scarce during part of the year, or in the nitrogen-poor soil of a bog. Therefore, they are still the prominent phylum in the coniferous biome or taiga, where the evergreen conifers have a selective advantage in cold and dry weather. Evergreen conifers continue low levels of photosynthesis during the cold months, and are ready to take advantage of the first sunny days of spring. One disadvantage is that conifers are more susceptible than deciduous trees to infestations because conifers do not lose their leaves all at once. They cannot, therefore, shed parasites and restart with a fresh supply of leaves in spring. The life cycle of a gymnosperm involves alternation of generations, with a dominant sporophyte in which the female gametophyte resides, and reduced gametophytes. All gymnosperms are heterosporous. The male and female reproductive organs can form in cones or strobili. Male and female sporangia are produced either on the same plant, described as monoecious (“one home” or bisexual), or on separate plants, referred to as dioecious (“two homes” or unisexual) plants. The life cycle of a conifer will serve as our example of reproduction in gymnosperms. Life Cycle of a Conifer Pine trees are conifers (cone bearing) and carry both male and female sporophylls on the same mature sporophyte. Therefore, they are monoecious plants. Like all gymnosperms, pines are heterosporous and generate two different types of spores: male microspores and female megaspores. In the male cones, or staminate cones, the microsporocytes give rise to pollen grains by meiosis. In the spring, large amounts of yellow pollen are released and carried by the wind. Some gametophytes will land on a female cone. Pollination is defined as the initiation of pollen tube growth. The pollen tube develops slowly, and the generative cell in the pollen grain divides into two haploid sperm cells by mitosis. At fertilization, one of the sperm cells will finally unite its haploid nucleus with the haploid nucleus of a haploid egg cell. Female cones, or ovulate cones, contain two ovules per scale. One megaspore mother cell, or megasporocyte, undergoes meiosis in each ovule. Three of the four cells break down; only a single surviving cell will develop into a female multicellular gametophyte, which encloses archegonia (an archegonium is a reproductive organ that contains a single large egg). Upon fertilization, the diploid egg will give rise to the embryo, which is enclosed in a seed coat of tissue from the parent plant. Fertilization and seed development is a long process in pine trees: it may take up to two years after pollination. The seed that is formed contains three generations of tissues: the seed coat that originates from the sporophyte tissue, the gametophyte that will provide nutrients, and the embryo itself. Figure illustrates the life cycle of a conifer. The sporophyte (2n) phase is the longest phase in the life of a gymnosperm. The gametophytes (1n)—microspores and megaspores—are reduced in size. It may take more than year between pollination and fertilization while the pollen tube grows towards the megasporocyte (2n), which undergoes meiosis into megaspores. The megaspores will mature into eggs (1n). Art Connection At what stage does the diploid zygote form? - when the female cone begins to bud from the tree - at fertilization - when the seeds drop from the tree - when the pollen tube begins to grow Link to Learning Watch this video to see the process of seed production in gymnosperms. Diversity of Gymnosperms Modern gymnosperms are classified into four phyla. Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta, and Ginkgophyta are similar in their production of secondary cambium (cells that generate the vascular system of the trunk or stem and are partially specialized for water transportation) and their pattern of seed development. However, the three phyla are not closely related phylogenetically to each other. Gnetophyta are considered the closest group to angiosperms because they produce true xylem tissue. Conifers (Coniferophyta) Conifers are the dominant phylum of gymnosperms, with the most variety of species (Figure). Most are typically tall trees that usually bear scale-like or needle-like leaves. Water evaporation from leaves is reduced by their thin shape and the thick cuticle. Snow slides easily off needle-shaped leaves, keeping the load light and decreasing breaking of branches. Adaptations to cold and dry weather explain the predominance of conifers at high altitudes and in cold climates. Conifers include familiar evergreen trees such as pines, spruces, firs, cedars, sequoias, and yews. A few species are deciduous and lose their leaves in fall. The European larch and the tamarack are examples of deciduous conifers (Figurec). Many coniferous trees are harvested for paper pulp and timber. The wood of conifers is more primitive than the wood of angiosperms; it contains tracheids, but no vessel elements, and is therefore referred to as “soft wood.” Cycads Cycads thrive in mild climates, and are often mistaken for palms because of the shape of their large, compound leaves. Cycads bear large cones (Figure), and may be pollinated by beetles rather than wind: unusual for a gymnosperm. They dominated the landscape during the age of dinosaurs in the Mesozoic, but only a hundred or so species persisted to modern times. They face possible extinction, and several species are protected through international conventions. Because of their attractive shape, they are often used as ornamental plants in gardens in the tropics and subtropics. Gingkophytes The single surviving species of the gingkophytes group is the Gingko biloba (Figure). Its fan-shaped leaves—unique among seed plants because they feature a dichotomous venation pattern—turn yellow in autumn and fall from the tree. For centuries, G. biloba was cultivated by Chinese Buddhist monks in monasteries, which ensured its preservation. It is planted in public spaces because it is unusually resistant to pollution. Male and female organs are produced on separate plants. Typically, gardeners plant only male trees because the seeds produced by the female plant have an off-putting smell of rancid butter. Gnetophytes Gnetophytes are the closest relative to modern angiosperms, and include three dissimilar genera of plants: Ephedra, Gnetum, and Welwitschia (Figure). Like angiosperms, they have broad leaves. In tropical and subtropical zones, gnetophytes are vines or small shrubs. Ephedra occurs in dry areas of the West Coast of the United States and Mexico. Ephedra’s small, scale-like leaves are the source of the compound ephedrine, which is used in medicine as a potent decongestant. Because ephedrine is similar to amphetamines, both in chemical structure and neurological effects, its use is restricted to prescription drugs. Like angiosperms, but unlike other gymnosperms, all gnetophytes possess vessel elements in their xylem. Link to Learning Watch this BBC video describing the amazing strangeness of Welwitschia. Section Summary Gymnosperms are heterosporous seed plants that produce naked seeds. They appeared in the Paleozoic period and were the dominant plant life during the Mesozoic. Modern-day gymnosperms belong to four phyla. The largest phylum, Coniferophyta, is represented by conifers, the predominant plants at high altitude and latitude. Cycads (phylum Cycadophyta) resemble palm trees and grow in tropical climates. Gingko biloba is the only representative of the phylum Gingkophyta. The last phylum, Gnetophyta, is a diverse group of shrubs that produce vessel elements in their wood. Art Connections Figure At what stage does the diploid zygote form? - When the female cone begins to bud from the tree - At fertilization - When the seeds drop from the tree - When the pollen tube begins to grow Hint: Figure B. The diploid zygote forms after the pollen tube has finished forming, so that the male generative nuclei can fuse with the female gametophyte. Review Questions Which of the following traits characterizes gymnosperms? - The plants carry exposed seeds on modified leaves. - Reproductive structures are located in a flower. - After fertilization, the ovary thickens and forms a fruit. - The gametophyte is longest phase of the life cycle. Hint: A Megasporocytes will eventually produce which of the following? - pollen grain - sporophytes - male gametophytes - female gametophytes Hint: D What is the ploidy of the following structures: gametophyte, seed, spore, sporophyte? - 1n, 1n, 2n, 2n - 1n, 2n, 1n, 2n - 2n, 1n, 2n, 1n - 2n, 2n, 1n, 1n Hint: B In the northern forests of Siberia, a tall tree is most likely a: - conifer - cycad - Gingko biloba - gnetophyte Hint: A Free Response The Mediterranean landscape along the sea shore is dotted with pines and cypresses. The weather is not cold, and the trees grow at sea level. What evolutionary adaptation of conifers makes them suitable to the Mediterranean climate? Hint: The trees are adapted to arid weather, and do not lose as much water due to transpiration as non-conifers. What are the four modern-day phyla of gymnosperms? Hint: The four modern-day phyla of gymnosperms are Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta, Gingkophyta, and Gnetophyta.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.019235	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15068/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15069/overview	Angiosperms Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain why angiosperms are the dominant form of plant life in most terrestrial ecosystems - Describe the main parts of a flower and their purpose - Detail the life cycle of an angiosperm - Discuss the two main groups of flowering plants From their humble and still obscure beginning during the early Jurassic period, the angiosperms—or flowering plants—have evolved to dominate most terrestrial ecosystems (Figure). With more than 250,000 species, the angiosperm phylum (Anthophyta) is second only to insects in terms of diversification. The success of angiosperms is due to two novel reproductive structures: flowers and fruit. The function of the flower is to ensure pollination. Flowers also provide protection for the ovule and developing embryo inside a receptacle. The function of the fruit is seed dispersal. They also protect the developing seed. Different fruit structures or tissues on fruit—such as sweet flesh, wings, parachutes, or spines that grab—reflect the dispersal strategies that help spread seeds. Flowers Flowers are modified leaves, or sporophylls, organized around a central stalk. Although they vary greatly in appearance, all flowers contain the same structures: sepals, petals, carpels, and stamens. The peduncle attaches the flower to the plant. A whorl of sepals (collectively called the calyx) is located at the base of the peduncle and encloses the unopened floral bud. Sepals are usually photosynthetic organs, although there are some exceptions. For example, the corolla in lilies and tulips consists of three sepals and three petals that look virtually identical. Petals, collectively the corolla, are located inside the whorl of sepals and often display vivid colors to attract pollinators. Flowers pollinated by wind are usually small, feathery, and visually inconspicuous. Sepals and petals together form the perianth. The sexual organs (carpels and stamens) are located at the center of the flower. As illustrated in Figure, styles, stigmas, and ovules constitute the female organ: the gynoecium or carpel. Flower structure is very diverse, and carpels may be singular, multiple, or fused. Multiple fused carpels comprise a pistil. The megaspores and the female gametophytes are produced and protected by the thick tissues of the carpel. A long, thin structure called a style leads from the sticky stigma, where pollen is deposited, to the ovary, enclosed in the carpel. The ovary houses one or more ovules, each of which will develop into a seed upon fertilization. The male reproductive organs, the stamens (collectively called the androecium), surround the central carpel. Stamens are composed of a thin stalk called a filament and a sac-like structure called the anther. The filament supports the anther, where the microspores are produced by meiosis and develop into pollen grains. Fruit As the seed develops, the walls of the ovary thicken and form the fruit. The seed forms in an ovary, which also enlarges as the seeds grow. In botany, a fertilized and fully grown, ripened ovary is a fruit. Many foods commonly called vegetables are actually fruit. Eggplants, zucchini, string beans, and bell peppers are all technically fruit because they contain seeds and are derived from the thick ovary tissue. Acorns are nuts, and winged maple whirligigs (whose botanical name is samara) are also fruit. Botanists classify fruit into more than two dozen different categories, only a few of which are actually fleshy and sweet. Mature fruit can be fleshy or dry. Fleshy fruit include the familiar berries, peaches, apples, grapes, and tomatoes. Rice, wheat, and nuts are examples of dry fruit. Another distinction is that not all fruits are derived from the ovary. For instance, strawberries are derived from the receptacle and apples from the pericarp, or hypanthium. Some fruits are derived from separate ovaries in a single flower, such as the raspberry. Other fruits, such as the pineapple, form from clusters of flowers. Additionally, some fruits, like watermelon and orange, have rinds. Regardless of how they are formed, fruits are an agent of seed dispersal. The variety of shapes and characteristics reflect the mode of dispersal. Wind carries the light dry fruit of trees and dandelions. Water transports floating coconuts. Some fruits attract herbivores with color or perfume, or as food. Once eaten, tough, undigested seeds are dispersed through the herbivore’s feces. Other fruits have burs and hooks to cling to fur and hitch rides on animals. The Life Cycle of an Angiosperm The adult, or sporophyte, phase is the main phase of an angiosperm’s life cycle (Figure). Like gymnosperms, angiosperms are heterosporous. Therefore, they generate microspores, which will generate pollen grains as the male gametophytes, and megaspores, which will form an ovule that contains female gametophytes. Inside the anthers’ microsporangia, male gametophytes divide by meiosis to generate haploid microspores, which, in turn, undergo mitosis and give rise to pollen grains. Each pollen grain contains two cells: one generative cell that will divide into two sperm and a second cell that will become the pollen tube cell. Art Connection If a flower lacked a megasporangium, what type of gamete would not form? If the flower lacked a microsporangium, what type of gamete would not form? The ovule, sheltered within the ovary of the carpel, contains the megasporangium protected by two layers of integuments and the ovary wall. Within each megasporangium, a megasporocyte undergoes meiosis, generating four megaspores—three small and one large. Only the large megaspore survives; it produces the female gametophyte, referred to as the embryo sac. The megaspore divides three times to form an eight-cell stage. Four of these cells migrate to each pole of the embryo sac; two come to the equator, and will eventually fuse to form a 2n polar nucleus; the three cells away from the egg form antipodals, and the two cells closest to the egg become the synergids. The mature embryo sac contains one egg cell, two synergids or “helper” cells, three antipodal cells, and two polar nuclei in a central cell. When a pollen grain reaches the stigma, a pollen tube extends from the grain, grows down the style, and enters through the micropyle: an opening in the integuments of the ovule. The two sperm cells are deposited in the embryo sac. A double fertilization event then occurs. One sperm and the egg combine, forming a diploid zygote—the future embryo. The other sperm fuses with the 2n polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell that will develop into the endosperm, which is tissue that serves as a food reserve. The zygote develops into an embryo with a radicle, or small root, and one (monocot) or two (dicot) leaf-like organs called cotyledons. This difference in the number of embryonic leaves is the basis for the two major groups of angiosperms: the monocots and the eudicots. Seed food reserves are stored outside the embryo, in the form of complex carbohydrates, lipids or proteins. The cotyledons serve as conduits to transmit the broken-down food reserves from their storage site inside the seed to the developing embryo. The seed consists of a toughened layer of integuments forming the coat, the endosperm with food reserves, and at the center, the well-protected embryo. Most flowers are monoecious or bisexual, which means that they carry both stamens and carpels; only a few species self-pollinate. Monoecious flowers are also known as “perfect” flowers because they contain both types of sex organs (Figure). Both anatomical and environmental barriers promote cross-pollination mediated by a physical agent (wind or water), or an animal, such as an insect or bird. Cross-pollination increases genetic diversity in a species. Diversity of Angiosperms Angiosperms are classified in a single phylum: the Anthophyta. Modern angiosperms appear to be a monophyletic group, which means that they originate from a single ancestor. Flowering plants are divided into two major groups, according to the structure of the cotyledons, pollen grains, and other structures. Monocots include grasses and lilies, and eudicots or dicots form a polyphyletic group. Basal angiosperms are a group of plants that are believed to have branched off before the separation into monocots and eudicots because they exhibit traits from both groups. They are categorized separately in many classification schemes. The Magnoliidae (magnolia trees, laurels, and water lilies) and the Piperaceae (peppers) belong to the basal angiosperm group. Basal Angiosperms The Magnoliidae are represented by the magnolias: tall trees bearing large, fragrant flowers that have many parts and are considered archaic (Figured). Laurel trees produce fragrant leaves and small, inconspicuous flowers. The Laurales grow mostly in warmer climates and are small trees and shrubs. Familiar plants in this group include the bay laurel, cinnamon, spice bush (Figurea), and avocado tree. The Nymphaeales are comprised of the water lilies, lotus (Figurec), and similar plants; all species thrive in freshwater biomes, and have leaves that float on the water surface or grow underwater. Water lilies are particularly prized by gardeners, and have graced ponds and pools for thousands of years. The Piperales are a group of herbs, shrubs, and small trees that grow in the tropical climates. They have small flowers without petals that are tightly arranged in long spikes. Many species are the source of prized fragrance or spices, for example the berries of Piper nigrum (Figureb) are the familiar black peppercorns that are used to flavor many dishes. Monocots Plants in the monocot group are primarily identified as such by the presence of a single cotyledon in the seedling. Other anatomical features shared by monocots include veins that run parallel to the length of the leaves, and flower parts that are arranged in a three- or six-fold symmetry. True woody tissue is rarely found in monocots. In palm trees, vascular and parenchyma tissues produced by the primary and secondary thickening meristems form the trunk. The pollen from the first angiosperms was monosulcate, containing a single furrow or pore through the outer layer. This feature is still seen in the modern monocots. Vascular tissue of the stem is not arranged in any particular pattern. The root system is mostly adventitious and unusually positioned, with no major tap root. The monocots include familiar plants such as the true lilies (which are at the origin of their alternate name of Liliopsida), orchids, grasses, and palms. Many important crops are monocots, such as rice and other cereals, corn, sugar cane, and tropical fruits like bananas and pineapples (Figure). Eudicots Eudicots, or true dicots, are characterized by the presence of two cotyledons in the developing shoot. Veins form a network in leaves, and flower parts come in four, five, or many whorls. Vascular tissue forms a ring in the stem; in monocots, vascular tissue is scattered in the stem. Eudicots can be herbaceous (like grasses), or produce woody tissues. Most eudicots produce pollen that is trisulcate or triporate, with three furrows or pores. The root system is usually anchored by one main root developed from the embryonic radicle. Eudicots comprise two-thirds of all flowering plants. The major differences between monocots and eudicots are summarized in Table. Many species exhibit characteristics that belong to either group; as such, the classification of a plant as a monocot or a eudicot is not always clearly evident. \| Comparison of Structural Characteristics of Monocots and Eudicots \| \|\| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Characteristic \| Monocot \| Eudicot \| \| Cotyledon \| One \| Two \| \| Veins in Leaves \| Parallel \| Network (branched) \| \| Stem Vascular Tissue \| Scattered \| Arranged in ring pattern \| \| Roots \| Network of adventitious roots \| Tap root with many lateral roots \| \| Pollen \| Monosulcate \| Trisulcate \| \| Flower Parts \| Three or multiple of three \| Four, five, multiple of four or five and whorls \| Section Summary Angiosperms are the dominant form of plant life in most terrestrial ecosystems, comprising about 90 percent of all plant species. Most crops and ornamental plants are angiosperms. Their success comes from two innovative structures that protect reproduction from variability in the environment: the flower and the fruit. Flowers were derived from modified leaves. The main parts of a flower are the sepals and petals, which protect the reproductive parts: the stamens and the carpels. The stamens produce the male gametes in pollen grains. The carpels contain the female gametes (the eggs inside the ovules), which are within the ovary of a carpel. The walls of the ovary thicken after fertilization, ripening into fruit that ensures dispersal by wind, water, or animals. The angiosperm life cycle is dominated by the sporophyte stage. Double fertilization is an event unique to angiosperms. One sperm in the pollen fertilizes the egg, forming a diploid zygote, while the other combines with the two polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell that develops into a food storage tissue called the endosperm. Flowering plants are divided into two main groups, the monocots and eudicots, according to the number of cotyledons in the seedlings. Basal angiosperms belong to an older lineage than monocots and eudicots. Art Connections Review Questions Which of the following structures in a flower is not directly involved in reproduction? - the style - the stamen - the sepal - the anther Hint: C Pollen grains develop in which structure? - the anther - the stigma - the filament - the carpel Hint: A In the course of double fertilization, one sperm cell fuses with the egg and the second one fuses with ________. - the synergids - the polar nuclei of the center cell - the egg as well - the antipodal cells Hint: B Corn develops from a seedling with a single cotyledon, displays parallel veins on its leaves, and produces monosulcate pollen. It is most likely: - a gymnosperm - a monocot - a eudicot - a basal angiosperm Hint: B Free Response Some cycads are considered endangered species and their trade is severely restricted. Customs officials stop suspected smugglers who claim that the plants in their possession are palm trees, not cycads. How would a botanist distinguish between the two types of plants? Hint: The resemblance between cycads and palm trees is only superficial. Cycads are gymnosperms and do not bear flowers or fruit. Cycads produce cones: large, female cones that produce naked seeds, and smaller male cones on separate plants. Palms do not. What are the two structures that allow angiosperms to be the dominant form of plant life in most terrestrial ecosystems? Hint: Angiosperms are successful because of flowers and fruit. These structures protect reproduction from variability in the environment.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.053231	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15069/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15070/overview	The Role of Seed Plants Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain how angiosperm diversity is due, in part, to multiple interactions with animals - Describe ways in which pollination occurs - Discuss the roles that plants play in ecosystems and how deforestation threatens plant biodiversity Without seed plants, life as we know it would not be possible. Plants play a key role in the maintenance of terrestrial ecosystems through stabilization of soils, cycling of carbon, and climate moderation. Large tropical forests release oxygen and act as carbon dioxide sinks. Seed plants provide shelter to many life forms, as well as food for herbivores, thereby indirectly feeding carnivores. Plant secondary metabolites are used for medicinal purposes and industrial production. Animals and Plants: Herbivory Coevolution of flowering plants and insects is a hypothesis that has received much attention and support, especially because both angiosperms and insects diversified at about the same time in the middle Mesozoic. Many authors have attributed the diversity of plants and insects to pollination and herbivory, or consumption of plants by insects and other animals. This is believed to have been as much a driving force as pollination. Coevolution of herbivores and plant defenses is observed in nature. Unlike animals, most plants cannot outrun predators or use mimicry to hide from hungry animals. A sort of arms race exists between plants and herbivores. To “combat” herbivores, some plant seeds—such as acorn and unripened persimmon—are high in alkaloids and therefore unsavory to some animals. Other plants are protected by bark, although some animals developed specialized mouth pieces to tear and chew vegetal material. Spines and thorns (Figure) deter most animals, except for mammals with thick fur, and some birds have specialized beaks to get past such defenses. Herbivory has been used by seed plants for their own benefit in a display of mutualistic relationships. The dispersal of fruit by animals is the most striking example. The plant offers to the herbivore a nutritious source of food in return for spreading the plant’s genetic material to a wider area. An extreme example of collaboration between an animal and a plant is the case of acacia trees and ants. The trees support the insects with shelter and food. In return, ants discourage herbivores, both invertebrates and vertebrates, by stinging and attacking leaf-eating insects. Animals and Plants: Pollination Grasses are a successful group of flowering plants that are wind pollinated. They produce large amounts of powdery pollen carried over large distances by the wind. The flowers are small and wisp-like. Large trees such as oaks, maples, and birches are also wind pollinated. Link to Learning Explore this website for additional information on pollinators. More than 80 percent of angiosperms depend on animals for pollination: the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma. Consequently, plants have developed many adaptations to attract pollinators. The specificity of specialized plant structures that target animals can be very surprising. It is possible, for example, to determine the type of pollinator favored by a plant just from the flower’s characteristics. Many bird or insect-pollinated flowers secrete nectar, which is a sugary liquid. They also produce both fertile pollen, for reproduction, and sterile pollen rich in nutrients for birds and insects. Butterflies and bees can detect ultraviolet light. Flowers that attract these pollinators usually display a pattern of low ultraviolet reflectance that helps them quickly locate the flower's center and collect nectar while being dusted with pollen (Figure). Large, red flowers with little smell and a long funnel shape are preferred by hummingbirds, who have good color perception, a poor sense of smell, and need a strong perch. White flowers opened at night attract moths. Other animals—such as bats, lemurs, and lizards—can also act as pollinating agents. Any disruption to these interactions, such as the disappearance of bees as a consequence of colony collapse disorders, can lead to disaster for agricultural industries that depend heavily on pollinated crops. Scientific Method Connection Testing Attraction of Flies by Rotting Flesh SmellQuestion: Will flowers that offer cues to bees attract carrion flies if sprayed with compounds that smell like rotten flesh? Background: Visitation of flowers by pollinating flies is a function mostly of smell. Flies are attracted by rotting flesh and carrions. The putrid odor seems to be the major attractant. The polyamines putrescine and cadaverine, which are the products of protein breakdown after animal death, are the source of the pungent smell of decaying meat. Some plants strategically attract flies by synthesizing polyamines similar to those generated by decaying flesh and thereby attract carrion flies. Flies seek out dead animals because they normally lay their eggs on them and their maggots feed on the decaying flesh. Interestingly, time of death can be determined by a forensic entomologist based on the stages and type of maggots recovered from cadavers. Hypothesis: Because flies are drawn to other organisms based on smell and not sight, a flower that is normally attractive to bees because of its colors will attract flies if it is sprayed with polyamines similar to those generated by decaying flesh. Test the hypothesis: - Select flowers usually pollinated by bees. White petunia may be good choice. - Divide the flowers into two groups, and while wearing eye protection and gloves, spray one group with a solution of either putrescine or cadaverine. (Putrescine dihydrochloride is typically available in 98 percent concentration; this can be diluted to approximately 50 percent for this experiment.) - Place the flowers in a location where flies are present, keeping the sprayed and unsprayed flowers separated. - Observe the movement of the flies for one hour. Record the number of visits to the flowers using a table similar to Table. Given the rapid movement of flies, it may be beneficial to use a video camera to record the fly–flower interaction. Replay the video in slow motion to obtain an accurate record of the number of fly visits to the flowers. - Repeat the experiment four more times with the same species of flower, but using different specimens. - Repeat the entire experiment with a different type of flower that is normally pollinated by bees. \| Results of Number of Visits by Flies to Sprayed and Control/Unsprayed Flowers \| \|\| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Trial # \| Sprayed Flowers \| Unsprayed Flowers \| \| 1 \| \|\| \| 2 \| \|\| \| 3 \| \|\| \| 4 \| \|\| \| 5 \| Analyze your data: Review the data you have recorded. Average the number of visits that flies made to sprayed flowers over the course of the five trials (on the first flower type) and compare and contrast them to the average number of visits that flies made to the unsprayed/control flowers. Can you draw any conclusions regarding the attraction of the flies to the sprayed flowers? For the second flower type used, average the number of visits that flies made to sprayed flowers over the course of the five trials and compare and contrast them to the average number of visits that flies made to the unsprayed/control flowers. Can you draw any conclusions regarding the attraction of the flies to the sprayed flowers? Compare and contrast the average number of visits that flies made to the two flower types. Can you draw any conclusions about whether the appearance of the flower had any impact on the attraction of flies? Did smell override any appearance differences, or were the flies attracted to one flower type more than another? Form a conclusion: Do the results support the hypothesis? If not, how can this be explained? The Importance of Seed Plants in Human Life Seed plants are the foundation of human diets across the world (Figure). Many societies eat almost exclusively vegetarian fare and depend solely on seed plants for their nutritional needs. A few crops (rice, wheat, and potatoes) dominate the agricultural landscape. Many crops were developed during the agricultural revolution, when human societies made the transition from nomadic hunter–gatherers to horticulture and agriculture. Cereals, rich in carbohydrates, provide the staple of many human diets. Beans and nuts supply proteins. Fats are derived from crushed seeds, as is the case for peanut and rapeseed (canola) oils, or fruits such as olives. Animal husbandry also consumes large amounts of crops. Staple crops are not the only food derived from seed plants. Fruits and vegetables provide nutrients, vitamins, and fiber. Sugar, to sweeten dishes, is produced from the monocot sugarcane and the eudicot sugar beet. Drinks are made from infusions of tea leaves, chamomile flowers, crushed coffee beans, or powdered cocoa beans. Spices come from many different plant parts: saffron and cloves are stamens and buds, black pepper and vanilla are seeds, the bark of a bush in the Laurales family supplies cinnamon, and the herbs that flavor many dishes come from dried leaves and fruit, such as the pungent red chili pepper. The volatile oils of flowers and bark provide the scent of perfumes. Additionally, no discussion of seed plant contribution to human diet would be complete without the mention of alcohol. Fermentation of plant-derived sugars and starches is used to produce alcoholic beverages in all societies. In some cases, the beverages are derived from the fermentation of sugars from fruit, as with wines and, in other cases, from the fermentation of carbohydrates derived from seeds, as with beers. Seed plants have many other uses, including providing wood as a source of timber for construction, fuel, and material to build furniture. Most paper is derived from the pulp of coniferous trees. Fibers of seed plants such as cotton, flax, and hemp are woven into cloth. Textile dyes, such as indigo, were mostly of plant origin until the advent of synthetic chemical dyes. Lastly, it is more difficult to quantify the benefits of ornamental seed plants. These grace private and public spaces, adding beauty and serenity to human lives and inspiring painters and poets alike. The medicinal properties of plants have been known to human societies since ancient times. There are references to the use of plants’ curative properties in Egyptian, Babylonian, and Chinese writings from 5,000 years ago. Many modern synthetic therapeutic drugs are derived or synthesized de novo from plant secondary metabolites. It is important to note that the same plant extract can be a therapeutic remedy at low concentrations, become an addictive drug at higher doses, and can potentially kill at high concentrations. Table presents a few drugs, their plants of origin, and their medicinal applications. \| Plant Origin of Medicinal Compounds and Medical Applications \| \|\| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Plant \| Compound \| Application \| \| Deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna ) \| Atropine \| Dilate eye pupils for eye exams \| \| Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) \| Digitalis \| Heart disease, stimulates heart beat \| \| Yam (Dioscorea spp.) \| Steroids \| Steroid hormones: contraceptive pill and cortisone \| \| Ephedra (Ephedra spp.) \| Ephedrine \| Decongestant and bronchiole dilator \| \| Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) \| Taxol \| Cancer chemotherapy; inhibits mitosis \| \| Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) \| Opioids \| Analgesic (reduces pain without loss of consciousness) and narcotic (reduces pain with drowsiness and loss of consciousness) in higher doses \| \| Quinine tree (Cinchona spp.) \| Quinine \| Antipyretic (lowers body temperature) and antimalarial \| \| Willow (Salix spp.) \| Salicylic acid (aspirin) \| Analgesic and antipyretic \| Career Connection EthnobotanistThe relatively new field of ethnobotany studies the interaction between a particular culture and the plants native to the region. Seed plants have a large influence on day-to-day human life. Not only are plants the major source of food and medicine, they also influence many other aspects of society, from clothing to industry. The medicinal properties of plants were recognized early on in human cultures. From the mid-1900s, synthetic chemicals began to supplant plant-based remedies. Pharmacognosy is the branch of pharmacology that focuses on medicines derived from natural sources. With massive globalization and industrialization, there is a concern that much human knowledge of plants and their medicinal purposes will disappear with the cultures that fostered them. This is where ethnobotanists come in. To learn about and understand the use of plants in a particular culture, an ethnobotanist must bring in knowledge of plant life and an understanding and appreciation of diverse cultures and traditions. The Amazon forest is home to an incredible diversity of vegetation and is considered an untapped resource of medicinal plants; yet, both the ecosystem and its indigenous cultures are threatened with extinction. To become an ethnobotanist, a person must acquire a broad knowledge of plant biology, ecology and sociology. Not only are the plant specimens studied and collected, but also the stories, recipes, and traditions that are linked to them. For ethnobotanists, plants are not viewed solely as biological organisms to be studied in a laboratory, but as an integral part of human culture. The convergence of molecular biology, anthropology, and ecology make the field of ethnobotany a truly multidisciplinary science. Biodiversity of Plants Biodiversity ensures a resource for new food crops and medicines. Plant life balances ecosystems, protects watersheds, mitigates erosion, moderates climate and provides shelter for many animal species. Threats to plant diversity, however, come from many angles. The explosion of the human population, especially in tropical countries where birth rates are highest and economic development is in full swing, is leading to human encroachment into forested areas. To feed the larger population, humans need to obtain arable land, so there is massive clearing of trees. The need for more energy to power larger cities and economic growth therein leads to the construction of dams, the consequent flooding of ecosystems, and increased emissions of pollutants. Other threats to tropical forests come from poachers, who log trees for their precious wood. Ebony and Brazilian rosewood, both on the endangered list, are examples of tree species driven almost to extinction by indiscriminate logging. The number of plant species becoming extinct is increasing at an alarming rate. Because ecosystems are in a delicate balance, and seed plants maintain close symbiotic relationships with animals—whether predators or pollinators—the disappearance of a single plant can lead to the extinction of connected animal species. A real and pressing issue is that many plant species have not yet been catalogued, and so their place in the ecosystem is unknown. These unknown species are threatened by logging, habitat destruction, and loss of pollinators. They may become extinct before we have the chance to begin to understand the possible impacts from their disappearance. Efforts to preserve biodiversity take several lines of action, from preserving heirloom seeds to barcoding species. Heirloom seeds come from plants that were traditionally grown in human populations, as opposed to the seeds used for large-scale agricultural production. Barcoding is a technique in which one or more short gene sequences, taken from a well-characterized portion of the genome, are used to identify a species through DNA analysis. Section Summary Angiosperm diversity is due in part to multiple interactions with animals. Herbivory has favored the development of defense mechanisms in plants, and avoidance of those defense mechanism in animals. Pollination (the transfer of pollen to a carpel) is mainly carried out by wind and animals, and angiosperms have evolved numerous adaptations to capture the wind or attract specific classes of animals. Plants play a key role in ecosystems. They are a source of food and medicinal compounds, and provide raw materials for many industries. Rapid deforestation and industrialization, however, threaten plant biodiversity. In turn, this threatens the ecosystem. Review Questions Which of the following plant structures is not a defense against herbivory? - thorns - spines - nectar - alkaloids Hint: C White and sweet-smelling flowers with abundant nectar are probably pollinated by - bees and butterflies - flies - birds - wind Hint: A Abundant and powdery pollen produced by small, indistinct flowers is probably transported by: - bees and butterflies - flies - birds - wind Hint: D Plants are a source of ________. - food - fuel - medicine - all of the above Hint: D Free Response Biosynthesis of nectar and nutrient-rich pollen is energetically very expensive for a plant. Yet, plants funnel large amounts of energy into animal pollination. What are the evolutionary advantages that offset the cost of attracting animal pollinators? Hint: Using animal pollinators promotes cross-pollination and increases genetic diversity. The odds that the pollen will reach another flower are greatly increased compared with the randomness of wind pollination. What is biodiversity and why is it important to an ecosystem? Hint: Biodiversity is the variation in all forms of life. It can refer to variation within a species, within an ecosystem, or on an entire planet. It is important because it ensures a resource for new food crops and medicines. Plant life balances the ecosystems, protects watersheds, mitigates erosion, moderates climate, and provides shelter for many animal species.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.088818	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15070/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15071/overview	Introduction Animal evolution began in the ocean over 600 million years ago with tiny creatures that probably do not resemble any living organism today. Since then, animals have evolved into a highly diverse kingdom. Although over one million extant (currently living) species of animals have been identified, scientists are continually discovering more species as they explore ecosystems around the world. The number of extant species is estimated to be between 3 and 30 million. But what is an animal? While we can easily identify dogs, birds, fish, spiders, and worms as animals, other organisms, such as corals and sponges, are not as easy to classify. Animals vary in complexity—from sea sponges to crickets to chimpanzees—and scientists are faced with the difficult task of classifying them within a unified system. They must identify traits that are common to all animals as well as traits that can be used to distinguish among related groups of animals. The animal classification system characterizes animals based on their anatomy, morphology, evolutionary history, features of embryological development, and genetic makeup. This classification scheme is constantly developing as new information about species arises. Understanding and classifying the great variety of living species help us better understand how to conserve the diversity of life on earth.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.105398	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15071/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15072/overview	Features of the Animal Kingdom Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - List the features that distinguish the kingdom Animalia from other kingdoms - Explain the processes of animal reproduction and embryonic development - Describe the roles that Hox genes play in development Even though members of the animal kingdom are incredibly diverse, most animals share certain features that distinguish them from organisms in other kingdoms. All animals are eukaryotic, multicellular organisms, and almost all animals have a complex tissue structure with differentiated and specialized tissues. Most animals are motile, at least during certain life stages. All animals require a source of food and are therefore heterotrophic, ingesting other living or dead organisms; this feature distinguishes them from autotrophic organisms, such as most plants, which synthesize their own nutrients through photosynthesis. As heterotrophs, animals may be carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, or parasites (Figureab). Most animals reproduce sexually, and the offspring pass through a series of developmental stages that establish a determined and fixed body plan. The body plan refers to the morphology of an animal, determined by developmental cues. Complex Tissue Structure As multicellular organisms, animals differ from plants and fungi because their cells don’t have cell walls, their cells may be embedded in an extracellular matrix (such as bone, skin, or connective tissue), and their cells have unique structures for intercellular communication (such as gap junctions). In addition, animals possess unique tissues, absent in fungi and plants, which allow coordination (nerve tissue) of motility (muscle tissue). Animals are also characterized by specialized connective tissues that provide structural support for cells and organs. This connective tissue constitutes the extracellular surroundings of cells and is made up of organic and inorganic materials. In vertebrates, bone tissue is a type of connective tissue that supports the entire body structure. The complex bodies and activities of vertebrates demand such supportive tissues. Epithelial tissues cover, line, protect, and secrete. Epithelial tissues include the epidermis of the integument, the lining of the digestive tract and trachea, and make up the ducts of the liver and glands of advanced animals. The animal kingdom is divided into Parazoa (sponges) and Eumetazoa (all other animals). As very simple animals, the organisms in group Parazoa (“beside animal”) do not contain true specialized tissues; although they do possess specialized cells that perform different functions, those cells are not organized into tissues. These organisms are considered animals since they lack the ability to make their own food. Animals with true tissues are in the group Eumetazoa (“true animals”). When we think of animals, we usually think of Eumetazoans, since most animals fall into this category. The different types of tissues in true animals are responsible for carrying out specific functions for the organism. This differentiation and specialization of tissues is part of what allows for such incredible animal diversity. For example, the evolution of nerve tissues and muscle tissues has resulted in animals’ unique ability to rapidly sense and respond to changes in their environment. This allows animals to survive in environments where they must compete with other species to meet their nutritional demands. Link to Learning Watch a presentation by biologist E.O. Wilson on the importance of diversity. Animal Reproduction and Development Most animals are diploid organisms, meaning that their body (somatic) cells are diploid and haploid reproductive (gamete) cells are produced through meiosis. Some exceptions exist: For example, in bees, wasps, and ants, the male is haploid because it develops from unfertilized eggs. Most animals undergo sexual reproduction: This fact distinguishes animals from fungi, protists, and bacteria, where asexual reproduction is common or exclusive. However, a few groups, such as cnidarians, flatworm, and roundworms, undergo asexual reproduction, although nearly all of those animals also have a sexual phase to their life cycle. Processes of Animal Reproduction and Embryonic Development During sexual reproduction, the haploid gametes of the male and female individuals of a species combine in a process called fertilization. Typically, the small, motile male sperm fertilizes the much larger, sessile female egg. This process produces a diploid fertilized egg called a zygote. Some animal species—including sea stars and sea anemones, as well as some insects, reptiles, and fish—are capable of asexual reproduction. The most common forms of asexual reproduction for stationary aquatic animals include budding and fragmentation, where part of a parent individual can separate and grow into a new individual. In contrast, a form of asexual reproduction found in certain insects and vertebrates is called parthenogenesis (or “virgin beginning”), where unfertilized eggs can develop into new male offspring. This type of parthenogenesis is called haplodiploidy. These types of asexual reproduction produce genetically identical offspring, which is disadvantageous from the perspective of evolutionary adaptability because of the potential buildup of deleterious mutations. However, for animals that are limited in their capacity to attract mates, asexual reproduction can ensure genetic propagation. After fertilization, a series of developmental stages occur during which primary germ layers are established and reorganize to form an embryo. During this process, animal tissues begin to specialize and organize into organs and organ systems, determining their future morphology and physiology. Some animals, such as grasshoppers, undergo incomplete metamorphosis, in which the young resemble the adult. Other animals, such as some insects, undergo complete metamorphosis where individuals enter one or more larval stages that may in differ in structure and function from the adult (Figure). For the latter, the young and the adult may have different diets, limiting competition for food between them. Regardless of whether a species undergoes complete or incomplete metamorphosis, the series of developmental stages of the embryo remains largely the same for most members of the animal kingdom. The process of animal development begins with the cleavage, or series of mitotic cell divisions, of the zygote (Figure). Three cell divisions transform the single-celled zygote into an eight-celled structure. After further cell division and rearrangement of existing cells, a 6–32-celled hollow structure called a blastula is formed. Next, the blastula undergoes further cell division and cellular rearrangement during a process called gastrulation. This leads to the formation of the next developmental stage, the gastrula, in which the future digestive cavity is formed. Different cell layers (called germ layers) are formed during gastrulation. These germ layers are programmed to develop into certain tissue types, organs, and organ systems during a process called organogenesis. Link to Learning Watch the following video to see how human embryonic development (after the blastula and gastrula stages of development) reflects evolution. The Role of Homeobox (Hox) Genes in Animal Development Since the early 19th century, scientists have observed that many animals, from the very simple to the complex, shared similar embryonic morphology and development. Surprisingly, a human embryo and a frog embryo, at a certain stage of embryonic development, look remarkably alike. For a long time, scientists did not understand why so many animal species looked similar during embryonic development but were very different as adults. They wondered what dictated the developmental direction that a fly, mouse, frog, or human embryo would take. Near the end of the 20th century, a particular class of genes was discovered that had this very job. These genes that determine animal structure are called “homeotic genes,” and they contain DNA sequences called homeoboxes. The animal genes containing homeobox sequences are specifically referred to as Hox genes. This family of genes is responsible for determining the general body plan, such as the number of body segments of an animal, the number and placement of appendages, and animal head-tail directionality. The first Hox genes to be sequenced were those from the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). A single Hox mutation in the fruit fly can result in an extra pair of wings or even appendages growing from the “wrong” body part. While there are a great many genes that play roles in the morphological development of an animal, what makes Hox genes so powerful is that they serve as master control genes that can turn on or off large numbers of other genes. Hox genes do this by coding transcription factors that control the expression of numerous other genes. Hox genes are homologous in the animal kingdom, that is, the genetic sequences of Hox genes and their positions on chromosomes are remarkably similar across most animals because of their presence in a common ancestor, from worms to flies, mice, and humans (Figure). One of the contributions to increased animal body complexity is that Hox genes have undergone at least two duplication events during animal evolution, with the additional genes allowing for more complex body types to evolve. Art Connection If a Hox 13 gene in a mouse was replaced with a Hox 1 gene, how might this alter animal development? Section Summary Animals constitute an incredibly diverse kingdom of organisms. Although animals range in complexity from simple sea sponges to human beings, most members of the animal kingdom share certain features. Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic organisms that ingest their food and usually develop into motile creatures with a fixed body plan. A major characteristic unique to the animal kingdom is the presence of differentiated tissues, such as nerve, muscle, and connective tissues, which are specialized to perform specific functions. Most animals undergo sexual reproduction, leading to a series of developmental embryonic stages that are relatively similar across the animal kingdom. A class of transcriptional control genes called Hox genes directs the organization of the major animal body plans, and these genes are strongly homologous across the animal kingdom. Art Connections Review Questions Which of the following is not a feature common to most animals? - development into a fixed body plan - asexual reproduction - specialized tissues - heterotrophic nutrient sourcing Hint: B During embryonic development, unique cell layers develop and distinguish during a stage called ________. - the blastula stage - the germ layer stage - the gastrula stage - the organogenesis stage Hint: C Which of the following phenotypes would most likely be the result of a Hox gene mutation? - abnormal body length or height - two different eye colors - the contraction of a genetic illness - two fewer appendages than normal Hint: D Free Response Why might the evolution of specialized tissues be important for animal function and complexity? Hint: The development of specialized tissues affords more complex animal anatomy and physiology because differentiated tissue types can perform unique functions and work together in tandem to allow the animal to perform more functions. For example, specialized muscle tissue allows directed and efficient movement, and specialized nervous tissue allows for multiple sensory modalities as well as the ability to respond to various sensory information; these functions are not necessarily available to other non-animal organisms. Describe and give examples of how humans display all of the features common to the animal kingdom. Hint: Humans are multicellular organisms. They also contain differentiated tissues, such as epithelial, muscle, and nervous tissue, as well as specialized organs and organ systems. As heterotrophs, humans cannot produce their own nutrients and must obtain them by ingesting other organisms, such as plants, fungi, and animals. Humans undergo sexual reproduction, as well as the same embryonic developmental stages as other animals, which eventually lead to a fixed and motile body plan controlled in large part by Hox genes. How have Hox genes contributed to the diversity of animal body plans? Hint: Altered expression of homeotic genes can lead to major changes in the morphology of the individual. Hox genes can affect the spatial arrangements of organs and body parts. If a Hox gene was mutated or duplicated, it could affect where a leg might be on a fruit fly or how far apart a person’s fingers are.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.135637	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15072/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15073/overview	Features Used to Classify Animals Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the differences in animal body plans that support basic animal classification - Compare and contrast the embryonic development of protostomes and deuterostomes Scientists have developed a classification scheme that categorizes all members of the animal kingdom, although there are exceptions to most “rules” governing animal classification (Figure). Animals are primarily classified according to morphological and developmental characteristics, such as a body plan. One of the most prominent features of the body plan of true animals is that they are morphologically symmetrical. This means that their distribution of body parts is balanced along an axis. Additional characteristics include the number of tissue layers formed during development, the presence or absence of an internal body cavity, and other features of embryological development, such as the origin of the mouth and anus. Art Connection Which of the following statements is false? - Eumetazoans have specialized tissues and parazoans don’t. - Lophotrochozoa and Ecdysozoa are both Bilataria. - Acoela and Cnidaria both possess radial symmetry. - Arthropods are more closely related to nematodes than they are to annelids. Animal Characterization Based on Body Symmetry At a very basic level of classification, true animals can be largely divided into three groups based on the type of symmetry of their body plan: radially symmetrical, bilaterally symmetrical, and asymmetrical. Asymmetry is a unique feature of Parazoa (Figurea). Only a few animal groups display radial symmetry. All types of symmetry are well suited to meet the unique demands of a particular animal’s lifestyle. Radial symmetry is the arrangement of body parts around a central axis, as is seen in a drinking glass or pie. It results in animals having top and bottom surfaces but no left and right sides, or front or back. The two halves of a radially symmetrical animal may be described as the side with a mouth or “oral side,” and the side without a mouth (the “aboral side”). This form of symmetry marks the body plans of animals in the phyla Ctenophora and Cnidaria, including jellyfish and adult sea anemones (Figurebc). Radial symmetry equips these sea creatures (which may be sedentary or only capable of slow movement or floating) to experience the environment equally from all directions. Bilateral symmetry involves the division of the animal through a sagittal plane, resulting in two mirror image, right and left halves, such as those of a butterfly (Figured), crab, or human body. Animals with bilateral symmetry have a “head” and “tail” (anterior vs. posterior), front and back (dorsal vs. ventral), and right and left sides (Figure). All true animals except those with radial symmetry are bilaterally symmetrical. The evolution of bilateral symmetry that allowed for the formation of anterior and posterior (head and tail) ends promoted a phenomenon called cephalization, which refers to the collection of an organized nervous system at the animal’s anterior end. In contrast to radial symmetry, which is best suited for stationary or limited-motion lifestyles, bilateral symmetry allows for streamlined and directional motion. In evolutionary terms, this simple form of symmetry promoted active mobility and increased sophistication of resource-seeking and predator-prey relationships. Animals in the phylum Echinodermata (such as sea stars, sand dollars, and sea urchins) display radial symmetry as adults, but their larval stages exhibit bilateral symmetry. This is termed secondary radial symmetry. They are believed to have evolved from bilaterally symmetrical animals; thus, they are classified as bilaterally symmetrical. Link to Learning Watch this video to see a quick sketch of the different types of body symmetry. Animal Characterization Based on Features of Embryological Development Most animal species undergo a separation of tissues into germ layers during embryonic development. Recall that these germ layers are formed during gastrulation, and that they are predetermined to develop into the animal’s specialized tissues and organs. Animals develop either two or three embryonic germs layers (Figure). The animals that display radial symmetry develop two germ layers, an inner layer (endoderm) and an outer layer (ectoderm). These animals are called diploblasts. Diploblasts have a non-living layer between the endoderm and ectoderm. More complex animals (those with bilateral symmetry) develop three tissue layers: an inner layer (endoderm), an outer layer (ectoderm), and a middle layer (mesoderm). Animals with three tissue layers are called triploblasts. Art Connection Which of the following statements about diploblasts and triploblasts is false? - Animals that display radial symmetry are diploblasts. - Animals that display bilateral symmetry are triploblasts. - The endoderm gives rise to the lining of the digestive tract and the respiratory tract. - The mesoderm gives rise to the central nervous system. Each of the three germ layers is programmed to give rise to particular body tissues and organs. The endoderm gives rise to the lining of the digestive tract (including the stomach, intestines, liver, and pancreas), as well as to the lining of the trachea, bronchi, and lungs of the respiratory tract, along with a few other structures. The ectoderm develops into the outer epithelial covering of the body surface, the central nervous system, and a few other structures. The mesoderm is the third germ layer; it forms between the endoderm and ectoderm in triploblasts. This germ layer gives rise to all muscle tissues (including the cardiac tissues and muscles of the intestines), connective tissues such as the skeleton and blood cells, and most other visceral organs such as the kidneys and the spleen. Presence or Absence of a Coelom Further subdivision of animals with three germ layers (triploblasts) results in the separation of animals that may develop an internal body cavity derived from mesoderm, called a coelom, and those that do not. This epithelial cell-lined coelomic cavity represents a space, usually filled with fluid, which lies between the visceral organs and the body wall. It houses many organs such as the digestive system, kidneys, reproductive organs, and heart, and contains the circulatory system. In some animals, such as mammals, the part of the coelom called the pleural cavity provides space for the lungs to expand during breathing. The evolution of the coelom is associated with many functional advantages. Primarily, the coelom provides cushioning and shock absorption for the major organ systems. Organs housed within the coelom can grow and move freely, which promotes optimal organ development and placement. The coelom also provides space for the diffusion of gases and nutrients, as well as body flexibility, promoting improved animal motility. Triploblasts that do not develop a coelom are called acoelomates, and their mesoderm region is completely filled with tissue, although they do still have a gut cavity. Examples of acoelomates include animals in the phylum Platyhelminthes, also known as flatworms. Animals with a true coelom are called eucoelomates (or coelomates) (Figure). A true coelom arises entirely within the mesoderm germ layer and is lined by an epithelial membrane. This membrane also lines the organs within the coelom, connecting and holding them in position while allowing them some free motion. Annelids, mollusks, arthropods, echinoderms, and chordates are all eucoelomates. A third group of triploblasts has a slightly different coelom derived partly from mesoderm and partly from endoderm, which is found between the two layers. Although still functional, these are considered false coeloms, and those animals are called pseudocoelomates. The phylum Nematoda (roundworms) is an example of a pseudocoelomate. True coelomates can be further characterized based on certain features of their early embryological development. Embryonic Development of the Mouth Bilaterally symmetrical, tribloblastic eucoelomates can be further divided into two groups based on differences in their early embryonic development. Protostomes include arthropods, mollusks, and annelids. Deuterostomes include more complex animals such as chordates but also some simple animals such as echinoderms. These two groups are separated based on which opening of the digestive cavity develops first: mouth or anus. The word protostome comes from the Greek word meaning “mouth first,” and deuterostome originates from the word meaning “mouth second” (in this case, the anus develops first). The mouth or anus develops from a structure called the blastopore (Figure). The blastopore is the indentation formed during the initial stages of gastrulation. In later stages, a second opening forms, and these two openings will eventually give rise to the mouth and anus (Figure). It has long been believed that the blastopore develops into the mouth of protostomes, with the second opening developing into the anus; the opposite is true for deuterostomes. Recent evidence has challenged this view of the development of the blastopore of protostomes, however, and the theory remains under debate. Another distinction between protostomes and deuterostomes is the method of coelom formation, beginning from the gastrula stage. The coelom of most protostomes is formed through a process called schizocoely, meaning that during development, a solid mass of the mesoderm splits apart and forms the hollow opening of the coelom. Deuterostomes differ in that their coelom forms through a process called enterocoely. Here, the mesoderm develops as pouches that are pinched off from the endoderm tissue. These pouches eventually fuse to form the mesoderm, which then gives rise to the coelom. The earliest distinction between protostomes and deuterostomes is the type of cleavage undergone by the zygote. Protostomes undergo spiral cleavage, meaning that the cells of one pole of the embryo are rotated, and thus misaligned, with respect to the cells of the opposite pole. This is due to the oblique angle of the cleavage. Deuterostomes undergo radial cleavage, where the cleavage axes are either parallel or perpendicular to the polar axis, resulting in the alignment of the cells between the two poles. There is a second distinction between the types of cleavage in protostomes and deuterostomes. In addition to spiral cleavage, protostomes also undergo determinate cleavage. This means that even at this early stage, the developmental fate of each embryonic cell is already determined. A cell does not have the ability to develop into any cell type. In contrast, deuterostomes undergo indeterminate cleavage, in which cells are not yet pre-determined at this early stage to develop into specific cell types. These cells are referred to as undifferentiated cells. This characteristic of deuterostomes is reflected in the existence of familiar embryonic stem cells, which have the ability to develop into any cell type until their fate is programmed at a later developmental stage. Evolution Connection The Evolution of the CoelomOne of the first steps in the classification of animals is to examine the animal’s body. Studying the body parts tells us not only the roles of the organs in question but also how the species may have evolved. One such structure that is used in classification of animals is the coelom. A coelom is a body cavity that forms during early embryonic development. The coelom allows for compartmentalization of the body parts, so that different organ systems can evolve and nutrient transport is possible. Additionally, because the coelom is a fluid-filled cavity, it protects the organs from shock and compression. Simple animals, such as worms and jellyfish, do not have a coelom. All vertebrates have a coelom that helped them evolve complex organ systems. Animals that do not have a coelom are called acoelomates. Flatworms and tapeworms are examples of acoelomates. They rely on passive diffusion for nutrient transport across their body. Additionally, the internal organs of acoelomates are not protected from crushing. Animals that have a true coelom are called eucoelomates; all vertebrates are eucoelomates. The coelom evolves from the mesoderm during embryogenesis. The abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver, gall bladder, and other digestive organs. Another category of invertebrates animals based on body cavity is pseudocoelomates. These animals have a pseudo-cavity that is not completely lined by mesoderm. Examples include nematode parasites and small worms. These animals are thought to have evolved from coelomates and may have lost their ability to form a coelom through genetic mutations. Thus, this step in early embryogenesis—the formation of the coelom—has had a large evolutionary impact on the various species of the animal kingdom. Section Summary Organisms in the animal kingdom are classified based on their body morphology and development. True animals are divided into those with radial versus bilateral symmetry. Generally, the simpler and often non-motile animals display radial symmetry. Animals with radial symmetry are also generally characterized by the development of two embryological germ layers, the endoderm and ectoderm, whereas animals with bilateral symmetry are generally characterized by the development of a third embryological germ layer, the mesoderm. Animals with three germ layers, called triploblasts, are further characterized by the presence or absence of an internal body cavity called a coelom. The presence of a coelom affords many advantages, and animals with a coelom may be termed true coelomates or pseudocoelomates, depending on which tissue gives rise to the coelom. Coelomates are further divided into one of two groups called protostomes and deuterostomes, based on a number of developmental characteristics, including differences in zygote cleavage and method of coelom formation. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements about diploblasts and triploblasts is false? - Animals that display radial symmetry are diploblasts. - Animals that display bilateral symmetry are triploblasts. - The endoderm gives rise to the lining of the digestive tract and the respiratory tract. - The mesoderm gives rise to the central nervous system. Hint: Figure D Review Questions Which of the following organism is most likely to be a diploblast? - sea star - shrimp - jellyfish - insect Hint: C Which of the following is not possible? - radially symmetrical diploblast - diploblastic eucoelomate - protostomic coelomate - bilaterally symmetrical deuterostome Hint: B An animal whose development is marked by radial cleavage and enterocoely is ________. - a deuterostome - an annelid or mollusk - either an acoelomate or eucoelomate - none of the above Hint: A Free Response Using the following terms, explain what classifications and groups humans fall into, from the most general to the most specific: symmetry, germ layers, coelom, cleavage, embryological development. Hint: Humans have body plans that are bilaterally symmetrical and are characterized by the development of three germ layers, making them triploblasts. Humans have true coeloms and are thus eucoelomates. As deuterostomes, humans are characterized by radial and indeterminate cleavage. Explain some of the advantages brought about through the evolution of bilateral symmetry and coelom formation. Hint: The evolution of bilateral symmetry led to designated head and tail body regions, and promoted more efficient mobility for animals. This improved mobility allowed for more skillful seeking of resources and prey escaping from predators. The appearance of the coelom in coelomates provides many internal organs with shock absorption, making them less prone to physical damage from bodily assault. A coelom also gives the body greater flexibility, which promotes more efficient movement. The relatively loose placement of organs within the coelom allows them to develop and grow with some spatial freedom, which promoted the evolution of optimal organ arrangement. The coelom also provides space for a circulatory system, which is an advantageous way to distribute body fluids and gases.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.169185	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15073/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15074/overview	Animal Phylogeny Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Interpret the metazoan phylogenetic tree - Describe the types of data that scientists use to construct and revise animal phylogeny - List some of the relationships within the modern phylogenetic tree that have been discovered as a result of modern molecular data Biologists strive to understand the evolutionary history and relationships of members of the animal kingdom, and all of life, for that matter. The study of phylogeny aims to determine the evolutionary relationships between phyla. Currently, most biologists divide the animal kingdom into 35 to 40 phyla. Scientists develop phylogenetic trees, which serve as hypotheses about which species have evolved from which ancestors Recall that until recently, only morphological characteristics and the fossil record were used to determine phylogenetic relationships among animals. Scientific understanding of the distinctions and hierarchies between anatomical characteristics provided much of this knowledge. Used alone, however, this information can be misleading. Morphological characteristics may evolve multiple times, and independently, through evolutionary history. Analogous characteristics may appear similar between animals, but their underlying evolution may be very different. With the advancement of molecular technologies, modern phylogenetics is now informed by genetic and molecular analyses, in addition to traditional morphological and fossil data. With a growing understanding of genetics, the animal evolutionary tree has changed substantially and continues to change as new DNA and RNA analyses are performed on additional animal species. Constructing an Animal Phylogenetic Tree The current understanding of evolutionary relationships between animal, or Metazoa, phyla begins with the distinction between “true” animals with true differentiated tissues, called Eumetazoa, and animal phyla that do not have true differentiated tissues (such as the sponges), called Parazoa. Both Parazoa and Eumetazoa evolved from a common ancestral organism that resembles the modern-day protists called choanoflagellates. These protist cells strongly resemble the sponge choanocyte cells today (Figure). Eumetazoa are subdivided into radially symmetrical animals and bilaterally symmetrical animals, and are thus classified into clade Bilateria or Radiata, respectively. As mentioned earlier, the cnidarians and ctenophores are animal phyla with true radial symmetry. All other Eumetazoa are members of the Bilateria clade. The bilaterally symmetrical animals are further divided into deuterostomes (including chordates and echinoderms) and two distinct clades of protostomes (including ecdysozoans and lophotrochozoans) (Figureab). Ecdysozoa includes nematodes and arthropods; they are so named for a commonly found characteristic among the group: exoskeletal molting (termed ecdysis). Lophotrochozoa is named for two structural features, each common to certain phyla within the clade. Some lophotrochozoan phyla are characterized by a larval stage called trochophore larvae, and other phyla are characterized by the presence of a feeding structure called a lophophore. Link to Learning Explore an interactive tree of life here. Zoom and click to learn more about the organisms and their evolutionary relationships. Modern Advances in Phylogenetic Understanding Come from Molecular Analyses The phylogenetic groupings are continually being debated and refined by evolutionary biologists. Each year, new evidence emerges that further alters the relationships described by a phylogenetic tree diagram. Link to Learning Watch the following video to learn how biologists use genetic data to determine relationships among organisms. Nucleic acid and protein analyses have greatly informed the modern phylogenetic animal tree. These data come from a variety of molecular sources, such as mitochondrial DNA, nuclear DNA, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and certain cellular proteins. Many evolutionary relationships in the modern tree have only recently been determined due to molecular evidence. For example, a previously classified group of animals called lophophorates, which included brachiopods and bryozoans, were long-thought to be primitive deuterostomes. Extensive molecular analysis using rRNA data found these animals to be protostomes, more closely related to annelids and mollusks. This discovery allowed for the distinction of the protostome clade, the lophotrochozoans. Molecular data have also shed light on some differences within the lophotrochozoan group, and some scientists believe that the phyla Platyhelminthes and Rotifera within this group should actually belong to their own group of protostomes termed Platyzoa. Molecular research similar to the discoveries that brought about the distinction of the lophotrochozoan clade has also revealed a dramatic rearrangement of the relationships between mollusks, annelids, arthropods, and nematodes, and a new ecdysozoan clade was formed. Due to morphological similarities in their segmented body types, annelids and arthropods were once thought to be closely related. However, molecular evidence has revealed that arthropods are actually more closely related to nematodes, now comprising the ecdysozoan clade, and annelids are more closely related to mollusks, brachiopods, and other phyla in the lophotrochozoan clade. These two clades now make up the protostomes. Another change to former phylogenetic groupings because of molecular analyses includes the emergence of an entirely new phylum of worm called Acoelomorpha. These acoel flatworms were long thought to belong to the phylum Platyhelminthes because of their similar “flatworm” morphology. However, molecular analyses revealed this to be a false relationship and originally suggested that acoels represented living species of some of the earliest divergent bilaterians. More recent research into the acoelomorphs has called this hypothesis into question and suggested a closer relationship with deuterostomes. The placement of this new phylum remains disputed, but scientists agree that with sufficient molecular data, their true phylogeny will be determined. Section Summary Scientists are interested in the evolutionary history of animals and the evolutionary relationships among them. There are three main sources of data that scientists use to create phylogenetic evolutionary tree diagrams that illustrate such relationships: morphological information (which includes developmental morphologies), fossil record data, and, most recently, molecular data. The details of the modern phylogenetic tree change frequently as new data are gathered, and molecular data has recently contributed to many substantial modifications of the understanding of relationships between animal phyla. Review Questions Consulting the modern phylogenetic tree of animals, which of the following would not constitute a clade? - deuterostomes - lophotrochozoans - Parazoa - Bilateria Hint: C Which of the following is thought to be the most closely related to the common animal ancestor? - fungal cells - protist cells - plant cells - bacterial cells Hint: B As with the emergence of the Acoelomorpha phylum, it is common for ____ data to misplace animals in close relation to other species, whereas ____ data often reveals a different and more accurate evolutionary relationship. - molecular : morphological - molecular : fossil record - fossil record : morphological - morphological : molecular Hint: D Free Response Describe at least two major changes to the animal phylogenetic tree that have come about due to molecular or genetic findings. Hint: Two new clades that comprise the two major groups of protostomes are called the lophotrochozoans and the ecdysozoans. The formation of these two clades came about through molecular research from DNA and protein data. Also, the novel phylum of worm called Acoelomorpha was determined due to molecular data that distinguished them from other flatworms. How is it that morphological data alone might lead scientists to group animals into erroneous evolutionary relationships? Hint: In many cases, morphological similarities between animals may be only superficial similarities and may not indicate a true evolutionary relationship. One of the reasons for this is that certain morphological traits can evolve along very different evolutionary branches of animals for similar ecological reasons.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.194774	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15074/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15075/overview	The Evolutionary History of the Animal Kingdom Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the features that characterized the earliest animals and when they appeared on earth - Explain the significance of the Cambrian period for animal evolution and the changes in animal diversity that took place during that time - Describe some of the unresolved questions surrounding the Cambrian explosion - Discuss the implications of mass animal extinctions that have occurred in evolutionary history Many questions regarding the origins and evolutionary history of the animal kingdom continue to be researched and debated, as new fossil and molecular evidence change prevailing theories. Some of these questions include the following: How long have animals existed on Earth? What were the earliest members of the animal kingdom, and what organism was their common ancestor? While animal diversity increased during the Cambrian period of the Paleozoic era, 530 million years ago, modern fossil evidence suggests that primitive animal species existed much earlier. Pre-Cambrian Animal Life The time before the Cambrian period is known as the Ediacaran period (from about 635 million years ago to 543 million years ago), the final period of the late Proterozoic Neoproterozoic Era (Figure). It is believed that early animal life, termed Ediacaran biota, evolved from protists at this time. Some protist species called choanoflagellates closely resemble the choanocyte cells in the simplest animals, sponges. In addition to their morphological similarity, molecular analyses have revealed similar sequence homologies in their DNA. The earliest life comprising Ediacaran biota was long believed to include only tiny, sessile, soft-bodied sea creatures. However, recently there has been increasing scientific evidence suggesting that more varied and complex animal species lived during this time, and possibly even before the Ediacaran period. Fossils believed to represent the oldest animals with hard body parts were recently discovered in South Australia. These sponge-like fossils, named Coronacollina acula, date back as far as 560 million years, and are believed to show the existence of hard body parts and spicules that extended 20–40 cm from the main body (estimated about 5 cm long). Other fossils from the Ediacaran period are shown in Figureab. Another recent fossil discovery may represent the earliest animal species ever found. While the validity of this claim is still under investigation, these primitive fossils appear to be small, one-centimeter long, sponge-like creatures. These fossils from South Australia date back 650 million years, actually placing the putative animal before the great ice age extinction event that marked the transition between the Cryogenian period and the Ediacaran period. Until this discovery, most scientists believed that there was no animal life prior to the Ediacaran period. Many scientists now believe that animals may in fact have evolved during the Cryogenian period. The Cambrian Explosion of Animal Life The Cambrian period, occurring between approximately 542–488 million years ago, marks the most rapid evolution of new animal phyla and animal diversity in Earth’s history. It is believed that most of the animal phyla in existence today had their origins during this time, often referred to as the Cambrian explosion (Figure). Echinoderms, mollusks, worms, arthropods, and chordates arose during this period. One of the most dominant species during the Cambrian period was the trilobite, an arthropod that was among the first animals to exhibit a sense of vision (Figureabcd). The cause of the Cambrian explosion is still debated. There are many theories that attempt to answer this question. Environmental changes may have created a more suitable environment for animal life. Examples of these changes include rising atmospheric oxygen levels and large increases in oceanic calcium concentrations that preceded the Cambrian period (Figure). Some scientists believe that an expansive, continental shelf with numerous shallow lagoons or pools provided the necessary living space for larger numbers of different types of animals to co-exist. There is also support for theories that argue that ecological relationships between species, such as changes in the food web, competition for food and space, and predator-prey relationships, were primed to promote a sudden massive coevolution of species. Yet other theories claim genetic and developmental reasons for the Cambrian explosion. The morphological flexibility and complexity of animal development afforded by the evolution of Hox control genes may have provided the necessary opportunities for increases in possible animal morphologies at the time of the Cambrian period. Theories that attempt to explain why the Cambrian explosion happened must be able to provide valid reasons for the massive animal diversification, as well as explain why it happened when it did. There is evidence that both supports and refutes each of the theories described above, and the answer may very well be a combination of these and other theories. However, unresolved questions about the animal diversification that took place during the Cambrian period remain. For example, we do not understand how the evolution of so many species occurred in such a short period of time. Was there really an “explosion” of life at this particular time? Some scientists question the validity of the this idea, because there is increasing evidence to suggest that more animal life existed prior to the Cambrian period and that other similar species’ so-called explosions (or radiations) occurred later in history as well. Furthermore, the vast diversification of animal species that appears to have begun during the Cambrian period continued well into the following Ordovician period. Despite some of these arguments, most scientists agree that the Cambrian period marked a time of impressively rapid animal evolution and diversification that is unmatched elsewhere during history. Link to Learning View an animation of what ocean life may have been like during the Cambrian explosion. Post-Cambrian Evolution and Mass Extinctions The periods that followed the Cambrian during the Paleozoic Era are marked by further animal evolution and the emergence of many new orders, families, and species. As animal phyla continued to diversify, new species adapted to new ecological niches. During the Ordovician period, which followed the Cambrian period, plant life first appeared on land. This change allowed formerly aquatic animal species to invade land, feeding directly on plants or decaying vegetation. Continual changes in temperature and moisture throughout the remainder of the Paleozoic Era due to continental plate movements encouraged the development of new adaptations to terrestrial existence in animals, such as limbed appendages in amphibians and epidermal scales in reptiles. Changes in the environment often create new niches (living spaces) that contribute to rapid speciation and increased diversity. On the other hand, cataclysmic events, such as volcanic eruptions and meteor strikes that obliterate life, can result in devastating losses of diversity. Such periods of mass extinction (Figure) have occurred repeatedly in the evolutionary record of life, erasing some genetic lines while creating room for others to evolve into the empty niches left behind. The end of the Permian period (and the Paleozoic Era) was marked by the largest mass extinction event in Earth’s history, a loss of roughly 95 percent of the extant species at that time. Some of the dominant phyla in the world’s oceans, such as the trilobites, disappeared completely. On land, the disappearance of some dominant species of Permian reptiles made it possible for a new line of reptiles to emerge, the dinosaurs. The warm and stable climatic conditions of the ensuing Mesozoic Era promoted an explosive diversification of dinosaurs into every conceivable niche in land, air, and water. Plants, too, radiated into new landscapes and empty niches, creating complex communities of producers and consumers, some of which became very large on the abundant food available. Another mass extinction event occurred at the end of the Cretaceous period, bringing the Mesozoic Era to an end. Skies darkened and temperatures fell as a large meteor impact and tons of volcanic ash blocked incoming sunlight. Plants died, herbivores and carnivores starved, and the mostly cold-blooded dinosaurs ceded their dominance of the landscape to more warm-blooded mammals. In the following Cenozoic Era, mammals radiated into terrestrial and aquatic niches once occupied by dinosaurs, and birds, the warm-blooded offshoots of one line of the ruling reptiles, became aerial specialists. The appearance and dominance of flowering plants in the Cenozoic Era created new niches for insects, as well as for birds and mammals. Changes in animal species diversity during the late Cretaceous and early Cenozoic were also promoted by a dramatic shift in Earth’s geography, as continental plates slid over the crust into their current positions, leaving some animal groups isolated on islands and continents, or separated by mountain ranges or inland seas from other competitors. Early in the Cenozoic, new ecosystems appeared, with the evolution of grasses and coral reefs. Late in the Cenozoic, further extinctions followed by speciation occurred during ice ages that covered high latitudes with ice and then retreated, leaving new open spaces for colonization. Link to Learning Watch the following video to learn more about the mass extinctions. Career Connection PaleontologistNatural history museums contain the fossil casts of extinct animals and information about how these animals evolved, lived, and died. Paleontogists are scientists who study prehistoric life. They use fossils to observe and explain how life evolved on Earth and how species interacted with each other and with the environment. A paleontologist needs to be knowledgeable in biology, ecology, chemistry, geology, and many other scientific disciplines. A paleontologist’s work may involve field studies: searching for and studying fossils. In addition to digging for and finding fossils, paleontologists also prepare fossils for further study and analysis. Although dinosaurs are probably the first animals that come to mind when thinking about paleontology, paleontologists study everything from plant life, fungi, and fish to sea animals and birds. An undergraduate degree in earth science or biology is a good place to start toward the career path of becoming a paleontologist. Most often, a graduate degree is necessary. Additionally, work experience in a museum or in a paleontology lab is useful. Section Summary The most rapid diversification and evolution of animal species in all of history occurred during the Cambrian period of the Paleozoic Era, a phenomenon known as the Cambrian explosion. Until recently, scientists believed that there were only very few tiny and simplistic animal species in existence before this period. However, recent fossil discoveries have revealed that additional, larger, and more complex animals existed during the Ediacaran period, and even possibly earlier, during the Cryogenian period. Still, the Cambrian period undoubtedly witnessed the emergence of the majority of animal phyla that we know today, although many questions remain unresolved about this historical phenomenon. The remainder of the Paleozoic Era is marked by the growing appearance of new classes, families, and species, and the early colonization of land by certain marine animals. The evolutionary history of animals is also marked by numerous major extinction events, each of which wiped out a majority of extant species. Some species of most animal phyla survived these extinctions, allowing the phyla to persist and continue to evolve into species that we see today. Review Questions Which of the following periods is the earliest during which animals may have appeared? - Ordovician period - Cambrian period - Ediacaran period - Cryogenian period Hint: D What type of data is primarily used to determine the existence and appearance of early animal species? - molecular data - fossil data - morphological data - embryological development data Hint: B The time between 542–488 million years ago marks which period? - Cambrian period - Silurian period - Ediacaran period - Devonian period Hint: A Until recent discoveries suggested otherwise, animals existing before the Cambrian period were believed to be: - small and ocean-dwelling - small and non-motile - small and soft-bodied - small and radially symmetrical or asymmetrical Hint: C Plant life first appeared on land during which of the following periods? - Cambrian period - Ordovician period - Silurian period - Devonian period Hint: B Approximately how many mass extinction events occurred throughout the evolutionary history of animals? - 3 - 4 - 5 - more than 5 Hint: D Free Response Briefly describe at least two theories that attempt to explain the cause of the Cambrian explosion. Hint: One theory states that environmental factors led to the Cambrian explosion. For example, the rise in atmospheric oxygen and oceanic calcium levels helped to provide the right environmental conditions to allow such a rapid evolution of new animal phyla. Another theory states that ecological factors such as competitive pressures and predator-prey relationships reached a threshold that supported the rapid animal evolution that took place during the Cambrian period. How is it that most, if not all, of the extant animal phyla today evolved during the Cambrian period if so many massive extinction events have taken place since then? Hint: It is true that multiple mass extinction events have taken place since the Cambrian period, when most currently existing animal phyla appeared, and the majority of animal species were commonly wiped out during these events. However, a small number of animal species representing each phylum were usually able to survive each extinction event, allowing the phylum to continue to evolve rather than become altogether extinct.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.226446	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15075/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15076/overview	Introduction A brief look at any magazine pertaining to our natural world, such as National Geographic, would show a rich variety of vertebrates, especially mammals and birds. To most people, these are the animals that attract our attention. Concentrating on vertebrates, however, gives us a rather biased and limited view of biodiversity, because it ignores nearly 97 percent of the animal kingdom, namely the invertebrates. Invertebrate animals are those without a cranium and defined vertebral column or spine. In addition to lacking a spine, most invertebrates also lack an endoskeleton. A large number of invertebrates are aquatic animals, and scientific research suggests that many of the world’s species are aquatic invertebrates that have not yet been documented.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.243705	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15076/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15077/overview	Phylum Porifera Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the organizational features of the simplest multicellular organisms - Explain the various body forms and bodily functions of sponges The invertebrates, or invertebrata, are animals that do not contain bony structures, such as the cranium and vertebrae. The simplest of all the invertebrates are the Parazoans, which include only the phylum Porifera: the sponges (Figure). Parazoans (“beside animals”) do not display tissue-level organization, although they do have specialized cells that perform specific functions. Sponge larvae are able to swim; however, adults are non-motile and spend their life attached to a substratum. Since water is vital to sponges for excretion, feeding, and gas exchange, their body structure facilitates the movement of water through the sponge. Structures such as canals, chambers, and cavities enable water to move through the sponge to nearly all body cells. Morphology of Sponges The morphology of the simplest sponges takes the shape of a cylinder with a large central cavity, the spongocoel, occupying the inside of the cylinder. Water can enter into the spongocoel from numerous pores in the body wall. Water entering the spongocoel is extruded via a large common opening called the osculum. However, sponges exhibit a range of diversity in body forms, including variations in the size of the spongocoel, the number of osculi, and where the cells that filter food from the water are located. While sponges (excluding the hexactinellids) do not exhibit tissue-layer organization, they do have different cell types that perform distinct functions. Pinacocytes, which are epithelial-like cells, form the outermost layer of sponges and enclose a jelly-like substance called mesohyl. Mesohyl is an extracellular matrix consisting of a collagen-like gel with suspended cells that perform various functions. The gel-like consistency of mesohyl acts like an endoskeleton and maintains the tubular morphology of sponges. In addition to the osculum, sponges have multiple pores called ostia on their bodies that allow water to enter the sponge. In some sponges, ostia are formed by porocytes, single tube-shaped cells that act as valves to regulate the flow of water into the spongocoel. In other sponges, ostia are formed by folds in the body wall of the sponge. Choanocytes (“collar cells”) are present at various locations, depending on the type of sponge, but they always line the inner portions of some space through which water flows (the spongocoel in simple sponges, canals within the body wall in more complex sponges, and chambers scattered throughout the body in the most complex sponges). Whereas pinacocytes line the outside of the sponge, choanocytes tend to line certain inner portions of the sponge body that surround the mesohyl. The structure of a choanocyte is critical to its function, which is to generate a water current through the sponge and to trap and ingest food particles by phagocytosis. Note the similarity in appearance between the sponge choanocyte and choanoflagellates (Protista). This similarity suggests that sponges and choanoflagellates are closely related and likely share a recent common ancestry. The cell body is embedded in mesohyl and contains all organelles required for normal cell function, but protruding into the “open space” inside of the sponge is a mesh-like collar composed of microvilli with a single flagellum in the center of the column. The cumulative effect of the flagella from all choanocytes aids the movement of water through the sponge: drawing water into the sponge through the numerous ostia, into the spaces lined by choanocytes, and eventually out through the osculum (or osculi). In the meantime, food particles, including waterborne bacteria and algae, are trapped by the sieve-like collar of the choanocytes, slide down into the body of the cell, are ingested by phagocytosis, and become encased in a food vacuole. Lastly, choanocytes will differentiate into sperm for sexual reproduction, where they will become dislodged from the mesohyl and leave the sponge with expelled water through the osculum. Link to Learning Watch this video to see the movement of water through the sponge body. The second crucial cells in sponges are called amoebocytes (or archaeocytes), named for the fact that they move throughout the mesohyl in an amoeba-like fashion. Amoebocytes have a variety of functions: delivering nutrients from choanocytes to other cells within the sponge, giving rise to eggs for sexual reproduction (which remain in the mesohyl), delivering phagocytized sperm from choanocytes to eggs, and differentiating into more-specific cell types. Some of these more-specific cell types include collencytes and lophocytes, which produce the collagen-like protein to maintain the mesohyl, sclerocytes, which produce spicules in some sponges, and spongocytes, which produce the protein spongin in the majority of sponges. These cells produce collagen to maintain the consistency of the mesohyl. The different cell types in sponges are shown in Figure. Art Connection Which of the following statements is false? - Choanocytes have flagella that propel water through the body. - Pinacocytes can transform into any cell type. - Lophocytes secrete collagen. - Porocytes control the flow of water through pores in the sponge body. In some sponges, sclerocytes secrete small spicules into the mesohyl, which are composed of either calcium carbonate or silica, depending on the type of sponge. These spicules serve to provide additional stiffness to the body of the sponge. Additionally, spicules, when present externally, may ward off predators. Another type of protein, spongin, may also be present in the mesohyl of some sponges. Link to Learning Take an up-close tour through the sponge and its cells. The presence and composition of spicules/spongin are the differentiating characteristics of the three classes of sponges (Figure): Class Calcarea contains calcium carbonate spicules and no spongin, class Hexactinellida contains six-rayed siliceous spicules and no spongin, and class Demospongia contains spongin and may or may not have spicules; if present, those spicules are siliceous. Spicules are most conspicuously present in class Hexactinellida, the order consisting of glass sponges. Some of the spicules may attain giant proportions (in relation to the typical size range of glass sponges of 3 to 10 mm) as seen in Monorhaphis chuni, which grows up to 3 m long. Link to Learning Use the Interactive Sponge Guide to identify species of sponges based on their external form, mineral skeleton, fiber, and skeletal architecture. Physiological Processes in Sponges Sponges, despite being simple organisms, regulate their different physiological processes through a variety of mechanisms. These processes regulate their metabolism, reproduction, and locomotion. Digestion Sponges lack complex digestive, respiratory, circulatory, reproductive, and nervous systems. Their food is trapped when water passes through the ostia and out through the osculum. Bacteria smaller than 0.5 microns in size are trapped by choanocytes, which are the principal cells engaged in nutrition, and are ingested by phagocytosis. Particles that are larger than the ostia may be phagocytized by pinacocytes. In some sponges, amoebocytes transport food from cells that have ingested food particles to those that do not. For this type of digestion, in which food particles are digested within individual cells, the sponge draws water through diffusion. The limit of this type of digestion is that food particles must be smaller than individual cells. All other major body functions in the sponge (gas exchange, circulation, excretion) are performed by diffusion between the cells that line the openings within the sponge and the water that is passing through those openings. All cell types within the sponge obtain oxygen from water through diffusion. Likewise, carbon dioxide is released into seawater by diffusion. In addition, nitrogenous waste produced as a byproduct of protein metabolism is excreted via diffusion by individual cells into the water as it passes through the sponge. Reproduction Sponges reproduce by sexual as well as asexual methods. The typical means of asexual reproduction is either fragmentation (where a piece of the sponge breaks off, settles on a new substrate, and develops into a new individual) or budding (a genetically identical outgrowth grows from the parent and eventually detaches or remains attached to form a colony). An atypical type of asexual reproduction is found only in freshwater sponges and occurs through the formation of gemmules. Gemmules are environmentally resistant structures produced by adult sponges wherein the typical sponge morphology is inverted. In gemmules, an inner layer of amoebocytes is surrounded by a layer of collagen (spongin) that may be reinforced by spicules. The collagen that is normally found in the mesohyl becomes the outer protective layer. In freshwater sponges, gemmules may survive hostile environmental conditions like changes in temperature and serve to recolonize the habitat once environmental conditions stabilize. Gemmules are capable of attaching to a substratum and generating a new sponge. Since gemmules can withstand harsh environments, are resistant to desiccation, and remain dormant for long periods, they are an excellent means of colonization for a sessile organism. Sexual reproduction in sponges occurs when gametes are generated. Sponges are monoecious (hermaphroditic), which means that one individual can produce both gametes (eggs and sperm) simultaneously. In some sponges, production of gametes may occur throughout the year, whereas other sponges may show sexual cycles depending upon water temperature. Sponges may also become sequentially hermaphroditic, producing oocytes first and spermatozoa later. Oocytes arise by the differentiation of amoebocytes and are retained within the spongocoel, whereas spermatozoa result from the differentiation of choanocytes and are ejected via the osculum. Ejection of spermatozoa may be a timed and coordinated event, as seen in certain species. Spermatozoa carried along by water currents can fertilize the oocytes borne in the mesohyl of other sponges. Early larval development occurs within the sponge, and free-swimming larvae are then released via the osculum. Locomotion Sponges are generally sessile as adults and spend their lives attached to a fixed substratum. They do not show movement over large distances like other free-swimming marine invertebrates. However, sponge cells are capable of creeping along substrata via organizational plasticity. Under experimental conditions, researchers have shown that sponge cells spread on a physical support demonstrate a leading edge for directed movement. It has been speculated that this localized creeping movement may help sponges adjust to microenvironments near the point of attachment. It must be noted, however, that this pattern of movement has been documented in laboratories, but it remains to be observed in natural sponge habitats. Link to Learning Watch this BBC video showing the array of sponges seen along the Cayman Wall during a submersible dive. Section Summary Animals included in phylum Porifera are Parazoans because they do not show the formation of true tissues (except in class Hexactinellida). These organisms show very simple organization, with a rudimentary endoskeleton. Sponges have multiple cell types that are geared toward executing various metabolic functions. Although these animals are very simple, they perform several complex physiological functions. Art Connections Review Questions Mesohyl contains: - a polysaccharide gel and dead cells - a collagen-like gel and suspended cells for various functions - spicules composed of silica or calcium carbonate - multiple pores Hint: B The large central opening in the Parazoan body is called the: - gemmule - spicule - ostia - osculum Hint: D Free Response Describe the different cell types and their functions in sponges. Hint: Pinacocytes are epithelial-like cells, form the outermost layer of sponges, and enclose a jelly-like substance called mesohyl. In some sponges, porocytes form ostia, single tube-shaped cells that act as valves to regulate the flow of water into the spongocoel. Choanocytes (“collar cells”) are present at various locations, depending on the type of sponge, but they always line some space through which water flows and are used in feeding. Describe the feeding mechanism of sponges and identify how it is different from other animals. Hint: The sponges draw water carrying food particles into the spongocoel using the beating of flagella on the choanocytes. The food particles are caught by the collar of the choanocyte and are brought into the cell by phagocytosis. Digestion of the food particle takes place inside the cell. The difference between this and the mechanisms of other animals is that digestion takes place within cells rather than outside of cells. It means that the organism can feed only on particles smaller than the cells themselves.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.271362	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15077/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15078/overview	Phylum Cnidaria Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Compare structural and organization characteristics of Porifera and Cnidaria - Describe the progressive development of tissues and their relevance to animal complexity Phylum Cnidaria includes animals that show radial or biradial symmetry and are diploblastic, that is, they develop from two embryonic layers. Nearly all (about 99 percent) cnidarians are marine species. Cnidarians contain specialized cells known as cnidocytes (“stinging cells”) containing organelles called nematocysts (stingers). These cells are present around the mouth and tentacles, and serve to immobilize prey with toxins contained within the cells. Nematocysts contain coiled threads that may bear barbs. The outer wall of the cell has hairlike projections called cnidocils, which are sensitive to touch. When touched, the cells are known to fire coiled threads that can either penetrate the flesh of the prey or predators of cnidarians (see Figure) or ensnare it. These coiled threads release toxins into the target and can often immobilize prey or scare away predators. Link to Learning View this video animation showing two anemones engaged in a battle. Class Anthozoa The class Anthozoa includes all cnidarians that exhibit a polyp body plan only; in other words, there is no medusa stage within their life cycle. Examples include sea anemones (Figure), sea pens, and corals, with an estimated number of 6,100 described species. Sea anemones are usually brightly colored and can attain a size of 1.8 to 10 cm in diameter. These animals are usually cylindrical in shape and are attached to a substrate. A mouth opening is surrounded by tentacles bearing cnidocytes. The mouth of a sea anemone is surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes. The slit-like mouth opening and pharynx are lined by a groove called a siphonophore. The pharynx is the muscular part of the digestive system that serves to ingest as well as egest food, and may extend for up to two-thirds the length of the body before opening into the gastrovascular cavity. This cavity is divided into several chambers by longitudinal septa called mesenteries. Each mesentery consists of one ectodermal and one endodermal cell layer with the mesoglea sandwiched in between. Mesenteries do not divide the gastrovascular cavity completely, and the smaller cavities coalesce at the pharyngeal opening. The adaptive benefit of the mesenteries appears to be an increase in surface area for absorption of nutrients and gas exchange. Sea anemones feed on small fish and shrimp, usually by immobilizing their prey using the cnidocytes. Some sea anemones establish a mutualistic relationship with hermit crabs by attaching to the crab’s shell. In this relationship, the anemone gets food particles from prey caught by the crab, and the crab is protected from the predators by the stinging cells of the anemone. Anemone fish, or clownfish, are able to live in the anemone since they are immune to the toxins contained within the nematocysts. Anthozoans remain polypoid throughout their lives and can reproduce asexually by budding or fragmentation, or sexually by producing gametes. Both gametes are produced by the polyp, which can fuse to give rise to a free-swimming planula larva. The larva settles on a suitable substratum and develops into a sessile polyp. Class Scyphozoa Class Scyphozoa includes all the jellies and is exclusively a marine class of animals with about 200 known species. The defining characteristic of this class is that the medusa is the prominent stage in the life cycle, although there is a polyp stage present. Members of this species range from 2 to 40 cm in length but the largest scyphozoan species, Cyanea capillata, can reach a size of 2 m across. Scyphozoans display a characteristic bell-like morphology (Figure). In the jellyfish, a mouth opening is present on the underside of the animal, surrounded by tentacles bearing nematocysts. Scyphozoans live most of their life cycle as free-swimming, solitary carnivores. The mouth leads to the gastrovascular cavity, which may be sectioned into four interconnected sacs, called diverticuli. In some species, the digestive system may be further branched into radial canals. Like the septa in anthozoans, the branched gastrovascular cells serve two functions: to increase the surface area for nutrient absorption and diffusion; thus, more cells are in direct contact with the nutrients in the gastrovascular cavity. In scyphozoans, nerve cells are scattered all over the body. Neurons may even be present in clusters called rhopalia. These animals possess a ring of muscles lining the dome of the body, which provides the contractile force required to swim through water. Scyphozoans are dioecious animals, that is, the sexes are separate. The gonads are formed from the gastrodermis and gametes are expelled through the mouth. Planula larvae are formed by external fertilization; they settle on a substratum in a polypoid form known as scyphistoma. These forms may produce additional polyps by budding or may transform into the medusoid form. The life cycle (Figure) of these animals can be described as polymorphic, because they exhibit both a medusal and polypoid body plan at some point in their life cycle. Link to Learning Identify the life cycle stages of jellies using this video animation quiz from the New England Aquarium. Class Cubozoa This class includes jellies that have a box-shaped medusa, or a bell that is square in cross-section; hence, are colloquially known as “box jellyfish.” These species may achieve sizes of 15–25 cm. Cubozoans display overall morphological and anatomical characteristics that are similar to those of the scyphozoans. A prominent difference between the two classes is the arrangement of tentacles. This is the most venomous group of all the cnidarians (Figure). The cubozoans contain muscular pads called pedalia at the corners of the square bell canopy, with one or more tentacles attached to each pedalium. These animals are further classified into orders based on the presence of single or multiple tentacles per pedalium. In some cases, the digestive system may extend into the pedalia. Nematocysts may be arranged in a spiral configuration along the tentacles; this arrangement helps to effectively subdue and capture prey. Cubozoans exist in a polypoid form that develops from a planula larva. These polyps show limited mobility along the substratum and, like scyphozoans, may bud to form more polyps to colonize a habitat. Polyp forms then transform into the medusoid forms. Class Hydrozoa Hydrozoa includes nearly 3,200 species; most are marine, although some freshwater species are known (Figure). Animals in this class are polymorphs, and most exhibit both polypoid and medusoid forms in their lifecycle, although this is variable. The polyp form in these animals often shows a cylindrical morphology with a central gastrovascular cavity lined by the gastrodermis. The gastrodermis and epidermis have a simple layer of mesoglea sandwiched between them. A mouth opening, surrounded by tentacles, is present at the oral end of the animal. Many hydrozoans form colonies that are composed of a branched colony of specialized polyps that share a gastrovascular cavity, such as in the colonial hydroid Obelia. Colonies may also be free-floating and contain medusoid and polypoid individuals in the colony as in Physalia (the Portuguese Man O’ War) or Velella (By-the-wind sailor). Even other species are solitary polyps (Hydra) or solitary medusae (Gonionemus). The true characteristic shared by all of these diverse species is that their gonads for sexual reproduction are derived from epidermal tissue, whereas in all other cnidarians they are derived from gastrodermal tissue. Section Summary Cnidarians represent a more complex level of organization than Porifera. They possess outer and inner tissue layers that sandwich a noncellular mesoglea. Cnidarians possess a well-formed digestive system and carry out extracellular digestion. The cnidocyte is a specialized cell for delivering toxins to prey as well as warning off predators. Cnidarians have separate sexes and have a lifecycle that involves morphologically distinct forms. These animals also show two distinct morphological forms—medusoid and polypoid—at various stages in their lifecycle. Review Questions Cnidocytes are found in _____. - phylum Porifera - phylum Nemertea - phylum Nematoda - phylum Cnidaria Hint: D Cubozoans are ________. - polyps - medusoids - polymorphs - sponges Hint: C Free Response Explain the function of nematocysts in cnidarians. Hint: Nematocysts are “stinging cells” designed to paralyze prey. The nematocysts contain a neurotoxin that renders prey immobile. Compare the structural differences between Porifera and Cnidaria. Hint: Poriferans do not possess true tissues, while cnidarians do have tissues. Because of this difference, poriferans do not have a nervous system or muscles for locomotion, which cnidarians have.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.298550	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15078/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15079/overview	Superphylum Lophotrochozoa Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the unique anatomical and morphological features of flatworms, rotifers, Nemertea, mollusks, and annelids - Describe the development of an extracoelomic cavity - Discuss the advantages of true body segmentation - Explain the key features of Platyhelminthes and their importance as parasites - Describe the features of animals classified in phylum Annelida Animals belonging to superphylum Lophotrochozoa are protostomes, in which the blastopore, or the point of involution of the ectoderm or outer germ layer, becomes the mouth opening to the alimentary canal. This is called protostomy or “first mouth.” In protostomy, solid groups of cells split from the endoderm or inner germ layer to form a central mesodermal layer of cells. This layer multiplies into a band and then splits internally to form the coelom; this protostomic coelom is hence termed schizocoelom. As lophotrochozoans, the organisms in this superphylum possess either a lophophore or trochophore larvae. The lophophores include groups that are united by the presence of the lophophore, a set of ciliated tentacles surrounding the mouth. Lophophorata include the flatworms and several other phyla. These clades are upheld when RNA sequences are compared. Trochophore larvae are characterized by two bands of cilia around the body. The lophotrochozoans are triploblastic and possess an embryonic mesoderm sandwiched between the ectoderm and endoderm found in the diploblastic cnidarians. These phyla are also bilaterally symmetrical, meaning that a longitudinal section will divide them into right and left sides that are symmetrical. It also means the beginning of cephalization, the evolution of a concentration of nervous tissues and sensory organs in the head of the organism, which is where it first encounters its environment. Phylum Platyhelminthes The flatworms are acoelomate organisms that include many free-living and parasitic forms. Most of the flatworms are classified in the superphylum Lophotrochozoa, which also includes the mollusks and annelids. The Platyhelminthes consist of two lineages: the Catenulida and the Rhabditophora. The Catenulida, or "chain worms" is a small clade of just over 100 species. These worms typically reproduce asexually by budding. However, the offspring do not fully attach from the parents and, resemble a chain in appearance. All of the remaining flatworms discussed here are part of the Rhabditophora. Many flatworms are parasitic, including important parasites of humans. Flatworms have three embryonic tissue layers that give rise to surfaces that cover tissues (from ectoderm), internal tissues (from mesoderm), and line the digestive system (from endoderm). The epidermal tissue is a single layer cells or a layer of fused cells (syncytium) that covers a layer of circular muscle above a layer of longitudinal muscle. The mesodermal tissues include mesenchymal cells that contain collagen and support secretory cells that secrete mucus and other materials at the surface. The flatworms are acoelomates, so their bodies are solid between the outer surface and the cavity of the digestive system. Physiological Processes of Flatworms The free-living species of flatworms are predators or scavengers. Parasitic forms feed on the tissues of their hosts. Most flatworms, such as the planarian shown in Figure, have a gastrovascular cavity rather than a complete digestive system. In such animals, the “mouth” is also used to expel waste materials from the digestive system. Some species also have an anal opening. The gut may be a simple sac or highly branched. Digestion is extracellular, with digested materials taken in to the cells of the gut lining by phagocytosis. One group, the cestodes, lacks a digestive system. Flatworms have an excretory system with a network of tubules throughout the body with openings to the environment and nearby flame cells, whose cilia beat to direct waste fluids concentrated in the tubules out of the body. The system is responsible for the regulation of dissolved salts and the excretion of nitrogenous wastes. The nervous system consists of a pair of nerve cords running the length of the body with connections between them and a large ganglion or concentration of nerves at the anterior end of the worm, where there may also be a concentration of photosensory and chemosensory cells. There is neither a circulatory nor respiratory system, with gas and nutrient exchange dependent on diffusion and cell-cell junctions. This necessarily limits the thickness of the body in these organisms, constraining them to be “flat” worms. Most flatworm species are monoecious, and fertilization is typically internal. Asexual reproduction is common in some groups. Diversity of Flatworms Platyhelminthes are traditionally divided into four classes: Turbellaria, Monogenea, Trematoda, and Cestoda (Figure). As discussed above, the relationships among members of these classes is being reassessed, with the turbellarians in particular now viewed as a paraphyletic group, a group that does not have a single common ancestor. The class Turbellaria includes mainly free-living, marine species, although some species live in freshwater or moist terrestrial environments. The ventral epidermis of turbellarians is ciliated and facilitates their locomotion. Some turbellarians are capable of remarkable feats of regeneration in which they may regrow the body, even from a small fragment. The monogeneans are ectoparasites, mostly of fish, with simple lifecycles that consist of a free-swimming larva that attaches to a fish to begin transformation to the parasitic adult form. The parasite has only one host and that host is usually only one species. The worms may produce enzymes that digest the host tissues or simply graze on surface mucus and skin particles. Most monogeneans are hermaphroditic, but the male gametes develop first and so cross-fertilization is quite common. The trematodes, or flukes, are internal parasites of mollusks and many other groups, including humans. Trematodes have complex lifecycles that involve a primary host in which sexual reproduction occurs, and one or more secondary hosts in which asexual reproduction occurs. The primary host is almost always a mollusk. Trematodes are responsible for serious human diseases including schistosomiasis, a blood fluke. The disease infects an estimated 200 million people in the tropics, leading to organ damage and chronic symptoms like fatigue. Infection occurs when the human enters the water and a larva, released from the primary snail host, locates and penetrates the skin. The parasite infects various organs in the body and feeds on red blood cells before reproducing. Many of the eggs are released in feces and find their way into a waterway, where they are able to reinfect the primary snail host. The cestodes, or tapeworms, are also internal parasites, mainly of vertebrates (Figure). Tapeworms live in the intestinal tract of the primary host and remain fixed using a sucker on the anterior end, or scolex, of the tapeworm body. The remaining body of the tapeworm is made up of a long series of units called proglottids, each of which may contain an excretory system with flame cells, but contain reproductive structures, both male and female. Tapeworms do not possess a digestive system; instead, they absorb nutrients from the food matter passing them in the host’s intestine. Proglottids are produced at the scolex and gradually migrate to the end of the tapeworm; at this point, they are “mature” and all structures except fertilized eggs have degenerated. Most reproduction occurs by cross-fertilization. The proglottid detaches from the body of the worm and is released into the feces of the organism. The eggs are eaten by an intermediate host. The juvenile worm infects the intermediate host and takes up residence, usually in muscle tissue. When the muscle tissue is eaten by the primary host, the cycle is completed. There are several tapeworm parasites of humans that are transmitted by eating uncooked or poorly cooked pork, beef, and fish. Phylum Rotifera The rotifers are a microscopic (about 100 µm to 30 mm) group of mostly aquatic organisms that get their name from the corona, a rotating, wheel-like structure that is covered with cilia at their anterior end (Figure). Although their taxonomy is currently in flux, one treatment places the rotifers in three classes: Bdelloidea, Monogononta, and Seisonidea. The classification of the group is currently under revision, however, as more phylogenetic evidence becomes available. It is possible that the “spiny headed worms” currently in phylum Acanthocephala will be incorporated into this group in the future. The body form of rotifers consists of a head (which contains the corona), a trunk (which contains the organs), and the foot. Rotifers are typically free-swimming and truly planktonic organisms, but the toes or extensions of the foot can secrete a sticky material forming a holdfast to help them adhere to surfaces. The head contains sensory organs in the form of a bi-lobed brain and small eyespots near the corona. The rotifers are filter feeders that will eat dead material, algae, and other microscopic living organisms, and are therefore very important components of aquatic food webs. Rotifers obtain food that is directed toward the mouth by the current created from the movement of the corona. The food particles enter the mouth and travel to the mastax (pharynx with jaw-like structures). Food then passes by digestive and salivary glands, and into the stomach, then onto the intestines. Digestive and excretory wastes are collected in a cloacal bladder before being released out the anus. Link to Learning Watch this video to see rotifers feeding. Rotifers are pseudocoelomates commonly found in fresh water and some salt water environments throughout the world. Figure shows the anatomy of a rotifer belonging to class Bdelloidea. About 2,200 species of rotifers have been identified. Rotifers are dioecious organisms (having either male or female genitalia) and exhibit sexual dimorphism (males and females have different forms). Many species are parthenogenic and exhibit haplodiploidy, a method of sex determination in which a fertilized egg develops into a female and an unfertilized egg develops into a male. In many dioecious species, males are short-lived and smaller with no digestive system and a single testis. Females can produce eggs that are capable of dormancy for protection during harsh environmental conditions. Phylum Nemertea The Nemertea are colloquially known as ribbon worms. Most species of phylum Nemertea are marine, predominantly benthic or bottom dwellers, with an estimated 900 species known. However, nemertini have been recorded in freshwater and terrestrial habitats as well. Most nemerteans are carnivores, feeding on worms, clams, and crustaceans. Some species are scavengers, and some nemertini species, like Malacobdella grossa, have also evolved commensalistic relationships with some mollusks. Some species have devastated commercial fishing of clams and crabs. Nemerteans have almost no predators and two species are sold as fish bait. Morphology Ribbon worms vary in size from 1 cm to several meters. They show bilateral symmetry and remarkable contractile properties. Because of their contractility, they can change their morphological presentation in response to environmental cues. Animals in phylum Nemertea show a flattened morphology, that is, they are flat from front to back, like a flattened tube. Nemertea are soft and unsegmented animals (Figure). A unique characteristic of this phylum is the presence of a proboscis enclosed in a rhynchocoel. The proboscis serves to capture food and may be ornamented with barbs in some species. The rhynchocoel is a fluid-filled cavity that extends from the head to nearly two-thirds of the length of the gut in these animals (Figure). The proboscis may be extended or retracted by the retractor muscle attached to the wall of the rhynchocoel. Link to Learning Watch this video to see a nemertean attack a polychaete with its proboscis. Digestive System The nemertini show a very well-developed digestive system. A mouth opening that is ventral to the rhynchocoel leads into the foregut, followed by the intestine. The intestine is present in the form of diverticular pouches and ends in a rectum that opens via an anus. Gonads are interspersed with the intestinal diverticular pouches and open outwards via genital pores. A circulatory system consists of a closed loop of a pair of lateral blood vessels. The circulatory system is derived from the coelomic cavity of the embryo. Some animals may also have cross-connecting vessels in addition to lateral ones. Although these are called blood vessels, since they are of coelomic origin, the circulatory fluid is colorless. Some species bear hemoglobin as well as other yellow or green pigments. The blood vessels are connected to the rhynchocoel. The flow of fluid in these vessels is facilitated by the contraction of muscles in the body wall. A pair of protonephridia, or primitive kidneys, is present in these animals to facilitate osmoregulation. Gaseous exchange occurs through the skin in the nemertini. Nervous System Nemertini have a ganglion or “brain” situated at the anterior end between the mouth and the foregut, surrounding the digestive system as well as the rhynchocoel. A ring of four nerve masses called “ganglia” composes the brain in these animals. Paired longitudinal nerve cords emerge from the brain ganglia and extend to the posterior end. Ocelli or eyespots are present in pairs, in multiples of two in the anterior portion of the body. It is speculated that the eyespots originate from neural tissue and not from the epidermis. Reproduction Animals in phylum Nemertea show sexual dimorphism, although freshwater species may be hermaphroditic. Eggs and sperm are released into the water, and fertilization occurs externally. The zygote then develops into a planuliform larva. In some nemertine species, a pilidium larva may develop inside the young worm, from a series of imaginal discs. This larval form, characteristically shaped like a deerstalker cap, devours tissues from the young worm for survival before metamorphosing into the adult-like morphology. Phylum Mollusca Phylum Mollusca is the predominant phylum in marine environments. It is estimated that 23 percent of all known marine species are mollusks; there are over 75,000 described species, making them the second most diverse phylum of animals. The name “mollusca” signifies a soft body, since the earliest descriptions of mollusks came from observations of unshelled cuttlefish. Mollusks are predominantly a marine group of animals; however, they are known to inhabit freshwater as well as terrestrial habitats. Mollusks display a wide range of morphologies in each class and subclass, but share a few key characteristics, including a muscular foot, a visceral mass containing internal organs, and a mantle that may or may not secrete a shell of calcium carbonate (Figure). Art Connection Which of the following statements about the anatomy of a mollusk is false? - Mollusks have a radula for grinding food. - A digestive gland is connected to the stomach. - The tissue beneath the shell is called the mantle. - The digestive system includes a gizzard, a stomach, a digestive gland, and the intestine. Mollusks have a muscular foot, which is used for locomotion and anchorage, and varies in shape and function, depending on the type of mollusk under study. In shelled mollusks, this foot is usually the same size as the opening of the shell. The foot is a retractable as well as an extendable organ. The foot is the ventral-most organ, whereas the mantle is the limiting dorsal organ. Mollusks are eucoelomate, but the coelomic cavity is restricted to a cavity around the heart in adult animals. The mantle cavity develops independently of the coelomic cavity. The visceral mass is present above the foot, in the visceral hump. This includes digestive, nervous, excretory, reproductive, and respiratory systems. Mollusk species that are exclusively aquatic have gills for respiration, whereas some terrestrial species have lungs for respiration. Additionally, a tongue-like organ called a radula, which bears chitinous tooth-like ornamentation, is present in many species, and serves to shred or scrape food. The mantle (also known as the pallium) is the dorsal epidermis in mollusks; shelled mollusks are specialized to secrete a chitinous and hard calcareous shell. Most mollusks are dioecious animals and fertilization occurs externally, although this is not the case in terrestrial mollusks, such as snails and slugs, or in cephalopods. In some mollusks, the zygote hatches and undergoes two larval stages—trochophore and veliger—before becoming a young adult; bivalves may exhibit a third larval stage, glochidia. Classification of Phylum Mollusca Phylum Mollusca is a very diverse (85,000 species) group of mostly marine species. Mollusks have a dramatic variety of form, ranging from large predatory squids and octopus, some of which show a high degree of intelligence, to grazing forms with elaborately sculpted and colored shells. This phylum can be segregated into seven classes: Aplacophora, Monoplacophora, Polyplacophora, Bivalvia, Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, and Scaphopoda. Class Aplacophora (“bearing no plates”) includes worm-like animals primarily found in benthic marine habitats. These animals lack a calcareous shell but possess aragonite spicules on their epidermis. They have a rudimentary mantle cavity and lack eyes, tentacles, and nephridia (excretory organs). Members of class Monoplacophora (“bearing one plate”) posses a single, cap-like shell that encloses the body. The morphology of the shell and the underlying animal can vary from circular to ovate. A looped digestive system, multiple pairs of excretory organs, many gills, and a pair of gonads are present in these animals. The monoplacophorans were believed extinct and only known via fossil records until the discovery of Neopilina galathaea in 1952. Today, scientists have identified nearly two dozen extant species. Animals in the class Polyplacophora (“bearing many plates”) are commonly known as “chitons” and bear an armor-like eight-plated shell (Figure). These animals have a broad, ventral foot that is adapted for suction to rocks and other substrates, and a mantle that extends beyond the shell in the form of a girdle. Calcareous spines may be present on the girdle to offer protection from predators. Respiration is facilitated by ctenidia (gills) that are present ventrally. These animals possess a radula that is modified for scraping. The nervous system is rudimentary with only buccal or “cheek” ganglia present at the anterior end. Eyespots are absent in these animals. A single pair of nephridia for excretion is present. Class Bivalvia (“two shells”) includes clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, and geoducks. Members of this class are found in marine as well as freshwater habitats. As the name suggests, bivalves are enclosed in a pair of shells (valves are commonly called “shells”) that are hinged at the dorsal end by shell ligaments as well as shell teeth (Figure). The overall morphology is laterally flattened, and the head region is poorly developed. Eyespots and statocysts may be absent in some species. Since these animals are suspension feeders, a radula is absent in this class of mollusks. Respiration is facilitated by a pair of ctenidia, whereas excretion and osmoregulation are brought about by a pair of nephridia. Bivalves often possess a large mantle cavity. In some species, the posterior edges of the mantle may fuse to form two siphons that serve to take in and exude water. One of the functions of the mantle is to secrete the shell. Some bivalves like oysters and mussels possess the unique ability to secrete and deposit a calcareous nacre or “mother of pearl” around foreign particles that may enter the mantle cavity. This property has been commercially exploited to produce pearls. Link to Learning Watch the animations of bivalves feeding: View the process in clams and mussels at these sites. Animals in class Gastropoda (“stomach foot”) include well-known mollusks like snails, slugs, conchs, sea hares, and sea butterflies. Gastropoda includes shell-bearing species as well as species with a reduced shell. These animals are asymmetrical and usually present a coiled shell (Figure). Shells may be planospiral (like a garden hose wound up), commonly seen in garden snails, or conispiral, (like a spiral staircase), commonly seen in marine conches. The visceral mass in the shelled species displays torsion around the perpendicular axis on the center of the foot, which is the key characteristic of this group, along with a foot that is modified for crawling (Figure). Most gastropods bear a head with tentacles, eyes, and a style. A complex radula is used by the digestive system and aids in the ingestion of food. Eyes may be absent in some gastropods species. The mantle cavity encloses the ctenidia as well as a pair of nephridia. Everyday Connection Can Snail Venom Be Used as a Pharmacological Painkiller?Marine snails of the genus Conus (Figure) attack prey with a venomous sting. The toxin released, known as conotoxin, is a peptide with internal disulfide linkages. Conotoxins can bring about paralysis in humans, indicating that this toxin attacks neurological targets. Some conotoxins have been shown to block neuronal ion channels. These findings have led researchers to study conotoxins for possible medical applications. Conotoxins are an exciting area of potential pharmacological development, since these peptides may be possibly modified and used in specific medical conditions to inhibit the activity of specific neurons. For example, these toxins may be used to induce paralysis in muscles in specific health applications, similar to the use of botulinum toxin. Since the entire spectrum of conotoxins, as well as their mechanisms of action, are not completely known, the study of their potential applications is still in its infancy. Most research to date has focused on their use to treat neurological diseases. They have also shown some efficacy in relieving chronic pain, and the pain associated with conditions like sciatica and shingles. The study and use of biotoxins—toxins derived from living organisms—are an excellent example of the application of biological science to modern medicine. Class Cephalopoda (“head foot” animals), include octopi, squids, cuttlefish, and nautilus. Cephalopods are a class of shell-bearing animals as well as mollusks with a reduced shell. They display vivid coloration, typically seen in squids and octopi, which is used for camouflage. All animals in this class are carnivorous predators and have beak-like jaws at the anterior end. All cephalopods show the presence of a very well-developed nervous system along with eyes, as well as a closed circulatory system. The foot is lobed and developed into tentacles, and a funnel, which is used as their mode of locomotion. Suckers are present on the tentacles in octopi and squid. Ctenidia are enclosed in a large mantle cavity and are serviced by large blood vessels, each with its own heart associated with it; the mantle has siphonophores that facilitate exchange of water. Locomotion in cephalopods is facilitated by ejecting a stream of water for propulsion. This is called “jet” propulsion. A pair of nephridia is present within the mantle cavity. Sexual dimorphism is seen in this class of animals. Members of a species mate, and the female then lays the eggs in a secluded and protected niche. Females of some species care for the eggs for an extended period of time and may end up dying during that time period. Cephalopods such as squids and octopi also produce sepia or a dark ink, which is squirted upon a predator to assist in a quick getaway. Reproduction in cephalopods is different from other mollusks in that the egg hatches to produce a juvenile adult without undergoing the trochophore and veliger larval stages. In the shell-bearing Nautilus spp., the spiral shell is multi-chambered. These chambers are filled with gas or water to regulate buoyancy. The shell structure in squids and cuttlefish is reduced and is present internally in the form of a squid pen and cuttlefish bone, respectively. Examples are shown in Figure. Members of class Scaphopoda (“boat feet”) are known colloquially as “tusk shells” or “tooth shells,” as evident when examining Dentalium, one of the few remaining scaphopod genera (Figure). Scaphopods are usually buried in sand with the anterior opening exposed to water. These animals bear a single conical shell, which has both ends open. The head is rudimentary and protrudes out of the posterior end of the shell. These animals do not possess eyes, but they have a radula, as well as a foot modified into tentacles with a bulbous end, known as captaculae. Captaculae serve to catch and manipulate prey. Ctenidia are absent in these animals. Phylum Annelida Phylum Annelida includes segmented worms. These animals are found in marine, terrestrial, and freshwater habitats, but a presence of water or humidity is a critical factor for their survival, especially in terrestrial habitats. The name of the phylum is derived from the Latin word annellus, which means a small ring. Animals in this phylum show parasitic and commensal symbioses with other species in their habitat. Approximately 16,500 species have been described in phylum Annelida. The phylum includes earthworms, polychaete worms, and leeches. Annelids show protostomic development in embryonic stages and are often called “segmented worms” due to their key characteristic of metamerism, or true segmentation. Morphology Annelids display bilateral symmetry and are worm-like in overall morphology. Annelids have a segmented body plan wherein the internal and external morphological features are repeated in each body segment. Metamerism allows animals to become bigger by adding “compartments” while making their movement more efficient. This metamerism is thought to arise from identical teloblast cells in the embryonic stage, which give rise to identical mesodermal structures. The overall body can be divided into head, body, and pygidium (or tail). The clitellum is a reproductive structure that generates mucus that aids in sperm transfer and gives rise to a cocoon within which fertilization occurs; it appears as a fused band in the anterior third of the animal (Figure). Anatomy The epidermis is protected by an acellular, external cuticle, but this is much thinner than the cuticle found in the ecdysozoans and does not require periodic shedding for growth. Circular as well as longitudinal muscles are located interior to the epidermis. Chitinous hairlike extensions, anchored in the epidermis and projecting from the cuticle, called setae/chaetae are present in every segment. Annelids show the presence of a true coelom, derived from embryonic mesoderm and protostomy. Hence, they are the most advanced worms. A well-developed and complete digestive system is present in earthworms (oligochaetes) with a mouth, muscular pharynx, esophagus, crop, and gizzard being present. The gizzard leads to the intestine and ends in an anal opening. A cross-sectional view of a body segment of an earthworm (a terrestrial type of annelid) is shown in Figure; each segment is limited by a membranous septum that divides the coelomic cavity into a series of compartments. Annelids possess a closed circulatory system of dorsal and ventral blood vessels that run parallel to the alimentary canal as well as capillaries that service individual tissues. In addition, these vessels are connected by transverse loops in every segment. These animals lack a well-developed respiratory system, and gas exchange occurs across the moist body surface. Excretion is facilitated by a pair of metanephridia (a type of primitive “kidney” that consists of a convoluted tubule and an open, ciliated funnel) that is present in every segment towards the ventral side. Annelids show well-developed nervous systems with a nerve ring of fused ganglia present around the pharynx. The nerve cord is ventral in position and bears enlarged nodes or ganglia in each segment. Annelids may be either monoecious with permanent gonads (as in earthworms and leeches) or dioecious with temporary or seasonal gonads that develop (as in polychaetes). However, cross-fertilization is preferred in hermaphroditic animals. These animals may also show simultaneous hermaphroditism and participate in simultaneous sperm exchange when they are aligned for copulation. Link to Learning This combination video and animation provides a close-up look at annelid anatomy. Classification of Phylum Annelida Phylum Annelida contains the class Polychaeta (the polychaetes) and the class Oligochaeta (the earthworms, leeches and their relatives). Earthworms are the most abundant members of the class Oligochaeta, distinguished by the presence of the clitellum as well as few, reduced chaetae (“oligo- = “few”; -chaetae = “hairs”). The number and size of chaetae are greatly diminished in Oligochaeta compared to the polychaetes (poly=many, chaetae = hairs). The many chetae of polychaetes are also arranged within fleshy, flat, paired appendages that protrude from each segment called parapodia, which may be specialized for different functions in the polychates. The subclass Hirudinea includes leeches such as Hirudo medicinalis and Hemiclepsis marginata. The class Oligochaeta includes the subclass Hirudinia and the subclass Brachiobdella. A significant difference between leeches and other annelids is the development of suckers at the anterior and posterior ends and a lack of chaetae. Additionally, the segmentation of the body wall may not correspond to the internal segmentation of the coelomic cavity. This adaptation possibly helps the leeches to elongate when they ingest copious quantities of blood from host vertebrates. The subclass Brachiobdella includes species like Branchiobdella balcanica sketi and Branchiobdella astaci, worms that show similarity with leeches as well as oligochaetes. Section Summary Phylum Annelida includes vermiform, segmented animals. Segmentation is seen in internal anatomy as well, which is called metamerism. Annelids are protostomes. These animals have well-developed neuronal and digestive systems. Some species bear a specialized band of segments known as a clitellum. Annelids show the presence numerous chitinous projections termed chaetae, and polychaetes possess parapodia. Suckers are seen in order Hirudinea. Reproductive strategies include sexual dimorphism, hermaphroditism, and serial hermaphroditism. Internal segmentation is absent in class Hirudinea. Flatworms are acoelomate, triploblastic animals. They lack circulatory and respiratory systems, and have a rudimentary excretory system. This digestive system is incomplete in most species. There are four traditional classes of flatworms, the largely free-living turbellarians, the ectoparasitic monogeneans, and the endoparasitic trematodes and cestodes. Trematodes have complex lifecycles involving a molluscan secondary host and a primary host in which sexual reproduction takes place. Cestodes, or tapeworms, infect the digestive systems of primary vertebrate hosts. The rotifers are microscopic, multicellular, mostly aquatic organisms that are currently under taxonomic revision. The group is characterized by the rotating, ciliated, wheel-like structure, the corona, on their head. The mastax or jawed pharynx is another structure unique to this group of organisms. The nemertini are the simplest eucoelomates. These ribbon-shaped animals bear a specialized proboscis enclosed within a rhynchocoel. The development of a closed circulatory system derived from the coelom is a significant difference seen in this species compared to other pseudocoelomate phyla. Alimentary, nervous, and excretory systems are more developed in the nemertini than in less advanced phyla. Embryonic development of nemertine worms proceeds via a planuliform larval stage. Phylum Mollusca is a large, marine group of invertebrates. Mollusks show a variety of morphological variations within the phylum. This phylum is also distinct in that some members exhibit a calcareous shell as an external means of protection. Some mollusks have evolved a reduced shell. Mollusks are protostomes. The dorsal epidermis in mollusks is modified to form the mantle, which encloses the mantle cavity and visceral organs. This cavity is quite distinct from the coelomic cavity, which in the adult animal surrounds the heart. Respiration is facilitated by gills known as ctenidia. A chitinous-toothed tongue called the radula is present in most mollusks. Early development in some species occurs via two larval stages: trochophore and veliger. Sexual dimorphism is the predominant sexual strategy in this phylum. Mollusks can be divided into seven classes, each with distinct morphological characteristics. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements about the anatomy of a mollusk is false? - Mollusks have a radula for grinding food. - A digestive gland is connected to the stomach. - The tissue beneath the shell is called the mantle. - The digestive system includes a gizzard, a stomach, a digestive gland, and the intestine. Hint: Figure D Review Questions Annelids have a: - pseudocoelom - a true coelom - no coelom - none of the above Hint: B Which group of flatworms are primarily ectoparasites of fish? - monogeneans - trematodes - cestodes - turbellarians Hint: A A mantle and mantle cavity are present in: - phylum Echinodermata - phylum Adversoidea - phylum Mollusca - phylum Nemertea Hint: C The rhynchocoel is a ________. - circulatory system - fluid-filled cavity - primitive excretory system - proboscis Hint: B Free Response Describe the morphology and anatomy of mollusks. Hint: Mollusks have a large muscular foot that may be modified in various ways, such as into tentacles, but it functions in locomotion. They have a mantle, a structure of tissue that covers and encloses the dorsal portion of the animal, and secretes the shell when it is present. The mantle encloses the mantle cavity, which houses the gills (when present), excretory pores, anus, and gonadopores. The coelom of mollusks is restricted to the region around the systemic heart. The main body cavity is a hemocoel. Many mollusks have a radula near the mouth that is used for scraping food. What are the anatomical differences between nemertines and mollusks? Hint: Mollusks have a shell, even if it is a reduced shell. Nemertines do not have a shell. Nemertines have a proboscis; mollusks do not. Nemertines have a closed circulatory system, whereas Mollusks have an open circulatory system.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.343762	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15079/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15080/overview	Superphylum Ecdysozoa Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the structural organization of nematodes - Understand the importance of Caenorhabditis elegans in research - Compare the internal systems and appendage specializations of phylum Arthropoda - Discuss the environmental importance of arthropods - Discuss the reasons for arthropod success and abundance Superphylum Ecdysozoa The superphylum Ecdysozoa contains an incredibly large number of species. This is because it contains two of the most diverse animal groups: phylum Nematoda (the roundworms) and Phylum Arthropoda (the arthropods). The most prominant distinguising feature of Ecdysozoans is their tough external covering called the cuticle. The cuticle provides a tough, but flexible exoskeleton tht protects these animals from water loss, predators and other aspects of the external environment. All members of this superphylum periodically molt, or shed their cuticle as they grow. After molting, they secrete a new cuticle that will last until their next growth phase. The process of molting and replacing the cuticle is called ecdysis, which is how the superphylum derived its name. Phylum Nematoda The Nematoda, like most other animal phyla, are triploblastic and possess an embryonic mesoderm that is sandwiched between the ectoderm and endoderm. They are also bilaterally symmetrical, meaning that a longitudinal section will divide them into right and left sides that are symmetrical. Furthermore, the nematodes, or roundworms, possess a pseudocoelom and consist of both free-living and parasitic forms. It has been said that were all the non-nematode matter of the biosphere removed, there would remain a shadow of the former world in the form of nematodes.Stoll, N. R., “This wormy world. 1947,” Journal of Parasitology 85(3) (1999): 392-396. The arthropods, one of the most successful taxonomic groups on the planet, are coelomate organisms characterized by a hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages. Both the nematodes and arthropods belong to the superphylum Ecdysozoa that is believed to be a clade consisting of all evolutionary descendants from one common ancestor. The name derives from the word ecdysis, which refers to the shedding, or molting, of the exoskeleton. The phyla in this group have a hard cuticle that covers their bodies, which must be periodically shed and replaced for them to increase in size. Phylum Nematoda includes more than 28,000 species with an estimated 16,000 being parasitic in nature. The name Nematoda is derived from the Greek word “Nemos,” which means “thread” and includes roundworms. Nematodes are present in all habitats with a large number of individuals of each species present in each. The free-living nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans has been extensively used as a model system in laboratories all over the world. Morphology In contrast with cnidarians, nematodes show a tubular morphology and circular cross-section. These animals are pseudocoelomates and show the presence of a complete digestive system with a distinct mouth and anus. This is in contrast with the cnidarians, where only one opening is present (an incomplete digestive system). The cuticle of Nematodes is rich in collagen and a carbohydrate-protein polymer called chitin, and forms an external “skeleton” outside the epidermis. The cuticle also lines many of the organs internally, including the pharynx and rectum. The epidermis can be either a single layer of cells or a syncytium, which is a multinucleated cell formed from the fusion of uninucleated cells. The overall morphology of these worms is cylindrical, as seen in Figure. The head is radially symmetrical. A mouth opening is present at the anterior end with three or six lips as well as teeth in some species in the form of cuticle extensions. Some nematodes may present other external modifications like rings, head shields, or warts. Rings, however, do not reflect true internal body segmentation. The mouth leads to a muscular pharynx and intestine, which leads to a rectum and anal opening at the posterior end. The muscles of nematodes differ from those of most animals: They have a longitudinal layer only, which accounts for the whip-like motion of their movement. Excretory System In nematodes, specialized excretory systems are not well developed. Nitrogenous wastes may be lost by diffusion through the entire body or into the pseudocoelom (body cavity), where they are removed by specialized cells. Regulation of water and salt content of the body is achieved by renette glands, present under the pharynx in marine nematodes. Nervous system Most nematodes possess four longitudinal nerve cords that run along the length of the body in dorsal, ventral, and lateral positions. The ventral nerve cord is better developed than the dorsal or lateral cords. All nerve cords fuse at the anterior end, around the pharynx, to form head ganglia or the “brain” of the worm (which take the form of a ring around the pharynx) as well as at the posterior end to form the tail ganglia. In C. elegans, the nervous system accounts for nearly one-third of the total number of cells in the animal. Reproduction Nematodes employ a variety of reproductive strategies that range from monoecious to dioecious to parthenogenic, depending upon the species under consideration. C. elegans is a monoecious species and shows development of ova contained in a uterus as well as sperm contained in the spermatheca. The uterus has an external opening known as the vulva. The female genital pore is near the middle of the body, whereas the male’s is at the tip. Specialized structures at the tail of the male keep him in place while he deposits sperm with copulatory spicules. Fertilization is internal, and embryonic development starts very soon after fertilization. The embryo is released from the vulva during the gastrulation stage. The embryonic development stage lasts for 14 hours; development then continues through four successive larval stages with ecdysis between each stage—L1, L2, L3, and L4—ultimately leading to the development of a young male or female adult worm. Adverse environmental conditions like overcrowding and lack of food can result in the formation of an intermediate larval stage known as the dauer larva. Everyday Connection C. elegans: The Model System for Linking Developmental Studies with Genetics If biologists wanted to research how nicotine dependence develops in the body, how lipids are regulated, or observe the attractant or repellant properties of certain odors, they would clearly need to design three very different experiments. However, they might only need one object of study: C. elegans. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was brought into the focus of mainstream biological research by Dr. Sydney Brenner. Since 1963, Dr. Brenner and scientists worldwide have used this animal as a model system to study various physiological and developmental mechanisms. C. elegans is a free-living organism found in soil. It is easy to culture this organism on agar plates (10,000 worms/plate), it feeds on Escherichia coli (another long-term resident of biological laboratories worldwide), and therefore, it can be readily grown and maintained in a laboratory. The biggest asset of this nematode is its transparency, which helps researchers to observe and monitor changes within the animal with ease. It is also a simple organism with fewer than 1,000 cells and a genome of 20,000 genes. It shows chromosomal organization of DNA into five pairs of autosomes plus a pair of sex chromosomes, making it an ideal candidate to study genetics. Since every cell can be visualized and identified, this organism is useful for studying cellular phenomena like cell-cell interactions, cell-fate determinations, cell division, apoptosis, and intracellular transport. Another tremendous asset is the short life cycle of this worm (Figure). It takes only 3 days to achieve the “egg to adult to daughter egg;” therefore, tracking genetic changes is easier in this animal. The total life span of C. elegans is 2 to 3 weeks; hence, age-related phenomena are easy to observe. Another feature that makes C. elegans an excellent experimental model system is that the position and number of the 959 cells present in adult hermaphrodites of this organism is constant. This feature is extremely significant when studying cell differentiation, cell-cell communication, and apoptosis. Lastly, C. elegans is also amenable to genetic manipulations using molecular methods, rounding off its usefulness as a model system. Biologists worldwide have created information banks and groups dedicated to research using C. elegans. Their findings have led, for example, to better understandings of cell communication during development, neuronal signaling and insight into lipid regulation (which is important in addressing health issues like the development of obesity and diabetes). In recent years, studies have enlightened the medical community with a better understanding of polycystic kidney disease. This simple organism has led biologists to complex and significant findings, growing the field of science in ways that touch the everyday world. A number of common parasitic nematodes serve as prime examples of parasitism. These animals exhibit complex lifecycles that involve multiple hosts, and they can have significant medical and veterinary impacts. Humans may become infected by Dracunculus medinensis, known as guinea worms, when they drink unfiltered water containing copepods (Figure). Hookworms, such as Ancyclostoma and Necator, infest the intestines and feed on the blood of mammals, especially in dogs, cats, and humans. Trichina worms (Trichinella) are the causal organism of trichinosis in humans, often resulting from the consumption of undercooked pork; Trichinella can infect other mammalian hosts as well. Ascaris, a large intestinal roundworm, steals nutrition from its human host and may create physical blockage of the intestines. The filarial worms, such as Dirofilaria and Wuchereria, are commonly vectored by mosquitoes, which pass the infective agents among mammals through their blood-sucking activity. Dirofilaria immitis, a blood-infective parasite, is the notorious dog heartworm species. Wuchereria bancrofti infects the lymph nodes of humans, resulting in the non-lethal but deforming condition called elephantiasis, in which parts of the body become swelled to gigantic proportions due to obstruction of lymphatic drainage and inflammation of lymphatic tissues. Phylum Arthropoda The name “arthropoda” means “jointed legs” (in the Greek, “arthros” means “joint” and “podos” means “leg”); it aptly describes the enormous number of invertebrates included in this phylum. Arthropoda dominate the animal kingdom with an estimated 85 percent of known species included in this phylum and many arthropods yet undocumented. The principal characteristics of all the animals in this phylum are functional segmentation of the body and presence of jointed appendages. Arthropods also show the presence of an exoskeleton made principally of chitin, which is a waterproof, tough polysaccharide. Phylum Arthropoda is the largest phylum in the animal world, and insects form the single largest class within this phylum. Arthropods are eucoelomate, protostomic organisms. Phylum Arthropoda includes animals that have been successful in colonizing terrestrial, aquatic, and aerial habitats. This phylum is further classified into five subphyla: Trilobitomorpha (trilobites, all extinct), Hexapoda (insects and relatives), Myriapoda (millipedes, centipedes, and relatives), Crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, crayfish, isopods, barnacles, and some zooplankton), and Chelicerata (horseshoe crabs, arachnids, scorpions, and daddy longlegs). Trilobites are an extinct group of arthropods found chiefly in the pre-Cambrian Era that are probably most closely related to the Chelicerata. These are identified based on fossil records (Figure). Morphology A unique feature of animals in the arthropod phylum is the presence of a segmented body and fusion of sets of segments that give rise to functional body regions called tagma. Tagma may be in the form of a head, thorax, and abdomen, or a cephalothorax and abdomen, or a head and trunk. A central cavity, called the hemocoel (or blood cavity), is present, and the open circulatory system is regulated by a tubular or single-chambered heart. Respiratory systems vary depending on the group of arthropod: insects and myriapods use a series of tubes (tracheae) that branch through the body, open to the outside through openings called spiracles, and perform gas exchange directly between the cells and air in the tracheae, whereas aquatic crustaceans utilize gills, terrestrial chelicerates employ book lungs, and aquatic chelicerates use book gills (Figure). The book lungs of arachnids (scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites) contain a vertical stack of hemocoel wall tissue that somewhat resembles the pages of a book. Between each of the "pages" of tissue is an air space. This allows both sides of the tissue to be in contact with the air at all times, greatly increasing the efficiency of gas exchange. The gills of crustaceans are filamentous structures that exchange gases with the surrounding water. Groups of arthropods also differ in the organs used for excretion, with crustaceans possessing green glands and insects using Malpighian tubules, which work in conjunction with the hindgut to reabsorb water while ridding the body of nitrogenous waste. The cuticle is the covering of an arthropod. It is made up of two layers: the epicuticle, which is a thin, waxy water-resistant outer layer containing no chitin, and the layer beneath it, the chitinous procuticle. Chitin is a tough, flexible polysaccharide. In order to grow, the arthropod must shed the exoskeleton during a process called ecdysis (“to strip off”); this is a cumbersome method of growth, and during this time, the animal is vulnerable to predation. The characteristic morphology of representative animals from each subphylum is described below. Subphylum Hexapoda The name Hexapoda denotes the presence of six legs (three pairs) in these animals as differentiated from the number of pairs present in other arthropods. Hexapods are characterized by the presence of a head, thorax, and abdomen, constituting three tagma. The thorax bears the wings as well as six legs in three pairs. Many of the common insects we encounter on a daily basis—including ants, cockroaches, butterflies, and flies—are examples of Hexapoda. Amongst the hexapods, the insects (Figure) are the largest class in terms of species diversity as well as biomass in terrestrial habitats. Typically, the head bears one pair of sensory antennae, mandibles as mouthparts, a pair of compound eyes, and some ocelli (simple eyes) along with numerous sensory hairs. The thorax bears three pairs of legs (one pair per segment) and two pairs of wings, with one pair each on the second and third thoracic segments. The abdomen usually has eleven segments and bears reproductive apertures. Hexapoda includes insects that are winged (like fruit flies) and wingless (like fleas). Art Connection Which of the following statements about insects is false? - Insects have both dorsal and ventral blood vessels. - Insects have spiracles, openings that allow air to enter. - The trachea is part of the digestive system. - Insects have a developed digestive system with a mouth, crop, and intestine. Subphylum Myriapoda Subphylum Myriapoda includes arthropods with numerous legs. Although the name is hyperbolic in suggesting that myriad legs are present in these invertebrates, the number of legs may vary from 10 to 750. This subphylum includes 13,000 species; the most commonly found examples are millipedes and centipedes. All myriapods are terrestrial animals and prefer a humid environment. Myriapods are typically found in moist soils, decaying biological material, and leaf litter. Subphylum Myriapoda is divided into four classes: Chilopoda, Symphyla, Diplopoda, and Pauropoda. Centipedes like Scutigera coleoptrata (Figure) are classified as chilopods. These animals bear one pair of legs per segment, mandibles as mouthparts, and are somewhat dorsoventrally flattened. The legs in the first segment are modified to form forcipules (poison claws) that deliver poison to prey like spiders and cockroaches, as these animals are all predatory. Millipedes bear two pairs of legs per diplosegment, a feature that results from embryonic fusion of adjacent pairs of body segments, are usually rounder in cross-section, and are herbivores or detritivores. Millipedes have visibly more numbers of legs as compared to centipedes, although they do not bear a thousand legs (Figure). Subphylum Crustacea Crustaceans are the most dominant aquatic arthropods, since the total number of marine crustacean species stands at 67,000, but there are also freshwater and terrestrial crustacean species. Krill, shrimp, lobsters, crabs, and crayfish are examples of crustaceans (Figure). Terrestrial species like the wood lice (Armadillidium spp.) (also called pill bugs, rolly pollies, potato bugs, or isopods) are also crustaceans, although the number of non-aquatic species in this subphylum is relatively low. Crustaceans possess two pairs of antennae, mandibles as mouthparts, and biramous (“two branched”) appendages, which means that their legs are formed in two parts, as distinct from the uniramous (“one branched”) myriapods and hexapods (Figure). Unlike that of the Hexapoda, the head and thorax of most crustaceans is fused to form a cephalothorax (Figure), which is covered by a plate called the carapace, thus producing a body structure of two tagma. Crustaceans have a chitinous exoskeleton that is shed by molting whenever the animal increases in size. The exoskeletons of many species are also infused with calcium carbonate, which makes them even stronger than in other arthropods. Crustaceans have an open circulatory system where blood is pumped into the hemocoel by the dorsally located heart. Hemocyanin and hemoglobin are the respiratory pigments present in these animals. Most crustaceans are dioecious, which means that the sexes are separate. Some species like barnacles may be hermaphrodites. Serial hermaphroditism, where the gonad can switch from producing sperm to ova, may also be seen in some species. Fertilized eggs may be held within the female of the species or may be released in the water. Terrestrial crustaceans seek out damp spaces in their habitats to lay eggs. Larval stages—nauplius and zoea—are seen in the early development of crustaceans. A cypris larva is also seen in the early development of barnacles (Figure). Crustaceans possess a tripartite brain and two compound eyes. Most crustaceans are carnivorous, but herbivorous and detritivorous species are also known. Crustaceans may also be cannibalistic when extremely high populations of these organisms are present. Subphylum Chelicerata This subphylum includes animals such as spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders. This subphylum is predominantly terrestrial, although some marine species also exist. An estimated 77,000 species are included in subphylum Chelicerata. Chelicerates are found in almost all habitats. The body of chelicerates may be divided into two parts: prosoma and opisthosoma, which are basically the equivalents of cephalothorax (usually smaller) and abdomen (usually larger). A “head” tagmum is not usually discernible. The phylum derives its name from the first pair of appendages: the chelicerae (Figure), which are specialized, claw-like or fang-like mouthparts. These animals do not possess antennae. The second pair of appendages is known as pedipalps. In some species, like sea spiders, an additional pair of appendages, called ovigers, is present between the chelicerae and pedipalps. Chelicerae are mostly used for feeding, but in spiders, these are often modified into fangs that inject venom into their prey before feeding (Figure). Members of this subphylum have an open circulatory system with a heart that pumps blood into the hemocoel. Aquatic species have gills, whereas terrestrial species have either trachea or book lungs for gaseous exchange. Most chelicerates ingest food using a preoral cavity formed by the chelicerae and pedipalps. Some chelicerates may secrete digestive enzymes to pre-digest food before ingesting it. Parasitic chelicerates like ticks and mites have evolved blood-sucking apparatuses. The nervous system in chelicerates consists of a brain and two ventral nerve cords. These animals use external fertilization as well as internal fertilization strategies for reproduction, depending upon the species and its habitat. Parental care for the young ranges from absolutely none to relatively prolonged care. Link to Learning Visit this site to click through a lesson on arthropods, including interactive habitat maps, and more. Section Summary Nematodes are pseudocoelomate animals akin to flatworms, yet display more advanced neuronal development, a complete digestive system, and a body cavity. This phylum includes free-living as well as parasitic organisms like Caenorhabditis elegans and Ascaris spp., respectively. They include dioeceous as well as hermaphroditic species. Nematodes also possess an excretory system that is not quite well developed. Embryonic development is external and proceeds via three larval stages. A peculiar feature of nematodes is the secretion of a collagenous/chitinous cuticle outside the body. Arthropods represent the most successful phylum of animal on Earth, in terms of the number of species as well as the number of individuals. These animals are characterized by a segmented body as well as the presence of jointed appendages. In the basic body plan, a pair of appendages is present per body segment. Within the phylum, traditional classification is based on mouthparts, number of appendages, and modifications of appendages present. Arthropods bear a chitinous exoskeleton. Gills, trachea, and book lungs facilitate respiration. Sexual dimorphism is seen in this phylum, and embryonic development includes multiple larval stages. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements about insects is false? - Insects have both dorsal and ventral blood vessels. - Insects have spiracles, openings that allow air to enter. - The trachea is part of the digestive system. - Insects have a developed digestive system with a mouth, crop, and intestine. Hint: Figure C Review Questions The embryonic development in nematodes can have up to __________ larval stages. - one - two - three - five Hint: D The nematode cuticle contains _____. - glucose - skin cells - chitin - nerve cells Hint: C Crustaceans are _____. - ecdysozoans - nematodes - arachnids - parazoans Hint: A Flies are_______. - chelicerates - hexapods - arachnids - crustaceans Hint: B Free Response Enumerate features of Caenorhabditis elegans that make it a valuable model system for biologists. Hint: It is a true animal with at least rudiments of the physiological systems—feeding, nervous, muscle, and reproductive—found in “higher animals” like mice and humans. It is so small that large numbers can be raised in Petri dishes. It reproduces rapidly. It is transparent so that every cell in the living animal can be seen under the microscope. Before it dies (after 2–3 weeks), it shows signs of aging and thus may provide general clues as to the aging process. What are the different ways in which nematodes can reproduce? Hint: There are nematodes with separate sexes and hermaphrodites in addition to species that reproduce parthenogentically. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has a self-fertilizing hermaphrodite sex and a pure male sex. Describe the various superclasses that phylum Arthropoda can be divided into. Hint: The Arthropoda include the Hexapoda, which are mandibulates with six legs, the Myriapoda, which are mandibulates with many legs and include the centipedes and millipedes, the Crustacea, which are mostly marine mandibulates, and the Chelicerata, which include the spiders and scorpions and their kin. Compare and contrast the segmentation seen in phylum Annelida with that seen in phylum Arthropoda. Hint: Arthropods have an exoskeleton, which is missing in annelids. Arthropod segmentation is more specialized with major organs concentrated in body tagma. Annelid segmentation is usually more uniform with the intestine extending through most segments.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.386895	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15080/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15081/overview	Superphylum Deuterostomia Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the distinguishing characteristics of echinoderms - Describe the distinguishing characteristics of chordates The phyla Echinodermata and Chordata (the phylum in which humans are placed) both belong to the superphylum Deuterostomia. Recall that protostome and deuterostomes differ in certain aspects of their embryonic development, and they are named based on which opening of the digestive cavity develops first. The word deuterostome comes from the Greek word meaning “mouth second,” indicating that the anus is the first to develop. There are a series of other developmental characteristics that differ between protostomes and deuterostomes, including the mode of formation of the coelom and the early cell division of the embryo. In deuterostomes, internal pockets of the endodermal lining called the archenteron fuse to form the coelom. The endodermal lining of the archenteron (or the primitive gut) forms membrane protrusions that bud off and become the mesodermal layer. These buds, known as coelomic pouches, fuse to form the coelomic cavity, as they eventually separate from the endodermal layer. The resultant coelom is termed an enterocoelom. The archenteron develops into the alimentary canal, and a mouth opening is formed by invagination of ectoderm at the pole opposite the blastopore of the gastrula. The blastopore forms the anus of the alimentary system in the juvenile and adult forms. The fates of embryonic cells in deuterostomes can be altered if they are experimentally moved to a different location in the embryo due to indeterminant cleavage in early embryogenesis. Phylum Echinodermata Echinodermata are so named owing to their spiny skin (from the Greek “echinos” meaning “spiny” and “dermos” meaning “skin”), and this phylum is a collection of about 7,000 described living species. Echinodermata are exclusively marine organisms. Sea stars (Figure), sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars, and brittle stars are all examples of echinoderms. To date, no freshwater or terrestrial echinoderms are known. Morphology and Anatomy Adult echinoderms exhibit pentaradial symmetry and have a calcareous endoskeleton made of ossicles, although the early larval stages of all echinoderms have bilateral symmetry. The endoskeleton is developed by epidermal cells and may possess pigment cells, giving vivid colors to these animals, as well as cells laden with toxins. Gonads are present in each arm. In echinoderms like sea stars, every arm bears two rows of tube feet on the oral side. These tube feet help in attachment to the substratum. These animals possess a true coelom that is modified into a unique circulatory system called a water vascular system. An interesting feature of these animals is their power to regenerate, even when over 75 percent of their body mass is lost. Water Vascular System Echinoderms possess a unique ambulacral or water vascular system, consisting of a central ring canal and radial canals that extend along each arm. Water circulates through these structures and facilitates gaseous exchange as well as nutrition, predation, and locomotion. The water vascular system also projects from holes in the skeleton in the form of tube feet. These tube feet can expand or contract based on the volume of water present in the system of that arm. By using hydrostatic pressure, the animal can either protrude or retract the tube feet. Water enters the madreporite on the aboral side of the echinoderm. From there, it passes into the stone canal, which moves water into the ring canal. The ring canal connects the radial canals (there are five in a pentaradial animal), and the radial canals move water into the ampullae, which have tube feet through which the water moves. By moving water through the unique water vascular system, the echinoderm can move and force open mollusk shells during feeding. Nervous System The nervous system in these animals is a relatively simple structure with a nerve ring at the center and five radial nerves extending outward along the arms. Structures analogous to a brain or derived from fusion of ganglia are not present in these animals. Excretory System Podocytes, cells specialized for ultrafiltration of bodily fluids, are present near the center of echinoderms. These podocytes are connected by an internal system of canals to an opening called the madreporite. Reproduction Echinoderms are sexually dimorphic and release their eggs and sperm cells into water; fertilization is external. In some species, the larvae divide asexually and multiply before they reach sexual maturity. Echinoderms may also reproduce asexually, as well as regenerate body parts lost in trauma. Classes of Echinoderms This phylum is divided into five extant classes: Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or feather stars), and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers) (Figure). The most well-known echinoderms are members of class Asteroidea, or sea stars. They come in a large variety of shapes, colors, and sizes, with more than 1,800 species known so far. The key characteristic of sea stars that distinguishes them from other echinoderm classes includes thick arms (ambulacra) that extend from a central disk where organs penetrate into the arms. Sea stars use their tube feet not only for gripping surfaces but also for grasping prey. Sea stars have two stomachs, one of which can protrude through their mouths and secrete digestive juices into or onto prey, even before ingestion. This process can essentially liquefy the prey and make digestion easier. Link to Learning Explore the sea star’s body plan up close, watch one move across the sea floor, and see it devour a mussel. Brittle stars belong to the class Ophiuroidea. Unlike sea stars, which have plump arms, brittle stars have long, thin arms that are sharply demarcated from the central disk. Brittle stars move by lashing out their arms or wrapping them around objects and pulling themselves forward. Sea urchins and sand dollars are examples of Echinoidea. These echinoderms do not have arms, but are hemispherical or flattened with five rows of tube feet that help them in slow movement; tube feet are extruded through pores of a continuous internal shell called a test. Sea lilies and feather stars are examples of Crinoidea. Both of these species are suspension feeders. Sea cucumbers of class Holothuroidea are extended in the oral-aboral axis and have five rows of tube feet. These are the only echinoderms that demonstrate “functional” bilateral symmetry as adults, because the uniquely extended oral-aboral axis compels the animal to lie horizontally rather than stand vertically. Phylum Chordata Animals in the phylum Chordata share four key features that appear at some stage of their development: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. In some groups, some of these traits are present only during embryonic development. In addition to containing vertebrate classes, the phylum Chordata contains two clades of invertebrates: Urochordata (tunicates) and Cephalochordata (lancelets). Most tunicates live on the ocean floor and are suspension feeders. Lancelets are suspension feeders that feed on phytoplankton and other microorganisms. Section Summary Echinoderms are deuterostomic marine organisms. This phylum of animals bears a calcareous endoskeleton composed of ossicles. These animals also have spiny skin. Echinoderms possess water-based circulatory systems. A pore termed the madreporite is the point of entry and exit for water into the water vascular system. Osmoregulation is carried out by specialized cells known as podocytes. The characteristic features of Chordata are a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. Chordata contains two clades of invertebrates: Urochordata (tunicates) and Cephalochordata (lancelets), together with the vertebrates in Vertebrata. Most tunicates live on the ocean floor and are suspension feeders. Lancelets are suspension feeders that feed on phytoplankton and other microorganisms. Review Questions Echinoderms have _____. - triangular symmetry - radial symmetry - hexagonal symmetry - pentaradial symmetry Hint: D The circulatory fluid in echinoderms is _____. - blood - mesohyl - water - saline Hint: C Free Response Describe the different classes of echinoderms using examples. Hint: The Asteroidea are the sea stars, the Echinoidea are the sea urchins and sand dollars, the Ophiuroidea are the brittle stars, the Crinoidea are the sea lilies and feather stars, the Holothuroidea are the sea cucumbers.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.412201	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15081/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15082/overview	Introduction Vertebrates are among the most recognizable organisms of the animal kingdom. More than 62,000 vertebrate species have been identified. The vertebrate species now living represent only a small portion of the vertebrates that have existed. The best-known extinct vertebrates are the dinosaurs, a unique group of reptiles, which reached sizes not seen before or after in terrestrial animals. They were the dominant terrestrial animals for 150 million years, until they died out in a mass extinction near the end of the Cretaceous period. Although it is not known with certainty what caused their extinction, a great deal is known about the anatomy of the dinosaurs, given the preservation of skeletal elements in the fossil record. Currently, a number of vertebrate species face extinction primarily due to habitat loss and pollution. According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, more than 6,000 vertebrate species are classified as threatened. Amphibians and mammals are the classes with the greatest percentage of threatened species, with 29 percent of all amphibians and 21 percent of all mammals classified as threatened. Attempts are being made around the world to prevent the extinction of threatened species. For example, the Biodiversity Action Plan is an international program, ratified by 188 countries, which is designed to protect species and habitats.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.430671	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15082/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15083/overview	Chordates Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the distinguishing characteristics of chordates - Identify the derived character of craniates that sets them apart from other chordates - Describe the developmental fate of the notochord in vertebrates Vertebrates are members of the kingdom Animalia and the phylum Chordata (Figure). Recall that animals that possess bilateral symmetry can be divided into two groups—protostomes and deuterostomes—based on their patterns of embryonic development. The deuterostomes, whose name translates as “second mouth,” consist of two phyla: Chordata and Echinodermata. Echinoderms are invertebrate marine animals that have pentaradial symmetry and a spiny body covering, a group that includes sea stars, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers. The most conspicuous and familiar members of Chordata are vertebrates, but this phylum also includes two groups of invertebrate chordates. Characteristics of Chordata Animals in the phylum Chordata share four key features that appear at some stage during their development: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail (Figure). In some groups, some of these are present only during embryonic development. The chordates are named for the notochord, which is a flexible, rod-shaped structure that is found in the embryonic stage of all chordates and in the adult stage of some chordate species. It is located between the digestive tube and the nerve cord, and provides skeletal support through the length of the body. In some chordates, the notochord acts as the primary axial support of the body throughout the animal’s lifetime. In vertebrates, the notochord is present during embryonic development, at which time it induces the development of the neural tube and serves as a support for the developing embryonic body. The notochord, however, is not found in the postnatal stage of vertebrates; at this point, it has been replaced by the vertebral column (that is, the spine). Art Connection Which of the following statements about common features of chordates is true? - The dorsal hollow nerve cord is part of the chordate central nervous system. - In vertebrate fishes, the pharyngeal slits become the gills. - Humans are not chordates because humans do not have a tail. - Vertebrates do not have a notochord at any point in their development; instead, they have a vertebral column. The dorsal hollow nerve cord derives from ectoderm that rolls into a hollow tube during development. In chordates, it is located dorsal to the notochord. In contrast, other animal phyla are characterized by solid nerve cords that are located either ventrally or laterally. The nerve cord found in most chordate embryos develops into the brain and spinal cord, which compose the central nervous system. Pharyngeal slits are openings in the pharynx (the region just posterior to the mouth) that extend to the outside environment. In organisms that live in aquatic environments, pharyngeal slits allow for the exit of water that enters the mouth during feeding. Some invertebrate chordates use the pharyngeal slits to filter food out of the water that enters the mouth. In vertebrate fishes, the pharyngeal slits are modified into gill supports, and in jawed fishes, into jaw supports. In tetrapods, the slits are modified into components of the ear and tonsils. Tetrapod literally means “four-footed,” which refers to the phylogenetic history of various groups that evolved accordingly, even though some now possess fewer than two pairs of walking appendages. Tetrapods include amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The post-anal tail is a posterior elongation of the body, extending beyond the anus. The tail contains skeletal elements and muscles, which provide a source of locomotion in aquatic species, such as fishes. In some terrestrial vertebrates, the tail also helps with balance, courting, and signaling when danger is near. In humans, the post-anal tail is vestigial, that is, reduced in size and nonfunctional. Link to Learning Click for a video discussing the evolution of chordates and five characteristics that they share. Chordates and the Evolution of Vertebrates Chordata also contains two clades of invertebrates: Urochordata and Cephalochordata. Members of these groups also possess the four distinctive features of chordates at some point during their development. Urochordata Members of Urochordata are also known as tunicates (Figure). The name tunicate derives from the cellulose-like carbohydrate material, called the tunic, which covers the outer body of tunicates. Although adult tunicates are classified as chordates, they do not have a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, or a post-anal tail, although they do have pharyngeal slits. The larval form, however, possesses all four structures. Most tunicates are hermaphrodites. Tunicate larvae hatch from eggs inside the adult tunicate’s body. After hatching, a tunicate larva swims for a few days until it finds a suitable surface on which it can attach, usually in a dark or shaded location. It then attaches via the head to the surface and undergoes metamorphosis into the adult form, at which point the notochord, nerve cord, and tail disappear. Most tunicates live a sessile existence on the ocean floor and are suspension feeders. The primary foods of tunicates are plankton and detritus. Seawater enters the tunicate’s body through its incurrent siphon. Suspended material is filtered out of this water by a mucous net (pharyngeal slits) and is passed into the intestine via the action of cilia. The anus empties into the excurrent siphon, which expels wastes and water. Tunicates are found in shallow ocean waters around the world. Cephalochordata Members of Cephalochordata possess a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail in the adult stage (Figure). The notochord extends into the head, which gives the subphylum its name. Extinct members of this subphylum include Pikaia, which is the oldest known cephalochordate. Pikaia fossils were recovered from the Burgess shales of Canada and dated to the middle of the Cambrian age, making them more than 500 million years old. Extant members of Cephalochordata are the lancelets, named for their blade-like shape. Lancelets are only a few centimeters long and are usually found buried in sand at the bottom of warm temperate and tropical seas. Like tunicates, they are suspension feeders. Craniata and Vertebrata A cranium is a bony, cartilaginous, or fibrous structure surrounding the brain, jaw, and facial bones (Figure). Most bilaterally symmetrical animals have a head; of these, those that have a cranium compose the clade Craniata. Craniata includes the hagfishes (Myxini), which have a cranium but lack a backbone, and all of the organisms called “vertebrates.” Vertebrates are members of the clade Vertebrata. Vertebrates display the four characteristic features of the chordates; however, members of this group also share derived characteristics that distinguish them from invertebrate chordates. Vertebrata is named for the vertebral column, composed of vertebrae, a series of separate bones joined together as a backbone (Figure). In adult vertebrates, the vertebral column replaces the notochord, which is only seen in the embryonic stage. Based on molecular analysis, vertebrates appear to be more closely related to lancelets (cephalochordates) than to tunicates (urochordates) among the invertebrate chordates. This evidence suggests that the cephalochordates diverged from Urochordata and the vertebrates subsequently diverged from the cephalochordates. This hypothesis is further supported by the discovery of a fossil in China from the genus Haikouella. This organism seems to be an intermediate form between cephalochordates and vertebrates. The Haikouella fossils are about 530 million years old and appear similar to modern lancelets. These organisms had a brain and eyes, as do vertebrates, but lack the skull found in craniates.Chen, J. Y., Huang, D. Y., and Li, C. W., “An early Cambrian craniate-like chordate,” Nature 402 (1999): 518–522, doi:10.1038/990080. This evidence suggests that vertebrates arose during the Cambrian explosion. Recall that the “Cambrian explosion” is the name given to a relatively brief span of time during the Cambrian period during which many animal groups appeared and rapidly diversified. Most modern animal phyla originated during the Cambrian explosion. Vertebrates are the largest group of chordates, with more than 62,000 living species. Vertebrates are grouped based on anatomical and physiological traits. More than one classification and naming scheme is used for these animals. Here we will consider the traditional groups Agnatha, Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia, which constitute classes in the subphylum Vertebrata. Many modern authors classify birds within Reptilia, which correctly reflects their evolutionary heritage. We consider them separately only for convenience. Further, we will consider hagfishes and lampreys together as jawless fishes, the agnathans, although emerging classification schemes separate them into chordate jawless fishes (the hagfishes) and vertebrate jawless fishes (the lampreys). Animals that possess jaws are known as gnathostomes, which means “jawed mouth.” Gnathostomes include fishes and tetrapods—amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Tetrapods can be further divided into two groups: amphibians and amniotes. Amniotes are animals whose eggs are adapted for terrestrial living, and this group includes mammals, reptiles, and birds. Amniotic embryos, developing in either an externally shed egg or an egg carried by the female, are provided with a water-retaining environment and are protected by amniotic membranes. Section Summary The characteristic features of Chordata are a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. Chordata contains two clades of invertebrates: Urochordata (tunicates) and Cephalochordata (lancelets), together with the vertebrates in Vertebrata. Most tunicates live on the ocean floor and are suspension feeders. Lancelets are suspension feeders that feed on phytoplankton and other microorganisms. Vertebrata is named for the vertebral column, which is a feature of almost all members of this clade. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements about common features of chordates is true? - The dorsal hollow nerve cord is part of the chordate central nervous system. - In vertebrate fishes, the pharyngeal slits become the gills. - Humans are not chordates because humans do not have a tail. - Vertebrates do not have a notochord at any point in their development; instead, they have a vertebral column. Hint: Figure A Review Questions Which of the following is not contained in phylum Chordata? - Cephalochordata - Echinodermata - Urochordata - Vertebrata Hint: B Which group of invertebrates is most closely related to vertebrates? - cephalochordates - echinoderms - arthropods - urochordates Hint: A Free Response What are the characteristic features of the chordates? Hint: The characteristic features of the phylum Chordata are a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.458779	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15083/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15084/overview	Fishes Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the difference between jawless and jawed fishes - Discuss the distinguishing features of sharks and rays compared to other modern fishes Modern fishes include an estimated 31,000 species. Fishes were the earliest vertebrates, with jawless species being the earliest and jawed species evolving later. They are active feeders, rather than sessile, suspension feeders. Jawless fishes—the hagfishes and lampreys—have a distinct cranium and complex sense organs including eyes, distinguishing them from the invertebrate chordates. Jawless Fishes Jawless fishes are craniates that represent an ancient vertebrate lineage that arose over one half-billion years ago. In the past, the hagfishes and lampreys were classified together as agnathans. Today, hagfishes and lampreys are recognized as separate clades, primarily because lampreys are true vertebrates, whereas hagfishes are not. A defining feature is the lack of paired lateral appendages (fins). Some of the earliest jawless fishes were the ostracoderms (which translates to “shell-skin”). Ostracoderms were vertebrate fishes encased in bony armor, unlike present-day jawless fishes, which lack bone in their scales. Myxini: Hagfishes The clade Myxini includes at least 20 species of hagfishes. Hagfishes are eel-like scavengers that live on the ocean floor and feed on dead invertebrates, other fishes, and marine mammals (Figure). Hagfishes are entirely marine and are found in oceans around the world, except for the polar regions. A unique feature of these animals is the slime glands beneath the skin that release mucus through surface pores. This mucus allows the hagfish to escape from the grip of predators. Hagfish can also twist their bodies in a knot to feed and sometimes eat carcasses from the inside out. The skeleton of a hagfish is composed of cartilage, which includes a cartilaginous notochord that runs the length of the body. This notochord provides support to the hagfish’s body. Hagfishes do not replace the notochord with a vertebral column during development, as do true vertebrates. Petromyzontidae: Lampreys The clade Petromyzontidae includes approximately 35–40 or more species of lampreys. Lampreys are similar to hagfishes in size and shape; however, lampreys possess some vertebral elements. Lampreys lack paired appendages and bone, as do the hagfishes. As adults, lampreys are characterized by a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth. Many species have a parasitic stage of their life cycle during which they are ectoparasites of fishes (Figure). Lampreys live primarily in coastal and fresh waters, and have a worldwide distribution, except for in the tropics and polar regions. Some species are marine, but all species spawn in fresh water. Eggs are fertilized externally, and the larvae distinctly differ from the adult form, spending 3 to 15 years as suspension feeders. Once they attain sexual maturity, the adults reproduce and die within days. Lampreys possess a notochord as adults; however, this notochord is surrounded by a cartilaginous structure called an arcualia, which may resemble an evolutionarily early form of the vertebral column. Gnathostomes: Jawed Fishes Gnathostomes or “jaw-mouths” are vertebrates that possess jaws. One of the most significant developments in early vertebrate evolution was the development of the jaw, which is a hinged structure attached to the cranium that allows an animal to grasp and tear its food. The evolution of jaws allowed early gnathostomes to exploit food resources that were unavailable to jawless fishes. Early gnathostomes also possessed two sets of paired fins, allowing the fishes to maneuver accurately. Pectoral fins are typically located on the anterior body, and pelvic fins on the posterior. Evolution of the jaw and paired fins permitted gnathostomes to expand from the sedentary suspension feeding of jawless fishes to become mobile predators. The ability of gnathostomes to exploit new nutrient sources likely is one reason that they replaced most jawless fishes during the Devonian period. Two early groups of gnathostomes were the acanthodians and placoderms (Figure), which arose in the late Silurian period and are now extinct. Most modern fishes are gnathostomes that belong to the clades Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes. Chondrichthyes: Cartilaginous Fishes The clade Chondrichthyes is diverse, consisting of sharks (Figure), rays, and skates, together with sawfishes and a few dozen species of fishes called chimaeras, or “ghost” sharks.” Chondrichthyes are jawed fishes that possess paired fins and a skeleton made of cartilage. This clade arose approximately 370 million years ago in the early or middle Devonian. They are thought to be descended from the placoderms, which had skeletons made of bone; thus, the cartilaginous skeleton of Chondrichthyes is a later development. Parts of shark skeleton are strengthened by granules of calcium carbonate, but this is not the same as bone. Most cartilaginous fishes live in marine habitats, with a few species living in fresh water for a part or all of their lives. Most sharks are carnivores that feed on live prey, either swallowing it whole or using their jaws and teeth to tear it into smaller pieces. Shark teeth likely evolved from the jagged scales that cover their skin, called placoid scales. Some species of sharks and rays are suspension feeders that feed on plankton. Sharks have well-developed sense organs that aid them in locating prey, including a keen sense of smell and electroreception, with the latter perhaps the most sensitive of any animal. Organs called ampullae of Lorenzini allow sharks to detect the electromagnetic fields that are produced by all living things, including their prey. Electroreception has only been observed in aquatic or amphibious animals. Sharks, together with most fishes and aquatic and larval amphibians, also have a sense organ called the lateral line, which is used to detect movement and vibration in the surrounding water, and is often considered homologous to “hearing” in terrestrial vertebrates. The lateral line is visible as a darker stripe that runs along the length of a fish’s body. Sharks reproduce sexually, and eggs are fertilized internally. Most species are ovoviviparous: The fertilized egg is retained in the oviduct of the mother’s body and the embryo is nourished by the egg yolk. The eggs hatch in the uterus, and young are born alive and fully functional. Some species of sharks are oviparous: They lay eggs that hatch outside of the mother’s body. Embryos are protected by a shark egg case or “mermaid’s purse” (Figure) that has the consistency of leather. The shark egg case has tentacles that snag in seaweed and give the newborn shark cover. A few species of sharks are viviparous: The young develop within the mother’s body and she gives live birth. Rays and skates comprise more than 500 species and are closely related to sharks. They can be distinguished from sharks by their flattened bodies, pectoral fins that are enlarged and fused to the head, and gill slits on their ventral surface (Figure). Like sharks, rays and skates have a cartilaginous skeleton. Most species are marine and live on the sea floor, with nearly a worldwide distribution. Osteichthyes: Bony Fishes Members of the clade Osteichthyes, also called bony fishes, are characterized by a bony skeleton. The vast majority of present-day fishes belong to this group, which consists of approximately 30,000 species, making it the largest class of vertebrates in existence today. Nearly all bony fishes have an ossified skeleton with specialized bone cells (osteocytes) that produce and maintain a calcium phosphate matrix. This characteristic has only reversed in a few groups of Osteichthyes, such as sturgeons and paddlefish, which have primarily cartilaginous skeletons. The skin of bony fishes is often covered by overlapping scales, and glands in the skin secrete mucus that reduces drag when swimming and aids the fish in osmoregulation. Like sharks, bony fishes have a lateral line system that detects vibrations in water. All bony fishes use gills to breathe. Water is drawn over gills that are located in chambers covered and ventilated by a protective, muscular flap called the operculum. Many bony fishes also have a swim bladder, a gas-filled organ that helps to control the buoyancy of the fish. Bony fishes are further divided into two extant clades: Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) and Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fishes). Actinopterygii, the ray-finned fishes, include many familiar fishes—tuna, bass, trout, and salmon (Figurea), among others. Ray-finned fishes are named for their fins that are webs of skin supported by bony spines called rays. In contrast, the fins of Sarcopterygii are fleshy and lobed, supported by bone (Figureb). Living members of this clade include the less-familiar lungfishes and coelacanths. Section Summary The earliest vertebrates that diverged from the invertebrate chordates were the jawless fishes. Fishes with jaws (gnathostomes) evolved later. Jaws allowed early gnathostomes to exploit new food sources. Agnathans include the hagfishes and lampreys. Hagfishes are eel-like scavengers that feed on dead invertebrates and other fishes. Lampreys are characterized by a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth, and most species are parasitic on other fishes. Gnathostomes include the cartilaginous fishes and the bony fishes, as well as all other tetrapods. Cartilaginous fishes include sharks, rays, skates, and ghost sharks. Most cartilaginous fishes live in marine habitats, with a few species living in fresh water for part or all of their lives. The vast majority of present-day fishes belong to the clade Osteichthyes, which consists of approximately 30,000 species. Bony fishes can be divided into two clades: Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes, virtually all extant species) and Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fishes, comprising fewer than 10 extant species but which are the ancestors of tetrapods). Review Questions Members of Chondrichthyes differ from members of Osteichthyes by having a ________. - jaw - bony skeleton - cartilaginous skeleton - two sets of paired fins Hint: C Members of Chondrichthyes are thought to be descended from fishes that had ________. - a cartilaginous skeleton - a bony skeleton - mucus glands - slime glands Hint: B Free Response What can be inferred about the evolution of the cranium and vertebral column from examining hagfishes and lampreys? Hint: Comparison of hagfishes with lampreys shows that the cranium evolved first in early vertebrates, as it is seen in hagfishes, which evolved earlier than lampreys. This was followed by evolution of the vertebral column, a primitive form of which is seen in lampreys and not in hagfishes. Why did gnathostomes replace most agnathans? Hint: Evolution of the jaw and paired fins permitted gnathostomes to diversify from the sedentary suspension feeding of agnathans to a mobile predatory lifestyle. The ability of gnathostomes to utilize new nutrient sources may be one reason why the gnathostomes replaced most agnathans.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.485399	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15084/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15085/overview	Amphibians Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the important difference between the life cycle of amphibians and the life cycles of other vertebrates - Distinguish between the characteristics of Urodela, Anura, and Apoda - Describe the evolutionary history of amphibians Amphibians are vertebrate tetrapods. Amphibia includes frogs, salamanders, and caecilians. The term amphibian loosely translates from the Greek as “dual life,” which is a reference to the metamorphosis that many frogs and salamanders undergo and their mixture of aquatic and terrestrial environments in their life cycle. Amphibians evolved during the Devonian period and were the earliest terrestrial tetrapods. Link to Learning Watch this series of five Animal Planet videos on tetrapod evolution: - 1: The evolution from fish to earliest tetrapod - 2: Fish to Earliest Tetrapod - 3: The discovery of coelacanth and Acanthostega fossils - 4: The number of fingers on “legs” - 5: Reconstructing the environment of early tetrapods Characteristics of Amphibians As tetrapods, most amphibians are characterized by four well-developed limbs. Some species of salamanders and all caecilians are functionally limbless; their limbs are vestigial. An important characteristic of extant amphibians is a moist, permeable skin that is achieved via mucus glands that keep the skin moist; thus, exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the environment can take place through it (cutaneous respiration). Additional characteristics of amphibians include pedicellate teeth—teeth in which the root and crown are calcified, separated by a zone of noncalcified tissue—and a papilla amphibiorum and papilla basilaris, structures of the inner ear that are sensitive to frequencies below and above 10,00 hertz, respectively. Amphibians also have an auricular operculum, which is an extra bone in the ear that transmits sounds to the inner ear. All extant adult amphibians are carnivorous, and some terrestrial amphibians have a sticky tongue that is used to capture prey. Evolution of Amphibians The fossil record provides evidence of the first tetrapods: now-extinct amphibian species dating to nearly 400 million years ago. Evolution of tetrapods from fishes represented a significant change in body plan from one suited to organisms that respired and swam in water, to organisms that breathed air and moved onto land; these changes occurred over a span of 50 million years during the Devonian period. One of the earliest known tetrapods is from the genus Acanthostega. Acanthostega was aquatic; fossils show that it had gills similar to fishes. However, it also had four limbs, with the skeletal structure of limbs found in present-day tetrapods, including amphibians. Therefore, it is thought that Acanthostega lived in shallow waters and was an intermediate form between lobe-finned fishes and early, fully terrestrial tetrapods. What preceded Acanthostega? In 2006, researchers published news of their discovery of a fossil of a “tetrapod-like fish,” Tiktaalik roseae, which seems to be an intermediate form between fishes having fins and tetrapods having limbs (Figure). Tiktaalik likely lived in a shallow water environment about 375 million years ago.Daeschler, E. B., Shubin, N. H., and Jenkins, F. J. “A Devonian tetrapod-like fish and the evolution of the tetrapod body plan,” Nature 440 (2006): 757–763, doi:10.1038/nature04639, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/abs/nature04639.html. The early tetrapods that moved onto land had access to new nutrient sources and relatively few predators. This led to the widespread distribution of tetrapods during the early Carboniferous period, a period sometimes called the “age of the amphibians.” Modern Amphibians Amphibia comprises an estimated 6,770 extant species that inhabit tropical and temperate regions around the world. Amphibians can be divided into three clades: Urodela (“tailed-ones”), the salamanders; Anura (“tail-less ones”), the frogs; and Apoda (“legless ones”), the caecilians. Urodela: Salamanders Salamanders are amphibians that belong to the order Urodela. Living salamanders (Figure) include approximately 620 species, some of which are aquatic, other terrestrial, and some that live on land only as adults. Adult salamanders usually have a generalized tetrapod body plan with four limbs and a tail. They move by bending their bodies from side to side, called lateral undulation, in a fish-like manner while “walking” their arms and legs fore and aft. It is thought that their gait is similar to that used by early tetrapods. Respiration differs among different species. The majority of salamanders are lungless, and respiration occurs through the skin or through external gills. Some terrestrial salamanders have primitive lungs; a few species have both gills and lungs. Unlike frogs, virtually all salamanders rely on internal fertilization of the eggs. The only male amphibians that possess copulatory structures are the caecilians, so fertilization among salamanders typically involves an elaborate and often prolonged courtship. Such a courtship allows the successful transfer of sperm from male to female via a spermatophore. Development in many of the most highly evolved salamanders, which are fully terrestrial, occurs during a prolonged egg stage, with the eggs guarded by the mother. During this time, the gilled larval stage is found only within the egg capsule, with the gills being resorbed, and metamorphosis being completed, before hatching. Hatchlings thus resemble tiny adults. Link to Learning View River Monsters: Fish With Arms and Hands? to see a video about an unusually large salamander species. Anura: Frogs Frogs are amphibians that belong to the order Anura (Figure). Anurans are among the most diverse groups of vertebrates, with approximately 5,965 species that occur on all of the continents except Antarctica. Anurans have a body plan that is more specialized for movement. Adult frogs use their hind limbs to jump on land. Frogs have a number of modifications that allow them to avoid predators, including skin that acts as camouflage. Many species of frogs and salamanders also release defensive chemicals from glands in the skin that are poisonous to predators. Frog eggs are fertilized externally, and like other amphibians, frogs generally lay their eggs in moist environments. A moist environment is required as eggs lack a shell and thus dehydrate quickly in dry environments. Frogs demonstrate a great diversity of parental behaviors, with some species laying many eggs and exhibiting little parental care, to species that carry eggs and tadpoles on their hind legs or backs. The life cycle of frogs, as other amphibians, consists of two distinct stages: the larval stage followed by metamorphosis to an adult stage. The larval stage of a frog, the tadpole, is often a filter-feeding herbivore. Tadpoles usually have gills, a lateral line system, long-finned tails, and lack limbs. At the end of the tadpole stage, frogs undergo metamorphosis into the adult form (Figure). During this stage, the gills, tail, and lateral line system disappear, and four limbs develop. The jaws become larger and are suited for carnivorous feeding, and the digestive system transforms into the typical short gut of a predator. An eardrum and air-breathing lungs also develop. These changes during metamorphosis allow the larvae to move onto land in the adult stage. Apoda: Caecilians An estimated 185 species comprise caecilians, a group of amphibians that belong to the order Apoda. Although they are vertebrates, a complete lack of limbs leads to their resemblance to earthworms in appearance. They are adapted for a soil-burrowing or aquatic lifestyle, and they are nearly blind. These animals are found in the tropics of South America, Africa, and Southern Asia. They have vestigial limbs, evidence that they evolved from a legged ancestor. Evolution Connection The Paleozoic Era and the Evolution of Vertebrates The climate and geography of Earth was vastly different during the Paleozoic Era, when vertebrates arose, as compared to today. The Paleozoic spanned from approximately 542 to 251 million years ago. The landmasses on Earth were very different from those of today. Laurentia and Gondwana were continents located near the equator that subsumed much of the current day landmasses in a different configuration (Figure). At this time, sea levels were very high, probably at a level that hasn’t been reached since. As the Paleozoic progressed, glaciations created a cool global climate, but conditions warmed near the end of the first half of the Paleozoic. During the latter half of the Paleozoic, the landmasses began moving together, with the initial formation of a large northern block called Laurasia. This contained parts of what is now North America, along with Greenland, parts of Europe, and Siberia. Eventually, a single supercontinent, called Pangaea, was formed, starting in the latter third of the Paleozoic. Glaciations then began to affect Pangaea’s climate, affecting the distribution of vertebrate life. During the early Paleozoic, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was much greater than it is today. This may have begun to change later, as land plants became more common. As the roots of land plants began to infiltrate rock and soil began to form, carbon dioxide was drawn out of the atmosphere and became trapped in the rock. This reduced the levels of carbon dioxide and increased the levels of oxygen in the atmosphere, so that by the end of the Paleozoic, atmospheric conditions were similar to those of today. As plants became more common through the latter half of the Paleozoic, microclimates began to emerge and ecosystems began to change. As plants and ecosystems continued to grow and become more complex, vertebrates moved from the water to land. The presence of shoreline vegetation may have contributed to the movement of vertebrates onto land. One hypothesis suggests that the fins of aquatic vertebrates were used to maneuver through this vegetation, providing a precursor to the movement of fins on land and the development of limbs. The late Paleozoic was a time of diversification of vertebrates, as amniotes emerged and became two different lines that gave rise, on one hand, to mammals, and, on the other hand, to reptiles and birds. Many marine vertebrates became extinct near the end of the Devonian period, which ended about 360 million years ago, and both marine and terrestrial vertebrates were decimated by a mass extinction in the early Permian period about 250 million years ago. Link to Learning View Earth’s Paleogeography: Continental Movements Through Time to see changes in Earth as life evolved. Section Summary As tetrapods, most amphibians are characterized by four well-developed limbs, although some species of salamanders and all caecilians are limbless. The most important characteristic of extant amphibians is a moist, permeable skin used for cutaneous respiration. The fossil record provides evidence of amphibian species, now extinct, that arose over 400 million years ago as the first tetrapods. Amphibia can be divided into three clades: salamanders (Urodela), frogs (Anura), and caecilians (Apoda). The life cycle of frogs, like the majority of amphibians, consists of two distinct stages: the larval stage and metamorphosis to an adult stage. Some species in all orders bypass a free-living larval stage. Review Questions Which of the following is not true of Acanthostega? - It was aquatic. - It had gills. - It had four limbs. - It laid shelled eggs. Hint: D Frogs belong to which order? - Anura - Urodela - Caudata - Apoda Hint: A Free Response Explain why frogs are restricted to a moist environment. Hint: A moist environment is required, as frog eggs lack a shell and dehydrate quickly in dry environments. Describe the differences between the larval and adult stages of frogs. Hint: The larval stage of frogs is the tadpole, which is usually a filter-feeding herbivore. Tadpoles usually have gills, a lateral line system, long-finned tails, and lack limbs. In the adult form, the gills and lateral line system disappear, and four limbs develop. The jaws grow larger, suitable for carnivorous feeding, and the digestive system transforms into the typical short gut of a predator. An eardrum and air-breathing lungs also develop.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.513744	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15085/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15086/overview	Reptiles Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the main characteristics of amniotes - Explain the difference between anapsids, synapsids, and diapsids, and give an example of each - Identify the characteristics of reptiles - Discuss the evolution of reptiles The amniotes —reptiles, birds, and mammals—are distinguished from amphibians by their terrestrially adapted egg, which is protected by amniotic membranes. The evolution of amniotic membranes meant that the embryos of amniotes were provided with their own aquatic environment, which led to less dependence on water for development and thus allowed the amniotes to branch out into drier environments. This was a significant development that distinguished them from amphibians, which were restricted to moist environments due their shell-less eggs. Although the shells of various amniotic species vary significantly, they all allow retention of water. The shells of bird eggs are composed of calcium carbonate and are hard, but fragile. The shells of reptile eggs are leathery and require a moist environment. Most mammals do not lay eggs (except for monotremes). Instead, the embryo grows within the mother’s body; however, even with this internal gestation, amniotic membranes are still present. Characteristics of Amniotes The amniotic egg is the key characteristic of amniotes. In amniotes that lay eggs, the shell of the egg provides protection for the developing embryo while being permeable enough to allow for the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen. The albumin, or egg white, provides the embryo with water and protein, whereas the fattier egg yolk is the energy supply for the embryo, as is the case with the eggs of many other animals, such as amphibians. However, the eggs of amniotes contain three additional extra-embryonic membranes: the chorion, amnion, and allantois (Figure). Extra-embryonic membranes are membranes present in amniotic eggs that are not a part of the body of the developing embryo. While the inner amniotic membrane surrounds the embryo itself, the chorion surrounds the embryo and yolk sac. The chorion facilitates exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the embryo and the egg’s external environment. The amnion protects the embryo from mechanical shock and supports hydration. The allantois stores nitrogenous wastes produced by the embryo and also facilitates respiration. In mammals, membranes that are homologous to the extra-embryonic membranes in eggs are present in the placenta. Art Connection Which of the following statements about the parts of an egg are false? - The allantois stores nitrogenous waste and facilitates respiration. - The chorion facilitates gas exchange. - The yolk provides food for the growing embryo. - The amniotic cavity is filled with albumen. Additional derived characteristics of amniotes include waterproof skin, due to the presence of lipids, and costal (rib) ventilation of the lungs. Evolution of Amniotes The first amniotes evolved from amphibian ancestors approximately 340 million years ago during the Carboniferous period. The early amniotes diverged into two main lines soon after the first amniotes arose. The initial split was into synapsids and sauropsids. Synapsids include all mammals, including extinct mammalian species. Synapsids also include therapsids, which were mammal-like reptiles from which mammals evolved. Sauropsids include reptiles and birds, and can be further divided into anapsids and diapsids. The key differences between the synapsids, anapsids, and diapsids are the structures of the skull and the number of temporal fenestrae behind each eye (Figure). Temporal fenestrae are post-orbital openings in the skull that allow muscles to expand and lengthen. Anapsids have no temporal fenestrae, synapsids have one, and diapsids have two. Anapsids include extinct organisms and may, based on anatomy, include turtles. However, this is still controversial, and turtles are sometimes classified as diapsids based on molecular evidence. The diapsids include birds and all other living and extinct reptiles. The diapsids diverged into two groups, the Archosauromorpha (“ancient lizard form”) and the Lepidosauromorpha (“scaly lizard form”) during the Mesozoic period (Figure). The lepidosaurs include modern lizards, snakes, and tuataras. The archosaurs include modern crocodiles and alligators, and the extinct pterosaurs (“winged lizard”) and dinosaurs (“terrible lizard”). Clade Dinosauria includes birds, which evolved from a branch of dinosaurs. Art Connection Members of the order Testudines have an anapsid-like skull with one opening. However, molecular studies indicate that turtles descended from a diapsid ancestor. Why might this be the case? In the past, the most common division of amniotes has been into the classes Mammalia, Reptilia, and Aves. Birds are descended, however, from dinosaurs, so this classical scheme results in groups that are not true clades. We will consider birds as a group distinct from reptiles for the purpose of this discussion with the understanding that this does not completely reflect phylogenetic history and relationships. Characteristics of Reptiles Reptiles are tetrapods. Limbless reptiles—snakes and other squamates—have vestigial limbs and, like caecilians, are classified as tetrapods because they are descended from four-limbed ancestors. Reptiles lay eggs enclosed in shells on land. Even aquatic reptiles return to the land to lay eggs. They usually reproduce sexually with internal fertilization. Some species display ovoviviparity, with the eggs remaining in the mother’s body until they are ready to hatch. Other species are viviparous, with the offspring born alive. One of the key adaptations that permitted reptiles to live on land was the development of their scaly skin, containing the protein keratin and waxy lipids, which reduced water loss from the skin. This occlusive skin means that reptiles cannot use their skin for respiration, like amphibians, and thus all breathe with lungs. Reptiles are ectotherms, animals whose main source of body heat comes from the environment. This is in contrast to endotherms, which use heat produced by metabolism to regulate body temperature. In addition to being ectothermic, reptiles are categorized as poikilotherms, or animals whose body temperatures vary rather than remain stable. Reptiles have behavioral adaptations to help regulate body temperature, such as basking in sunny places to warm up and finding shady spots or going underground to cool down. The advantage of ectothermy is that metabolic energy from food is not required to heat the body; therefore, reptiles can survive on about 10 percent of the calories required by a similarly sized endotherm. In cold weather, some reptiles such as the garter snake brumate. Brumation is similar to hibernation in that the animal becomes less active and can go for long periods without eating, but differs from hibernation in that brumating reptiles are not asleep or living off fat reserves. Rather, their metabolism is slowed in response to cold temperatures, and the animal is very sluggish. Evolution of Reptiles Reptiles originated approximately 300 million years ago during the Carboniferous period. One of the oldest known amniotes is Casineria, which had both amphibian and reptilian characteristics. One of the earliest undisputed reptiles was Hylonomus. Soon after the first amniotes appeared, they diverged into three groups—synapsids, anapsids, and diapsids—during the Permian period. The Permian period also saw a second major divergence of diapsid reptiles into archosaurs (predecessors of crocodilians and dinosaurs) and lepidosaurs (predecessors of snakes and lizards). These groups remained inconspicuous until the Triassic period, when the archosaurs became the dominant terrestrial group due to the extinction of large-bodied anapsids and synapsids during the Permian-Triassic extinction. About 250 million years ago, archosaurs radiated into the dinosaurs and the pterosaurs. Although they are sometimes mistakenly called dinosaurs, the pterosaurs were distinct from true dinosaurs (Figure). Pterosaurs had a number of adaptations that allowed for flight, including hollow bones (birds also exhibit hollow bones, a case of convergent evolution). Their wings were formed by membranes of skin that attached to the long, fourth finger of each arm and extended along the body to the legs. The dinosaurs were a diverse group of terrestrial reptiles with more than 1,000 species identified to date. Paleontologists continue to discover new species of dinosaurs. Some dinosaurs were quadrupeds (Figure); others were bipeds. Some were carnivorous, whereas others were herbivorous. Dinosaurs laid eggs, and a number of nests containing fossilized eggs have been found. It is not known whether dinosaurs were endotherms or ectotherms. However, given that modern birds are endothermic, the dinosaurs that served as ancestors to birds likely were endothermic as well. Some fossil evidence exists for dinosaurian parental care, and comparative biology supports this hypothesis since the archosaur birds and crocodilians display parental care. Dinosaurs dominated the Mesozoic Era, which was known as the “age of reptiles.” The dominance of dinosaurs lasted until the end of the Cretaceous, the last period of the Mesozoic Era. The Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction resulted in the loss of most of the large-bodied animals of the Mesozoic Era. Birds are the only living descendants of one of the major clades of dinosaurs. Link to Learning Visit this site to see a video discussing the hypothesis that an asteroid caused the Cretaceous-Triassic (KT) extinction. Modern Reptiles Class Reptilia includes many diverse species that are classified into four living clades. These are the 25 species of Crocodilia, 2 species of Sphenodontia, approximately 9,200 Squamata species, and the Testudines, with about 325 species. Crocodilia Crocodilia (“small lizard”) arose with a distinct lineage by the middle Triassic; extant species include alligators, crocodiles, and caimans. Crocodilians (Figure) live throughout the tropics and subtropics of Africa, South America, Southern Florida, Asia, and Australia. They are found in freshwater, saltwater, and brackish habitats, such as rivers and lakes, and spend most of their time in water. Some species are able to move on land due to their semi-erect posture. Sphenodontia Sphenodontia (“wedge tooth”) arose in the Mesozoic era and includes only one living genus, Tuatara, comprising two species that are found in New Zealand (Figure). Tuataras measure up to 80 centimeters and weigh about 1 kilogram. Although quite lizard-like in gross appearance, several unique features of the skull and jaws clearly define them and distinguish the group from the squamates. Squamata Squamata (“scaly”) arose in the late Permian, and extant species include lizards and snakes. Both are found on all continents except Antarctica. Lizards and snakes are most closely related to tuataras, both groups having evolved from a lepidosaurian ancestor. Squamata is the largest extant clade of reptiles (Figure). Most lizards differ from snakes by having four limbs, although these have been variously lost or significantly reduced in at least 60 lineages. Snakes lack eyelids and external ears, which are present in lizards. Lizard species range in size from chameleons and geckos, which are a few centimeters in length, to the Komodo dragon, which is about 3 meters in length. Most lizards are carnivorous, but some large species, such as iguanas, are herbivores. Snakes are thought to have descended from either burrowing lizards or aquatic lizards over 100 million years ago (Figure). Snakes comprise about 3,000 species and are found on every continent except Antarctica. They range in size from 10 centimeter-long thread snakes to 10 meter-long pythons and anacondas. All snakes are carnivorous and eat small animals, birds, eggs, fish, and insects. The snake body form is so specialized that, in its general morphology, a “snake is a snake.” Their specializations all point to snakes having evolved to feed on relatively large prey (even though some current species have reversed this trend). Although variations exist, most snakes have a skull that is very flexible, involving eight rotational joints. They also differ from other squamates by having mandibles (lower jaws) without either bony or ligamentous attachment anteriorly. Having this connection via skin and muscle allows for great expansion of the gape and independent motion of the two sides—both advantages in swallowing big items. Testudines Turtles are members of the clade Testudines (“having a shell”) (Figure). Turtles are characterized by a bony or cartilaginous shell. The shell consists of the ventral surface called the plastron and the dorsal surface called the carapace, which develops from the ribs. The plastron is made of scutes or plates; the scutes can be used to differentiate species of turtles. The two clades of turtles are most easily recognized by how they retract their necks. The dominant group, which includes all North American species, retracts its neck in a vertical S-curve. Turtles in the less speciose clade retract the neck with a horizontal curve. Turtles arose approximately 200 million years ago, predating crocodiles, lizards, and snakes. Similar to other reptiles, turtles are ectotherms. They lay eggs on land, although many species live in or near water. None exhibit parental care. Turtles range in size from the speckled padloper tortoise at 8 centimeters (3.1 inches) to the leatherback sea turtle at 200 centimeters (over 6 feet). The term “turtle” is sometimes used to describe only those species of Testudines that live in the sea, with the terms “tortoise” and “terrapin” used to refer to species that live on land and in fresh water, respectively. Section Summary The amniotes are distinguished from amphibians by the presence of a terrestrially adapted egg protected by amniotic membranes. The amniotes include reptiles, birds, and mammals. The early amniotes diverged into two main lines soon after the first amniotes arose. The initial split was into synapsids (mammals) and sauropsids. Sauropsids can be further divided into anapsids (turtles) and diapsids (birds and reptiles). Reptiles are tetrapods either having four limbs or descending from such. Limbless reptiles (snakes) are classified as tetrapods, as they are descended from four-limbed organisms. One of the key adaptations that permitted reptiles to live on land was the development of scaly skin containing the protein keratin, which prevented water loss from the skin. Reptilia includes four living clades: Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators), Sphenodontia (tuataras), Squamata (lizards and snakes), and Testudines (turtles). Art Connections Figure Members of the order Testudines have an anapsid-like skull with one opening. However, molecular studies indicate that turtles descended from a diapsid ancestor. Why might this be the case? Hint: Figure The ancestor of modern Testudines may at one time have had a second opening in the skull, but over time this might have been lost. Review Questions During the Mesozoic period, diapsids diverged into_______. - pterosaurs and dinosaurs - mammals and reptiles - lepidosaurs and archosaurs - Testudines and Sphenodontia Hint: C Squamata includes_______. - crocodiles and alligators - turtles - tuataras - lizards and snakes Hint: D Free Response Describe the functions of the three extra-embryonic membranes present in amniotic eggs. Hint: The chorion facilitates the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases between the embryo and the surrounding air. The amnion protects the embryo from mechanical shock and prevents dehydration. The allantois stores nitrogenous wastes produced by the embryo and facilitates respiration. What characteristics differentiate lizards and snakes? Hint: Lizards differ from snakes by having eyelids, external ears, and less kinematic skulls.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.547830	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15086/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15087/overview	Birds Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the evolutionary history of birds - Describe the derived characteristics in birds that facilitate flight The most obvious characteristic that sets birds apart from other modern vertebrates is the presence of feathers, which are modified scales. While vertebrates like bats fly without feathers, birds rely on feathers and wings, along with other modifications of body structure and physiology, for flight. Characteristics of Birds Birds are endothermic, and because they fly, they require large amounts of energy, necessitating a high metabolic rate. Like mammals, which are also endothermic, birds have an insulating covering that keeps heat in the body: feathers. Specialized feathers called down feathers are especially insulating, trapping air in spaces between each feather to decrease the rate of heat loss. Certain parts of a bird’s body are covered in down feathers, and the base of other feathers have a downy portion, whereas newly hatched birds are covered in down. Feathers not only act as insulation but also allow for flight, enabling the lift and thrust necessary to become airborne. The feathers on a wing are flexible, so the collective feathers move and separate as air moves through them, reducing the drag on the wing. Flight feathers are asymmetrical, which affects airflow over them and provides some of the lifting and thrusting force required for flight (Figure). Two types of flight feathers are found on the wings, primary feathers and secondary feathers. Primary feathers are located at the tip of the wing and provide thrust. Secondary feathers are located closer to the body, attach to the forearm portion of the wing and provide lift. Contour feathers are the feathers found on the body, and they help reduce drag produced by wind resistance during flight. They create a smooth, aerodynamic surface so that air moves smoothly over the bird’s body, allowing for efficient flight. Flapping of the entire wing occurs primarily through the actions of the chest muscles, the pectoralis and the supracoracoideus. These muscles are highly developed in birds and account for a higher percentage of body mass than in most mammals. These attach to a blade-shaped keel, like that of a boat, located on the sternum. The sternum of birds is larger than that of other vertebrates, which accommodates the large muscles required to generate enough upward force to generate lift with the flapping of the wings. Another skeletal modification found in most birds is the fusion of the two clavicles (collarbones), forming the furcula or wishbone. The furcula is flexible enough to bend and provide support to the shoulder girdle during flapping. An important requirement of flight is a low body weight. As body weight increases, the muscle output required for flying increases. The largest living bird is the ostrich, and while it is much smaller than the largest mammals, it is flightless. For birds that do fly, reduction in body weight makes flight easier. Several modifications are found in birds to reduce body weight, including pneumatization of bones. Pneumatic bones are bones that are hollow, rather than filled with tissue (Figure). They contain air spaces that are sometimes connected to air sacs, and they have struts of bone to provide structural reinforcement. Pneumatic bones are not found in all birds, and they are more extensive in large birds than in small birds. Not all bones of the skeleton are pneumatic, although the skulls of almost all birds are. Other modifications that reduce weight include the lack of a urinary bladder. Birds possess a cloaca, a structure that allows water to be reabsorbed from waste back into the bloodstream. Uric acid is not expelled as a liquid but is concentrated into urate salts, which are expelled along with fecal matter. In this way, water is not held in the urinary bladder, which would increase body weight. Most bird species only possess one ovary rather than two, further reducing body mass. The air sacs that extend into bones to form pneumatic bones also join with the lungs and function in respiration. Unlike mammalian lungs in which air flows in two directions, as it is breathed in and out, airflow through bird lungs travels in one direction (Figure). Air sacs allow for this unidirectional airflow, which also creates a cross-current exchange system with the blood. In a cross-current or counter-current system, the air flows in one direction and the blood flows in the opposite direction, creating a very efficient means of gas exchange. Evolution of Birds The evolutionary history of birds is still somewhat unclear. Due to the fragility of bird bones, they do not fossilize as well as other vertebrates. Birds are diapsids, meaning they have two fenestrations or openings in their skulls. Birds belong to a group of diapsids called the archosaurs, which also includes crocodiles and dinosaurs. It is commonly accepted that birds evolved from dinosaurs. Dinosaurs (including birds) are further subdivided into two groups, the Saurischia (“lizard like”) and the Ornithischia (“bird like”). Despite the names of these groups, it was not the bird-like dinosaurs that gave rise to modern birds. Rather, Saurischia diverged into two groups: One included the long-necked herbivorous dinosaurs, such as Apatosaurus. The second group, bipedal predators called theropods, includes birds. This course of evolution is suggested by similarities between theropod fossils and birds, specifically in the structure of the hip and wrist bones, as well as the presence of the wishbone, formed by the fusing of the clavicles. One important fossil of an animal intermediate to dinosaurs and birds is Archaeopteryx, which is from the Jurassic period (Figure). Archaeopteryx is important in establishing the relationship between birds and dinosaurs, because it is an intermediate fossil, meaning it has characteristics of both dinosaurs and birds. Some scientists propose classifying it as a bird, but others prefer to classify it as a dinosaur. The fossilized skeleton of Archaeopteryx looks like that of a dinosaur, and it had teeth whereas birds do not, but it also had feathers modified for flight, a trait associated only with birds among modern animals. Fossils of older feathered dinosaurs exist, but the feathers do not have the characteristics of flight feathers. It is still unclear exactly how flight evolved in birds. Two main theories exist, the arboreal (“tree”) hypothesis and the terrestrial (“land”) hypothesis. The arboreal hypothesis posits that tree-dwelling precursors to modern birds jumped from branch to branch using their feathers for gliding before becoming fully capable of flapping flight. In contrast to this, the terrestrial hypothesis holds that running was the stimulus for flight, as wings could be used to improve running and then became used for flapping flight. Like the question of how flight evolved, the question of how endothermy evolved in birds still is unanswered. Feathers provide insulation, but this is only beneficial if body heat is being produced internally. Similarly, internal heat production is only viable if insulation is present to retain that heat. It has been suggested that one or the other—feathers or endothermy—evolved in response to some other selective pressure. During the Cretaceous period, a group known as the Enantiornithes was the dominant bird type (Figure). Enantiornithes means “opposite birds,” which refers to the fact that certain bones of the feet are joined differently than the way the bones are joined in modern birds. These birds formed an evolutionary line separate from modern birds, and they did not survive past the Cretaceous. Along with the Enantiornithes, Ornithurae birds (the evolutionary line that includes modern birds) were also present in the Cretaceous. After the extinction of Enantiornithes, modern birds became the dominant bird, with a large radiation occurring during the Cenozoic Era. Referred to as Neornithes (“new birds”), modern birds are now classified into two groups, the Paleognathae (“old jaw”) or ratites, a group of flightless birds including ostriches, emus, rheas, and kiwis, and the Neognathae (“new jaw”), which includes all other birds. Career Connection Veterinarian Veterinarians treat diseases, disorders, and injuries in animals, primarily vertebrates. They treat pets, livestock, and animals in zoos and laboratories. Veterinarians usually treat dogs and cats, but also treat birds, reptiles, rabbits, and other animals that are kept as pets. Veterinarians that work with farms and ranches treat pigs, goats, cows, sheep, and horses. Veterinarians are required to complete a degree in veterinary medicine, which includes taking courses in animal physiology, anatomy, microbiology, and pathology, among many other courses. The physiology and biochemistry of different vertebrate species differ greatly. Veterinarians are also trained to perform surgery on many different vertebrate species, which requires an understanding of the vastly different anatomies of various species. For example, the stomach of ruminants like cows has four compartments versus one compartment for non-ruminants. Birds also have unique anatomical adaptations that allow for flight. Some veterinarians conduct research in academic settings, broadening our knowledge of animals and medical science. One area of research involves understanding the transmission of animal diseases to humans, called zoonotic diseases. For example, one area of great concern is the transmission of the avian flu virus to humans. One type of avian flu virus, H5N1, is a highly pathogenic strain that has been spreading in birds in Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. Although the virus does not cross over easily to humans, there have been cases of bird-to-human transmission. More research is needed to understand how this virus can cross the species barrier and how its spread can be prevented. Section Summary Birds are endothermic, meaning they produce their own body heat and regulate their internal temperature independently of the external temperature. Feathers not only act as insulation but also allow for flight, providing lift with secondary feathers and thrust with primary feathers. Pneumatic bones are bones that are hollow rather than filled with tissue, containing air spaces that are sometimes connected to air sacs. Airflow through bird lungs travels in one direction, creating a cross-current exchange with the blood. Birds are diapsids and belong to a group called the archosaurs. Birds are thought to have evolved from theropod dinosaurs. The oldest known fossil of a bird is that of Archaeopteryx, which is from the Jurassic period. Modern birds are now classified into two groups, Paleognathae and Neognathae. Review Questions A bird or feathered dinosaur is ________. - Neornithes - Archaeopteryx - Enantiornithes - Paleognathae Hint: B Which of the following feather types helps to reduce drag produced by wind resistance during flight? - flight feathers - primary feathers - secondary feathers - contour feathers Hint: D Free Response Explain why birds are thought to have evolved from theropod dinosaurs. Hint: This is suggested by similarities observed between theropod fossils and birds, specifically in the design of the hip and wrist bones, as well as the presence of a furcula, or wishbone, formed by the fusing of the clavicles. Describe three skeletal adaptations that allow for flight in birds. Hint: The sternum of birds is larger than that of other vertebrates, which accommodates the force required for flapping. Another skeletal modification is the fusion of the clavicles, forming the furcula or wishbone. The furcula is flexible enough to bend during flapping and provides support to the shoulder girdle during flapping. Birds also have pneumatic bones that are hollow rather than filled with tissue.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.574556	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15087/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15088/overview	Mammals Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Name and describe the distinguishing features of the three main groups of mammals - Describe the proposed line of descent that produced mammals - List some derived features that may have arisen in response to mammals’ need for constant, high-level metabolism Mammals are vertebrates that possess hair and mammary glands. Several other characteristics are distinctive to mammals, including certain features of the jaw, skeleton, integument, and internal anatomy. Modern mammals belong to three clades: monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians (or placental mammals). Characteristics of Mammals The presence of hair is one of the most obvious signs of a mammal. Although it is not very extensive on certain species, such as whales, hair has many important functions for mammals. Mammals are endothermic, and hair provides insulation to retain heat generated by metabolic work. Hair traps a layer of air close to the body, retaining heat. Along with insulation, hair can serve as a sensory mechanism via specialized hairs called vibrissae, better known as whiskers. These attach to nerves that transmit information about sensation, which is particularly useful to nocturnal or burrowing mammals. Hair can also provide protective coloration or be part of social signaling, such as when an animal’s hair stands “on end.” Mammalian integument, or skin, includes secretory glands with various functions. Sebaceous glands produce a lipid mixture called sebum that is secreted onto the hair and skin for water resistance and lubrication. Sebaceous glands are located over most of the body. Eccrine glands produce sweat, or perspiration, which is mainly composed of water. In most mammals, eccrine glands are limited to certain areas of the body, and some mammals do not possess them at all. However, in primates, especially humans, sweat figures prominently in thermoregulation, regulating the body through evaporative cooling. Sweat glands are located over most of the body surface in primates. Apocrine glands, or scent glands, secrete substances that are used for chemical communication, such as in skunks. Mammary glands produce milk that is used to feed newborns. While male monotremes and eutherians possess mammary glands, male marsupials do not. Mammary glands likely are modified sebaceous or eccrine glands, but their evolutionary origin is not entirely clear. The skeletal system of mammals possesses many unique features. The lower jaw of mammals consists of only one bone, the dentary. The jaws of other vertebrates are composed of more than one bone. In mammals, the dentary bone joins the skull at the squamosal bone, while in other vertebrates, the quadrate bone of the jaw joins with the articular bone of the skull. These bones are present in mammals, but they have been modified to function in hearing and form bones in the middle ear (Figure). Other vertebrates possess only one middle ear bone, the stapes. Mammals have three: the malleus, incus, and stapes. The malleus originated from the articular bone, whereas the incus originated from the quadrate bone. This arrangement of jaw and ear bones aids in distinguishing fossil mammals from fossils of other synapsids. The adductor muscle that closes the jaw is composed of two muscles in mammals: the temporalis and the masseter. These allow side-to-side movement of the jaw, making chewing possible, which is unique to mammals. Most mammals have heterodont teeth, meaning that they have different types and shapes of teeth rather than just one type and shape of tooth. Most mammals are diphyodonts, meaning that they have two sets of teeth in their lifetime: deciduous or “baby” teeth, and permanent teeth. Other vertebrates are polyphyodonts, that is, their teeth are replaced throughout their entire life. Mammals, like birds, possess a four-chambered heart. Mammals also have a specialized group of cardiac fibers located in the walls of their right atrium called the sinoatrial node, or pacemaker, which determines the rate at which the heart beats. Mammalian erythrocytes (red blood cells) do not have nuclei, whereas the erythrocytes of other vertebrates are nucleated. The kidneys of mammals have a portion of the nephron called the loop of Henle or nephritic loop, which allows mammals to produce urine with a high concentration of solutes, higher than that of the blood. Mammals lack a renal portal system, which is a system of veins that moves blood from the hind or lower limbs and region of the tail to the kidneys. Renal portal systems are present in all other vertebrates except jawless fishes. A urinary bladder is present in all mammals. Mammalian brains have certain characteristics that differ from other vertebrates. In some, but not all mammals, the cerebral cortex, the outermost part of the cerebrum, is highly folded, allowing for a greater surface area than is possible with a smooth cortex. The optic lobes, located in the midbrain, are divided into two parts in mammals, whereas other vertebrates possess a single, undivided lobe. Eutherian mammals also possess a specialized structure that links the two cerebral hemispheres, called the corpus callosum. Evolution of Mammals Mammals are synapsids, meaning they have a single opening in the skull. They are the only living synapsids, as earlier forms became extinct by the Jurassic period. The early non-mammalian synapsids can be divided into two groups, the pelycosaurs and the therapsids. Within the therapsids, a group called the cynodonts are thought to be the ancestors of mammals (Figure). A key characteristic of synapsids is endothermy, rather than the ectothermy seen in most other vertebrates. The increased metabolic rate required to internally modify body temperature went hand in hand with changes to certain skeletal structures. The later synapsids, which had more evolved characteristics unique to mammals, possess cheeks for holding food and heterodont teeth, which are specialized for chewing, mechanically breaking down food to speed digestion and releasing the energy needed to produce heat. Chewing also requires the ability to chew and breathe at the same time, which is facilitated by the presence of a secondary palate. A secondary palate separates the area of the mouth where chewing occurs from the area above where respiration occurs, allowing breathing to proceed uninterrupted during chewing. A secondary palate is not found in pelycosaurs but is present in cynodonts and mammals. The jawbone also shows changes from early synapsids to later ones. The zygomatic arch, or cheekbone, is present in mammals and advanced therapsids such as cynodonts, but is not present in pelycosaurs. The presence of the zygomatic arch suggests the presence of the masseter muscle, which closes the jaw and functions in chewing. In the appendicular skeleton, the shoulder girdle of therian mammals is modified from that of other vertebrates in that it does not possess a procoracoid bone or an interclavicle, and the scapula is the dominant bone. Mammals evolved from therapsids in the late Triassic period, as the earliest known mammal fossils are from the early Jurassic period, some 205 million years ago. Early mammals were small, about the size of a small rodent. Mammals first began to diversify in the Mesozoic Era, from the Jurassic to the Cretaceous periods, although most of these mammals were extinct by the end of the Mesozoic. During the Cretaceous period, another radiation of mammals began and continued through the Cenozoic Era, about 65 million years ago. Living Mammals The eutherians, or placental mammals, and the marsupials together comprise the clade of therian mammals. Monotremes, or metatherians, form their sister clade. There are three living species of monotremes: the platypus and two species of echidnas, or spiny anteaters. The leathery-beaked platypus belongs to the family Ornithorhynchidae (“bird beak”), whereas echidnas belong to the family Tachyglossidae (“sticky tongue”) (Figure). The platypus and one species of echidna are found in Australia, and the other species of echidna is found in New Guinea. Monotremes are unique among mammals as they lay eggs, rather than giving birth to live young. The shells of their eggs are not like the hard shells of birds, but are a leathery shell, similar to the shells of reptile eggs. Monotremes have no teeth. Marsupials are found primarily in Australia, though the opossum is found in North America. Australian marsupials include the kangaroo, koala, bandicoot, Tasmanian devil (Figure), and several other species. Most species of marsupials possess a pouch in which the very premature young reside after birth, receiving milk and continuing to develop. Marsupials differ from eutherians in that there is a less complex placental connection: The young are born at an extremely early age and latch onto the nipple within the pouch. Eutherians are the most widespread of the mammals, occurring throughout the world. There are 18 to 20 orders of placental mammals. Some examples are Insectivora, the insect eaters; Edentata, the toothless anteaters; Rodentia, the rodents; Cetacea, the aquatic mammals including whales; Carnivora, carnivorous mammals including dogs, cats, and bears; and Primates, which includes humans. Eutherian mammals are sometimes called placental mammals because all species possess a complex placenta that connects a fetus to the mother, allowing for gas, fluid, and nutrient exchange. While other mammals possess a less complex placenta or briefly have a placenta, all eutherians possess a complex placenta during gestation. Section Summary Mammals in general are vertebrates that possess hair and mammary glands. The mammalian integument includes various secretory glands, including sebaceous glands, eccrine glands, apocrine glands, and mammary glands. Mammals are synapsids, meaning that they have a single opening in the skull. A key characteristic of synapsids is endothermy rather than the ectothermy seen in other vertebrates. Mammals probably evolved from therapsids in the late Triassic period, as the earliest known mammal fossils are from the early Jurassic period. There are three groups of mammals living today: monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians. Monotremes are unique among mammals as they lay eggs, rather than giving birth to young. Eutherian mammals are sometimes called placental mammals, because all species possess a complex placenta that connects a fetus to the mother, allowing for gas, fluid, and nutrient exchange. Review Questions Eccrine glands produce ________. - sweat - lipids - scents - milk Hint: A Monotremes include: - kangaroos - koalas - bandicoots - platypuses Hint: D Free Response Describe three unique features of the mammalian skeletal system. Hint: The lower jaw of mammals consists of only one bone, the dentary. The dentary bone joins the skull at the squamosal bone. Mammals have three bones of the middle ear. The adductor muscle that closes the jaw is composed of two muscles in mammals. Most mammals have heterodont teeth. Describe three characteristics of the mammalian brain that differ from other vertebrates. Hint: In some mammals, the cerebral cortex is highly folded, allowing for greater surface area than a smooth cortex. The optic lobes are divided into two parts in mammals. Eutherian mammals also possess a specialized structure that links the two cerebral hemispheres, called the corpus callosum.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.600694	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15088/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15089/overview	The Evolution of Primates Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the derived features that distinguish primates from other animals - Explain why scientists are having difficulty determining the true lines of descent in hominids Order Primates of class Mammalia includes lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans. Non-human primates live primarily in the tropical or subtropical regions of South America, Africa, and Asia. They range in size from the mouse lemur at 30 grams (1 ounce) to the mountain gorilla at 200 kilograms (441 pounds). The characteristics and evolution of primates is of particular interest to us as it allows us to understand the evolution of our own species. Characteristics of Primates All primate species possess adaptations for climbing trees, as they all descended from tree-dwellers. This arboreal heritage of primates has resulted in hands and feet that are adapted for brachiation, or climbing and swinging through trees. These adaptations include, but are not limited to: 1) a rotating shoulder joint, 2) a big toe that is widely separated from the other toes and thumbs, which are widely separated from fingers (except humans), which allow for gripping branches, 3) stereoscopic vision, two overlapping fields of vision from the eyes, which allows for the perception of depth and gauging distance. Other characteristics of primates are brains that are larger than those of most other mammals, claws that have been modified into flattened nails, typically only one offspring per pregnancy, and a trend toward holding the body upright. Order Primates is divided into two groups: prosimians and anthropoids. Prosimians include the bush babies of Africa, the lemurs of Madagascar, and the lorises, pottos, and tarsiers of Southeast Asia. Anthropoids include monkeys, apes, and humans. In general, prosimians tend to be nocturnal (in contrast to diurnal anthropoids) and exhibit a smaller size and smaller brain than anthropoids. Evolution of Primates The first primate-like mammals are referred to as proto-primates. They were roughly similar to squirrels and tree shrews in size and appearance. The existing fossil evidence (mostly from North Africa) is very fragmented. These proto-primates remain largely mysterious creatures until more fossil evidence becomes available. The oldest known primate-like mammals with a relatively robust fossil record is Plesiadapis (although some researchers do not agree that Plesiadapis was a proto-primate). Fossils of this primate have been dated to approximately 55 million years ago. Plesiadapiforms were proto-primates that had some features of the teeth and skeleton in common with true primates. They were found in North America and Europe in the Cenozoic and went extinct by the end of the Eocene. The first true primates were found in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa in the Eocene Epoch. These early primates resembled present-day prosimians such as lemurs. Evolutionary changes continued in these early primates, with larger brains and eyes, and smaller muzzles being the trend. By the end of the Eocene Epoch, many of the early prosimian species went extinct due either to cooler temperatures or competition from the first monkeys. Anthropoid monkeys evolved from prosimians during the Oligocene Epoch. By 40 million years ago, evidence indicates that monkeys were present in the New World (South America) and the Old World (Africa and Asia). New World monkeys are also called Platyrrhini—a reference to their broad noses (Figure). Old World monkeys are called Catarrhini—a reference to their narrow noses. There is still quite a bit of uncertainty about the origins of the New World monkeys. At the time the platyrrhines arose, the continents of South American and Africa had drifted apart. Therefore, it is thought that monkeys arose in the Old World and reached the New World either by drifting on log rafts or by crossing land bridges. Due to this reproductive isolation, New World monkeys and Old World monkeys underwent separate adaptive radiations over millions of years. The New World monkeys are all arboreal, whereas Old World monkeys include arboreal and ground-dwelling species. Apes evolved from the catarrhines in Africa midway through the Cenozoic, approximately 25 million years ago. Apes are generally larger than monkeys and they do not possess a tail. All apes are capable of moving through trees, although many species spend most their time on the ground. Apes are more intelligent than monkeys, and they have relatively larger brains proportionate to body size. The apes are divided into two groups. The lesser apes comprise the family Hylobatidae, including gibbons and siamangs. The great apes include the genera Pan (chimpanzees and bonobos) (Figurea), Gorilla (gorillas), Pongo (orangutans), and Homo (humans) (Figureb). The very arboreal gibbons are smaller than the great apes; they have low sexual dimorphism (that is, the sexes are not markedly different in size); and they have relatively longer arms used for swinging through trees. Human Evolution The family Hominidae of order Primates includes the hominoids: the great apes (Figure). Evidence from the fossil record and from a comparison of human and chimpanzee DNA suggests that humans and chimpanzees diverged from a common hominoid ancestor approximately 6 million years ago. Several species evolved from the evolutionary branch that includes humans, although our species is the only surviving member. The term hominin is used to refer to those species that evolved after this split of the primate line, thereby designating species that are more closely related to humans than to chimpanzees. Hominins were predominantly bipedal and include those groups that likely gave rise to our species—including Australopithecus, Homo habilis, and Homo erectus—and those non-ancestral groups that can be considered “cousins” of modern humans, such as Neanderthals. Determining the true lines of descent in hominins is difficult. In years past, when relatively few hominin fossils had been recovered, some scientists believed that considering them in order, from oldest to youngest, would demonstrate the course of evolution from early hominins to modern humans. In the past several years, however, many new fossils have been found, and it is clear that there was often more than one species alive at any one time and that many of the fossils found (and species named) represent hominin species that died out and are not ancestral to modern humans. Very Early Hominins Three species of very early hominids have made news in the past few years. The oldest of these, Sahelanthropus tchadensis, has been dated to nearly 7 million years ago. There is a single specimen of this genus, a skull that was a surface find in Chad. The fossil, informally called “Toumai,” is a mosaic of primitive and evolved characteristics, and it is unclear how this fossil fits with the picture given by molecular data, namely that the line leading to modern humans and modern chimpanzees apparently bifurcated about 6 million years ago. It is not thought at this time that this species was an ancestor of modern humans. A second, younger species, Orrorin tugenensis, is also a relatively recent discovery, found in 2000. There are several specimens of Orrorin. It is not known whether Orrorin was a human ancestor, but this possibility has not been ruled out. Some features of Orrorin are more similar to those of modern humans than are the australopiths, although Orrorin is much older. A third genus, Ardipithecus, was discovered in the 1990s, and the scientists who discovered the first fossil found that some other scientists did not believe the organism to be a biped (thus, it would not be considered a hominid). In the intervening years, several more specimens of Ardipithecus, classified as two different species, demonstrated that the organism was bipedal. Again, the status of this genus as a human ancestor is uncertain. Early Hominins: Genus Australopithecus Australopithecus (“southern ape”) is a genus of hominin that evolved in eastern Africa approximately 4 million years ago and went extinct about 2 million years ago. This genus is of particular interest to us as it is thought that our genus, genus Homo, evolved from a common ancestor shared with Australopithecus about 2 million years ago (after likely passing through some transitional states). Australopithecus had a number of characteristics that were more similar to the great apes than to modern humans. For example, sexual dimorphism was more exaggerated than in modern humans. Males were up to 50 percent larger than females, a ratio that is similar to that seen in modern gorillas and orangutans. In contrast, modern human males are approximately 15 to 20 percent larger than females. The brain size of Australopithecus relative to its body mass was also smaller than modern humans and more similar to that seen in the great apes. A key feature that Australopithecus had in common with modern humans was bipedalism, although it is likely that Australopithecus also spent time in trees. Hominin footprints, similar to those of modern humans, were found in Laetoli, Tanzania and dated to 3.6 million years ago. They showed that hominins at the time of Australopithecus were walking upright. There were a number of Australopithecus species, which are often referred to as australopiths. Australopithecus anamensis lived about 4.2 million years ago. More is known about another early species, Australopithecus afarensis, which lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. This species demonstrates a trend in human evolution: the reduction of the dentition and jaw in size. A. afarensis (Figure) had smaller canines and molars compared to apes, but these were larger than those of modern humans. Its brain size was 380–450 cubic centimeters, approximately the size of a modern chimpanzee brain. It also had prognathic jaws, which is a relatively longer jaw than that of modern humans. In the mid-1970s, the fossil of an adult female A. afarensis was found in the Afar region of Ethiopia and dated to 3.24 million years ago (Figure). The fossil, which is informally called “Lucy,” is significant because it was the most complete australopith fossil found, with 40 percent of the skeleton recovered. Australopithecus africanus lived between 2 and 3 million years ago. It had a slender build and was bipedal, but had robust arm bones and, like other early hominids, may have spent significant time in trees. Its brain was larger than that of A. afarensis at 500 cubic centimeters, which is slightly less than one-third the size of modern human brains. Two other species, Australopithecus bahrelghazali and Australopithecus garhi, have been added to the roster of australopiths in recent years. A Dead End: Genus Paranthropus The australopiths had a relatively slender build and teeth that were suited for soft food. In the past several years, fossils of hominids of a different body type have been found and dated to approximately 2.5 million years ago. These hominids, of the genus Paranthropus, were muscular, stood 1.3-1.4 meters tall, and had large grinding teeth. Their molars showed heavy wear, suggesting that they had a coarse and fibrous vegetarian diet as opposed to the partially carnivorous diet of the australopiths. Paranthropus includes Paranthropus robustus of South Africa, and Paranthropus aethiopicus and Paranthropus boisei of East Africa. The hominids in this genus went extinct more than 1 million years ago and are not thought to be ancestral to modern humans, but rather members of an evolutionary branch on the hominin tree that left no descendants. Early Hominins: Genus Homo The human genus, Homo, first appeared between 2.5 and 3 million years ago. For many years, fossils of a species called H. habilis were the oldest examples in the genus Homo, but in 2010, a new species called Homo gautengensis was discovered and may be older. Compared to A. africanus, H. habilis had a number of features more similar to modern humans. H. habilis had a jaw that was less prognathic than the australopiths and a larger brain, at 600–750 cubic centimeters. However, H. habilis retained some features of older hominin species, such as long arms. The name H. habilis means “handy man,” which is a reference to the stone tools that have been found with its remains. Link to Learning Watch this video about Smithsonian paleontologist Briana Pobiner explaining the link between hominin eating of meat and evolutionary trends. H. erectus appeared approximately 1.8 million years ago (Figure). It is believed to have originated in East Africa and was the first hominin species to migrate out of Africa. Fossils of H. erectus have been found in India, China, Java, and Europe, and were known in the past as “Java Man” or “Peking Man.” H. erectus had a number of features that were more similar to modern humans than those of H. habilis. H. erectus was larger in size than earlier hominins, reaching heights up to 1.85 meters and weighing up to 65 kilograms, which are sizes similar to those of modern humans. Its degree of sexual dimorphism was less than earlier species, with males being 20 to 30 percent larger than females, which is close to the size difference seen in our species. H. erectus had a larger brain than earlier species at 775–1,100 cubic centimeters, which compares to the 1,130–1,260 cubic centimeters seen in modern human brains. H. erectus also had a nose with downward-facing nostrils similar to modern humans, rather than the forward facing nostrils found in other primates. Longer, downward-facing nostrils allow for the warming of cold air before it enters the lungs and may have been an adaptation to colder climates. Artifacts found with fossils of H. erectus suggest that it was the first hominin to use fire, hunt, and have a home base. H. erectus is generally thought to have lived until about 50,000 years ago. Humans: Homo sapiens A number of species, sometimes called archaic Homo sapiens, apparently evolved from H. erectus starting about 500,000 years ago. These species include Homo heidelbergensis, Homo rhodesiensis, and Homo neanderthalensis. These archaic H. sapiens had a brain size similar to that of modern humans, averaging 1,200–1,400 cubic centimeters. They differed from modern humans by having a thick skull, a prominent brow ridge, and a receding chin. Some of these species survived until 30,000–10,000 years ago, overlapping with modern humans (Figure). There is considerable debate about the origins of anatomically modern humans or Homo sapiens sapiens. As discussed earlier, H. erectus migrated out of Africa and into Asia and Europe in the first major wave of migration about 1.5 million years ago. It is thought that modern humans arose in Africa from H. erectus and migrated out of Africa about 100,000 years ago in a second major migration wave. Then, modern humans replaced H. erectus species that had migrated into Asia and Europe in the first wave. This evolutionary timeline is supported by molecular evidence. One approach to studying the origins of modern humans is to examine mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from populations around the world. Because a fetus develops from an egg containing its mother’s mitochondria (which have their own, non-nuclear DNA), mtDNA is passed entirely through the maternal line. Mutations in mtDNA can now be used to estimate the timeline of genetic divergence. The resulting evidence suggests that all modern humans have mtDNA inherited from a common ancestor that lived in Africa about 160,000 years ago. Another approach to the molecular understanding of human evolution is to examine the Y chromosome, which is passed from father to son. This evidence suggests that all men today inherited a Y chromosome from a male that lived in Africa about 140,000 years ago. Section Summary All primate species possess adaptations for climbing trees, as they all probably descended from tree-dwellers, although not all species are arboreal. Other characteristics of primates are brains that are larger than those of other mammals, claws that have been modified into flattened nails, typically only one young per pregnancy, stereoscopic vision, and a trend toward holding the body upright. Primates are divided into two groups: prosimians and anthropoids. Monkeys evolved from prosimians during the Oligocene Epoch. Apes evolved from catarrhines in Africa during the Miocene Epoch. Apes are divided into the lesser apes and the greater apes. Hominins include those groups that gave rise to our species, such as Australopithecus and H. erectus, and those groups that can be considered “cousins” of humans, such as Neanderthals. Fossil evidence shows that hominins at the time of Australopithecus were walking upright, the first evidence of bipedal hominins. A number of species, sometimes called archaic H. sapiens, evolved from H. erectus approximately 500,000 years ago. There is considerable debate about the origins of anatomically modern humans or H. sapiens sapiens. Review Questions Which of the following is not an anthropoid? - lemurs - monkeys - apes - humans Hint: A Which of the following is part of a clade believed to have died out, leaving no descendants? - Paranthropus robustus - Australopithecus africanus - Homo erectus - Homo sapiens sapiens Hint: A Free Response How did archaic Homo sapiens differ from anatomically modern humans? Hint: Archaic Homo sapiens differed from modern humans by having a thick skull and a prominent brow ridge, and lacking a prominent chin. Why is it so difficult to determine the sequence of hominin ancestors that have led to modern Homo sapiens? Hint: The immediate ancestors of humans were Australopithecus. All people past and present, along with the australopithecines, are hominins. We share the adaptation of being habitually bipedal. The earliest australopithecines very likely did not evolve until 5 million years ago. The primate fossil record for this crucial transitional period leading to australopithecines is still sketchy and somewhat confusing. By about 2.5 million years ago, there were at least two evolutionary lines of hominins descended from early australopithecines.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.632427	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15089/overview", "title": "Biology, Biological Diversity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89631/overview	Introdcution to Biology (BIOL 1010) Course Lectures Overview This course contains classroom lecture content for the instructor to deliver an Introduction to Biology (BIOL 1010 ) course. Two books were curated and used to develop content for the lecture modules. Both books, Biology 2e and Concepts in Biology, are available in the OpenStax OER platform. The lab components, as links, were curated from Biology OER hosted by the City University of New York. Lab components are found in the Open Educational Resources for General Biology I and Molecular & Cellular Biology resource. Syllabus Outline BIOL 1010 OER Syllabus Outline This course utilizes two textbooks: Clark, M. A., Douglas, M., & Choi, J. C. (2018). Biology 2e. Houston, Texas: OpenStax. Retrieved from https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/1-introduction Fowler, S., Roush, R., & Wise, J. (2013). Concepts of Biology. Houston: OpenStax. Retrieved from https://openstax.org/details/books/concepts-biology This course uses lab resources from: Seto, J. (n.d.). Open Educational Resources for General Biology I and Molecular & Cell Biology. New York City: City University of New York. Retrieved from https://openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/bio-oer/ Schedule Module 1 Lecture: BIOL 1010 Module 1 Lecture (OpenStax Biology 2e Chapter 1) Lab: Scientific Method; Reporting in Science; Microscope; Metric System (Open Educational Resources for General Biology I and Molecular & Cellular Biology) Module 2 Lecture : BIOL Module 2 Lecture (OpenStax Biology 2e Chapter 2) Lab: Lab: Atoms; Water; pH (Open Educational Resources for General Biology I and Molecular & Cellular Biology) Module 3 Lecture: BIOL 1010 Module 3 Lecture (OpenStax Biology 2e Chapter 3) Lab: Basic Orgnaic Chemistry (Open Educational Resources for General Biology I and Molecular & Cellular Biology) Module 4 Lecture: BIOL 1010 Module 4 Lecture (OpenStax Biology 2e Chapter 4) Lab: Carbohydrates Activity; Protein Activity (Open Educational Resources for General Biology I and Molecular & Cellular Biology) Module 5 Lecture: BIOL 1010 Module 5 Lecture (OpenStax Biology 2e Chapter 5) Lab: Diffusion and Osmosis (Open Educational Resources for General Biology I and Molecular & Cellular Biology) Module 6 Lecture: BIOL 1010 Module 6 Lecture (OpenStax Concepts of Biology Chapter 6) Lab: Estimating Time of Phases; Chromosome Modeling; Chromosomes and Karyotypes (Open Educational Resources for General Biology I and Molecular & Cellular Biology) Module 7 BIOL 1010 Module 7 Lecture (OpenStax Concepts of Biology Chapter 7) Lab: Genetics of Taste Activity; Sex-Linked Genes (Open Educational Resources for General Biology I and Molecular & Cellular Biology) Module 8 Lecture: BIOL 1010 Module 8 Lecture (OpenStax Concepts of Biology Chapter 8) Lab: Co-Dominance and Multiple Alleles; Probability and Statistics with Chi-Square; Hardy-Weinberg and Population Genetics Simulations (Open Educational Resources for General Biology I and Molecular & Cellular Biology) Module 9 Lecture: BIOL 1010 Module 9 Lecture (OpenStax Concepts of Biology Chapter 9) Lab: Analyzing DNA; Restriction Enzymes (Open Educational Resources for General Biology I and Molecular & Cellular Biology) Module 10 Lecture: BIOL 1010 Module 10 Lecture (OpenStax Concepts of Biology Chapter 10) Lab: RFLP: PCR Technology (Open Educational Resources for General Biology I and Molecular & Cellular Biology) Module 1 Lecture This module accompanies chapter one in OpenStax Biology 2e. Module 2 Lecture This module accompanies chapter two in OpenStax Biology 2e. Module 3 Lecture This module accompanies chapter three in OpenStax Biology 2e. Module 4 Lecture This module accompanies chapter four in OpenStax Biology 2e. Module 5 Lecture This module accompanies chapter five in OpenStax Biology 2e. Module 6 Lecture This module accompanies chapter six in OpenStax Concepts in Biology. Module 7 Lecture This module accompanies chapter seven in OpenStax Concepts in Biology. Module 8 Lecture This module accompanies chapter eight in OpenStax Concepts in Biology. Module 9 Lecture This module accompanies chapter nine in OpenStax Concepts in Biology. Module 10 Lecture This module accompanies chapter ten in OpenStax Concepts in Biology.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.666418	01/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89631/overview", "title": "Introdcution to Biology (BIOL 1010) Course Lectures", "author": "Robert Blaudow" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88054/overview	September 1939: The Invasion of Poland Overview World War II Begins in Europe Poland is a relatively large county in Eastern Europe famous for its natural resources and agricultural production, as well as its industrial output. Its shifting borders have caused it to be both an aggressor, and more recently, a victim of geography. During World War II, it was invaded by both the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. Despite being drastically outmanned and outgunned on both sides, the Poles fiercely resisted the invasions for nearly a month—just ten days shorter than France resisted the German invasion of 1940. Throughout the war, Poland would be an epicenter of extreme violence, war crimes, death camps, and barbaric conflicts between neighbors up and down its eastern border. Its history in World War II remains simultaneously complex and nuanced. Yet, there can be no doubt that Poland demonstrated remarkable heroics throughout the war—militarily and through the more than 7,000 Polish civilians who risked their lives to save Jewish neighbors. Learning Objectives - Understand the origins and background of the German-Soviet Division of Poland. - Understand the complex, brutal invasions of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in September 1939. Key Terms / Key Concepts Wehrmacht: German military during World War II Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact: neutrality pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed in Moscow on August 23, 1939 Invasions of Poland: during September of 1939, when Poland was invaded by Germany from the North, South, and West; and the Soviet Union from the East Blitzkrieg: German “lightning war” strategy that is highly mobile, and simultaneously uses airplanes, army, artillery, and tanks to eliminate a target The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact Background: Germany, the USSR, and their Mutual Desire for Poland Since the re-establishment of Poland as a sovereign nation at the end of World War I, both Germany and Russia had contested its right to exist. Historically, Poland’s territory had belonged, in part, to Germany and Russia from the mid-1800s until the First World War. Rich in resources, both sides wanted to reclaim Poland. In the 1930s, Hitler’s desire to expand “living space” for the German people increased. The Allies, time and again, appeased Hitler by allowing him to annex territories such as Austria and the Sudetenland. The British and French governments drew the line, though, at the idea of Germany annexing Polish territory. This, they declared would result in a war declaration on Germany. Similarly, Russia also had kept its eye on Poland since the end of World War I. Stalin wished to expand his influence in Europe and reclaim territory he believed rightfully belonged to him. Like Hitler, he also saw Poland as a country rich in agriculture and natural resources that would help fuel the Soviet war effort. The Poles were fiercely independent, democratic, Catholic, and historically resistant to Russian occupation of their lands. Tragically, neither Hitler nor Stalin felt anything but contempt for the Polish people. For Hitler, all Slavic people were lesser humans. “Brutish and backward,” they were one tier above the Jews in the Nazi racial hierarchy. They also stood in the way of Hitler’s dreams of a great German race that would occupy all of Europe. For Stalin, the Poles were historic enemies of Russia, despite shared cultural and linguistic ties. As a result, when Poland was invaded by Germany and the Soviet Union, the Polish people would become targets for mass-execution, arrests, forced labor, and victims of war crimes. Temporary Allies The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was a neutrality pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed in Moscow on August 23, 1939 by foreign ministers Joachim von Ribbentrop (Germany) and Vyacheslav Molotov (Russia), respectively. The pact clarified the spheres of interest between the two powers. It remained in force for nearly two years until the German government of Adolf Hitler launched an attack on the Soviet positions in Eastern Poland during Operation Barbarossa on June 22, 1941. The clauses of the Nazi-Soviet Pact provided a written guarantee of non-belligerence by each party towards the other and a declared commitment that neither government would ally itself to or aid an enemy of the other party. In addition to stipulations of non-aggression, the treaty included a secret protocol that divided territories of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, and Romania into German and Soviet “spheres of influence,” anticipating “territorial and political rearrangements” of these countries. Poland Invaded: September 1939 Wieluń is a quiet, unassuming town of a little more than 20,000 people in south-central Poland. Around 5:00 a.m. on September 1, 1939, the Poles awoke to a horrible screaming sound: columns of diving German, Stuka aircraft. The screams followed with massive explosions and human screams, as victims were injured, caught fire, or killed. By the end of the bombing, over 150 civilians had perished; the town nearly destroyed. And, for the first time in military history, aircraft was used to terrorize and level a city; marking the start of World War II. By the end of September, nearly all of Western Poland had experienced the same type of aerial bombardment as Wieluń. The German Wehrmacht invaded not only by air, but also by land. This style of combat came to be known as a blitzkrieg. Although comparatively small, the Polish army hastily formed a defense of the country. Drastically outmatched and outgunned, they could not withstand the German onslaught for long. Before their defeat, however, the Polish army put up a remarkable defense of their capital city, Warsaw. For over three weeks, they held-out against the Wehrmacht as attacks came by both air and land. By the end of September, the German air force (Luftwaffe) had dropped over 560 tons of bombs and 72 tons of firebombs on Warsaw. More than 25,000 civilians and 6,000 Polish soldiers had perished. The Germans did not stop with the bombing of cities and towns. Stuka aircraft strafed fleeing civilians, including elderly, women, and children. Polish men were frequently rounded-up and shot. Poland had historically had a very high Jewish population. During the initial invasion, the Jews were especially targeted and shot. Once Nazi occupation of Poland was completed, the Jews would be systematically rounded-up and forced into ghettoes, and later concentration or death camps. Some Poles fled east in fear of the German invasion, hoping to find refuge in the eastern portions of the country. Little did they suspect that there was not one, but two invasions of Poland. On September 17, 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east. Much of the Polish resistance had been crushed by the German Wehrmacht. When the Red Army began its invasion, they were met by a nearly crippled Polish army, and a host of defenseless civilians. Instead of liberators, the Poles quickly discovered that the Soviet Red Army meant to occupy their country, also. Although initially less brutal than the Germans in their tactics, the Poles understood that they could not trust the Russians either. Over the course of nearly two succeeding years, the Soviets arrested over 100,000 Poles for various, usually invented, charges. Most were deported to the brutal, Soviet gulags where they engaged in forced labor, received minimal rations and health care, and were exposed to savage winters. Another 8,000 Poles were executed. Tens of thousands more were forcibly drafted into the Red Army. Moreover, the Soviet NKVD (Secret Police/Military) tediously monitored Polish communications and activities. Infamously in the spring of 1940, the Soviets rounded-up over 20,000 Polish officers and intelligentsia. They were executed, primarily in the Katyn Forest outside of Smolensk. The corpses were thrown into mass graves. First discovered by the Germans during the war, the Soviets vehemently denied they had murdered the Polish officers. Instead, they presented it as a German war crime. Only in the late 1990s and early 2000s did the truth of the Polish officers emerge. Significance of the Invasions Poland suffered disproportionately during the initial months of World War II. Little did the Poles, or Polish Jews, know that the terrors they had endured in 1939 would only worsen as the war progressed. And yet, while Poland was militarily defeated and occupied by the Nazis by the end of September, their underground resistance movement remained strong. They had a government in exile in London, and a growing group of resistance fighters and partisans who would from the legendary Polish home army: the Armia Krajowa. Attributions All Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Snyder, Timothy. Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books, New York: 2010. 114-128. Boundless World History “German-Soviet Treaty of Friendship” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/german-soviet-treaty-of-friendship/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.693275	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88054/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 14: The World Afire: World War II, September 1939: The Invasion of Poland", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/58598/overview	Setting up your Oculus Rift Prepping for a Great Oculus Rift Event Overview Make sure you are ready for a great program by watching these helpful videos on setting up the room and your system for the Oculus Rift. Step 1 - Video: Set up the Rift There are a lot of cords and cables and cameras associated with a Rift. Watch this video to see how and where to plug them all in. Step 2 - Video: Set up the Room Oculus Rift and VR in general requires space. Make sure your customers have the best experience by prepping the room prior to beginning the program. This video will help you mark off the room and set up the system.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.713157	10/07/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/58598/overview", "title": "Prepping for a Great Oculus Rift Event", "author": "Alexandra Houff" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70697/overview	Create an Interactive Story Game (Using Google Slides) Overview This document details a simple way for anyone to create an interactive digital adventure game with zero programming. This activity can be done as an individual or with a team. Use a cloud-based PowerPoint program to get started (Google slides recommended). Introduction This resource teaches you how to create an interactive adventure game with zero programming via Google Slides. It can be a collaborative activity or completed solo. You can find more details beside the ones provided in this resource here Plan the Story Determine the setting(s), character(s), and problem(s) in your story. Make a list of them to refer to when building your game. If your designing this game with someone else, then use a cloud shared document (like Google docs). Another name for this phase is “Story Brainstorming.” Choose one character and problem to focus on, this is your games plot. Tips Try to have at least 10 settings, 10 characters, and 10 problems The key to brainstorming is to generate as many ideas as possible. There are no bad ideas at this stage Sift through your ideas and identify the ones you think will be the most and least fun for the player. Create the slides Open a PowerPoint program and make a title slide for your game. Then make a beginning slide that details your stories scenario. Underneath that description, add three choices your player can make by placing text boxes. Link each of those choices to a separate slide that progresses your story forward. To link a text box in Google Slides, select over the entire text box and press Ctrl+K (or click the link chain at the top of the browser). Then click “Slides in this presentation” > select whatever slide you’d like to link the choice too. You’ll need to pre-make the slide you want a choice to link to before linking it. Tips Create interesting choices for the player to pursue Remember this game can’t remember player choices; plan your story route accordingly Use intriguing pictures along with your text descriptions to paint the scene for your player Keep track of what you name each slide, this will help you with the linking process Rinse & Repeat Repeat this process until you’ve completed your game; you can add two choices to the next slide instead of three (this streamlines the design process). Whenever the player reaches a dead end in your game (due to failure, dying, completion), link them back to beginning of the game, or to a check point. Tips Always write in the second person (you, your, yours) Always include the choice in the title. Test your links frequently in Presentation Mode Playtest Once you’ve completed you game play it in presentation mode to ensure it works correctly. Tweak it based on your enjoyment level. Tips Have a friend playtest your game and give you feedback That’s it! Your game is now ready to be enjoyed by all. I’ve included a link to my very own digital adventure game for you to reference. Here's a game I worked on for months using this exact proccess; should be a helpful reference	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.732679	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70697/overview", "title": "Create an Interactive Story Game (Using Google Slides)", "author": "Literature" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104908/overview	Problem Set 2 Problem Set 3 Problem Set 4 Problem Set 5 Problem Set 6 Problem Set 7 Problem Set 8 Problem Set 9 Problem Set 10 Homework 1 Homework 2 Homework 3 Homework 4 Homework 5 Mandi's Remix for Accessibility Practice - Introductory Statistics Overview Introductory Statistics is a non-calculus based, descriptive statistics course with applications. Topics include methods of collecting, organizing, and interpreting data; measures of central tendency, position, and variability for grouped and ungrouped data; frequency distributions and their graphical representations; introduction to probability theory, standard normal distribution, and areas under the curve. Course materials created by Fahmil Shah, content added to OER Commons by Victoria Vidal. OER Course Information MAT 120 OER Fahmil Shah Summer 2019 Level 1 – Adopt This OER course has been designed to be implemented in Summer II 2019. The materials will be adapted following the end of the course in order to be improved for subsequent semesters. I am willing to share any updated versions of the materials as they are created and refined. 1) Course Description Introductory Statistics is a non-calculus based, descriptive statistics course with applications. Topics include methods of collecting, organizing, and interpreting data; measures of central tendency, position, and variability for grouped and ungrouped data; frequency distributions and their graphical representations; introduction to probability theory, standard normal distribution, and areas under the curve. 2) Instructional Objectives - Calculate measures of central tendency and variation for sets of grouped and ungrouped data - Create a table of the frequency distribution for a set of grouped or ungrouped data - Design an opinion survey, choose a random unbiased sample, and conduct the survey - Use the graphing calculator for statistical analysis - Calculate the probabilities of simple events. 3) Link to Open Textbook Introductory Statistics by Illowsky and Dean 4) Alignment of Open Textbook with Instructional Objectives From above, the objectives are: - Calculate measures of central tendency and variation for sets of grouped and ungrouped data - Create a table of the frequency distribution for a set of grouped or ungrouped data - Design an opinion survey, choose a random unbiased sample, and conduct the survey - Use the graphing calculator for statistical analysis - Calculate the probabilities of simple events. This course utilizes content from the following sections of Introductory Statistics and assignments have been created using the book. Homeworks assign problems from the textbook to be done at home, and problem sets adapt problems from the book to create sets that are to be completed during class. These assignments have been submitted in a summary document, as well as in separate word documents (as they will be distributed). The tentative timeline corresponds to a 5-week Summer session course. \| Chapter and Sections \| Tentative Timeline \| Corresponding Assignments for Summer 2019 \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Chapter 1 – Sampling and Data Sections 1.1 – 1.4 \| Week 1 \| Homework Assignment 1 Problem Set 1 \| \| Chapter 2 – Descriptive Statistics Sections 2.1 – 2.7 \| Week 1 \| Homework Assignment 1 Problem Set 2 \| \| Chapter 3 – Probability Topics Sections 3.1 – 3.5 \| Week 2 \| Homework Assignment 2 Problem Set 3 \| \| Chapter 4 – Discrete Random Variables Section 4.1 – 4.2 \| Week 2 \| Homework Assignment 2 Problem Set 4 \| \| Chapter 5 – Continuous Random Variables Sections 5.1 – 5.2 \| Week 3 \| Homework Assignment 3 Problem Set 5 \| \| Chapter 6 – The Normal Distribution Sections 6.1 – 6.2 \| Week 3 \| Homework Assignment 3 Problem Set 6 \| \| Chapter 7 – The Central Limit Theorem Section 7.1, 7.3 \| Week 4 \| Homework Assignment 4 Problem Set 7 \| \| Chapter 8 – Confidence Intervals Section 8.1 – 8.3 \| Week 4 \| Homework Assignment 4 Problem Set 8 \| \| Chapter 9 – Hypothesis Testing with One Sample - Section 9.1 – 9.6 \| Week 5 \| Homework Assignment 5 Problem Set 9 \| \| Chapter 10 – Hypothesis Testing with Two Samples - Sections 10.1 – 10.4 \| Week 5 \| Homework Assignment 5 Problem Set 10 \| The table below presents the alignment between the course objectives and the Introductory Statistics textbook. \| Objective \| Corresponding Introductory Statistics Chapters \| \|---\|---\| \| Calculate measures of central tendency and variation for sets of grouped and ungrouped data \| Chapter 2 \| \| Create a table of the frequency distribution for a set of grouped or ungrouped data \| Chapter 1 \| \| Design an opinion survey, choose a random unbiased sample, and conduct the survey \| Chapter 1 \| \| Use the graphing calculator for statistical analysis \| Chapters 2, 7, 8, 9, 10 \| \| Calculate the probabilities of simple events. \| Chapters 3, 4, 5, 6 \| 5) Corresponding Problem Sets and Homework Assignments Corresponding Problem Sets and Homework Assignments from Introductory Statistics can be found below. An overview document is also included, which has the assignments consolidated into a single document. Assignments may be modified in subsequent implementations of the course This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Course Syllabus Roxbury Community CollegeCourse Syllabus \| \|---\| INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS MAT 120 2A - 3 credits Monday/Wednesday/Thursday, 9:00 AM – 11:30 AM, Room 3-105 Classes begin 7/8/19 and end 8/8/19 Academic Calendar Link: http://www.rcc.mass.edu/current-students/academic-calendar-students You are advised to retain a copy of this syllabus in your personal files for use when applying for future degrees, certifications, or transfer of credit. Instructor Information Instructor: Fahmil Shah Email: fshah@rcc.mass.edu Phone: 617-331-3206 (cell) Office Hours: Upon Request Communication: Throughout the semester, I will communicate with you via your RCC email account. Please review the following link for assistance on using your email account: http://www.rcc.mass.edu/current-students/electronic-tool-box/email You may email me at the address above (or call me on the phone) with any questions you have regarding the course or material. You should also email me ahead of time if you are aware of any classes you may be missing in the future, or if you have to miss class for any reason. General Course Description Course Description: Introductory Statistics is a non-calculus-based, descriptive statistics course with applications. Topics include methods of collecting, organizing, and interpreting data; measures of central tendency, position, and variability for grouped and ungrouped data; frequency distributions and their graphical representations; introduction to probability theory, standard normal distribution, and areas under the curve. Prerequisites: Students must have passed Introductory Algebra (MAT 088) at RCC or another college or must have placed out of Introductory Algebra on the RCC Mathematics Placement Test. If you have not met these prerequisites, please see me for placement into the proper mathematics course for you. If you do not satisfy these pre-requisites, you will be withdrawn from the course. Materials Required Texts: Illowsky & Dean, Introductory Statistics. This OER text will be made available on MyRCC, and can be downloaded directly at the link above. Technology Requirements: It is very useful to have a working knowledge of a spreadsheet application (e.g. Excel, OpenOffice, or Google Sheets) in order to create some of the tables/charts/graphs on the computer. I will go over relevant functions throughout the course. We will also be using graphing/statistics software (e.g. Desmos or Geogebra), which can be accessed on a computer or mobile phone through apps and online. These free online applications can be accessed online using the following links: If you need help learning how to use the software, please speak with me. Instructional Objectives By fully participating in this course, you should be able to: - Calculate measures of central tendency and variation for sets of grouped and ungrouped data - Create a table of the frequency distribution for a set of grouped or ungrouped data - Design an opinion survey, choose a random unbiased sample, and conduct the survey - Use the graphing calculator for statistical analysis - Calculate the probabilities of simple events. Methods of Instruction Teaching Philosophy: My goal in this class is to not only to help you develop a set of tools that can help you understand what statistics is and how to use it, but also to understand the important of statistics as a field, and see how it can help us understand the information that we see in the newspaper, on television, and on the internet. We are bombarded with data in the 21st century, and the material in this course is intended to help us make sense of the data we see, read, and hear all around us. I believe that learning material with understanding is developed not through lecture and copying down of information, but through collaboration and problem solving. For this reason, a goal of mine in this course is to use engaging problems and group work as a vehicle for us to understand the material at a deep level. Instructor Responsibilities: My role in the classroom is not to give you the answers, or to tell you what to do. My intent is for me to guide you through the semester as we discuss and learn about key ideas in Statistics. Much of the responsibility of learning will fall upon you, as you read the chapters, work on the assignments, and discuss the material with myself and your peers. My goal is to come prepared with the problems and information that will help you understand Statistics on a theoretical level and as a practical tool, and to answer any questions and give any assistance necessary as you learn the subject. Course Completion Requirements Your success in this course depends on the following: - There will be problem sets given throughout the semester, which will go over the material covered in class. This will account for 15% of your grade. - There will be homework assigned throughout the semester, which will be drawn from the textbook. This will be due after we go over the corresponding course material. This will be worth 25% of your grade. - There will be three exams throughout the semester, which will assess your understanding of the material covered in each of the modules. Problems will generally be a combination of computational problems, word problems, and open response problems. You must show your work for all problems, and partial credit will be given as appropriate. The lowest score of the three exams will be dropped. The two remaining scores will account for 20% of your final grade each. - There will be a final project, which will count for 20% of your grade. Details will be given during the semester. Grading Percentages for Final Course Grade: \| Activity \| Grade % \| \|---\|---\| \| Problem Sets \| 15 \| \| Homework \| 25 \| \| Exams (Top 2) \| 40 \| \| Final Project \| 20 \| \| Total \| 100 \| The final grade (rounded to the nearest whole number) will be computed as follows: \| Grade Range \| Letter Grade \| \|---\|---\| \| 93 – 100 \| A \| \| 90 – 92 \| A- \| \| 87 – 89 \| B+ \| \| 83 – 86 \| B \| \| 80 – 82 \| B- \| \| 77 – 79 \| C+ \| \| 73 – 76 \| C \| \| 70 – 72 \| C- \| \| 67 – 69 \| D+ \| \| 60 – 66 \| D \| \| 0 – 59 \| F \| Please go to the Roxbury Community College Catalog for detailed information on the college’s grading policy: http://www.rcc.mass.edu/images/pdf/academics/catalog_Revised100213.pdf Academic Policies and Procedures Attendance Policy: Attendance is expected for all class sessions, as it is critical to the understanding of the course material. Due to the emphasis on work done in class (though problems and discussion), it is also influential in your final grade. Attendance will be taken towards the beginning of each class. Let me know if you will need to miss class for any reason and email me when possible in the case of an emergency or illness. Note that if you miss 3 consecutive classes without an excuse, you will be given a Withdrawn Administratively (WA) at the instructor’s discretion, which cannot be changed. You must contact the instructor regarding absences in order to avoid this. Electronics Policy: Cellular phones should not be used during class, unless required in an emergency, being used as a calculator, or for another approved usage in class. Otherwise, it should remain out of sight until the end of class, or during breaks. Violation of this policy may result is confiscation of the device, or a report to the appropriate authorities. Except for the event of an emergency, calls and texts should take place OUTSIDE of class whenever possible. You should not be texting during class. Late Work: You should speak with me, or contact me via email if you have any issue completing assignments on time. Make up exams will be given only with an appropriate excuse, and will be given only at the instructor’s discretion. Please contact me if you have any issues that would create the need for a makeup exam. Because one of the exams will be dropped, a makeup will only be granted in extreme circumstances. Coursework Difficulties: Please discuss any issues that you are having in completing the coursework on time with me. I am available to talk this over with you by appointment, during breaks, or after class. It is recommended that you go for tutoring at the Learning Center (room 3-207) for one on one tutoring appointments, or to the Math Clinic (room 3-206) for drop-in tutoring if you are having any difficulties understanding the material. Incomplete Policy: If you are unable to complete the coursework during the semester due to some catastrophic issue, you must contact me immediately to discuss your alternatives. Student code of conduct Students are required to adhere to the Student Code of Conduct delineated in the Roxbury Community College website and Student Handbook. Accommodations Roxbury Community College is committed to providing all qualified college students equal access to all programs and facilities. Students who have a documented physical, psychological, or learning disability and need academic accommodations must register with the Coordinator of Disability Services, Linda O’Connor. Please contact her in Room 207C in the Academic Building; email loconnor@rcc.mass.edu; or phone 617-708-3562. Disability Services will provide you with an Accommodation Letter to provide to faculty. You need to present and discuss these recommendations with me within a reasonable period, prior to the end of the Drop/Add period. Student Support Services RCC offers a range of student support services including Advising, Tutoring, Math Clinic, Health Services, Library, Writing Center and Language Lab. Topic Schedule (TENTATIVE) \| Week \| Topic \| \|---\|---\| Week 1 (7/8 – 7/12) \| Syllabus/Introductions Chapter 1: Sampling and Data Chapter 2: Descriptive Statistics \| Week 2 (7/15 – 7/19) \| Chapter 3: Probability Topics Exam 1 Chapter 4: Discrete Random Variables \| Week 3 (7/22 – 7/26) \| Chapter 5: Continuous Random Variables Chapter 6: The Normal Distribution \| Week 4 (7/29 – 8/2) \| Exam 2Chapter 7: The Central Limit Theorem Chapter 8: Confidence Intervals \| Week 5 (8/5 – 8/9) \| Chapter 9: Hypothesis Testing With One Sample Chapter 10: Hypothesis Testing With Two Samples Exam 3 Final Presentations \| Problem Sets MAT 120 OER Fahmil Shah Summer 2019 Level 1 – Adopt This course has 10 problem sets, each corresponding to one chapter from the Introductory Statistics OER course. Problem Set 1 Chapter 1 – Sampling and Data Sections 1.1 – 1.4 Problem Set 2 Chapter 2 – Descriptive Statistics Sections 2.1 – 2.7 Problem Set 3 Chapter 3 – Probability Topics Sections 3.1 – 3.5 Problem Set 4 Chapter 4 – Discrete Random Variables Section 4.1 – 4.2 Problem Set 5 Chapter 5 – Continuous Random Variables Sections 5.1 – 5.2 Problem Set 6 Chapter 6 – The Normal Distribution Sections 6.1 – 6.2 Problem Set 7 Chapter 7 – The Central Limit Theorem Section 7.1, 7.3 Problem Set 8 Chapter 8 – Confidence Intervals Section 8.1 – 8.3 Problem Set 9 Chapter 9 – Hypothesis Testing with One Sample Section 9.1 – 9.6 Problem Set 10 Chapter 10 – Hypothesis Testing with Two Samples Sections 10.1 – 10.4 Untitled Section MAT 120 OER Level 1 – Adopt Fahmil Shah Summer 2019 Below is a summary of the homework assignments for the MAT 120 OER. Page numbers refers to numbers of the PDF pages. Homework 1 Chapter 1 (pp. 60-69) #42, 43, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 74, 80, 82, 88, 89 Chapter 2 (pp. 147-168) #74, 78, 79, 80, 89, 90, 105, 109 Homework 2 Chapter 3 (pp. 228-240) #66, 80, 85, 90, 98, 109, 110, 111, 114, 115 Chapter 4 (pp. 296-300) #69 Homework 3 Chapter 5 (pp. 360-363) #72, 74, 79, 81, 85 Chapter 6 (pp. 397-402) #60, 61, 65, 68, 69, 71, 72, 78 Homework 4 Chapter 7 (pp. 438-446) #62, 68, 71, 78, 79, 80 Chapter 8 (pp. 491-500) #95, 98, 106, 115, 116, 123 Homework 5 Chapter 9 (pp. 548-563) #63, 65, 68, 69, 73, 80, 85 Chapter 10 (pp. 608-619) #78, 81, 89, 95, 102, 118, 119	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.789244	Mandi Goodsett	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104908/overview", "title": "Mandi's Remix for Accessibility Practice - Introductory Statistics", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115231/overview	State Guidance for Understanding Artificial Intelligence in K-12 Schools: Michigan Overview Several State Departments of Education have published guides for understanding issues around AI in education, including privacy, security, transparency, accessibility, and keeping humans at the center of learning. These and related resources are being curated on the #GoOpen Hub and are freely available and openly licensed. Introduction Generative artificial intelligence (AI) language models can assist with various tasks from teaching and learning, to writing support, to data analysis. District staff who have access to generative AI tools should understand underlying behaviors and the potential benefits and limitations associated with use. This interim guidance outlines recommendations regarding the types of data that may and may not be entered into consumer or commercial generative AI products, with specific considerations for the safety and productivity of K-12 schools. It also offers an overview of limitations to be aware of when using generative AI and offers some current best practices for working with these tools. The creation of future AI usage policies will be handled at the local board level in collaboration with administrators and community stakeholders. This sample guidance document is to support school districts and should be modified and reviewed with independent legal counsel as needed prior to implementation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.803289	04/14/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115231/overview", "title": "State Guidance for Understanding Artificial Intelligence in K-12 Schools: Michigan", "author": "Rebecca Henderson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115237/overview	SETDA 2023 State EdTech Trends Report Overview The 2023 State EdTech Trends survey and report tracks how state education agencies and policymakers are adapting to a digital world post-pandemic while also identifying state priorities relating to technology and education. Conducted in collaboration with Whiteboard Advisors, the report includes responses from SETDA members, state superintendents, and other senior state officials from 45 states, the District of Columbia, the Department of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA), and Guam. The report complements the survey data with state spotlights that showcase the work states are leading to support cybersecurity efforts, the effective and equitable use of edtech tools, and the development of policy to guide the use of AI in K-12 classrooms. Introduction The 2022-2023 school year was the first since 2018-2019 that was largely untouched by the COVID-19 pandemic. Instead, state and district leaders had to reckon with the pandemic's legacy: students struggling with academic and mental health issues, staffing challenges that stifled recovery efforts, and the opportunities— and difficulties — presented by abundant educational technology in classrooms. This report captures state leaders' perspectives on various issues relating to education technology at this unique moment in time. To be more precise, the report provides an analysis of the feedback collected from state leaders through surveys administered in April and May 2023. Like its predecessor, it seeks to catalog the ways in which state education agencies are adjusting to a world in which technology is ubiquitous and unavoidable and where new and emerging innovations create never-before-seen opportunities for learning and risks.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.816369	04/14/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115237/overview", "title": "SETDA 2023 State EdTech Trends Report", "author": "Rebecca Henderson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115234/overview	Bringing AI to School: Tips for School Leaders Overview Artificial Intelligence is having a major impact on education. Whether you are excited or concerned about AI, as a school leader you have a responsibility to ensure AI is approached thoughtfully and appropriately in your school community and informs your vision for teaching and learning. This guide, developed by ASCD and ISTE, will help you quickly gain the background you need as a learning leader in an AI-infused world. Introduction What is AI? To begin, it is important to have a basic understanding of what AI is (and what it isn’t). Artificial Intelligence, or AI, is a branch of computer science aimed at creating machines that mimic human intelligence. It's used to perform tasks that usually require human thought, like understanding language, recognizing patterns, or making decisions. Types of AI range from systems doing specific tasks, like recommending movies or autocorrecting typing errors to more advanced forms that can generate new content or predict future outcomes. AI is also behind self-driving cars and digital assistants, like Siri or Alexa. Essentially, AI allows machines to learn, adapt, and perform tasks like humans, often more quickly and accurately. It's a rapidly evolving technology that's already a part of our everyday lives.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.828808	04/14/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115234/overview", "title": "Bringing AI to School: Tips for School Leaders", "author": "Rebecca Henderson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74294/overview	Education Standards Getting the Facts Straight Worksheet_Digital Version Getting the Facts Straight Worksheet_Printable Version GW_quote Hospital Image Verification Example 1 Image Verification Example 2 Jane Doe OSPI Twitter Post_We Do Jane Doe OSPI Twitter post_You Do John Doe Census Data Facebook Post_Opener MLK_quote Picture Verification Worksheet Digital Version Picture Verification Worksheet- Printable Social Media Image Quiz Digital Version Social Media Image Quiz Printable version Social Media Verification Worksheet_Digital Version Social Media Verification Worksheet_Printable Version Who Said What_Worksheet Digital version Who Said What_Worksheet Printable version Verifying Social Media Posts Overview Verifying social media posts is quickly becoming a necessary endeavor in everyday life, let alone in the world of education. Social media has moved beyond a digital world which connects with friends and family and has become a quick and easy way to access news, information, and human interest stories from around the world. As this state of media has become the "new normal," especially for our younger generations, we, educators, find ourselves charged with a new task of teaching our students how to interact with and safely consume digital information. The following three modules are designed to be used as stand-alone activities or combined as one unit, in which the lessons can be taught in any order. "Who Said What?!" is a module focusing on author verification. "A Picture is Worth a Thousand Words'' is a module devoted to image verification. "Getting the Facts Straight" is a module designed to dive into information verification. Lastly, there are assessment suggestions to be utilized after completing all three modules. Who said What?! Who Said What?! A Practice in Author Verification We have all seen, and most likely have posted, an inspirational quote that is fitting for the poster’s current mood, attitude, outlook on life, or the issues of the day. A common practice is to simply Google a portion of a quote, click on images, and find one that is most appealing. But do we always verify that the person the quote is attributed to is correct, or that the quote itself is accurate, or even that the quote means what we think it means within the broader context of when it was stated? Most likely, the answer is no. This activity is meant to open up conversations around the authenticity, accuracy, and context of reposted quotes on social media. OPENER: Display this image (provided as a jpg file) and ask students if the statement is authentic. Ask them to explain how they know it is or isn’t authentic, accurate, attributed properly, etc. Use this misattributed quote to spur conversation around if and how students determine elements of authenticity. This quote came from John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961. - SCAFFOLD: - Take the first paragraph of JFK's Inaugural Address and have students think-pair-share what do they know about the context in which this statement was made. Annotate the paragraph together (e.g., think aloud) and use an online resource such as the JFK library to explain. EXTENSION: Open up the full transcript of JFK’s Inaugural Address and discuss the context in which this statement was made. Display this image (provided as a jpg file) and ask students the same questions as before. This quote is partially accurate and went viral on social media causing quite a controversy. The following articles discuss the life of this fake quote and how easily a quote can be misrepresented, misattributed, and cause offense when it is reposted without verification. Use the articles as discussion starters regarding the importance of proper attribution. I DO: Model for your students how to verify quotes for accuracy, correct attribution, and context. This works best if you can project your computer screen for students to watch as you sift the internet for information (use a think aloud). Choosing a quote: Have students offer suggestions for a random quote. Use a site like Brainy Quote’s Quote of the Day to provide a random quote. Choose a quote based on your current class content so that it is relevant to the work your students are already doing. Google your chosen quote and begin the work of searching for the original publication in which the quote was given. This can be a messy and drawn-out process, but one that allows students to see how you determine where, and how, to search for the truth. WE DO: Have students work in groups to verify quotes using similar tactics that you modeled. Groups can select their own quote to investigate. You could also preselect quotes if you want students to work on a particular topic. For older students you could intentionally give them quotes that are misattributed, but seem legitimate, allowing them to show how deeply they must dig for the truth. Provide the Who Said What Worksheet for students to fill out as they work through the verification process. Have the groups share out how they determined the authenticity of their group’s quote. EXTENSION: For younger students, give all the groups the same quote to verify and make it a race to see who can accurately verify the quote first. Then chart their reponses and analyze the processes that were successful. For older students, have them challenge other groups by finding challenging quotes to verify. Include some that are accurate and others that are specious. YOU DO: Have students work independently, using the Who Said What Worksheet, to verify a quote using the tactics modeled and practiced. For younger students, preselect a quote that allows for an easier/simpler path to verification. For older students, have them open their own social media accounts and choose a recently posted quote to verify. A Picture Is Worth A Thousand Words A Picture is Worth a Thousand Words A Practice in Image Verification In today’s world, people want to take in information faster than ever before. As the old adage goes, a picture is worth a thousand words. So what better way to get information out quickly and ensure it is consumed than to post a captivating, emotion-inducing image with a short caption. That almost guarantees that people will read, comment, and share the post thus furthering your message. People, companies, governments, and the media are using images to catch our eye, hold our attention, and share their messages in a fast, convenient, and powerful way. We often assume the pictures are undoctored and shown accurately portraying the actual situation. However, more and more images are being reused, mistitled, altered, and used to mislead. This activity is meant to open up conversation around the authenticity, accuracy, and context of images and provide tools to determine an image's veracity. OPENER: Give students the Social Media Image Quiz (provided as a jpeg file) and have them answer the questions for each image. The quiz can be done individually or as a whole class. Two “posts” and questions have been provided so one may be used as a model for younger students. Questions can also be altered to fit individual students’ needs. Do you think this post is authentic? What makes you think that? Does this post make you think or feel a certain way? What does it make you feel? Do you think the creator wants you to feel that way? Why do you think it was posted? Would somebody else have a different opinion about this post? Do you think this post is authentic? What makes you think that? Does this post make you think or feel a certain way? What does it make you feel? Do you think the creator wants you to feel that way? Why do you think it was posted? What type of person or organization may have published this post? Go over images and questions as a class and share your findings and answers to the questions. Explain that these “posts” were created using random pictures and were designed to sway opinions on controversial topics such as protests and diseases. Discuss what the students looked for to determine accuracy and authenticity and whether or not these images produced an intended effect. I DO: Model for your students how to verify images for accuracy, correct attribution, and context. This works best if you can project your computer screen for students to watch as you sift through the internet for information. There are two example images included below you can use (provided as jpeg files). Both can be used as an example or one can be used for the “We Do” activity below. This is an image of medical tents assembled at the "Emergency" entrance of Kiang Wu Hospital, Macau, China. The post claims that it is at the Sanford South University Medical Center in Fargo, North Dakota. Some aspects to point out would be the language on the signage on the tent and the building, the tropical foliage in the background, and the vehicle parked in the background. None of those elements would normally be found in North Dakota. You can also look up images of the actual Sanford South University Medical Center in Fargo, North Dakota and see that it looks nothing like the image. Look up the hashtags as well to check for credibility This image was taken in the Great Otway National Park, Victoria, Australia. The post claims that it is the rainforest in Brazil, and it was posted by Marcus Andrews, the Environmental Minister of Brazil. Some aspects to point out may include the type of trees, the dry soil on the ground, the title, and the name of the minister, the website and hashtag. You can also research the quote to check if it was stated by Marcus Andrews. WE DO: Have students work in groups to verify images using similar tactics that you have modeled. Groups can select their own image to investigate. You could also preselect images if you want students to work on a particular topic. For older students, you could intentionally giving them images that are misattributed or misrepresented, but seem legitimate, (along with some creditble ones) allowing them to show how deeply they must dig for the truth. Provide the Picture Verification Worksheet for students to fill out as they work through the verification process. Have the groups share how they determined the authenticity of their group’s image in a brainstorming sessions using chart paper to catalog their methods. EXTENSION: For younger students, give all the groups the same image to verify and make it a race to see who can accurately verify the image first. (Again, use chart paper to note the processes that work well.) For older students, have them challenge other groups by finding challenging images to verify. YOU DO: Have students work independently, using the Picture Verification Worksheet, to verify an image using the tactics modeled and practiced. For younger students, preselect an image that allows for an easier/simpler path to verification. For older students, have them open their own social media accounts and choose a recently posted image to verify. Getting the Facts Straight Getting the Facts Straight A Practice in Information Verification We are living in the information age where statistics and data are available with the click of button, giving most everyone the capability of being a “fact checker.” But do we actually take the time to search out and verify the data being promoted, or do we accept it without much checking? Should we trust information just because it is accompanied by numbers and statistics, or should we seek to find the original source to see the data in its entirety in order to understand it within its context? This student activity is designed to begin inquiries into data verification, triangulaition, and analysis of data for verification. OPENER: Display this image (provided as a jpg file) and ask students for their initial “Facebook” reaction (Like, Love, Wow, etc.). Based on their responses, begin a conversation as to why they reacted that way. This should prompt questions/comments around believability, accuracy of statistics, and how to verify information. I DO: Model for your students how to verify the information in the above post for accuracy, and context. This works best if you can project your computer screen for students to watch as you sift the internet for information. Using the U.S. Census Data for Educational Attainment, you can begin the work of considering the claim made in the post. The claim is not entirely false, but does take some liberties with the interpretation of data and assumptions of cause and effect. WE DO: Display this image (provided as a jpg file) Direct students to the OSPI website and show them how to search for this data. Have students work in groups to verify data using similar tactics you modeled. Provide the Getting the Facts Straight Worksheet for students to fill out as they work through the verification process. Have the groups share out how they determined the authenticity of their group’s data. EXTENSION: Groups can select their own post with data to investigate. You could also preselect a post if you want students to work on a particular topic. For older students, you could intentionally mislead them by creating a “fake” post, giving them data that is correct, but is written in a misleading way, allowing them to illustrate deep analysis for the truth. This website is a helpful resource in creating “fake” social media posts. (https://zeoob.com/) ADDITIONAL OPTIONS: For younger students, give all the groups the same data post to verify and make it a race to see who can accurately verify the data first. Chart the successful processes as for future research. For older students, have them challenge other groups by finding challenging data to verify. YOU DO: Have students work independently, using the Getting the Facts Straight Worksheet, to verify data using the tactics modeled and practiced. For younger students, use this pre-made post below (provided as a jpg file), preselect a current real social media post, or create a post that allows for an easier/simpler path to verification. This website is a helpful resource in creating “fake” social media posts. (https://zeoob.com/) This post uses the same data source as the “We Do” activity which could make it easier for younger students to navigate. OSPI website For older students, have them open their own social media accounts and choose a recent post with data in it to verify. ** These activities were intentionally created without a focus on the authorship of the posts as the purpose is to focus on data verification. However, if this module is taught last in the series, you could create posts that incorporate the need for author and/or image verification as well. Assessment Suggestions Assessment Suggestions After completing all three modules, the following are a few assessment suggestions that can be used as a summative assessment to gage individual understanding and skill development regarding social media verification, or used as group or class projects. Create a social media post using https://zeoob.com/ and have students complete the Social Media Verification Worksheet. The post can incorporate all three types of verification (author, image, and information), or can focus on whichever combination works best for your class of students. The post can be created using content relevant to your specific course and/or learning unit. The post can be created in a variety of social media platforms (Snapchat, Twitter, Facebook, Whatsapp, Instagram). Choose the platform(s) that your students most connect with. Find a current real social media post and have students complete the Social Media Posts Verification Worksheet. Choose a post that incorporates the elements of verification you want students to focus on. Author verification: Choose a post by a well known public figure (local/state/national government officials, celebrities, athletes, reporters etc.). Image verification: Choose a post that includes a detailed image with a description/caption. Information verification: Choose a post that includes specific data/statistics that can potentially be verified. Tip - Social media pages for news outlets are the most likely to have recent posts that incorporate all three elements (post by a public figure, with a meaningful image, along with data). Have students/student groups use https://zeoob.com/ to create their own “fake” posts with information to be verified by other students/groups. Students can create posts based on a particular topic relevant to your current learning unit or a current event. Students can incorporate both real and fake data, or intentionally misinterpret the data to make it challenging for other students to verify. They can use their own images to challenge their classmates to accurately verify the location. Note - This process of having students create “fake” posts should also open their eyes to how easy it is to mislead people through social media, both intentionally and unintentionally.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.927036	Reading Informational Text	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74294/overview", "title": "Verifying Social Media Posts", "author": "Political Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66302/overview	The History of Voting in Texas Overview The History of Voting in Texas Learning Objective By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Analyze modern and historical controversies around voting, including how states can promote and impede voter participation Introduction This section discusses modern and historical controversies around voting, including how states can encourage or impede voter participation. The History of Voting in Texas Since its admission to statehood in 1845, Texas has participated in every U.S. presidential election except the election of 1864 during the American Civil War, when the state had seceded to join the Confederacy, and the election of 1868, when the state was undergoing Reconstruction. In its first century, Texas was a Democratic bastion, only voting for another party once – in 1928 when anti-Catholic sentiment against Al Smith drove voters to Republican Herbert Hoover. A gradual trend towards increasing social liberalism in the Democratic Party, however, has turned the state (apart from Hispanic South Texas, the Trans-Pecos, and several large cities) into a Republican stronghold. Since 1980 Texas has voted Republican in every election. Historical Barriers to Voting in Texas Texas shares with many other states – especially with former Confederate states – a history of the systematic disenfranchisement of blacks, Latinos, and poor whites. In the aftermath of the Civil War, many former Confederate states (and some others as well) instituted new restrictions on voting in order to disenfranchise former slaves. In response, Congress passed and the states ratified the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution which became known as the Civil War Amendments to counteract efforts by southern elites and their allies to reestablish political rule by disenfranchising black voters – thereby denying them representation in government. The 13th Amendment (1865) abolished slavery. The 14th Amendment (1868) and 15th Amendment (1870) to the U.S. Constitution were passed to guarantee, respectively, the "privileges and immunities" and the right to vote of all U.S. citizens. With the end of the Reconstruction in the 1870s, the nation politically abandoned uniform enforcement of the Civil War amendments. With reduced federal enforcement of the rights protected by the amendments, many southern states enacted Jim Crow laws designed to restrict or prevent African American voter participation. Unlike other states, Texas never legislated two of these tools: literacy tests and the grandfather clause. Instead, Texas suppressed black voting using poll taxes and the white primary. Poll taxes added a direct out-of-pocket transaction cost to voting by charging money to vote. Texas adopted a poll tax in 1902. It required that otherwise eligible voters pay between $1.50 and $1.75 to register to vote – a lot of money at the time, and a big barrier to the working classes and poor. Poll taxes, which disproportionately affected African Americans and Mexican Americans, were finally abolished for national elections by the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, adopted in 1964. Two years later, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections, ruled that poll taxes in state elections were unconstitutional. The white primary in Texas treated the Democratic Party as a private club whose membership could be restricted to citizens of Anglo heritage. It originated as a change in Democratic Party practice early in the twentieth century as a way to disenfranchise African Americans, and later in south Texas, Mexican Americans. In 1923 the white primary became state law. After numerous legal challenges to successive versions of the law the Legislature had passed to preserve the practice, the U.S. Supreme Court finally and decisively prohibited the white primary in the 1944 case Smith v. Allwright. The ratification of the Twenty-Fourth Amendment in 1964 ended poll taxes, but the passage of the Voting Rights Act (VRA) in 1965 had a more profound effect. The act protected the rights of minority voters by prohibiting state laws that denied voting rights based on race. The VRA gave the attorney general of the United States authority to order federal examiners to areas with a history of discrimination. These examiners had the power to oversee and monitor voter registration and elections. States found to violate provisions of the VRA were required to get any changes in their election laws approved by the U.S. attorney general or by going through the court system. However, in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, threw out the standards and process of the VRA, effectively gutting the landmark legislation. Voter Decision Making When citizens do vote, how do they make their decisions? The election environment is complex and most voters don’t have time to research everything about the candidates and issues. Yet they will need to make a fully rational assessment of the choices for an elected office. To meet this goal, they tend to take shortcuts. One popular shortcut is simply to vote using party affiliation. Many political scientists consider party-line voting to be rational behavior because citizens register for parties based upon either position preference or socialization. Similarly, candidates align with parties based upon their issue positions. A Democrat who votes for a Democrat is very likely selecting the candidate closest to his or her personal ideology. While party identification is a voting cue, it also makes for a logical decision. Citizens also use party identification to make decisions via straight-ticket voting—choosing every Republican or Democratic Party member on the ballot. In some states, such as Texas or Michigan, selecting one box at the top of the ballot gives a single party all the votes on the ballot. Straight-ticket voting does cause problems in states that include non-partisan positions on the ballot. In Michigan, for example, the top of the ballot (presidential, gubernatorial, senatorial and representative seats) will be partisan, and a straight-ticket vote will give a vote to all the candidates in the selected party. But the middle or bottom of the ballot includes seats for local offices or judicial seats, which are non-partisan. These offices would receive no vote, because the straight-ticket votes go only to partisan seats. In 2010, actors from the former political drama The West Wing came together to create an advertisement for Mary McCormack’s sister Bridget, who was running for a non-partisan seat on the Michigan Supreme Court. The ad reminded straight-ticket voters to cast a ballot for the court seats as well; otherwise, they would miss an important election. McCormack won the seat. Straight-ticket voting does have the advantage of reducing ballot fatigue. Ballot fatigue occurs when someone votes only for the top or important ballot positions, such as president or governor, and stops voting rather than continue to the bottom of a long ballot. In 2012, for example, 70% of registered voters in Colorado cast a ballot for the presidential seat, yet only 54% voted yes or no on retaining Nathan B. Coats for the state supreme court. Voters make decisions based upon candidates’ physical characteristics, such as attractiveness or facial features. They may also vote based on gender or race because they assume the elected official will make policy decisions based on a demographic shared with the voters. Candidates are very aware of voters’ focus on these non-political traits. In 2008, a sizable portion of the electorate wanted to vote for either Hillary Clinton or Barack Obama because they offered new demographics—either the first woman or the first black president. Demographics hurt John McCain that year because many people believed that at 71 he was too old to be president. Hillary Clinton was criticized in 2008 on the grounds that she had not aged gracefully and wore pantsuits. In essence, attractiveness can make a candidate appear more competent, which in turn can help him or her ultimately win. Aside from party identification and demographics, voters will also look at issues or the economy when making a decision. For some single-issue voters, a candidate’s stance on abortion rights will be a major factor, while other voters may look at the candidates’ beliefs on the Second Amendment and gun control. Single-issue voting may not require much more effort by the voter than simply using party identification; however, many voters are likely to seek out a candidate’s position on a multitude of issues before making a decision. They will use the information they find in several ways. Retrospective voting occurs when the voter looks at the candidate’s past actions and the past economic climate and makes a decision only using these factors. This behavior may occur during economic downturns or after political scandals, when voters hold politicians accountable and do not wish to give the representative a second chance. Pocketbook voting occurs when the voter looks at his or her personal finances and circumstances to decide how to vote. Someone having a harder time finding employment or seeing investments suffer during a particular candidate or party’s control of government will vote for a different candidate or party than the incumbent. Prospective voting occurs when the voter applies information about a candidate’s past behavior to decide how the candidate will act in the future. For example, will the candidate’s voting record or actions help the economy and better prepare him or her to be president during an economic downturn? The challenge of this voting method is that the voters must use a lot of information, which might be conflicting or unrelated, to make an educated guess about how the candidate will perform in the future. Voters do appear to rely on prospective and retrospective voting more often than on pocketbook voting. In some cases, a voter may cast a ballot strategically. In these cases, a person may vote for a second- or third-choice candidate, either because his or her preferred candidate cannot win or in the hope of preventing another candidate from winning. This type of voting is likely to happen when there are multiple candidates for one position or multiple parties running for one seat. In Florida and Oregon, for example, Green Party voters (who tend to be liberal) may choose to vote for a Democrat if the Democrat might otherwise lose to a Republican. Similarly, in Georgia, while a Libertarian may be the preferred candidate, the voter would rather have the Republican candidate win over the Democrat and will vote accordingly. One other way voters make decisions is through incumbency. In essence, this is retrospective voting, but it requires little of the voter. In congressional and local elections, incumbents win reelection up to 90 percent of the time, a result called the incumbency advantage. What contributes to this advantage and often persuades competent challengers not to run? First, incumbents have name recognition and voting records. The media is more likely to interview them because they have advertised their name over several elections and have voted on legislation affecting the state or district. Incumbents also have won election before, which increases the odds that political action committees and interest groups will give them money; most interest groups will not give money to a candidate destined to lose. Incumbents also have franking privileges, which allows them a limited amount of free mail to communicate with the voters in their district. While these mailings may not be sent in the days leading up to an election—sixty days for a senator and ninety days for a House member— congressional representatives are able to build a free relationship with voters through them. Moreover, incumbents have exiting campaign organizations, while challengers must build new organizations from the ground up. Lastly, incumbents have more money in their war chests than most challengers. Licenses and Attributions CC LICENSED MATERIAL, ORIGINAL Authored by: Andrew Teas. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:14.958508	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66302/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, Voting and Political Participation in Texas, The History of Voting in Texas", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104824/overview	Problem Set 2 Problem Set 3 Problem Set 4 Problem Set 5 Problem Set 6 Problem Set 7 Problem Set 8 Problem Set 9 Problem Set 10 Homework 1 Homework 2 Homework 3 Homework 4 Homework 5 Remix for Accessibility Practice - Introductory Statistics Overview Introductory Statistics is a non-calculus based, descriptive statistics course with applications. Topics include methods of collecting, organizing, and interpreting data; measures of central tendency, position, and variability for grouped and ungrouped data; frequency distributions and their graphical representations; introduction to probability theory, standard normal distribution, and areas under the curve. Course materials created by Fahmil Shah, content added to OER Commons by Victoria Vidal. OER Course Information Fahmil Shah Summer 2019 MAT 120 OER Level 1 – Adopt This OER course has been designed to be implemented in Summer II 2019. The materials will be adapted following the end of the course in order to be improved for subsequent semesters. I am willing to share any updated versions of the materials as they are created and refined. 1.) Course Description Introductory Statistics is a non-calculus based, descriptive statistics course with applications. Topics include methods of collecting, organizing, and interpreting data; measures of central tendency, position, and variability for grouped and ungrouped data; frequency distributions and their graphical representations; introduction to probability theory, standard normal distribution, and areas under the curve. 2.) Instructional Objectives (a) Calculate measures of central tendency and variation for sets of grouped and ungrouped data (b) Create a table of the frequency distribution for a set of grouped or ungrouped data (c) Design an opinion survey, choose a random unbiased sample, and conduct the survey (d) Use the graphing calculator for statistical analysis (e) Calculate the probabilities of simple events. 3.) Link to Open Textbook Introductory Statistics by Illowsky and Dean Link: https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics 4.) Alignment of Open Textbook with Instructional Objectives From above, the objectives are: (a) Calculate measures of central tendency and variation for sets of grouped and ungrouped data (b) Create a table of the frequency distribution for a set of grouped or ungrouped data (c) Design an opinion survey, choose a random unbiased sample, and conduct the survey (d) Use the graphing calculator for statistical analysis (e) Calculate the probabilities of simple events. This course utilizes content from the following sections of Introductory Statistics and assignments have been created using the book. Homeworks assign problems from the textbook to be done at home, and problem sets adapt problems from the book to create sets that are to be completed during class. These assignments have been submitted in a summary document, as well as in separate word documents (as they will be distributed). The tentative timeline corresponds to a 5-week Summer session course. \| Chapter and Sections \| Tentative Timeline \| Corresponding Assignments for Summer 2019 \| \| Chapter 1 – Sampling and Data Sections 1.1 – 1.4 \| Week 1 \| Homework Assignment 1 Problem Set 1 \| \| Chapter 2 – Descriptive Statistics Sections 2.1 – 2.7 \| Week 1 \| Homework Assignment 1 Problem Set 2 \| \| Chapter 3 – Probability Topics Sections 3.1 – 3.5 \| Week 2 \| Homework Assignment 2 Problem Set 3 \| \| Chapter 4 – Discrete Random Variables Section 4.1 – 4.2 \| Week 2 \| Homework Assignment 2 Problem Set 4 \| \| Chapter 5 – Continuous Random Variables Sections 5.1 – 5.2 \| Week 3 \| Homework Assignment 3 Problem Set 5 \| \| Chapter 6 – The Normal Distribution Sections 6.1 – 6.2 \| Week 3 \| Homework Assignment 3 Problem Set 6 \| \| Chapter 7 – The Central Limit Theorem Section 7.1, 7.3 \| Week 4 \| Homework Assignment 4 Problem Set 7 \| \| Chapter 8 – Confidence Intervals Section 8.1 – 8.3 \| Week 4 \| Homework Assignment 4 Problem Set 8 \| \| Chapter 9 – Hypothesis Testing with One Sample - Section 9.1 – 9.6 \| Week 5 \| Homework Assignment 5 Problem Set 9 \| \| Chapter 10 – Hypothesis Testing with Two Samples - Sections 10.1 – 10.4 \| Week 5 \| Homework Assignment 5 Problem Set 10 \| The table below presents the alignment between the course objectives and the Introductory Statistics textbook. \| Objective \| Corresponding Introductory Statistics Chapters \| \| Calculate measures of central tendency and variation for sets of grouped and ungrouped data \| Chapter 2 \| \| Create a table of the frequency distribution for a set of grouped or ungrouped data \| Chapter 1 \| \| Design an opinion survey, choose a random unbiased sample, and conduct the survey \| Chapter 1 \| \| Use the graphing calculator for statistical analysis \| Chapters 2, 7, 8, 9, 10 \| \| Calculate the probabilities of simple events. \| Chapters 3, 4, 5, 6 \| 5.) Corresponding Problem Sets and Homework Assignments from Introductory Statistics can be found below. An overview document is also included, which has the assignments consolidated into a single document. Assignments may be modified in subsequent implementations of the course This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Course Syllabus Roxbury Community College Course Syllabus \| INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS MAT 120 2A - 3 credits Monday/Wednesday/Thursday, 9:00 AM – 11:30 AM, Room 3-105 Classes begin 7/8/19 and end 8/8/19 Academic Calendar Link: http://www.rcc.mass.edu/current-students/academic-calendar-students You are advised to retain a copy of this syllabus in your personal files for use when applying for future degrees, certifications, or transfer of credit. Instructor Information Instructor: Fahmil Shah Email: fshah@rcc.mass.edu Phone: 617-331-3206 (cell) Office Hours: Upon Request Communication: Throughout the semester, I will communicate with you via your RCC email account. Please review the following link for assistance on using your email account: http://www.rcc.mass.edu/current-students/electronic-tool-box/email You may email me at the address above (or call me on the phone) with any questions you have regarding the course or material. You should also email me ahead of time if you are aware of any classes you may be missing in the future, or if you have to miss class for any reason. General Course Description Course Description: Introductory Statistics is a non-calculus-based, descriptive statistics course with applications. Topics include methods of collecting, organizing, and interpreting data; measures of central tendency, position, and variability for grouped and ungrouped data; frequency distributions and their graphical representations; introduction to probability theory, standard normal distribution, and areas under the curve. Prerequisites: Students must have passed Introductory Algebra (MAT 088) at RCC or another college or must have placed out of Introductory Algebra on the RCC Mathematics Placement Test. If you have not met these prerequisites, please see me for placement into the proper mathematics course for you. If you do not satisfy these pre-requisites, you will be withdrawn from the course. Materials Required Texts: Illowsky & Dean, Introductory Statistics. This OER text will be made available on MyRCC, and can be downloaded directly at the following link: https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics Technology Requirements: It is very useful to have a working knowledge of a spreadsheet application (e.g. Excel, OpenOffice, or Google Sheets) in order to create some of the tables/charts/graphs on the computer. I will go over relevant functions throughout the course. We will also be using graphing/statistics software (e.g. Desmos or Geogebra), which can be accessed on a computer or mobile phone through apps and online. These free online applications can be accessed online using the following links: If you need help learning how to use the software, please speak with me. Instructional Objectives By fully participating in this course, you should be able to: (a) Calculate measures of central tendency and variation for sets of grouped and ungrouped data (b) Create a table of the frequency distribution for a set of grouped or ungrouped data (c) Design an opinion survey, choose a random unbiased sample, and conduct the survey (d) Use the graphing calculator for statistical analysis (e) Calculate the probabilities of simple events. Methods of Instruction Teaching Philosophy: My goal in this class is to not only to help you develop a set of tools that can help you understand what statistics is and how to use it, but also to understand the important of statistics as a field, and see how it can help us understand the information that we see in the newspaper, on television, and on the internet. We are bombarded with data in the 21st century, and the material in this course is intended to help us make sense of the data we see, read, and hear all around us. I believe that learning material with understanding is developed not through lecture and copying down of information, but through collaboration and problem solving. For this reason, a goal of mine in this course is to use engaging problems and group work as a vehicle for us to understand the material at a deep level. Instructor Responsibilities: My role in the classroom is not to give you the answers, or to tell you what to do. My intent is for me to guide you through the semester as we discuss and learn about key ideas in Statistics. Much of the responsibility of learning will fall upon you, as you read the chapters, work on the assignments, and discuss the material with myself and your peers. My goal is to come prepared with the problems and information that will help you understand Statistics on a theoretical level and as a practical tool, and to answer any questions and give any assistance necessary as you learn the subject. Course Completion Requirements Your success in this course depends on the following: - There will be problem sets given throughout the semester, which will go over the material covered in class. This will account for 15% of your grade. - There will be homework assigned throughout the semester, which will be drawn from the textbook. This will be due after we go over the corresponding course material. This will be worth 25% of your grade. - There will be three exams throughout the semester, which will assess your understanding of the material covered in each of the modules. Problems will generally be a combination of computational problems, word problems, and open response problems. You must show your work for all problems, and partial credit will be given as appropriate. The lowest score of the three exams will be dropped. The two remaining scores will account for 20% of your final grade each. - There will be a final project, which will count for 20% of your grade. Details will be given during the semester. Grading Percentages for Final Course Grade: \| Activity \| Grade % \| \| Problem Sets \| 15 \| \| Homework \| 25 \| \| Exams (Top 2) \| 40 \| \| Final Project \| 20 \| \| Total \| 100 \| The final grade (rounded to the nearest whole number) will be computed as follows: \| Grade Range \| Letter Grade \| \| 93 – 100 \| A \| \| 90 – 92 \| A- \| \| 87 – 89 \| B+ \| \| 83 – 86 \| B \| \| 80 – 82 \| B- \| \| 77 – 79 \| C+ \| \| 73 – 76 \| C \| \| 70 – 72 \| C- \| \| 67 – 69 \| D+ \| \| 60 – 66 \| D \| \| 0 – 59 \| F \| Please go to the Roxbury Community College Catalog for detailed information on the college’s grading policy: http://www.rcc.mass.edu/images/pdf/academics/catalog_Revised100213.pdf Academic Policies and Procedures Attendance Policy: Attendance is expected for all class sessions, as it is critical to the understanding of the course material. Due to the emphasis on work done in class (though problems and discussion), it is also influential in your final grade. Attendance will be taken towards the beginning of each class. Let me know if you will need to miss class for any reason and email me when possible in the case of an emergency or illness. Note that if you miss 3 consecutive classes without an excuse, you will be given a Withdrawn Administratively (WA) at the instructor’s discretion, which cannot be changed. You must contact the instructor regarding absences in order to avoid this. Electronics Policy: Cellular phones should not be used during class, unless required in an emergency, being used as a calculator, or for another approved usage in class. Otherwise, it should remain out of sight until the end of class, or during breaks. Violation of this policy may result is confiscation of the device, or a report to the appropriate authorities. Except for the event of an emergency, calls and texts should take place OUTSIDE of class whenever possible. You should not be texting during class. Late Work: You should speak with me, or contact me via email if you have any issue completing assignments on time. Make up exams will be given only with an appropriate excuse, and will be given only at the instructor’s discretion. Please contact me if you have any issues that would create the need for a makeup exam. Because one of the exams will be dropped, a makeup will only be granted in extreme circumstances. Coursework Difficulties: Please discuss any issues that you are having in completing the coursework on time with me. I am available to talk this over with you by appointment, during breaks, or after class. It is recommended that you go for tutoring at the Learning Center (room 3-207) for one on one tutoring appointments, or to the Math Clinic (room 3-206) for drop-in tutoring if you are having any difficulties understanding the material. Incomplete Policy: If you are unable to complete the coursework during the semester due to some catastrophic issue, you must contact me immediately to discuss your alternatives. Student code of conduct Students are required to adhere to the Student Code of Conduct delineated in the Roxbury Community College website and Student Handbook. http://www.rcc.mass.edu/images/stories/policies/Code_of_Conduct_and_Disciplinary_Procedures.pdf Accommodations Roxbury Community College is committed to providing all qualified college students equal access to all programs and facilities. Students who have a documented physical, psychological, or learning disability and need academic accommodations must register with the Coordinator of Disability Services, Linda O’Connor. Please contact her in Room 207C in the Academic Building; email loconnor@rcc.mass.edu; or phone 617-708-3562. Disability Services will provide you with an Accommodation Letter to provide to faculty. You need to present and discuss these recommendations with me within a reasonable period, prior to the end of the Drop/Add period. Student Support Services RCC offers a range of student support services including Advising, Tutoring, Math Clinic, Health Services, Library, Writing Center and Language Lab. Topic Schedule (TENTATIVE) \| Week \| Topic \| Week 1 (7/8 – 7/12) \| Syllabus/Introductions Chapter 1: Sampling and Data Chapter 2: Descriptive Statistics \| Week 2 (7/15 – 7/19) \| Chapter 3: Probability Topics Exam 1 Chapter 4: Discrete Random Variables \| Week 3 (7/22 – 7/26) \| Chapter 5: Continuous Random Variables Chapter 6: The Normal Distribution \| Week 4 (7/29 – 8/2) \| Exam 2 Chapter 7: The Central Limit Theorem Chapter 8: Confidence Intervals \| Week 5 (8/5 – 8/9) \| Chapter 9: Hypothesis Testing With One Sample Chapter 10: Hypothesis Testing With Two Samples Exam 3 Final Presentations \| This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Problem Sets Fahmil Shah Summer 2019 MAT 120 OER Level 1 – Adopt This course has 10 problem sets, each corresponding to one chapter from the Introductory Statistics OER course. Problem Set 1 Chapter 1 – Sampling and Data Sections 1.1 – 1.4 Problem Set 2 Chapter 2 – Descriptive Statistics Sections 2.1 – 2.7 Problem Set 3 Chapter 3 – Probability Topics Sections 3.1 – 3.5 Problem Set 4 Chapter 4 – Discrete Random Variables Section 4.1 – 4.2 Problem Set 5 Chapter 5 – Continuous Random Variables Sections 5.1 – 5.2 Problem Set 6 Chapter 6 – The Normal Distribution Sections 6.1 – 6.2 Problem Set 7 Chapter 7 – The Central Limit Theorem Section 7.1, 7.3 Problem Set 8 Chapter 8 – Confidence Intervals Section 8.1 – 8.3 Problem Set 9 Chapter 9 – Hypothesis Testing with One Sample Section 9.1 – 9.6 Problem Set 10 Chapter 10 – Hypothesis Testing with Two Samples Sections 10.1 – 10.4 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Untitled Section Fahmil Shah Summer 2019 MAT 120 OER Level 1 – Adopt Below is a summary of the homework assignments for the MAT 120 OER. Page numbers refers to numbers of the PDF pages. Homework 1 Chapter 1 (pp. 60-69) #42, 43, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 74, 80, 82, 88, 89 Chapter 2 (pp. 147-168) #74, 78, 79, 80, 89, 90, 105, 109 Homework 2 Chapter 3 (pp. 228-240) #66, 80, 85, 90, 98, 109, 110, 111, 114, 115 Chapter 4 (pp. 296-300) #69 Homework 3 Chapter 5 (pp. 360-363) #72, 74, 79, 81, 85 Chapter 6 (pp. 397-402) #60, 61, 65, 68, 69, 71, 72, 78 Homework 4 Chapter 7 (pp. 438-446) #62, 68, 71, 78, 79, 80 Chapter 8 (pp. 491-500) #95, 98, 106, 115, 116, 123 Homework 5 Chapter 9 (pp. 548-563) #63, 65, 68, 69, 73, 80, 85 Chapter 10 (pp. 608-619) #78, 81, 89, 95, 102, 118, 119 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.015909	Joanna Schimizzi	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104824/overview", "title": "Remix for Accessibility Practice - Introductory Statistics", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93070/overview	Behavior Chart with Rewards Overview This is a weekly behavior chart that is meant to be modified for your students and their unique needs. Behavior Chart Student Name: Date: \| Goal #1: Speak with respect \| Goal #2: Behave with respect \| Goal #3: Have respect for learning \| Reward choices: If I get "yes" for ___/20 for the week, I will choose: \| \| \| Period 1 \| Mon: Yes No Tue: Yes No Wed: Yes No Thu: Yes No Fri: Yes No \| Mon: Yes No Tue: Yes No Wed: Yes No Thu: Yes No Fri: Yes No \| Mon: Yes No Tue: Yes No Wed: Yes No Thu: Yes No Fri: Yes No \| \| \| Period 2 \| Mon: Yes No Tue: Yes No Wed: Yes No Thu: Yes No Fri: Yes No \| Mon: Yes No Tue: Yes No Wed: Yes No Thu: Yes No Fri: Yes No \| Mon: Yes No Tue: Yes No Wed: Yes No Thu: Yes No Fri: Yes No \| \| \| Period 3 \| Mon: Yes No Tue: Yes No Wed: Yes No Thu: Yes No Fri: Yes No \| Mon: Yes No Tue: Yes No Wed: Yes No Thu: Yes No Fri: Yes No \| Mon: Yes No Tue: Yes No Wed: Yes No Thu: Yes No Fri: Yes No \| \| \| Period 4 \| Mon: Yes No Tue: Yes No Wed: Yes No Thu: Yes No Fri: Yes No \| Mon: Yes No Tue: Yes No Wed: Yes No Thu: Yes No Fri: Yes No \| Mon: Yes No Tue: Yes No Wed: Yes No Thu: Yes No Fri: Yes No \| \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.036175	05/26/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93070/overview", "title": "Behavior Chart with Rewards", "author": "Jamie Todd" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89935/overview	Education Standards Deaf Pathways (pdf) Deaf Pathways: Guiding Questions and Resources Overview This resource from the Washington Center for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Youth provides guiding questions and resources to help student reach their full potential as they work towards their post high school and transition goals. Introduction The Washington Center for Deaf & Hard of Hearing Youth (CDHY), formerly the Center for Childhood Deafness and Hearing Loss (CDHL), is a statewide resource committed to ensuring all deaf and hard of hearing students in Washington reach their full potential regardless of where they live or attend school. This resource aligns with mandate #2 - To provide outreach services for deaf and hard of hearing children throughout the state of Washington regardless of location. While this is not a comprehensive curriculum, it is a resource that can be implemented to guide students to reach their full potential as they work towards their post high school and transition goals. Resources and References: National Alliance for Secondary Education and Transition (NASET) - National Standards & Quality Indicators for secondary education and transition - National Alliance for Secondary Education and Transition website - Introduction to the National Standards & Quality Indicators References Sadler, C., et al (2010). National Standards & Quality Indicators for Secondary Education and Transition \| National Alliance for Secondary Education and Transition Common Core State Standards English Language Arts \| National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers A Transition Guide to Postsecondary Education and Employment for Students and Youth with Disabilities (2020) \| United States Department of Education Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services Photo copyright National Alliance for Secondary Education and Transition. Used pursuant to fair use. Who Am I? Guiding Questions \| Expanded Explanation and Prompting Questions \| Student Activity \| Standards \| Resources \| What is the difference between a person who is “deaf,” “Deaf,” or “hard of hearing”? \| Explain the cultural and medical differences between "Deaf," "deaf," "Hard of Hearing," "Hearing Impaired," and more \| Complete a Compare and Contrast Graphic Organizer \| NASET 3.1: Youth acquire the skills, behaviors, and attitudes that enable them to learn and grow in self-knowledge, social interaction, and physical and emotional health. NASET 3.3.2: Youth learn the history, values, and beliefs of their communities. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.11-12.1 \| National Association of the Deaf (NAD) Definition of DEAF \| What are your communication needs? \| Writing, CART, Sign Language interpreter, Apps, Spoken language, other? \| NASET 1.1.6: Youth are aware of and have access to technology resources that enhance learning. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.L.11-12.1 \| Deaf Community Introduction (NDC), Communication Considerations \| Hands and Voices \| \| Who is your community? Any Deaf/deaf/HH role models? \| Who do you socialize with? \| Provide a list of local activities are happening in your area. \| NASET 1.1: State Education Agencies (SEAs)/Local Education Agencies (LEAs) provide youth with equitable access to a full range of academic and non-academic courses and programs of study. NASET 3.1.4: Youth develop interpersonal skills, including communication, decision- making, assertiveness, and peer refusal skills, and have the ability to create healthy relationships. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.11-12.1 \| Who is in my circle? Worksheet (attached) \| What are your strengths? \| What are you good and or what are your skills? \| NASET 3.2: Youth understand the relationship between their individual strengths and desires and their future goals and have the skills to act on that understanding. NASET 3.2.2 Youth develop individual strengths. Common Core State Standards \| One Pager \| I'm Determined \| \| What tools do you use to overcome your challenges? \| In a situation, how do you get something fixed, order food, get your needs met? \| Bring example of how you make an appointment with the dentist, getting the car fix, getting your driver’s license. Ordering something at the restaurant. \| NASET 3.2.1: Youth develop ethical values and reasoning skills. NASET 3.3.6: Youth identify and use resources in their community. NASET 3.4: Youth demonstrate the ability to make informed decisions for themselves. \| Self-Advocacy Quiz Hard-of-Hearing Videos in ASL \| What is the purpose of your IEP? \| Individualized Education Plan \| Review the IEP plans \| NASET 2.1: Youth participate in career awareness, exploration, and preparatory activities in school- and community-based settings. NASET 3.2.3: Youth demonstrate the ability to set goals and develop a plan. NASET 5.1: Organizations coordinating services and supports align their missions, policies, procedures, data, and resources to equitably serve all youth and ensure the provision of a unified flexible array of programs, services, accommodations, and supports. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.11-12.1 \| \| Identify the transition needs and goals on your IEP? \| Does the student know what the written plans in the IEP goals are? \| Find a copy of your current IEP plan. \| NASET 3.2.3 Youth demonstrate the ability to set goals and develop a plan. NASET 3.2.4Youth participate in varied activities that encourage the development of self- determination and self-advocacy skills. NASET 3.4.2 Youth demonstrate independent living skills. \| Student Self-Assessment Surveys: \| What Do I Want? Guiding Questions \| Expanded Explanation and Prompting Questions \| Student Activity \| Standards \| Resources \| What are my preferences at a workplace? \| Do you like working: Do you want to help people? Do you want to use technology? \| Interest inventory assessment \| NASET 1.1.4: Each youth develops and begins to implement an individual life plan based on their interests, abilities, and goals. NASET 2.4: Schools and community partners provide career preparatory activities that lead to youths’ acquisition of employability and technical skills, knowledge, and behaviors. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.4 \| Interest survey - minimal language \| Minnesota State Colleges and Universities Videos in ASL: \| What are my needs at a workplace? \| Do you need wheelchair accessibility, interpreters, different seating? \| Review student IEP and Accommodations \| NASET 2.2.1: Youth participate in career awareness, exploration, and preparatory activities in school- and community-based settings. NASET 2.4.4: Youth demonstrate that they understand how personal skills and characteristics (e.g., positive attitude, self-discipline, honesty, time management, etc.) affect their employability. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.2 \| One Pager \| I'm Determined \| What are your career interests? \| Math, Science, History, Engineering, Art, Teacher, Construction, Welding, Landscaping, Business \| Career Interest assessments \| NASET 2.1: Youth participate in career awareness, exploration, and preparatory activities in school- and community-based settings. NASET 2.2.2: With the guidance of school and/or community professionals, youth use a career planning process (e.g., assessments, career portfolio, etc.) incorporating their career goals, interests, and abilities. NASET 2.4.5: Youth demonstrate appropriate job-seeking behaviors. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.11-12.1 \| Seek the World & D-Pan.TV have many videos of Deaf people doing a variety of jobs. Videos in ASL \| What are your post-secondary goals? \| Are you interested in college, vocational training school, or work? \| Create a PowerPoint, write an essay, explain to your teacher what you plan to do after graduation. Sample template Google Doc Template Person Centered-Plan \| NASET 2.1.1: Schools and community partners offer courses, programs, and activities that broaden and deepen youths’ knowledge of careers and allow for more informed postsecondary education and career choices. Common Core State Standard CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.3 \| Discuss with students what kind of volunteering opportunities would benefit them and their future goals? \| Do you have a financial plan to pursue a post-secondary education? (FAFSA, DVR scholarships, budget, etc.) \| How will you pay for your wants and needs? Do you have a way to earn money? Do you have a budget? If you want to go to school, how do plan to pay for it? \| \| NASET 3.4: Youth demonstrate the ability to make informed decisions for themselves. NASET 3.3.6: Youth identify and use resources in their community. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.11-12.7 \| Ask DVR to come present to the class about DVR Videos in ASL: Hand in Hand – Banking and Money \| CDHY CashOnHand – Summary \| CDHY CashOnHand – Budget \| CDHY \| How Do I Get There? Guiding Questions \| Expanded Explanation and Prompting Questions \| Student Activity \| Standards \| Resources \| What are my preferences at a workplace? \| Do you like working: Do you want to help people? Do you want to use technology? \| Interest inventory assessment \| NASET 1.1.4: Each youth develops and begins to implement an individual life plan based on their interests, abilities, and goals. NASET 2.4: Schools and community partners provide career preparatory activities that lead to youths’ acquisition of employability and technical skills, knowledge, and behaviors. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.4 \| Interest survey - minimal language \| Minnesota State Colleges and Universities Videos in ASL: \| What are my needs at a workplace? \| Do you need wheelchair accessibility, interpreters, different seating? \| Review student IEP and Accommodations \| NASET 2.2.1: Youth participate in career awareness, exploration, and preparatory activities in school- and community-based settings. NASET 2.4.4: Youth demonstrate that they understand how personal skills and characteristics (e.g., positive attitude, self-discipline, honesty, time management, etc.) affect their employability. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.2 \| One Pager \| I'm Determined \| What are your career interests? \| Math, Science, History, Engineering, Art, Teacher, Construction, Welding, Landscaping, Business \| Career Interest assessments \| NASET 2.1: Youth participate in career awareness, exploration, and preparatory activities in school- and community-based settings. NASET 2.2.2: With the guidance of school and/or community professionals, youth use a career planning process (e.g., assessments, career portfolio, etc.) incorporating their career goals, interests, and abilities. NASET 2.4.5: Youth demonstrate appropriate job-seeking behaviors. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.11-12.1 \| Seek the World & D-Pan.TV have many videos of Deaf people doing a variety of jobs. Videos in ASL \| What are your post-secondary goals? \| Are you interested in college, vocational training school, or work? \| Create a PowerPoint, write an essay, explain to your teacher what you plan to do after graduation. Sample template Google Doc Template Person Centered-Plan \| NASET 2.1.1: Schools and community partners offer courses, programs, and activities that broaden and deepen youths’ knowledge of careers and allow for more informed postsecondary education and career choices. Common Core State Standard CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.11-12.3 \| Discuss with students what kind of volunteering opportunities would benefit them and their future goals? \| Do you have a financial plan to pursue a post-secondary education? (FAFSA, DVR scholarships, budget, etc.) \| How will you pay for your wants and needs? Do you have a way to earn money? Do you have a budget? If you want to go to school, how do plan to pay for it? \| \| NASET 3.4: Youth demonstrate the ability to make informed decisions for themselves. NASET 3.3.6: Youth identify and use resources in their community. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.11-12.7 \| Ask DVR to come present to the class about DVR Videos in ASL: Hand in Hand – Banking and Money \| CDHY CashOnHand – Summary \| CDHY CashOnHand – Budget \| CDHY \| How Do I Stay There? Guiding Questions \| Expanded Explanation and Prompting Questions \| Student Activity \| Standards \| Resources \| What are work ethics? \| Appearance: Displays proper dress, grooming, hygiene, and manners. Attendance: Attends class/work, arrives and leaves on time, tells instructor/employer in advance of planned absences. Attitude: Shows a positive attitude, appears confident and optimistic. Character: Displays loyalty, honesty, dependability, reliability, initiative, and self-control. Communication: Displays proper verbal and non- verbal skills and listens. Cooperation: Displays leadership skills; properly handles criticism, conflicts, and stress; maintains good relationships with peers and follows a chain of command. Organizational Skill: Shows skills in management, prioritizing, and dealing with change. Productivity: Follows safety practices, conserves resources, and follows instructions. Respect: Deals properly with diversity, shows understanding and tolerance. Teamwork: Respects rights of others, is a team worker, is helpful, is confident, displays a customer service attitude, and seeks continuous learning. \| Establish an interactive notebook (hand written or digital) for keep vocabulary \| NASET 2.4.3 Youth exhibit understanding of career expectations, workplace culture, and the changing nature of work and educational requirements. NASET 2.4.4 Youth demonstrate that they understand how personal skills and characteristics (e.g., positive attitude, self-discipline, honesty, time management, etc.) affect their employability. NASET 2.4.5 Youth demonstrate appropriate job seeking behaviors. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.11-12.4 \| \| What soft skills do you have? \| Teach and Discuss \| Continue interactive notebook. Add to/ Modify I'm Determined One Pager \| NASET 2.4.3 Youth exhibit understanding of career expectations, workplace culture, and the changing nature of work and educational requirements. NASET 2.4.4 Youth demonstrate that they understand how personal skills and characteristics (e.g., positive attitude, self-discipline, honesty, time management, etc.) affect their employability. NASET 2.4.5 Youth demonstrate appropriate job seeking behaviors. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.11-12.4 \| Soft Skills Lessons/ Activities \| Unify High School List of Soft Skills \| The Balance Careers \| What are your communication preferences at a workplace? (How to educate others about your needs, advocate for your needs, and/or disclose your disability?) \| Explain the difference between communication preferences at home or with friends may be different at work. Ask their communication preferences for different workplace settings. Explain what the disclosure means is and how and when to disclose it. Explain how to ask for accommodation in the workplace. \| Add to/ Modify I'm Determined One Pager \| NASET 2.3.4 Youth are able to access, accept, and use individually needed supports and accommodations for work experiences. NASET 3.1.4 Youth develop interpersonal skills, including communication, decision making, assertiveness, and peer refusal skills, and have the ability to create healthy relationships. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.11-12.1 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.11-12.4 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.11-12.6 \| Self-Advocacy NDC \| Do you know how to work with SSI/SSDI benefits? (Supplemental Security Income & Social Security Disability Income) \| Do you know what SSI/ SSDI is? Do you know if you are receiving benefits? Is a family member receiving it on your behalf? If not, do you know how to apply if needed? \| Student to conduct interview with caregivers on the topic. \| NASET 3.1 Youth acquire the skills, behaviors, and attitudes that enable them to learn and grow in self-knowledge, social interaction, and physical and emotional health. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.1 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.2 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.3 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.4 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.5 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.6 \| \| Do you know how to file for discrimination (EEOC) when needed? \| What is discrimination? Have you ever experienced or witnessed discrimination? \| Research ADA. Complete a graphic oragnizer defining discrimination and what ADA says about deaf/Deaf/HH laws \| NASET 3.1.4 Youth develop interpersonal skills, including communication, decision making, assertiveness, and peer refusal skills, and have the ability to create healthy relationships. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.1.A CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.11-12.8 \| Deafness and Employment Discrimination \| VeryWell Health \| How do you do self care? \| What does selfcare mean to you? What does it include? Give some examples how you do self-care? \| Self-Care Surveys Complete My Good Day Plan from I'm Determined \| NASET 3.1 Youth acquire the skills, behaviors, and attitudes that enable them to learn and grow in self-knowledge, social interaction, and physical and emotional health. NASET 3.4 Youth demonstrate the ability to make informed decisions for themselves. NASET 3.4.1 Youth practice self-management and responsible decision-making that reflects healthy choices. NASET 3.4.2 Youth demonstrate independent living skills. \| Deaf Counseling Good Day Plan \| I’m Determined \| What are your local support services available to you? (i.e. Deaf center, Deaf athletic clubs, Deaf church, etc) \| Ask and research services that will benefit them in their hometown. \| Add the list of resources to their interactive notebook or binder. \| NASET 4.1 School staff members demonstrate a strong commitment to family involvement and understand its critical role in supporting high achievement, access to postsecondary education, employment, and other successful adult outcomes. NASET 4.1.1 School programs and activities provide a range of opportunities for family involvement and actively engage families and youth in the home, classroom, school, and community. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.1 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.2 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.3 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.4 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.5 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.6 \| \| What is the code of professional conduct with interpreters or support services? \| Explain the meaning of the “code of professional conduct.” \| Continue interactive notebook. \| NASET 2.4.3 Youth exhibit understanding of career expectations, workplace culture, and the changing nature of work and educational requirements. NASET 2.4.4 Youth demonstrate that they understand how personal skills and characteristics (e.g., positive attitude, self-discipline, honesty, time management, etc.) affect their employability. NASET2.4.5 Youth demonstrate appropriate job seeking behaviors. Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.11-12.4 \| \| Attribution and License Attribution National Standards & Quality Indicators for secondary education and transition copyright the National Alliance for Secondary Education and Transition. All rights reserved. \| Permission granted to duplicate publication. License Except where otherwise noted, this work by the Washington Center for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Youth is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. All logos and trademarks are property of their respective owners. Sections used under fair use doctrine (17 U.S.C. § 107) are marked This resource contains links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring by CDHY. Please confirm the license status of any third-party resources and understand their terms of use before reusing them.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.194841	Teaching/Learning Strategy	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89935/overview", "title": "Deaf Pathways: Guiding Questions and Resources", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85396/overview	What is ableism? How can I make more accessible content? Overview This PPT goes over how those who are able-bodied need to be more mindful in our actions and sayings to those who have a disablity. Resources on how to make your content more accessible is also provided. Ableism and Accessibility Title: Teaching with Accessibility in Mind: Inspiring Faculty to Reach Every Learner What does it mean to have something accessible? - Disability: not always visible or disclosed - Disability Inclusion: Making sure everybody has the same opportunities to participate in every aspect of life to the best of their abilities and desires. - Give examples – types of impairment - Stats Ableism - Defined: “Ableism is the discrimination of and social prejudice against people with disabilities based on the belief that typical abilities are superior. At its heart, ableism is rooted in the assumption that disabled people require ‘fixing’ and defines people by their disability. Like racism and sexism, ableism classifies entire groups of people as ‘less than,’ and includes harmful stereotypes, misconceptions, and generalizations of people with disabilities” (Eisenmenger, 2019). - Simulations – why not good - Provide examples of what ableism looks like Content Accessibility Screen Reader Demos Keyboard navigation Color Blindness Misconceptions Use of electronic devices & accessibility features Chart of format, barrier, accessible alternatives Tools & Tricks to make content accessible - MS & Google - Dictation tool - Web captioner - Transcripts - Accessible templates in MS & Google - Mp3 audio files of typed work (texttomp3.online) - Closed captioning on videos - PPT Live - YouDescribe – YouTube videos with audio description - Tools to make websites easier to read	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.216308	08/27/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85396/overview", "title": "What is ableism? How can I make more accessible content?", "author": "Stephanie Douglass" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/63862/overview	Additional videos on autism Are You Privileged_Discussion Board behavior contract general Brain Break_Go Noodle Brain Breaks_Go Bananas Brain Breaks_Jam School Program Colorin Colorado Website Connecting Senses to Memories_The Good Doctor Deaf Blind Fact Sheets Deaf or Hard of Hearing Diagnostic Criteria for ASD Educational Practices for TBI Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Functional Behavioral Support Assessment Getting Back to School after Disruptions https://brainhighways.com/ https://www.autismspeaks.org/blog/activities-understand-autism Learners who are blind or have low vision Learners with Physical Disabilities and Other Health Impairment Learners with Special Gifts and talents Low-Incidence, Multiple, and Severe Disabilities Mac's Might Documentary Model Me Videos Panopto_Autism_Spectrum_Disorder_default Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support Positive Reinforcement Models PPT_Multiculturalism and Bilingual Aspects of Special Education Reading_Strategies_for_Visual_Impairments Remain Calm and Respond Right Sample IEP for student with ASD Sample IEP Goals, 504 Accommodations, and IFSP Savant_Counting Toothpicks_Rain Man Shane Basic FBA to BSP Case Example Sometimes an individual with ASD thinks through images_ See video clip from Sherlock Holmes TBI STRATEGIES Video on Autism What it means to be blind or have Low Incidence Disabilities Overview This module is designed for pre-service teachers who are learning about low-incidence disabilities. The following are included: Multicultural and Bilingual Aspects of Special Education Low-Incidence, Multiple, and Severe Disabilities Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Learners with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders Learners who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing Learners with Blindness or Low Vision Learners with Physical Disabilities and Other Health Impairments Gifted Multicultural and Bilingual Aspects of Special Education This Module visits aspects of teaching to diverse populations and includes the following: PPT: Multicultural and Bilingual Aspects of Special Education ELL Strategies and Best Practices Accommodations and Differentiation for ELL Social Justice Exercises Low-Incidence, Multiple, and Severe Disabilities: TBI, Deaf-Blindness, Complex Health Issues, Emotional, Behavioral Characteristics, and Educational Considerations This Module introduces Low-Incidence, Multiple, and Severe Disabilities: TBI, Deaf-Blindness, Complex Health Issues, Emotional, Behavioral Characteristics, and Educational Considerations and includes the following: PPT: Low-Incidence, Multiple, and Severe Disabilities Educational Practices for TBI TBI Strategies Deaf Blind Fact Sheets Autism Spectrum Disorder Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is defined by the American Psychiatric Association in the first link below. Please review the diagnostic criteria. ASD, in its name, mentions 'spectrum.' This is important because the individuals with ASD vary widely in their characteristics. Some individuals have mild characteristics and some are very severe, even coupling with another disability. This module includes the following for your review: Diagnostic Criteria PPT_Autism Spectrum Disorder Videos on Children who are diagnosed with ASD Brain Breaks Sample IEP for student with ASD Model Me Videos Movie Clip from "Sherlock" - Sometimes, individuals with ASD see things best through images. Clip from "The Good Doctor" -- Memories associated with senses. Movie Clip from "Rain Man" -- Man who is an autistic savant counting toothpicks by seeing the contents of a box of toothpicks that fell on the floor. Behavioral and Emotional Disorders We refer to mental disorders using different “umbrella” terms such as emotional disturbance, behavioral disorders, or mental illness. Beneath these umbrella terms, there is actually a wide range of specific conditions that differ from one another in their characteristics and treatment. These include (but are not limited to): - anxiety disorders; - bipolar disorder (sometimes called manic-depression); - conduct disorders; - eating disorders; - obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD); and - psychotic disorders. This module includes the following for your review: PPT_ Learners with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders Remain Calm and Respond Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support Getting Back to School After Disruption Functional Behavioral Support Assessment_This will be used with extreme and persistent behaviors. Notice the ABC format to collect data (Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence). When enough data is collected, the trigger or the response that is 'causing' the misbehavior becomes clear. The next step is to create a plan to change the behavior, based on what you know. PPT_Positive Reinforcement Models One strategy to use is to implement a Behavior Contract. This is an agreement between you, the student, and the parent. See example. Shane_Sample Functional Assessment Checklist, ABC Recording Form, Summary of Behavior, Behavior Support Plan, and Meeting Notes including Data Learners Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing Deaf - individual with very little or no functional hearing who often uses sign language to communicate. Hard of Hearing - individual who has a mild-to-moderate hearing loss who may communicate through sign language, spoken language, or both. Hearing Impaired, used to describe an individual with any degree of hearing loss, is a term offensive to many deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals because of the label "impaired." This module includes the following for your review: PPT_Deaf or Hard of Hearing Learners Who are Blind or Have Low-vision When an individual is considered blind or functionally blind, it does not mean that there is no vision at all. There may be shadows or distorted vision. He or she uses tactile or auditory senses to perform daily tasks. An individual has low vision when there is a significant loss of vision and when it cannot be corrected with eye glasses. This module includes the following for your review: PPT_Learners who are blind or have low vision Reading Strategies for Visual Impairment PPT_ What it Means to be Blind or Have Low Vision Learners with Physical Disabilities and Other Health Impairments Learners with physical disabilities and other health impairments have unique needs. - The four most common physical disabilities that teachers are likely to encounter are: - Cerebral Palsy - Muscular Dystrophy - Spina Bifida - Orthopedic and Musculoskeletal Conditions This module includes the following for your review: PPT_Learners with Physical Disabilities and Other Health Impairment Learners Who Are Gifted This module includes the following for your review: PPT_Learners with Special Gifts and Talents Resources RESOURCES 10 Basic Steps in Special Education. (2017). Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff. Adapted by Borgmeier, C. (2005). from March, Horner, Lewis-Palmer, Brown, Crone & Todd (1999). Retrieved on 4.2.2020 from https://www.vbisd.org/cms/lib/MI01000711/Centricity/Domain/189/Tracy%20FACTS%20Form.pdf Center for Parent Information and Resources. (2020) Retrieved on 3.30.2020 from https://www.parentcenterhub.org/steps/ Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing: Some Definitions. Rochester Institute of Technology. Retrieved on 3.22.20 from http://deaftec.org/content/deaf-definitions Educational Disabilities: Physical and Other Health Impairments. Retrieved on 3.25.2020 from https://sites.google.com/site/educationaldisabilities/home/physical-and-other-health-impairments NETAC Teacher Tipsheet: Teaching Students Teaching Students Who Are Hard of Hearing. Northeast Technical Assistance Center. Retrieved on 3.22.20 from https://webapps.ou.edu/ods/cds/MADTools/print/pdf/tpshthoh.pdf. Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support. (2020) Retrieved on 3.30.2020 from https://www.pbis.org/ Reading Strategies for Students with Visual Impairments: A Classroom Teacher’s Guide. Special Education Technology British Columbia. Retrieved on 3.24.2020 from https://www.pathstoliteracy.org/sites/pathstoliteracy.perkinsdev1.org/files/uploaded-files/Reading_Strategies_for_Visual_Impairments.pdf. Remain Calm and Respond Right. (2020) Retrieved on 3.30.2020 from http://flourbluffschools.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/ClassroomChallenges_sub.pd	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.279754	03/10/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/63862/overview", "title": "Low Incidence Disabilities", "author": "Jeanne Burth" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108438/overview	Nazi Antisemitic Ideology and Propaganda What is antisemitism? Echoes and Reflections: History of Antisemitism Overview - These lessons are provided by Echoes and Reflections. The lessons come from a new book, "Teaching the Holocaust By Inquiry" by Beth Krasemann. The book is scheduled for release at the end of May 2022. In this unit, students learn about the origins of antisemitism and how this hatred was exploited by the Nazis during the 1920s and 1930s as part of their racist ideology. Students define the terms antisemitism and stereotype, review text and video sources, and create a timeline reflecting examples of antisemitism throughout history. Students then investigate how Nazi ideology created new forms of antisemitism, and analyze primary source material illustrating Nazi propaganda. Visual history testimonies are used throughout the lesson to deepen students’ understanding of lesson themes Lessons on Antisemitism from Echoes and Reflection ABOUT THIS UNIT: See Echoes and Reflections for more resources on Holocaust and Genocide Introduction In this unit, students learn about the origins of antisemitism and how this hatred was exploited by the Nazis during the 1920s and 1930s as part of their racist ideology. Students define the terms antisemitism and stereotype, review text and video sources, and create a timeline reflecting examples of antisemitism throughout history. Students then investigate how Nazi ideology created new forms of antisemitism, and analyze primary source material illustrating Nazi propaganda. Visual history testimonies are used throughout the lesson to deepen students’ understanding of lesson themes. Essential Questions - What is antisemitism, and what have been its effects on Jewish people and the societies in which they have lived? - How do ideologies circulate within societies and influence individuals and groups? Objectives Students will: \| \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.302187	09/10/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108438/overview", "title": "Echoes and Reflections: History of Antisemitism", "author": "Amit" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/128155/overview	OER Finding Exercise Overview This is be used to practice finding OER in a workshop during OE Week 2025. Which will help beginners to practice finding OER and with proper attribution. Along with details to add strategies to use. * Download the document and use in the workshop. Finding OER Exercise Participant’s Name: Workshop title: Workshop date: Subject and Topic/s choosen Keywords / Phrases used to search OER Type of OER found: (Text / Image/Audio/Video) Text Resource Link: Image Resource Link: Audio Resource Link: Video Resource Link: License Details (TASL: Title, Author, Source, License) of Text T: [Title] A: [Author] S: [Source/Repository] L: [License Type] License Details _In TASL sentence form License Details (TASL: Title, Author, Source, License) of Image T: [Title] A: [Author] S: [Source/Repository] L: [License Type] License Details _In TASL sentence form License Details (TASL: Title, Author, Source, License) of Audio T: [Title] A: [Author] S: [Source/Repository] L: [License Type] License Details _In TASL sentence form License Details (TASL: Title, Author, Source, License) of Video T: [Title] A: [Author] S: [Source/Repository] L: [License Type] License Details _In TASL sentence form Adaptability/Liscensing ☐ Does the license allow for educational reuse of the materials? ☐ ☐ Is the content licensed in a way which allows for adaptations and modifications? Comments: Strategy for Use Other/Overall Thoughts on OER found	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.334130	03/05/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/128155/overview", "title": "OER Finding Exercise", "author": "sushumna Rao" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99087/overview	Template: OER-DEIA Success Metrics Template Overview This template is part of the K-12 Voices for Open OER-DEIA Action Plan for K-12 District Implementation. The template, and the entire guide, is intendend as a strategic planning tool for district leaders wishing to promote the already pedagogically and financially compelling practice of creating or adapting open educational resources (OER) to help achieve district goals in serving all students through diversity, equity, inclusion, or accessibility (DEIA) lens. The guide provides step-by-step planning tools, including examples, templates, and resources to help district leaders articulate and establish action plans for what we refer to as "OER-DEIA." The entire guide is an open educational resource itself, free and openly licensed for reuse, remixing, and resharing. OER-DEIA Success Metrics Template Because OER adoption, adaptation, and resharing can help districts and individual schools reach a range of DEIA goals, designing a success metric can begin by gathering goals that might be articulated across a range of documents, from accessibility requirements and inclusive classroom statements to individual program goals around DEIA. Your district or school may already have a single document or statement that articulates all of those DEIA goals. OER-DEIA Action Plan for K-12 District Implementation About This Guide The guide contains a series of informational sections and reusable templates aimed at supporting district leaders and their educators in creating structures, making decisions and plans, and advancing new strategies for integrating open educational resources (OER) and diversity, equity, inclusion, and accessibility (DEIA), as a comprehensive approach to improving teaching and learning for all. The creation of the guide relied on the groundwork, advisement, and authorship of the following contributors: Rebecca M. Henderson, Westmoreland Intermediate Unit, Pennsylvania; Tracy Rains, Appalachia Intermediate Unit, Pennsylvania; Kelly Hammond, CUNY Graduate Center and CUNY School of Professional Studies, New York, Amee Evans Godwin, ISKME, California; An-Me Chung, New America, Washington, D.C. Acknowledgments This guide was collaboratively developed by members of K-12 Voices for Open, a group of 50 plus educators and leaders working together to support OER implementation in K-12 classrooms across the country. This community-led effort is facilitated by the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education (ISKME, www.iskme.org) and with support from the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. The authors are grateful for the input and encouragement from K-12 Voices for Open. More information: https://sites.google.com/iskme.org/k-12voicesforopen	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.348806	Amee Godwin	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99087/overview", "title": "Template: OER-DEIA Success Metrics Template", "author": "Rebecca Henderson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88469/overview	Part 2 Key Terms Part 3 Key Terms Part 4 Key Terms Part 5 Key Terms Part 6 Key Terms Part 7 Key Terms Social Diversity Readings for NCCCS SOC 225 Overview This resource was developed to use when teaching SOC 225: Social Diversity as described by the North Carolina Community College System. Specifically, this collection was curated by Porscha Orndorf for use at A-B Tech Community College, but is available to all those who want to use it. Part 1. Worldview We begin this course by exploring your Worldview. There is a lot to consider about one's worldview, including just what exactly a "worldview" is. The readings in this section are designed to help you understand three different main ideas: - Worldview - Intersectionality - Microaggressions These three topics will come up throughout the course, so we begin by exploring what those mean. Reading 1. Ken Funk I want you to begin by reading Ken Funk's article about worldviews. You can find it at the following link: Ken Funk Explains the Worldview. Ken Funk is a retired professor of engineering at Oregon State University. His perspective is certainly fascinating, but it also provides us with a clear idea of what a worldview is. Here are some questions to think about as you read through Funk's perspective on the worldview: - What is your personal worldview? - What has shaped your worldview? - What might cause your worldview to change? - How important is evidence and discovery to shaping your worldview? Once you have read about worldviews, it is important to think about what might shape a person's worldview. Below are links to two articles that deal with this topic. Once you have read them, go to Moodle and take the quizzes for these reading assignments. Reading 2: Reading 3: The second topic we need to explore is intersectionality. To do this, you will read an article and watch a TED Talk by the person who coined the term, Kimberle Crenshaw. Reading 4: Reading 5: Two other, non-academic articles will be helpful to your understanding of intersectionality: Reading 6: Reading 7: The third major concept to consider is microaggressions. Below is the link to a short article from scientific American describing the concept and how it plays out in the human social world. Reading 8: This article by Harrison and Tanner (2018) can also help you better understand microaggressions and the many forms they take: Reading 9: Part 2. Citizenship The goal of this section of the course is to think about the following questions: - What does it mean to be a citizen of the United States? - What rights and responsibilities are associated with citizenship in the United States? - Does every citizen get to exercise their citizenship rights fully in the United States? - What would it mean if some people were barred from exercising their full citizenship rights based on their membership in a social group not of their choosing? Reading 1: First, read the document at this link: Citizenship Rights and Responsibilities. The following link is also helpful: Learn About Citizenship. If you would like an historical overview, check the following link: USHISTORY.org's guide to citizenship. Reading 2: Then, take the practice exam at this link: Civics Citizenship Practice Test. - Don't study for this quiz. Just take it. Click on the blue box toward the bottom of the page that says "Start practice test." - Once you have finished this quiz, please take a screenshot of your results and hold onto it for Worldview Response Paper #2. - Reflect on your performance on this practice quiz [Include these in your Worldview Exploration]: - How did you do? - How do you feel about how you did? - Were you born and raised in the U.S.? How does your answer to this question impact how you did on this practice test? The first scholarly article we will read for this section is about those who live in the United States, whose ancestry may trace farther back than those who colonized the U.S., and who now live on or near reservations. Native American nations are considered sovereign nations, and thus their citizenship is up-in-the-air and tribe-specific. Reading 3: Read the article linked below: Because we are considering citizenship, we must also consider immigration - how those moving into the United States become citizens. Begin by reading the two articles linked below: Reading 4: Reading 5: Reading 6: Terrorism and fear of terrorist attacks has become an important part of national conversations about immigration in the United States. Because this issue has become an important part of the national dialogue, there is one more article in this section addressing this issue. Please read the article linked below: Reading 7: Part 3. Race/Ethnicity In part 3, we dig in to race and ethnicity, topics that we don't always feel comfortable talking about in our daily lives. The information you will be exposed to here is critical to understanding the world we live in. Here are the questions you should consider: - Is race a biological fact or a cultural idea with no basis in biology? - How does a person's race to shape how they are perceived, how they are treated, and the opportunities they can access? - Are things that happened in the past – such as slavery and genocide in the United States – only matters of history, or do they continue to shape social life today? Starting this section means thinking about that first question: Is race biological, or is race a social construct? Reading 1: To begin exploring this idea, please read the article by Vivian Chou linked here: How Science and Genetics are Reshaping the Race Debate. Reading 2: Then, watch this TED Talk from Rick Kittles about the biology of race and its applications in the medical field: Rick Kittles at TedxNorthwestern. Continue by exploring the intersection of gender and race with this article: Reading 3: Tinkler et al. 2019. Honorary Whites? Asian American Women and the Dominance Penalty In this article, Alba (2018) explores the idea that some time in the 2040s, the United States will become a society made up of a majority of people who are of a minority race or ethnic background. Read it here: Reading 4: What Majority-Minority Society? Two of the articles we read in this section deal with how Black people discuss the feelings associated with being Black in their communities. Read the following articles: Reading 5: Reading 6: The following two articles explore what residential situations in the United States look like - what patterns exist? Read these two articles: Reading 7: Reading 8: Part 4. Social Class In this section, we explore some important questions about inequality. Questions to consider: - To what degree are individuals responsible for the material quality of their lives? - Do people living in poverty have only themselves to blame? - Are the wealthy the sole cause of their abundance? - What is capitalism? How does it contribute to or interfere with democracy? - Is it possible for a group or individual to have too much wealth? - What institutional mechanisms create and maintain wealth and income inequality? Reading 1: Reading 2: Reading 3: We'll start at the beginning - early in a child's life. Check out these two articles about poverty and parenting: Reading 4: Reading 5: What happens in high school and college? That's where our readings take us next. Read these two articles for insight: Reading 6: Reading 7: The final research article in this section explores how college impacts earnings. Check it out at this link and then take the quiz in Moodle: Reading 8: The final article in this section digs deeper into wealth disparities by race, including what the author calls "racial capitalism." Reading 9: Part 5. Gender In part 5 of this course, we explore sex and gender. The major questions to consider here are: - What is sex? What is gender? - What social and institutional mechanisms work against those who are classified as women? - What social and institutional mechanisms work against those who are classified as transgender? There are two videos in this section of the course, but I want you to BEGIN with some of the readings. Start with these: Reading 1: Reading 2: Reading 3: What happens when women lead? This is a question people have been asking for generations. Here are two articles that are interesting in terms of women in leadership roles: Reading 4: Reading 5: The next two reading assignments ask you to think about the messaging we get from leadership about sex and gender. Check them out: Reading 6: Reading 7: So far in this section, we've done a good job exploring the gender binary. But there's more to gender than that. Start with this article exploring Americans' perceptions of trans people: Reading 8: Now it's time for those videos I promised. These videos explore the trans experience from the perspective of trans people, unlike the article you just read. Here are the links you need: Reading 9: Reading 10: Part 6. Sexuality Questions to consider: - To what extent are sexual orientation and gender identity matters of individual choice? - How does sexuality matter in terms of how and who can access citizenship rights? - How do legal rights shape public perceptions and social acceptance of sexual minorities? Start with a video this time. LGBTQ issues are not new, though popular discourse would have us believe that these are new issues. While LGBT folks have existed for a long time, most people mark the beginning of the modern gay rights movement at the Stonewall Riots in 1968. What happened from that point forward? Let's start with a video: Reading 1: You'll need to LOG IN to the Locke Library resources. You will be prompted and given instructions when you click the link. Social Attitudes Social attitudes toward LGBTQIA folks change as time passes. Here are some articles exploring these issues. Reading 2: Reading 3: Reading 4: Other Queer Issues There are other issues besides how LGBTQ people are viewed by the mainstream, hetero society. Here are some articles exploring those ideas: Reading 5: Reading 6: Reading 7: What about other sexualities? The following articles explore other aspects of sexuality. Check them out: Reading 8: Reading 9: Part 7. Dis/Ability Questions to Consider. In this part of the course, we consider these questions: - Should social life be organized so that people can participate regardless of whether they have a disability? - Who should be included? - How should inclusion be accomplished? A bit of history... Start this section by exploring Disability Rights at the NCLD's Disability Rights Timeline. You can find it here: Reading 1: Disability Rights Interactive TImeline. Let's get serious about disability for a bit. Here are some articles to get you started: Reading 2: Reading 3: The following articles consider a part of disability that often gets overlooked: Mental Health. Reading 4: Reading 5: Reading 6: Some Intersectional considerations are also necessary. Below are some articles that explore interesting intersections of disability with other topics we have considered in this course: Reading 7: Reading 8: Including everyone is part of our consideration here. Below are some videos that may help you think about what inclusion looks like:	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.400572	Porscha Orndorf	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88469/overview", "title": "Social Diversity Readings for NCCCS SOC 225", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98706/overview	Video: Development Perspectives from Tracy Rains Overview Tracy Rains, Virtual Learning Specialist at Appalachia Intermediate Unit, talks about developing two key components of the OER-DEIA Action Plan for K-12 District Implementation: The Collaboration Plan and the Educator and Staff Professional Learning Plan. She provides insight into why both of these sections are critical to the success of any OER-DEIA initiative. Video: Tracy Rains talks about two key components of the OER-DEIA Action Plan OER-DEIA Action Plan for K-12 District Implementation About This Guide The guide contains a series of informational sections and reusable templates aimed at supporting district leaders and their educators in creating structures, making decisions and plans, and advancing new strategies for integrating open educational resources (OER) and diversity, equity, inclusion, and accessibility (DEIA), as a comprehensive approach to improving teaching and learning for all. The creation of the guide relied on the groundwork, advisement, and authorship of the following contributors: Rebecca M. Henderson, Westmoreland Intermediate Unit, Pennsylvania; Tracy Rains, Appalachia Intermediate Unit, Pennsylvania; Kelly Hammond, CUNY Graduate Center and CUNY School of Professional Studies, New York, Amee Evans Godwin, ISKME, California; An-Me Chung, New America, Washington, D.C. Acknowledgments This guide was collaboratively developed by members of K-12 Voices for Open, a group of 50 plus educators and leaders working together to support OER implementation in K-12 classrooms across the country. This community-led effort is facilitated by the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education (ISKME, www.iskme.org) and with support from the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. The authors are grateful for the input and encouragement from K-12 Voices for Open. More information: https://sites.google.com/iskme.org/k-12voicesforopen	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.415199	Tracy Rains	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98706/overview", "title": "Video: Development Perspectives from Tracy Rains", "author": "Rebecca Henderson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/119161/overview	Equity & Inclusivity Overview Equity & Inclusivity Image describes the basic characteristics of equity and inclusivity Equity & Inclusivity Equity & Inclusivity	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.431974	08/24/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/119161/overview", "title": "Equity & Inclusivity", "author": "Russell DSouza" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102826/overview	Educator & Staff Professional Learning Plan from the OER-DEIA Action Plan for K-12 District Implementation Overview The Educator & Staff Professional Learning Plan is one component of the K-12 Voices for Open OER - DEIA Action Planning Guide. This plan, and the entire guide, is intended as a strategic planning tool for district leaders wishing to promote the already pedagogically and financially compelling practice of creating or adapting open educational resources (OER) to help achieve district goals in serving all students through diversity, equity, inclusion, or accessibility (DEIA) lens. The guide provides step-by-step planning tools, including examples, templates, and resources to help district leaders articulate and establish action plans for what we refer to as "OER-DEIA." The entire guide is an open educational resource itself, free and openly licensed for reuse, remixing, and resharing. Overview Prior to launching a professional learning plan, it is important to reflect upon the current initiatives that you have in place and take the time to highlight the ways in which your OER / DEIA initiative will support them. A curriculum and instruction audit will then be completed and the Core Team Leader (Admin) and Curriculum Expert will determine priority grade levels and content areas for implementation. A Cohort of educators will be assembled to create and teach high-quality, rigorous, and engaging Open Educational Resources that are aligned to their standards, curriculum, and DEIA practice. The cohort will complete ongoing professional learning that aligns with the institution's implementation plan. An analysis of data will determine the plan for cohort 2. About This Guide OER-DEIA Action Plan for K-12 District Implementation About This Guide The guide contains a series of informational sections and reusable templates aimed at supporting district leaders and their educators in creating structures, making decisions and plans, and advancing new strategies for integrating open educational resources (OER) and diversity, equity, inclusion, and accessibility (DEIA), as a comprehensive approach to improving teaching and learning for all. The creation of the guide relied on the groundwork, advisement, and authorship of the following contributors: Rebecca M. Henderson, Westmoreland Intermediate Unit, Pennsylvania; Tracy Rains, Appalachia Intermediate Unit, Pennsylvania; Kelly Hammond, CUNY Graduate Center and CUNY School of Professional Studies, New York, Amee Evans Godwin, ISKME, California; An-Me Chung, New America, Washington, D.C. Acknowledgments This guide was collaboratively developed by members of K-12 Voices for Open, a group of 50 plus educators and leaders working together to support OER implementation in K-12 classrooms across the country. This community-led effort is facilitated by the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education (ISKME, www.iskme.org) and with support from the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. The authors are grateful for the input and encouragement from K-12 Voices for Open. More information: https://sites.google.com/iskme.org/k-12voicesforopen	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.447531	Amee Godwin	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102826/overview", "title": "Educator & Staff Professional Learning Plan from the OER-DEIA Action Plan for K-12 District Implementation", "author": "Rebecca Henderson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98327/overview	OpenEd Poster Session: Poster for OER-DEIA Action Planning Guide for K-12 Districts Overview This poster helps to explain the development process of the OER-DEIA Guide developed by K-12 Voices for Open, which can also be found on OER Commons. Poster for OER-DEIA Action Planning Guide for K-12 Districts This poster has been developed to assist in explaining the development history of the OER-DEIA Action Plan for K-12 District Implementation created by K-12 Voices for Open. Presented at the 2022 OpenEd Conference, the poster is licensed by the #GoOpen National Network under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.460728	Amee Godwin	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98327/overview", "title": "OpenEd Poster Session: Poster for OER-DEIA Action Planning Guide for K-12 Districts", "author": "Rebecca Henderson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74469/overview	Education Standards Biased News Report Assignment Overview This is an essay/assignment designed for a college-level (100/200) media course focused on fake/biased news reporting. COMM 70 - Media and Society Directions: For this paper, you will: Select: a timely (in the last 3 months) mediated news story of personal interest to you. As we will cover in class, partial or biased news is any news story or report that seems to be lacking key important facts, statistics, and/or reliable evidence to support the writer’s claims. Instead, the story may contain “alternative facts”, inflammatory/sensory-laden or biased language, unsupported yet heavy persuasive claims, inequity issues that go unaddressed, or show signs of ethical breaches. You should select a news story from a traditional news source (CNN, FOX, MSNBC, etc.), social media site, satirical source, etc. We will discuss more in class about options. - Summarize and Analyze: After you have selected your news story, begin by providing a brief summary of the report in your own words, paraphrasing the author’s major claims. Be sure to use proper MLA or APA in-text citations when using direct quotes or paraphrasing another’s work/words. As you summarize, be sure to analyze (identify and explain) any biases, stereotypes, inflammatory language, ethical breaches, or unsupported claims you detected. In your summary/analysis, you should also discuss the potential affects you believe this type of coverage has various audiences. For example, how might different cultural or age-demographic communities interpret the major claims? A great resource to use for your paper (both to find articles and to go over biased news research) is the COMM 70 Fake News Library Guide. (Links to an external site.) - Correct: Now you become the news editor! Using TWO other outside credible (i.e., reputable) news sources, your job is to create a more complete news report using the newly found, well-rounded, and contrasting evidence you gather for the story of your choice. Be sure to include in-text citations and a reference page for the all sources used. In this section, you will compare and contrast what the two other sources include that the original story did not. The idea is that you paint a more whole (and accurate) picture of the news event by including evidence from 3 total sources. - Reflect: Given what you found and learned from this assignment, share your personal reactions to the “biased/fake news” phenomenon. Some questions to consider in the final reflection include: what surprised, intrigued, or challenged you about this assignment? How does biased news affect you, if at all? How might you tie your learning to ideas/concept of digital literacy? Is there evidence of any theory that we have covered in class at work here (go back to module #1 for the 4 theories)? What advice would you give to 2020 news consumers? How would you critique the news community (as a whole) regarding ethical standards of practice? You do not need to answer all these questions, but they are food for thought :)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.485214	11/09/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74469/overview", "title": "Biased News Report Assignment", "author": "Tara Franks" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120430/overview	Ghost Remix of OER Item Sharing Template - Introduction on How To Spot AI Images and Misinformation Overview OER Fundamentals Academy participants are invited to remix this sharing template to design and share their OER project plans, course information, any related resources and syllabus, and reflection. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: I've learned how to evaluate OERs better, how to remix existing OERs, and how to create them. I'm planning to work more on OER outreach to Pima Community College students and faculty. My Audience: Public librarians -- specifically in rural and older demographic areas. My Team: I know of one public librarian who will use my OER item in a presentation later this month. I hope to have more librarians and other information professionals share my item. Existing Resources: None that I'm aware of. New Resources: None Supports Needed: None, no. Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER item deliverables? 10/18/2024 OER Item Reflection Please reflect and share any observations and insights you noticed as a result of this OER Item, such as changes in your own practice, impact on colleagues or student engagement and impact.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.506117	John Ghost	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120430/overview", "title": "Ghost Remix of OER Item Sharing Template - Introduction on How To Spot AI Images and Misinformation", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98099/overview	Adding Three Numbers Overview Adding Three Numbers activity lesson plan with included technology use Stage 1 - Desired Results ESTABLISHED GOALS \| 1. Students will develop an understanding of addition strategies with three different numbers (CC.2.2.3.A.4) 2. Students will be able to apply problem solving strategies in different aspects of their schooling (CC.2.1.3.B.1) 3. Students will understand how to make word problems easier for their own comprehension (able to deal with complex problems on their own) 4. Students will know what strategies work best for them moving forward in their schooling (CC.2.1.3.B.1) 5. Students understand how to use this knowledge in their everyday lives and how it will benefit them \| Transfer Students will be able to independently use their learning to… \| 1. Explain how they chose which two numbers to add first 2. Identify when they can use the strategies they are taught, such as adding two numbers to 10 first 3. Recognize that numbers can be added in any order they wish to put them in 4. Successfully add three separate numbers together 5. Comprehend how to add three things together in their daily lives also \| Meaning UNDERSTANDINGS \| ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS \| 1. Students will understand how to make sense of problems and have confidence in solving them 2. Students will understand to look for places they can use their strategies 3. That addition is used in everyday scenarios 4. That you can add numbers together in any order you want to 5. That you add the ones place first and then the tens place when determining addition of more than one-digit numbers 6. That you can pick which two numbers you want to add first based on what will be easiest to add the third number to 7. How to read addition problems in word or just number form 8. How to work with others to decide the total amount of something all three of you have \| 1. How can I solve problems involving addition of three numbers? 2. How can I understand strategies such as adding two numbers together first in order to solve this problem? 3. What are the different ways I can group two numbers together before adding the third number? 4. How can I work with others to add three separate amounts together? 5. How can I add these numbers together the quickest? Is it with one of these strategies? 6. How do I create a number problem that makes it easier to add numbers when I'm given a word problem? 7. How is this material useful to my everyday life? \| Aquistion Students will know… \| Students will be skilled at… \| 1. Students will know that finding patterns will help them solve problems quicker. 2. How to correctly solve the answer to adding three numbers together 3. How to pick which two numbers they want to add first 4. How to group numbers together to make it easier 5. How to possibly add two-digit numbers to one-digit numbers 6. How to understand addition in a word problem 7. How to quickly find the answer to addition problems \| 1. Students will be skilled at working with other students to solve problems 2. Students will be skilled at finding patterns in order to solve a given problem. 3. Students will be skilled at recognizing when they can use strategies they are taught to quickly compete a problem 4. Applying strategies to new problems they are given 5. Knowing what strategies they can use for what types of problems 6. Comprehending word problems in math \| Stage 2 - Assessment Evidence Evaluative Criteria \| Assessment Evidence \| 1. Accurate answers for problems 2. Correct answer based on method used 3. Justification of methods used 4. Clarity of work and organization 5. Improvement throughout year 6. Working well in a group \| PERFORMANCE TASK(S): 1.0 - Group Discussion: asking students what they know about terms of addition and how it helps them in real life 1.1 - Graphic organizer (do understand and do not understand) 2.0 - Adding one-digit numbers together 2.1 - Quiz on simple addition of three numbers 3.0 - Group work 3.1 - Own items - Students bring in a certain number of small objects that they own, and will group up with two other students and have to add their obects together in three different ways 4.0 - Utilizing random choices 4.1 - Dice game - Students will roll three dice, all with the same number of sides but does not matter how many sides, and work to quickly add those three numbers together Unit Test \| 1. Accurate answers for problems 2. Justification of methods used 3. Clarity of work and organization 4. Improvement throughout the year \| OTHER EVIDENCE: 1. Test on the terms utilized in addition 2. Test on the overall knowledge of addition of numbers 3. Quizzes throughout the unit making sure students have an understanding of each topic 4. Group discussions on how we are feeling and how we can better each lesson to be more accomodating \| Stage 3 - Learning Plan Learning Activities: Summary of Key Learning Events and Instruction What learning experiences and instruction will enable students to achieve the desired results? How will the design W = Help the students know Where the unit is going and What is expected? Help the teacher know Where the students are coming from (prior knowledge, interests)? H = Hook all students, and Hold their interest? E1 = Equip students, help them Experience the key ideas and Explore the issue? R = Provide opportunities to Rethink and Revise their understandings and work? E2 = Allow students to Evaluate their work and its implications? T = be Tailored (personalized) to the different needs, interests, and abilities of learners? O = Be Organized to maximize initial and sustained engagement as well as effective learning? 1.00 - Figuring out why we need addition [H] Sample Questions to ask: - Where do we use addition in our daily lives? - How can we find addition in our likes and interests? Create an interest in hands-on experiences that the class can come up with. - 1: Brainstorm - Google - 7: Read Text - Online Textbooks - 18: Watch Brainpop Video - Internet Search 2.00 - Introduction of vocabulary being used [W] - Introduce project outlines, course requirements, and what is expected of the students 2.01 - Check in with teacher to see if student's understand - 2: Discussion of Vocab - Online discussion posts with me - 17: Spelling List - Google Docs - 19: Vocabulary List - Google Docs 3.00 - Introduction of what the expectations will be for each unit [W,H,E,R,T] 3.01 - Discussion: ask the students what kinds of activities they want to participate in - 9: Investigate Concepts - Google 3.02 - Help students understand what they will do in each unit and what they have to do - 3: Review Photos Together - Google Classroom - 4: Review Photos Individually - Google Classroom 4.00 - Addition of three one-digit numbers [W,H,E2,R] 4.01 - Introduce strategies used in adding three numbers together - 5: Attend Demonstration - Zoom - 6: View Presentation - PowerPoint 4.02 - Group activity - bringing things from home and adding them to other student's things - 12: Student Group Discussions - Google Classroom - 20: Math Experiment - PowerPoint with findings 5.00 - Addition of three numbers; some one-digit and some two-digit [W,E2,R,T,O] 5.01 - Introduce strategies used in adding two-digit and one-digit numbers together - 8: Recognzie Patterns - Google Sheets - 10: Watch a YouTube Video - YouTube 5.02 - Dice game - rolling three dice and adding the numbers that come up (random) - 13: Choice Simulator - Blackboard 5.03 - Quiz on addition of two-digit numbers with one-digit numbers - 11: Interpret Strategies - Mathmatica - 25: Take Quiz - Blackboard 6.00 - Word problems utilizing addition [W,E,R,E2,T] 6.01 - Introduction of word problems - students can create their own situations to involve - 15: Math Craft - Geometer Sketchpad - 16: Math Drawing - Geometer Sketchpad - 21: Create Own Assignment - Video Filming, PowerPoint - 23: Create 3-D Model - Design Technology 6.02 - Activity: word problem sheet and students must solve - 14: Compare and Contrast Methods - Graphic Organizers Online - 22: Solve Practice Problems - Google and Google Docs 6.03 - Discussion: How can we use these types of addition problems in everyday life? - 24: Demonstrate Usefulness - PowerPoint - 27: Apply Representation - Electronic Algebra Tiles 6.04 - Unit Test - 26: Take Test - Blackboard This unit will be organized from starting with introductions to topics and then gradually getting harder as the unit goes on. Each concept will be applied to the next before moving on, connecting all the topics, and engaging the students in collaborative learning.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.537436	10/20/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98099/overview", "title": "Adding Three Numbers", "author": "Lily Podolan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/128119/overview	GS 5 UNIT: 7 Overview Key unit competence: To be able to propose solutions about the impact human activities have on the environment. ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT - 1. CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Environmental pollution is caused by several sources including mainly human activities. The sources include factories, transportation vehicles like cars, trains and plane. Types of pollution are the following: - Air pollution This refers to the contamination of air by smoke and harmful gases, mainly oxides of carbon, sulphur and nitrogen. Some examples of air pollution include: exhaust fumes from vehicles; the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil or gas; harmful gases from things such as paint, plastic production; radiation spills,etc - Land pollution This is the degradation of the earth’s surface, caused by misuse of resources and improper disposal of waste. Some examples include: litter found on road side; illegal dumping in natural habitats; oil spills that happen inland; logging practices such as deforestation; mining, … Note that: Land pollution is responsible for damage done to natural habitat of animals, deforestation and damage to natural resources and general ’uglying’ up of our environment. - Light pollution This refers to the brightening of the sky inhabiting the visibility of stars and planets. Some examples include: street lamps; unnecessary light around home; cities that run lights all the night. - Noise pollution This is any loud sound that is either harmful or annoying to humans and animals. Some examples include: air plane, helicopters and vehicles, construction and demolitions, human activities such as sports and music. - Water pollution This is the contamination of any water body like lakes, rivers, oceans, ground water, etc Some examples of pollutants include: raw sewage, industrial waste pills, farm runoffs, illegal dumping of substances in water bodies. - 2. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND ITS IMPACT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Some effects of pollution on sustainable development are the following: - Effects on human beings - Pollution can lead to premature death - It can cause upper respiratory infections such as bronchitis, pneumonia, asthma - Outbreak of cholera and other waterborne diseases - It causes irritation to eyes, nose and throat infections, etc - Effects on animals - Acid rain harms animals and fish and other aquatic lives. - Death of animals - Outbreak of waterborne diseases, etc - Effects on plants - Acid rain destroys plant leaves and kills trees - Ozone gas destroys some types of vegetation - Polluted water can cause plant diseases, etc - Effects on ecosystem - Acid rain makes the soil unfit for living things that depend on it as a habitat or for nutrition. - Acid rain destroys sea ecosystem - Pollution of water can cause disruption of food chains - Destruction of ecosystems, etc Briefly, these kinds of environmental pollution are linked to health issues in human, animals and plants life. - 3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POVERTY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES The table below shows the relationship between poverty and environmental issues: Poverty indicator \| Environmental issues \| \| With poor housing, the level of hygiene is very low. This often leads to water pollution and outbreak of diseases. \| \| The overpopulation leads to very dirty environments that expose the inhabitants to many health hazards. \| \| Lack of access to clean water leads to very dirty houses and environment. \| \| Due to high level of poverty, there are no facilities such as waste disposal facilities. This leads to unhealthy living environments. \| - 4. PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT Some of the major principles of environmental management are the following: - Polluter pays principle(PPP): this is a practice in which those who produce pollution are required to bear the costs of managing it to prevent damage to human health and the environment. E.g : Some factories. - Protection principle: This is the principle that aims at protecting important areas and habitats. E.g: wetlands, forests, parks. - Sustainability and intergenerational equity principle: This is a principle that addresses sustainability by looking at the past injustice and establishing how they affect present-day social, economic and ecological aspects of society. E.g.: Improvement of resource management, social cohesion, governance, etc - Cooperation principle: This is the principle that requires the contribution of all society’s members to do their part in environmental management. - Sensitization principle: This principle aims at creating awareness among members of the society about the need for environmental management and ways of doing it. E.g: In Rwanda, sensitization principle is achieved through campaigns on environmental conservation. - 5. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT STANDARDS Environmental Management Standards are set of voluntary environmental management standards guided by ” International System Organisation (ISO)” which specifies the requirements for protecting the environment. They guide operating practices, products and services by: - Maintaining excellent public relations - Obtaining insurance at reasonable cost - Improving cost control by identifying and eliminating wastes - Reducing consumption of material and hence minimizing wastes In our country, Rwanda, we have “Environment Management Authority” (REMA) . - 6. TOOLS USED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT As it is cited above, REMA is the principal agency responsible for the management of the environment in Rwanda. But there are other tools used for environment management. - Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): it is the process used to prevent negative effects and encourage positive impacts and assist the rational use of natural resources to maximize the benefits of socio-economic development projects and ensuring sustainable development. For example: construction and repair of roads, large bridge, industries and factories, public dams for water conservation, large hotels,etc - Environmental reporting tool: this is used to find out if there are threatened species such pollutant emissions in an area. - Environmental inspection tool: this tool helps individuals to determine whether their area of interest has natural environmental significance and whether it is protected. - Environmental audit tool: this is whereby waste management systems are audited to ensure accountability of the environment impact assessment processes. - Environmental education tool. Global issues such as environment degradation, pollution, soil erosion, growing population are of concern to parents, educators, other stakeholders and government. The above tools are important as they help in environmental planning and auditing management system, standards, labeling and lastly minimizing environmental impact. - 7. EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIES There has been an evolution of industries over time. The following are some of the stages in this evolution: i) Hunting and fishing stage/ family stage At this stage, the work of getting goods was done mainly in the single family. Each family produced most of the things which its members consumed. This stage was marked by the following characteristics: - There was little exchange or transfer of goods - There was little division of labour - There were no economic classes and no industrial conflicts - There existed hunting tribes and fishing tribes ii) Pastoral stage This is the stage where man had learned the art of making a few simple tools like bows and arrows and primitive stone implements to make hunting and food preparation easier. This stage was marked by the following developments: - Domestication of animals for food - Migration in search of pasture for domesticated animals - Community/ tribe land ownership - The origin of exchange( barter trade system) iii) Agricultural stage This is the stage where man learned how to manage plants and how to grow them for food. This stage was marked by the following developments: - Agriculture, as a means of support, was added to the keeping of flocks and to the hunting. - Private ownership of land starts - Trade, influenced by the love of luxury, took place in a low scale. - Laws and customs reflecting ideas and defining how to live iv) Handicraft stage/ Guild stage This is the stage where man learned how to make things with his hands. This stage was marked by the following developments: - Weaving fabrics and fashioning things in wood and metal - Division of occupation: blacksmiths, shoemakers, weavers, etc - Commerce expanded - Introduction of money in form of gold, silver or other acceptable forms of trading - Emergence of cities on the coasts and major rivers v) Domestic stage/ Cottage stage At this stage, work was done at home, hence the name domestic. The following were the major developments in this stage: - All manufacture of products like textiles was done at home and on a small scale - Major activity was converting wool to clothes - If a worker did not work in his own home, he could work in a small workshop. - Coal mines to fuel local cottage emerged. vi) Present stage/ Factory stage This is the stage where the factory system developed because of industrial revolution, which completely changed the methods of production of goods. The following were the major developments in this stage: - Requisite products or goods were produced in large scale in the buildings - The modern system of production satisfies the economic needs of individuals, communities and countries by manufacturing products/goods in factories. - This system utilizes men, materials, machines and methods to meet the market demands. IMPACT OF PROGRESS OF SCIENCE( INDUSTRIES) ON CLIMATE CHANGE - High temperatures are projected to bring increasingly severe imputes on global scale which include; low lying coastal areas leading to migration of people and growing risk to human health. - Damages to sensitive ecosystem such as wetlands that regulate water flows. - Global warming that has led to temperature increase due to emission of carbon dioxide and the greenhouse gases from human activities. - Shift in animal habitats such as migration of birds and mammals - Decreased sea ice habitat, hence leading to droughts IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT 1. The first major health impact is rise in rates of mortality and diseases caused by extreme weather changes. These include floods, droughts, tsunami, e.t.c. 2. Higher temperatures pose major health risks to older people such as farmers and builders who suffer from heat exhaustion and heat stroke. 3. Effect on human society and economic development raising rates of multinutrition and mental health due to crop failure which results to hunger. 4. Infectious diseases spread faster under extreme weather conditions. 5. Aquatic life perishes 6. Mass migration of animals, birds and people to new habitats which can be unsafe	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.596169	NIYONKURU SELEMAN	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/128119/overview", "title": "GS 5 UNIT: 7", "author": "Unit of Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91191/overview	Marketing Data Sources Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Marketing Data Sources What you’ll learn to do: Identify major sources of available marketing data Marketing information and research are powerful tools to improve your understanding of your customers, competitors, and the industry and market in which you work. In today’s information-rich world, many great sources of marketing data are already available. Knowing what they are and how to find them is a great skill for any marketer. Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: Marketing Data Sources Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: Marketing Data Sources. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Marketing Data Sources Marketing Information: Where the Data Is Earlier sections of this module alluded to excellent sources of marketing data, many of which are freely available or carry minimal cost. Others are well-respected commercial sources of marketing data and customer insights. This reading provides an overview of useful go-to data sources that marketers should know about, should the occasion arise to use them. The data sources recommended below are a representative sampling, rather than a complete list. It is also worth noting that the marketing information landscape is continually changing. Marketers would be well served to continually scan for new developments and information sources that may be beneficial to improve their understanding of customers and ways of serving them. Publicly Available Data Sources Government agencies, non-profit organizations, and non-governmental organizations often publish freely available data that may inform marketers’ understanding of consumers, customers, the geographies, and industry sectors where they operate. Great information sources include the following: \| Source \| Description \| \|---\|---\| \| Data.gov \| A centralized portal for open data available from the U.S. government on a wide variety of topics. Helpful for finding government data that you know exist somewhere, but you aren’t sure which agency maintains it. \| \| FedStats \| A U.S. government-maintained Web site that provides access to a wide variety of statistical data published by the federal government. Also helpful for finding data that you know exist somewhere, but you aren’t sure which agency maintains it. \| \| Google Public Data Directory \| A directory of publicly-available data sources from around the world. \| \| Google Trends \| A search tool for exploring search volume for any term used in a Google search. \| \| Pew Research Center \| Public opinion and research reports from a non-partisan, American think tank. Freely available research covers social issues, public opinion, and demographic trends shaping the United States and the world \| \| U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis \| Data published by the federal government about economic indicators for the economy as a whole, as well as specific industries and economic sectors. \| \| U.S. Census Bureau Data \| Demographic and geographic information about the population of the United States. \| \| U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) General Business Data and Statistics \| A collection of data about the U.S. economy, industries, businesses and the general population, developed with business users in mind. \| \| United Nations UNdata \| A data service of the United Nations that provides centralized access to a wide variety of U.N.-maintained data sets such as demographics, socioeconomic status and development indicators for nations around the world. \| \| World Bank Data \| Economic data and economic development indicators for 100+ countries around the world. \| \| World Trade Organization (WTO) Data \| Information about international trade and tariffs and the regulatory environment for 100+ WTO member countries. \| Syndicated Marketing Research Data A number of commercial companies provide syndicated marketing research that is well respected and often well used by organizations that subscribe to their services. A sampling of these services is provided below: \| Source \| Description \| \|---\|---\| \| Acxiom \| Extensive consumer datasets containing demographic, purchasing, credit, and other information companies can map to their own customer and prospect data for research, marketing analytics, and marketing campaign execution. \| \| Experian \| Extensive consumer datasets containing demographic, purchasing, credit, and other information that companies can map to their own consumer and prospect data for research, marketing analytics, and marketing campaign execution. \| \| Ipsos \| The Affluent Survey USA is an annual survey tracking media and consumer spending habits of U.S. households in the top 20% income level. \| \| IRI \| Point-of-sale data linked to household panel purchasing data, providing detail around sales, pricing, promotion and market share for a variety of consumer products. \| \| Media Audit \| Audience demographics and media consumption profiles for 100+ media markets in the U.S. \| \| MRI Simmons (formerly GfK MRI and MediaMark) \| Extensive datasets around multimedia audience research and measurement. \| \| Nielsen \| Point-of-sale data linked to household panel purchasing data, providing detail around sales, pricing, promotion and market share for a variety of consumer products. Datasets to support popular lifestyle and behavioral segmentation systems such as PRIZM. \| \| Roper Center for Public Opinion Research \| Database of public opinion and polling questions exploring many aspects of American life, including contemporary data as well as polling data dating back to the 1930s. \| \| Yankelovich \| MONITOR provides long-running syndicated research about consumer values, attitudes, and trends. \| Other Useful Sources for Marketing Data These additional sources for other types of marketing information are also warrant attention. Whether or not marketers use them, they should be aware of these tools and how they can be useful for a variety of marketing purposes. \| Source \| Description \| \|---\|---\| \| Google Analytics \| Detailed analytics, statistics and insights about Web site traffic, usability and sales effectiveness. Free and premium services available. \| \| LexisNexis \| Searchable source for full-text articles from regional, national and international newspapers, government documents, and many legal, medical and business publications. \| \| Statista \| A subscription-based statistics portal, providing searchable access to many original sources of market, industry, and business data. \| Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Marketing Information: Where the Data Are. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Google search. Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/en/office-freelancer-computer-business-625892/. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.626234	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91191/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Marketing Information and Research, Marketing Data Sources", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/128216/overview	S6 UNIT 15 Overview By the end of this unit, Learners should be able to evaluate the impact of conserving natural resources and tourism on the sustainable development in the different countries of the world ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND TOURISM a) Definition of the environment The word Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which means “surrounding”. Ordinarily, environment refers to all things that surround us. Our surrounding includes biotic factors like human beings, plants, animals, microbes and abiotic factors such as light, air, water, soil, etc. Environmental degradation refers to the deterioration of the Earth’s natural surroundings because of excessive exploitation of the available resources: water, air, flora, fauna, soil etc. Environmental conservation is the act of protecting the environment against destruction. b) Components of the environment - Abiotic environment: It includes all non-living things like rocks, minerals, water, weather conditions. - Biotic environment: It includes all living things like plants, animals, Microorganisms. c) Factors responsible for environmental degradation - Overpopulation: Rapid population growth puts strain on natural resources which results in degradation of our environment. Mortality rate has gone down due to better medical facilities which have resulted into increased lifespan. A big population simply means more demand for food, clothes and shelter. You need more space to grow food and provide homes to millions of people. This results into deforestation which is another factor of environmental degradation. - Pollution: Pollution, in whatever form, whether it is air, water, land or noise is harmful for the environment - Deforestation: Deforestation is the cutting down of trees to make way for more homes and industries. Deforestation contributes to global warming as decreased forest size puts carbon back into the environment. - Swamp reclamation: The extensive drainage of swamps or wetlands has serious effects on the environment. This has resulted into inadequate water supply and the drained areas soon become arid. - Bush burning: This is done by different societies for different reasons. Burning of the vegetation results into the land being left bare thus the exposure of the top soil to wind and running water hence erosion and soil deterioration. - Urbanization: Urbanization refers to the increase of population in urban areas and the horizontal expansion of urban areas. Urbanization is, therefore, associated with the expansion of the city over the natural environment, the increase of traffic congestion, smoke, acidic rainfall, global warming, etc. - Extraction of minerals: Mining and quarrying of rocks lead to exhaustion of minerals, destruction of scenery beauty, increased pollution, mining operations release effluents that contaminate water. - Natural Causes: Things like avalanches, quakes, tidal waves, storms, and wildfires can destroy nearby animal and plant groups to the point where they can no longer survive in those areas. 15.2. Consequences of environmental degradation, methods of environmental conservation and importance of environmental conservation a. Consequences of environmental degradation - Deforestation reduces rainfall, drives climate change and desertification. - Flooding destroys agricultural land, crops, loss of properties, lives and contaminates safe drinking water. - Accelerated soil erosion due to deforestation making the land to become unproductive. - Increased landslide leads to large expanses of bare land and this limit human occupancy. - Silting of rivers, seas and oceans this has led to reduction in size of water bodies and this affect the climate of the surrounding areas and the productivity of the land. - Increased sedimentation: This leads to the reduction of water levels in river, streams, swamps and lakes and finally the occurrence of drought. - Increased global warming: This leads to gradual rise in world temperature which destroys Ozone layer, high evaporation rates and aridity. - Desertification: This reduces the land productivity due to the spread of desert - like conditions such as very low rainfall, high temperature and low humidity. - Impact on human health: Areas exposed to toxic air pollutants can cause respiratory problems like pneumonia and asthma. Millions of people have died of indirect effects of air pollution. - Biodiversity loss: This is the reduction of large plants and animals. Biodiversity is important for maintaining balance of the ecosystem in the form of combating pollution, restoring nutrients, protecting water sources and stabilizing climate. Deforestation, global warming, overpopulation and pollution are some of the major causes for loss of biodiversity. - Ozone layer depletion: Ozone layer is responsible for protecting earth from harmful ultraviolet rays. As the ozone layer will deplete, it will emit harmful radiations back to the earth. - Loss for tourism industry: Environmental damage in the form of loss of green cover, loss of biodiversity, huge landfills, increased air and water pollution can be challenges to tourism. - Economic impact: This is when the country invests much money to restore degraded zones. For examples, the government of Rwanda is spending much to assist people affected by recurrent natural hazards. The economic impact can also be in terms of loss of tourism industry. b. Methods of environmental conservation The conservation of the environment can be done through different ways such as the following: - Environmental education and awareness through the mass media (radios, newspapers, etc). - Introduction of better farming methods which help to maintain soil fertility and to prevent soil erosion. - Enacting of laws protecting the environment like forest, wetlands, wildlife, etc. - Establishment of national parks and wildlife reserves to protect the wild animals. - Developing alternative sources of energy like solar energy, hydro- electric, biogas energy etc. - Treatment of industrial wastes before discharge into lakes, rivers, oceans etc. - Afforestation and reforestation as trees help to protect catchment areas, control surface run off and the balance of weather and the ecosystem in general. - Controlling population growth and its negative effects through birth control and family planning. c. Importance of environmental conservation Environmental conservation is important for many reasons, including - Protecting the ozone layer, - Maintaining animal and human food chains and making efficient use of non-renewable resources. - It saves our natural resources - Reduces pollution - Preserving potable water, by saving water we would be saving the lives of plants, animals and mankind. That’s how conservation would benefit the environment. 15.3. Pollution The term pollution may be defined as all processes that lead to the contamination of the environment or the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the eco-system. 15.3.1. Main types of pollution - Air pollution: when we say atmospheric pollution, we mean all harmful substances that can be transported in the air to affect people animals or property. - Water pollution: This refers to all the processes that lead to the addition of toxic and harmful substances like industrial effluents to both surface and underground water thereby, contaminating it and making it less safe for use. - Land/soil pollution: This is a process of increasing dumping of waste materials on/to the land such as agricultural fertilizers, industrial wastes, etc. - Noise pollution: This is the harmful or annoying level of noise. It is common in urban centers where there are many vehicles, big trucks, trains and near airports and industries. 15.3.2. Causes of pollution - Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and petroleum, is the leading cause of the greenhouse effect and is responsible for rising of global temperature. - Gases emitted by automobile contain unburned hydrocarbons, carbon dioxideoxide of nitrogen that contributes to acid rain, smog and global warming. - Chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides used in farming activities pollute the soils while killing micro-organism in an area. - Disposal of garbage from large cities leads to the contamination of land. The garbage consists of high synthetic and plastic materials that take longer to decompose than the primary biodegradable waste materials. - Industries discharge their wastes into nearby water bodies thus polluting them. - Nuclear tests done in open water surfaces pollute them hence affecting aquatic life. 15.3.3. Effects of pollution - Pollution leads to the reduction of fresh air which is very vital for humanity and animals during respiration. - It is the main factor of global warming or greenhouse effect, water borne diseases such as typhoid, cholera and bilharzia. - Air pollution leads to air borne diseases of respiratory system such as bronchitis, lung cancer, and tuberculosis. - Heavy pollution affects visibility which can cause traffic accidents. - It also leads to the formation of acid rain. When such rain reaches the ground, it pollutes and spreads pollution even into surface and underground water bodies. - Destruction of the Ozone layer due to different gases emitted in the atmosphere. Therefore, dangerous solar radiations reach the earth surface. - Soil pollution leads to the formation of barren land, which is not productive unless fertilizers and soil additives are utilized. - The use of atomic bombs results into the pollution of the land reducing its productivity as well as malfunctions of the human bodies. 15.3.4. Solutions to the problems of pollution - Treatment of the pollutants before their disposal so as to reduce the degree of toxicity and harm they can have on the water bodies. - Setting laws to prohibit the discharge of toxic wastes into international water bodies. - Building of sea wages treatment plants before it is discharged into lakes and river - Car manufacturing countries are redesigning their car engines and exhaust systems so as to ensure further combustion and thereby reduction in the level of concentration of toxic gases. - Clean up areas where oil spills, a cleaning exercises has been undertaken to remove oil substance from the surface of the water and make water clean. - The issue of nuclear test can be overcome by signing several treaties through organizations like United Nations and NATO. - Introduction of environmental friendly techniques of controlling weeds and pests such as physical and biological methods. - Construction of elongated chimneys high into the sky will protect the surrounding areas from the immediate - Disastrous effect of pollution 15.4. Catastrophes A catastrophe is a large-scale disaster or a horrible event. We have natural catastrophes and non-natural calamities. 15.4.1. Natural catastrophes A natural catastrophe is an unexpected event, caused by nature Table showing natural catastrophes Type of catastrophe \| Definition and causes \| Earthquakes \| Earthquake is the vibration or shaking of the ground due to sudden release of energy stored in the rocks beneath the earth surface. Earthquakes may result from a combination of factors like faulting, volcanic eruption, landslides where for example faulting causes vibrations which would spread far from the center of disturbance. \| Drought \| Drought: This is a prolonged period of low rainfall and shortage of water resulting from too much sun shine. \| Flood \| Flood: This is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limit. This means that water spreads to cover areas that are normally dry land. Floods are caused by prolonged heavy rainfall on extensive plains and meandering river courses. \| Tsunamis \| Tsunamis: This is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Tsunami is caused by earthquake and volcanic eruption that leads to displacement of water in different directions. \| Wind \| Wind: This is air in motion above the surface of the earth. It is caused by differences in pressure. Air moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. The wind with high speed causes enormous catastrophes where it passes such as destruction of houses, etc. \| Volcanic eruption \| Volcanic eruption is a process through which a stream of solids, gases and ash is violently ejected to a height of several miles from a volcano. Volcanic eruption results from the increase of temperature within the mantle (interior of the earth), and this forces molten materials to erupt. \| Diseases: A disease is a disorder of structure or function in a human, animal, or plant. It produces specific symptoms or affects a specific location and is not simply a direct result of physical injury, e.g. cholera, tuberculosis; AIDS, etc. Poor hygienic conditions cause diseases like cholera while disease like AIDS are caused by virus called Human Immune Virus (HIV) 15.4.2. Non-natural catastrophes /calamities - War: it refers to a state of organized, armed conflict between countries or group within a country. - Fire: A state, process, or instance of combustion in which fuel or other material is ignited and combined with oxygen, giving off light, heat, and flame. High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favorable circumstance for a fire to start. - Famine: it is a widespread scarcity of food that may apply to any faunal species, which phenomenon is accompanied by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic and increased mortality. 15.4.3. Effects of catastrophes - Loss of lives and destruction of properties. This happens when buildings fall down due to earthquakes, floods, Tsunamis, etc. - Droughts wither the plants and human beings face hunger and starvation. Animals and birds die; some move away to look for food. - Population decreases in places where catastrophes occur due to displacement and death of people. - Agricultural and industrial productions are negatively affected by pests and diseases. - Occurrence of water borne diseases like bilharzia which is caused by water snails in stagnant water. - Catastrophes reduce the capacity of the soil to store nutrients and water, thus make the environment drier. - Catastrophes can lead to mudslides, soil erosion and landslide in mountainous areas. - The government spends a lot of money for restoring the damages. This money would be used in other developmental projects. - Degradation of the crust by sediments on the earth surface by stripped soils or the weathering of rocks at their base where they are in contact with the soil. 15.4.4. Solutions to catastrophes - Building terraces and channels - Drought can be controlled by afforestation - Increasing plant cover - Practice of modern agriculture - Building the houses that can resist to earthquakes - The government must provide budget to control catastrophes - Prevention of the human caused fires through education and environmental modification. - The prevention of wars: people should discuss any differences that arise. 15.5. Tourism 15.5.1. Definitions, major tourist areas of the world and factors affecting the development of tourism in the world. a. Definitions - Tourism is a travel from one place to another for the purpose of leisure, research, business, instruction and education. - Eco-tourism / ecological tourism (green tourism) is the practice of involving the community living around the tourist attraction sites in the management and conservation of such sites and the surrounding environment. - Domestic tourism is whereby the local people visit places of interest within their country for study, pleasure or recreation. - International tourism involves organized tours by people from their countries to other countries. b. Major tourist areas of the world The most areas of the world are: - New York as the headquarter of international organization like United Nations, World Bank, etc. - Europe as a developed continent with magnificent cities such London, Paris, Geneva etc. - Rome, Mecca and Jerusalem as religious centers. - Historical sites like pyramids of Egypt, Great Wall of China, - National parks and resorts like Disney World in Florida (USA), Disney in Paris (Europe), Akagera (Rwanda). - Beaches in Germany, Seychelles and along coastal lands. - Mountainous regions like Alps, Himalayas, Kilimanjaro, Rockies, Atlas, Appalachians, Birunga in Rwanda. c. Factors affecting development of tourism in the world - Climate: A favorable climate especially sunny condition attracts people from cooler northern countries to tropical regions. - Political stability favors the development of tourism as the average tourist tends to be easily frightened away from an area with insecurity. - Capital: Acquired funds help to develop tourist physical and human resources. - Government policy: Governments set explicit policies of encouraging tourists to visit their countries by creation of board which plan, market and manage the tourism industry. This is one of the responsibilities of Rwanda Development Board (RDB) in Rwanda. - Accessibility: Improvement of means of transport like roads, airport, favor the development of tourism. - Accommodation: Tourists will be influenced to travel to those destinations where they are assured of decent and affordable accommodation. - Advertisement: Tourist attractions are made known to the local and international community using mass media. This information markets wildlife and other tourist attractions. - A wide range of tourist attractions in a particular area attracts many tourists both local and international tourists d. Importance of tourism in the world - Tourism is a big foreign exchange earner. Countries benefit from the sale of licenses to tour operators who are taxed on their profits and entrance fees to tourism sites. Tax from tourist hotels is a source of revenue to governments. - It offers employment to thousands of people in both public and private sectors. - It enhances the development of industries particularly the accommodation and service industries. - It enhances the development and the general improvement of infrastructure. Roads leading to tourist attractions are well maintained. Airstrips to such places have been constructed. - Improvement in the standards of living where people earn income because tourists buy basic needs and luxuries. - It enhances the development of international cooperation between countries. - A profitable tourism tends to lead to renewed interest in the protection of wildlife and natural resources so that continued existence lead to sustainable development. - Tourism expands market for locally produced commodities/goods. The demand for certain items may increase as tourism develops. e. Impact of tourism on the environment - The loss of biodiversity: - Protected animals in the national parks may escape and harm people and damage their crops and animals. - Tourists leave fire on the camping and picnic sites which causes damages to vegetation. This may lead to the loss of valuable forest - Pressure on the water resources: The tourism industry generally over uses water resources for hotels, swimming pools, golf courses and personal use of water by tourists. This can result into water shortages and degradation of water supplies, as well as generating a greater volume of waste water. - Land degradation: Important land resources include minerals, fertile soil, forests, wetland and wildlife. Increased construction of tourism and recreational facilities have increased the pressure on these resources and on scenic landscapes. In areas with high concentrations of tourist activities and appealing natural attractions, waste disposal is a serious problem and improper disposal can be a major despoiler of the natural environment - rivers, scenic areas, and roadsides. - Air and noise pollution: Air and noise pollution from airplanes, cars, and buses, as well as recreational vehicles such as snowmobiles and jet skis, is an ever-growing problem of modern life. - Sewage: Construction of hotels, recreation and other facilities often leads to increased sewage pollution. Wastewater has polluted seas and lakes surrounding tourist attractions, damaging the flora and fauna. Sewage runoff causes serious damage to coral reefs because it stimulates the growth of algae, which cover the filter-feeding corals, hindering their ability to survive. 15.5.3. Problems affecting the tourism in the world and the prospects a) Problems affecting tourism in the world and prospects - Climate changes: Due to global warming and climate changes, regions which used to be well-watered and which formed favorable habitats for animals and plants are becoming drier. - Decline in wildlife: Incidences of poaching where animals are killed for game, meat, skins and tusks have led to a decline in the population of wild animals. - Encroachment on national parks due to population pressure, and this is threatening the survival of tourism industry. - Violence or political instability limits the number of tourists coming in the country. - Diseases: they destroy plants, kill wild animals and tourists. Diseases like malaria, sleeping sickness, river blindness etc., scare away tourists. - Less supportive government policy: For example, when the government fails to eradicate poaching, encroaching or to set advantages that attract tourists such as getting entry visas etc. - Poor management skills: This is in terms of lack of skilled labors in form of international chefs, leisure and hospitality specialists etc. - Under developed tourist attraction sites such as historical sites, forest without accommodation facilities, poor catering services. - Hostility: Some individuals attack tourists and rob their properties. b) Solutions to the problems of tourism - Improvement of tourism facilities and amenities: transport services and infrastructures, accommodation, security, etc. - Making the publicity of tourist attractions through television, newspapers, internet, etc. - Ensuring anti- poaching and patrol: regulation against hunting and killing of game animals and bush burning in areas gazette for wildlife have to be institutionalized. - Vigorous programs to control the spread of diseases. - Training tourism workers in customer care management and service delivery. - Enforcement of laws governing wildlife protection to ensure wildlife sustainability to attract tourists. - More game reserves should be gazetted where more wildlife can be protected and conserved to ensure a variety of wildlife which attracts more tourists 15.5.4. Case Studies. a. Tourism in East African Countries East African Countries receive tourists originating from worldwide but the majority are those from countries within Africa, Europe and North America and some others from Asia. - Major tourist attractions in East African Countries - Great abundance of wildlife: animals like elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, lions, leopards, cheetah, zebras, giraffes, buffaloes and antelopes. - Coastal beaches and fringing coral reefs on the coasts of Dar es Salam and Mombasa. - Beautiful scenery (Mount Kenya, Kilimanjaro, volcanoes in Rwanda, block mountains, Great Rift Valley). - Pleasant and healthy climate which is moderate. - National parks: Lake Nakuru, Masai Mara, Tsavu, Akagera National Park, Queen Elizabeth National Park, Serengeti National Park, Ruvubu National park, etc. - Cultural diversity, they have unique costumes, traditional dances (Intore in Rwanda), music and crafts. - Drainage features like Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Kivu, Rift valley Lakes, swimming, sun bathing, all attracts tourists. - Historical sites e.g. archeological sites like Olduvai gorge, the famous Fort Jesus, Kasubi tombs for the fallen kings of Buganda, museums, Kings’ palace (Nyanza -Rwanda), etc. - Factors influencing tourism industry in East African Countries - Availability of a wide range of tourist attractions that are found in various countries of East Africa. - Supportive government policy. E.g. tax concessions to tourists, eradication of poaching, gazetting of national parks. - Ideal tropical climate: the warm tropical climate is enjoyed by many visitors from the cold regions such as Europe and North America. - Relative political stability compare to other African countries guarantees tourists security and safety. - Well-developed accommodation facilities in form of hotels and lodges of the international standards. - Effective advertisement both at home and abroad to make tourists aware of the existing attractions and facilities. - Skilled labors in form of tour guides, game rangers, chefs who can prepare international dishes and spirits or wines. - Good hospitality offered by the people in East Africa especially those who work in the hotels, transport sector, and as tour guides. - Presence of capital to inject in the tourism industry as provided by local banks and private sector. - Good international relationship with other countries such as U.K, Germany, USA, Canada, has promoted tourism. b. Tourism in USA: Case study of tourism in the state of Florida The state of Florida is renowned for its white sandy beaches, camping sites, Fort Myers Sanibel Island, Orlando resort hotel, Amelia Island, National parks and Zoos (De Soto, dry Tortugas) and endless summer which attract tourists when it is winter elsewhere in United States of America and Europe. Factors that favored tourism in Florida - A reliable transport and communication network of railway, air, water and road. - Presence of tour agencies and operators. - Massive advertisement both in USA and abroad. - Natural beauty of Florida. - Several species of beautiful birds such as Bald Eagle, Caracara, Pelicans Whooping and sand hill cranes and others. - Availability of capital to invest in infrastructure development. - The amazing architectural building designs especially along Miami Beach. - Beautiful climate: sunny and cool breezes. - Skilled labor force working in the tourism sector. - Presence of the variety of wildlife ranging from mammals to reptile c. Tourism in Switzerland Tourism is one the leading economic sectors in Switzerland. Switzerland has three main topographic regions namely Jura mountains in the Northwest, Alps in the South and Central Swiss plateau or Mittelland. Other tourist attractions are water bodies (like river Rhine, lake Lucerne, Lake Geneva), conducive climate, wild life with diversity of plants and animals, culture especially paintings, music, architecture, etc. Factors that have favored the tourism industry in Switzerland - Geographical location of Switzerland: it is located in heartland of rich and developed industrialized region of Europe: France, Germany, Italy. - It has developed the winter sport of Ski and Alpinism in the summer. - It is endowed with a variety of relief that provide scenic beauty. - Drainage system (Rhine river) in Switzerland is another attraction. - A well-developed hotel, motels and lodging sector has provided adequate accommodation. - The Swiss have a well-developed transport and communication networks. - Swiss hospitality is no doubt a boost to tourism. - The development of package tours. - Massive advertisement through magazines, the internet, posters, phone short massages. - Abundant and cheap hydro-electric power. This has enabled Switzerland to electrify her Railway system. - It has political stability and her policy of neutrality, Switzerland has remained stable since Napoleonic wars. - Relatively stable Swiss economy. - The presence of many international bodies (International Committee for the Red Cross: ICRC, FIFA, etc.) - Availability of capital from well-developed banking system	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.760119	03/07/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/128216/overview", "title": "S6 UNIT 15", "author": "NIYONKURU SELEMAN" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/128217/overview	S6 UNIT 1 Overview Key unit competence: By the end of this unit, Learners should be able to draw cross sections and sketch maps by reduction or enlargement. CROSS SECTION AND SKETCH MAPS 1.1. Contour, contour interval and importance of contours A contour is a line drawn on a map joining all the places with the same height above sea level. Contours cannot cross each other because each has its own fixed height and they can be close to one another in case of steep slopes. Contours are drawn at constant intervals known as the contour interval (CI). This is also called Vertical Interval (VI). Contour interval is the difference in height between two adjacent contour lines. contours are important to analyze the landforms: - They help to identify landforms like hills, plateaus, mountains and valleys on a topographic map - Hills/mountains on a topographic map are shown as concentric rings of contours with the highest values in the middle. - In cases where contours are very close to each other, the relief of the area is steep. -When contours are separated by a wide space that shows a flat land. -It helps cartographers(teachers and students) to draw cross sections 1.2. A cross-section A cross section is a topographical profile drawn between two points taken along a straight line. It normally shows changes in relief of the area indicated by two points on a topographic map. To draw a cross section, the following steps are followed: - Determine the beginning and the end points of the section. - Draw a straight line lightly in sharpened pencil from one point to another. - Place a piece of paper with a straight edge along the pencil line. - Mark the contour values and other important information like rivers, settlements, roads, on the paper. - Transfer the information on the paper to your graph paper and mark the point on the cross section. - Construct a frame with two vertical lines whose baseline is equivalent to the length of the line between the two points marked on the map. Join all the points with a curved line following the dots on the paper to decide the bends of the line. An example of drawing a cross section is given on the map below. The area of study is represented by the line between point A and point B. To do this exercise, consider the following steps: - Place a piece of paper on a map above along the line marked A and B - Mark all the contours heights on the paper as shown below - Draw two vertical lines at each end of the horizontal line, these will represent the Y -axes where the mark off the vertical scale will be made. - Label point A and point B on the other end of the horizontal axis. - Use the information on the paper to mark the highest and lowest heights marked along the line A and B. - Label the horizontal axis by writing the horizontal scale - Label the vertical axis by writing the vertical scale. - Write a title of the cross-section: cross-section from point A to point B - Join all the dots on the graph using a free-hand line. - Make sure the cross-section line links to points A and B on the vertical axes. 1.3. Determining vertical exaggeration, the gradient, amplitude Aand inter-visibility 1.3.1. The vertical exaggeration Refers to the relationship between the vertical scale and horizontal scale. It is calculated after drawing a cross section. It is calculated by vertical scale over horizontal scale on the drawn cross section between two points - To determine the vertical scale, refer to the scale given when asked to draw a cross-section, e.g. 0.5 cm represents 20 m. This scale needs to be converted into centimeter units to be used in the formula. 0.5 cm = 20 m 0.5cm = 2000cm 5cm = 20,000cm 1cm = 4000cm Therefore, 1cm represents 4000 cm - On topographic maps, the horizontal scale is most of time the same 1: 50,000, i.e. 1 cm represents 50 000cm. - As all units have been converted into centimeters, insert these measurements into the formula. 1.3.2. The gradient Gradient refers to the steepness of a slope between two places. It is expressed as a proportion between the vertical intervals (VI) and horizontal equivalent (HE). Vertical interval or vertical rise (V. I). Is the the difference in height between two points The horizontal equivalent or real distance on the ground (H.E) is the horizontal distance between the two places multiplied by the scale. Gradient is calculated as follows: - Plot the two points on the map which are needed to determine the gradient. Name them for instance as A and B or X and Y. - Join those two points by a straight line. - Use the scale to measure the distance between A and B (H.E). Let us consider the distance to be 8 cm. - Calculate the actual ground distance using the map scale. If the scale of the map is 1:50,000 meaning that 1 cm on the map represents 50,000 cm on the ground. Therefore, the ground distance of the represented area would be 8 x 50,000 which 400,000 cm = 4000 m. - Calculate the difference in height between points A and B, using the contours. For example, the difference in height between A and B is 200 m. - The formula for calculating the gradient is: 1.3.3. Amplitude Amplitude: This refers to the difference between the highest points (altitude) on the map and the lowest altitude on the map Inter-visibility: Inter-visibility is a term that refers to the ability to see a place from another place. For example, if one is able to see place A from B, and vive versa, then the two places are intervisible. On the other hand, if the two places cannot be viewed from either side, there are not intervisible. The figures below will make these explanations. There is intervening obstacle in the line of visibility and therefore points A and B are not intervisible. Dead ground is the section of the slope that is not visible. 1.4 Drawing sketch maps: A sketch map is a simple representation of part or whole of a sheet map drawn on a piece of paper without using a given scale. Procedure: - Identify and critically observe the area to be sketched on the map given. - Measure the edges of the map. - Make a frame by either reducing or enlarging the map as instructed. - Indicate both physical and human features as requested. - Give the name of the sketch - Provide the key for the sketch map. 1.5. Enlargement and reduction of a map 1.5.1. Map Enlargement Map enlargement is a change of size of the map from a small to a bigger size map, depending on the number of times it is enlarged The following steps should be followed: - Identify an area of the original map or part of the map to be enlarged. - Measure the length and width of the original map or identified part of the map. - Multiply the length and width by the number of times the map is to be enlarged. - Draw an outline that has new dimensions. - Mark and label the features in their relative positions. - The scale also changes (becomes bigger). The following map of Africa has been enlarged by 2 times from the above map 1.5.2. Map reduction Map reduction refers to the changing of the size of the map to a smaller one the steps to follow for map reduction: - Measure the length (L) and width (W) of the given part or whole map. For example, L=11cm and W=10.8cm. - Divide the length and width by the number of times the given map is to be reduced or as directed by the demands of the question. For example, by 2 times. - Draw an outline that has the new length and width. For example, L=5.5cm, W=5.4cm. - Mark and label the features in their relative positions. - Use a key to label features in the map.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.818849	03/07/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/128217/overview", "title": "S6 UNIT 1", "author": "NIYONKURU SELEMAN" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65497/overview	Career Preparation - The Interview Assignment Overview Students will interview a faculty member who teaches in a major of interest. The assignment assist students in developing rapport with faculty, creating questions that require in depth answers, and learning how to synthesize and summarize their major findings. This is an assignment used with students in the SMC Law Pathway program. Overview Students will interview a working legal professional. The assignment assists students in developing rapport with working professionals, creating questions that require in depth answers, and learning how to synthesize and summarize their major findings. Purpose of Interview: The purpose of this assignment is to assist students in learning more about the legal profession from a working professional. The interview assignment will introduce students to: - Different areas of the law - Developing rapport with legal professionals - Creating and asking effective questions to evaluate responses to interview questions - Improving summary/paraphrasing and critical thinking skills - Improving job interviewing skills The Assignment: For this assignment, you will be matched with a working legal professional. Contact the legal professional and request an interview via telephone or Zoom or other platform. Once an interview is scheduled, create 6-10 questions (regarding the interviewees background, education, career path, and current work assignments). Finally, reflect on your interview and write a summary in approximately two pages. The reflection should include the following: a) The steps taken to schedule the interview, b) summary of what you gathered from the interview (including some direct quotations, summarizing and paraphrasing), and your concluding thoughts and what resonated with you. Interview Protocol: - Contact the professional by telephone or email. - Make an introduction and give an explanation of the assignment - Request an interview. If the person says no, thank them for their time and request another contact from your professor. - Set up a telephone or Zoom interview at your mutual convenience. Email interviews will be accepted only if the other options are declined by the interviewee. Question Examples: - Why did you choose to become a lawyer? - How did you decide on this area of law? - Why do you enjoy practicing law? - What is the best way to prepare for this career path? - What will I need to do to succeed as a lawyer? Please note, no close ended questions are permitted which results in a “yes” or “no” response. Open ended questions that require an in-depth response are allowed. If you have any questions, feel free to directly contact me.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.843780	Primary Source	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65497/overview", "title": "Career Preparation - The Interview Assignment", "author": "Interactive" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90231/overview	Conspiracy Theories: An Advanced ESL Speaking Lesson Plan Overview Are you looking for an exciting lesson plan to use with your advanced ESL students? This advanced ESL lesson is designed to introduce vocabulary about conspiracy theories, helping promote conversation and fluency in speaking as it includes controlled and free tasks. If you want additional lesson plans and support, including teacher's notes, be sure to register for a free Off2Class account. Off2Class In this lesson, students will learn what a conspiracy theory is and about examples of prominent conspiracy theories. These theories cover events like the September 11th attacks, the Moon Landing Hoax, and the death of President Kennedy. By the end of the lesson, students will be introduced to different types of fallacies and examples of them. They will also learn about the role of the media in creating conspiracy theories. If you want additional lesson plans and support, including teachers’ notes, be sure to register for a free Off2Class account.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.861261	02/19/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90231/overview", "title": "Conspiracy Theories: An Advanced ESL Speaking Lesson Plan", "author": "Christine Chan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90397/overview	Fears and Phobias: A Free ESL Speaking Lesson Plan Overview This lesson plan is designed for upper-intermediate students and introduces new vocabulary related to fears and phobias. You should prompt students to talk about what scares them using the questions and vocabulary provided. If you enjoyed this ESL lesson plan download, there are 150+ more free lessons available with a free Off2Class account! Off2Class Primary objectives: - To introduce vocabulary around fears and phobias - To provide controlled and free tasks to promote fluency in speaking - Vocabulary introduced: to fear, to be scared of, to dread, illogical, anxiety disorder, nerve-wracking, symptom, treatment, overwhelming, exaggerated, fight-or-flight, protective, avoidance, to overreact, a racing heartbeat, tingling sensation, to feel lightheaded, a churning stomach, panic attack You can access full teacher notes for this lesson plan by signing up for a free Off2Class account.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.878509	02/24/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90397/overview", "title": "Fears and Phobias: A Free ESL Speaking Lesson Plan", "author": "Christine Chan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90979/overview	Speaking - Urban Social Issues - Off2Class ESL Lesson Plan Overview This advanced lesson plan introduces vocabulary related to pollution, poverty and other issues found in urban settings. It provides plenty of thought-provoking questions to get your students talking and engaged with the material. If you want additional lesson plans and support, including teachers’ notes, be sure to register for a free Off2Class account. Off2Class This advanced lesson plan introduces vocabulary related to pollution, poverty and other issues found in urban settings. It provides plenty of thought-provoking questions to get your students talking and engaged with the material. Download our lesson plan on Urban Social Issues here: https://www.off2class.com/lesson-plan-downloads/six-free-esl-lesson-plans-to-get-your-students-speaking/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.896008	03/16/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90979/overview", "title": "Speaking - Urban Social Issues - Off2Class ESL Lesson Plan", "author": "Christine Chan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98416/overview	Should We Ban It? -- A Free Speaking Lesson Plan Overview Over time, people’s opinions change. Naturally, some cultures change at a different pace than others. How do you feel about issues such as bullfighting, cigarette smoking, and fossil fuels? The speaking lesson plan download titled “Should We Ban It?” is the perfect addition to your lesson library, helping spark healthy discussions with your student(s). You can also access 150+ more free lessons like this with a free Off2Class account! Off2Class When should “Should We Ban It?” be used? “Should We Ban It?” is a speaking lesson plan download aimed at adult and adolescent students with upper-intermediate proficiency levels and above. It is perfect for both individuals and groups, helping promote fluency in speaking and spark healthy discussion about individual and societal value changes over time. Keep in mind that the content of this lesson is controversial — we advise you to review the entire lesson before teaching. This lesson is inappropriate for young learners. How to teach the “Should We Ban It?” lesson? When teaching this lesson, you must encourage your adult or adolescent student to focus on speaking. “Should We Ban It?” introduces vocabulary and presents controversial topics, in turn stimulating discourse about whether things should or should not be banned. Related images will also be helpful for context and to further prompts. Ask your students: what do you think of these issues? What are your opinions? What solutions would you recommend for the future? These important terms and definitions will help students effectively formulate and articulate arguments and opinions to promote fluency: - Campaign: A connected series of operations designed to bring about a desired result - Lobby: A group of people who try to influence government decisions on a particular industry or issue - Petition: A formal written request made to an official person or organized body You can access full teacher notes for this lesson plan by signing up for a free Off2Class account.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:15.914403	11/01/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98416/overview", "title": "Should We Ban It? -- A Free Speaking Lesson Plan", "author": "Christine Chan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116287/overview	Advocacy in Action Overview This unit begins by inviting students to tell the story of their community using artifacts from Washington's history. This allows them to reflect on shared values as well as how people have organized to advocate for those values. Then, students explore how rights are established in their community by analyzing the Washington State Constitution, the Puyallup Tribe Constitution, and the Treaty of Medicine Creek. Next, students investigate four different historic examples of how people have advocated for their rights and values in their community and choose one to research in further depth. In the final phase of the unit, student teams develop an advocacy campaign for a right that is currently being challenged. They conduct research on an issue of their choice, create and execute an action plan, and participate in an advocacy fair to campaign for change in their community. Finally, students draw on what they've learned to answer the unit driving question: "Why do people advocate for issues in their community?" Educator Welcome Dear Educator, We understand the joy every teacher experiences when they discover what lights up a student, and how that breakthrough can make way for a powerful shift in student learning. We’re thrilled to partner with you in bringing project-based learning (PBL) to your classroom, and we think you’ll love these lessons, which were created in collaboration with educators, learning scientists, and experts in the field. Whether this is your first voyage into PBL or you’re a seasoned pro, we’re sure you’ll agree that this approach sparks interest, ignites possibility, fuels a love for learning in students, and brings wonder to the classroom. We believe Open Educational Resources (OER) promote equitable access to standards-aligned, high-quality instructional materials for all educators to adapt and use. Contact us at info@educurious.org to learn more about how Educurious can support district or school adoption of this curriculum and the development of PBL teaching practices. Explore Educurious.org to discover other PBL courses and order printed materials. \| As you join your students on this learning journey, we’d love to hear from you. We want to experience your students’ curiosity, celebrate their projects, and hear about your successes, as well as what we can do better. Click here to share your thoughts. Thank you for taking us along on your adventure. Onward! Your friends at Educurious Acknowledgements Unit Credits & Acknowledgments Educurious would like to express sincere gratitude to our partners from Tacoma Public Schools for contributing their expertise, insights, and energy. Thank you to Nichol Everett and Ryaan Whitlock for their leadership and support. Their collaboration was instrumental in the co-design of this project-based learning Washington State History unit. A special thank you to Anna Trammell, Archives and Special Collections Manager at the Northwest Room of the Tacoma Public Library, for her pivotal role in curating and digitizing rich, local primary sources. This resource was made possible with generous funding from the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. Design Teachers and Schools: - Gavin Morgan, Baker Middle School - Robin Strong, Mason Middle School The Educurious Team: Unit Development Team: - Writer: Emily Krank - Educurious Reviewer: Naomi Tsai - Editor: Clare Lilliston Production Team: - Erik Robinson, Angela Rosenberg Project Manager: - Naomi Tsai Educurious Leadership: - Jane Chadsey, CEO Unit Poster Image Credits: - Poster created by Educurious with Canva License & Attribution Except where otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action by Educurious is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. You are free to share this material (by copying and redistributing it in any medium or format) and adapt it (by remixing, transforming, or building upon it). However, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate whether changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your adaptation. You may not use this material, or any adaptation of it, for commercial purposes. Please take care that adaptations do not introduce cultural bias. All logos and trademarks are the property of their respective owners. All art, illustrations, and photos in this work are used with permission and are not included in the open license. This resource contains links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only, and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring by Educurious. Please confirm the license status of any third-party resources and ensure that you understand their terms before use. If you adapt this work, please note the substantive changes, retitle the work, and provide the following attribution: "This resource was adapted from Advocacy in Action, which was produced and published by Educurious and is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0." Unit at a Glance & Teacher's Edition Download Download full PDF Teacher's Edition Here Module 1: Know Your Rights Module Overview Module 1: Know Your Rights Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question How are rights established in a community? Module Overview In this unit, students take on the role of activist as they develop a campaign centered on a local issue. The opening module helps prepare students for the final product by developing their concept of community and how rights are established. They begin by analyzing historical and contemporary primary sources to tell the story of their local community. In the next lesson, students return to a few of these sources to analyze them again through the frame of community values. After they practice identifying values in local artifacts, students take this skill and apply it to foundational documents, including the Washington State Constitution and Puyallup Tribe Constitution. Using the Puyallup Tribe as a case study, students use primary sources to investigate the ways in which tribal nations establish and fight for their values and rights. In the final lesson of the opening module, students create a public service announcement with the goal of educating their peers about individual rights in Washington State. These legal rights will support students’ background knowledge as they explore examples of local advocacy efforts in the next module. \| Lesson 1.1: Our Story (60 minutes) \| \| Key Standards for Success Criteria Success Criteria By the end of the lesson, students will be able to: \| In this lesson, students interpret historical and contemporary primary sources to try to tell the story of Washington. They begin by reflecting on their personal connections to their community. Then, in partners, they analyze and interpret an artifact that helps them understand one part of Washington’s history. Working as a class, they organize their artifacts in a way that tells a story. Finally, they reflect on what these artifacts reveal about what it means to be part of a community. \| \| Lesson 1.2: Constitutional Values (70 minutes) \| \| Key Standard for Success Criteria Success Criteria By the end of the lesson, students will be able to: \| In this lesson, students analyze a state or tribal constitution for evidence of community values. First, they practice identifying values in their own lives and in local artifacts. Then, students learn about the structure and content of a constitution and how it can reflect the values of a community. Next, students identify values in the Washington State Constitution and Puyallup Tribe Constitution and discuss similarities and differences between the constitutions. To close out, students write a paragraph that identifies key values in the constitutions they studied. \| \| Lesson 1.3: Tribal Rights (60 minutes) \| \| Key Standards for Success Criteria C1.6-8.2CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.7.2 Success Criteria By the end of the lesson, students will be able to: \| In this lesson, students are introduced to key vocabulary that will allow them to understand some of the different ways that rights are established in a community. Then, using the Puyallup Tribe as a case study, students learn about how tribal nations establish and fight for their values and rights. They analyze excerpts from the Treaty of Medicine Creek, the Puyallup Tribe Constitution, and the Puyallup Tribal Council’s Vision and Mission to identify shared rights and values in the Puyallup Tribe. Finally, they synthesize their learning by reflecting on how tribal rights were established in Washington. \| \| Lesson 1.4: Know Your Rights (75 minutes) \| \| Key Standards for Success Criteria C1.6-8.2CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.9 Success Criteria By the end of the lesson, students will be able to: \| In this lesson, students learn about established individual rights in Washington. Working in their project teams, they learn about one right in Washington, how it was established, and why it is important. Then they create a public service announcement informing people in Washington state about the right and what it protects. Students close out by sharing their PSAs with their classmates and answering the module driving question: "How are rights established in a community?" \| \| Module Assessments \| \| \| Suggested Word Wall Vocabulary \| \| \| Lesson-Specific Vocabulary \| \| Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Lesson 1.1: Our Story Teacher Guide Lesson 1.1: Our Story Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How are rights established in a community? Learning Targets I can: Purpose In this lesson, you will interpret historical and contemporary primary sources to try to tell the story of Washington. To start, you will reflect on your personal connections to your community. Then, with a partner, you will analyze and interpret an artifact that helps you understand one part of Washington’s history. Working as a class, you will organize your artifacts in a way that tells a story. Finally, you will reflect on what these artifacts reveal about what it means to be part of a community. Lesson Steps \| Teacher Preparation Notes \| Pacing \| \| \| Lesson Timing: \| 60 minutes \| \| Standards \| \| H2.6-8.2: Explain and analyze how individuals and movements have shaped Washington state history since statehood. SSS4.6-8.1: Analyze multiple factors, make generalizations, and interpret sources to formulate a thesis in a paper or presentation, while observing rules related to plagiarism and copyright. \| \| \| CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.7.1: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 7 topics, texts, and issues, building on others' ideas and expressing their own clearly. \| \| Lesson Resources \| \|\| \| For Students \| For Teachers \| Materials \| \| \| \| Lesson Overview \| \| In this lesson, students interpret historical and contemporary primary sources to try to tell the story of Washington. They begin by reflecting on their personal connections to their community. Then, in partners, they analyze and interpret an artifact that helps them understand one part of Washington’s history. Working as a class, they organize their artifacts in a way that tells a story. Finally, they reflect on what these artifacts reveal about what it means to be part of a community. \| \| Teacher Preparation \| \| Lesson Steps in Detail \| Step 1: Share personal connections to your community \| (5 min) \| Purpose: Students begin by defining community and sharing personal connections to their local community. You might say: Today we begin a new unit called Advocacy in Action. In this unit, we will consider how we can create change in our community. We are all part of many communities, but the community we will be focusing on in this unit is Washington. What does it mean to be connected to the people who live near us? To the places we visit? What are the things we share—traditions, jokes, or insider knowledge? Let’s take a moment to reflect on what connects us to the place we live. [Slide 2] Students describe personal connections to their local community. - Invite students to consider the question: What connects you to your local community? - Share an example of how you’re connected to your local community. - Facilitate a Turn and Talk in which students share ways they are connected to their local community. Possible responses may be related to people, places, traditions, beliefs, shared knowledge, or inside jokes. [Slide 3] Reflect on what it means to be part of a community. - Distribute Community Artifact Notes Organizer and review the directions in Part 1. - Invite students to respond to the following questions: - What are some of the benefits of being part of a community? - What are some of the challenges of being part of a community? \| Step 2: Analyze a community artifact \| (15 min) \| Purpose: Students analyze primary source artifacts directly connected to their local community. You might say: A community is a group of people who share common values, interests, or goals. Today we are going to learn more about the story of Washington with the help of several local artifacts. By analyzing these artifacts, we can find clues to help us understand the values, beliefs, and hopes of people who lived in our community. [Slide 4] Introduce community artifacts. - Organize students into pairs. - Distribute Community Artifacts and review directions for Part 2 and Part 3 of the Community Artifact Notes Organizer. - Provide a designated amount of time for teams to complete the guided analysis. Teacher Tip: Navigating Text-Heavy Sources A few of the Community Artifacts students will engage with are text-heavy. Consider using the following strategies to support students in managing and making meaning of the materials without feeling overwhelmed: \| Teacher Tip: Encouraging Ambiguity in Source Interpretation In this exercise, students practice interpreting a source by making inferences with little historical context. As students navigate this activity, it’s important to acknowledge that some may find the inherent ambiguity or the lack of a single "correct" answer challenging.Remind students that it’s okay not to have all the answers during this exercise. Foster a classroom culture where curiosity is celebrated and students feel comfortable expressing uncertainty and sharing interpretations that may not be historically accurate.When conferencing with students, consider asking the following questions to encourage student inquiry: \| \| Step 3: Tell the story of where you live \| (25 min) \| Purpose: Students collaborate to build a narrative about Washington based on their analyses of the given artifacts. You might say: As you may have noticed, it’s difficult to make conclusions about a community when looking at only one piece of evidence. But what about if we look at all of these artifacts together? What more will we learn about our community? Together, we are going to try to tell a story about Washington, using these artifacts to help us. [Slide 5] Define chronological. - Share the definition of chronological. - chronological: arranging events or artifacts according to the time they occurred (i.e., first to last) - Explain to students that their challenge will be to arrange artifacts chronologically—from oldest to most recent—to create a timeline of Washington. This will be challenging, because while some students know the exact date that their artifacts were created, others have to make inferences. [Slide 6] Prepare students to line up chronologically. - Prompt students to gather their artifacts and descriptions from Part 3 of their Community Artifact Notes Organizer. - Share directions with students: - Your goal is to line up with your artifacts chronologically. - You will have to talk to your classmates to figure out where your artifact should go! Some of you may not be sure when your artifact was created—do the best you can. - You will need your artifact and description. - Prompt students to get up and work with one another to arrange their artifacts chronologically. - Set a timer so that students know how much time they have. [Slide 7] Facilitate a share out. - Invite students to briefly share their descriptions to help others learn about their artifacts. - The share outs can start with the oldest artifact and progress towards the most contemporary. - Suggested timing for each share-out: 30–60 seconds. - Encourage students to listen actively for common themes or connections between artifacts. [Slide 8] Facilitate a class discussion. - Ask: Collectively, what do these artifacts tell us about the people and story of Washington? - Possible response: Looking at these artifacts collectively, we learn about the challenges community members have faced in the last century and what they did to protect their values and rights. - Ask: What common themes do you notice between the artifacts? - Possible response: Common themes include advocacy, hope, democracy, and prejudice. - Ask: What problems do you see people facing in their community? How do they respond to these problems? What strategies do they use? - Possible response: I can see people protesting, putting up posters, and writing articles in local newspapers. - Ask: What does it mean to be part of a community? - Possible response: Being part of a community means advocating for change and supporting each other in hard times. As human beings, we need a sense of belonging, and that sense of belonging is what connects us to the many relationships we develop. Teacher Tip: Preparing Students for Whole-Class Discussion Consider preparing students for whole-class discussion by giving them an opportunity to share initial ideas in a lower-stakes setting. Below is one strategy for how to prepare students for whole-class discussion.Think-Pair-Share: First, support individual thinking about a topic or question. Then, pair students to discuss their ideas in a focused way. \| \| Step 4: Learn about the final product \| (15 min) \| Purpose: Students are introduced to the arc of learning for the unit and the focus for the final product, and initial student thinking is gathered through a Know & Need to Know chart. You might say: Today we analyzed primary sources to help us better understand the histories and stories of Washington. In our coming lessons, we will be focusing on the rights and values that are important to our community and how different groups of people have advocated for their rights and values. Later in our unit, we will take what we learned in this module and apply it to our final product: an advocacy campaign based on local rights and values. [Slide 9] Review the unit poster and introduce the final product. - Talking points: - In the rest of Module 1, you will learn about how rights are established in a community. - In Module 2, you will learn about how people have organized to advocate for their rights and values, and at the end of the module you will choose a contemporary issue for your campaign. - In Module 3, you will create a campaign in which you will advocate for rights and values in your local community. - This project work will help us to answer the unit driving question: Why do people advocate for issues in their community? [Slide 10] Create a class Know & Need to Know chart. - Organize students into small groups of 3–4. - Distribute the Know & Need to Know chart to each student; review the directions and preview the questions they will be answering. - If needed, share examples of campaigns (strikes, boycotts, marches, sit-ins, etc.) and an example of a contemporary issue (climate change, racial inequality, healthcare access, etc.). - Provide small groups time to discuss what they know and need to know about community advocacy and the advocacy campaign. - Invite small groups to share out. Track student ideas and questions on a class Know & Need to Know chart. - Explain to students that as they progress through the unit they will revisit and update the Know & Need to Know chart. Teacher Tip: Tracking and Resolving Questions With a Know & Need to Know Chart A Know & Need to Know chart provides an opportunity for students to track how their thinking changes over time on a whole-class level. For project-based learning units, the chart helps leverage students’ ideas about the connections between the content they are learning and their project work. To learn more about Know & Need to Know charts in PBL, read about how to use students’ questions for planning and assessment from PBLWorks. \| Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Lesson 1.2: Constitutional Values Teacher Guide Lesson 1.2: Constitutional Values Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How are rights established in a community? Learning Targets I can: Purpose In this lesson, you will analyze a state or tribal constitution for evidence of community values. First, you will practice identifying values in your own life and in local artifacts. Then, you will learn about the structure and content of a constitution and how it can reflect the values of a community. Next, you will identify values in the Washington State Constitution and Puyallup Tribe Constitution and discuss similarities and differences between the constitutions. To close out, you will write a paragraph that identifies key values in the constitutions you studied. Lesson Steps Explore More \| Teacher Preparation Notes \| Pacing \| \| \| Lesson Timing: \| 70 minutes \| \| Standards \| \| C1.6-8.2: Explain the structure of and key ideals set forth in fundamental documents, including the Washington state constitution and tribal treaties with the United States government. C2.6-8.2: Distinguish the structure, organization, powers, and limits of government at the local, state, and tribal levels. SSS3.6-8.1: Engage in discussion, analyzing multiple viewpoints on public issues. SSS4.6-8.1: Analyze multiple factors, make generalizations, and interpret sources to formulate a thesis in a paper or presentation, while observing rules related to plagiarism and copyright. \| \| \| CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.7.1: Cite several pieces of textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.1.B: Support claim(s) with logical reasoning and relevant evidence, using accurate, credible sources and demonstrating an understanding of the topic or text. \| \| Lesson Resources \| \|\| \| For Students \| For Teachers \| Materials \| \| \| Lesson Overview \| \| In this lesson, students analyze a state or tribal constitution for evidence of community values. First, they practice identifying values in their own lives and in local artifacts. Then, students learn about the structure and content of a constitution and how it can reflect the values of a community. Next, students identify values in the Washington State Constitution and Puyallup Tribe Constitution and discuss similarities and differences between the constitutions. To close out, students write a paragraph that identifies key values in the constitutions they studied. \| \| Teacher Preparation \| \| Lesson Steps in Detail \| Step 1: Identify key values in community artifacts \| (20 min) \| Purpose: In this step, students clarify the definition of values and practice identifying values in community artifacts. This prepares students to identify values in state and tribal constitutions in Step 3. You might say: In our last unit, Decisions that Define Us, you learned about the values of different groups of people in Washington. Today, we will revisit this work through a different lens. Let’s start by spending a moment reflecting on what our own values are and what values we have in common with our classmates. [Slide 2] Facilitate a Jot-Pair-Share. - Distribute the Constitutional Values Notes Organizer and review directions for Part 1. - Invite students to jot their initial ideas to the following sentence starters: - Values are… - Examples of values are… - Ask: What are values? What are some examples of values? - Invite students to share out their responses, first in pairs, then as a whole class. [Slide 3] Review the structure of the Venn diagram. - Review the directions for Part 2 of the Constitutional Values Notes Organizer. - Invite students to work with a partner seated nearby. - Designate a specific amount of time for students to complete the Venn diagram (suggested timing: 5 minutes). - Invite students to share out one value they have in common with their partner. Consider facilitating a Whip-Around (see Teacher Tip below) for equitable and efficient sharing. You might say: Now that we’ve identified some values that we have in common in our classroom, we will work together to identify some shared values in our larger community. Let’s look back at a few of the artifacts we analyzed yesterday and see what values we notice. [Slide 4] Model the process of identifying values based on a community artifact. - Talking points: - In this photograph, we see three women putting up posters advocating for suffrage. The posters say "Women Vote in Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, Norway, Finland, and New Zealand. Are the Women of Washington Less Entitled to Vote?" - There are quotes from Mark Twain, President Lincoln, and President Roosevelt stating that women should be able to vote. - Based on these observations, I can infer that the women in the picture value equality because they were working to establish equal rights for women. - The message of the posters advocating for suffrage shows that they value democracy, and the act of campaigning (putting up educational posters) shows that they value activism. [Slide 5] Facilitate student identification of values based on a community artifact. - Ask: Who are the people represented in this artifact? - Possible response: Members of the LGBTQ+ community in Seattle and allies. - Ask: What do you know about the values of the people represented in this artifact? How do you know? - Possible response: Some of the values demonstrated in this picture are activism, community, and democracy. First, the value of activism is clear as participants publicly demonstrate their commitment to fighting for LGBTQ+ rights, pushing for societal change and greater acceptance. Second, the sense of community is strong among the marchers, who come together to support one another and show solidarity in their shared experiences and struggles. Finally, the value of democracy is reflected in their use of public demonstration to voice their demands and influence public opinion and policies. [Slide 6] Facilitate student identification of values based on a community artifact. - Ask: Who are the people represented in this source? - Possible response: The people represented in this source are Spokane artists who participated in the creation of the Black Lives Matter mural. - Ask: What do you know about the values of the people represented in this artifact? How do you know? - Possible response: Some of the values demonstrated in this picture are community, diversity, and artistic expression. In the video, we see the work of community members who came together and created a vibrant work of art. The decision to include a range of community artists in the mural’s creation speak to the values of community and artistic expression. The city’s decision to create a mural honoring Black lives demonstrates a value of diversity. Teacher Tip: Equitable Sharing With a Whip-Around A quick and equitable way to invite students to share out a value they have in common with their partner is through a whip-around. \| \| Step 2: Examine the structure and content of a constitution \| (10 min) \| Purpose: Students examine the structure and content of a constitution to prepare them to analyze the Washington State Constitution or Puyallup Tribe Constitution in the next step. You might say: Today, we will learn more about the values in our community by looking at an artifact that continues to play a key role in our society today—a constitution. Because we live in the United States, you have probably heard of the United States Constitution, which is sometimes referred to as the "supreme law of the land." However, the United States Constitution is just one example of a constitution. We will explore two other constitutions that are important to people in our local community. [Slide 7] Define constitution. - Share the definition of a constitution. - constitution: a legal document that establishes the values and laws of a nation or state, including the powers and responsibilities of government and the rights and responsibilities of citizens - Share the parts of a constitution. - preamble: an introduction to the document. It may outline the purpose of the constitution. - articles: the main sections of the constitution that describe the structure and powers of government and the rights and responsibilities of citizens - amendments: modifications to the original constitution that may reflect changing values or needs [Slide 8] Share a quote from the Northwestern Buffet Institute for Foreign Affairs (source). - Read the following quote: "Constitutions represent how people see themselves—what they see as important, what they care about protecting, and how they see the role of citizens in their societies." - Ask: According to this quote, what can we learn from reading a constitution? - Possible response: We can learn about what people value and care about. [Slide 9] Explain the distinctions between federal, state, and tribal constitutions. - Talking points: - The U.S. Constitution forms the basis for federal law; it establishes government power and responsibility and preserves the basic rights of every citizen. Federal laws are created at the national level and apply to the entire nation (all fifty states and the District of Columbia), and U.S. territories. Federal laws also apply on Indigenous reservations, although state laws do not. - States also have their own constitutions. The state law applies to residents and visitors of the state, as well as businesses and organizations operating in that state. When a state law is in direct conflict with federal law, the federal law prevails. A state law can give more rights to its residents than federal law. But state laws should not reduce or restrict the rights of a U.S. citizen. - Tribal nations also have their own constitutions that establish government structure and powers, laws, and tribal member rights. Tribal laws apply to tribal members and to individuals who live on reservation land. - Update your class Word Wall based on this new information. Teacher Tip: Interactive Word Walls There is a lot of unit-specific academic vocabulary that students will need to recall in this unit. Develop a unit-specific Word Wall early on in this unit and continue to add to it as students encounter important vocabulary. Refer to Module Overviews for a list of vocabulary we suggest that you include in your Word Wall. Here are some considerations to keep in mind as you create (and add to) your Word Wall: The following resources may be helpful for developing your Word Wall: \| \| Step 3: Work with a partner to identify key values in a constitution \| (30 min) \| Purpose: Students work with primary source documents to identify values in two constitutions. Later in the unit, students will need to connect issues in their community to the values that they identified in the state or tribal constitution. You might say: Now that you can describe the structure of a constitution, we are going to examine two different constitutions to see if we can identify values in the language of the documents. A constitution is supposed to reflect what people believe is important. Before you dive in, let’s take a moment to practice how to analyze a constitution—or any challenging text—using the same reading strategies we practiced in our last unit. [Slide 10] Model analyzing the Preamble to the U.S. Constitution. - Distribute the Values Bingo Sheet to students. - Explain to students that they will be looking for the values on this bingo sheet in the Washington State Constitution and the Puyallup Tribe Constitution. - Share the language of the preamble to the U.S. Constitution: - "We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, ensure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America." Remind students of the three-part Navigating Text Framework. - Identify the reading purpose: - Read to find evidence of values in the U.S. Constitution. - Map our course: Prompt students to scan the preamble. - Ask students to identify anything that looks challenging about the text; they will likely note the vocabulary. - Identify tools: Explain to students that they should use an annotation system to identify evidence that supports the purpose for reading. - Underline = any information that supports the purpose for reading (add summarizing notes) - ? = anything confusing (words or phrases) - Prepare the Survival Kit: Share strategies with students that they can use when they encounter challenging vocabulary. - Use context clues: Look for surrounding words or phrases that might provide hints about the meaning of the unfamiliar word. Consider how the word is used in the sentence and what seems to make sense in the context. - Use a dictionary: Look up words that are necessary to understand the overall meaning of the passage. Model reading strategies. - Demonstrate how to read the preamble with the reading purpose and strategies in mind. - Demonstrate how to link information in the U.S. Constitution to the reading purpose by annotating the text. - Example: One phrase that I’m going to underline is "We the people." It stands out to me not only because it comes first, but also because it reminds me of the value of unity on my bingo sheet—the writers of the U.S. Constitution are coming together in pursuit of a common goal, which is a more perfect union. I’m going to write "unity" next to this phrase to remind myself of how it connects to the reading purpose. - Model how to identify a confusing word and use one of the Survival Kit strategies. - Example: One word that I’m struggling with is "posterity." When I look at the word in context, I notice that this section is about having liberty for ourselves and for something else—but I’m not sure what that something else is. Liberty is one of the values on my bingo sheet, so I don’t really need to know what "posterity" means, but I’m going to go ahead and look it up anyway. [Model looking up the word in a dictionary.] "Posterity" means all future generations, so this section is about making sure that we have liberty not only for ourselves, but also for all of the people who will live after us; in other words, our children and our children’s children. [Slide 11] Invite students to analyze a state constitution. - Organize students into pairs. - Remind students that reading the language of a legal document, like a constitution, is supposed to be challenging. Encourage them to work with their partner and lean on their Survival Kit as they read the excerpts. - Distribute the Washington State Constitution to each pair. - Explain to students that the constitution they’ll be analyzing includes both summary and direct quotes. - Preview the constitution with students: - Clarify that direct quotes from the constitution are italicized and in quotation marks; summaries are not. - Remind students that their goal is to find as many values as possible in their assigned constitution and to get a BINGO (four in a row) on the Values Bingo Sheet. - Remind students that there is a citation guide on the second page of their Values Bingo Sheet to support them as they cite each location where they identified a value. [Slide 12] Facilitate small group debrief. - Organize pairs into groups of four. - Ask: - What values did you find in the Washington State Constitution? - What was your reasoning for connecting the language in the document to the value you identified? - Invite students to discuss responses in small groups. Students can add to their Values Bingo Sheet based on the small-group conversation. [Slide 13] Introduce the Puyallup Tribe. - Talking points (source): - Over the next couple of lessons, we'll be learning about tribal rights using the Puyallup Tribe as a case study. - The Puyallup Tribe is located in the Pacific Northwest, primarily around what is now Tacoma, Washington. - This area has been their ancestral homeland for thousands of years. Traditionally, the Puyallup people have a rich cultural heritage that includes fishing, especially salmon fishing, which plays a central role in their lifestyle and economy. - Through studying the Puyallup Tribe, we will explore how they have maintained their cultural traditions and how they navigate their rights and relationship with the U.S. government today. - Project a map of Washington State Tribes. Encourage students to identify the Puyallup Tribe on the map. [Slide 14] Invite students to analyze a tribal constitution. - Distribute the Puyallup Tribe Constitution to each pair. - Prompt students to repeat the activity with the second constitution by identifying values and adding more citations to their Values Bingo Sheet. [Slide 15] Facilitate whole-class discussion. - Ask: - What do you notice as you look at your bingo sheet? - Which values are in both constitutions? Which values are in only one constitution? - What do these documents tell you about the values of people in Washington? Teacher Tip: Vocabulary in Context In units where vocabulary is heavily tied to a concept (such as values), it's important to set realistic and clear expectations for your students. Emphasize that the goal of learning this vocabulary is not to memorize all the terms by heart, but to understand and use them meaningfully within context. Explain that these words are tools to express and analyze values, which is central to the project work.Encourage students to practice using the vocabulary in sentences or discussions that relate to their own experiences or societal observations. This approach helps students see how these terms apply in real life, enhancing their comprehension and retention. Remind them that the objective is to feel comfortable recognizing these words in texts and confident in using them to convey ideas about values, rather than just recalling definitions for a test. This strategy not only makes vocabulary learning more engaging, but also more applicable and memorable. \| \| Step 4: Synthesize your learning \| (10 min) \| Purpose: Students identify three key values in the constitutions they analyzed and support their thinking with evidence and reasoning. This step also allows students to practice quoting and citing a constitution—a skill they will need later in the unit. You might say: Later in this unit, you will need to write an argumentative paragraph that includes a claim, evidence, and reasoning. Today, you will examine this structure by analyzing an example CER paragraph. Then, you will practice outlining a CER paragraph. This will prepare you to draft your own CER paragraph that answers the module driving question: "How are rights established in a community?" [Slide 16] Prompt students to assess their learning. - Share the prompt with students: - Which three values are essential to one of the constitutions you read? - Share the elements of the CER format. - C = Claim - E = Evidence - R = Reasoning - Share a Model CER Paragraph using the Preamble to the United States Constitution. - Point out how to cite a constitution. - Consider having students highlight the different parts of a CER paragraph (claim, evidence, and reasoning) in three different colors. - Invite students to complete Part 3 of their Constitutional Values Notes Organizer. Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Lesson 1.3: Tribal Rights Teacher Guide Lesson 1.3: Tribal Rights Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How are rights established in a community? Learning Targets I can: Purpose In this lesson, you will learn key vocabulary that will allow you to understand some of the different ways that rights are established in a community. Then, using the Puyallup Tribe as a case study, you will learn about how tribal nations establish and fight for their values and rights. You will analyze excerpts from the Treaty of Medicine Creek, the Puyallup Tribe Constitution, and the Puyallup Tribal Council’s Vision and Mission to identify shared rights and values in the Puyallup Tribe. Finally, you will synthesize your learning by reflecting on how tribal rights were established in Washington. Lesson Steps Explore More \| Teacher Preparation Notes \| Pacing \| \| \| Lesson Timing: \| 60 minutes \| \| Standards \| \| C1.6-8.2: Explain the structure of and key ideals set forth in fundamental documents, including the Washington state constitution and tribal treaties with the United States government. C3.6-8.3: Recognize that, according to the United States Constitution, treaties are “the supreme law of the land;” consequently, treaty rights supersede most state laws. C3.6-8.4: Explain elements of the agreements contained in one or more treaty agreements between Washington tribes and the United States. \| \| \| CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.7.2: Determine two or more central ideas in a text and analyze their development over the course of the text; provide an objective summary of the text. \| \| Lesson Resources \| \|\| \| For Students \| For Teachers \| Materials \| \| \| Lesson Overview \| \| In this lesson, students are introduced to key vocabulary that will allow them to understand some of the different ways that rights are established in a community. Then, using the Puyallup Tribe as a case study, students learn about how tribal nations establish and fight for their values and rights. They analyze excerpts from the Treaty of Medicine Creek, the Puyallup Tribe Constitution, and the Puyallup Tribal Council’s Vision and Mission to identify shared rights and values in the Puyallup Tribe. Finally, they synthesize their learning by reflecting on how tribal rights were established in Washington. \| \| Teacher Preparation \| \| Lesson Steps in Detail \| Step 1: Meet with your project team to define rights \| (10 min) \| Purpose: Students define the term rights in their own words and practice thinking critically about how rights are established and protected. You might say: In our previous lesson, we learned about the values that shape our local community and government. In a well-functioning society, our values are protected and upheld by rights. You might have heard the phrases "the right to free speech" or "the right to an attorney" on a television show. Now, I ask you to consider what rights really mean. [Slide 2] Facilitate a Think-Pair-Share. - Prompt students to consider how they would define rights. [Slide 3] Define rights. - Share the definition of rights: - right: something that should not be taken away and is often written into law [Slide 4] Facilitate small-group discussions. - Organize students into project teams (4–5 students per group). - Ask: - What are three rights that all people should have? Why? - Does everyone have these rights (in our state, in the nation, in the world)? - (Optional) Provide chart paper for students to write down the three rights they believe all people should have. - (Optional) If time permits, facilitate a whole-class discussion on these two questions. \| Step 2: Learn about some ways that rights are established in a community \| (10 min) \| Purpose: In this step, students explore how foundational documents establish rights in a community. You might say: Rights are powers that we have as members of a community that should never be taken away. Throughout history, people have fought for their rights. While the United States Constitution guaranteed some rights when it was ratified in 1789, many of those rights were only for white, land-owning men. For example, it was not until much later that African Americans, Indigenous people, women, and other groups of people won the right to vote. Today, there are people still fighting for their voting rights. In this next activity, we are going to learn about some of the different ways that rights can be established. [Slide 5] Introduce a vocab sorting activity. - Distribute the Tribal Rights Notes Organizer and review the directions for Part 1. Students will remain in their project teams for this activity. - Distribute one set of the cut-out and shuffled Tribal Rights Sorting Cards per group. - Consider adding an element of competition to the activity (e.g., the first group to correctly organize each of the four rows wins!). - Encourage students to raise their hands once they believe they have the correct answers. - Once answers have been confirmed, invite students to complete the table in Part 1 of their Tribal Rights Notes Organizer. \| Step 3: Learn about tribal sovereignty \| (10 min) \| Purpose: Students explore the unique government-to-government relationship between federally recognized tribes and the U.S. government. You might say: In the United States, many Indigenous people are citizens of both their tribal nation and of the United States. This means that their rights are established not only from federal and state laws, but also from treaties and tribal laws. Today we will learn more about how rights and values are established and maintained in the Puyallup Tribe. [Slide 6] Introduce tribal sovereignty. - Play the Washington Tribes video, "What Is Tribal Sovereignty?" - Review instructions for Part 2 of the Tribal Rights Notes Organizer. - Play video from [0:00–1:23], then pause. - Ask: What were some of the reasons Indigenous leaders in Washington signed treaties with the U.S. government in the 19th century? - Possible response: Indigenous leaders signed treaties because they thought they were protecting both their communities and generations to come. - Play video from [1:23–2:17], then pause. - Ask: What are some of the responsibilities of the Puyallup Tribal Council? How are these responsibilities similar to or different from our state government? - Possible response: The Puyallup Tribal Council functions in a very similar way to the state government. They make decisions that impact the lives, health, housing, and rights of people within their community. In Washington State, city councils and the state legislature also make decisions that impact the lives of residents in terms of health, housing, and rights. - Play video from [2:17–3:22]. - Ask: What are some rights that are connected to sovereignty? - Possible response: Sovereign nations are independent nations. They have the right to make their own laws, choose a form of government, arrange treaties with other countries, build infrastructure, and establish institutions. \| Step 4: Identify shared values and rights in the Puyallup Tribe \| (25 min) \| Purpose: In this step, students explore more of the rights and values of members of the Puyallup Tribe and practice interpreting primary and secondary sources. The goal of the stations is for students to identify rights and values of the Puyallup Tribe and differentiate between the two. [Slides 7–8] Prepare students for a source exploration. - [Slide 7] Review the directions for Part 3 of the Tribal Rights Notes Organizer. - Determine groupings for the source exploration (three students per group is ideal). - [Slide 8] Distribute materials for the source exploration activity. - Sources 1–3 are included in the Tribal Rights Source Exploration handout. - Source 4 is a video from the Puyallup Tribe of Indians titled "Medicine Creek Treaty History." Set the video up on a computer or other device for students to watch. - Inform students that they will explore sources 1–3 in their small groups and rotate to watch source 4. - Suggested timing: 5 minutes per station \| Teacher Tip: Localize to Enhance Student Engagement Consider tailoring the lesson to focus on a Native American tribe local to your students' community. Start by researching and gathering primary sources related to a local tribe—such as treaties, tribal council visions, mission statements, and excerpts from tribal constitutions or bills of rights. This approach not only makes the lesson more relevant to students but also deepens their understanding of and connection to their local community’s history and current issues. This method can help students see the direct impact of historical events and legal frameworks in their own lives and surroundings. \| \| Step 5: Write to reflect \| (5 min) \| Purpose: Students reflect on the significance of values in Indigenous communities and the way rights are established in Washington State. The goal is for students to make connections between community values and how those are translated into legal rights. You might say: Today we identified rights and values of the Puyallup Tribe. Now, you have the chance to reflect on what values are most important to the Puyallup Tribe and how tribal rights are established and maintained in Washington. I encourage you to use at least two specific examples in your response. [Slide 10] Invite students to write to reflect. - Review the directions for Part 4 of the Tribal Rights Notes Organizer. - Invite students to respond in writing to the following questions using evidence from the source exploration activity: - What values are most important to the Puyallup Tribe? - How are tribal rights established and maintained in Washington? Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Lesson 1.4: Know Your Rights Teacher Guide Lesson 1.4: Know Your Rights Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How are rights established in a community? Learning Targets I can: Purpose In this lesson, you will learn about established individual rights in Washington. Working in your project teams, you will learn about one right in Washington, how it was established, and why it is important. Then, your team will create a public service announcement (PSA) informing people in Washington about the right and what it protects. You will close out by sharing your PSA with your classmates and answering the Module 1 driving question: How are rights established in a community? Lesson Steps Explore More \| Teacher Preparation Notes \| Pacing \| \| \| Lesson Timing: \| 75 minutes \| \| Standards \| \| C1.6-8.2: Explain the structure of and key ideals set forth in fundamental documents, including the Washington state constitution and tribal treaties with the United States government. SSS4.6-8.1: Analyze multiple factors, make generalizations, and interpret sources to formulate a thesis in a paper or presentation, while observing rules related to plagiarism and copyright. \| \| \| CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.1: Write arguments to support claims with clear reasons and relevant evidence. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.9: Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. \| \| Lesson Resources \| \|\| \| For Students \| For Teachers \| Materials \| \| \| \| Lesson Overview \| \| In this lesson, students learn about established individual rights in Washington. Working in their project teams, they learn about one right in Washington, how it was established, and why it is important. Then they create a public service announcement informing people in Washington state about the right and what it protects. Students close out by sharing their PSAs with their classmates and answering the module driving question: How are rights established in a community? \| \| Teacher Preparation \| \| Lesson Steps in Detail \| Step 1: Learn about individual rights in Washington \| (15 min) \| Purpose: Students examine individual rights in Washington State and practice crafting citations. You might say: Yesterday, we explored some of the different ways that rights are established—in a constitution, in a treaty, or in a law. We learned about some of the rights of members of the Puyallup Tribe and the different documents that protect those rights. Today, we will explore other rights that Washington residents have and that are guaranteed by the Washington State Constitution or by state law. [Slide 2] Facilitate a Write-Pair-Share. - Invite students to differentiate between a right and a privilege. - right: something that should not be taken away and is often written into law - privilege: something that can be given and taken away - Invite students to spend two minutes with a partner creating a T-chart of rights and privileges in Washington. - What are rights that you have in Washington? - What are privileges that you might have in Washington? - Invite students to share out some examples they identified. - Possible responses: - Rights: freedom of speech, freedom of press, freedom of religion, public education, etc. - Privileges: driver’s license, private education, etc. - Possible responses: [Slide 3] Introduce individual rights in Washington State. - Organize students into project teams. - Distribute the Individual Rights so that each project team has a different right to focus on. - Distribute the Individual Rights Notes Organizer and review the directions for Part 1. - Invite students to use their assigned individual right to complete Part 1 of their notes organizer. [Slide 4] Demonstrate how to create a citation for state legislation. - Review the directions for Part 2 of the Individual Rights Notes Organizer. - Review the citation abbreviations and two examples as a class. This should be review from Lesson 1.2. - Washington State constitution = WA const. - Article = art. - Section = § - Revised Code of Washington = RCW - Remind students that they already have all the information they need to create a citation for the right they were assigned. Their responsibility is to add the formatting (order of components and punctuation). - Prompt students to individually work on their citations. \| Teacher Tip: Reminding Students When to Use CitationsIn this step of the lesson, students practice creating citations for government documents. While students will not likely cite government documents often, this is an example of citing evidence from a source. In students’ own writing, it is important to always cite evidence when using both primary and secondary sources for academic purposes. \| \| Step 2: Create a PSA about one established right in Washington \| (35 min) \| Purpose: In this step, students consider how to educate others about individual rights. After brainstorming the design, the goal is for students to create posters or infographics that effectively communicate their ideas to others. You might say: So far in this unit, we have learned about rights, values, and how our foundational documents are meant to establish and uphold our rights and values. Now, your goal is to educate others about the rights we have in Washington State. To do this, you will create a public service announcement (PSA). A PSA is a message given to the public to educate or raise awareness about a topic. The format of your PSA will be a poster or an infographic to explain an established right to the public in a way that is easy to understand. - [Slides 5–6] Introduce PSA formats (infographic or poster). Students have the option to choose either an infographic or a poster as the medium for their PSA. - [Slide 5] Infographic talking points: - Infographics are graphic visual representations of information, data, or knowledge intended to present information quickly and clearly. Infographics consist of charts, images, and some text that explains the topic in a straightforward way. Infographics can be created using online templates. - Share an example of an infographic. - [Slide 6] Poster talking points: - Posters are another form of graphic visual representation of information. Posters gather various types of information about a subject and display it in an engaging way. Our posters will be created with paper and markers. - Share an example of a poster. - [Slide 5] Infographic talking points: [Slide 7] Facilitate student work time on their PSAs. - Review the directions for Part 3 of the Individual Rights Notes Organizer. - Invite students to determine the content, structure, and design of their PSAs. Students can work with a partner or individually. - Review helpful resources they may reference while creating the content and design of their PSAs. - For content: - Constitutional Values Notes Organizer (Lesson 1.2) - Tribal Rights Notes Organizer (Lesson 1.3) - Part 1 of the Individual Rights Notes Organizer (Lesson 1.4) - For structure: - What: An explanation of an established right - Where: In what document(s) was this right established? - When: When was this right established? - Why: Why is this important? (Connect to values.) - How: How does this right impact you? - For design: - For content: - Distribute materials as needed and estimate a specific amount of time for students to complete their PSAs. \| Step 3: Participate in a Gallery Walk \| (10 min) \| Purpose: In this step, students share their PSAs as they walk around and interact with the other PSAs created by their peers. The goal of this step is for students to receive peer feedback on their work and thoughtfully engage with other creations. You might say: You created PSAs with the goal of educating the public about individual rights. You included components that explained what the right is, why it matters, and how it impacts people personally. Now we get to share our creations in a class Gallery Walk. Pay close attention to the different rights posted around the classroom because you will need to understand all of these rights for your project work later in this unit. [Slide 8] Prepare students for a Gallery Walk. - Post students’ posters and infographics around your classroom. Ensure there is enough space between each so that students can easily move around and access each one. - Distribute two sticky notes per student. - Explain that as they observe the PSAs, they should use the sticky notes to leave comments responding to the following questions: - How does this right connect to an issue today? - How does this issue connect to your own life? - Encourage students to read sticky notes as they interact with the PSAs. - Leave PSAs displayed around the classroom for the remainder of the unit so students can reference them for project work in Modules 2 and 3. [Slide 9] Debrief with a discussion. Ask: - Why is it important to know our rights? \| Step 4: Explain how rights are established in a community \| (15 min) \| Purpose: Students synthesize and apply what they have learned by responding to the module driving question in writing. [Slide 10] Prompt students to respond to the Module 1 driving question. - Review the directions for Part 4 of the Individual Rights Notes Organizer. - Explain that a CER paragraph consists of: - C = claim - E = evidence - R = reasoning - Identify where students can find evidence to support their response: - Tribal Rights Notes Organizer (Lesson 1.3) - Individual Rights Notes Organizer - PSAs - Ask: How are rights established in a community? Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Module 2: Advocacy and Action Module Overview Module 2: Advocacy and Action Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How have people organized to advocate for their rights and values? Module Overview In this module, students prepare for their final product by conducting local case studies in which people advocated for their rights. To do this, students define advocacy and examine examples of civil disobedience. Students then begin the work of investigating four case studies from their local community in the twentieth century. In Lesson 2.3, students reflect on the outcomes and legacies of their case studies by creating a visual timeline. They then use the knowledge gained about advocacy to research advocacy campaigns from Washington State and beyond as inspiration for their own campaigns. In Lesson 2.4, students prepare to campaign for change in the final module by identifying an issue in their local community and developing a research question to guide their future research. \| Lesson 2.1: Defining Advocacy (100 minutes) \| \| Key Standards for Success Criteria Success Criteria By the end of the lesson, students will be able to: \| In this lesson, students define advocacy and are introduced to local examples of citizens advocating for their rights and values in their community. First, students learn about the McCleary decision as an example of advocacy and practice identifying the issue, stakeholders, and rights in question. Then, using those same inquiry strategies, students engage in a station activity to learn about other moments in Washington’s history when people advocated for their rights and values. At the end of the lesson, students meet with their project teams to select one case study they would like to explore further. \| \| Lesson 2.2: Advocacy Methods (70 minutes) \| \| Key Standards for Success Criteria H2.6-8.2CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.1 Success Criteria By the end of the lesson, students will be able to: \| In this lesson, students learn about different advocacy methods that people have used to bring awareness to issues and create change. They look at both historical and contemporary examples of advocacy tools and analyze their purpose. Through an investigation of multiple primary and secondary sources, students apply their learning to their case study by looking for evidence of different examples of advocacy. Finally, they respond to the module driving question using evidence from their case study. \| \| Lesson 2.3: Outcomes and Legacies (105 minutes) \| \| Key Standards for Success Criteria Success Criteria By the end of the lesson, students will be able to: \| In this lesson, students reflect on the outcomes and legacies of local examples of advocacy. First, they learn about the outcomes and legacy of the McCleary decision and the ongoing struggle to ensure fully funded schools. To demonstrate the life cycle of their case study, they create a visual timeline that helps the public understand the issue, stakeholders, rights in question, outcomes, and legacy. Students share their timelines and engage in a discussion to reflect on the ways in which people advocate on a local level for rights and values. \| \| Lesson 2.4: Identify an Issue (70 minutes) \| \| Key Standards for Success Criteria Success Criteria By the end of the lesson, students will be able to: \| In this lesson, students learn about a student-run advocacy campaign and the steps they took to create change in their own school. Students then work with their project team to identify an issue for their own advocacy campaign by researching current issues, selecting topics, and generating research questions. Finally, they revisit the Know & Need to Know chart to synthesize learnings and develop further inquiry questions as they prepare to design their advocacy campaign. \| \| Module Assessments \| \| \| Suggested Word Wall Vocabulary \| \| \| Lesson-Specific Vocabulary \| \| Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Lesson 2.1: Defining Advocacy Teacher Guide Lesson 2.1: Defining Advocacy Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How have people organized to advocate for their rights and values? Learning Targets I can: Purpose In this lesson, you will define advocacy and be introduced to local examples of citizens advocating for their rights and values in their communities. First, you will learn about the McCleary decision as an example of advocacy and practice identifying the issue, stakeholders, and rights in question. Then, using those same inquiry strategies, you will engage in a station activity to learn about other moments in our state’s history when people advocated for their rights and values. At the end of the lesson, you will meet with your project team to select one case study you would like to explore further. Lesson Steps Explore More \| Teacher Preparation Notes \| Pacing \| \| \| Lesson Timing: \| 100 minutes \| \| Standards \| \| C4.6-8.2: Describe the relationship between the actions of people in Washington state and the ideals outlined in the Washington state constitution. H2.6-8.2: Explain and analyze how individuals and movements have shaped Washington state history since statehood. H4.6-8.2: Analyze how a historical event in Washington state history helps us to understand contemporary issues and events. \| \| \| CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.7.4: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative, connotative, and technical meanings; analyze the impact of a specific word choice on meaning and tone. \| \| Lesson Resources \| \|\| \| For Students \| For Teachers \| Materials \| \| \| Lesson Overview \| \| In this lesson, students define advocacy and are introduced to local examples of citizens advocating for their rights and values in their community. First, students learn about the McCleary decision as an example of advocacy and practice identifying the issue, stakeholders, and rights in question. Then, using those same inquiry strategies, students engage in a station activity to learn about other moments in Washington’s history when people advocated for their rights and values. At the end of the lesson, students meet with their project teams to select one case study they would like to explore further. \| \| Teacher Preparation \| \| Lesson Steps in Detail \| Step 1: Engage in a Four Corners activity \| (10 min) \| Purpose: Students participate in a position-taking activity about whether their rights are protected in Washington State. This activity serves as a transition from learning about established rights in Washington to learning about the ways in which people advocate for their rights when they are not being upheld or protected. [Slide 2] Prepare students for a Four Corners activity. - Review the directions: - For this activity, I will share a claim. Using background knowledge and personal beliefs, you will determine whether you agree, disagree, strongly agree, or strongly disagree with the claim. Each corner of the room corresponds to a different position. Think about the claim, then move to the corner that best reflects your position. Be prepared to discuss and explain your position with your classmates that take the same position. - Remind students that when taking positions, it is about what they think, not what their peers think. It’s okay to have differences of opinion. [Slides 3–4] Facilitate a Four Corners activity. - [Slide 3] Share the claim: The laws in Washington do a good job of protecting and supporting my rights. - If needed, clarify the meaning of any vocabulary terms that are unclear for students. - Provide students 30 seconds to move to their position in your classroom. - Prompt students to share their thinking with other people in their group. Have someone from each group be prepared to explain their group’s position. - Invite a student from each group to share out. Encourage students to cite examples in their explanations. - After all groups have shared, invite students to change their positions if someone’s explanation changed their thinking. - [Slide 4] Share the claim: The laws in Washington do a good job of protecting and supporting the rights of everyone in the state. - Repeat the same steps above. \| Step 2: Define advocacy \| (10 min) \| Purpose: Students define advocacy, a central term to the unit and project work. You might say: In the last module, we learned about different ways that rights are established in a community. However, as we discussed in our Four Corners activity, sometimes the rights of people in Washington are not protected or upheld. When this happens, people are forced to advocate for their rights or the rights of others. But what does it really mean to advocate? Let’s take a moment to read an excerpt that will help us understand this term. [Slide 5] Prepare to read an excerpt. - Share the reading purpose: Read to learn about the definition of advocacy and identify examples of advocacy. - Prompt students to read pages 37–39 from The State We’re In: Washington. - Invite students to create a class definition and brainstorm examples of advocacy. - Add the term to your class Word Wall. \| Step 3: Learn about an example of legislative advocacy \| (25 min) \| Purpose: Students learn about the fight for fully funded schools in Washington as a case study. In the next step, students will follow the same process to investigate a time in state history when people advocated for an issue in their community. You might say: Later in this unit, you will create an advocacy campaign about an issue in your community. Today, you will explore five examples of people advocating for their rights and values in their community. This will help you understand how and why people organize to advocate for their rights. Before you dive into some local examples, we’re going to start by exploring one issue together. This is an issue we should all know something about—education. According to the Washington State Constitution, it is the "paramount duty of the state to make ample provision for the education of all children." [Slide 6] Facilitate a Turn-and-Talk. Ask: - Do you think Washington is meeting its constitutional duty? Why or why not? - Talking points: - In 2007, two families in Washington decided to sue the government because they felt like the state was not meeting its constitutional duty. - Today we are going to learn about how they advocated for their right to a fully funded education. [Slide 7] Introduce the 2007 Supreme Court case, McCleary v. State of Washington. - Distribute the Case Studies Notes Organizer and review the directions for Part 1. - Define the term issue. - issue: something that affects or hurts many people - Read aloud the excerpt from the 2012 MyNorthwest article, "State Doesn’t Fund Basic Education. Now What?" - Model reading strategies for students, including annotating for evidence that helps you understand the issue. - Ask: What is the issue according to this article? - Possible response: Schools do not have enough funding. Students’ learning is affected because of old textbooks, inadequate classroom supplies, and poor school facilities. [Slide 8] Play the King 5 Seattle video "Following the Money: How Schools in Washington State Are Funded" [4:30]. - Play the video in its entirety. - Invite students to take notes on the following questions in their notes organizer. - Issue: What is the issue? - Stakeholders: Who are the people impacted by this issue? What do they value or care about? - Rights: What rights are people advocating for? What rights are people exercising? - Relevance: What connections can I make to my own life and present-day issues? - Review answers with students using the Case Studies Notes Organizer Teacher Key. \| Step 4: Participate in a station activity \| (50 min) \| Purpose: In this step, students are introduced to the four case studies that are central to this module. The goal of the stations is for students to identify the issue, stakeholders, and rights at stake for each of the case studies. You might say: Now that we have examined one example together, you are going to explore four stations centered around local issues in the 20th century. At the end of each station, you should be able to identify the issue, the people involved, and the rights that people are advocating for using the details you noted from the sources. Our goal today is for you to explore how people have advocated for themselves and others in our community when their rights were threatened. [Slides 9–10] Demonstrate how the stations function. - [Slide 9] Review the directions for Part 2 of the Case Studies Notes Organizer. - [Slide 10] Show students the components of one of the stations: - Explain that they will need to interact with all of the sources at each of the stations in order to answer each of the station questions. - Let students know that they may leave each station with some unanswered questions. They’ll have an opportunity to choose one case study to learn more about later. [Slides 11] Facilitate the station activity. - Set up the stations: - Inform students that they will all visit four stations and how much time they will have at each station. - Suggested timing: 10 minutes per station - Set expectations for how students should interact with the materials at each station and how they should work with their group. - Clarify the direction in which students should move after each station is complete. Teacher Tip: Building Inquiry Around Case Studies The purpose of this step is to build inquiry and interest in the four case studies that students can research in Module 2. Your role is to facilitate this activity for students and support them in understanding and engaging with the stations. You want students to walk away from this activity excited about learning more about one of these case studies. If you find that students are having a challenging time engaging with the materials or figuring out what makes each case study a unique example of advocacy in their state, consider the following talking points: \| Teacher Tip: Navigating Text-Heavy Sources A few of the sources students will engage with in the Station Activity are text-heavy. Consider using the following strategies to support students in managing and making meaning of the materials without feeling overwhelmed: \| \| Step 5: Choose a case study you would like to investigate further \| (5 min) \| Purpose: Students have a chance to convene with their project teams and select the case study that will become the basis for their advocacy campaign later in the unit. You might say: In this lesson, you’ve explored several moments of local advocacy in Washington. You now have a chance to meet with your project teams and select a case study you would like to explore further. You will use this case study as inspiration for your advocacy campaign later in the unit. [Slide 12] Provide time for project team discussions. - Encourage students to move around the room to meet with their project team members. - Give each team an index card. Invite them to write the following information on their index card: - Their names - The case study they’re interested in exploring further - What interested them about this case study - Collect the index cards at the end of the class. You will use this information to prepare materials for Lesson 2.2. Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Lesson 2.2: Advocacy Methods Teacher Guide Lesson 2.2: Advocacy Methods Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How have people organized to advocate for their rights and values? Learning Targets I can: Purpose In this lesson, you will learn about different advocacy methods that people have used to bring awareness to issues and create change. In a class Gallery Walk you will look at both historical and contemporary examples of advocacy tools and analyze their purpose. Through an investigation of multiple primary and secondary sources, you will apply your learning to your case study by looking for evidence of different examples of advocacy. Finally, you will respond to the module driving question using evidence from your case study. Lesson Steps Explore More \| Teacher Preparation Notes \| Pacing \| \| \| Lesson Timing: \| 70 minutes \| \| Standards \| \| C4.6-8.2: Describe the relationship between the actions of people in Washington state and the ideals outlined in the Washington state constitution. H2.6-8.2: Explain and analyze how individuals and movements have shaped Washington state history since statehood. \| \| \| CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.1: Write arguments to support claims with clear reasons and relevant evidence. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.7.6: Determine an author's point of view or purpose in a text and analyze how the author distinguishes his or her position from that of others. \| \| Lesson Resources \| \|\| \| For Students \| For Teachers \| Materials \| \| \| Lesson Overview \| \| In this lesson, students learn about different advocacy methods that people have used to bring awareness to issues and create change. They look at both historical and contemporary examples of advocacy tools and analyze their purpose. Through an investigation of multiple primary and secondary sources, students apply their learning to their case study by looking for evidence of different examples of advocacy. Finally, they respond to the module driving question using evidence from their case study. \| \| Teacher Preparation \| \| Lesson Steps in Detail \| Step 1: Learn about different advocacy methods \| (15 min) \| Purpose: In this step, students explore different advocacy methods as they participate in a Gallery Walk. The goal of this step is for students to identify forms of advocacy and describe how these methods can be used to evoke change. You might say: In our previous lesson, you explored four different examples of advocacy in Washington. There are many different methods and tools that you can use to advocate for change. In today’s lesson, you will learn about some of those different methods and practice identifying them. [Slide 2] Invite students to do a Turn and Talk. - Ask: Thinking back to the case studies you explored yesterday, what are some ways in which people advocate for their rights? [Slide 3] Preview Gallery Walk. - Explain that students are going to walk around to view images posted around the room. Each image is an example of an advocacy method. - Distribute the Advocacy Methods Notes Organizer and review the directions for Part 1. - Note that students might be missing context surrounding the historical events of each image, but they should still be able to use visual clues to match the images with the list on their notes organizer. [Slide 4] Facilitate Gallery Walk. - Post the eight images of advocacy around the room. Ensure there is enough space between each piece so students can easily move around and access each one. - Provide students a designated amount of time to observe the images and complete Part 1 of their notes organizer. - After the Gallery Walk, invite students to meet with their project team to share their answers and discuss the question: How might this form of advocacy spark change? - Use the Advocacy Methods Notes Organizer Teacher Key to support student responses. \| Step 2: Conduct additional research on your case study \| (40 min) \| Purpose: After being introduced to all four case studies, students work with their project teams to dive into more sources related to the case study they decided to focus on. The goal is for students to identify the various ways people advocated for their rights in these examples. [Slide 5] Facilitate time for students to build content knowledge. - Review directions for Part 2 of the Advocacy Methods Notes Organizer. - Prompt students to sit with their project teams. - Explain that they will be examining one case study (chosen in the previous lesson) in more depth. The evidence they gather from this case study will help them write a response to the Module 2 driving question. - Distribute one of the selected case study files to each team: - Invite students to take out the copies of the article on their topic (pages 1–4 of each case study file). - Explain that the first step of the additional research will be building content knowledge on their case study. - Identify the reading purpose: Read to identify different ways that people advocated for change. - Provide students with time to read the article and complete Part 2 of their Advocacy Methods Notes Organizer. [Slide 6] Introduce additional research. - Share an example of additional sources from the Hawthorne Case File. - Note that some of the sources will be the same as in the previous lesson, but there are new primary and secondary sources available for each of the case studies. [Slide 7] Explain steps for source analysis. - Review directions for Part 3 of the Advocacy Methods Notes Organizer. - Invite student teams to take out the primary sources from their case file and to use them to identify advocacy methods and stakeholder values. Lesson Extension: Digital Primary Sources The case files are set up so that all materials can be printed and student investigation can take place without computers. However, additional digital primary sources can be used to deepen student learning and inquiry. Please see below for optional additional primary sources that can be shared with student teams digitally. \| \| Step 3: Explain how people have organized to advocate for their rights and values \| (15 min) \| Purpose: Students synthesize and apply what they have learned by responding to the module driving question in writing. [Slide 8] Prompt students to respond to the Module 2 driving question. - Remind students that a CER paragraph is: - C = claim - E = evidence - R = reasoning - Ask: How have people organized to advocate for their rights and values? - Remind students to use at least two pieces of evidence from their case study investigation (Part 3 of their Advocacy Methods Notes Organizer). Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Lesson 2.3: Outcomes and Legacies Teacher Guide Lesson 2.3: Outcomes and Legacies Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How have people organized to advocate for their rights and values? Learning Targets I can: Purpose In this lesson, you will reflect on the outcomes and legacies of local examples of advocacy. First, you will learn about the outcomes and legacy of the McCleary decision and the ongoing struggle to ensure fully funded schools. To demonstrate life cycle of your case study, you will create a visual timeline that helps the public understand the issue, stakeholders, rights in question, outcomes, and legacy. You will share your timeline and engage in a discussion to reflect on the ways in which people advocate on a local level for rights and values. Lesson Steps Explore More \| Teacher Preparation Notes \| Pacing \| \| \| Lesson Timing: \| 105 minutes \| \| Standards \| \| H4.6-8.2: Analyze how a historical event in Washington state history helps us to understand contemporary issues and events. SSS4.6-8.1: Analyze multiple factors, make generalizations, and interpret sources to formulate a thesis in a paper or presentation, while observing rules related to plagiarism and copyright. \| \| \| CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.7.1: Cite several pieces of textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.7: Integrate visual information (e.g., in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with other information in print and digital texts. \| \| Lesson Resources \| \|\| \| For Students \| For Teachers \| Materials \| \| \| \| Lesson Overview \| \| In this lesson, students reflect on the outcomes and legacies of local examples of advocacy. First, they learn about the outcomes and legacy of the McCleary decision and the ongoing struggle to ensure fully funded schools. To demonstrate the life cycle of their case study, they create a visual timeline that helps the public understand the issue, stakeholders, rights in question, outcomes, and legacy. Students share their timelines and engage in a discussion to reflect on the ways in which people advocate on a local level for rights and values. \| \| Teacher Preparation \| \| Lesson Steps in Detail \| Step 1: Reflect on the outcome and legacy of the McCleary decision \| (20 min) \| Purpose: Students practice describing the legacy of the McCleary decision based on their own experiences. They also observe examples of visual timelines to prepare them for later steps in this lesson. The goal is for students to become more familiar with the concept of a legacy and to gain clarity on how to create a visual timeline. You might say: Today our focus is on outcomes and legacies. An outcome is the way something turns out; a consequence. A legacy, in contrast, is the long-lasting impact of an event. We are going to return to our class case study on education, McCleary v. State of Washington, and practice describing the difference between outcomes and legacies. [Slide 2] Facilitate a Mingle-Pair-Share. - See the Teacher Tip for guidance on how to facilitate this discussion protocol. - Round 1: Brainstorm at least two services or supplies our school offers that make your experience in school better. - Round 2: Brainstorm at least two services or supplies our school has an insufficient supply of. - After completing the Mingle-Pair-Share, ask a few students to share their examples. [Slide 3] Review key points from the McCleary decision. - Talking points: - McCleary v. Washington State was a court case about how schools in Washington were funded. The court said the state wasn’t doing enough to give all students a good education. They said the way money was given to schools wasn’t fair and didn’t meet the standards. The state had to make changes to give schools more money and make sure all students had the opportunity for a good education. - On one hand, the McCleary case was a success. After the case was over, things changed for schools in Washington. The state had to find more money to help schools and make sure they were fair for all students. They had to make new plans to give schools enough money. This meant hiring more teachers, improving buildings, and getting better books and supplies for students. The goal was to give every student a good chance to learn and succeed. - On the other hand, the outcome of the McCleary case was far from perfect. Some changes took time, so schools didn’t see improvements right away. Even though schools in Washington received more money from the state, they received less money from local taxes (called levies). In 2019, Spokane Public Schools had to lay off many staff members because of the decrease in funding from local taxes. [Slide 4] Define a visual timeline. - Visual timeline: a chronological arrangement of events with additional visual elements. While a traditional timeline might have several names of events with their dates, a visual timeline has information in multiple formats: text, images, maps, videos, illustrations, etc. [Slide 5] Invite students to identify outcomes of the McCleary decision. - Distribute the Outcomes and Legacies Notes Organizer and review the directions for Part 1. - Explain to students that they are going to see some examples of visual timelines connected to the McCleary case. - Model for students how to read and analyze one of the three timelines from Washington Courts, McCleary v. State of Washington. [Slide 6] Prompt students to reflect on the legacy of McCleary. - Designate a specific amount of time for students to complete the right-side column of the table in Part 1 of their Outcomes and Legacies Notes Organizer. - (Optional) Provide an example of a legacy vs. an outcome. - Talking points: - For most of our history, people of color have been discriminated against and denied the right to vote. In 1965, the Voting Rights Act finally passed. - The outcome of the Voting Rights Act was that discrimination at the ballot box became illegal. By the end of the year, a quarter of a million new Black voters had been registered. - The legacy of the Voting Rights Act is that it changed the scope of American democracy by ensuring that all voices, regardless of race, faith, gender, or disability were heard throughout the electoral process. - Talking points: Teacher Tip: Mingle-Pair-Share Protocol Mingle-Pair-Share: This protocol gets students out of their seats and invites them to share ideas with classmates they might have less opportunity to talk to. \| \| Step 2: Identify outcomes and legacies from your case study \| (15 min) \| Purpose: Students practice identifying outcomes and legacies in the case studies to support their timeline creation. [Slide 7] Prepare students to identify the outcomes and legacy of their case study. - Review the directions for Part 2 of the Outcomes and Legacies Notes Organizer. - Explain to students that they should take notes on the outcomes and legacies of their case study during the class share-outs for the relevant slide. - (Optional) Restructure this whole-class activity into a small-group activity by giving each project team a printed copy of the relevant slide with before/after images of their case study. Then, circulate among teams and use the Outcomes and Legacies Notes Organizer Teacher Key to support student brainstorming. [Slide 8] Hawthorne case study: - Ask: Does the "after" image represent an outcome or a legacy? Why? - Possible response: The modern image of the Tacoma Dome represents an outcome of the Hawthorne case study. Despite the advocacy work of Hawthorne residents, construction of the Tacoma Dome went ahead. - Ask: What is an example of a legacy of this case study? - Possible response: The construction of the Tacoma Dome led to the displacement of many residents in the Hawthorne neighborhood. This event highlighted the challenges communities face when city development plans disrupt their homes and lives. [Slide 9] Fish Wars case study: - Ask: Does the "after" image represent an outcome or a legacy? Why? - Possible response: The image of Puyallup Tribe members fishing represents a legacy of the Fish Wars. The legal battle that ended with the Boldt Decision has lasting effects today. The Boldt Decision has been upheld in multiple other cases, guaranteeing treaty rights to Indigenous people in Washington State. - Ask: What is an example of an outcome of this case study? - Possible response: The Boldt Decision is an example of an outcome from the Fish Wars case study. [Slide 10] Hanford case study: - Ask: Does the "after" image represent an outcome or a legacy? Why? - Possible response: The image of the Yakama Nation Swan Dancers represents a legacy of the Hanford Site. After years of grassroots advocacy work, there is still a very long way to go to clean up the radioactive waste and contaminated areas around the Hanford Site. The image of the children holding up a “Clean Up Hanford” sign demonstrates how the advocacy work is now being passed down to another generation along with a legacy of care and value for health and the environment. - What is an example of an outcome of this case study? - Possible response: While the Hanford site is an ongoing contemporary environmental issue, one outcome from the case study was the establishment of the Tri-Party Agreement in 1989 between the Department of Energy, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Washington State Department of Ecology. [Slide 11] Initiative 13 case study: - Ask: Does the "after" image represent an outcome or a legacy? Why? - Possible response: The protest poster reading “Thank you LGBT elders” represents a legacy of the defeat of Initiative 13. The advocacy work helped raise awareness and educate the public about the importance of equality in employment, housing, and public spaces. This not only fought against the initiative but also sparked broader discussions on rights and acceptance for marginalized communities in Seattle. - What is an example of an outcome of this case study? - Possible response: In the November 1978 elections, Initiative 13 was defeated, which was a big win for civil rights in Seattle. This outcome showed that the city stood for protecting the rights of all people, no matter their sexual orientation. Facilitate work time for students to complete Part 2 of their notes organizers. - Encourage students to work with a partner who has the same case study. - Use the Outcomes and Legacies Notes Organizer Teacher Key to support student brainstorming. - Allocate a specific amount of time for students to outline additional outcomes and legacies. - Suggested timing: 5 minutes \| Step 3: Create a visual timeline that tells the story of your case study \| (50 min) \| Purpose: Students demonstrate their knowledge of the outcomes and legacies of their case studies by creating a visual timeline. You might say: You now have time to create the rough drafts of your visual timelines. Look back at your notes from previous lessons to make a list of events you think are important for your case study. Your goal is to communicate the outcomes and legacy of your case study using the visual timeline. [Slide 12] Facilitate student work time on visual timelines. - Review the directions for Part 3 of the Outcomes and Legacies Notes Organizer. - Split project teams into groups of 2–3. - Review helpful resources they may reference while creating the content and design of their timelines. - For content: - Case Studies Notes Organizer (Lesson 2.1) - Forms of Advocacy Notes Organizer (Lesson 2.2) - Primary and secondary sources from their Case File (Lesson 2.2). - For help with citations: - Citation Guide - Individual Rights Notes Organizer (Lesson 1.4) - For content: - Encourage students to select a medium for their timeline: - Suggested options: Chart paper, Canva, or PowerPoint. - Rough drafts will be done on paper, but students may decide to create the final draft digitally. - (Optional) Provide students with chart paper to make their rough drafts if more space is needed than the draft outline on their notes organizers. - Remind students that they should not spend time creating the visual portion of each event on the rough draft. The purpose of the rough draft template is for students to identify which events to include, place them in chronological order, and practice making citations. - Provide students with a designated amount of time to sketch ideas for their timeline before transitioning to the final draft. \| Step 4: Share your timelines \| (20 min) \| Purpose: Students share their visual timelines and practice communicating their ideas in a small group setting. [Slide 13] Facilitate small-group presentations. - Encourage each pair to partner up with another group with a different case study. - Designate a specific amount of time for each group to present to each other. - After each presentation, the groups participate in a small-group discussion: - What were the similarities between your two case studies? - What were the differences between your two case studies? - How did people advocate for their rights and values? - Why did people advocate for these issues? Why did they care? You might say: We’ve spent the last few lessons exploring how people in Washington advocated for rights values. In our next lesson, you will get back into your project teams to identify an issue that you would like to advocate for. Before we close out, let’s take a moment to return to our unit driving question. [Slide 14] Reflect on the unit driving question with a Chalk Talk. - Write the unit driving question on a piece of chart paper or on the whiteboard: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? - Distribute one sticky note per student. - Invite students to write their initial ideas down on the sticky note and take turns putting their sticky note up on the whiteboard or chart paper. - If space and time permits, invite students to gather around the chart paper or whiteboard. - Ask: What themes or patterns do you notice? Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Lesson 2.4: Identify an Issue Teacher Guide Lesson 2.4: Identify an Issue Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How have people organized to advocate for their rights and values? Learning Targets I can: Purpose In this lesson, you will learn about a student-run advocacy campaign and the steps they took to create change in their own school. You will then work with your project team to identify an issue for your own advocacy campaign by researching current issues, selecting topics, and generating research questions. Finally, you will revisit the Know & Need to Know chart to synthesize learnings and develop further inquiry questions as you prepare to design your advocacy campaign. Lesson Steps Explore More \| Teacher Preparation Notes \| Pacing \| \| \| Lesson Timing: \| 70 minutes \| \| Standards \| \| C4.6-8.2: Describe the relationship between the actions of people in Washington state and the ideals outlined in the Washington state constitution. C4.6-8.3: Employ strategies for civic involvement that address a state or local issue. \| \| \| CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.7.3: Analyze the interactions between individuals, events, and ideas in a text (e.g., how ideas influence individuals or events, or how individuals influence ideas or events). CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.4: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary specific to domains related to history/social studies. \| \| Lesson Resources \| \|\| \| For Students \| For Teachers \| Materials \| \| \| Lesson Overview \| \| In this lesson, students learn about a student-run advocacy campaign and the steps they took to create change in their own school. Students then work with their project team to identify an issue for their own advocacy campaign by researching current issues, selecting topics, and generating research questions. Finally, they revisit the Know & Need to Know chart to synthesize learnings and develop further inquiry questions as they prepare to design their advocacy campaign. \| \| Teacher Preparation \| \| Lesson Steps in Detail \| Step 1: Learn about a local advocacy campaign \| (15 min) \| Purpose: Students use the story of a Tacoma middle school to help them break down the individual steps of an advocacy campaign. The goal is for students to familiarize themselves with the steps of a campaign in preparation for their final product in the next module. [Slide 2] Facilitate a Draw-Pair-Share. - Prompt: Draw an example of a way students can advocate for change. - (Optional) Remind students about some of the examples they saw during the Gallery Walk in Lesson 2.2. - Provide students with two minutes to draw an advocacy method on a piece of scratch paper or in their notebook. - Encourage students to share their drawings with a partner for one minute. - Invite students to share their ideas and drawings with the class. You might say: Today, you are going to begin the process of developing your own student-run advocacy campaign. To inspire you, we’re going to learn about some students at Hilltop Heritage Middle School in Tacoma, Washington started their own advocacy campaign. This will help you understand what an advocacy campaign might look like and the different steps that you’ll need to take in order to create your own campaign. [Slide 3] Learn about a local advocacy campaign. - Distribute the Local Issues Notes Organizer and review the directions for Part 1. - Play the Tacoma Public Schools video, "Solar Panels Atop Hilltop Heritage Middle School Offset Building Energy Use" [1:29]. - Invite students to read the excerpt from the Hilltop Heritage article, "Hilltop Heritage MS First to Get Solar Panels." [Slide 4] Invite students to identify how Hilltop Heritage students implemented their campaign. - Introduce students to the six steps of an advocacy campaign: - Step 1: Identify an issue. - Step 2: Learn about the issue. - Step 3: Identify the rights and values at stake. - Step 4: Make an action plan. - Step 5: Implement the action plan. - Step 6: Reflect and identify next steps. - Invite students to identify these six steps in the example advocacy campaign. - Review responses with students: - What is the issue that Hilltop Heritage students addressed in their campaign? - Possible response: The issue at the core of this campaign is climate change. The campaign to raise funds for the implementation of solar panels was centered on the goal of increasing clean energy sources and reducing harmful effects of nonrenewable energy sources that schools usually rely upon. - How did the Hilltop Heritage students learn about the issue? - Possible response: The learning process began with a project in their eighth-grade science class. They researched the issue themselves over the course of the project and also gained insight from their science teacher. - What is the issue that Hilltop Heritage students addressed in their campaign? - What are the rights and values at stake? Remind students to think back to their Values Bingo Sheet and the PSAs they created in Module 1. - Possible response: Environmental stewardship, land, and community are values at stake. Environmental rights and even personal rights are at stake. - What was their action plan to address these issues in their community? - Possible response: Getting solar panels on the roof of Hilltop Heritage Middle School. - How did students implement their action plan? - Possible response: The students implemented their action plan by researching solar panels, preparing a presentation, presenting their plan at the Governor’s STEM Alliance meeting, and then engaging in fundraising efforts such as spaghetti feeds, fun runs, and car washes. - Do you think further action is needed? - Possible response: Yes; while this initiative was an impressive first step, the students’ goal was to serve as an example for how other schools might take concrete steps to raise the funds and reduce their environmental footprints. - What are the rights and values at stake? Remind students to think back to their Values Bingo Sheet and the PSAs they created in Module 1. \| Step 2: Explore current issues \| (30 min) \| Purpose: In this step, students research current issues around the country related to the five case studies explored so far in this unit. The goal is for students to identify a topic from the source list they would like to explore more. You might say: The first step of an advocacy campaign is to identify an issue. This will be our goal today. By the end of this lesson, your team will have selected an issue that matters to you and that you would like to explore more. We’ll start by brainstorming contemporary issues related to the case studies you explored over the last several lessons. Then, you’ll have an opportunity to learn about campaigns centered around these issues, both locally and nationally. [Slides 5–6] Invite students to reflect on the larger issues identified in their case studies. - [Slide 5] Remind students of the six steps of an advocacy campaign. Explain that today they will be focusing on Step 1. - [Slide 6] Introduce students to some of the issues that they can choose for their advocacy campaign. All issues correspond with a case study that they explored in Module 2. - McCleary v. State of Washington education (school funding, standardized testing, affirmative action, etc.) - Fish Wars Indigenous rights (treaty rights, tribal sovereignty, etc.) - Hanford environment (land use, water rights, Indigenous rights, conservation, etc.) - Hawthorne housing (fair housing, gentrification, housing discrimination, displacement, etc.) - Initiative 13 politics (grassroots organizing, elections, local city issues, etc.) [Slide 7] Facilitate a Chalk Talk. - Put five pieces of chart paper up around the classroom, one for each issue. - Distribute one marker per student. - Explain to students that their goal is to brainstorm current events, problems, or questions that are connected to these issues. - Model thinking for students: - I know that the Duwamish Tribe are fighting for federal recognition. That would mean they’d be granted the same rights that other federally recognized tribes, like the Puyallup Tribe, have. I’m going to add "Duwamish Tribe’s fight for federal recognition" to the chart paper for tribal rights. - I know that rent and housing prices have gone up a lot in Seattle recently. Some people cannot afford houses anymore. I’m going to add "housing prices are too expensive" to the chart paper for fair housing. - Invite students to silently walk around and add their ideas. If they feel inspired by another student’s idea, they can add on or put a check mark to show they agree. - Set a timer for 5 minutes. Feel free to participate in the Chalk Talk by adding your own ideas. [Slide 8] Facilitate and support student research. - Encourage students to sit with their project teams. - Review the directions of Part 2 of the Local Issues Notes Organizer with students. - Digitally distribute the Issues Source List for each student. - Inform students that they will work with their teams to explore the articles on the source list that spark interest. They do not need to read every article individually or collectively. Encourage project teams to explore the issues that most interest them. - The purpose of the wide variety of sources is to give students more ideas and options for the topic of their campaigns. Their goal is to identify an issue they would like to research for their own local advocacy campaign. Provide students a designated amount of time to conduct research. - Here are some different ways you can support students in their research: - Consider giving students the option to research independently or work in teams. - Intentionally check-in with students. - Consider using a colored card system for students to self-reflect on how they are doing, so that you can see which students you need to check in with. - Yellow = I have a question or need help. - Green = I have no questions at this time. \| Step 3: Connect your issue to your local community \| (15 min) \| Purpose: Students work with their teams to make a local connection to an issue before developing their own research question. You might say: Now that your team has selected an issue for your final project, your task is to make a connection to why this issue is also relevant to your local community. Remember, the students at Hilltop can’t solve all of the issues connected to climate change. But they were able to make a real difference locally. For them, that meant advocating for the installation of solar panels on their middle school roof. Thinking "small" is not a bad thing when it comes to advocating for change. Lots of small changes can make a big difference. [Slide 9] Share an example topic. - Share an example of how to complete the table on the slide. - Note: this topic was chosen at random and is unrelated to the sources students will read. - Identify an issue: - Accessible public transportation. - How is this issue connected to your local community? - Sometimes when I ride a public bus around my city, I notice that people in wheelchairs need to use a ramp to enter the bus. All of the buses have ramps, but they don’t always work. - What do you already know about this issue? - I already know that there are laws about accessibility. I know that sometimes buses are not wheelchair accessible. - What questions do you have about this issue? - What specific laws are there about public transportation and accessibility? What happens when the standards are not followed? What changes would make public transit more accessible in our city? [Slide 10] Prompt students to connect their issue to their local community. - Review the directions of Part 3 of the Local Issues Notes Organizer with students. - Check-in with project teams as they work. Use the Teacher Tip below to support teams who are stuck. Teacher Tip: Helping Students Identify Local Connections One of the key steps project teams will need to take is identifying how their issue connects to their local community and what change they can advocate for within their own community that will help address the larger issue. To support students in this work, consider the following supportive strategies.As project teams work together to complete Part 3 of their planning guide, meet with each project team briefly. Share with them the following ideas and strategies if they are struggling to make local connections: \| \| Step 4: Revisit the Know and Need to Know chart \| (10 min) \| Purpose: As a class, students collaborate to discuss what they have learned about advocacy campaigns in the last two modules and what they still need to know in order to create their own campaigns with their teams. You might say: In our next module, you will conduct additional research on your issue and plan and develop a campaign that advocates for a right in your local community. Let’s take a moment to reflect on what we now know about why and how people advocate for issues in our community. [Slide 11] Update the Know & Need to Know chart (why). - Prompt students to share their responses to the questions: - What do I already know about why people advocate for issues in their community? - What do I need to know about why people advocate for issues in their community? [Slide 12] Update the Know & Need to Know chart (how). - Prompt students to share their responses to the questions: - What do I already know about how people advocate for issues in their community? - What do I need to know about how people advocate for issues in their community? Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Module 3: Campaign for Change Module Overview Module 3: Campaign for Change Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question How do I advocate for rights and values in my community? Module Overview In this final module, students step into the role of activist and prepare to advocate for change at an advocacy fair. They begin by researching their chosen issue to address their research question. They identify a target demographic and reflect on their values in order to effectively engage their audience. Student teams craft their mission statements, elevator pitches, and advocacy tools. They then participate in practice presentations with peers to provide and receive constructive feedback. Students use the peer feedback to carry out revisions before submitting the final drafts of their campaigns. The unit culminates in an advocacy fair where students present the elements of their campaign to members of the community. They conclude by reflecting on potential next steps to address their issue and respond to the unit driving question: "Why do people advocate for issues in their communities?" \| Lesson 3.1: Make an Action Plan (75 minutes) \| \| Key Standards for Success Criteria C4.6-8.3CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.7 Success Criteria By the end of the lesson, students will be able to: \| In this lesson, students kickstart their advocacy campaign by organizing their teams and assigning roles based on individual strengths. Students dive deeper into their chosen issue by conducting further research to better understand the issue and how they can advocate for rights and values in their community. Finally, students develop an action plan by outlining the goal, target audience, and components of their advocacy campaign. \| \| Lesson 3.2: Create Your Campaign (90 minutes) \| \| Key Standards for Success Criteria C1.6-8.2CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.7 Success Criteria By the end of the lesson, students will be able to: \| In this lesson, students create their advocacy campaign. First, they draft their mission statement, drawing inspiration from example mission statements to articulate the purpose and vision of their campaign. Next, students create advocacy tools that will help them educate and engage the public. Finally, students reflect as a team to evaluate what they have accomplished and what more still needs to be done. \| \| Lesson 3.3: Feedback and Revision (80 minutes) \| \| Key Standards for Success Criteria Success Criteria By the end of the lesson, students will be able to: \| In this lesson, students share their advocacy campaigns with another team to receive feedback. After both giving and receiving feedback, project teams reconvene to identify and implement specific revisions they wish to make. They ensure that all components of their advocacy campaigns are ready to be shared with the public. Finally, students prepare a physical booth for public outreach. \| \| Lesson 3.4: Campaign for Change! (90 minutes) \| \| Key Standards for Success Criteria C4.6-8.3CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.7.4 Success Criteria By the end of the lesson, students will be able to: \| In the final lesson of the unit, students share their advocacy campaign with the public. Student teams set up booths where they share their campaigns with the public. They inform community members about an issue they should care about and encourage them to take action. They also visit team booths to learn about other issues in their community. Afterward, teams meet to evaluate the successes and challenges of their campaign and identify next steps to reach a broader audience. Finally, students close out by responding to the unit driving question and reflecting on how they can continue to advocate for their rights and values in their community. \| \| Module Assessments \| \| \| Suggested Word Wall Vocabulary \| \| \| Lesson-Specific Vocabulary \| \| Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Lesson 3.1: Make an Action Plan Teacher Guide Lesson 3.1: Make an Action Plan Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How do I advocate for rights and values in my community? Learning Targets I can: Purpose In this lesson, you will kickstart your advocacy campaign by organizing your team and assigning roles based on individual strengths. You will also dive deeper into your chosen issue by conducting further research to better understand the issue and how you can advocate for rights and values in your community. Finally, you will develop an action plan by outlining the goal, target audience, and components of your advocacy campaign. Lesson Steps Explore More \| Teacher Preparation Notes \| Pacing \| \| \| Lesson Timing: \| 75 minutes \| \| Standards \| \| C4.6-8.3: Employ strategies for civic involvement that address a state or local issue. C4.6-8.2: Describe the relationship between the actions of people in Washington state and the ideals outlined in the Washington state constitution. \| \| \| CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6-8.1: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.7.1: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 7 topics, texts, and issues, building on others' ideas and expressing their own clearly. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.7: Conduct short research projects to answer a question, drawing on several sources and generating additional related, focused questions for further research and investigation. \| \| Lesson Resources \| \|\| \| For Students \| For Teachers \| Materials \| \| \| \| Lesson Overview \| \| In this lesson, students kickstart their advocacy campaign by organizing their teams and assigning roles based on individual strengths. Students dive deeper into their chosen issue by conducting further research to better understand the issue and how they can advocate for rights and values in their community. Finally, students develop an action plan by outlining the goal, target audience, and components of their advocacy campaign. \| \| Teacher Preparation \| \| Lesson Steps in Detail \| Step 1: Determine team roles \| (10 min) \| Purpose: Students determine team roles for their advocacy campaign. The goal of the team roles is to provide structure and guidance for the different elements of the campaign. You might say: In our previous lesson, you learned about advocacy campaigns in Washington and around the country. In teams, you identified an issue relevant to our local community and brainstormed questions about the issue. Today, you will clarify the goal of your advocacy campaign and the way in which you will achieve your goal. First, let’s take some time to review what an advocacy campaign is and the different elements that you will include in your advocacy campaign. [Slide 2] Introduce students to the Advocacy Campaign Rubric and Advocacy Campaign Guide. - Distribute the Advocacy Campaign Guide to each student. - Review the first page of the guide. - Distribute the Advocacy Campaign Rubric to each student. - Prompt students to reflect on the following two questions: - What are the features of a successful advocacy campaign? - What questions do you have about the advocacy campaign? - Invite students to share out their responses and answer any questions students have at this point. [Slide 3] Introduce the team roles. - Explain that each team member will play an important role in putting together their team’s advocacy campaign. - Introduce the team roles: - Campaign Manager - Communications Director - Head Designer - Outreach Coordinator - (Optional) Lead Researcher [Slides 4–8] Describe the responsibilities for each role. - [Slide 4] Campaign Manager: - The Campaign Manager is responsible for leading team meetings and keeping track of team goals. The campaign manager will take the lead on the mission statement with support from the rest of the team. - [Slide 5] Communications Director: - The Communications Director is responsible for making sure that the mission and vision of the campaign are clear, concise, and well communicated. The communications director will take the lead on the elevator pitch with support from the rest of the team. - [Slide 6] Head Designer: - The Head Designer is responsible for the design of the educational tool (e.g., a poster, an infographic, a brochure) and in developing the overall brand identity for the campaign (e.g., color, design, logo). - [Slide 7] Outreach Coordinator: - The Outreach Coordinator is responsible for taking the lead on communicating the "call to action" through an engagement tool. The outreach coordinator will create any materials that communicate the campaign's call to action (e.g., a petition, an invitation to a protest, a flyer about a boycott). - [Slide 8] Lead Researcher: - The Lead Researcher is an optional position for teams with five members rather than four. The lead researcher is responsible for organizing their team's research and tracking relevant source information for the educational and advocacy tools. [Slide 9] Facilitate project team meetings. - Emphasize the importance of collaboration. Explain that a successful project team will delegate responsibilities, but they will also help one another out. Just because someone is taking the lead on a task does not mean they should do it alone. - Review the directions for Part 1 of the Advocacy Campaign Guide. - Provide teams some time to identify who will take on each role. Teacher Tip: Supporting Material Management In this lesson, students receive several important documents that they will need to refer to throughout the module, including their project guide and rubric. One strategy to support material management is to set up physical folders for student teams to keep track of important documents throughout the course of the unit. Folders should include any materials that students will need for project work. Consider putting the Campaign Manager in charge of keeping the team folder organized. \| \| Step 2: Conduct additional research on your issue \| (40 min) \| Purpose: Students conduct additional research to develop deeper knowledge of their issue. The objective is for students to be able to articulate the goal of their campaign by the end of this research session. [Slide 10] Prepare for research time. - Distribute and review the directions for Part 1 of the Research Notes Organizer. - Invite students to work with their project team to identify a research focus for today. Remind them that they can change or refine their research focus as needed. - Prompt students to return to their questions from Part 3 of their Local Issues Notes Organizer (Lesson 2.4). [Slide 11] Introduce keywords. - Talking points: - Keywords are the important words or phrases that you type into a search engine to find specific information. - For example, if you're looking for information about local tribal rights, your keywords might be "Tribal Rights + [city name]" or "Tribal Rights + [Western or Eastern] Washington." - These words help the search engine find the most relevant sources. Choosing the right keywords is like having a key to unlock the information you need! - Review the directions for Part 2 of the Research Notes Organizer. Invite students to add additional issue-specific keywords to the table. Model research for students. - Choose a topic to model research using keywords in a search engine. - Note: The example below uses Spokane, but feel free to replace the city with a local example. - Share your screen with students as you input keywords. Model how you identify the keywords to put into your search engine. For example: - Identify your research focus: I want to learn about housing discrimination in Spokane. I think it would be helpful for me to start by getting some background information on the history of housing discrimination. - Input keywords: "housing discrimination +history +Spokane" - Explain how to use the plus (+) symbol and minus (-) symbol to filter results: - Plus (+) symbol = The word must be present in each result. - Minus (-) symbol = The word must not be present in any of the results. - Choose a search engine result to click on and explain why you chose this web result: - I’m going to click on this Spokane Historical web page, since it’s the first result, and I’m curious to learn more about what redlining is. - Talk through how you scan for relevant information and what evidence you would add to your research notes organizer. - Show students how to organize their research digitally. For example, if you are a Microsoft district, you might consider modeling features such as organizing research with Collections or adding websites to Favorites. - Identify new keywords from the website (e.g., redlining, racial covenants, East Central). Add new terms to keyword bank. [Slide 12] Facilitate and support student research. - Review the directions for Part 3 of the Research Notes Organizer. - Invite students to read the questions they will answer in their notes organizer. - Prompt students to think about one additional research question they would like to answer today. Share examples of research questions and discuss their purpose. - Causes: What are some of the causes of gentrification? - Effects: What are some of the effects of gentrification on people today? - Localize: Which local neighborhoods are most impacted by gentrification today and why? - Advocacy: What laws or policies could we implement to resist the negative effects of gentrification in our city? - Provide time for students to identify and write down one additional research question. - Remind students to keep track of their sources for the works cited list they will create for their educational tool. - Facilitate student research time. Conference with project teams as needed to support and direct their research. Teacher Tip: Partner With a Librarian Librarians have invaluable expertise in information literacy and can guide students in effectively navigating library databases. Collaborate with your school librarian or a librarian from the public library. \| \| Step 3: Create an action plan \| (25 min) \| Purpose: Students clarify the goal, target audience, and deliverables for their advocacy campaign. [Slide 13] Share an example of a campaign target. - Explain that a campaign target is the people/organizations with the power to make a difference for your issue. - Share an example: - Issue: Increasing accessibility on public transportation in our city. - Who has the power to give you what you want? - The state governor is in charge of most of the money for buses and trains. This money belongs to the state. The city puts some money into trains and buses as well. The targets of our campaign are the state governor and the city mayor. - What power do you have over them? - The governor and mayor need to be well liked and they need votes to stay in office. [Slide 14] Share an example of a target audience. - Explain that a target audience is the people who care about your issue and who you want to educate and get involved in your campaign. Identifying a target audience for an advocacy campaign is crucial because it helps you focus your message. - Who are the people who care the most about your issue? What are their values and motivations? - Local residents, especially those who use public transportation. They value accessibility, inclusivity, and independence. They are motivated by a desire to help other members of the community. - How can you educate this group of people about your issue? - A social media post about our campaign would help educate local residents about the accessibility issues in our public transportation system. The post might contain a short video describing the issue and the petition they can sign to take action. [Slide 15] Facilitate project team meetings. - Review the directions for Part 2 of the Advocacy Campaign Guide. - Invite project teams to create an action plan. Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Lesson 3.2: Create Your Campaign Teacher Guide Lesson 3.2: Create Your Campaign Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How do I advocate for rights and values in my community? Learning Targets I can: Purpose In this lesson, you will create your advocacy campaign. First, you will draft your mission statement, drawing inspiration from example mission statements to articulate the purpose and vision of your campaign. Next, you will create advocacy tools that will help you educate and engage the public. Finally, you will reflect as a team to evaluate what you have accomplished and what more still needs to be done. Lesson Steps \| Teacher Preparation Notes \| Pacing \| \| \| Lesson Timing: \| 90 minutes \| \| Standards \| \| C1.6-8.2: Explain the structure of and key ideals set forth in fundamental documents, including the Washington state constitution and tribal treaties with the United States government. C4.6-8.3: Employ strategies for civic involvement that address a state or local issue. SSS4.6-8.1: Analyze multiple factors, make generalizations, and interpret sources to formulate a thesis in a paper or presentation, while observing rules related to plagiarism and copyright. \| \| \| CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.2: Write informative/explanatory texts to examine a topic and convey ideas, concepts, and information through the selection, organization, and analysis of relevant content. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.7: Conduct short research projects to answer a question, drawing on several sources and generating additional related, focused questions for further research and investigation.= \| \| Lesson Resources \| \|\| \| For Students \| For Teachers \| Materials \| \| \| \| Lesson Overview \| \| In this lesson, students create their advocacy campaign. First, they draft their mission statement, drawing inspiration from example mission statements to articulate the purpose and vision of their campaign. Next, students create advocacy tools that will help them educate and engage the public. Finally, students reflect as a team to evaluate what they have accomplished and what more still needs to be done. \| \| Teacher Preparation \| \| Lesson Steps in Detail \| Step 1: Identify rights and values for your mission statement \| (10 min) \| Purpose: Students develop their understanding of a mission statement and take time to identify specific rights and values to reference in their mission statement. You might say: In the last lesson, you identified your campaign goal. Your task now is to communicate that goal to the public so that they care about this issue. One way to do that is through a mission statement. A mission statement is like a map for an organization. It's a short, powerful sentence or two that explains why the group exists and what it wants to achieve. It's the heart of what they do—it guides their actions and decisions. A good mission statement tells everyone what the group believes in and where they're headed. [Slides 2–4] Share examples of mission statements. - [Slide 2] Hilltop Heritage Middle School mission statement: - "The mission of Hilltop Heritage Middle School is to help students realize their potential by providing rigorous academics, equitable opportunities, and programs that allow for student creativity in a diverse community where all are accepted, valued and supported." - Ask: What values are mentioned in this mission statement? - Possible responses: education, equity, creativity, diversity, inclusion - [Slide 3] Puyallup Tribal Council mission statement: - "To build upon what our ancestors and elders fought for by continuing to protect and preserve our tribal sovereignty, natural resources, environment, heritage, culture and our families by providing equitable programs and services that help our membership succeed and grow." - Ask: What values are mentioned in this mission statement? - Possible responses: tribal sovereignty, natural resources, environmental stewardship, heritage, culture, family, equity - [Slide 4] Washington’s Paramount Duty mission statement: - Explain that because their mission statements will be for an advocacy campaign, they need to include not only specific values, but also the specific right they’re advocating for. - Share an example of how to reference a specific right in a mission statement. - "Washington’s Paramount Duty is a non-partisan, grassroots group of parents and allies advocating for Washington to amply fund basic education and fulfill its paramount duty. We envision a future where every child has equitable access to an amply funded basic education." - Explain that Washington’s Paramount Duty is an advocacy group. In this mission statement, they’re referencing values, such as education and equity, but they’re also referencing an established right: the right to an amply funded basic education, which is guaranteed in the Washington State Constitution. [Slide 5] Support students as they identify an established right for their mission statement. - Encourage project teams to sit together. - Distribute the Mission Statement & Elevator Pitch handout and review the directions for Part 1. - Review helpful resources they may reference while identifying a right for their mission statement. - For content: - Washington State Constitution (Lesson 1.2) - Puyallup Constitution (Lesson 1.2) - Tribal Rights Source Exploration (Lesson 1.3) - Individual Rights or student-created PSAs (Lesson 1.4) - For citations: - Page 2 of the Values Bingo Sheet (Lesson 1.2) - For content: Support students as they identify values for their mission statements. - Review the directions for Part 2 of the Mission Statement & Elevator Pitch handout. - Encourage students to reference Page 1 of their Values Bingo Sheet (Lesson 1.2) for examples. \| Step 2: Design your campaign \| (60 min) \| Purpose: Students evaluate advocacy tools from the case studies to reflect on the outcomes of these strategies. The goal is for students to consider these tools as possible examples for their own campaigns. Students then use the dedicated work time to draft their mission statement, practice their elevator pitch, and develop their educational tool and engagement tool. [Slide 6] Evaluate advocacy tools. - Explain that before students create their advocacy tools, they have an opportunity to look back at some examples of advocacy tools from the four different case studies they researched in Module 2. These might serve as inspiration for their own tools. - Distribute the Advocacy Tools handout and review the directions for Part 1. - Ensure that students have digital access to the following sources linked in the handout: - Prompt students to individually complete the graphic organizer. [Slide 7] Facilitate project team meetings. - Remind students about the definitions of the two advocacy tools. - Educational tool: This is a tool that helps your target audience understand the issue and how it is a violation of an established right (e.g., social media post, poster, or brochure). The goal is to make the public care about your issue. - The educational tool should include a works cited page. - Engagement tool: This is a tool that helps your target audience get involved with solving the issue—think of this as your "call to action." It could be a petition, a boycott, or a form letter to send to local politicians. - Educational tool: This is a tool that helps your target audience understand the issue and how it is a violation of an established right (e.g., social media post, poster, or brochure). The goal is to make the public care about your issue. - Review the directions for Part 2 of the Advocacy Tools handout. - Encourage teams to work together to draft their advocacy tools. [Slide 8] Facilitate and support student work time. - Share with students that they will complete a peer evaluation in the next lesson. In this peer evaluation they will present their campaign to another team. The presentation must include: - Their mission statement - Their elevator pitch - Their educational tool (with works cited) and a verbal explanation of its function - Their engagement tool and a verbal explanation of how it is connected to their goal - Remind students of their tasks for the dedicated work time: - Mission statement (led by Campaign Manager) - Elevator pitch (led by Communications Director) - Educational tool (led by Head Designer) - Engagement tool (led by Outreach Coordinator) - Inclusion of research and citations (led by Lead Researcher) - Remind students that if they finish their task early, that does not mean they’re done; instead, they should support other team members. For example, if the Campaign Manager finishes the mission statement, they might help the Head Designer create the educational tool and ensure that it aligns with the mission statement. - Review helpful resources they may reference while creating the content of their campaign: - Advocacy Campaign Guide (Lesson 3.1) - Advocacy Campaign Rubric (Lesson 3.1) - Citation Guide (Lesson 2.3) Teacher Tip: Rotating Conferences Rotating conferences can help students stay on task and give the educator a sense of the common questions or points of confusion. Inform students that you will rotate around the room to check in with each group. The first and second conference will likely be an overview of team goals and drafts, whereas future conferences can serve as progress check-ins and opportunities to answer questions. \| \| Step 3: Learn about the advocacy fair \| (15 min) \| Purpose: Students learn about the goals of an advocacy fair and how they can maximize community engagement. [Slide 9] Introduce the advocacy fair. - Talking points: - An advocacy fair typically involves showcasing various campaigns or projects dedicated to specific causes or issues. It's a way for different groups or individuals to present their advocacy efforts, share information, and engage with the public. - At our advocacy fair, each group will have a booth to display information, hand out flyers or brochures, and talk to visitors about their cause. People who attend the fair can walk around, learn about various issues, and decide which ones they want to support or get involved in. It's a chance for campaigners to raise awareness, gather support, and recruit volunteers. - The goal of our fair is to create a platform for dialogue and community engagement, allowing people to explore various issues and decide how they want to make a difference. [Slide 10] (Optional) Share invitation components. - Encourage students to consider campaign targets they could invite to the advocacy fair. - Examples: a local mayor, members of city council, state governor, etc. - Encourage students to consider members of their target audience they could invite to the advocacy fair. - Examples: family members, community members, school staff members, etc. - Share the location, date, and time of the advocacy fair with students. - (Optional) Provide students with an invitation template. - Allocate a specific amount of time for students to write invitations. \| Step 4: Complete a team Exit Ticket \| (5 min) \| Purpose: Students reflect on their work so far, identify what they still need to complete, and discuss what questions they still need answered. [Slide 11] Prompt students to complete a team Exit Ticket. - Distribute one Team Exit Ticket per group and review the directions. - Collect Exit Tickets to inform your planning for the next day. Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Lesson 3.3: Feedback and Revision Teacher Guide Lesson 3.3: Feedback and Revision Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How do I advocate for rights and values in my community? Learning Targets I can: Purpose In this lesson, you will share your advocacy campaign with another team to receive feedback. After both giving and receiving feedback, your project team will reconvene to identify and implement specific revisions you wish to make. You will ensure that all components of your advocacy campaign are ready to be shared with the public. Finally, you will prepare a physical booth for public outreach. Tomorrow, you will share your advocacy campaign with the world! Lesson Steps \| Teacher Preparation Notes \| Pacing \| \| \| Lesson Timing: \| 80 minutes \| \| Standards \| \| C1.6-8.2: Explain the structure of and key ideals set forth in fundamental documents, including the Washington state constitution and tribal treaties with the United States government. C4.6-8.3: Employ strategies for civic involvement that address a state or local issue. SSS4.6-8.1: Analyze multiple factors, make generalizations, and interpret sources to formulate a thesis in a paper or presentation, while observing rules related to plagiarism and copyright. SSS4.6-8.2: Use appropriate format to cite sources within an essay, presentation, and reference page. \| \| \| CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.7: Conduct short research projects to answer a question, drawing on several sources and generating additional related, focused questions for further research and investigation. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.7.3: Delineate a speaker's argument and specific claims, evaluating the soundness of the reasoning and the relevance and sufficiency of the evidence. \| \| Lesson Resources \| \|\| \| For Students \| For Teachers \| Materials \| \| \| \| Lesson Overview \| \| In this lesson, students share their advocacy campaigns with another team to receive feedback. After both giving and receiving feedback, project teams reconvene to identify and implement specific revisions they wish to make. They ensure that all components of their advocacy campaigns are ready to be shared with the public. Finally, students prepare a physical booth for public outreach. \| \| Teacher Preparation \| \| Lesson Steps in Detail \| Step 1: Evaluate advocacy campaigns and provide feedback \| (30 min) \| Purpose: Students practice peer review using a four-stage framework. Student teams will use peer feedback to inform their revisions in Step 2. You might say: Providing feedback to others is a lifelong skill you’ll be able to use in many settings. Before you listen to another team present their campaign, let’s talk about what effective feedback looks like. People often think that feedback is just pointing out surface-level spelling and grammar mistakes. But that is not true. Let’s think about the word "revision." You might think of it as bringing a new set of eyes to a project. Remember that peer review includes critically analyzing aspects such as content and clarity. Therefore, it is not just about corrections. More importantly, effective peer review is about providing feedback and suggestions. [Slide 2] Introduce peer review exercise. - Distribute Peer Feedback Form and review the directions. - Talking points: - You now have an opportunity to practice presenting your campaign to another team. Each team will be paired with one other team. - Team #1 will present all aspects of their campaign, including the mission statement, elevator pitch, educational tool, and engagement tool. - Team #2 will serve as audience members and provide feedback and suggestions for revision. - Each team member in Team #2 will complete the handout as they watch the presentation and share the handout with Team #1 at the end. - Then, the teams will switch roles. Team #2 will present and Team #1 will complete the handout. [Slides 3–7] Review peer feedback instructions. - [Slide 3] Compliments: "Feel-good feedback." Making space for positive feedback is essential to building confidence. The team should always leave at least one specific compliment about a particular aspect of the campaign. - Example: I love that you have a consistent brand identity across your advocacy campaign! Your color choices and imagery are visually appealing and engaging. - [Slide 4] Corrections: This type of feedback is not up for debate. Corrections are meant to note mistakes in spelling and grammar or mark something that is missing. - Example: You’re missing a works cited page. Make sure to add that before tomorrow! - [Slide 5] Suggestions: Students shouldn’t take this type of feedback lightly. However, the how is up to the creator when implementing suggestions to their campaign. The reviewers provide insight, but the team decides what to do with it, if anything at all. - Example: I suggest making your "call to action" more specific. Right now, it’s vague, and I’m not sure how to get involved. - [Slide 6] Questions: Questions are similar to suggestions in that the team decides what to do with them when it comes to the next phase of development. However, keep in mind that if something is unclear to your audience, you won’t have an effective campaign! - Example: Can you explain more why the McCleary decision didn’t solve the problem of school funding? - [Slide 7] Remind students to use the Advocacy Campaign Rubric (Lesson 3.1) to guide their feedback. - Example: The rubric says that your mission statement should include "the team’s core values and beliefs, and their goal." I suggest adding a sentence clarifying the goal of your campaign. [Slide 8] Facilitate mock presentations. - Inform students that their presentations should include the delivery of their elevator pitch, explanation of their issue, and descriptions of their educational tool and engagement tool. - Provide guidance on the team pairings and designate time for students to present their campaigns. \| Step 2: Review feedback and set goals \| (10 min) \| Purpose: Students review peer feedback and set goals for their work time by making a three-part plan. The goal of this activity is to provide individual structure for students during the work period. Having a to-do list in front of them helps keep the task at hand in focus. You might say: With the feedback you received from your peers, you are now going to make a three-part individual plan to address these revisions in your work time today. Your three revisions should be able to be accomplished within forty minutes. [Slide 9] Facilitate project team meetings to set goals for worktime. - Encourage students to review the completed Feedback and Revision handouts from their peers. - Invite teams to discuss the following questions: - What feedback resonated with us? - How can we incorporate the feedback into our revisions? - What tasks still need to be completed? - Who will do what? - Distribute a sticky note or index card to each student. - Invite students to write three individual goals for their work time on the sticky note or index card. \| Step 3: Campaign work time \| (40 min) \| Purpose: Students have time to work on their advocacy campaigns and make revisions based on peer feedback. You might say: You now have time to work on your projects and implement your revision plans. The goal is for your project to be complete at the end of these forty minutes. In our next lesson, you will present your work at the advocacy fair. [Slide 10] Facilitate revision time for campaigns. - Remind students of their tasks for the dedicated work time: - Mission statement (led by Campaign Manager) - Elevator pitch (led by Communications Director) - Educational tool (led by Head Designer) - Engagement tool (led by Outreach Coordinator) - Inclusion of research and citations (led by Lead Researcher) - Review helpful resources, they may reference while creating the content of their campaign. - Advocacy Campaign Guide (Lesson 3.1) - Advocacy Campaign Rubric (Lesson 2.4) - Citation Guide (Lesson 2.3) [Slide 11] Prepare a physical booth for the advocacy fair. - (Optional) If time permits, encourage students to think about how they would like to set up and decorate their campaign booth. They might consider: signage, color scheme, matching outfits, slogans, etc. Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. Lesson 3.4: Campaign for Change! Teacher Guide Lesson 3.4: Campaign for Change! Advocacy in Action Unit Driving Question: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? Module Driving Question: How do I advocate for rights and values in my community? Learning Targets I can: Purpose In the final lesson of the unit, you will share your advocacy campaign with the public. Your team will set up a booth where you will share your campaign with the public. You will inform community members about an issue they should care about and encourage them to take action. You will also visit team booths to learn about other issues in your community. Afterward, your team will meet to evaluate the successes and challenges of your campaign and identify next steps to reach a broader audience. Finally, you will close out by responding to the unit driving question and reflecting on how you can continue to advocate for your rights and values in your community. Lesson Steps Explore More \| Teacher Preparation Notes \| Pacing \| \| \| Lesson Timing: \| 90 minutes \| \| Standards \| \| C1.6-8.2: Explain the structure of and key ideals set forth in fundamental documents, including the Washington state constitution and tribal treaties with the United States government. C4.6-8.3: Employ strategies for civic involvement that address a state or local issue. H2.6-8.2: Explain and analyze how individuals and movements have shaped Washington state history since statehood. \| \| \| CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.7.1: Write arguments to support claims with clear reasons and relevant evidence. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.7.4: Present claims and findings, emphasizing salient points in a focused, coherent manner with pertinent descriptions, facts, details, and examples; use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. \| \| Lesson Resources \| \|\| \| For Students \| For Teachers \| Materials \| \| \| \| Lesson Overview \| \| In the final lesson of the unit, students share their advocacy campaign with the public. Student teams set up booths where they share their campaigns with the public. They inform community members about an issue they should care about and encourage them to take action. They also visit team booths to learn about other issues in their community. Afterward, teams meet to evaluate the successes and challenges of their campaign and identify next steps to reach a broader audience. Finally, students close out by responding to the unit driving question and reflecting on how they can continue to advocate for their rights and values in their community. \| \| Teacher Preparation \| \| Lesson Steps in Detail \| Step 1: Set up your booth \| (20 min) \| Purpose: Students take time to physically set up their booth by displaying the elements of their campaign for public viewing. [Slide 2] Support students as they set up their booths. - Allocate each team to a specific part of the venue to begin setting up their booth. - Remind students that their mission statement, educational tool, works cited, and engagement tool should all be clearly on display. - (Optional) Encourage students to make signs with poster paper that clearly identifies the issue at the center of their campaign or their campaign name or slogan. - Encourage teams to rehearse their presentations. Invite them to consider: Who will say what? Who will share what? \| Step 2: Share your advocacy campaign with community members \| (40 min) \| Purpose: Students share their campaigns with community members by presenting the elements of their campaign, and they walk around and interact with the campaigns created by their peers. The goal of this step is for students to present their final products and thoughtfully engage with other campaigns. You might say: In our previous lesson, you created your final version of your advocacy campaigns. You included educational and engagement tools that served to inform the public and call the community to action. Now we get to share our creations in an advocacy fair. I encourage you to engage with other campaign presentations once you have presented your own. [Slide 3] Remind students of how the advocacy fair will function. - Booths: Each represents a cause or campaign. - Info and interaction: People share info, hand out flyers, and chat with visitors about their cause. - Learning and engagement: Visitors walk around, learn about different issues, and decide which causes they want to support. - Community connection: It's a chance for everyone to talk, learn, and decide how they can make a difference. - Remind students that their presentation should include the delivery of their elevator pitch, explanation of their issue, and descriptions of their educational and engagement tools. [Slide 4] Facilitate and support advocacy fair presentations. - For an advocacy fair held in a classroom, teams might present their campaigns to the whole class one after another. - For an advocacy fair held in a larger venue, teams might present their campaigns multiple times: for community members who approach their booth, for fellow students, and for their teacher. \| Step 3: Identify possible next steps \| (15 min) \| Purpose: Students complete a final reflection to consider what they have learned and identify possible next steps for their campaign. You might say: Congratulations on hosting a successful advocacy fair! Over the course of this unit, you learned about individual rights in Washington, conducted case studies on how people in our community have advocated for their rights, identified an issue, and created a campaign to advocate for change in your community. You now have a chance to work with your team to discuss possible next steps to make a difference for your cause. [Slide 5] Facilitate team reflections. - Remind students of the six steps of an advocacy campaign. Today, they will consider the last step, because change doesn’t happen overnight. - Distribute the Team Reflection (one per team) and review the directions. - Allocate a specific amount of time for each team to complete their reflection. Teacher Tip: Share Ideas for Possible Next Steps Share options and ideas for how students might get involved in the process of enacting change in their community. \| \| Step 4: Respond to the unit driving question \| (15 min) \| Purpose: Students synthesize and apply what they have learned by responding to the unit driving question in writing. [Slide 6] Discuss the unit driving question. - Ask: What did you learn today about why people advocate for issues in their communities? [Slide 7] Prompt students to respond to the unit driving question. - Explain that a CER paragraph is: - C = claim - E = evidence - R = reasoning - Prompt: Why do people advocate for issues in their communities? - Remind students to use at least two pieces of evidence. They can reference the case studies in Module 2 and/or their own advocacy campaign. Unless otherwise noted, Advocacy in Action © 2023 by Educurious is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:16.644349	Lesson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116287/overview", "title": "Advocacy in Action", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117231/overview	Learning Domain: Earth's Systems Standard: Represent data in tables and graphical displays to describe typical weather conditions expected during a particular season. Learning Domain: Earth and Human Activity Standard: Obtain and combine information to describe climates in different regions of the world. Learning Domain: Engineering, Technology, & Applications of Science Standard: Define a simple design problem reflecting a need or a want that includes specified criteria for success and constraints on materials, time, or cost. Learning Domain: Number and Operations in Base Ten Standard: Read, write, and compare decimals to thousandths. Learning Domain: Mathematical Practices Standard: Reason abstractly and quantitatively. Mathematically proficient students make sense of the quantities and their relationships in problem situations. Students bring two complementary abilities to bear on problems involving quantitative relationships: the ability to decontextualize"Óto abstract a given situation and represent it symbolically and manipulate the representing symbols as if they have a life of their own, without necessarily attending to their referents"Óand the ability to contextualize, to pause as needed during the manipulation process in order to probe into the referents for the symbols involved. Quantitative reasoning entails habits of creating a coherent representation of the problem at hand; considering the units involved; attending to the meaning of quantities, not just how to compute them; and knowing and flexibly using different properties of operations and objects. Learning Domain: Mathematical Practices Standard: Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others. Mathematically proficient students understand and use stated assumptions, definitions, and previously established results in constructing arguments. They make conjectures and build a logical progression of statements to explore the truth of their conjectures. They are able to analyze situations by breaking them into cases, and can recognize and use counterexamples. They justify their conclusions, communicate them to others, and respond to the arguments of others. They reason inductively about data, making plausible arguments that take into account the context from which the data arose. Mathematically proficient students are also able to compare the effectiveness of two plausible arguments, distinguish correct logic or reasoning from that which is flawed, and"Óif there is a flaw in an argument"Óexplain what it is. Elementary students can construct arguments using concrete referents such as objects, drawings, diagrams, and actions. Such arguments can make sense and be correct, even though they are not generalized or made formal until later grades. Later, students learn to determine domains to which an argument applies. Students at all grades can listen or read the arguments of others, decide whether they make sense, and ask useful questions to clarify or improve the arguments. Learning Domain: Mathematical Practices Standard: Model with mathematics. Mathematically proficient students can apply the mathematics they know to solve problems arising in everyday life, society, and the workplace. In early grades, this might be as simple as writing an addition equation to describe a situation. In middle grades, a student might apply proportional reasoning to plan a school event or analyze a problem in the community. By high school, a student might use geometry to solve a design problem or use a function to describe how one quantity of interest depends on another. Mathematically proficient students who can apply what they know are comfortable making assumptions and approximations to simplify a complicated situation, realizing that these may need revision later. They are able to identify important quantities in a practical situation and map their relationships using such tools as diagrams, two-way tables, graphs, flowcharts and formulas. They can analyze those relationships mathematically to draw conclusions. They routinely interpret their mathematical results in the context of the situation and reflect on whether the results make sense, possibly improving the model if it has not served its purpose. Learning Domain: Mathematical Practices Standard: Use appropriate tools strategically. Mathematically proficient students consider the available tools when solving a mathematical problem. These tools might include pencil and paper, concrete models, a ruler, a protractor, a calculator, a spreadsheet, a computer algebra system, a statistical package, or dynamic geometry software. Proficient students are sufficiently familiar with tools appropriate for their grade or course to make sound decisions about when each of these tools might be helpful, recognizing both the insight to be gained and their limitations. For example, mathematically proficient high school students analyze graphs of functions and solutions generated using a graphing calculator. They detect possible errors by strategically using estimation and other mathematical knowledge. When making mathematical models, they know that technology can enable them to visualize the results of varying assumptions, explore consequences, and compare predictions with data. Mathematically proficient students at various grade levels are able to identify relevant external mathematical resources, such as digital content located on a website, and use them to pose or solve problems. They are able to use technological tools to explore and deepen their understanding of concepts. Learning Domain: Mathematical Practices Standard: Attend to precision. Mathematically proficient students try to communicate precisely to others. They try to use clear definitions in discussion with others and in their own reasoning. They state the meaning of the symbols they choose, including using the equal sign consistently and appropriately. They are careful about specifying units of measure, and labeling axes to clarify the correspondence with quantities in a problem. They calculate accurately and efficiently, express numerical answers with a degree of precision appropriate for the problem context. In the elementary grades, students give carefully formulated explanations to each other. By the time they reach high school they have learned to examine claims and make explicit use of definitions. Science Domain: Earth and Space Sciences Topic: Weather and Climate Standard: Represent data in tables and graphical displays to describe typical weather conditions expected during a particular season. [Clarification Statement: Examples of data could include average temperature, precipitation, and wind direction.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment of graphical displays is limited to pictographs and bar graphs. Assessment does not include climate change.] Science Domain: Earth and Space Sciences Topic: Weather and Climate Standard: Obtain and combine information to describe climates in different regions of the world. Science Domain: Engineering, Technology, and Applications of Science Topic: Engineering Design Standard: Define a simple design problem reflecting a need or a want that includes specified criteria for success and constraints on materials, time, or cost. Cluster: Understand the place value system Standard: Read, write, and compare decimals to thousandths. Cluster: Mathematical practices Standard: Reason abstractly and quantitatively. Mathematically proficient students make sense of the quantities and their relationships in problem situations. Students bring two complementary abilities to bear on problems involving quantitative relationships: the ability to decontextualize—to abstract a given situation and represent it symbolically and manipulate the representing symbols as if they have a life of their own, without necessarily attending to their referents—and the ability to contextualize, to pause as needed during the manipulation process in order to probe into the referents for the symbols involved. Quantitative reasoning entails habits of creating a coherent representation of the problem at hand; considering the units involved; attending to the meaning of quantities, not just how to compute them; and knowing and flexibly using different properties of operations and objects. Cluster: Mathematical practices Standard: Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others. Mathematically proficient students understand and use stated assumptions, definitions, and previously established results in constructing arguments. They make conjectures and build a logical progression of statements to explore the truth of their conjectures. They are able to analyze situations by breaking them into cases, and can recognize and use counterexamples. They justify their conclusions, communicate them to others, and respond to the arguments of others. They reason inductively about data, making plausible arguments that take into account the context from which the data arose. Mathematically proficient students are also able to compare the effectiveness of two plausible arguments, distinguish correct logic or reasoning from that which is flawed, and—if there is a flaw in an argument—explain what it is. Elementary students can construct arguments using concrete referents such as objects, drawings, diagrams, and actions. Such arguments can make sense and be correct, even though they are not generalized or made formal until later grades. Later, students learn to determine domains to which an argument applies. Students at all grades can listen or read the arguments of others, decide whether they make sense, and ask useful questions to clarify or improve the arguments. Cluster: Mathematical practices Standard: Model with mathematics. Mathematically proficient students can apply the mathematics they know to solve problems arising in everyday life, society, and the workplace. In early grades, this might be as simple as writing an addition equation to describe a situation. In middle grades, a student might apply proportional reasoning to plan a school event or analyze a problem in the community. By high school, a student might use geometry to solve a design problem or use a function to describe how one quantity of interest depends on another. Mathematically proficient students who can apply what they know are comfortable making assumptions and approximations to simplify a complicated situation, realizing that these may need revision later. They are able to identify important quantities in a practical situation and map their relationships using such tools as diagrams, two-way tables, graphs, flowcharts and formulas. They can analyze those relationships mathematically to draw conclusions. They routinely interpret their mathematical results in the context of the situation and reflect on whether the results make sense, possibly improving the model if it has not served its purpose. Cluster: Mathematical practices Standard: Use appropriate tools strategically. Mathematically proficient students consider the available tools when solving a mathematical problem. These tools might include pencil and paper, concrete models, a ruler, a protractor, a calculator, a spreadsheet, a computer algebra system, a statistical package, or dynamic geometry software. Proficient students are sufficiently familiar with tools appropriate for their grade or course to make sound decisions about when each of these tools might be helpful, recognizing both the insight to be gained and their limitations. For example, mathematically proficient high school students analyze graphs of functions and solutions generated using a graphing calculator. They detect possible errors by strategically using estimation and other mathematical knowledge. When making mathematical models, they know that technology can enable them to visualize the results of varying assumptions, explore consequences, and compare predictions with data. Mathematically proficient students at various grade levels are able to identify relevant external mathematical resources, such as digital content located on a website, and use them to pose or solve problems. They are able to use technological tools to explore and deepen their understanding of concepts. Cluster: Mathematical practices Standard: Attend to precision. Mathematically proficient students try to communicate precisely to others. They try to use clear definitions in discussion with others and in their own reasoning. They state the meaning of the symbols they choose, including using the equal sign consistently and appropriately. They are careful about specifying units of measure, and labeling axes to clarify the correspondence with quantities in a problem. They calculate accurately and efficiently, express numerical answers with a degree of precision appropriate for the problem context. In the elementary grades, students give carefully formulated explanations to each other. By the time they reach high school they have learned to examine claims and make explicit use of definitions.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:16.701162	Geology	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117231/overview", "title": "Super Sun", "author": "Environmental Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85264/overview	Career Planning and Personal Exploration Overview This course introduces students to the career-decision making process and job search strategies that will increase their job readiness, employability, and success in their career. The following three major areas will be covered: (1) Self-Understanding; (2) Career Exploration; (3) and Creating a Plan. Table of Contents Introduction Career Planning and Personal Exploration is designed to cover theories and concepts of values, interests, skills and personality as applied to the career life planning process and its application to labor market trends. Short and long term career plans will be developed. This course will take you through the exploration process in three themes: Theme 1: Identifying Your Career Profile – this first phase will guide you through self-assessments of your values, interests, personality, skills and lifestyle to examine your fit within different career options. (Chapters 1-4) Theme 2: Exploring Career Options – this second phase will show you how to research career information and labor market trends. (Chapter 5) Theme 3: Creating Your Game Plan – this final phase will help you make decisions and plan for action steps toward your future career. (Chapter 6-10) Course Objectives: These are topics we will explore, discuss, and review throughout the course of the semester. 1. Career Development: Analyze theory and concepts of career and life planning 2. Personal Exploration: Acquire the concept of interest, personality, skills, and values, as they relate to human growth and life stage development. 3. Career Exploration: Develop a personal profile and relate it to labor market trends and resources. 4. Career Information: Analyze and clarify intrinsic and extrinsic goals as they relate to personal career evaluations. Select a career option or options. Develop a life plan to achieve individual goals. 5. Career Action: Employ a decision making process to implement or review a career plan, including an educational plan. Student Learning Outcomes: Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able to: 1. Articulate their interests, values, and feelings related to their career and educational goals. 2. Assess goals and objectives by analyzing skills and values. 3. Research career paths using interest and personality inventories and online resources. 4. Create an educational plan to achieve an Associate Degree and/or transfer goal. 5. Employ a decision-making process in creating life direction including the ability to develop short and long-term goals. 6. Design a comprehensive career project involving personal reflection and career research. To lead into Theme I, watch the following video as an introduction to your self-reflection and finding career happiness. Watch Ashley Stahl talk about the following three questions in her TEDx Talk: - What am I good at? - What do people tell me I’m good at? - What’s holding me back? Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Introduction . Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Santa Ana College. Project: Counseling 116. License: CC BY: Attribution All rights reserved content - Image: Career Get Started Now. Created by Gerd Altmann. Provided by Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/photos/road-sign-town-sign-success-career-798176/ . License: Pixabay license - Three Questions to unlock your authentic career. Authored by: Ashley Stahl at TEDxBerkeley . Located at: https://youtu.be/vMiSf7LpFQE. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License Chapter 1: Career Development Process Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay Desire! That’s the one secret of every man’s career. —Johnny Carson, entertainer Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the stages of career development, and identify the stage you are currently in - Identify career development resources in your school, community, and beyond Career Development Think of a time in your childhood when you noticed somebody doing professional work. Maybe a nurse or doctor, dressed in a lab coat, was listening to your heartbeat. Maybe a worker at a construction site, decked in a hard hat, was operating noisy machinery. Maybe a cashier at the checkout line in a grocery store was busily scanning bar codes. Each day in your young life you could have seen a hundred people doing various jobs. Surely, some of the experiences drew your interest and appealed to your imagination. If you can recall any such times, those are moments from the beginning stage of your career development. What exactly is career development? It is a lifelong process in which we become aware of, interested in, knowledgeable about, and skilled in a career. It is a key part of human development as our identity forms and our life unfolds. Stages of Career Development There are five main stages of career development which are easily identified with life stages. Each stage correlates with attitudes, behaviors, and relationships we all tend to have at that point and age. As we progress through each stage and reach the milestones identified, we prepare to move on to the next one. Table 1.1 CAREER DEVELOPMENT STAGES # \| STAGE \| DESCRIPTION \| 1 \| GROWING \| This is a time in early years (4–13 years old) when you begin to have a sense about the future. You begin to realize that your participation in the world is related to being able to do certain tasks and accomplish certain goals. \| 2 \| EXPLORING \| This period begins when you are a teenager, and it can extend into your mid-twenties. In this stage you find that you have specific interests and aptitudes. You are aware of your inclinations to perform and learn about some subjects more than others. You may try out jobs in your community or at your school. You may begin to explore a specific career. At this stage, you have some detailed “data points” about careers, which will guide you in certain directions. \| 3 \| ESTABLISHING \| This period covers your mid-twenties through mid-forties. By now you are selecting or entering a field you consider suitable, and you are exploring job opportunities that will be stable. You are also looking for upward growth, so you may be thinking about advancing your education. \| 4 \| MAINTAINING \| This stage is typical for people in their mid-forties to mid-sixties. You may be in an upward pattern of learning new skills and staying engaged. But you might also be merely “coasting and cruising” or even feeling stagnant. You may be taking stock of what you’ve accomplished and where you still want to go. \| 5 \| REINVENTING \| In your mid-sixties (or much older since our life expectancy has increased and many individuals find that they are able to actively work for longer), you are likely transitioning into retirement. But retirement in our technologically advanced world can be just the beginning of a new career or pursuit—a time when you can reinvent yourself. There are many new interests to pursue, including teaching others what you’ve learned, volunteering, starting online businesses, consulting, etc. \| Keep in mind that your career development path is personal to you, and you may not fit neatly into the categories described above. Perhaps your socioeconomic background changes how you fit into the schema. Perhaps your physical and mental abilities affect how you define the idea of a “career.” And for everyone, too, there are factors of chance that can’t be predicted or anticipated. You are unique, and your career path can only be developed by you. During our working life, it is commonly expected that we will revise or create new careers in which we recycle through the exploring, establishing, and maintaining stages. This could be by choice as a result of new experiences or new information about ourselves or could be due to external circumstances such as a loss of employment or change in personal needs. Activity 1.1: IDENTIFYING Your career development STAGE Objective: - To identify current career development stage(s), current obstacles, and next stage of development Instructions: - Review the 5 Stages of Career Development listed in the table above and answer the questions below. 1. Which stage of career development do you feel you are in currently? 2. Provide the 2 descriptions you identify with the most from your career development stage. 3. What challenges are you facing now in your career development? 4. Where are you headed next in your career development path? Career Journey Another way to think about career development, especially in college, is like a road trip. Your journey to career success will have different routes to choose, on-ramps, speedbumps, detours and signposts. And, like most successful road trips, a road map or navigation system with clear markers will help you reach your destination. You will learn more about the following steps throughout this course: - Know yourself by identifying your interests, skills, values and personality preferences - Explore careers - Choose a career goal after narrowing your options - Plan your studies and develop the skills needed through experiences - Prepare to connect with employers through the job search process Plan, Do, Check, Act Figure 1. PDCA PDCA (plan–do–check–act), shown in Figure 1, above, is a four-step strategy for carrying out change. You can use it to evaluate where you are in the career-development process and to identify your next steps. The strategy is typically used in the business arena as a framework for improving processes and services. But you can think of your career as a personal product you are offering or selling. - PLAN: What are your goals and objectives? What process will you use to get to your targets? You might want to plan smaller to begin with and test out possible effects. For instance, if you are thinking of getting into a certain career, you might plan to try it out first as an intern or volunteer or on a part-time basis. When you start on a small scale, you can test possible outcomes. - DO: Implement your plan. Sell your product—which is YOU and your skills, talents, energy, and enthusiasm. Collect data as you go along; you will need it for charting and analyzing in the Check and Act steps ahead. - CHECK: Look at your results so far. Are you happy with your job or wherever you are in the career-development process? How is your actual accomplishment measuring up next to your intentions and wishes? Look for where you may have deviated in your intended steps. For example, did you take a job in another city when your initial plans were for working closer to friends and family? What are the pros and cons? If you like, create a chart that shows you all the factors. With a chart, it will be easier to see trends over several PDCA cycles. - ACT: How should you act going forward? What changes in planning, doing, and checking do you want to take? The PDCA framework is an ongoing process. Keep planning, doing, checking, and acting. The goal is continuous improvement. Career Development Resources in Your College, Community, and Beyond Career experts say that people will change careers (not to mention jobs) five to seven times in a lifetime. So your career will likely not be a straight and narrow path. Be sure to set goals and assess your interests, skills and values often. Seek opportunities for career growth and enrichment. And take advantage of the rich set of resources available to you. Below are just a few. Career Development Resources on Campus Whether you are a student, a graduate, or even an employer, you can obtain invaluable career development assistance at your college. Campus career centers can support, guide, and empower you in every step of the career development process, from initial planning to achieving lifelong career satisfaction. Career Services at Austin Community College District (ACC) is where you can go for help creating and achieving your career goals. You can access information online and meet individually for one on one assistance: www.austincc.edu/career - Resources for career information - Guidance in defining academic and career goals - Support in creating a career plan - Information about employment and internship opportunities - Job search assistance (resume, interview prep, etc.) - Employer connections and events - Labor market information - Career assessments - Career counseling Career Development Resources in our Community Texas Workforce Commission (TWC) is the state agency that oversees workforce development services to employers and job seekers in Texas. There are twenty-eight workforce development boards that focus on the employment needs of their local area by providing job training, childcare support, unemployment insurance and job search assistance. A map can be found on the TWC website: https://www.twc.texas.gov/partners/workforce-development-boards-websites The workforce development boards that serve the ACC community are: Workforce Solutions Capital Area: http://www.wfscapitalarea.com/ and Workforce Solutions Rural Capital Area: https://workforcesolutionsrca.com/ Another career resource in our community is Capital Idea. It is a non-profit organization that provides free tuition, financial support, and professional guidance to qualifying, non-traditional students wanting to move into high growth careers with high earnings potential. https://www.capitalidea.org/ Additional Career Planning Resources Technology also makes career resources available at home. A good place to start exploring is ACC’s Library Services which provides a comprehensive online page with career information and resources: https://researchguides.austincc.edu/careerinfo And for even more tools and information, ACC’s Career Services offers a comprehensive Career Essentials Guide, an online resume builder, and an interactive interview preparation program as well as links to other resources: https://www.austincc.edu/students/career-services/career-resources Key Takeaways - The five main stages of career development are unique for everyone and correlate with attitudes, behaviors, and relationships we all experience at certain points and ages in our lives. - Since it is common for individuals to change careers five to seven times in a lifetime, it is important to know that there is a road map for career journeys with clear steps to lead the way. - There are many career development resources available to you on campus, in the community, and online to assist you in identifying strategies and steps to creating a career path that works for you. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0. CC licensed content, Shared previously - Career Development. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Image of Plan, Do, Check, Act. Authored by: Karn G. Bulsuk. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PDCA_Cycle.svg. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Diagram by Karn G. Bulsuk (http://www.bulsuk.com) All rights reserved - Image: Success Ahead. Created by Gerd Altmann. Provided by Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/photos/road-sign-town-sign-success-career-798176/ . License: Pixabay license Chapter 2: Goals and Motivations Image by Sasin Tipchai from Pixabay If one advances confidently in the direction of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life which he has imagined, he will meet with a success unexpected in common hours. –Henry David Thoreau LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain how time management plays a factor in goal setting, leading to short-term, medium-term, and long-term objectives. - Identify your specific short, medium, and long-term goals. - Identify and apply motivational strategies to support goal achievement. - Explore the social aspects of achieving goals (networking, social media, etc.). - Brainstorm factors that might hinder goal achievement and possible ways to address these issues. Time Management and Goal Setting There is no doubt that doing well in college is a sizable challenge. Every semester you have to adjust to new class schedules, instructors, classmates as well as learning objectives and requirements for each course. Along with that, you may be juggling school with work, family responsibilities, and social events. Do you feel confident that you can attend to all of them in a balanced, committed way? What will be your secret of success? SUCCESS BEGINS WITH GOALS A goal is a desired result that you envision and then plan and commit to achieve. Goals can relate to family, education, career, wellness, spirituality, and many other areas of your life. Generally, goals are associated with finite time expectations, even deadlines. As a college student, many of your goals are defined for you. For example, you must take certain courses, you must comply with certain terms and schedules, and you must turn in assignments at specified times. These goals are mostly set for you by someone else. But there are plenty of goals for you to define yourself. For example, you decide what you would like to major in. You decide how long you are going to be in college or what terms you want to enroll in. You largely plan how you would like your studies to relate to employment and your career. Goals can also be sidetracked. Consider the following scenario in which a student makes a discovery that challenges her to reexamine her goals, priorities, and timetables: Janine had thought she would be an accountant, even though she knew little about what an accounting job might entail. Her math and organizational skills were strong, and she enjoyed taking economics courses as well as other courses in her accounting program. But when one of her courses required her to spend time in an accounting office working with taxes, she decided that accounting was not the right fit for her, due to the higher-stress environment and the late hours. At first she was concerned that she invested time and money in a career path that was not a good fit. She feared that changing her major would add to her graduation time. Nevertheless, she did decide to change her major and her career focus. Janine is now a statistician with a regional healthcare system. She is very happy with her work. Changing her major from accounting to statistics was the right decision for her. This scenario represents some of the many opportunities we have, on an ongoing basis, to assess our relationship to our goals, reevaluate priorities, and adjust. Opportunities exist every day—every moment, really! Below is a set of questions we can ask ourselves at any turn to help focus on personal goals: - What are my top-priority goals? - Which of my skills and interests make my goals realistic for me? - What makes my goals believable and possible? - Are my goals measurable? How long will it take me to reach them? How will I know if I have achieved them? - Are my goals flexible? What will I do if I experience a setback? - Are my goal controllable? Can I achieve them on my own? - Are my goals in sync with my values? As you move through your college career, make a point to ask these questions regularly. Aids to Successful Goal Setting Watch the following overview of SMART goals – a memory aid in setting and evaluating goals to ensure that they are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time bound. After watching the video, complete Activity 2.1. ACTIVITY 2.1: IDENTIFYING YOUR GOALS In order to achieve long-term goals (from college on), you will need to first achieve a series of shorter goals. Medium-term goals (this year and while in college) and short-term goals (today, this week, and this month) may take several days, weeks, months, or even a few years to complete, depending on your ultimate long-term goals. Complete the following Goals Activity to identify short and medium-term goals that will help you achieve your long-term goal. Objectives - Identify 1 long-term academic or career goal. - Identify two related medium-term and two related short-term goals that will help you achieve your long-term goal. - Identify specific, measurable, achievable, relevant activities to achieve your identified goals by a certain timeframe. Instructions - Review the worksheet below, and fill in the blank sections to the best of your ability. Guidelines - Phrase goals as positive statements: Affirm your excitement and enthusiasm about attaining a goal by using positive language and expectations. - Be exact: Set a precise goal that includes dates, times, and amounts, so that you have a basis for measuring your progress. - Prioritize: Select your top goals, and put them in order of importance. This helps you understand the degree to which you value each of them. It will also help you better manage related tasks and not feel overwhelmed. - Take the lead: Identify goals that are linked to your own performance, not dependent on the actions of other people or situations beyond your control. - Be realistic but optimistic and ambitious: The goals you set should be achievable, but sometimes it pays to reach a little higher than what you may think is possible. Certainly don’t set your goals too low. - Be hopeful, excited, and committed: Your enthusiasm and perseverance can open many doors! GOAL PRIORITIES \| MY PRECISE GOALS \| WHAT I AM DOING NOW TO ACHIEVE THESE GOALS \| Example: Long-term goal \| I will graduate with an Associate of Arts degree in Automotive Technology by May 2023. \| I am attending the college of my choice and getting good grades in my major. \| Example: Related medium-term goal \| I will find either an internship or start a part-time job at an auto repair business within the next year. \| I have created an account in ACC Career Link. I visited with Career Services to start working on my resume. When I meet with my automotive tech instructor, I will ask for recommendations for an internship. \| Example: Related short-term goal \| I will earn a 3.0 GPA this semester. \| I attend every class. I reviewed the syllabi and put due dates in my calendar with reminders. This week I have a meeting with one of my instructors to ask about my progress. I have blocked regular study time in my weekly schedule. Last week I started visiting with a Learning Lab tutor. \| Identify your Long-term goal \| \|\| Identify a related medium-term goal #1 \| \|\| Identify a related medium-term goal #2 \| \|\| Identify a related short-term goal #1 \| \|\| Identify a related short-term goal #2 \| Motivational Strategies to Support You Every day we make choices. Some are as simple as what clothes we decide to wear, what to eat for lunch, or how long to study for a test. But what about life-altering choices—the ones that leave us at a crossroads? How much thought do you give to taking Path A versus Path B? Do you like to plan and schedule your choices, by making a list of pros and cons, for instance? Or do you prefer to make decisions spontaneously and just play the cards that life deals you as they come? How do you view challenges? Have you been coming from a growth mindset or a fixed mindset? How can believing that we can learn and improve through effort contribute to our success and our ability to achieve goals? The power of “yet” by Carol Dweck Carol Dweck is a professor at Stanford and the author of Mindset, a classic work on motivation and “growth mindset.” Her work is influential among educators and increasingly among business leaders as well. She researches “growth mindset” — the idea that we can grow our brain’s capacity to learn and to solve problems. In this talk, she describes two ways to think about a problem that’s slightly too hard for you to solve. Are you not smart enough to solve it … or have you just not solved it yet? https://www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve Passion and Perseverance or “Grit” by Angela Duckworth Leaving a high-flying job in consulting, Angela Lee Duckworth took a job teaching math to seventh graders in a New York public school. She quickly realized that IQ wasn’t the only thing separating the successful students from those who struggled. Here, she explains her theory of “grit” as a predictor of success. https://www.ted.com/talks/angela_lee_duckworth_grit_the_power_of_passion_and_perseverance After watching the videos, reflect on how you can improve the ways you currently set goals to allow you the opportunity to apply “grit” and use your “growth mindset” in order to successfully accomplish your goals. Social Aspects of Achieving Your Goals Setting goals can be a challenge, but working toward them, once you’ve set them, can be an even greater challenge—often because it implies that you will be making changes in your life. You might be creating new directions of thought or establishing new patterns of behavior, discarding old habits or starting new ones. Change will always be the essence of achieving your goals. You may find that as you navigate this path of change, one of your best resources is your social network. Your family, friends, roommates, coworkers, and others can help you maintain a steady focus on your goals. They can encourage and cheer you on, offer guidance when needed, share knowledge and wisdom they’ve gained, and possibly partner with you in working toward shared goals and ambitions. Your social network is a gold mine of support. Here are some easy ways you can tap into goal-supporting “people power”: - Make new friends - Study with friends - Actively engage with the college community - Volunteer to help others - Join student organizations - Get an internship - Work for a company related to your curriculum - Stay connected via social media (but use it judiciously)* - Keep a positive attitude - Congratulate yourself on all you’ve done to get where you are A note about social media: More than 98 percent of college-age students use social media, says Experian Simmons. Twenty-seven percent of those students spent more than six hours a week on social media (UCLA, 2014). The University of Missouri, though, indicates in a 2015 study that this level of use may be problematic. It can lead to symptoms of envy, anxiety, and depression. Still, disconnecting from social media may have a negative impact, too, and further affect a student’s anxiety level. Is there a healthy balance? If you feel overly attached to social media, you may find immediate and tangible benefit in cutting back. By tapering your use, your can devote more time to achieving your goals. You can also gain a sense of freedom and more excitement about working toward your goals. Dealing with Setbacks and Obstacles At times, unexpected events and challenges can get in the way of best-laid plans. For example, you might get sick or injured or need to deal with a family issue or a financial crisis. Earlier in this section we considered a scenario in which a student realized she needed to change her major and her career plans. Such upsets, whether minor or major, may trigger a need to take some time off from school—perhaps a term or a year. Your priorities may shift. You may need to reevaluate your goals. Problem-Solving Strategies Below is a simple list of four problem-solving strategies. They can be applied to any aspect of your life. - What is the problem? Define it in detail. How is it affecting me and other people? - How are other people dealing with this problem? Are they adjusting their time management skills? Can they still complete responsibilities, and on time? - What is my range of possible solutions? Are solutions realistic? How might these solutions help me reach my goal/s? - What do I need to do to implement solutions? You may wish to also review the earlier set of questions about focusing with intention on goals. Be confident that you can return to your intended path in time. Acknowledge the ways in which you need to regroup. Read inspiring words from people who have faced adversity and gained. Line up your resources, be resolved, and proceed with certainty toward your goals. KEY TAKEAWAYS Success with goals (any goals—education, family, career, finances, etc.) is essentially a three-part process: - Identify your goals (specifically long-term, medium-term and short-term goals). - Set priorities to accomplish these goals. - Manage your time according to the priorities you have set. By following these three straightforward steps, you can more readily achieve goals because you clearly organize the process and follow through with commitment. Focus your sights on what you want to acquire, attain, or achieve. Prioritize the steps you need to take to get there. And organize your tasks into manageable chunks and blocks of time. These are the roadways to accomplishment and fulfillment. In the following passage from Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom, former political-science student Patricia Munsch—now a college counselor—reflects on how a structured, conscientious approach to decision-making and goal setting in college can lead to fulfillment and achievement. WHAT DO YOU ENJOY STUDYING? There is a tremendous amount of stress placed on college students regarding their choice of major. Everyday, I meet with students regarding their concern about choosing right major; the path that will lead to a fantastic, high-paying position in a growth industry. There is a hope that one decision, your college major, will have a huge impact on the rest of your life. Students shy away from subject areas they enjoy due to fear that such coursework will not lead to a job. I am disappointed in this approach. As a counselor I always ask—what do you enjoy studying? Based on this answer it is generally easy to choose a major or a family of majors. I recognize the incredible pressure to secure employment after graduation, but forcing yourself to choose a major that you may not have any actual interest in because a book or website mentioned the area of growth may not lead to the happiness you predict. Working in a college setting I have the opportunity to work with students through all walks of life, and I do believe based on my experience, that choosing a major because it is listed as a growth area alone is not a good idea. Use your time in college to explore all areas of interest and utilize your campus resources to help you make connections between your joy in a subject matter and the potential career paths. Realize that for most people, in most careers, the undergraduate major does not lead to a linear career path. As an undergraduate student I majored in Political Science, an area that I had an interest in, but I added minors in Sociology and Women’s Studies as my educational pursuits broadened. Today, as a counselor, I look back on my coursework with happy memories of exploring new ideas, critically analyzing my own assumptions, and developing an appreciation of social and behavioral sciences. So to impart my wisdom in regards to a student’s college major, I will always ask, what do you enjoy studying? Once you have determined what you enjoy studying, the real work begins. Students need to seek out academic advisement. Academic advisement means many different things; it can include course selection, course completion for graduation, mapping coursework to graduation, developing opportunities within your major and mentorship. As a student I utilized a faculty member in my department for semester course selection, and I also went to the department chairperson to organize two different internships to explore different career paths. In addition, I sought mentorship from club advisors as I questioned my career path and future goals. In my mind I had a team of people providing me support and guidance, and as a result I had a great college experience and an easy transition from school to work. I recommend to all students that I meet with to create their own team. As a counselor I can certainly be a part of their team, but I should not be the only resource. Connect with faculty in your department or in your favorite subject. Seek out internships as you think about the transition from college to workplace. Find mentors through faculty, club advisors, or college staff. We all want to see you succeed and are happy to be a part of your journey. As a counselor I am always shocked when students do not understand what courses they need to take, what grade point average they need to maintain, and what requirements they must fulfill in order to reach their goal—graduation! Understand that as a college student it is your responsibility to read your college catalog and meet all of the requirements for graduation from your college. I always suggest that students, starting in their first semester, outline or map out all of the courses they need to take in order to graduate. Of course you may change your mind along the way, but by setting out your plan to graduation you are forcing yourself to learn what is required of you. I do this exercise in my classes and it is by far the most frustrating for students. They want to live in the now and they don’t want to worry about next semester or next year. However, for many students that I see, the consequence of this decision is a second semester senior year filled with courses that the student avoided during all the previous semesters. If you purposefully outline each semester and the coursework for each, you can balance your schedule, understand your curriculum and feel confident that you will reach your goal. —Dr. Patricia Munsch, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 - Growth Mindset vs. Fixed Mindset: An Introduction. Authored By: PERT and Rita Kitchen. Provided by: TED-Ed. Located at: https://ed.ted.com/best_of_web/qrZmOV7R. License: CC BY – NC – ND 4.0 International CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Carol Dweck: The Power of Believing That You Can Improve. Provided by: TED. Located at: https://www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives - Angela Lee Duckworth: Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance. Provided by: TED. Located at: https://www.ted.com/talks/angela_lee_duckworth_grit_the_power_of_passion_and_perseverance. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives - Defining Goals. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Image: Children Splash Asia Sunset. Created by: Sasin Tipcha.Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/photos/children-splash-asia-sunset-1822688/ License: Standard Pixabay License - SMART Goals - Quick Overview . Located at: https://youtu.be/1-SvuFIQjK8. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License RETURN TO THE TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 3: Values and Decision Making When your values are clear to you, making decisions becomes easier. -- Roy Disney LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: - Define your work values. - Learn steps to a rational decision-making model. - Understand how making decisions based on values can lead to career satisfaction. Values An essential part in your self discovery journey of your career exploration process is identifying what is most important to you–your values–and learn how they influence and motivate your goals. Values drive our actions and they motivate your goals. Your goals help you establish your priorities in life, guide your decision-making, and affect your evaluation of your success and happiness in life. Take time to reflect what being successful means to you. It will be different for you than for other people. Think of your values as you are thinking about becoming successful. Here's a video of a spoken word performance by Rashad Hedgepeth at a TEDx event titled, “Values”. VALUES As defined at CareerOneStop, a source for employment information sponsored by the US Department of Labor: - Values are your beliefs about what is important or desirable. - When your values line up with how you live and work, you tend to feel more satisfied and confident. - Living or working in ways that contradict your values can lead to dissatisfaction, confusion, and discouragement. So there is good reason to clarify your values, and seek to match your work to them. Identify Your Work Values The best career choices are ones that match your values. So do you know what your values are? Complete the following activity to review the work values that are most important to you. ACTIVITY 3.1: IDENTIFY YOUR WORK VALUES Complete the following activities offered by CareerOneStop to review your work values: - Visit the CareerOneStop Work Values Matcher and complete the card sort exercise. - Review your results and read about all six of the universal work values developed by the U.S. Department of Labor’s ONET program. Click on the ones that best describe you to see careers that highlight that value. What do you notice when reading about the careers that express your top values? Making Decisions Based on Values Decision making refers to making choices among alternative courses of action—which may also include inaction. Not all decisions in life have major consequences or even require a lot of thought. For example, before you come to class, you make simple and habitual decisions such as what to wear, what to eat, and which route to take as you go to and from home and school. You probably do not spend much time on these mundane decisions. However, decisions that are unique and important require conscious thinking, information gathering, and careful consideration of alternatives. In this case, making a decision about your future career is an important one that requires a thoughtful review of what you consider most important in life, your values. Increasing effectiveness in decision making is an important part of maximizing your effectiveness at work. How do you normally make important decisions? Toss a coin? Take advice from trusted role-models? Or let fate decide for you? It is important to be self-aware, especially when it comes to making difficult and important life decisions. We will examine here a decision making model which includes a series of steps to help decision makers make the best choice. Decision Making Model Let’s imagine that your old, clunky car has broken down, and you have enough money saved for a substantial down payment on a new car. It will be the first major purchase of your life, and you want to make the right choice. The first step, therefore, has already been completed—the problem is that you need a new vehicle and need to choose one to buy. In Step 2, you will decide which factors you value most in a vehicle. How many passengers do you want to accommodate? How important is fuel economy to you? Is safety a major concern? You only have a certain amount of money saved, and you don’t want to take on too much debt, so price range is probably an important factor as well. Perhaps you have identified the following as being important to you: room for at least five adults, minimum gas mileage of twenty MPG, a strong safety rating, and no more than $20,000 in price. These are the decision criteria which you have identified. Now, for Step 3, you should allocate weight or determine how important each factor is to your decision. If each is equally important, then there is no need to weigh them, but if you know that price and mpg are key factors, you might weigh them more and weigh the other criteria as being less important. In step 4, you will narrow your choices and develop alternatives. Perhaps, after speaking with others and researching vehicles in unbiased journals and online resources, you are trying to decide between a small SUV, a sports car and a fairly new, but used sedan. For step 5 you can now analyze the alternatives. Using the criteria you established in step 2, analyze each vehicle. Usually it is easier to create a spreadsheet or pros and cons list. Start with the factors that you identified as most important to you. Does the SUV cost less than $20,000? How about the sports car? Or the sedan? Continue to evaluate each vehicle based on your remaining criteria. After weighing the evidence for each, for step 6, choose the best alternative. Remember to give greater weight to the factors that you identified as most important. That means that a vehicle that doesn’t meet your MPG and price needs should not be highest on your list, despite how good you look driving it! For step 7, you take action and purchase your car with confidence knowing that you have made an informed decision. Of course, reviewing the outcome of this decision will influence the next decision made. That is where step 8 comes in. For example, if you purchase a car and have nothing but problems with it, you will be less likely to consider the same make and model when purchasing a car the next time. Perhaps a new important factor will be the maintenance expectations. The decision-making process has important lessons for decision makers. - First, when making a decision, you may want to make sure that you establish your decision criteria before you search for alternatives. This would prevent you from liking one option too much and setting your criteria accordingly. For example, let’s say you started browsing cars online before you generated your decision criteria. You may come across a car that you feel reflects your sense of style and you develop an emotional bond with the car. Then, because of your love for the particular car, you may say to yourself that the fuel economy of the car and the innovative braking system are the most important criteria. After purchasing it, you may realize that the car is too small for your friends to ride in the back seat, which was something you should have thought about. Setting criteria before you search for alternatives may prevent you from making such mistakes. Another advantage of the rational model is that it urges decision makers to generate all alternatives instead of only a few. By generating a large number of alternatives that cover a wide range of possibilities, you are unlikely to make a more effective decision that does not require sacrificing one criterion for the sake of another. - Second, despite all its benefits, you may have noticed that this decision-making model involves a number of unrealistic assumptions as well. It assumes that people completely understand the decision to be made, that they know all their available choices, that they have no perceptual biases, and that they want to make optimal decisions. - Additionally, while decision makers can get off track during any of these steps, research shows that searching for alternatives in the fourth step can be the most challenging. Think about how you make important decisions in your life. It is likely that you rarely sit down and complete all eight of the steps in the rational decision-making model. For example, this model proposed that we should search for all possible alternatives before making a decision, but that process is time consuming, and individuals are often under time pressure to make decisions. Moreover, even if we had access to all the information that was available, it could be challenging to compare the pros and cons of each alternative and rank them according to our preferences. Learning from these important lessons, you can use the work values you identified from Acitivity 3.1 as your criteria in your career exploration. This will help you focus on what is most important to you so that you can choose a career that will help you feel fulfilled and satisfied. Once you decide on a career, your decision will help guide the goals you set for yourself from your college education to your future career. For help to stay on track in this journey, you can seek assistance from the information and resources you learn in this class as well as counselors and career staff at the college to guide your search. KEY TAKEAWAYS Having a clear understanding of your life and career values will help make your decisions in school and work easier. - First, identify your values, what you find most important and essential in life. - Second, use your values to guide your decision making in your education and career options. - Finally, practice a decision-making process that provides you the opportunity to discover all of your choices so that you can make the best decisions based on all the options you have. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 - Values: spoken word performance. Created by: Rashad Hedgepeth. Provided by TEDx. Located at: https://youtu.be/eI1yo-a3QBs License: CC BY – NC – ND 4.0 International CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Understanding Decision Making. Located at: https://open.lib.umn.edu/principlesmanagement/chapter/11-3-understanding-decision-making/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Image: Compass Direction. Created by: PDPics Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/photos/compass-direction-magnetic-compass-390907/ . License: Standard Pixabay License - ONET Online. Located at: https://www.onetonline.org/. License: All Rights Reserved PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT - Provided by: Career OneStop. Located at: https://www.careeronestop.org/. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright Chapter 4: Personality, Skills, and Interests Image by Andre Mouton for Pixabay Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom. – Aristotle Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand personality preferences based on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI). - Explore the qualities of personality types that you most identify with. - Research job titles that matches your preferred work styles. - List specific skills that will be necessary for your career path - List transferable skills that will be valuable for any career path - Identify your skills and interests according to Dr. John Holland’s Occupational Themes - Determine career paths that align with your occupational code - Explain how to acquire necessary skills, both in and out of class, for your career goals Now that you have reviewed the concepts of goal setting and identified values most important to you, the next part of the career development process will help you to reflect on personal preferences. By doing this, you will understand the work environment that you will naturally find a greater fit in. The career development process is all about you. You are a unique individual with a distinct combination of personality traits, skills, and interests, skills. Self -knowledge can help you in your career decision-making process to discover careers that are the best match for you. Personality Type Taking the time to ensure that your personality is compatible with your career choice is extremely important. If you do not invest the time now to figure out what makes you happy and keeps you motivated every day, you could be very unhappy in the future. Why is personality so important? Learning about your personality allows you to think about your emotions, behaviors, and ways of thinking on a day-to-day basis. For example, do you prefer to work alone or do you prefer to work with others? Would you be content in a career that requires you to be extremely organized and have a set schedule? Or are you the type of person that likes to have an open, flexible schedule that allows you to be spontaneous? This information will assist you in deciding which career(s) match with your personality preferences. To review personality preferences, one of the most common tools used to understand personality preferences is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI). Some organizations (such as law enforcement) use it to find out more about the personalities of their potential employees, some universities use the MBTI to learn more about the personalities of potential graduate students considering psychology, counseling, and social work fields, and it is commonly used in relationship therapy to help individuals understand each other and their behaviors better. Watch the following video to get an introduction to the MBTI. Personality Theory: The 4 Facets - Extroversion-Introversion (EI): how you get your energy and where you prefer to focus your attention - Sensing-Intuition (SN): how you take in information about the world around you - Thinking-Feeling (TF): how you like to make decisions - Judging-Perceiving (JP): how you prefer to organize your life Complete the following activity to identify your personality type based on your own self- reflection. Then compare the results with the personality assessment at the website later in the chapter to see how your results are similar and different. Activity 4.1: What’s Your Type? Read descriptions for the four facets. Pick which is more like you. - E (Extraversion) or I (Introversion)? - S (Sensing) or N (Intuition)? - T (Thinking) or F (Feeling)? - J (Judging) or P (Perceiving)? Could be described as: Then you prefer (E) Extraversion \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (I) Introversion \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (S) Sensing \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (N) Intuition \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (T) Thinking \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (F) Feeling \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (J) Judging \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (P)Perceiving \| What is your 4-letter personality type? __ __ __ __ The following are brief descriptions of the 16 personality types from Humanmetrics. Click on your personality type or a similar type to see which describes you best. The 16 personality types \| \|\|\| Work Styles ONET OnLine provides an online tool that helps you to review your personal characteristics and how they can affect how well one performs a job. This tool is available via the Work Styles search function on ONET OnLine. You can browse ONet data by clicking on the quality that you think best represents you including achievement, innovation, and leadership to explore the different jobs that will require the specific characteristic. Skills In addition to personality, skills are also important to consider in the career development process. If you lived and worked in colonial times in the United States, what skills would you need to be gainfully employed? What kind of person would your employer want you to be? And how different would your skills and aptitudes be then, compared to today? Many industries that developed during the 1600s–1700s, such as health care, publishing, manufacturing, construction, finance, and farming, are still with us today. And the professional abilities, aptitudes, and values required in those industries are many of the same ones employers seek today. For example, in the health care field then, just like today, employers looked for professionals with scientific insight, active listening skills, a service orientation, oral comprehension abilities, and teamwork skills. And in the financial field then, just like today, employers looked for economics and accounting skills, mathematical reasoning skills, clerical and administrative skills, and deductive reasoning. Why is it that with the passage of time and all the changes in the work world, some skills remain unchanged (or little changed)? The answer might lie in the fact there are are two main types of skills that employers look for: hard skills and soft skills. Hard Skills & Soft Skills - Hard skills are concrete or objective abilities that you learn and perhaps have mastered. They are skills you can easily quantify, like using a computer, speaking a foreign language, or operating a machine. You might earn a certificate, a college degree, or other credentials that attest to your hard-skill competencies. Obviously, because of changes in technology, the hard skills required by industries today are vastly different from those required centuries ago. - Soft skills, on the other hand, are subjective skills that have changed very little over time. Such skills might pertain to the way you relate to people, or the way you think, or the ways in which you behave—for example, listening attentively, working well in groups, and speaking clearly. Soft skills are sometimes also called “transferable skills” because you can easily transfer them from job to job or profession to profession without much training. What Employers Want in an Employee Employers want individuals who have the necessary hard and soft skills to do the job well and adapt to changes in the workplace. Soft skills may be especially in demand today because employers are generally equipped to train new employees in a hard skill—by training them to use new computer software, for instance—but it’s much more difficult to teach an employee a soft skill such as developing rapport with coworkers or knowing how to manage conflict. An employer might rather hire an inexperienced worker who can pay close attention to details than an experienced worker who might cause problems on a work team. In this section, you will look at ways of identifying and building particular hard and soft skills that will be necessary for your career path. You will also learn how to use your time and resources wisely to acquire critical skills for your career goals. Transferable Skills for Any Career Path Transferable (soft) skills may be used in multiple professions. They include, but are by no means limited to, skills listed below: - Dependable and punctual (showing up on time, ready to work, not being a liability) - Self-motivated - Enthusiastic - Committed - Willing to learn (lifelong learner) - Able to accept constructive criticism - A good problem solver - Strong in customer service skills - Adaptable (willing to change and take on new challenges) - A team player - Positive attitude - Strong communication skills - Good in essential work skills (following instructions, possessing critical thinking skills, knowing limits) - Ethical - Safety conscious - Honest - Strong in time management Career Readiness The National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) defines career readiness as a foundation from which to demonstrate the core competencies that broadly prepare college educated for success in the workplace and lifelong career management. These are the key skills and abilities that employers have identified as being highly valuable across all job functions. Career and Self-Development: Proactively develop oneself and one's career through continual personal and professional learning, awareness of one's strengths and weaknesses, navigation of career opportunities, and networking to build relationships within and without one's organization. Communication: Clearly and efffectively exchange information, ideas, facts, and perspectives with persons inside and outside of an organization. Critical Thinking: Identify and respond to needs based upon an understanding of situational context and logical analysis of relevant information. Equity and Inclusion: Demonstrate the awareness, attitude, knowledge, and skills required to equitably engage and include people from different local and global cultures. Engage in anti-racist practices that actively challenge the systems, structures, and policies of racism. Leadership: Recognize and capitalize on personal and team strengths to achieve organizational goals. Professionalism: Knowing work environments differ greatly, understand and demonstrate effective work habits, and act in the interest of the larger community and workplace. Teamwork: Build and maintain collaborative relationships to work effectively toward common goals, while appreciating diverse viewpoints and shared responsibilities. Technology: Understand and leverage technolgies ethically to enhance efficiencies, complete tasks, and accomplish goals. Do these career readiness skills look familiar? Of course! They are another way to describe the soft and transferable skills which can be more difficult to define than hard skills, but they are often more important to employers. Imagine that you are the hiring authority at your company. What would you look for in a new hire? These skills are transferable because they are positive attributes that are invaluable in practically any kind of work. They also do not require much training from an employer—you have them already and take them with you wherever you go. Soft skills are a big part of your “total me” package. So, identify the soft skills that show you off the best, and identify the ones that prospective employers are looking for. By comparing both sets, you can more directly gear your job search to your strongest professional qualities. ACTIVITY 4.2: IDENTIFYING YOUR SKILLS Objective: - To self identify your Top 5 transferable (soft) skills, skills you are good at, and those skills you wish to learn or develop further. Instructions: - Review the list of transferable skills list and additional checklist of transferable skills above to complete the chart below. Top 5 Skills I Enjoy Using \| Top 5 Skills That Come Naturally \| Top 5 Skills I Want to Learn \| \| 1 \| \|\|\| 2 \| \|\|\| 3 \| \|\|\| 4 \| \|\|\| 5 \| 10 Top Skills You Need to Get a Job When You Graduate The following video summarizes the ten top skills that the Target corporation believes will get you a job when you graduate. You can read a transcript of the video here. Assessing Your Skills and Interests In this section you will continue to assess your skills and your interests in more depth. Most career assessment tests created to measure skills and interests are based on the career theory developed by Dr. John Holland. The following video from Weber University provides you with an introduction to the Holland codes and occupation themes: As mentioned in the video, Holland defined six categories of people based on personality, interests, and skills: - Realistic: These people describe themselves as honest, loyal, and practical. They are doers more than thinkers. They have strong mechanical, motor, and athletic abilities; like the outdoors; and prefer working with machines, tools, plants, and animals. - Investigative: These people love problem solving and analytical skills. They are intellectually stimulated and often mathematically or scientifically inclined; like to observe, learn, and evaluate; prefer working alone; and are reserved. - Artistic: These people are the “free spirits.” They are creative, emotional, intuitive, and idealistic; have a flair for communicating ideas; dislike structure and prefer working independently; and like to sing, write, act, paint, and think creatively. They are similar to the investigative type but are interested in the artistic and aesthetic aspects of things more than the scientific. - Social: These are “people” people. They are friendly and outgoing; love to help others, make a difference, or both; have strong verbal and personal skills and teaching abilities; and are less likely to engage in intellectual or physical activity. - Enterprising: These people are confident, assertive risk takers. They are sociable; enjoy speaking and leadership; like to persuade rather than guide; like to use their influence; have strong interpersonal skills; and are status conscious. - Conventional: These people are dependable, detail oriented, disciplined, precise, persistent, and practical; value order; and are good at clerical and numerical tasks. They work well with people and data, so they are good organizers, schedulers, and project managers. ACTIVITY 4.3: What’s Your Occupational Type? Objective: - To determine your occupational types and code Instructions: - Using the descriptions above, choose the three types that most closely describe you and list them in order in the following table. Most people are combinations of two or sometimes three types. - Then list the specific words or attributes that you feel describe you best. - After determining your primary, secondary, and tertiary occupational types, take the first initial for each type, in order, to establish your occupational code. Occupational Type \| Words and Attributes That Closely Describe Me \| Primary type (the one I identify with most closely) \| \| Secondary type \| \| Tertiary type \| Note: Your occupational code is made up of the initials of the three personality types you selected, in order. My occupational code: ___ ___ ___ (For example: if Social, Enterprising, and Conventional are your top three occupational types, your occupational code would be: S E C) Exploring Careers and Your Occupational Type Now that you have determined your top three occupational types, you can begin to explore the types of careers that may be best suited for you. Holland studied people who were successful and happy in many occupations and matched their occupations to their occupational type, creating a description of the types of occupations that are best suited to each personality type. Just as many individuals are more than one personality type, many jobs show a strong correlation to more than one occupational type. Use the top thee occupation types you defined in Exercise 4.2 “What’s Your Occupational Type?” to help identify careers you may want to consider from the table below. Table 4.1 Occupational Options by Type Ideal Environments \| Sample Occupations \| \| Realistic \| \| \| Investigative \| \| \| Artistic \| \| \| Social \| \| \| Enterprising \| \| \| Conventional \| \| \| ACC’s Career Coach also has an interest assessment. You have a choice between a quick start 6 question version similar to the self-reflection exercise above or a detailed 60 question version based on the ONET Interest Profiler. After answering the questions, you will be given your top three interest themes and suggested career matches with career information and local job market information. You can also check out the Department of Labor’s ONet (http://online.onetcenter.org/find) to get a deeper understanding of your occupation. For each occupation, ONet lists the type of work, the work environment, the skills and education required, and the job outlook for that occupation. This is a truly rich resource that you should get to know. Identify Which Factors Might Affect Your Choice You may now have a list of careers you want to explore. But there are other factors you will need to take into consideration as well. It is important to use your creative thinking skills to come up with alternative “right” answers to factors that may present an obstacle to pursuing the right career. - Timing. How much time must I invest before I actually start making money in this career? Will I need to spend additional time in school? Is there a certification process that requires a specific amount of experience? If so, can I afford to wait? - Finances. Will this career provide me with the kind of income I need in the short term and the security I’ll want in the longer term? What investment will I need to make to be successful in this field (education, tools, franchise fees, etc.)? - Location. Does this career require me to relocate? Is the ideal location for this career somewhere I would like to live? Is it somewhere my family would like to live? - Family/personal. How will this career affect my personal and family life? Do friends and family members who know me well feel strongly (for or against) about this career choice? How important is their input? Your Next Steps It may seem odd to be thinking about life after school, especially if you are just getting started. But you will soon be making decisions about your future, and regardless of the direction you may choose, there is a lot you can do while still in college. You will need to focus your studies by choosing a major. You should find opportunities to explore the careers that interest you. You can ensure that you are building the right kind of experience on which to base a successful career. These steps will make your dreams come to life and make them achievable. Start by developing a relationship with your AoS Advisor for guidance on the academic requirements for your career goals. Will you need to prepare to transfer to a university? If you are in a workforce development program, start building relationships with your instructors as many still work in your field of interest and can give you great tips on how to get started. Another great resource is ACC’s Career Services. They can provide information on internships and strategies to help you connect with employers. And, if you are still undecided, start meeting with a career counselor. It is never too early to start thinking of your plans after college! All too often students engage these counselors only near the end of their college days, when the pressure is just on getting a job—any job—after having completed their certificate or degree. But these counselors can be of great help in matching your interests to a career and in ensuring you are gathering the right kind of experience to put you at the top of the recruiting heap. Keep in mind that deciding on and pursuing a career is an ongoing process. The more you learn about yourself and the career options that best suit you, the more you will need to fine-tune your career plan. Don’t be afraid to consider new ideas, but don’t make changes without careful consideration. Career planning is exciting: learning about yourself and about career opportunities, and considering the factors that can affect your decision, should be a core part of your thoughts while in college. Learn Specific Skills Necessary for Your Career Path The table below lists three resources to help you determine which concrete skills are needed for all kinds of professions. You can even discover where you might gain some of the skills and which courses you might take. Spend some time reviewing each resource. You will find many interesting and exciting options. When you are finished, you may decide that there are so many interesting professions in the world that it’s difficult to choose just one. This is a good problem to have! Table 4.2 Online Skills Identification Resources RESOURCE \| DESCRIPTION \| \| 1 \| Career Aptitude Test (Rasmussen College) \| This test helps you match your skills to a particular career that’s right for you. Use a sliding scale to indicate your level of skill in the following skill areas: artistic, interpersonal, communication, managerial, mathematics, mechanical, and science. Press the Update Results button and receive a customized list customized of career suggestions tailored to you, based on data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. You can filter by salary, expected growth, and education. \| 2 \| Skills Matcher (Career OneStop from the U.S. Department of Labor) \| Use the Skills Profiler to create a list of your skills, and match your skills to job types that use those skills. Plan to spend about 20 minutes completing your profile. You can start with a job type to find skills you need for a current or future job. Or if you are not sure what kind of job is right for you, start by rating your own skills to find a job type match. When your skills profile is complete, you can print it or save it. \| 3 \| This U.S. government website helps job seekers answer two of their toughest questions: “What jobs can I get with my skills and training?” and “What skills and training do I need to get this job?” Browse groups of similar occupations to explore careers. Choose from industry, field of work, science area, and more. Focus on occupations that use a specific tool or software. Explore occupations that need your skills. Connect to a wealth of ONET data. Enter a code or title from another classification to find the related ONET-SOC occupation. \| Acquiring Necessary Skills (both in and out of class) for Your Career Goals “Lifelong learning” is a buzz phrase in the twentieth-first century because we are inundated with new technology and information all the time, and those who know how to learn, continuously, are in the best position to keep up and take advantage of these changes. Think of all the information resources around you: colleges and universities, libraries, the Internet, videos, games, books, films—the list goes on. With these resources at your disposal, how can you best position yourself for lifelong learning and a strong, viable career? Which hard and soft skills are most important? What are employers really looking for? The following list was inspired by the remarks of Mark Atwood, director of open-source engagement at Hewlett-Packard Enterprise. It contains excellent practical advice. - Learn how to write clearly. After you’ve written something, have people edit it. Then rewrite it, taking into account the feedback you received. Write all the time. - Learn how to speak. Speak clearly on the phone and at a table. For public speaking, try Toastmasters. “Meet and speak. Speak and write.” - Be reachable. Publish your email so that people can contact you. Don’t worry about spam. - Learn about computers and computing, even if you aren’t gearing for a career in information technology. Learn something entirely new every six to twelve months. - Build relationships within your community. Use tools like Meetup.com and search for clubs at local schools, libraries, and centers. Then, seek out remote people around the country and world. Learn about them and their projects first by searching the Internet. - Attend conferences and events. This is a great way to network with people and meet them face-to-face. - Find a project and get involved. Start reading questions and answers, then start answering questions. - Collaborate with people all over the world. - Keep your LinkedIn profile and social media profiles up-to-date. Be findable. - Keep learning. Skills will often beat smarts. Be sure to schedule time for learning and having fun! Just Get Involved Even as a new college student, there are actions that you can take now to help you create the experiences and build the skils that employers want. What seems like an unrelated part-time job or fun extracurricular activity can help you develop valuable skills, create a network, and connect you with job openings that may be a good fit for your skills. The video, below, gives tips from students at Monash University in Australia that are relevant to all students: - Get involved in part-time work - Get involved in extracurricular activities - Get involved with the employment and career services offered at your school “Just Get involved. There are so many opportunities and open doors for you.” Key Takeaways - The right career for you depends on your interests, your personality, and your skills. - Learning about your personality helps you to think about your emotions, behaviors, and ways of thinking on a day to day basis. An awareness of these things will help you to find a career that compliments your personality. - Employers look for both hard and soft (transferable) skills in future employees; however transferable skills may be in more demand because they help people adapt to a variety of different jobs and professions without much training. - Defining your occupational type may confirm career choices you have already made and open entirely new options for you. - Connect with a college counselor early in your career development process to help you match your skills, personality and interests with potential jobs and eventually a career that best suits you. - Career planning is an ongoing process involving knowing yourself, knowing about career options, and understanding the context in which your decisions will be made. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Image by Andre Mouton. Provided by: Pixabay. Found at: https://pixabay.com/photos/monkey-mirror-thinking-reflection-4788334/ License: Standard Pixabay License - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 CC licensed content, Shared previously - Professional Skill Building. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Line B: Employability Skills Competency . Provided by: Camosun College. Located at: http://open.bccampus.ca/find-open-textbooks/?uuid=c9bcd8df-17a3-4cf8-8400-426f395b3a62&contributor=&keyword=&subject=Common+Core. License: CC BY: Attribution - 7 skills to land your open source dream job. Authored by: Jason Hibbets. Located at: https://opensource.com/business/14/4/open-source-job-skills. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike - What's Your Personality Type?. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MyersBriggsTypes.png. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Career Exploration. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/freshmanexperience/chapter/12-2-career-exploration/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike All rights reserved content - Career Readiness: Competencies for a Career-Ready Workforce. Provided by: NACE, Revised March 2021. Located at: www.naceweb.org/career-readiness-competencies - Myers Briggs (MBTI) Explained - Personality Quiz. Created by: Practical Psychology. Provided by: YouTube. Located at: https://youtu.be/2ZF4OM6mrrI. License: All Rights Reserved - Preworkshop Video - Holland Codes. Authored by: Weber State University Career Services. Provided by: Weber State University. Located at: https://youtu.be/fNGa-_u7nQU. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - 10 top skills that will get you a job when you graduate. Authored by: TARGETjobs. Located at: https://youtu.be/jKtbaUzHLvw. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - How to find a new jobu2014Transferable Job Skills. Authored by: Learn English with Rebecca. Located at: https://youtu.be/7Kt4nz8KT_Y. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Tips to improve your career from Monash Graduates. Authored by: Monash University. Located at: https://youtu.be/7EBDrTdccAY. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Discover Your Personality Type \| Myers Briggs . Provided by: YouTube. Located at: https://youtu.be/WQoOqQiVzwQ. License: All Rights Reserved - Work Styles. Provided by: ONET OnLine. Located at: https://www.onetonline.org/find/descriptor/browse/Work_Styles/. License: All Rights Reserved Chapter 5: College and Exploring Careers Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay Stay focused, go after your dreams, and keep moving toward your goals. —L L Cool J, musician Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify your motivations for attending college as it relates to your future career goals - Review your individual career profile - Explore activities to gain knowledge and experience about your future career College and Career Knowing what you truly want to gain from your college experience is the first step toward achieving it. But reaching your goals doesn’t necessarily mean you are college and career ready. Ultimately, college and career readiness demands students know more than just content, but demonstrate that they know how to learn and build upon that content to solve problems. They must develop versatile communication skills, work collaboratively and work competitively in a school or work environment. Ensuring that you possess both the academic and technical know-how necessary for a career beyond the classroom is a great step toward succeeding on whatever path you choose. —Washington, DC Office of the State Superintendent of Education What does it mean to be ready for college and a career? In general, you are a college- and career-ready student if you have gained the necessary knowledge, skills, and professional behaviors to achieve at least one of the following: - Earn a certificate or degree in college - Participate in career training - Enter the workplace and succeed For instance, if you are studying for a skilled trade license in college, or perhaps pursuing a bachelor of arts degree, you are college-ready if you have the reading, writing, mathematics, social, and thinking skills to qualify for and succeed in the academic program of your choice. Similarly, you are a career-ready student if you have the necessary knowledge and technical skills needed to be employed in your desired field. For example, if you are a community college student ready to be a nurse, you possess the knowledge and skill needed to secure an entry-level nursing position, and you also possess required licensing. For a long time, my plan had always been to be a kindergarten teacher. But when I began my undergraduate degree I fell into that ever-growing pool of college students who changed their major three times before graduation. I was swayed by family members, my peers, and the economy, but I eventually realized that I was investing my education in the wrong areas for the wrong reasons. It shouldn’t just be about salaries and job security. I needed to find that personal attachment. At eighteen, it’s hard to see your entire life spread out before you. College may feel like a free-for-all at times, but the reality is that it’s one of the most defining times of our lives. It should never be squandered. I started to imagine my life beyond college—what I found important and the type of lifestyle I wanted in the end. I started thinking about the classes that I was actually interested in—the ones that I looked forward to each week and arrived early to just so I could get a seat up front. A turning point for me was when I took the advice of a campus mentor and enrolled in a career exploration course. I learned more about myself in that class than I had in my entire three years at college prior to taking it. It showed me that my passion was something I had always thought about but never thought about as a career. . . . Through this realization and my participation in my career exploration class, I saw a viable future in the Higher Education Administration field. —Jamie Edwards, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom The Marriage of College and Career The oldest institution of higher learning in the United States is widely acknowledged to be Harvard University. It was established in 1636 with the aim of providing instruction in arts and sciences to qualify students for employment. In the 1779 Constitution of Massachusetts submitted by Samuel Adams, John Adams, and James Bowdoin to the full Massachusetts Convention, the following language was used: Art. I.—Whereas our wise and pious ancestors, so early as the year one thousand six hundred and thirty six, laid the foundation of Harvard-College, in which University many persons of great eminence have, by the blessing of GOD, been initiated in those arts and sciences, which qualified them for public employments, both in Church and State . . . Is “public employment” preparation still the goal of higher education institutions today? Indeed, it is certainly one of the many goals! College is also an opportunity for students to grow personally and intellectually. In fact, in a 2018 report titled, “Why Higher Ed?” from a Strada-Gallup Education Consumer Report Survey, students reported their motivations for pursuing a college education: - 58% related to job and career outcomes. - 23 % a general motivation to learn more and gain knowledge without linking it to work or career aspirations. - 12 percent because of family or social expectations. These statistics are understandable in light of the great reach and scope of higher education institutions. Today, there are some 5,300 colleges and universities in the United States, offering every manner of education and training to students. What do employers think about the value of a college education? What skills do employers seek in their workforce? Those that are developed through college coursework across disciplines as well as the personal skills needed to succeed in college. In 2016, a survey by the Society for Human Resource Managers found that these were the most important skills for entry-level positions across industries: - Dependability & Reliability - Integrity - Teamwork - Custom Focus - Initiative - Professionalism - Adaptability - Respect - Critical Thinking - Oral Communication - Planning & Organization - Written Communication In 2018, Hart Research Associates conducted a survey on behalf of the Association of American Colleges and Universities. The survey revealed that the majority of employers believe that a college education is valuable and important. The best preparation for long-term career success is broad learning and skills found across all majors. The learning outcomes they rate as most important include oral and written communication, critical thinking, ethical decision-making, teamwork, critical thinking, and the ability to apply knowledge in real-world settings.[1] Employment Rates and Salaries Consider, too, the following statistics on employment rates and salaries for college graduates. College does make a big difference! - Over the course of a 50-year working life, a male with a bachelor’s degree will earn $900,000 more in median lifetime earnings than high school graduates. (SSA)[2] - In 2019, young adults ages 25 to 34 with a bachelor’s degree or higher had the highest employment rate (87%). (NCES)[3] - In 2019, the employment rate for those some college, including an associate’s degree (80%) was higher than the rate for those who just completed high school (74%) and those who had not finished high school (57%). (NCES)[3] - Employment rates were generally higher for males than females at each level of educational attainment in 2019. (NCES)[3] - There is a wider earnings gap between college-educated and less educated Millennials compared with previous generations. (PEW, 2014)[4] Perhaps most important, an overwhelming majority of college graduates—82% —say that college has been a good investment for them personally (PEW, 2016)[5]. And, on all measurements of career attainment and economic well-being in a 2014 survey, college graduates out performed peers with less education (PEW, 2014)[4]. Differences in Earnings You may wish to use this interactive tool to compare wages within and across demographic groups in the United States, including education level, on the Washington Center for Equitable Growth website. As you can see, education level is just one factor of earning potential. All in all, college imparts a wide and deep range of benefits. The short video Is College Worth It? shows that with a college degree you are more likely to: - Have a higher salary - Have better job prospects - Be healthier - Vote - Be involved in their community Success in College Success in college can be measured in many ways: through your own sense of what is important to you; through your family’s sense of what is important to your collective group; through your institution’s standards of excellence; through the standards established by your state and country; through your employer’s perceptions about what is needed in the workplace; and in many respects through your own unfolding goals, dreams, and ambitions. How are you striving to achieve your goals? And how will you measure your success along the way? Career Journey Continued As you make a commitment to your college career, let’s review your career journey so far. As we learned in Chapter 1, the first stop on the journey requires an inventory of your unique attributes - your goals, values, personality, skills and interests – before you can proceed to the next stop and research specific careers. Activity 5.1: Your Personal Profile Goals - Reflecting on your career exploration and using the SMART format from Chapter 2, identify one long-term career goal. - Then, identify 2-3 short-term goals for this semester to achieve your long-term goal from #1. Values - From Chapter 3 and the CareerOneStop Work Values Matcher, what are your top work values? - Name 2 career titles in which you are most interested and will allow you to express your values. Interests - From Chapter 4 and the Career Coach Interest Assessment or ONet Interest Profiler, what are your top interests (Holland Code)? - Name 2 career titles in which you are most interested and will allow you to express your interests. Personality - From Chapter 4 and the personality test from the Humanmetrics website, what is your 4-letter personality type? - Name 2 career titles in which you are most interested and are often associated with your personality type. Skills - From Chapter 4, what are your top skills? - Name 2 career titles in which you are most interested and will allow you to utilize your skills. Research activity: - Of all the career titles you have explored, which 2 or 3 careers would you be most interested in researching in-depth? Below is the second part of Jamie Edwards’s essay (former student at State University of New York). Her advice is to make connections between the “now” of college experience and future career possibilities. She thinks that the more informed you are about your career options through real-life conversations and experiences, the better prepared you will be for your future—and the more confident you will be in your career decisions. From where I sit now—my former personal and professional struggles in tow—I offer up some pieces of advice that were crucial to getting me where I am today. Whether you’re an undecided major who is looking for guidance or a student with a clearly defined career path, I suggest the following: - Find a mentor—For me, everything began there. Without my mentor, I wouldn’t have done any of the other items I’m about to suggest. Finding the right mentor is crucial. Look for someone who can complement your personality (typically someone who’s the opposite of you). My advice would be to look beyond your direct supervisor for mentorship. It’s important to create an open forum with your mentor, because there may be a conflict of interest as you discuss work issues and other job opportunities. Potential mentors to consider are an instructor on campus, your academic advisor, a professional currently working in your prospective field, someone you admire in your community, or anyone in your network of friends or family that you feel comfortable discussing your future goals with. - Enroll in a Career Exploration/Planning course, or something similar—Even if you do not see the effects of this course immediately (such as dramatically changing your major), you will notice the impact down the road. Making educated career choices and learning job readiness skills will always pay off in the end. Through my career exploration class, I learned how to relate my personality and values to potential career fields. These self-assessments changed my entire thought process, and I see that influence daily. Beyond changing the way you think, the knowledge you gain about effective job search strategies is invaluable. Learning how to write purposeful résumés and cover letters, finding the right approach to the interview process, and recognizing your strengths and weaknesses are just a few of the benefits you can gain from these type of courses. - Complete a Job Shadow and/or Informational Interview—No amount of online research is going to give you the same experience as seeing a job at the front line. In a job shadow or an informational interview, you’re able to explore options with no commitment and see how your in-class experience can carry over to a real world setting. Additionally, you’re expanding your professional network by having that personal involvement. You never know how the connections you make might benefit you in the future. My only regret about job shadowing in college is that I didn’t do it sooner. - Do an Internship—A main source of frustration for recent grads is the inability to secure an entry-level position without experience. “How do I get a job to gain experience when I can’t get a job without experience?” This is how: do an internship or two! Most colleges even have a course where you can obtain credit for doing it! Not only will you earn credits towards graduation, but you’ll gain the necessary experience to put on your résumé and discuss in future interviews. Having completed four internships throughout my college career, I can’t say they were all great. However, I don’t regret a single one. The first one showed me the type of field I didn’t want to work in. The second confirmed that I was heading in the right direction with my career. My third and fourth internships introduced me to completely different areas of higher education which broadened my knowledge and narrowed my search simultaneously. My takeaway is that sometimes you have to learn what you don’t want in order to find out what you do want. The more informed you are about career options through real-life conversations and experiences, the better prepared you will be for your future and the more confident you will be in your career decisions. Always explore your options because even if you learn you hate it, at least you’re one step close to finding what you love. —Jamie Edwards, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom Activity 5.2: Informational Interview As recommended in Part 2, #3 above, reach out to someone working in your area of interest and ask for an opportunity to talk to them for 20 or 30 minutes about their career path and profession. Your friends, family, professors, co-workers, and alumni network are potential connections. Just ask if they know someone with whom you can meet. The goal is not to land a job, but to learn, however, that person can be a part of your network in the future. Be sure to respect their time, be prepared with questions, and present yourself professionally. \| Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay Activity 5.3: resources for career research After you have identified career titles you are most interested and have conducted informational interviews, check out the following resources to help research careers more in-depth: - Occupational Outlook Handbook from US Department of Labor - The OOH can help you find career information on duties, education and training, pay, and outlook for hundreds of occupations. Includes career videos. - O*Net Online - Detailed descriptions of careers with many different ways to search. - Career Coach - Learn about the connection between academic programs and careers as well as local labor market information and current job postings. - Texas Career Check - Detailed career information with video - For more help with your search, visit Austin Community College’s Career Services Key Takeaways Labor research indicates that as educational attainment increases in individuals the unemployment rate decreases. A college degree affects other personal factors you may have not considered such as retirement plan, health care insurance, and higher lifetime salary. College is an ideal place to explore careers. Selecting the right career involves thorough research such as, informational interviews, online research, and utilizing the Career Center located in your college. - “Employers Express Confidence in Colleges and Universities; See College as Worth the Investment, New Research Finds.” Hart Research Associates, Web. 29 Aug. 2019 ↵ - “Education and Lifetime Earnings”. Social Security Administration: Research, Statistics & Policy Analysis. Web. Nov. 2015. ↵ - "Fast Facts: Employment Rates of College Graduates." Fast Facts. National Center For Education Statistics. Web. ↵ - "The Rising Cost of Not Going to College." Pew Research Center: Social & Demographic Trends. Web. 11 Feb. 2014. ↵ - “The State of American Jobs: The Value of a College Education.” Pew Research Center: Social & Demographic Trends. Web. 6 Oct. 2016. ↵ Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay. Found at: https://pixabay.com/photos/board-school-training-career-3683740/ License: Standard Pixabay License - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 - Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay. Found at: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/exchange-of-ideas-debate-discussion-222787/ . License: Standard Pixabay License CC licensed content, Shared previously - The Big Picture. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike - Student Voices: What Does it Mean to be College and Career Ready?. Authored by: Achieve. Located at: https://youtu.be/9pYqsShxqD4. License: CC BY: Attribution - First University in the United States. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_university_in_the_United_States. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike All rights reserved content - Why Higher Ed?: Strada and Gallup Examine Consumers' Top Motives for Choosing Their Educational Pathways. Authored by: Strada Education Network and Gallup. Located at: https://news.gallup.com/reports/226457/why-higher-ed.aspx. License: All Rights Reserved - Entry-Level Applicant Job Skills Survey. Authored by: Society for Human Resource Management. Located at: https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/trends-and-forecasting/research-and-surveys/PublishingImages/Pages/Entry-Level-Applicant-Job-Skills-Survey-/Entry- Level%20Applicant%20Job%20Skills%20Survey.pdf. License: All Rights Reserved - Comparing Wages Within and Across Demographic Groups in the US. Authored by: Washington Center for Equitable Growth. Located at: https://equitablegrowth.org/demographic-group-wages-interactive/ License: All Rights Reserved - Is College Worth It? Authored by: Third Way. Provided by: You Tube. Located at: https://youtu.be/CWms2LMQmhU . License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License Public domain content - What Does College and Career Readiness Mean?. Provided by: Office of the State Superintendent of Education. Located at: http://osse.dc.gov/service/what-does-college-and-career-readiness-mean. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Chart of Unemployment Rates and Earnings By Educational Attainment (4 Sept. 2019) Provided by: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Located at: https://www.bls.gov/emp/chart-unemployment-earnings-education.htm. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright Chapter 6: College Majors Chapter 6: College Majors Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay You have brains in your head. You have feet in your shoes. You can steer yourself any direction you choose. You’re on your own. And you know what you know. And YOU are the one who’ll decide where to go. —Dr. Seuss, children’s author Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - List key strategies for selecting a college major - Identify the relationship between college majors and career paths (both why they matter and why they don’t) - Identify sources for learning more about specific majors and related careers Your Major In the United States and Canada, your academic major—simply called “your major”—is the academic discipline you commit to as an undergraduate student. It’s an area you specialize in, such as accounting, chemistry, criminology, archeology, digital arts, or dance. In United States colleges and universities, roughly 2,000 majors are offered. And within each major is a host of core courses and electives. When you successfully complete the required courses in your major, you qualify for a degree. Where did the term major come from? In 1877, it first appeared in a Johns Hopkins University catalogue. That major required only two years of study. Later, in 1910, Abbott Lawrence Lowell introduced the academic major system to Harvard University during his time as president there. This major required students to complete courses in a specialized discipline and also in other subjects. Variations of this system are now the norm in higher education institutions in the U.S. and Canada. Why is your major important? It’s important because it’s a defining and organizing feature of your undergraduate degree. Ultimately, your major should provide you with the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and/or behaviors you need to fulfill your college goals and objectives. In this section we look at how to select your major and how your college major may correlate with a career. Does your major matter to your career? What happens if you change your major? Does changing your major mean you must change your career? Read on to find out! How to Select Your College Major Selecting your major is one of the most exciting tasks (and, to some students, perhaps one of the most nerve-wracking tasks) you are asked to perform in college. So many decisions are tied to it. But if you have good guidance, patience, and enthusiasm, the process is easier. The video below presents a lighthearted look undertaking this task with nine tips: - Narrow your choices by deciding what you don’t like. - Explore careers that might interest you. Ask questions. - Use your school’s resources. - Ask your teacher, counselor, and family about your strengths. - 60 percent of students change their majors. - Your major isn’t going to define your life. But choosing one that interests you will make your college experience much more rewarding. - Go on informational interviews with people in careers that interest you. - There’s no pressure to decide now. - Take new classes and discover your interests. Does Your College Major Matter to Your Career? There are few topics about college that create more controversy than “Does your major really matter to your career?” Many people think it does; others think it’s not so important. Who is right? And who gets to weigh in? Also, how do you measure whether something “matters”—by salary, happiness, personal satisfaction? It may be difficult to say for sure whether your major truly matters to your career. One’s college major and ultimate career are not necessarily correlated. Consider the following “factoids”: - 50–70 percent of college students change their major at least once during their time in college. - Most majors lead to a wide variety of opportunities rather than to one specific career, although some majors do indeed lead to specific careers. - Many students say that the skills they gain in college will be useful on the job no matter what they major in. - Only half of graduating seniors accept a job directly related to their major. - Career planning for most undergraduates focuses on developing general, transferable skills like speaking, writing, critical thinking, computer literacy, problem-solving, and team building, because these are skills that employers want. - College graduates often cite the following four factors as being critical to their job and career choices: personal satisfaction, enjoyment, opportunity to use skills and abilities, and personal development. - Within ten years of graduation, most people work in careers that aren’t directly related to their majors. - Many or most jobs that exist today will be very different five years from now. It’s also important to talk about financial considerations in choosing a major. - Any major you choose will likely benefit you because college graduates earn roughly $1 million more than high school graduates, on average, over an entire career. - STEM jobs, though—science, technology, engineering, and mathematics—can lead to the thirty highest paying jobs. So if you major in any of these areas, you may be more likely to earn a higher salary. - Even though humanities and social sciences students may earn less money right after college, they may earn more by the time they reach their peak salary than students who had STEM majors. - Students who major in the humanities and social science are also more likely to get advanced degrees, which increases annual salary by nearly $20,000 at peak salary. So where will you stand with regard to these statistics? Is it possible to have a good marriage between your major, your skills, job satisfaction, job security, and earnings? The best guidance on choosing a major and connecting it with a career may be to get good academic and career advice and select a major that reflects your greatest interests. If you don’t like law or medicine but you major in it because of a certain salary expectation, you may later find yourself in an unrelated job that brings you greater satisfaction—even if the salary is lower. If this is the case, will it make more sense, looking back, to spend your time and tuition dollars studying a subject you especially enjoy? Every student who pursues a college degree and a subsequent career may tell a different story about the impact of their major on their professional directions. In the following excerpt from Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom, writer and former SUNY student Kristen Mruk reflects on the choices she made and how they turned out. The Student Experience What I Would Like To Do I thought I knew exactly what I wanted to do when I started college, but that changed three times by the time I graduated. Initially I started as an International Business major but ended up receiving a degree in Communication and continued on to graduate school. My greatest advice to you is to embrace feelings of uncertainty (if you have them) with regard to your academic, career, or life goals. Stop into the Career Services office on your campus to identify what it is that you really want to do when you graduate or to confirm your affinity to a career path. Make an appointment to see a counselor if you need to vent or get a new perspective. Do an internship in your field; this can give you a first-hand impression of what your life might look like in that role. When I chose International Business, I did not do so as an informed student. I enjoyed and excelled in my business courses in high school and I had hopes of traveling the world, so International Business seemed to fit the bill. Little did I know, the major required a lot of accounting and economics which, as it turned out, were not my forte. Thinking this is what I wanted, I wasted time pursuing a major I didn’t enjoy and academic courses I struggled through. So I took a different approach. I began speaking to the professionals around me that had jobs that appealed to me: Student Unions/Activities, Leadership, Orientation, Alumni, etc. I found out I could have a similar career, and I would enjoy the required studies along the way. Making that discovery provided direction and purpose in my major and extracurricular activities. I felt like everything was falling into place. What I Actually Do I would like to . . . ask you to consider why you are in college. Why did you choose your institution? Have you declared a major yet? Why or why not? What are your plans post-graduation? By frequently reflecting in this way, you can assess whether or not your behaviors, affiliations, and activities align with your goals. What you actually do with your student experience is completely up to you. You are the only person who can dictate your collegiate fate. Remind yourself of the reasons why you are in college and make sure your time is spent on achieving your goals. There are resources and people on your campus available to help you. You have the control—use it wisely. —Kristen Mruk, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom Resources Success doesn’t come to you . . . you go to it. —Dr. Marva Collins, civil rights activist and educator This quote really sets the stage for the journey you’re on. Your journey may be a straight line that connects the dots between today and your future, or it may resemble a twisted road with curves, bumps, hurdles, and alternate routes. To help you navigate your pathway to career success, take advantage of all the resources available to you. Your college, your community, and the wider body of higher-education institutions and organizations have many tools to help you with career development. Be sure to take advantage of the following resources: - College course catalog: Course catalogs are typically rich with information that can spark ideas and inspiration for your major and your career. - Faculty and academic advisers at your college: Many college professors are also practitioners in their fields, and can share insights with you about related professions. - Fellow students and graduating seniors: Many of your classmates, especially those who share your major, may have had experiences that can inform and enlighten you—for instance, an internship with an employer or a job interview with someone who could be contacted for more information. - Students who have graduated: Most colleges and universities have active alumni programs with networking resources that can help you make important decisions. - Your family and social communities: Contact friends and family members who can weigh in with their thoughts and experience. - A career center: Professionals in career centers have a wealth of information to share with you—they’re also very good at listening and can act as a sounding board for you to try out your ideas. Many organizations have free materials that can provide guidance, such as the ones in the table, below: WEB SITE \| DESCRIPTION \| 1. Career Coach \| Browse areas of study and majors to find the careers that are related. Learn more with the help of data on wages, growth, daily tasks, job postings, skills, and employers. \| 2. ACC Career Services: Explore Careers (Scroll down to “What Can I Do With a Major in….?”) \| Learn about typical career paths and the types of employers that hire graduates with each major, as well as strategies to make you a more marketable candidate. \| 3. ACC Career Services: FOCUS2 \| Log-in to your FOCUS2 account and explore “What Can I Do With a Major in….?” \| See the courses required for individual award plans/program maps and lean about the related careers and occupation titles. \| \| 5. List of College Majors (MyMajors) \| A list of more than 1,800 college majors—major pages include description, courses, careers, salary, related majors and colleges offering major \| 6. Explore Careers (Roadtrip Nation) \| Career exploration and career advice platform – interviews with working professionals, videos, podcasts, etc. \| Key Takeaways Your major is a set of core courses and electives-the academic discipline- that you commit to while you are in college. Upon completion of your major, you typically qualify for a degree. Selecting your major is a process, and it should involve the exploration of your: - Personality - Values - Interests - Skills Your college major and ultimate career are not necessarily correlated. The best academic and career advice is to select a major that reflects your greatest interests. Students have many resources available to them that are on/off campus, which can assist them in the selection of a major: - College catalog - Counselors - Undecided Majors Workshops - Career Center - Friends and Family - Alumni Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay. Found at: https://pixabay.com/photos/learn-note-sign-directory-64058/ License: Standard Pixabay License - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 CC licensed content, Shared previously - College Majors. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Image of DNA oragami. Authored by: Duncan Hill. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/7JQMKU. License: CC BY: Attribution - Major (academic). Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_%28academic%29. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike All rights reserved content - How to Pick a Major. Authored by: byuidahoadmissions. Located at: https://youtu.be/8I_Qw2NfSq0. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - How to Select Your College Major - WiseChoice. Authored by: SE Social Media. Located at: https://youtu.be/V4dNoVsmU2o. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License Chapter 7: Networking Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay You should be accumulating really great relationships throughout your career. -- Anne M. Mulcahy, former CEO of Xerox LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define network and identify strategies for networking - Identify sources for developing professional networks In the context of career development, networking is the process by which people build relationships with one another for the purpose of helping one another achieve professional goals. When you “network,” you exchange information. - You may share business cards, résumés, cover letters, job-seeking strategies, leads about open jobs, information about companies and organizations, and information about a specific field. - You might also share information about meet-up groups, conferences, special events, technology tools, and social media. - You might also solicit job “headhunters,” career counselors, career centers, career coaches, an alumni association, family members, friends, acquaintances, and vendors. Networking can occur anywhere and at any time. In fact, your network expands with each new relationship you establish. And the networking strategies you can employ are nearly limitless. With imagination and ingenuity, your networking can be highly successful. Strategies for Networking We live in a social world. Almost everywhere you go and anything you do professionally involves connecting with people. It stands to reason that finding a new job and advancing your career entails building relationships with these people. Truly, the most effective way to find a new job is to network, network, and network some more. Once you acknowledge the value of networking, the challenge is figuring out how to do it. What is your first step? Whom do you contact? What do you say? How long will it take? Where do you concentrate efforts? How do you know if your investments will pay off? For every question you may ask, a range of strategies can be used. Begin exploring your possibilities by viewing the following energizing video, Networking Tips for College Students and Young People, by Hank Blank. He recommends the following modern and no-nonsense strategies: - Hope is not a plan. You need a plan of action to achieve your networking goals. - Keenly focus your activities on getting a job. Use all tools available to you. - You need business cards. No ifs, ands, or buts. - Register your own domain name. Find your favorite geek to build you a landing page. Keep building your site for the rest of your life. - Attend networking events. Most of them offer student rates. - Master Linkedin because that is what human resource departments use. Post updates. - Think of your parents’ friends as databases. Leverage their knowledge and their willingness to help you. - Create the world you want to live in in the future by creating it today through your networking activity. These are the times to live in a world of “this is how I can help.” See the LinkedIn for Students Web site. Finding Work Using Your Networks This video was created for international students, but it has helpful tips for all students. It focuses on the importance of networking when looking for jobs and keeping an open mind. Simply talking to people can help you move from casual work to full-time employment. . . . And More Strategies Strategies at College - Get to know your professors: Communicating with instructors is a valuable way to learn about a career and also get letters of reference if and when needed for a job. Professors can also give you leads on job openings, internships, and research possibilities. Most instructors will readily share information and insights with you. Get to know your instructors. They are a valuable part of your network. - Check with your college’s alumni office: You may find that some alumni are affiliated with your field of interest and can give you the “inside scoop.” - Check with classmates: Classmates may or may not share your major, but any of them may have leads that could help you. You could be just one conversation away from a good lead. Strategies at Work - Join professional organizations: You can meet many influential people at local and national meetings and events of professional and volunteer organizations. Learn about these organizations. See if they have membership discounts for students, or student chapters. Once you are a member, you may have access to membership lists, which can give you prospective access to many new people with whom to network. Check out the Professional Association Finder on CareerOneStop . - Volunteer: Volunteering is an excellent way to meet new people who can help you develop your career, even if the organization you are volunteering with is not in your field. Just by working alongside others and working toward common goals, you build relationships that may later serve you in unforeseen and helpful ways. VolunteerMatch matches you with volunteer opportunities based on the causes and populations in which you want to make a difference. - Get an internship: Many organizations offer internship positions to college students. Some of these positions are paid, but often they are not. Paid or not, you gain experience relevant to your career, and you potentially make many new contacts. Check out Texas Internship Challenge for information on paid or class credit opportunities in Texas while still in school. - Get a part-time job: Working full-time may be your ultimate goal, but you may want to fill in some cracks or crevices by working in a part-time job. Invariably you will meet people who can feasibly help with your networking goals. And you can gain good experience along the way, which can also be noted on your résumé. See what is posted by local employers on ACC Career Link. - Join a job club: Your career interests may be shared by many others who have organized a club, which can be online or in person. If you don’t find an existing club, consider starting one. See if there is a student organization for your major registered with the Office of Student Life that you can join or start one. If you want to meet other community members searching for career opportunities in Austin, consider the networking program available through Launchpad. - Attend networking events: There are innumerable professional networking events taking place around the world and also online. Find them listed in magazines, community calendars, newspapers, journals, and at the Web sites of companies, organizations, and associations. - Conduct informational interviews: You may initiate contact with people in your chosen field who can tell you about their experiences of entering the field and thriving in it. Many Web sites have guidance on how to plan and conduct these interviews. Strategies at Home and Beyond - Participate in online social media: An explosion of career opportunity awaits you with social media, including LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and many more. Keep your communication ultra-professional at these sites. Peruse magazine articles, and if you find one that’s relevant to your field and it contains names of professionals, you can reach out to them to learn more and get job leads. Find more information about using social and career networking sites at CareerOneStop - Ask family members and friends, coworkers, and acquaintances for referrals: Do they know others who might help you? You can start with the question “Who else should I be talking to?” - Use business cards or networking cards: A printed business card can be an essential tool to help your contacts remember you. Creativity can help in this regard, too. Students often design cards themselves and either hand print them or print them on a home printer. ACTIVITY: NETWORKING FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT Objectives - Examine five strategies for obtaining and engaging with networking contacts - Develop relationships with new contacts to enhance your career Instructions - Find information about five companies or people in your field of interest, and follow them on Twitter or Instagram. - Get an account at four social media sites that you’ve not yet been active with that may enhance your career. - Find names of three people who interest you (peruse magazine articles, online sites, or other resources), and write an email to them explaining your interests and any requests you may have for information. - Sign up for newsletters from two professional organizations in a field you want to know more about. - Find and attend one in-person or online event within a month. - Now write about this experience at one of your social media sites. Sources for Developing Professional Networks The bottom line with developing professional networks is to cull information from as many sources as possible and use that information in creative ways to advance your career opportunities. The strategies listed in the section above provide you with a comprehensive set of suggestions. Below is a summary of sources you can use to network your way to career success: - Meet-up groups - Conferences - Special events - Technology tools - Social media - Career centers - Alumni association - Professional organizations - Volunteer organizations - Internships - Part-time job - Job club - Networking events - Magazine articles - Web sites - Career coaches - Headhunters - Career counselors - Family members - Friends - Coworkers - Vendors - College professors - Advisers - Classmates - Administrators - Coaches - Guest speakers Don’t Wait to Develop Your Network For inspiration, listen to Isaac Serwanga’s Tedx Talk on his 3 Bones of Networking for Student Success: the Wishbone (State what you want!), the Jawbone (Ask with competency and humility!), and the Backbone (Persist, persist, persist!). KEY TAKEAWAYS Networking is the process by which people form professional relationships to create, act upon opportunities, share information and help one another achieve professional goals. - When you “network” with a person, you may: - Share business cards, resumes, cover letters, job-seeking strategies, leads about open jobs, information about companies and organizations, and information about specific fields. - Share information about networking groups, conferences, events, technology tools, and social media - Research career counselors, career centers, career coaches and alumni, relatives, and acquaintances - Networking can occur anywhere and anytime, and expands as you form and nurture new relationships - According to Hank Blank, producer of the video Networking Tops for College Students and Young People, as a college student, you should have specific modern and no-nonsense strategies when developing your network. - If you are an international student you may want to focus on keeping an open mind when it comes to networking - When networking at college: - Get to know your professors - Check with your college alumni office - Check with classmates - Some strategies that you can develop at work include: - Joining professional organizations - Volunteering - Internships - Clubs - Attend networking events - Conduct informational interviews - Some strategies that you can develop at home include: - Be active on social media - Ask family members and friends, coworkers, and relatives for referrals - Utilize business cards for networking LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 - Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay. Found at: https://pixabay.com/photos/play-stone-network-networked-1237457/ License: Standard Pixabay License - Isaac Serwanga: The 3 Bones of Networking for Student Success. Provided by: TED. Located at: https://youtu.be/4OTPJZnBP8s License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Networking. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Image of 3D Social Networking. Provided by: ccPixs.com Authored by: Chris Potter. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/d9K1Bc. License: CC BY: Attribution - Networking. Authored by: Ronda Dorsey Neugebauer. Provided by: Chadron State College. Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License: CC BY: Attribution ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Hank Blank - Networking Tips for College Students and Young People. Authored by: Hank Blank. Located at: https://youtu.be/TDVstonPPP8. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - International Student Series: Finding work using your networks. Authored by: The University of Sydney. Located at: https://youtu.be/1yQ5AKqpeiI. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License Chapter 8: Résumés and Cover Letters Image by: Flazingo.com The most important tool you have on a résumé is language. —Jay Samit, digital media innovator LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define the purpose and contents of a résumé - Identify characteristics of an effective cover letter and résumé A résumé is a “selfie” for business purposes. It is a written picture of who you are—it’s a marketing tool, a selling tool, and a promotion of you as an ideal candidate for any job you may be interested in. The word résumé comes from the French word résumé, which means “a summary.” Leonardo da Vinci is credited with writing one of the first known résumés, although it was more of a letter that outlined his credentials for a potential employer, Ludovico Sforza. The résumé got da Vinci the job, though, and Sforza became a longtime patron of da Vinci and later commissioned him to paint The Last Supper. You can see the letter and read the translation Ladders Career Advice. Résumés and cover letters work together to represent you in the brightest light to prospective employers. With a well-composed résumé and cover letter, you stand out—which may get you an interview and then a good shot at landing a job. In this section we discuss résumés and cover letters as key components of your career development tool kit. We explore some of the many ways you can design and develop them for the greatest impact in your job search. Your Résumé: Purpose and Contents Your résumé is an inventory of your education, work experience, job-related skills, accomplishments, volunteer history, internships, residencies, and/or more. It’s a professional autobiography in outline form to give the person who reads it a quick, general idea of who you are. With a better idea of who your are, prospective employers can see how well you might contribute to their workplace. As a college student or recent graduate, though, you may be unsure about what to put in your résumé, especially if you don’t have much employment history. Still, employers don’t expect recent grads to have significant work experience. And even with little work experience, you may still have a host of worthy accomplishments to include. It’s all in how you present yourself. The following quick video from the Career Development Center at West Chester University describes the purpose of a resume. Elements of Your Successful Résumé Perhaps the hardest part of writing a résumé is figuring out what format to use to organize and present your information in the most effective way. There is no correct format, per se, but most résumés follow one of the four formats below. Which format appeals to you the most? - Reverse chronological résumé: A reverse chronological résumé (sometimes also simply called a chronological résumé) lists your job experiences in reverse chronological order—that is, starting with the most recent job and working backward toward your first job. It includes starting and ending dates. Also included is a brief description of the work duties you performed for each job, and highlights of your formal education. The reverse chronological résumé may be the most common and perhaps the most conservative résumé format. It is most suitable for demonstrating a solid work history, and growth and development in your skills. It may not suit you if you are light on skills in the area you are applying to, or if you’ve changed employers frequently, or if you are looking for your first job. Reverse Chronological Résumé Examples - Functional résumé: A functional résumé is organized around your talents, skills, and abilities (more so than work duties and job titles, as with the reverse chronological résumé). It emphasizes specific professional capabilities, like what you have done or what you can do. Specific dates may be included but are not as important. So if you are a new graduate entering your field with little or no actual work experience, the functional résumé may be a good format for you. It can also be useful when you are seeking work in a field that differs from what you have done in the past. It’s also well suited for people in unconventional careers. Functional Résumé Examples - Hybrid résumé: The hybrid résumé is a format reflecting both the functional and chronological approaches. It’s also called a combination résumé. It highlights relevant skills, but it still provides information about your work experience. With a hybrid résumé, you may list your job skills as most prominent and then follow with a chronological (or reverse chronological) list of employers. This résumé format is most effective when your specific skills and job experience need to be emphasized. Hybrid Résumé Examples - Video, infographic, and Web-site résumé: Other formats you may wish to consider are the video résumé, the infographic résumé, or even a Web-site résumé. These formats may be most suitable for people in multimedia and creative careers. Certainly with the expansive use of technology today, a job seeker might at least try to create a media-enhanced résumé. But the paper-based, traditional résumé is by far the most commonly used—in fact, some human resource departments may not permit submission of any format other than paper based. Video Resume Examples; Infographic Résumé Examples; Web-Site Résumé Examples An important note about formatting is that, initially, employers may spend only a few seconds reviewing each résumé—especially if there is a big stack of them or they seem tedious to read. That’s why it’s important to choose your format carefully so it will stand out and make the first cut. According to the Indeed video below, there are 5 Resume Tips That Will Get You Noticed: - Use key words from the job posting - List your hard skills - List your soft skills - List your achievements and be specific - Edit Résumé Contents and Structure For many people, the process of writing a résumé is daunting. After all, you are taking a lot of information and condensing it into a very concise form that needs to be both eye-catching and easy to read. Don’t be scared off, though! Developing a good résumé can be fun, rewarding, and easier than you think if you follow a few basic guidelines. In the following video, a résumé-writing expert describes some keys to success. Contents and Components To Include - Your contact information: name, address, phone number, professional email address - A summary of your skills: 5–10 skills you have gained in your field; you can list hard skills as well as soft skills (refer to the Professional Skill Building topic in this course) - Work experience: depending on the résumé format you choose, you may list your most recent job first; include the title of the position, employer’s name, location, employment dates (beginning, ending) - Volunteer experience - Education and training: formal and informal experiences matter; include academic degrees, professional development, certificates, internships, etc. - References statement (optional): “References available upon request” is a standard phrase used on résumés, although it is often implied - Other sections: may include a job objective, a brief profile, a branding statement, a summary statement, additional accomplishments, and any other related experiences Caution Résumés resemble snowflakes in as much as no two are alike. Although you can benefit from giving yours a stamp of individuality, you will do well to steer clear of personal details that might elicit a negative response. It is advisable to omit any confidential information or details that could make you vulnerable to discrimination, for instance. Your résumé will likely be viewed by a number of employees in an organization, including human resource personnel, managers, administrative staff, etc. By aiming to please all reviewers, you gain maximum advantage. - Do not mention your age, gender, height or weight. - Do not include your social security number. - Do not mention religious beliefs or political affiliations, unless they are relevant to the position. - Do not include a photograph of yourself or a physical description. - Do not mention health issues. - Do not use first-person references. (I, me). - Do not include wage/salary expectations. - Do not use abbreviations. - Proofread carefully—absolutely no spelling mistakes are acceptable. Top Ten Tips for a Successful Résumé - Aim to make a résumé that’s 1–2 pages long on letter-size paper. - Make it visually appealing. - Use action verbs and phrases. See Action Words and Phrases for Résumé Development. - Proofread carefully to eliminate any spelling, grammar, punctuation, and typographical errors. - Include highlights of your qualifications or skills to attract an employer’s attention. - Craft your letter as a pitch to people in the profession you plan to work in. - Stand out as different, courageous. - Be positive and reflect only the truth. - Be excited and optimistic about your job prospects! - Keep refining and reworking your résumé; it’s an ongoing project. Remember that your résumé is your professional profile. It will hold you in the most professional and positive light, and it’s designed to be a quick and easy way for a prospective employer to evaluate what you might bring to a job. When written and formatted attractively, creatively, and legibly, your résumé is what will get your foot in the door. You can be proud of your accomplishments, even if they don’t seem numerous. Let your résumé reflect your personal pride and professionalism. More Resume Tip Videos from Indeed Don't forget to include the hard and soft (or transferable) skills that you can offer. And here are some examples of words to use and words to avoid when describing your strengths and qualifications. Résumé Writing Resources WEBSITE \| DESCRIPTION \| Everything you need to know about resumes: what they are for, the types, the parts, action words, samples, etc. \| \| Helps you create the foundation of a resume so you can individualize it using suggested tasks and skills from your work experience. \| \| ACC Library Services – Research Guide for Resumes and Cover Letters \| Resources to help with writing a resume and cover letter. \| What to put on your resume when you are a new graduate or just starting your career with little to no relevant work experience. \| \| An example of a terrible resume for a recent college graduate and details of what NOT to do. \| \| \| \| Indeed – How to Write a College Student Resume Indeed – Including Relevant Coursework on a Resume \| Resume formats, tips, and examples for college students. Articles and how-tos \| Your Résumé: It’s Like Online Dating The following essay by Jackie Vetrano is excerpted from Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom. It’s a true-to-life story comparing job hunting to online dating. The writer’s “lessons learned” are meant to enlarge your awareness of your career goals as you attend college. IT’S LIKE ONLINE DATING Searching for a job, especially your first job, is a lot like online dating. It begins as a time commitment, gets nerve-wracking towards the middle, but ends in success and happiness if you follow the right process. Like many single people with access to current technology, I ventured into the world of online dating. I went for coffee with potential mates who were instant no ways, some who left me scratching my head, and a few who I found a connection with. But hang on. We are here to talk about professional development, not my love life. Being on the job hunt is not easy. Many spend hours preparing résumés, looking at open positions, and thinking about what career path to travel. Occasionally, it is overwhelming and intimidating, but when taken one step at a time, it can be a manageable and an exciting process. The first step of online dating is the most important: create your dating profile. Your profile is where you put your best foot forward and show off all of your attractive qualities through visuals and text. Online daters find their most flattering photos and then season the “about me” section of their profile with captivating and descriptive words to better display who they are and why other online daters should give them a shot. Résumés follow this same logic. Your résumé should be clean, polished, and present you in your best light for future employers. Like dating profiles, they are detailed and should paint a picture for other prospective dates (or future employers) supporting why you deserve a chance at their love—an interview. The unspoken rules of online dating profiles are very similar to the rules for writing a résumé. Whether you like it or not, your online dating profile and résumé both serve as a first impression. Profiles and résumés that are short, filled with spelling errors, or vague are usually passed over. Unless you are a supermodel and all you need is an enticing photo, your written description is very important to display who you are. Your résumé should capture who you are, your skill set, education, past experiences, and anything else that is relevant to the job you hope to obtain. Knowing your audience is a key factor in crafting the perfect resume. Logically, if my online dating profile presented studious and quiet personality traits, I would likely start receiving messages from potential mates who are looking for someone who is seeking those traits. By taking a similar approach while writing a résumé, you can easily determine the tone, language, and highlighted skills and experiences you should feature. The tone of your résumé is dictated by the nature of the position you hope to obtain in the future. For example, hospitality jobs or positions that require you to interact with many people on a daily basis should be warm and welcoming while analytical jobs, such as accounting or research positions, should reflect an astute attention to detail. Your choice in language follows similar logic—use appropriate terms for the position you are seeking. Unlike online dating profiles, your résumé should include your important contact information, including email address, telephone number, and mailing address. Some advise refraining from listing a mailing address, as this could create a bias due to some organizations that are looking for a new employee who is already in the area. Unfortunately, this bias cannot be foreseen, which means you should use your best judgment when listing your contact information. If you include this contact information on your dating profile, you may have some very interesting text messages in the morning. —Jackie Ventrano, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom Vetrano’s essay is continued ahead in the “Cover Letters” section of this page. ACTIVITY: CREATE YOUR RÉSUMÉ Objectives: - Compile data reflecting your professional and educational skills and accomplishments. - Assess the main résumé formats and select one that meets your needs. - Create a first draft of your professional résumé. Directions: - Compile all needed information for your résumé, including your contact information, a summary of your skills, your work experience and volunteer experience, education and training (including your intended degree, professional development activities, certificates, internships, etc.). Optionally you may wish to include job objective, a brief profile, a branding statement, additional accomplishments, and any other related experiences. - Select one of the résumé builder tools listed above in the Résumé Writing Resources table. - Create your résumé, following instructions at your selected site. - Save your document as a PDF file. - Follow instructions from your instructor on how to submit your work. Your Cover Letter Image by Andrea Polini from Pixabay Cover letters matter. When you have to go through a pile of them, they are probably more important than the résumé itself. —woodleywonderworks What Is a Cover Letter? A cover letter is a letter of introduction, usually 3–4 paragraphs in length, that you attach to your résumé. It’s a way of introducing yourself to a potential employer and explaining why you are suited for a position. Employers may look for individualized and thoughtfully written cover letters as an initial method of screening out applicants who may who lack necessary basic skills, or who may not be sufficiently interested in the position. Indeed Cover Letter basics https://youtu.be/hrZSfMly_Ck Often an employer will request or require that a cover letter be included in the materials an applicant submits. There are also occasions when you might submit a cover letter uninvited: for example, if you are initiating an inquiry about possible work or asking someone to send you information or provide other assistance. With each résumé you send out, always include a cover letter specifically addressing your purposes. Characteristics of an Effective Cover Letter Cover letters should accomplish the following: - Get the attention of the prospective employer - Set you apart from any possible competition - Identify the position you are interested in - Specify how you learned about the position or company - Present highlights of your skills and accomplishments - Reflect your genuine interest - Please the eye and ear The following video features Aimee Bateman, founder of Careercake.com, who explains how you can create an incredible cover letter. You can download a transcript of the video here. Cover Letter Resources WEBSITE \| DESCRIPTION \| Everything you need to know about resumes: what they are for, the types, the parts, action words, samples, etc. \| \| Helps you create the foundation of a resume so you can individualize it using suggested tasks and skills from your work experience. \| \| How to write a college student cover letter with templates and examples (including email version) \| \| Resources about the reality of cover letters, using a cover letter, the worst use of the cover letter, the testimonial cover letter technique, and a cover letter checklist \| \| Brief video on the basics of writing a strong cover letter. \| Your Cover Letter: It’s Like Online Dating The following is another excerpt from the “It’s Like Online Dating” essay by Jackie Vetrano. Writing a cover letter may feel like a chore, but the payoff will be well worth it if you land the job you want! IT’S LIKE ONLINE DATING Sending a Message—The Cover Letter After searching through dozens of profiles, online daters generally find a handful of people they can picture themselves with. There’s only one way to find out more about the person, and that’s by sending the first message. The challenging part of the first message I send through online dating sites is determining what to say. I’ve never met these people before, but I do have access to their dating profiles filled with their hobbies, hometowns, and more. This is a perfect starting point for my message, especially if we both root for the same football team or if the other person likes to run as much as I do. Your cover letter serves as an introduction to your future employer and should complement your résumé to create a shining first impression. It is incredibly challenging to sit in front of a blank screen trying to find a good starting point, which means you should look at the job posting and organization’s Web site for ideas about what to include. Generally, these job postings provide a set of hard skills (such as proficiency with certain technology) and soft skills (such as public speaking, teamwork, or working in a flexible environment) required and desired for the posted position. This information provides you a list of what should be explained in your cover letter. Demonstrating your hard skills is a simple enough task by using examples or stating certifications, but describing your soft skills may require a little more thought. These soft skills can be exhibited by discussing specific examples of past experiences in previous jobs you’ve held, volunteer work, or work you’ve done in college classes. After you have crafted your cover letter, you should send it to a few people you trust for their opinion and overall proofreading along with the job posting for their reference. It’s obvious that your cover letter should be free of spelling and grammar errors, but these trustworthy individuals will also be able to provide helpful insight about the examples you’ve used to display your soft skills. —Jackie Vetrano, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom KEY TAKEAWAYS The purpose of the resume is to get your foot in the door and be offered an interview. The resume is your one chance to catch your employer’s attention and stand out from the other applicants. A cover letter is a letter of introduction that you submit with your resume and it explains why you are suited for the position. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 - Image of "Scrabble - Application" by flazingo_photos is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 - Image of typewriter with CV by Andrea Polini Provided by: Pixabay Located at: https://pixabay.com/photos/cv-curriculum-vitae-job-application-5082903/ License: Standard Pixabay License CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Ru00e9sumu00e9s and Cover Letters. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Resume Writing: Purpose of a Resume. By: Career Development Center: West Chester University. Located at: https://youtu.be/cNAoMp_Ni5I. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - 5 Resume Tips That’ll Get You Noticed By: Indeed Located at: https://youtu.be/w82xo-CfwqU. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Top Resume Skills By: Indeed Located at: https://youtu.be/_bZi-34IFxs License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Resume Words to Include and Avoid By: Indeed Located at: https://youtu.be/BxPy_-cl4mY License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Steps to an Incredible Cover Letter. Authored by: Aimee Bateman. Located at: https://youtu.be/mxOli8laZos. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Resume Tutorial. Authored by: Cameron Cassidy. Located at: https://youtu.be/O5eVMaPZWmM. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License RETURN TO THE TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 9: Interviewing Image by by souvenirsofcanada One important key to success is self-confidence. An important key to self-confidence is preparation. —Arthur Ashe, champion tennis player LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe effective strategies to prepare for an interview - Differentiate between different types of interview situations and identify appropriate interview techniques for each - Analyze different question types common in interviews If your résumé and cover letter have served their purposes well, you will be invited to participate in an interview with the company or organization in which you are interested. Congratulations! It’s an exciting time, and your prospects for employment are very strong if you put in the time to be well prepared. In this section we look at how to get ready for an interview, what types of interviews you might need to engage in, and what kinds of questions you might be asked. Preparing Effectively for a Job Interview Review the Job Description When you prepare for an interview, your first step will be to carefully read and reread the job posting or job description. This will help you develop a clearer idea of how you meet the skills and attributes the company seeks. Research the Company or Organization Researching the company will give you a wider view of what the company is looking for and how well you might fit in. Your prospective employer may ask you what you know about the company. Being prepared to answer this question shows that you took time and effort to prepare for the interview and that you have a genuine interest in the organization. It shows good care and good planning—soft skills you will surely need on the job. Practice Answering Common Questions Most interviewees find that practicing the interview in advance with a family member, a friend, or a colleague eases possible nerves during the actual interview. It also creates greater confidence when you walk through the interview door. In the “Interview Questions” section below, you’ll learn more about specific questions you will likely be asked and corresponding strategies for answering them. Plan to Dress Appropriately Interviewees are generally most properly dressed for an interview in business attire, with the goal of looking highly professional in the eyes of the interviewer. The following short video from UC Davis Internship and Career Center describes “How to Dress For Success for Interviews and the Workplace.” And the even shorter video, “What to Wear to an Interview: Business Casual and Business Formal Examples” from Indeed. Come Prepared Plan to bring your résumé, cover letter, and a list of references to the interview. You may also want to bring a portfolio of representative work. Leave behind coffee, chewing gum, and any other items that could be distractions. Be Confident Above all, interviewees should be confident and “courageous.” By doing so you make a strong first impression. As the saying goes, “There is never a second chance to make a first impression.” Job Interview Types and Techniques Every interview you participate in will be unique: The people you meet with, the interview setting, and the questions you’ll be asked will all be different from interview to interview. The various factors that characterize any given interview can contribute to the sense of adventure and excitement you feel. But it’s also can normal to feel a little nervous about what lies ahead. With so many unknowns, how can you plan to “nail the interview” no matter what comes up? A good strategy for planning is to anticipate the type of interview you may find yourself in. There are common formats for job interviews, described in detail, below. By knowing a bit more about each type and being aware of techniques that work for each, you can plan to be on your game no matter what form your interview takes. Screening Interviews Screening interviews might best be characterized as “weeding-out” interviews. They ordinarily take place over the phone or in another low-stakes environment in which the interviewer has maximum control over the amount of time the interview takes. Screening interviews are generally short because they glean only basic information about you. If you are scheduled to participate in a screening interview, you might safely assume that you have some competition for the job and that the company is using this strategy to whittle down the applicant pool. With this kind of interview, your goal is to win a face-to-face interview. For this first shot, though, prepare well and challenge yourself to shine. Try to stand out from the competition and be sure to follow up with a thank-you note. Phone or Web Conference Interviews If you are geographically separated from your prospective employer, you may be invited to participate in a phone interview or online interview, instead of meeting face-to-face. Technology, of course, is a good way to bridge distances. The fact that you’re not there in person doesn’t make it any less important to be fully prepared, though. In fact, you may wish to be all the more “on your toes” to compensate for the distance barrier. Make sure your equipment (phone, computer, Internet connection, etc.) is fully charged and works. If you’re at home for the interview, make sure the environment is quiet and distraction-free. If the meeting is online, make sure your video background is pleasing and neutral, like a wall hanging or even a white wall. One-on-One Interviews The majority of job interviews are conducted in this format—just you and a single interviewer—likely with the manager you would report to and work with. The one-on-one format gives you both a chance to see how well you connect and how well your talents, skills, and personalities mesh. You can expect to be asked questions like “Why would you be good for this job?” and “Tell me about yourself.” Many interviewees prefer the one-on-one format because it allows them to spend in-depth time with the interviewer. Rapport can be built. As always, be very courteous and professional. Have handy a portfolio of your best work. Panel Interviews An efficient format for meeting a candidate is a panel interview, in which perhaps four to five coworkers meet at the same time with a single interviewee. The coworkers comprise the “search committee” or “search panel,” which may consist of different company representatives such as human resources, management, and staff. One advantage of this format for the committee is that meeting together gives them a common experience to reflect on afterward. In a panel interview, listen carefully to questions from each panelist, and try to connect fully with each questioner. Be sure to write down names and titles, so you can send individual thank-you notes after the interview. Serial Interviews Serial interviews are a combination of one-on-one meetings with a group of interviewers, typically conducted as a series of meetings staggered throughout the day. Ordinarily this type of interview is for higher-level jobs, when it’s important to meet at length with major stakeholders. If your interview process is designed this way, you will need to be ultraprepared, as you will be answering many in-depth questions. Stay alert. Lunch Interviews In some higher-level positions, candidates are taken to lunch or dinner, especially if this is a second interview (a “call back” interview). If this is you, count yourself lucky and be on your best behavior, because even if the lunch meeting is unstructured and informal, it’s still an official interview. Do not order an alcoholic beverage, and use your best table manners. You are not expected to pay or even to offer to pay. But, as always, you must send a thank-you note. Group Interviews Group interviews are comprised of several interviewees and perhaps only one or two interviewers who may make a presentation to the assembled group. This format allows an organization to quickly prescreen candidates. It also gives candidates a chance to quickly learn about the company. As with all interview formats, you are being observed. How do you behave with your group? Do you assume a leadership role? Are you quiet but attentive? What kind of personality is the company looking for? A group interview may reveal this. For a summary of the most common interview formats, take a look at the following video from the Career Center at Texas A&M University, Types of Interviews. ACTIVITY: WHAT MAKES YOU A GREAT FIT? Objectives: - Define your ideal job. - Identify the top three reasons why you are a great fit for this ideal job. Directions: - Write a paragraph describing your ideal job. Imagine that you are already in this job. What is your job title and what are you responsible for executing? What is the name of the company or organization? What is its function? - Now identify the top three reasons why you are a great fit for this ideal job. What sets you apart from the competition? List the qualities, skills and values you have that match the job requirements. Provide examples to support your answers. Connect your values to the company’s values. - Summarize your answer. - Submit this assignment according to directions provided by your instructor. Interview Questions For most job candidates, the burning question is “What will I be asked?” There’s no way to anticipate every single question that may arise during an interview. It’s possible that, no matter how well prepared you are, you may get a question you just didn’t expect. But that’s okay. Do as much preparation as you can—which will build your confidence—and trust that the answers will come. To help you reach that point of sureness and confidence, take time to review common interview questions. Think about your answers. Make notes, if that helps. And then conduct a practice interview with a friend, a family member, or a colleague. Speak your answers out loud. Below is a list of resources that contain common interview questions and good explanations/answers you might want to adopt. WEBSITE \| DESCRIPTION \| \| 1 \| 100 top job interview questions—be prepared for the interview (from Monster.com) \| This site provides a comprehensive set of interview questions you might expect to be asked, categorized as basic interview questions, behavioral questions, salary questions, career development questions, and other kinds. Some of the listed questions provide comprehensive answers, too. \| 2 \| Interview Questions and Answers (from BigInterview) \| This site provides text and video answers to the following questions: Tell me about yourself, describe your current position, why are you looking for a new job, what are your strengths, what is your greatest weakness, why do you want to work here, where do you see yourself in five years, why should we hire you, and do you have any questions for me? \| 3 \| Ten Tough Interview Questions and Ten Great Answers (from CollegeGrad) \| This site explores some of the most difficult questions you will face in job interviews. The more open-ended the question, the greater the variation among answers. Once you have become practiced in your interviewing skills, you will find that you can use almost any question as a launching pad for a particular topic or compelling story. \| 4. \| Illegal Interview Questions (from Better Team) \| Illegal questions that should not be asked in an interview. \| Why Should We Hire You From the Ohio State University Fisher College of Business Career Management Office, here is a video featuring representatives from recruiting companies offering advice for answering the question “Why should we hire you?” As you watch, make mental notes about how you would answer the question in an interview for a job you really want. In closing, below is the final excerpt from the essay “It’s Like Online Dating,” by Jackie Vetrano. You’ll recall that the writer compares job hunting—including résumé creation and cover-letter writing—to online dating. In this last section, she concludes with a look at the job interview and compares it to a first date. IT’S LIKE ONLINE DATING The First Date—The Job Interview After what may feel like forever, you hear back from the love of your life. Congratulations! In the online dating world, you may chat about common interests (because you wrote a stunning first message), but in the world of work, you’ll be asked to visit the organization for an interview. I have been on many first dates, and whether it’s in a coffee shop or over dinner, the first face-to-face meeting is tremendously important. If someone I am meeting for the first time looks like they just came from the gym or rolled out of bed, my impression instantly changes. This same theory can be directly applied to your first date with your future employer. You have worked hard on your cover letter and résumé, and you should not taint the sparkling first impression you have created with the wrong choice in dress. What you wear to a job interview may change based on the position you have applied for, but there are a set of basic rules that everyone should follow. Similar to meeting someone on a first date for coffee, you want to be comfortable. Some interviews may take place with multiple people in an organization, meaning you will be walking to different locations, sitting down, and potentially sweating from a broken air conditioning unit. Consider these factors when choosing your outfit for your interview, and if you’re concerned about being underdressed, remember to always dress a bit nicer than how you’d dress for the job itself. There is nothing worse than sitting alone at a coffee shop waiting for a mystery date to show up. It’s uncomfortable and affects my overall first impression of whom I’m about to meet. Avoid making your mystery employer annoyed and waiting for you by leaving at least ten minutes earlier than you need to, just in case you get stuck in traffic. Arrive at least ten minutes early. The interview will start out much better if you are early rather than nervous and running late. Arriving early also gives you the time to have some coffee and review materials you may need for the interview. Coming on time to an interview or a first date shows you respect the time of the person you plan to meet. On a first date, it is all about communication. Sometimes, there may be silences that cannot be filled or the person I have just met discloses their entire life story to me in less than an hour. If we cannot achieve a proper balance, there will not be a second date. Communicating effectively in a job interview is equally as important, especially if you want a job offer! All of the rules of dating apply to how you should behave in a job interview. The interviewer will ask you questions, which means that you should look at them and focus on what is being asked. Your phone should be on silent (not even on vibrate), and hidden, to show that you are fully attentive and engaged in the conversation you are having. Much like having a conversation on a date, the answers to your questions should be clear and concise and stay on topic. The stories I tell on my first dates are more personal than what would be disclosed in a job interview, but the mindset is the same. You are building the impression that the organization has of you, so put your best foot forward through the comments you make. To make that great impression, it is really important to heavily prepare and practice, even before you have an interview scheduled. By brainstorming answers to typical interview questions in a typed document or out loud, later during the interview you will easily remember the examples of your past experiences that demonstrate why you are best for the job. You can continue to update this list as you move through different jobs, finding better examples to each question to accurately describe your hard and soft skills. This interview is as much a date for your future employer as it is for you. Come prepared with questions that you have about the company, the position, and anything else you are curious about. This is an opportunity for you to show off the research you’ve done on the organization and establish a better understanding of company culture, values, and work ethic. Without knowing these basics of the company or organization, what you thought was a match might only end in a tense breakup. After your interview is over, you continue to have an opportunity to build on the positive impression that you’ve worked hard to form. Sending a follow up thank you note to each person you interviewed with will show your respect for the time the organization spent with you. These notes can be written and sent by mail or emailed, but either way should have a personal touch, commenting on a topic that was discussed in the interview. While sending a thank you note after a first date may sound a little strange, you might not get asked to a second interview without one! It’s Official—The Job Offer In the online dating world, it takes a few dates to determine if two people are a match. In the corporate world, you may have a one or two interviews to build a relationship. If your impression was positive and the organization believes you’re a match for the open position, you’ll be offered a job. With a job offer also comes the salary for the position. It is important to know what a reasonable salary is for the position and location, which can be answered with a bit of research. One good place to look is the Bureau of Labor Statistics Web site. At this point, it is not uncommon to discuss your salary with your future employer, but be sure to do so in a polite way. Online dating sites provide the means for millions of people to meet future partners, and the number of people who use online dating is so large that there are sure to be disappointments along the way. I have met people who I thought were compatible with me, but they did not feel the same, and vice versa. This happens frequently while searching for a job, which can be discouraging, but should not hinder you from continuing to search! There are a great number of opportunities, and sometimes all it takes is adjusting your filters or revising your résumé and cover letter. The cliché “there’s plenty of fish in the sea” may be true, but there is definitely a way for each person to start their career off. —Jackie Vetrano, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom KEY TAKEAWAYS - Prepare for the interview by carefully reviewing the job description and researching the company in advance. This will help you tailor your interview responses to illustrate how your skills and abilities match the needs of the organization. - Practice common interview questions with a family member or friend to help you respond to questions more naturally, make a good impression, and build confidence in your interviewing skills. - Come prepared for the interview by dressing professionally for the position and bringing copies of your résumé, cover letter, letters of reference, and samples of your work if relevant to the position. - Become familiar with common formats for job interviews, such as screening interviews, one-on-one interviews, phone or web conference interviews, and panel interviews. Each will require different interview techniques from you, and by learning about each type, you will be prepared to demonstrate how you are the best person for the job. - Always send a personalized thank you note to each person who interviewed you immediately following the interview. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning License: CC BY: Attribution Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT How to Dress for Success for Interviews and the Workplace. Authored by: UC Davis Internship and Career Center Located at https://youtu.be/taDdxF0T5B8 License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License What to Wear to an Interview: Business Causal and Business Formal Examples Authored by: Indeed. Located at: https://youtu.be/muwkauOZjEI License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License Types of Interviews Authored by: Texas A&M University Career Center Located at: https://youtu.be/S49RQc_OtfU License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License Why Should We Hire You? How to Answer this Interview Question. Authored by: Fisher OSU. Located at: https://youtu.be/Ut-fKJNbqmc. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License Chapter 10: What’s Next? Image by mohamed Hassan from Pixabay Go confidently in the direction of your dreams! - Henry David Thoreau, American essayist, poet and philosopher Your Success Track You’ve completed an important first step toward college success by completing this. May the new skills and strategies you’ve gained serve you well not only in college but at work and in any other settings in which college skills become life skills. Future Proof Your Career Transitioning from college to your career is just the first step. Watch this short video from Mind Tools for tips on how to plan for continued success with 9 Ways to Future Proof Your Career. Symbols of Success As you move more deeply into student life, consider selecting a symbol of your commitment to success. Consider your own personal definition of “success.” What would a physical representation of that success look like? Many people consider graduation caps or diplomas to be symbols of college success. If those are meaningful to you, consider choosing one. Alternatively, yours can become more personal—an item that speaks to you as a sign of what you’re working toward and how you’ll know you’ve “made it.” Some ideas from previous students include: - a stethoscope, for an aspiring nurse - a set of professional salon scissors, for an aspiring beautician - an office door nameplate, for an aspiring law student Once you find a meaningful symbol—perhaps an object or an image or even an idea—keep it in a place where you can easily access it. In moments when you need a boost, you can remind yourself that college success begins and ends with your commitment to learning well. Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 - Image by Mohamed Hassan. Provided by: Pixabay Located at: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/graduation-academic-accomplish-air-3649717/ License: Standard Pixabay License - Image of Success Sign Road Sign by Gerd Altmann Provided by: Pixabay Located at: https://pixabay.com/photos/success-road-sign-traffic-sign-479569/ License: Standard Pixabay License CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Conclusion. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Screenshot of success symbols. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - 9 Ways to Future Proof Your Career. Provided by: Mind Tools. Located at: https://youtu.be/qQGgH9QHybU License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:17.407080	08/23/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85264/overview", "title": "Career Planning and Personal Exploration", "author": "Dawn Allison" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109718/overview	Phonological Awareness Overview This OER would be used to help increase phonological awareness for tier 3 readers. This OER has resources for spelling tests, quizzes, and teaching strategies to help early learners. Goal is to help with Word, Syllable, Rhyme, Alliteration, First Sound, and Phonemic Awareness in all students to increase reading levels. Phonological Awareness for Tier 3 Readers This OER was created to help tier 3 readers strengthen their phonetic awareness through practice assessments, spelling assignments, and photo or visual examples of words they are putting together. With this, students will be able to process letter sounds to help decode words and increase independent reading skills quicker and more efficently.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:17.436076	Student Guide	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109718/overview", "title": "Phonological Awareness", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123467/overview	Evaluation and Analysis of Information Retrieval Experiments Overview These table presents history, scope, methodology, results, limitation, future of various Information Retrieval Experiments- Cranfield Test 1, Cranfield Test 2, SMART Tests, MEDLARS Experiments, and STAIRS and TREC Tests. Evaluation and Analysis of Information Retrieval Experiments Evaluation of Information retrieval experiment Introduction: Finding pertinent information from a vast repository (such a database, website, or document corpus) in response to user queries is known as information retrieval, or IR. With applications in digital libraries, recommendation systems, and search engines, it is a foundational field in computer science. To guarantee an information retrieval system's quality, accuracy, and applicability, its efficacy must be assessed. This assignment investigates how an information retrieval experiment is evaluated. It goes over important performance analysis, assessment measures, and approaches for gauging the effectiveness of IR systems. By analysing an experiment, we want to determine how well the system responds to different kinds of queries, finds pertinent documents, and rates them. Importance: Evaluation's Significance in Information Retrieval Evaluation is necessary for: Assure Relevance: The retrieved documents' applicability to the user's query should be the basis for evaluating the system's performance. It is possible to compare various IR systems, algorithms, or setups by using performance measures. Determine Weaknesses: Assessment assists in identifying certain aspects of the system, such as the query processing methods, indexing plans, or ranking algorithms that require improvement. Types of IR Experiment: There are five types of experiments: - The Cranfield Tests (1 & 2) - SMART experiment - MEDLARS experiment - STAIRS experiment - TREC experiment Tropic \| Cran- field Test 1 \| Cran- field Test 2 \| SMART \| MEDLARS \| STAIRS \| TREC \| History \| Developed at the Cranfield Institute of Technology (now Cranfield University) in the United Kingdom in the early 1960s, the Cranfield Test 1 was one of the first systematic assessments of information retrieval (IR) systems. In the field of IR, the test was a component of the ground breaking work conducted by C.J. van Rijsbergen and his associates, which included H.P. Luhn and M.J.J.S. Smith. There were no objective, standardised techniques for assessing the performance of IR systems prior to this experiment. With its emphasis on quantifiable metrics like accuracy and recall to gauge retrieval systems' performance, the Cranfield Test 1 brought a more scientific approach to IR evaluation. \| Following the success of Cranfield Test 1, the second stage of the ground breaking Cranfield studies in information retrieval (IR) was known as Cranfield Test 2. It expanded on the ideas and procedures developed in the initial test and was carried out in the middle of the 1960s at the Cranfield Institute of Technology (now Cranfield University). Although accuracy and recall were first offered as assessment measures in Cranfield Test 1, Cranfield Test 2 built upon these concepts and sought to improve the evaluation techniques for IR systems, offering a more thorough examination of system performance. This test helped provide the groundwork for further studies in the subject and strengthened the statistical assessment of IR systems. \| One of the most important early information retrieval (IR) research projects was the SMART (System for the Mechanical Analysis and Retrieval of Text) project, which Gerard Salton and his colleagues created at Cornell University in the 1960s and 1970s. It was an innovative attempt to develop an IR system using automated document retrieval and statistical methods. Key concepts of contemporary information retrieval were established with the aid of the SMART system, which offered a platform for creating and evaluating retrieval models. The SMART project was noteworthy for using statistical models in IR, including inverse document frequency (IDF) and term frequency (TF). In order to go from basic keyword-based retrieval to a more complex, probabilistic method that would eventually impact the creation of contemporary search engines, these models were essential. \| One of the first extensive information retrieval (IR) systems was the Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System (MEDLARS) experiment, which was carried out in the 1960s and was designed to assist in the management and retrieval of medical literature. With an emphasis on indexing and retrieving biomedical papers, MEDLARS, which was funded by the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM), sought to increase access to medical research. It established the framework for the PubMed system, which would eventually develop into an essential tool for healthcare practitioners. \| The SMART system was the foundation of the 1970s–1980s STAIRS (Statistical Techniques for the Automatic Indexing and Retrieval of Text) effort, which aimed to enhance automatic indexing and retrieval using statistical techniques. Aiming to improve IR methods and scalability, it addressed the shortcomings of previous systems by emphasising probabilistic models for large-scale document retrieval. \| The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) initiated the TREC (Text Retrieval Conference) experiment in 1992 as a significant endeavour to promote information retrieval (IR) by offering uniform assessment criteria for different IR methods. By bringing together academics from academia, business, and government to assess various retrieval methods, TREC sought to advance objective and repeatable IR research using common datasets and evaluation measures. \| Scope \| The Cranfield Test 1 was created to assess document retrieval systems with pre-formulated questions and a controlled dataset. Its objectives were to: Establish assessment criteria to gauge the effectiveness of the IR system. Give them a way to compare various retrieval mechanisms. Create standardised procedures for performance evaluation and relevance judgement. In the experiment, 1,400 aeronautical documents from the Cranfield Aeronautical Collection were employed, together with a set of test questions that reflected common user information requirements in the aeronauti-cs industry. \| Compared to Test 1, Cranfield Test 2's scope was more expansive and precise: There were more documents and queries in the bigger collection. By investigating how various retrieval strategies performed under increasingly varied situations, the test sought to further enhance assessment approaches. The primary goal was to evaluate the influence of various retrieval techniques on performance and to gauge system efficacy using average precision in addition to precision and recall. Dataset: The dataset size was expanded to include more documents and questions, including about 1,500 documents and 225 enquiries, but the Cranfield Aeronautical Collection from Test 1 was retained. \| The SMART project aimed to improve document retrieval by using statistical methods to analyse text, allowing it to go beyond the simple matching of query terms with document terms. The experiment extended to several key areas of IR: Term Weighting: Introducing the TF-IDF (Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency) weighting scheme, which became a standard for representing the importance of terms in documents. Automatic Indexing: SMART allowed for automatic indexing of large collections of text, making the process more efficient. Relevance Feedback: The system also explored techniques like relevance feedback, where the system could learn from the user’s feedback on the relevance of documents to refine future retrieval results. \| The MEDLARS experiment's main objectives were: Automating medical literature indexing and retrieval. Creating techniques to improve memory and accuracy while locating pertinent records in huge medical archives. Investigating MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) and other restricted vocabularies to increase search precision. Creating a system that can manage vast amounts of specialised medical data and assess its effectiveness. \| STAIRS sought to: Enhance large-scale automated indexing. Make use of statistical models such as TF-IDF to improve document retrieval. Examine probabilistic retrieval and ranking models. Pay attention to assessment methods that make use of measures like as MAP, accuracy, and recall. For improved search results, investigate query expansion and relevance feedback. \| The TREC experiment's main objectives were: Standardised Evaluation: Using a uniform framework and test sets to provide a standard for assessing IR systems. Dataset Creation: Creating sizable, organised text collections (news stories, research papers, etc.) for system assessment is known as dataset creation. Evaluation measures: Stressing common IR measures such as mean average precision (MAP), recall, and accuracy. Topic Diversity: Examining retrieval methods for a variety of information demands and domains, including online search, question answering, news retrieval, and multilingual information retrieval. \| Methodology \| Dataset: 1,400 documents pertaining to aeronautical engineering were taken from the Cranfield Aeronautical Collection for the exam. Queries: A selection of questions was made to reflect common information requirements in the aviation industry. Relevance Judgement: Significance Human assessors made the decision based on each query's relevancy. Every document was categorised according to whether it was pertinent to the question or not. Performance Metrics: To evaluate the efficacy of retrieval systems, the test utilised precision and recall as assessment measures. Precision: The percentage of pertinent documents that are recovered is known as precision. Recall: The percentage of pertinent documents that are obtained. The Cranfield Test was among the first to aggregate answers from several queries using mean average precision (MAP), providing a more comprehensive picture of system performance. \| Cranfield Test 2's technique built on Test 1's strategy by emphasising: Dataset and Queries: A total of 1,500 papers were added to the Cranfield Aeronautical Collection. To address a broad variety of information demands in the aeronautics area, a collection of 225 queries was meticulously created. Relevance Judgement: Human assessors continued to determine relevance, classifying materials as either relevant or non-related to each inquiry. Although the assessments also looked at how to deal with varying degrees of relevance, binary relevance judgements (relevant or non-related) remained the standard. Performance Metrics: Recall and precision continued to be the core assessment measures. In order to aggregate accuracy data over several queries, Mean Average accuracy (MAP) was added. The test also looked into more efficient ways to determine the average accuracy over a group of enquiries. In addition, the ranking of the recovered documents was examined more thoroughly than in Test 1, examining the impact of the relevant documents' positions on the assessment criteria. Testing Procedure: Similar to Test 1, the set of queries used to get documents from the collection was provided to the systems being evaluated. The results were analysed for their precision and recall, and the average precision was calculated across the queries. \| The technique of the SMART experiment was based on statistical analysis of text and included the following essential elements: Document Collection: A collection of news and scientific articles was one of the standard datasets used by the SMART system for evaluation. The Cranfield Collection, which was utilised in the Cranfield Tests, was one of the most popular test collections. Term weighting and indexing: To give words in documents weights, the system used statistical models. Word Frequency (TF), which quantifies how frequently a word occurs in a text, was one of the most significant models. A term's inverse document frequency (IDF) indicates how uncommon it is within the whole corpus of documents. This lessens the effect of commonly used but uninformative phrases (such as "the" and "and"). Processing Queries: Likewise, similar term-weighting algorithms were used to handle queries. The most pertinent documents would then be returned by the algorithm after determining the degree of similarity between the query and every document in the corpus based on their term vectors. Evaluation: The efficacy of the retrieval system was evaluated using measures including mean average precision (MAP), recall, and precision. In order to assist the system improve the search results for subsequent searches, SMART also concentrated on relevancy feedback, enabling users to offer comments on papers that were retrieved. Similar to the Cranfield experiments, trials were usually conducted with a pre-set of queries and a set of documents with predetermined relevance judgements. \| Document Representation: For more efficient retrieval and uniform indexing, controlled vocabularies (such as MeSH) were used. Indexing: centred on specialists manually classifying texts using a regulated vocabulary. Query Processing: To provide more accurate results, the system let users enter search queries using keywords, which were then compared to the indexed vocabulary. Evaluation: The accuracy and recall of the system were assessed by counting the number of pertinent papers that were retrieved and the number that were overlooked. \| Document Representation: TF-IDF was used for phrase weighting in the vector space model. Automatic Indexing: Enhancing the effectiveness of indexing big document collections was the main goal of automatic indexing. Processing of Queries: To improve retrieval outcomes, query expansion and feedback were used. Evaluation: Performance was assessed using precision, recall, and MAP. Probabilistic methods: Investigated probabilistic ranking methods to determine the relevancy of documents. \| Test Collections: Along with linked subject sets (search queries), TREC generated large, diverse document collections (such as TREC discs and Reuters-21578). Evaluation: Systems were evaluated using precision, recall, and MAP by comparing the relevance of recovered contents with manual relevance assessments. Participant Systems: Researchers developed a variety of retrieval models, such as learning-based, probabilistic, and vector space models, to be evaluated on the same datasets. Ad-Hoc Retrieval: The primary focus was on ad-hoc retrieval, when systems need to supply relevant content in response to a specific query. \| Results \| Crucial information on the functionality of IR systems was revealed by the Cranfield Test 1: Precision and Recall: The findings demonstrated that systems could be quantitatively assessed according to their precision (the number of pertinent documents they were able to obtain) and recall (the number of pertinent documents they failed to recollect). Impact of Ranking: The test showed that these measures might be used to assess basic ranking and retrieval techniques based on word matching. Establishment of Benchmarks: The test introduced the idea of mean average precision (MAP) to summarise performance over several queries and established precision and recall as standard measures for assessing IR systems. The findings demonstrated the difficulties in striking a balance between accuracy and memory; a system with great precision can overlook pertinent documents (poor recall), and vice versa. \| The main outcomes of Cranfield Test 2 supported and extended the conclusions reached from Test 1: Precision and Recall: Both precision and recall have been shown to be useful indicators of retrieval performance. The use of mean average precision (MAP) to quantify system performance was much enhanced, offering a more thorough understanding of the system's efficacy over several enquiries. Document Ranking: According to the test, recall and accuracy were greatly impacted by the sequence in which the papers were presented. As a result, ranking methods became more important, and in subsequent years, other assessment metrics such as Normalised Discounted Cumulative Gain (NDCG) were introduced. System Comparison: Various retrieval systems were assessed, demonstrating that the Cranfield assessment framework could be used to compare systems that used various indexing and retrieval techniques. The test demonstrated that, in comparison to more straightforward keyword-based models, statistical and probabilistic models could provide gains in retrieval efficacy. \| Term Weighting Success: The TF-IDF model's implementation greatly enhanced retrieval performance. It showed how the system's capacity to locate pertinent materials was enhanced by assigning unusual and pertinent phrases greater weight. Relevance Feedback: Later incorporated into several IR systems, the SMART system helped establish the idea of relevance feedback. This enhanced the system's relevance over time by enabling more dynamic and user-driven retrieval. Evaluation Metrics: Precision and recall were established as crucial measures for assessing the efficacy of infrared systems thanks to SMART. The evaluation of overall system performance over several queries using mean average precision (MAP) was a significant development in IR evaluation. \| Effective Indexing: MEDLARS showed how crucial it is to use restricted vocabularies, such as MeSH, to increase the precision of retrieving medical documents. Better Retrieval: When compared to previous approaches, the system effectively enhanced the retrieval of pertinent documents, exhibiting notable gains in recall and precision. Impact on Medical IR: MEDLARS influenced programs like PubMed by laying the groundwork for subsequent advancements in automated medical information retrieval systems. \| Improve Retrieval: Using statistical methods like TF-IDF, STAIRS improved automated indexing and showed notable gains in document retrieval. Feedback: Demonstrated how user input might dynamically enhance retrieval outcomes. Probabilistic Ranking: The development of probabilistic models for document rating was aided by this work. Scalability: The capacity to scale retrieval techniques effectively for bigger datasets. \| System Comparison: Comparing different retrieval models (such as statistical, probabilistic, and machine learning models) was made possible by TREC. Improvements in IR: The experiment led to improvements in IR methods, namely in document ranking, query processing, and relevance feedback. Benchmarking: TREC influenced the creation of commercial search engines and became a common benchmark in IR research. Collaboration: Promoted a community of IR scholars by encouraging cooperation between government, business, and academia. \| Limitation \| Despite being revolutionary, the Cranfield Test 1 had a number of drawbacks: Limited Dataset: The results' ability to be applied broadly was limited by the modest size of the dataset (1,400 documents). Additionally, because aeronautics was such a specialised field, outcomes might not be readily transferable to other fields. Simplicity of Queries: The queries employed were comparatively straightforward and failed to take into consideration the intricate and diverse character of actual user information requirements. Relevance judgements: Relevance judgements were binary (relevant or non-relevant), which simplifies the information demands of the actual world, where papers may be context-dependent or only partially relevant. \| Limitations are: Binary Relevance Judgement: Similar to Test 1, relevance was assessed using a binary scale (relevant vs. non-relevant). This simplified the information demands of the actual world, where context might affect relevance and papers may only be partially relevant. Domain-Specific: Both Test 1 and Test 2 made use of the aeronautical-specific Cranfield Aeronautical Collection. Because of this, the enquiries were restricted to a certain field of knowledge, and the findings were less general is able to other domains. Small Dataset: By today's standards, the dataset was still small even when it was expanded from 1,400 to 1,500 documents. The ability to draw more general conclusions regarding the efficacy of the system across vast datasets was hampered by the small quantity of documents and queries. \| The SMART experiment has a number of drawbacks in spite of its revolutionary contributions: Relevance Judgement: Similar to previous IR studies, SMART continued to rely on subjective, assessor-specific manual relevance judgements. In assessing system performance, this adds the possibility of bias and irregularities. Relevance in Binary: The approach oversimplified the complexity of real-world information demands by using binary relevance judgements (relevant or non-relevant). Different levels of relevance (e.g., moderately relevant or very relevant) must frequently be taken into consideration by modern IR systems. Limited to Statistical Models: Despite being a pioneer in the application of statistical models, SMART mostly concentrated on term frequency and inverse document frequency for representation. More intricate models that take context, semantic meaning, and user purpose into account—all of which are major issues in contemporary IR—were not examined. \| Manual Indexing: This method relied on manual indexing, which was expensive, time-consuming, and had limited scalability. Limited Search Flexibility: The system's capacity to handle natural language enquiries was restricted, and users were forced to rely on organised search queries. Subjectivity in Indexing: The indexing process was subject to some subjectivity due to the employment of human indexers, which may have affected consistency. \| Keyword Matching: Its comprehension of complicated queries was limited by its continued heavy reliance on keyword-based search. Dependency on keyword based search. Relevance Feedback: Relying on user feedback, which may not always be accessible or trustworthy. Manual Judgements: Evaluation was based on subjective manual relevance judgements. Limited Ability to Handle Ambiguity: Had trouble answering unclear questions and lacked a deeper comprehension of semantics. \| Manual Relevance Judgements: Subjectivity and inconsistency may have arisen via the usage of human-generated relevance judgements. Limited Contextual Understanding: TREC assessments did not take into consideration more complicated, contextual, or conversational search demands; instead, they were mainly concerned with ad-hoc searches. Scalability: Despite their size, TREC datasets were still modest in comparison to contemporary web-scale search datasets (like Google's data). \| Future \| The Cranfield Test 1 developed fundamental techniques for assessing information retrieval systems, emphasising relevance evaluation and indexing strategies. In order to improve data indexing and retrieval efficiency in developing technologies, it will be important to refine these principles for analysis of both traditional and AI-driven retrieval systems. \| By incorporating systematic techniques like accuracy and recall, the Cranfield Test 2 transformed the evaluation of information retrieval. Modern search engine development and AI-based retrieval methods are influenced by its legacy. In order to ensure relevance in ever-more complicated datasets, the future of AI-driven, semantic, and neural retrieval technologies rests in modifying these principles. \| Future directions for the SMART experiment centre on: Deep Learning: Improved semantic comprehension for more effective query management. Personalisation: Search results that are customised according on user activity. NLP (natural language processing): Better management of intricate enquiries. Including voice, video, and pictures in a search is known as multimodal search. Real-time adaptation is the dynamic refining of results depending on input. Explain ability: Clear AI models for outcome rating \| Automated Indexing: In order to manage higher data quantities, future systems will shift towards automated indexing and machine learning-based models. Natural Language Processing (NLP): Using NLP to facilitate complicated searches and provide more flexible query comprehension. Customised Retrieval: Applying context awareness and personalisation to search results according to user preferences or medical history. Integration with Other Data Sources: For more thorough retrieval, future systems may incorporate data from a variety of healthcare sources, including clinical trial data and electronic health records \| Deep Learning & NLP: To grasp the semantics of queries, future systems will employ deep learning and transformers (like BERT and GPT). Improved context-aware and customised retrieval systems that take user behaviour and preferences into account are known as personalised search systems. Multimodal Search: Creating systems that can process audio, video, pictures, and text to provide all-encompassing search experiences. Explain ability: The goal of improving the transparency and explain ability of AI models' decision-making. \| Machine Learning Integration: Future assessments will use machine learning techniques and deep learning models to improve semantic search and relevance prediction. Multimodal Search: Going beyond text to assess multimodal search systems (such as those that use pictures, videos, and audio). Real-Time Search: Assessing real-time information retrieval and adjusting to dynamic, constantly-evolving online data is known as real-time search. Personalisation and Context: Emphasising context-aware and personalised retrieval, where user actions and preferences impact search outcomes. \| Conclusion: An information retrieval system's evaluation offers important information about how well the system works. Researchers may evaluate the ranking quality as well as the relevance of retrieved documents by employing measures like as accuracy, recall, F1-score, and NDCG. It is possible to optimise IR systems to increase user retrieval efficacy through iterative trial and improvement. More sophisticated models, including neural networks or deep learning-based retrieval systems, should be tested in further studies to compare their performance to more conventional models like TF-IDF. Additionally, more thorough performance evaluations could result from broadening the dataset and query diversity. References: - Manning, C. D., Raghavan, P., & Schütze, H. (2008). Introduction to Information Retrieval. Cambridge University Press. - Voorhees, E. M., & Harman, D. K. (Eds.). (2005). TREC: Experiment and Evaluation in Information Retrieval. The MIT Press. - Chowdhury, G. G. (2010). Information retrieval: Algorithms and heuristics (2nd ed.). Springer.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:17.537021	01/02/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123467/overview", "title": "Evaluation and Analysis of Information Retrieval Experiments", "author": "PRIYANKA SHIL" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64307/overview	SWOT Analysis Overview The purpose of this lesson is to identify the components of a SWOT analysis. Students will be able to define each of the terms for SWOT with business setting in mind. Once finished, students should be able to analyze a company and identify its SWOT components. SWOT Introduction This is where you put information for the teacher to teach the task or support the task Goals for this lesson include: - Identify the components of a SWOT analysis. - Define each of the terms for SWOT with business setting in mind. - Analyze a company and identify its SWOT components What brands of shoes do people wear? Why might these brands be so popular? What could they possibly approve upon? What are some weaknesses these brands have, in your opinion? The answers you just gave to the questions above are key answers to current companies! You just completed an activity that is known as a SWOT analysis. SWOT = Strenths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats Review the descriptions below for your undertanding and review. - Strength- describes what an organization excels at and separates it from the competition: things like a strong brand, loyal customer base, strong balance sheet, unique technology, and so on. (Internal Influence) - Weakness- what stops an organization from performing at its optimum level? They are areas where the business needs to improve to remain competitive: things like higher-than-industry average turnover, high levels of debt, or no social media presence. (Internal Influence) - Opportunity- refers to favorable outside factors that an organization can use to give it a competitive advantage. For example, a car manufacturer may be able to export its cars into a new market, increasing sales and and reaching untapped consumers. (External Influence) - Threat- refers to factors that have the potential to harm an organization. Common threats include things like rising costs, increasing competition, tight labor supply, and so on. Weather could also be a threat for agricultural businesses (External Influence) Let's Practice! This is an in class activity. Choose a company that all students are familiar with, like McDonalds. Explain that the student will work in groups to generate a SWOT analysis of McDonalds. Place four pieces of chart paper around the room. The class will be broken up into four groups with different colored markers. They will rotate around the room and write down one attribute of the company for each SWOT component. The students will be instructed not to write something that has already been provided by a different group. After the activity is completed, the students will go back to their seats and we will discuss each of the attributes written down for the given company. (This could also be done in smaller groups/partners at their seats if you have a larger class. If chosen to do this way, I would have them divide a piece of paper into 4 sections and complete at their tables with their group/partner and then share out as a class.) Think about a famous restaurant chain..... What are some examples? Let's choose one to work with as a class! Partner Practice You are now going to work with a partner and complete a SWOT Analysis! Think about a LOCAL BUSINESS or an EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITY that we offer at our school that you would like to work with. You and your partner will choose one organization to focus on for this activity. See the attached link for completion of this activity. Now it's YOUR turn! You should now be ready to complete a SWOT Analysis of your own! You will complete the linked file for completion of this activity. You are to choose a business that has not been discussed today in class to focus on. Use our class discussions as a guide for completing this, as well as the guiding questions for each section.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:17.562049	Nichole Krager	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64307/overview", "title": "SWOT Analysis", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98764/overview	VIDEO of Simultaneous Interpretation Simultaneous Interpretation - Armed Robbery Overview Prosecutor's closing statement recorded at approximately at 133 words per minute. Armed robbery at a local jewelry store. Overview Title image by Freepik Mock closing statement by the Prosecution in an armed robbery trial. Accompanying recording is included at 133 words per minute, 5 minutes. The National Center for State Courts (NCSC) exam is approximately 120 WPM and the durantion is 8 minutes. There are 80 scoring units which represent objective characteristics of language that interpreters must understand and render appropriately during the interpretation. For more information on scoring units, please visit this LINK. The majority of these scoring units come from Quizlet sets available HERE. **The script and recording are for practice purposes only! It should not be perceived as legal advice. If you have any law questions or concerns, you should contact an attorney. Instructions Instructions REFRESHER: If students need a refresher on simultaneous interpretation, the video produced byt the US Courts is excellent (and short!) LINK 1) Students should first open the Google Doc, but not scroll down to the script. 2) They should get ready to simultaneously interpret from English into their foreign language and record themselves while doing so. A free, web-based, user-friendly app for voice recording is www.vocaroo.com. 3) Then students should listen to their own rendition while looking at the script. They should listen for how they interpreted the 80 scoring units and mark if they did so correctly, incorrectly, or if they omitted it all together. 4) Lastly, they should reflect on their own performance. What areas should they improve? Should they work on their vocabulary? Their speed? Their accuracy? And how was the use of the formal verb tense (for example, in Spanish "usted", in Portuguese "você")? Suggestion: Look over the Oral Proficiency Levels in the Workplace poster published by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). Medical Interpreter is at an Advanced-Mid level of oral proficiency. https://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/guidelines/OralProficiencyWorkplacePoster.pdf About the author Fátima Cornwall arrived from the Azores Islands, Portugal in 1993. Since then her academic achievements include a M.A. in Spanish Literature from University of California - Santa Barbara, and a B.A. in Spanish from Boise State University. Fátima has many years of experience in different areas of the interpreting profession. She is a Federal Court Certified Interpreter, as well as an Idaho Court Certified Interpreter Master Level in Spanish and Certified Portuguese Interpreter. She is also a Certified Medical Interpreter through the National Board of Certification for Medical Interpreters (NBCMI). She has been serving as faculty for different workshops and training sessions for new and experienced interpreters and judges for the past five years. Fátima is also an interpreter assessment specialist and a rater for a national credentialing program for interpreters. Fátima has a great passion for teaching and learning, having published articles in the subject. She is a clinical assistant professor at Boise State University where she works as the Spanish Language Coordinator and teaches Portuguese and Spanish upper-division courses, including Introduction to Court Interpretation and Spanish for Healthcare. For any feedback, including corrections, suggestions and so forth please feel free to contact Fátima at fcornwal@boisestate.edu	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:17.585639	Languages	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98764/overview", "title": "Simultaneous Interpretation - Armed Robbery", "author": "Language, Grammar and Vocabulary" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111175/overview	Time Management for Social Media Infographic Time Management Worksheet (Spanish) Manage Your Time Overview LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: - Understand the relationship between goals and time management. - Consider how your priorities impact your time. - Identify your time management personality. - Assess your current use of time. - Understand the basic principles of time management and planning. - Use a calendar planner and daily to-do list to plan ahead for study tasks and manage your time effectively. - Explore time management tips and strategies. - Identify procrastination behaviors and strategies to avoid them. Manage Your Time Goals And Time When you have a long-term goal and break it down into mid-term and short-term goals, it leads to the question, “What do I need to do today in order to achieve my goal?” This question is at the heart of time management. Your goals guide how you spend your time and resources. Having clearly defined goals with specific deadlines leads you to be deliberate in planning your time and makes it easier to establish an effective time management system. Identifying Your Priorities Thinking about your goals gets you started, but it’s also important to think about priorities. We often use the word “priorities” to refer to how important something is to us. We might think, This is a really important goal, and that is less important. In reality, priorities don’t work quite that way. It doesn’t make a lot of sense to try to rank goals as always more or less important. The question of priority is really a question of what is more important at a specific time. You shouldn’t have to choose between these, except at any given time. Priorities always involve time: what is most important to do right now. Time management is mostly a way to juggle priorities so you can meet all your goals. When you manage your time well, you don’t have to ignore some goals completely in order to meet other goals. In other words, you don’t have to give up your life when you register for college, but you may need to work on managing your life and time more effectively. But, time management works only when you’re committed to your goals. Attitude and motivation are very important. If you haven’t yet developed an attitude for success, all the time management skills in the world won’t keep you focused and motivated to succeed. Identify Your Time Management Style People’s attitudes toward time vary widely. One person seems to be always rushing around but actually gets less done than another person who seems unconcerned about time and calmly goes about the day. Since there are so many different “time personalities,” it’s important to realize how you approach time. Try the following activities to help you identify your personal time management style. Activity 1 - Option A: Identify your Time Management Style The following self-assessment survey can help you determine your time-management personality type. Read each question in the Questions column. Then read the possible responses. Select one response for each question. Each response should reflect what you probably would do in a given situation, not what you think is the “right” answer. Put a checkmark in the My Time Management Type column next to your likely response. \| QUESTIONS \| RESPONSES: Which response most closely matches what you would do? In the right column, check one response (a, b, c or d) for each question. \| MY TIME MANAGEMENT TYPE \| \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| 1 \| Your instructor just gave your class the prompts for your first essay, which is due in two weeks. How do you proceed from here? \| a. Choose a prompt and begin working on a thesis immediately. Better to get it out of the way! \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. Read over the prompts and let them sink in for a week or so. You’ll still have one more week to finish the assignment, right? \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. Read the prompts and maybe start playing around with ideas, but wait to really start writing until the day before. You swear it’s all in your head somewhere! \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. Look at the prompts the morning that assignment is due and quickly type up your essay. This makes you late for class, but at least you got it turned in on time. \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 2 \| You are working on a group assignment that requires you to split up responsibilities with three other classmates. When would you typically finish your part? \| a. First. Then you’re done and don’t have to worry about it. Plus it could give you time in case you want to tweak anything later. \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. After one or two of the others have submitted their materials to the group, but definitely not last. You wanted to see how they approached it first. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. Maybe last, but definitely before the assignment, due date and hopefully before any of the other group members ask about it. \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. Definitely last. You’ll wait until everyone else has done their work, so you can make sure you are not duplicating efforts. Whatever, this is why you hate group work. \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 3 \| Your instructor just shared the instructions for your next assignment and you read them but don’t quite understand what he’s asking for in a certain part. What would you probably do? \| a. Send the instructor an email that afternoon. When he doesn’t respond that night, email him again. This is your worst nightmare—you just want to know what he wants!! \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. Send him an email asking for clarification, giving yourself enough time to wait for his response and then complete the assignment. Better to be safe than sorry. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. Try to figure it out for yourself. You’re pretty sure what he’s trying to say, and you’ll give it your best shot. \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. Don’t say anything until after the assignment is due. Other people in the class felt the same way too, probably! \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 4 \| The course you are taking requires you to post in a weekly discussion forum by Sunday night each week so the class can talk about everyone’s posts on Monday. When do you submit your posts? \| a. Tuesday night, after the first day of class that week. Then it’s out of the way. \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. Thursday or Friday night. You want to let the week’s discussion sink in a little so you can collect your thoughts. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. Sunday night. You always forget over the weekend! \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. Monday at 3 AM. That still counts as Sunday night, right? \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 5 \| You have an important assignment due Monday morning, and you have a social/work/family obligation that will keep you busy for most of the weekend. It is now the Wednesday before the assignment is due. How would you approach this dilemma? \| a. You already finished it yesterday, the day it was assigned. Done! \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. You tell yourself that you’ll finish it by Friday night, and you manage this by chipping away at it over those 3 days. …Little. By. Little. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. You tell yourself that you’ll finish it by Friday night, so you can have your weekend free, but you still have a little left to do on Sunday—no big deal. \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. You tell yourself that you’ll take the weekend off, then stay up late on Sunday or wake up early on Monday to finish it. It’s not a final or anything, and you have a life. \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 6 \| You have to read 150 pages before your next class meeting. You have 4 days to do so. What would you most likely do? \| a. 150 pages divided by 4 days means… a little less than 40 pages a day. You like to chunk it this way because then you’ll also have time to go over your notes and highlights and come up with questions for the instructor. \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. 150 pages divided by…well … 2 days (because it’s been a long week), means 75 pages a day. Totally doable. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. 150 pages, the day before it is due. You did this to yourself, it’s fine. \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. How much time does it take to skim the text for keywords and/or find a summary online? \| Ο Improviser \| Activity 1: Option B: Time-Management Personality Type Take this quiz to find your time-management personality type as well as some strategies that can help you learn how to improve your time-management skills. Assessing Your Responses Which of the four basic time-management personality types did you select the most? Which did you select the least? Do you feel like these selections match the student you have been in the past? Has your previous way of doing things worked for you, or do you think it’s time for a change? Remember, we can all always improve! Learn more below about your tendencies. Review traits, strengths, challenges, and tips for success for each of the four time-management personality types. The Early Bird - Traits: You like to make checklists and feel great satisfaction when you can cross something off of your to-do list. When it comes to assignments, you want to get started as soon as possible (and maybe start brainstorming before that), because it lets you stay in control. - Strengths: You know what you want and are driven to figure out how to achieve it. Motivation is never really a problem for you. - Challenges: Sometimes you can get more caught up in getting things done as quickly as possible and don’t give yourself enough time to really mull over issues in all of their complexity. - Tips for Success: You’re extremely organized and on top of your schoolwork, so make sure you take the time to really enjoy learning in your classes. Remember, school isn’t all deadlines and checkboxes—you also have the opportunity to think about big-picture intellectual problems that don’t necessarily have clear answers. The Balancing Act - Traits: You really know what you’re capable of and are ready to do what it takes to get the most out of your classes. Maybe you’re naturally gifted in this way or maybe it’s a skill that you have developed over time; in any case, you should have the basic organizational skills to succeed in any class, as long as you keep your balance. - Strengths: Your strength really lies in your ability to be well rounded. You may not always complete assignments perfectly every time, but you are remarkably consistent and usually manage to do very well in classes. - Challenges: Because you’re so consistent, sometimes you can get in a bit of a rut and begin to coast in class, rather than really challenging yourself. - Tips for Success: Instead of simply doing what works, use each class as an opportunity for growth by engaging thoughtfully with the material and constantly pushing the boundaries of your own expectations for yourself. The Pressure Cooker - Traits: You always get things done and almost always at the last minute. Hey, it takes time to really come up with good ideas! - Strengths: You work well under pressure, and when you do finally sit down to accomplish a task, you can sit and work for hours. In these times, you can be extremely focused and shut out the rest of the world in order to complete what’s needed. - Challenges: You sometimes use your ability to work under pressure as an excuse to procrastinate. Sure, you can really focus when the deadline is tomorrow but is it really the best work you could produce if you had a couple of days of cushion? - Tips for Success: Give yourself small, achievable deadlines, and stick to them. Make sure they’re goals that you really could (and would) achieve in a day. Then don’t allow yourself to make excuses. You’ll find that it’s actually a lot more enjoyable to not be stressed out when completing schoolwork. Who would have known? The Improviser - Traits: You frequently wait until the last minute to do assignments, but it’s because you’ve been able to get away with this habit in many classes. Sometimes you miss an assignment or two, or have to pretend to have done reading that you haven’t, but everyone does that sometimes, right? - Strengths: You think quickly on your feet, and while this is a true strength, it also can be a crutch that prevents you from being really successful in a class. - Challenges: As the saying goes, old habits die hard. If you find that you lack a foundation of discipline and personal accountability, it can be difficult to change, especially when the course material becomes challenging or you find yourself struggling to keep up with the pace of the class. - Tips for Success: The good news is you can turn this around! Make a plan to organize your time and materials in a reasonable way, and really stick with it. Also, don’t be afraid to ask your instructor for help, but be sure to do it before, rather than after, you fall behind. People also differ in how they respond to schedule changes. Some go with the flow and accept changes easily, while others function well only when following a planned schedule and may become upset if that schedule changes. If you do not react well to an unexpected disruption in your schedule, plan extra time for catching up if something throws you off. This is all part of understanding your time personality. Another aspect of your time personality involves the time of day. If you need to concentrate, such as when writing a class paper, are you more alert and focused in the morning, afternoon, or evening? Do you concentrate best when you look forward to a relaxing activity later on, or do you study better when you’ve finished all other activities? Do you function well if you get up early, or stay up late, to accomplish a task? How does that affect the rest of your day or the next day? Understanding this will help you better plan your study periods. While you may not be able to change your “time personality,” you can learn to manage your time more successfully. The key is to be realistic. The best way to improve your time management is to take an honest look at how you are currently spending your time. Assess Your Use Of Time The best way to know how you spend your time is to record what you do all day in a time log, every day for a week, and then add that up. First, you want to take your best guess at how you are currently spending your time so you can compare that with how you are actually spending your time. This helps you identify the areas you need to work on. Activity 2: Where Does the Time Go? See if you can account for a week’s worth of time. For each of the activity categories listed, make your best estimate of how many hours you spend in a week. (For categories that are about the same every day, just estimate for one day and multiply by seven for that line.) \| Category of activity \| Estimated Hours per week \| Actual Hours per week \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Sleeping \| \|\| \| Eating (including preparing food) \| \|\| \| Personal hygiene (i.e., bathing, etc.) \| \|\| \| Working (employment) \| \|\| \| Volunteer service or internship \| \|\| \| Chores, cleaning, errands, shopping, etc. \| \|\| \| Attending class \| \|\| \| Studying, homework, reading, and researching (outside of class) \| \|\| \| Transportation to work or school \| \|\| \| Getting to classes (walking, biking, etc.) \| \|\| \| Organized group activities (clubs, church services, etc.) \| \|\| \| Time with friends (include television, video games, etc.) \| \|\| \| Attending events (movies, parties, etc.) \| \|\| \| Time alone (include television, video games, surfing the Web, etc.) \| \|\| \| Exercise or sports activities \| \|\| \| Reading for fun or other interests done alone \| \|\| \| Time on the phone, texting, Facebook, Twitter, etc. \| \|\| \| Other—specify: ________________________ \| \|\| \| Other—specify: ________________________ \| \|\| \| TOTAL (168 hours in a week) \| Now use your calculator to total your estimated hours. Is your number larger or smaller than 168, the total number of hours in a week? If your estimate is higher, go back through your list and adjust numbers to be more realistic. But if your estimated hours total fewer than 168, don’t just go back and add more time in certain categories. Instead, ponder this question: Where does the time go? We’ll come back to this question. Next, print the Time Log and carry it with you throughout the week. Every few hours, fill in what you have been doing. Do this for a week before adding up the times; then enter the total hours in the categories in Activity 2. You might be surprised that you spend a lot more time than you thought just hanging out with friends, or surfing the Web or playing around with Facebook or any of the many other things people do. You might find that you study well early in the morning even though you thought you are a night person, or vice versa. You might learn how long you can continue at a specific task before needing a break. Time Log \| SUNDAY \| MONDAY \| TUESDAY \| WEDNESDAY \| THURSDAY \| FRIDAY \| SATURDAY \| \| \| 6-7 am \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 7-8 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 8-9 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 9-10 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 10-11 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 11-12 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 12-1 pm \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 1-2 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 2-3 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 3-4 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 4-5 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5-6 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 6-7 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 7-8 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 8-9 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 9-10 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 10-11 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 11-12 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 12-1 am \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 1-2 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 2-3 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 3-4 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 4-5 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5-6 \| Establishing A Time Management System Now that you’ve evaluated how you have done things in the past, you’ll want to think about how you might create a schedule for managing your time well going forward. The best schedules have some flexibility built into them, as unexpected situations and circumstances will likely arise during your time as a student. For every hour in the classroom, college students should spend, on average, about two to three hours on that class reading, studying, writing papers, and so on. Look back at the number of hours you wrote in Activity 2 for a week of studying. Do you have two to three hours of study time for every hour in class? Many students begin college not knowing this much time is needed, so don’t be surprised if you underestimated this number of hours. Remember this is just an average amount of study time—you may need more or less for your own courses. To be safe, and to help ensure your success, add another five to ten hours a week for studying. To reserve this study time, you may need to adjust how much time you spend on other activities. Activity 3 will help you figure out what your typical week should look like. Activity 3: Where Should Your Time Go? Plan for the ideal use of a week’s worth of time. Fill in your hours in this order: - Hours attending class - Study hours (2 times the number of class hours plus 5 or more hours extra) - Work, internships, and fixed volunteer time - Fixed life activities (sleeping, eating, hygiene, chores, transportation, etc.) Now subtotal your hours so far and subtract that number from 168. How many hours are left? ____________ Then portion out the remaining hours for “discretionary activities” (things you don’t have to do for school, work, or a healthy life). - Discretionary activities \| CATEGORY OF ACTIVITY \| HOURS PER WEEK \| \| Attending class \| \| \| Studying, reading, and researching (outside of class) \| \| \| Working (employment) \| \| \| Transportation to work or school \| \| \| Sleeping \| \| \| Eating (including preparing food) \| \| \| Personal hygiene (i.e., bathing, etc.) \| \| \| Chores, cleaning, errands, shopping, etc. \| \| \| Volunteer service or internship \| \| \| Getting to classes (walking, biking, etc.) \| \| \| Subtotal: \| \| \| Discretionary activities: \| \| \| Organized group activities (clubs, church services, etc.) \| \| \| Time with friends (include television, video games, etc.) \| \| \| Attending events (movies, parties, etc.) \| \| \| Time alone (include television, video games, surfing the Web, etc.) \| \| \| Exercise or sports activities \| \| \| Hobbies or other interests done alone \| \| \| Time on the phone, texting, Facebook, Twitter, etc. \| \| \| Other—specify: ________________________ \| \| \| Other—specify: ________________________ \| Activity 3 shows most college students that they do actually have plenty of time for their studies without losing sleep or giving up their social life. But you may have less time for discretionary activities, like video games or watching movies, than in the past. Something, somewhere has to give. That’s part of time management and why it’s important to keep your goals and priorities in mind. Below is an example of a student’s weekly schedule, with designated times for class, work and study time. Kai’s Schedule Since Kai’s Spanish class starts his schedule at 9:00 every day, Kai decides to use that as the base for his schedule. He doesn’t usually have trouble waking up in the mornings (except on the weekends), so he decides that he can do a bit of studying before class. His Spanish practice is often something he can do while eating or traveling, so this gives him a bit of leniency with his schedule. \| Sunday \| Monday \| Tuesday \| Wednesday \| Thursday \| Friday \| Saturday \| \| \| 7:00 AM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 8:00 AM \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| \|\| \| 9:00 AM \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| \|\| \| 10:00 AM \| US History I \| Spanish 101 \| US History I \| Spanish 101 \| US History I \| Work \| \| \| 11:00 AM \| College Algebra \| Intro to Psychology (ends at 12:30) \| College Algebra \| Intro to Psychology (ends at 12:30) \| College Algebra \| \|\| \| 12:00 PM \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| \|\|\|\| \| 1:00 PM \| Spanish 101 \| Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) \| Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) \| Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) \| Spanish 101 \| \|\| \| 2:00 PM \| US History I \| Work \| Work \| Intro to Psych \| \|\|\| \| 3:00 PM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 4:00 PM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5:00 PM \| College Algebra \| College Algebra \| College Algebra \| \|\|\|\| \| 6:00 PM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 7:00 PM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 8:00 PM \| Intro to Psych \| Intro to Psych \| \|\|\|\|\| \| 9:00 PM \| US History I \| US History I \| \|\|\|\|\| \| 10:00 PM \| Creating a Planner Now that you know what you need to be spending your time on, let’s work on getting it put into a schedule or calendar. The first thing you want to do is select what type of planner or calendar you want to use. There are several to choose from. The following chart outlines some pros and cons to different systems. online calendars, weekly calendars, monthly calendars and wall calendars. \| Type \| Example \| Cost \| Pros \| Cons \| \| Weekly Planner \| $5-$10 \| \| \| \| \| Monthly Planner \| $5-$15 \| \| \| \| \| Daily Planner \| $5-$10 \| \| \| \| \| Electronic Calendar \| Free \| \| \| \| \| Dry Erase Calendar \| $15 – $20 \| \| \| What Goes in Your Planner? Now that you have selected your planner, it’s time to fill it in. But what goes in it? Well, everything! Start by putting in your top priorities and then move on to your discretionary time. Priorities - Class time - Work Time - Designated study time (2-3 hours per hour in class) - Assignment due dates (check your syllabus) - Exam dates and quizzes (check your syllabus) - Appointments - Birthdays of family and friends Discretionary Time - Social events - Parties - Exercise - Club activities - Church activities Reminders - Birthdays - Anniversaries - Holidays Your schedule will vary depending on the course you’re taking. So pull out your syllabus for each class and try to determine the rhythm of the class by looking at the following factors: - Will you have tests or exams in this course? When are those scheduled? - Are there assignments and papers? When are those due? - Is there any group or collaborative assignments? You’ll want to pay particular attention to the timing of any assignment that requires you to work with others. Remember your goals. Does your schedule reflect your goals? Set your short and long-term goals accordingly. Ask yourself the following: - What needs to get done today? - What needs to get done this week? - What needs to get done by the end the first month of the semester? - What needs to get done by the end the second month of the semester? - What needs to get done by the end of the semester? Don’t try to micromanage your schedule. Don’t try to estimate exactly how many minutes you’ll need two weeks from today to read a given chapter in a given textbook. Instead, just choose the blocks of time you will use for your studies. Don’t yet write in the exact study activity, just reserve the block. Next, look at the major deadlines for projects and exams that you wrote in earlier. Estimate how much time you may need for each and work backward on the schedule from the due date. Plan Backwards As a college student, you will likely have big assignments, papers, or projects that you are expected to work on throughout the semester. These are often tricky for students to schedule since it isn’t a regularly occurring event, like a weekly quiz or a homework assignment. These big projects often feel overwhelming so students have a tendency to shy away from them and procrastinate on them. This often results in a lot of last-minute stress and panic when the deadline is looming. A way to plan for these big projects is to plan backward. Start at the final project and then figure out all the steps that come before it and assign due dates for yourself. For example, you have a research paper due May 1. Start there! \| Assignment \| Due Date \| \| Research Paper Due \| May 1 \| \| Final Draft \| April 28 \| \| Rough Draft \| April 21 \| \| Final Outline \| April 7 \| \| Find sources \| March 24 \| \| Thesis statement \| March 17 \| \| Select topic \| March 10 \| You have now created a series of assignments for yourself that will keep you on track for your project. Put these dates in your planner the same way you would any other assignment. Establish A To-Do List People use to-do lists in different ways, and you should find what works best for you. As with your planner, consistent use of your to-do list will make it an effective habit. Although we call it a daily list, the to-do list can also include things you may not get to today but don’t want to forget about. Keeping these things on the list, even if they’re a low priority, helps ensure that eventually, you’ll get to it. Just as there are several options for planners, there are different types of to-do lists. Check your planner to see if it has one incorporated. If not, get a small notebook or pad of paper that you will designate as your to-do list. Of course, there’s always an app for that! Your smartphone likely came with a Reminder App or another type of To-Do List app. There are also many free apps to choose from and there are apps to help you manage your homework and assignments. Take a few minutes to look through your options to pick the best one for you. Your To-Do list should be a reflection of your goals and priorities and should support your planner Your To-Do List should answer the question, “What do I have to do today, this week, this month?” Here are some examples of different to-do lists. Use whatever format works best for you to prioritize or highlight the most important activities. Here are some more tips for effectively using your daily to-do list: - Be specific: “Read history chapter 2 (30 pages)”—not “History homework.” - Put important things high on your list where you’ll see them every time you check the list. - Make your list at the same time every day so that it becomes a habit. - Don’t make your list overwhelming. If you added everything you eventually need to do, you could end up with so many things on the list that you’d never read through them all. If you worry you might forget something, write it in the margin of your planner’s page a week or two away. - Use your list. Lists often include little things that may take only a few minutes to do, so check your list anytime during the day you have a moment free. - Cross out or check off things after you’ve done them—doing this becomes rewarding. - Don’t use your to-do list to procrastinate. Don’t pull it out to find something else you just “have” to do instead of studying! Time Management Strategies Following are some strategies you can begin using immediately to make the most of your time: - Prepare to be successful. When planning ahead for studying, think yourself into the right mood. Focus on the positive. “When I get these chapters read tonight, I’ll be ahead in studying for the next test, and I’ll also have plenty of time tomorrow to do X.” Visualize yourself studying well! - Use your best—and most appropriate—time of day. Different tasks require different mental skills. Some kinds of studying you may be able to start first thing in the morning as you wake, while others need your most alert moments at another time. - Break up large projects into small pieces. Whether it’s writing a paper for class, studying for a final exam, or reading a long assignment or full book, students often feel daunted at the beginning of a large project. It’s easier to get going if you break it up into stages that you schedule at separate times—and then begin with the first section that requires only an hour or two. - Do the most important studying first. When two or more things require your attention, do the more crucial one first. If something happens and you can’t complete everything, you’ll suffer less if the most crucial work is done. - If you have trouble getting started, do an easier task first. Like large tasks, complex or difficult ones can be daunting. If you can’t get going, switch to an easier task you can accomplish quickly. That will give you momentum, and often you feel more confident in tackling the difficult task after being successful in the first one. - If you’re feeling overwhelmed and stressed because you have too much to do, revisit your time planner. Sometimes it’s hard to get started if you keep thinking about other things you need to get done. Review your schedule for the next few days and make sure everything important is scheduled, then relax and concentrate on the task at hand. - If you’re really floundering, talk to someone. Maybe you just don’t understand what you should be doing. Talk to your instructor or another student in the class to get back on track. - Take a break. We all need breaks to help us concentrate without becoming fatigued and burned out. As a general rule, a short break every hour or so is effective in helping recharge your study energy. Get up and move around to get your blood flowing, clear your thoughts, and work off stress. - Use unscheduled times to work ahead. You’ve scheduled that hundred pages of reading for later today, but you have the textbook with you as you’re waiting for the bus. Start reading now, or flip through the chapter to get a sense of what you’ll be reading later. Either way, you’ll save time later. You may be amazed at how much studying you can get done during downtimes throughout the day. - Keep your momentum. Prevent distractions, such as multitasking, that will only slow you down. Check for messages, for example, only at scheduled break times. - Reward yourself. It’s not easy to sit still for hours of studying. When you successfully complete the task, you should feel good and deserve a small reward. A healthy snack, a quick video game session, or social activity can help you feel even better about your successful use of time. - Just say no. Always tell others nearby when you’re studying, to reduce the chances of being interrupted. Still, interruptions happen, and if you are in a situation where you are frequently interrupted by a family member, spouse, roommate, or friend, it helps to have your “no” prepared in advance: “No, I really have to be ready for this test” or “That’s a great idea, but let’s do it tomorrow—I just can’t today.” You shouldn’t feel bad about saying no—especially if you told that person in advance that you needed to study. - Have a life. Never schedule your day or week so full of work and study that you have no time at all for yourself, your family and friends, and your larger life. - Use a calendar planner and a daily to-do list. Watch this supplemental video, College Survival Tips: Time Management for Beginners by MyCollegePalTeam6, for a brief re-cap of effective time management strategies. Time Management Tips for Students Who Work If you’re both working and taking classes, you seldom have large blocks of free time. Avoid temptations to stay up very late studying, for losing sleep can lead to a downward spiral in performance at both work and school. Instead, try to follow these guidelines: - If possible, adjust your work or sleep hours so that you don’t spend your most productive times at work. If your job offers flex time, arrange your schedule to be free to study at times when you perform best. - Try to arrange your class and work schedules to minimize commuting time. If you are a part-time student taking two classes, taking classes back-to-back two or three days a week uses less time than spreading them out over four or five days. Working four ten-hour days rather than five eight-hour days reduces time lost to travel, getting ready for work, and so on. - If you can’t arrange an effective schedule for classes and work, consider online courses that allow you to do most of the work on your own time. - Use your daily and weekly planner conscientiously. Anytime you have thirty minutes or more free, schedule a study activity. - Consider your “body clock” when you schedule activities. Plan easier tasks for those times when you’re often fatigued and reserve alert times for more demanding tasks. - Look for any “hidden” time potentials. Maybe you prefer the thirty-minute drive to work over a forty-five-minute train ride. But if you can read on the train, that’s a gain of ninety minutes every day at the cost of thirty minutes longer travel time. An hour a day can make a huge difference in your studies. - Can you do quick study tasks during slow times at work? Take your class notes with you and use even five minutes of free time wisely. - Remember your long-term goals. You need to work, but you also want to finish your college program. If you have the opportunity to volunteer for some overtime, consider whether it’s really worth it. Sure, the extra money would help, but could the extra time put you at risk for not doing well in your classes? - Be as organized on the job as you are academically. Use your planner and to-do list for work matters, too. The better organized you are at work, the less stress you’ll feel—and the more successful you’ll be as a student also. - If you have a family as well as a job, your time is even more limited. In addition to the previous tips, try some of the strategies that follow. Time Management Tips for Students with Family Living with family members often introduces additional time stresses. You may have family obligations that require careful time management. Use all the strategies described earlier, including family time in your daily plans the same as you would hours spent at work. Don’t assume that you’ll be “free” every hour you’re home, because family events or a family member’s need for your assistance may occur at unexpected times. Schedule your important academic work well ahead and in blocks of time you control. See also the earlier suggestions for controlling your space: you may need to use the library or another space to ensure you are not interrupted or distracted during important study times. Students with their own families are likely to feel time pressures. After all, you can’t just tell your partner or kids that you’ll see them in a couple years when you’re not so busy with job and college! In addition to all the planning and study strategies discussed so far, you also need to manage your family relationships and time spent with family. While there’s no magical solution for making more hours in the day, even with this added time pressure there are ways to balance your life well: - Talk everything over with your family. If you’re going back to school, your family members may not have realized changes will occur. Don’t let them be shocked by sudden household changes. Keep communication lines open so that your partner and children feel they’re together with you in this new adventure. Eventually, you will need their support. - Work to enjoy your time together, whatever you’re doing. You may not have as much time together as previously, but cherish the time you do have—even if it’s washing dishes together or cleaning house. If you’ve been studying for two hours and need a break, spend the next ten minutes with family instead of checking e-mail or watching television. Ultimately, the important thing is being together, not going out to movies or dinners or the special things you used to do when you had more time. Look forward to being with family and appreciate every moment you are together, and they will share your attitude. Time Management Tips for Social Media 1. Set Time Limits The first step in healthy time management on social media is setting time limits. You can allocate specific times during the day or week for accessing social media. For example, you can decide to use social media for only 30 minutes each morning and evening. 2. Use Reminder and Screen Time Features Social media platforms often provide reminder and screen time features. Activate these features to remind yourself when you’ve exceeded your set time limits. You can also set a maximum daily screen time on your device to limit your access. 3. Identify the Purpose of Social Media Use Consider the primary reasons you use social media. Are you using it to stay connected with friends and family, seek information, or simply pass the time? Identify your purpose and ensure your social media use aligns with it. 4. Prioritize Important Activities Often, we spend too much time on social media without realizing how much time we’re wasting. To avoid this, prioritize important activities in your life. Determine the tasks that need to be completed before allowing yourself to access social media. 5. Establish No-Phone Zones There are times and places where avoiding your phone altogether is beneficial. For instance, when you’re working, having dinner with family, or engaging in face-to-face conversations, try leaving your phone aside or at least disabling social media notifications. 6. Take Digital Detoxes Occasionally, consider taking digital detoxes. These are periods during which you completely abstain from social media. They can help you reset your relationship with these platforms and reduce addiction levels. 7. Evaluate the Impact of Social Media Conduct an honest evaluation of the impact of social media on your well-being. Does your use of social media enhance your quality of life, or does it disrupt it? If you find that social media is adversely affecting you emotionally or mentally, consider more drastic changes in your time management. Social media is a powerful tool for communication and information sharing, but it can become addictive if not managed well. Healthy time management on social media involves self-awareness, setting boundaries, and prioritizing more important activities. With the right approach, you can stay connected on social media without sacrificing productivity or well-being. Always remember that you have control over your social media usage, not the other way around. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Your values help shape your goals and your goals help shape your time management. - Identifying your priorities is an important first step to creating an effective time management system. - Models like The Eisenhower Method help you prioritize and avoid unnecessarily stressful situations. - There are unique Time Management Styles and knowing yours will help you create your own system. - Having an accurate snapshot of how you currently spend your time is the first step in creating an effective time management system. - Once you know how you spend your time, you can make a specific plan for how you want to spend your time. - There are different types of planners, including hard-copy and electronic. Find a planner that works best for you and your preferences and habits. - Your planner should reflect your values, goals, and priorities. It should include class time, work time, appointments, due dates, exams, and reminders of special dates. - For big projects, plan backward to ensure you have enough time planned for each step. - There are several options for To-Do Lists including paper and electronic choices. Find a system that works with your planner and that you will actively use. - Implement Time Management Strategies to support your success and ultimately support your goals. - Understand procrastination and the reasons you personally procrastinate. Use this information to incorporate proactive strategies to help you avoid procrastinating. Journal Idea: Avoiding Time Traps Now that you have a better understanding of how you are spending your time, write a journal entry that identifies your time traps and what strategies you can implement to overcome those time traps. What is a time trap? A time trap is something you end up spending a lot of time that doesn’t support your goals or priorities. They take up your time, energy and focus if you let them. The way to avoid time traps is to be aware of what your personal time traps are and have a plan for how you will avoid or reduce them. We all have our own personal time traps. What are yours? To help you get started, here’s a list of some common time traps: - Web surfing - Streaming online videos - Video games - Social media (See Below) - Checking your phone for texts or alerts - Television - Sleeping unnecessarily - Hanging out with friends when there’s nothing really happening - Watching movies from streaming services Social Media Time-Trap We all know the charm of social media for businesses. But, without some discipline and cool tools, you’ll be endlessly scrolling instead of strategizing. Been there, done that! Two big things to keep in mind: - Don’t Spread Too Thin: You don’t need to be on every platform. Pick ones that align with your goals. - Stay Focused: It’s super easy to get distracted. Set timers for tasks. Got a tweet to post? Set aside specific time for it. Juggling different accounts? Grab a password manager. Trust me, it’s a lifesaver. No more forgotten passwords or those risky sticky notes! Directions Look at your Time Log from Activity #2. What were your two most common time traps? How did these time traps distract you from your priorities? For each of your two time traps, come up with two specific plans to effectively avoid or reduce those time traps. What time management strategies can you implement that can support your plans to avoid your time traps? Manage Your Time (Resources In Spanish) - In Progress This document is a work in progress and serves as a working document. Its primary aim is to assist students whose first language is not English in comprehending vocabulary and concepts. Lección: Gestión del Tiempo - Time Management Introducción (Introduction) Spanish: La gestión del tiempo es una habilidad importante en la vida cotidiana y profesional. Nos ayuda a ser más productivos y a disfrutar de un equilibrio entre el trabajo y la vida personal. English: Time management is an important skill in both everyday life and the professional world. It helps us be more productive and enjoy a balance between work and personal life. Vocabulario Importante (Key Vocabulary) El tiempo (Time) - Spanish: El tiempo - English: Time La gestión (Management) - Spanish: La gestión - English: Management La productividad (Productivity) - Spanish: La productividad - English: Productivity El equilibrio (Balance) - Spanish: El equilibrio - English: Balance Consejos para la Gestión del Tiempo (Time Management Tips) Spanish: Aquí tienes algunos consejos para mejorar tu gestión del tiempo: English: Here are some tips to improve your time management: Establece metas claras (Set Clear Goals) - Spanish: Define tus objetivos y prioridades. Saber qué quieres lograr te ayudará a utilizar tu tiempo de manera más efectiva. - English: Define your goals and priorities. Knowing what you want to achieve will help you use your time more effectively. Crea una lista de tareas (Create a To-Do List) - Spanish: Haz una lista de las tareas que necesitas completar. Esto te ayudará a mantenerte organizado y a no olvidar nada importante. - English: Make a list of the tasks you need to complete. This will help you stay organized and not forget anything important. Establece plazos (Set Deadlines) - Spanish: Asigna plazos a tus tareas. Esto te motivará a trabajar de manera más eficiente y a evitar la procrastinación. - English: Assign deadlines to your tasks. This will motivate you to work more efficiently and avoid procrastination. Elimina distracciones (Eliminate Distractions) - Spanish: Identifica las distracciones comunes y trata de eliminarlas o reducirlas mientras trabajas en tus tareas. - English: Identify common distractions and try to eliminate or reduce them while working on your tasks. Delega tareas (Delegate Tasks) - Spanish: Si es posible, asigna algunas tareas a otras personas para liberar tu tiempo y enfocarte en lo que es más importante. - English: If possible, delegate some tasks to others to free up your time and focus on what's most important. Ejercicio Práctico (Practical Exercise) Spanish: Ahora, vamos a hacer un ejercicio práctico. Crea una lista de tareas para el día de mañana y asigna plazos a cada una. Luego, intenta eliminar cualquier distracción mientras trabajas en esas tareas. English: Now, let's do a practical exercise. Create a to-do list for tomorrow and assign deadlines to each task. Then, try to eliminate any distractions while working on those tasks. Conclusion (Conclusion) Spanish: La gestión del tiempo es esencial para alcanzar el éxito en todas las áreas de la vida. Practicar estos consejos te ayudará a ser más productivo y a disfrutar de un equilibrio entre el trabajo y la vida personal. English: Time management is essential for achieving success in all areas of life. Practicing these tips will help you be more productive and enjoy a balance between work and personal life. Licenses and Attributions LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Manage Your Time. Authored by: Heather Syrett. Provided by: Austin Community College. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Image. Authored by: iStock. Located at :https://www.istockphoto.com/photo/business-concepts-with-businessman-holding-clock-on-computer-laptop-for-investment-gm1098407382-295014752. Creator: Hakinmhan - The Pomodoro Technique: Study More Efficiently, Take More Breaks Authored by: Gena Ellett. Provided by: The University of British Colombia Located at: https://learningcommons.ubc.ca/the-pomodoro-technique-study-more-efficiently-take-more-breaks/ License: CC BY: Attribution - The Pomodoro Technique. Authored by: Ryan MacGillivray. Provided by: SKETCHPLANTATIONS Located at: https://www.sketchplanations.com/post/179972023741/the-pomodoro-technique-a-super-simple-methodLicense: CC BY: Attribution - Managing Time and Priorities. Authored by: Amy Baldwin. Provided by: Rice University Located at: https://www.oercommons.org/courses/openstax-3/view - Healthy Time Management on Social Media: How to Avoid Addiction Authored by: Yuliana Located at: https://medium.com/@holaa_sari/healthy-time-management-on-social-media-how-to-avoid-addiction-cc71c80490f PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT - Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_management. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - College Success Provided by: University of Minnesota. Located at: http://www.oercommons.org/courses/college-success/view. License: CC BY: Attribution ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - The Pomodoro Technique Authored by: Cirillo Company. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=6&v=VFW3Ld7JO0w License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License LUMEN LEARNING AUTHORED CONTENT - Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-learningframework/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-learningframework/. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:17.686307	Assessment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111175/overview", "title": "Manage Your Time", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68597/overview	Media, English Template, Novice-High Overview Students will practice initiating conversations, sharing their personal opinions, and giving their preferences. Students will discuss their daily use of technology and who they stay in contact with on a regular basis. They will practice different scenarios and express how they would handle a situation. Pathways Project / Lesson Information For the original Spanish version of this activity, CLICK HERE Please Note: The activities on the Pathways Project OER Repository were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact amberhoye@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. — The Pathways Project The activities provided by the Boise State World Languages Resource Center (WLRC) serve as foundational activities which can be adapted by any language and scaled up or down on the proficiency scale.This activity was created by upper-division language students working in the World Languages Resource Center at Boise State University. Our activities seek to help students solidify their interpersonal speaking and interpretive listening skills through task-based situations or communicative activities. We recommend using these activities to help reinforce the content students are learning, allowing the students time to feel comfortable using the unit’s vocabulary and grammar structures through application. Further, these activities should be facilitated in approximately 90% (or more) in the target language, per the recommendation of the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. Using the WLRC Repository’s Activities: When you are ready to begin remixing the activity, in order to adapt it for your target language and audience, simply click the “Remix This Resource” button at the top of your screen. The text provided in purple is a suggestion of what you might say to your students and should be changed to the target language. Most activities contain a connected chapter, two to three “NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do” statements, a warm-up, main activity, and a wrap-up. In addition to the instructions, some activities may include a “cheat sheet” containing the target vocabulary and grammar structures emphasized in the activity. Though most of the lab materials are provided, a computer, projector, printer, and laminator may also be needed to fully utilize materials. Many of the activities include printable cards and other instructional materials. If you would like to adapt these materials for your language, please email WLRCLAR@gmail.com and we will provide you with an editable copy. For YouTube videos and other websites, hyperlinks are provided. Enjoy! - Boise State World Languages Resource Center Modes of Communication Proficiency Level: Novice High Students will practice initiating conversations, sharing their personal opinions, and giving their preferences. Students will discuss their daily use of technology and who they stay in contact with on a regular basis. They will practice different scenarios and express how they would handle a situation. Keywords: Text messages, conversations, opinions, preferences, technology, emoji Relevant ACTFL World-Readiness Standards: “Standard 1.1 Students engage in conversations, provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions.” “Standard 1.2 Students understand and interpret spoken and written Spanish on a variety of topics.” “Standard 1.3 Students present information, concepts, and ideas in Spanish to an audience of listeners or readers on a variety of topics.” “Standard 5.1 Students use Spanish both within and beyond the school setting.” Relevant Idaho State World Language Standards: COMM 1.1 - Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions COMM 2.1 - Understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics. COMM 3.1 - Present information, concepts, and ideas to inform, explain, persuade, and narrate on a variety of topics using appropriate media in the target language. COMP 1.1 - Observe formal and informal forms of language. CONN 2.1 - Access authentic materials prepared in the target language by or for native speakers. Relevant NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements: I can initiate conversations in the target language I can bring the conversation to a close I can give reasons for my preference I can hold conversations regarding personal opinions with others in the target language (intercultural) Materials Needed: Materials that are not linked such as projector, whiteboard, markers, etc. Warm Up / Main Activity Warm-up 1. Begin by introducing the Can-Dos for today’s activity and distributing the “Materials Required for Warm Up” to each student. “Today, we are going to discuss our daily use of technology. We will chat about who we talk to on a regular basis and how we contact them. We will also decide how to appropriately navigate situations. Relevant NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements: I can initiate conversations in the target language I can bring the conversation to a close I can give reasons for my preference I can hold conversations regarding personal opinions with others in the target language (intercultural) 2. Students will get into small groups and answer some open ended questions. “Now, you are going to form smaller groups to talk about these questions.” a. What is it that you like and don’t like about text messages? b. In your daily life, who sends you text messages, who emails you or who calls you frequently? c. Are you a person that communicates more by texting or talking on the phone? d. One time have you finished a relationship by text message or have you ended something with your friend by text message? Do you think it’s a good idea to do this? Why or why not? Main Activity 1. Have the students think of some words of advice and share with the class. As they explain why they would that advice, the lab assistant should create a word cloud on the board with common ideas. First as the students: “Imagine that you have the opportunity to send a text message, at the same time you were a kid, with advice. What advice would you want to give yourself?” 2. Ask your students: 1. “What words are the most frequent?” 2. “Why is this advice necessary?” 3. Give these scenarios to the students in small groups to discuss: 1. If you have to eliminate an emoji, what would it be? 2. One night, you are texting your best friend and you start to critique your ex for the things you suffered during your relationship and accidentally send a message to your ex boyfriend/girlfriend. How would you solve this problem? 3. Why do people in their 70s doubt cell phones that are going to have in the future? 4. Why are senior citizens are more likely to shop in person and not shop online? Wrap Up Wrap-up Wrap-up questions (Pick a few you’d like to ask): Ask students the wrap-up questions. Have students show a classmate their recently used emojis and see if they have any in common. Have them share with the class those they do have in common. What are the stories behind their most recently used emojis? 1. What are the emojis that you use frequently? 2. Do you have a story that can go with that emoji? End of lab: • Read Can-Do statements once more and have students evaluate their confidence. (Use thumbs up/thumbs down or download our student cards.) • Encourage students to be honest in their self-evaluation. • Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future labs! Relevant NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements: I can initiate conversations in the target language I can bring the conversation to a close I can give reasons for my preference I can hold conversations regarding personal opinions with others in the target language (intercultural) Wrap-up Wrap-up questions (Pick a few you’d like to ask): Ask students the wrap-up questions. Have students show a classmate their recently used emojis and see if they have any in common. Have them share with the class those they do have in common. What are the stories behind their most recently used emojis? 1. What are the emojis that you use frequently? 2. Do you have a story that can go with that emoji? End of lab: • Read Can-Do statements once more and have students evaluate their confidence. (Use thumbs up/thumbs down or download our student cards.) • Encourage students to be honest in their self-evaluation. • Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future labs! Relevant NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements: I can initiate conversations in the target language I can bring the conversation to a close I can give reasons for my preference I can hold conversations regarding personal opinions with others in the target language (intercultural)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:17.780779	Elizabeth Walker	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68597/overview", "title": "Media, English Template, Novice-High", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108714/overview	WA.FE.K.EI.1 Washington Financial Education Standards Kindergarten Learning Domain: Employment and Income Standard: List tasks that an adult does at a job WA.FE.1.EI.1 Washington Financial Education Standards Grade 1 Learning Domain: Employment and Income Standard: Identify the different skills, training, and tools required by different jobs WA.FE.2.EI.1 Washington Financial Education Standards Grade 2 Learning Domain: Employment and Income Standard: Recognize that different jobs require different skills, training, and tools WA.FE.2.EI.2 Washington Financial Education Standards Grade 2 Learning Domain: Employment and Income Standard: Give examples of careers related to a personal interest WA.FE.1.FD.4 Washington Financial Education Standards Grade 1 Learning Domain: Financial Decision-Making Standard: Identify the opportunity cost of a decision WA.FE.2.FD.7 Washington Financial Education Standards Grade 2 Learning Domain: Financial Decision-Making Standard: Compare the costs and benefits when making a decision WA.FE.3.EI.4 Washington Financial Education Standards Grade 3 Learning Domain: Employment and Income Standard: Give an example of how an individual’s interests, knowledge, and abilities can affect job and career choice WA.FE.3.EI.5 Washington Financial Education Standards Grade 3 Learning Domain: Employment and Income Standard: Give examples of careers related to a personal interest WA.FE.4.EI.1 Washington Financial Education Standards Grade 4 Learning Domain: Employment and Income Standard: Analyze how different jobs require different skills, training, and tools WA.FE.3.FD.7 Washington Financial Education Standards Grade 3 Learning Domain: Financial Decision-Making Standard: Identify the opportunity cost of a decision WA.FE.3.FD.8 Washington Financial Education Standards Grade 3 Learning Domain: Financial Decision-Making Standard: Categorize the costs and benefits when making a decision Learning Domain: Financial Decision-Making Standard: Give examples of how decisions made today can affect future opportunities Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: With prompting and support, identify the main topic and retell key details of a text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Identify the front cover, back cover, and title page of a book. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Continue a conversation through multiple exchanges. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Confirm understanding of a text read aloud or information presented orally or through other media by asking and answering questions about key details and requesting clarification if something is not understood. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Ask and answer questions in order to seek help, get information, or clarify something that is not understood. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Participate in collaborative conversations with diverse partners about kindergarten topics and texts with peers and adults in small and larger groups. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Speak audibly and express thoughts, feelings, and ideas clearly. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Describe the connection between a series of historical events, scientific ideas or concepts, or steps in technical procedures in a text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases in a text relevant to a grade 2 topic or subject area. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Know and use various text features (e.g., captions, bold print, subheadings, glossaries, indexes, electronic menus, icons) to locate key facts or information in a text efficiently. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Ask and answer such questions as who, what, where, when, why, and how to demonstrate understanding of key details in a text. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Build on others’ talk in conversations by linking their comments to the remarks of others. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Ask for clarification and further explanation as needed about the topics and texts under discussion. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Recount or describe key ideas or details from a text read aloud or information presented orally or through other media. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Participate in collaborative conversations with diverse partners about grade 2 topics and texts with peers and adults in small and larger groups. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: With guidance and support from adults and peers, focus on a topic and strengthen writing as needed by revising and editing. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Recall information from experiences or gather information from provided sources to answer a question. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write opinion pieces in which they introduce the topic or book they are writing about, state an opinion, supply reasons that support the opinion, use linking words (e.g., because, and, also) to connect opinion and reasons, and provide a concluding statement or section. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine the main idea of a text; recount the key details and explain how they support the main idea. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Describe the relationship between a series of historical events, scientific ideas or concepts, or steps in technical procedures in a text, using language that pertains to time, sequence, and cause/effect. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine the meaning of general academic and domain-specific words and phrases in a text relevant to a grade 3 topic or subject area. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Use text features and search tools (e.g., key words, sidebars, hyperlinks) to locate information relevant to a given topic efficiently. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Use information gained from illustrations (e.g., maps, photographs) and the words in a text to demonstrate understanding of the text (e.g., where, when, why, and how key events occur). Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Ask and answer questions to demonstrate understanding of a text, referring explicitly to the text as the basis for the answers. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Ask questions to check understanding of information presented, stay on topic, and link their comments to the remarks of others. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Explain their own ideas and understanding in light of the discussion. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Determine the main ideas and supporting details of a text read aloud or information presented in diverse media and formats, including visually, quantitatively, and orally. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Report on a topic or text, tell a story, or recount an experience with appropriate facts and relevant, descriptive details, speaking clearly at an understandable pace. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 3 topics and texts, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Provide reasons that support the opinion. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Recall information from experiences or gather information from print and digital sources; take brief notes on sources and sort evidence into provided categories. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write opinion pieces on familiar topics or texts, supporting a point of view with reasons. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: With prompting and support, identify the main topic and retell key details of a text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Identify the front cover, back cover, and title page of a book. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Continue a conversation through multiple exchanges. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Confirm understanding of a text read aloud or information presented orally or through other media by asking and answering questions about key details and requesting clarification if something is not understood. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Ask and answer questions in order to seek help, get information, or clarify something that is not understood. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Participate in collaborative conversations with diverse partners about kindergarten topics and texts with peers and adults in small and larger groups. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Speak audibly and express thoughts, feelings, and ideas clearly. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Describe the connection between a series of historical events, scientific ideas or concepts, or steps in technical procedures in a text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases in a text relevant to a grade 2 topic or subject area. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Know and use various text features (e.g., captions, bold print, subheadings, glossaries, indexes, electronic menus, icons) to locate key facts or information in a text efficiently. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Ask and answer such questions as who, what, where, when, why, and how to demonstrate understanding of key details in a text. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Build on others' talk in conversations by linking their comments to the remarks of others. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Ask for clarification and further explanation as needed about the topics and texts under discussion. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Recount or describe key ideas or details from a text read aloud or information presented orally or through other media. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Participate in collaborative conversations with diverse partners about grade 2 topics and texts with peers and adults in small and larger groups. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: With guidance and support from adults and peers, focus on a topic and strengthen writing as needed by revising and editing. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Recall information from experiences or gather information from provided sources to answer a question. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write opinion pieces in which they introduce the topic or book they are writing about, state an opinion, supply reasons that support the opinion, use linking words (e.g., because, and, also) to connect opinion and reasons, and provide a concluding statement or section. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine the main idea of a text; recount the key details and explain how they support the main idea. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Describe the relationship between a series of historical events, scientific ideas or concepts, or steps in technical procedures in a text, using language that pertains to time, sequence, and cause/effect. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine the meaning of general academic and domain-specific words and phrases in a text relevant to a grade 3 topic or subject area. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Use text features and search tools (e.g., key words, sidebars, hyperlinks) to locate information relevant to a given topic efficiently. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Use information gained from illustrations (e.g., maps, photographs) and the words in a text to demonstrate understanding of the text (e.g., where, when, why, and how key events occur). Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Ask and answer questions to demonstrate understanding of a text, referring explicitly to the text as the basis for the answers. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Ask questions to check understanding of information presented, stay on topic, and link their comments to the remarks of others. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Explain their own ideas and understanding in light of the discussion. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Determine the main ideas and supporting details of a text read aloud or information presented in diverse media and formats, including visually, quantitatively, and orally. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Report on a topic or text, tell a story, or recount an experience with appropriate facts and relevant, descriptive details, speaking clearly at an understandable pace. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 3 topics and texts, building on others�۪ ideas and expressing their own clearly. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Provide reasons that support the opinion. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Recall information from experiences or gather information from print and digital sources; take brief notes on sources and sort evidence into provided categories. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write opinion pieces on familiar topics or texts, supporting a point of view with reasons. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Describe the connection between a series of historical events, scientific ideas or concepts, or steps in technical procedures in a text. Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases in a text relevant to a grade 2 topic or subject area. Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Know and use various text features (e.g., captions, bold print, subheadings, glossaries, indexes, electronic menus, icons) to locate key facts or information in a text efficiently. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Ask and answer such questions as who, what, where, when, why, and how to demonstrate understanding of key details in a text. Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Build on others’ talk in conversations by linking their comments to the remarks of others. Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Ask for clarification and further explanation as needed about the topics and texts under discussion. Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Recount or describe key ideas or details from a text read aloud or information presented orally or through other media. Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Participate in collaborative conversations with diverse partners about grade 2 topics and texts with peers and adults in small and larger groups. Cluster: Production and Distribution of Writing. Standard: With guidance and support from adults and peers, focus on a topic and strengthen writing as needed by revising and editing. Cluster: Research to Build and Present Knowledge. Standard: Recall information from experiences or gather information from provided sources to answer a question. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Write opinion pieces in which they introduce the topic or book they are writing about, state an opinion, supply reasons that support the opinion, use linking words (e.g., because, and, also) to connect opinion and reasons, and provide a concluding statement or section. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Determine the main idea of a text; recount the key details and explain how they support the main idea. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Describe the relationship between a series of historical events, scientific ideas or concepts, or steps in technical procedures in a text, using language that pertains to time, sequence, and cause/effect. Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Determine the meaning of general academic and domain-specific words and phrases in a text relevant to a grade 3 topic or subject area. Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Use text features and search tools (e.g., key words, sidebars, hyperlinks) to locate information relevant to a given topic efficiently. Cluster: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Use information gained from illustrations (e.g., maps, photographs) and the words in a text to demonstrate understanding of the text (e.g., where, when, why, and how key events occur). Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Ask and answer questions to demonstrate understanding of a text, referring explicitly to the text as the basis for the answers. Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Ask questions to check understanding of information presented, stay on topic, and link their comments to the remarks of others. Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Explain their own ideas and understanding in light of the discussion. Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Determine the main ideas and supporting details of a text read aloud or information presented in diverse media and formats, including visually, quantitatively, and orally. Cluster: Presentation of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Report on a topic or text, tell a story, or recount an experience with appropriate facts and relevant, descriptive details, speaking clearly at an understandable pace. Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 3 topics and texts, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Provide reasons that support the opinion. Cluster: Research to Build and Present Knowledge. Standard: Recall information from experiences or gather information from print and digital sources; take brief notes on sources and sort evidence into provided categories. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Write opinion pieces on familiar topics or texts, supporting a point of view with reasons.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:17.962842	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108714/overview", "title": "FEPPP Library Resource: Sonia Sotomayor: A Judge Grows in the Bronx La juez que creció en el Bronx", "author": "Reading Literature" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115809/overview	Spanish for the Health Professions Overview This online resource which is designed as a highly interactive alternative to a textbook for a full-semester course to help beginning students gain or increase Spanish skills that are useful for their career, daily life, academics and travel. The emphasis will be in language output for daily life and professional purposes, and there is very little emphasis on grammar as this will be acquired naturally through exposure to the language.Students will find activities to build speaking, listening, writing and reading skills as well as explore Spanish, Hispanic and Latin American culture.All sources in this resource are Open Educational Resources which are free and available to all users. Course Overview ¡Bienvenidos a la clase de español! Welcome to Spanish class! Welcome to this online resource which is designed as a highly interactive alternative to a textbook for a full-semester course to help you gain or increase Spanish skills that are useful for your future (or current) career, daily life, and travel.You will find activities to build your vocabulary and enhance your grammar skills as well as explore Open Educational Resources that are free and available to all users. You will find the content practical, authentic and engaging, but more importantly, you will learn a lot! The course is divided into 14 modules with each module centering around specific themes. Even though grammar is essential to learning any language, in this course, you will find that speaking the language, strategies for learning languages and culture are just as (or even more) important than extensive grammar drills. Also, this course encourages students to use translation platforms in order to acquire advanced language skills in an expedited manner rather than relying on memorization and drills. Therefore, this is a course designed to follow a communicative approach rather than a more 'traditional' approach to language learning which can delay students from accessing, navigating and benefiting from more advanced and interesting activities in addition to real-life conversations that they would experience when traveling or around native speaker. As much as possible, in the activities in this online book, students will participate in 'real-life' language immersion rather than typical classroom drills will make for a more engaged student who can become self-directed, learn at his or her own pace, and tailor their learning depending on their needs and interests. Modules: - Introductions and Spanish Basics - Getting to know people - Polite words and commands - Emergencies - Talking about the Body - Talking about feelings, pain and emotions - At the Doctor's Office and Hospital - Giving Instructions and Directions - Medical Terminology - Food and Nutrition - Technology and the Office - Forms and Paperwork - Mental Health Phrases - Saying Goodbye Student Learning Outcomes By the end of the "Spanish for the Healtcare Professions", students should be able to: Introduce Themselves and Engage in Basic Conversations: - Use simple Spanish phrases to introduce themselves and exchange pleasantries with Spanish-speaking patients and colleagues. Handle Basic Emergency Situations: - Apply basic Spanish phrases to communicate effectively during emergency scenarios in a healthcare setting. Identify and Describe Health-Related Topics: - Name body parts, describe basic symptoms, and discuss simple health conditions and feelings with patients in Spanish. Provide Basic Instructions and Assist with Forms: - Give simple directions within a healthcare facility and help patients with basic forms and paperwork in Spanish. Use Basic Medical Terminology: - Recognize and use essential medical terms in Spanish to communicate basic health information and needs effectively. Module 0: How do I...? (Technology Tutorials and Resources) About this course (scroll down to access the tutorials and resources) This course is designed primarily for individuals with little or no experience in Spanish, but it also supports higher-level learners by allowing them to tailor activities according to their needs and proficiency. Each activity is adaptable, so rather than traditional grammar drills or multiple-choice exercises, students engage with videos, lessons, and practice exercises that they can customize. This setup encourages students to adjust responses based on their interests and needs, allowing advanced learners to apply their knowledge while supporting beginners to progress without being restricted by specific proficiency requirements. The course’s multimedia resources support both beginner and advanced learners with captions and auto-translation options, making content accessible for everyone. Additionally, shadowing practice benefits both non-native and native Spanish speakers, reinforcing listening and pronunciation skills. In this course, native Spanish speakers can not only refine their Spanish language abilities and explored field-specific language and cultural topics, but they also have the opportunity to improve their English skills. Using translation platforms is also encouraged, as it promotes deeper comprehension, supports vocabulary retention, and offers real-time understanding checks. The course includes authentic activities and exercises that learners can adapt to suit their language level and personal interests. Students create their own glossaries, which they can tailor to reflect vocabulary relevant to them. Each module maintains a consistent structure to reduce cognitive load, allowing students to focus on language acquisition rather than navigation. NOTE: With any external site incuded in this textbook resource, please watch out for ads and be cautious of where you click! Click on the below for tutorials or useful information - How to record and share a Vocaroo audio file (Free version. No download needed) - How to take a screenshot - How to create a video screencast with ScreenPal (free version, download needed) - How to use SpanishDict (Free version. You will need to register using your Google account/login. There is a paid option which is highly recommended) Recommended Language Learning Platforms (all external sources that have both free and paid versions) Recommended Vocabulary and Translation (all external sites) Recommended YouTube Channels Recommended Websites (Please watch out for ads and be cautious of where you click!) - The Spanish Experiment - Spanish Homeschool Academy Module 1: Introductions and Spanish Basics Introductions and Spanish Basics Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up Basic Greetings One of the first things that are useful to learn in any language are greetings. To help us greet and introduce each other (as well as to do so with others!), watch the following and read this lesson from Homeschool Spanish Academy to learn about basic greetings and introductions in Spanish. You will also answer questions based on the videos, and what you learn from the videos will also help you with the Discussion Board this week. - After watching the video and reading the lesson, from each (video and lesson), please choose the 2 most useful phrases for you (2 from the video and 2 from the lesson) and write them as a list in English and Spanish. When applicable, replace the name (and other personal information) of you or the person in the video or lesson with your own name and information. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation Let's get to know each other Building a community is important in any class, but especially in an online class. - In Spanish and English, in the appropriate submission area, please share your name, age (optional), your major, where you are from and anything else you would like to share about yourself such as hobbies, interests, pets, etc. (Hint: This YouTube Playlist videos will show you some basic, authentic greetings in Spanish) and watch the video below for some great basic phrases for greetings and goodbyes. - Respond to the post of at least one other student All posts must be respectful and contribute positively to an atmosphere of civility and cooperation. NOTE: IF YOU ARE POSTING TO A PADLET DISCUSSION BOARD, IN ADDITION TO THE PADLET POST, TO RECEIVE FULL CREDIT, PLEASE TAKE A SCREENSHOT (OR COPY AND PASTE POST TEXT) TO INCLUDE WITH THE REST OF THE MODULE SUBMISSION DOCUMENT WHERE YOU SUBMIT THE REST OF THE MODULE SECTIONS. Post to the appropriate Discussion Board area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to translate, check your grammar and/or pronunciation. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder * Based on your current level of Spanish (beginner, intermediate, etc.), choose one of the Activities below (or you can choose to complete both!* (Make sure to clearly indicate in your submission which activity you chose) Activity 1: Basic Spanish Phrases Learn or practice important Spanish Basic Phrases vocabulary by doing the following: Access the Quizlet Link: Click the provided Quizlet link to access the vocabulary practice set. Review and Practice: Familiarize yourself with the vocabulary words and their meanings. Practice using different study modes available on Quizlet. Complete the Practice: Work through the vocabulary practice thoroughly, ensuring you're comfortable with the meanings and usage of each word. Submit Proof of Completion: Take a screenshot of one completed Quizlet session and submit it as proof of completion. QUIZLET LINK If the link above does not work, you can copy and paste this link to a different tab: https://quizlet.com/518187492/basic-phrases-in-spanish-introductions-and-useful-phrases-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1jqt Activity 2: Medical Terminology Spanish Phrases Learn or practice important Medical Spanish Basic Phrases vocabulary by doing the following: Access the Quizlet Link: Click the provided Quizlet link to access the vocabulary practice set. Review and Practice: Familiarize yourself with the vocabulary words and their meanings. Practice using different study modes available on Quizlet. Complete the Practice: Work through the vocabulary practice thoroughly, ensuring you're comfortable with the meanings and usage of each word. Submit Proof of Completion: Take a screenshot of one completed Quizlet session and submit it as proof of completion. QUIZLET LINK https://quizlet.com/967725412/common-medical-questions-and-translations-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1jqthttps://quizlet.com/967725412/common-medical-questions-and-translations-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1jqtIf the link above does not work, you can copy and paste this link to a different tab: https://quizlet.com/967725412/common-medical-questions-and-translations-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1jqt \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab Planning for Success As you probably already know, managing academics, work, family and social commitments is a challenge. However, there are ways to plan for success in all areas which are worth exploring. Please watch the videos on the next page, and based on the videos below, answer the following questions: - Based on the Benefits of a bilingual brain, what are three benefits of language learning? - From the video of Typing vs Handwriting list 2 benefits of handwriting and how handwriting might be useful (or not) for you in this class or any other class. - Which two strategies from the Thomas Frank 'How to stay productive..' video would be most useful to you? - Do you have the time or are you willing to make the time to learn Spanish while in this course? - State your full name, state what grade you would like to earn in this class and explain how you plan to earn that grade. You can choose to submit in English, Spanish or both. Submit your work as a PDF document in the appropriate assignment submission area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) NOTE: IF YOU ARE POSTING TO A PADLET DISCUSSION BOARD, IN ADDITION TO THE PADLET POST, TO RECEIVE FULL CREDIT, PLEASE TAKE A SCREENSHOT (OR COPY AND PASTE POST TEXT) TO INCLUDE WITH THE REST OF THE MODULE SUBMISSION DOCUMENT WHERE YOU SUBMIT THE REST OF THE MODULE SECTIONS. When applicable: Please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio or Screencast-o-matic to record videos, and share the link. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work Healthcare Professions Learn how to state professions and specialities in the Health and Medical field as well as how to state your major (what you are studying) in college with the video below. Based on the video: - List 3 medical professions or specialties mentioned in the video that relate to your current or future career. Include English and Spanish version. - Also, as you are currently a student, based on what you learned from the video, state in Spanish in a full sentence your major (what you are studying in school). Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to translate, check your grammar and/or pronunciation. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture Greetings Around the World Please watch the provided videos and, for each video, share your saludo favorito (favorite greeting). Describe the saludo and include which country each is from. Your response can be in English, Spanish or both. . \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Looking Ahead (Optional) 149 Spanish Medical Terms for Medical Professionals - Lingua Linkup \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Additional Resources (Optional) Spanish Experiment Lesson: https://www.thespanishexperiment.com/learn-spanish/greetings Regular verbs: https://www.spanishdict.com/guide/spanish-present-tense-forms Irregular verbs: https://www.spanishdict.com/guide/irregular-verbs-in-spanish Module 2: Getting to know people Getting to know people Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up How to introduce yourself Please watch the following video and read this article from Spanish Academy which will showcase some authentic Spanish phrases to introduce yourself. . - Based on the video and article, share 3 full phrases, questions or sentences you learned that were new, interesting or useful for you. Change the names to yours and change any phrases to suit your situation. - Share the phrases/questions in English and Spanish, as audio and text. When a submission requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation Let's continue to get to know each other! In this discussion, we will continue to get to know each other (in Spanish) with text and audio! This will be great practice for introductions when meeting others such as students, new friends, co-worker, client, etc. First, watch the YouTube videos below with more advanced greetings in Spanish and read this lesson from Homeschool Spanish Academy. Based on what you learned from the videos you will submit an original introductory post and respond to the post of others on the appropriate submission area of the course. Original Post - Create/write a brief text introduction of yourself (in Spanish) of at least five (5) sentences. - Please include some of the sentences you learned from the videos - After you create your written introduction, create a set of at least three (3) questions (in Spanish) that you might ask a student, new friend, colleagues, etc. - Record audio of yourself reading your introduction and the questions - all in Spanish. - Post the text version of your introduction as well as a link to the audio Respond to the Posts of 2 other students - Choose posts from at least TWO other students that you will respond to - Listen to their audio introductions and read their posts, paying close attention to the questions they ask - Create an audio recording (in Spanish) where you respond to their questions. - Post a link to your text and audio response as a Reply to their original post. All posts must be respectful and contribute positively to an atmosphere of civility and cooperation. Post to the appropriate Discussion Board area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) NOTE: If posting to a PADLET wall, please take a screenshot (or copy and paste the text) to also submit with the rest of the Module sections. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder * Based on your current level of Spanish (beginner, intermediate, etc.), choose one of the Activities below (or you can choose to complete both!* (Make sure to clearly indicate in your submission which activity you chose) Activity 1: Basic Spanish Phrases Learn or practice important Basic Spanish Phrases vocabulary by doing the following: Access the Quizlet Link: Click the provided Quizlet link to access the vocabulary practice set. Review and Practice: Familiarize yourself with the vocabulary words and their meanings. Practice using different study modes available on Quizlet. Complete the Practice: Work through the vocabulary practice thoroughly, ensuring you're comfortable with the meanings and usage of each word. Submit Proof of Completion: Take a screenshot of one completed Quizlet session and submit it as proof of completion. QUIZLET LINK If the link above does not work, you can copy and paste this link to a different tab: https://quizlet.com/518974145/authentic-conversation-spanish-greetings-and-basic-phrases-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1jqt Activity 2: Basic Spanish Medical Phrases Learn or practice important Medical Spanish Phrases vocabulary by doing the following: Access the Quizlet Link: Click the provided Quizlet link to access the vocabulary practice set. Review and Practice: Familiarize yourself with the vocabulary words and their meanings. Practice using different study modes available on Quizlet. Complete the Practice: Work through the vocabulary practice thoroughly, ensuring you're comfortable with the meanings and usage of each word. Submit Proof of Completion: Take a screenshot of one completed Quizlet session and submit it as proof of completion. QUIZLET LINK If the link above does not work, you can copy and paste this link to a different tab: https://quizlet.com/967808484/common-medical-phrases-in-spanish-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1jqthttps://quizlet.com/967808484/common-medical-phrases-in-spanish-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1jqt https://quizlet.com/967808484/common-medical-phrases-in-spanish-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1jqt \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab Does Language Affect Thought? Based on the video below, How Language shapes the way we think: - Share 3 new or interesting facts you learned - Share how/if the video changed the way you view/think of language and language learning. - How might the information from the video inform your interactions with individuals from different countries who speak different languages? Your answers can be in English, Spanish or both. When a submission requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work Describe yourself At work, you will sometimes need to describe yourself or others as well as understand others making descriptions. Learn or review some useful Spanish adjectives for physical characteristics and gain some excellent listening practice in the video below. Notice not just the different accents but also the common use of diminutives in Spanish! (If you are not familiar with diminutives in Spanish, this Homeschool Spanish lesson will help) - Based on the video list, by hand, write a list of at least 10 adjectives (or phrases related to describing oneself) that you did not know and/or need more practice with and/or are useful for you and/or describe you, in English and Spanish. Submit a screenshot of your handwritten list. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture America or U.S. (?) First, please watch the following video to hear the way in which four individuals introduce themselves and prepare to state where they are from. (Listen for the different accents!) Then, please think of the following: - State where each of the individuals is from (English and Spanish, as audio and text) - If you were to state where you live and/or where you are from would you say: Soy de America or Soy de los Estados Unidos? - Conduct some research to find out WHICH way you should answer this question and explain your findings. - State why it might be important to know this information when working with and/or meeting individuals from different countries, especially Latin America. - What is the Spanish abbreviation for 'the United States'? (Conduct your own research - hint: it may not be what you expect based on a direct translation) - Submit your answers to the above questions in English, except for when stating the Soy de .... portion of the response which should be in Spanish! Here are some additional resources to help (external links): - Nationalities and talking about where you are from (FluentU) - Preposition DE (Yabla) Submit your work as a Word or PDF document in the appropriate assignment submission area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) When applicable: Please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio or Screencast-o-matic to record videos, and share the link. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Module 3: Polite words and Commands Polite words and commands Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up What languages do you speak? Most likely, you are alredy able to recognize if someone is speaking Spanish, but do you know how to ask and answer "Do you speak Spanish?" Learn or review these essential verbs with this one-minute video! - Based on the video, share 2 new or useful phrases you learned from the video, as audio and text in English and Spanish - Create 2 other phrases related to asking or telling someone about speaking (or not) languages that would be useful for you to know, as audio and text in English and Spanish When a submission requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation "Commands" (Imperative mood) At work (or in life!) you will have to ask people to do something such as sit, relax, turn on the light, etc. In Spanish, these are called Commands which are part of a grammatical mood called the Imperative. Learn how to form commands in Spanish with this Spanish Homeschool Academy lesson and the video below. Based on what you learn from the lesson, create 3 sentences (requests) where you utilize the imperative mood to ask a classmate to 'do something' that would make sense in a medical/health setting OR that you would use with a patient in a medical setting. - Post your 3 sentences (post in Spanish and English - audio and text) - Choose a post to respond to and respond to their commands in the positive or negative - will you do as you were asked or not? why? do you have any clarifying questions? ( post in Spanish and English - audio and text) Post to the appropriate Discussion Board area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) NOTE: IF YOU ARE POSTING TO A PADLET DISCUSSION BOARD, IN ADDITION TO THE PADLET POST, TO RECEIVE FULL CREDIT, PLEASE TAKE A SCREENSHOT (OR COPY AND PASTE POST TEXT) TO INCLUDE WITH THE REST OF THE MODULE SUBMISSION DOCUMENT WHERE YOU SUBMIT THE REST OF THE MODULE SECTIONS. Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder NOTE: There are 2 parts in this Section PART 1: Polite Words Learn or practice important vocabulary by doing the following: Access the Quizlet Link: Click the provided Quizlet link to access the vocabulary practice set. Review and Practice: Familiarize yourself with the vocabulary words and their meanings. Practice using different study modes available on Quizlet. Complete the Practice: Work through the vocabulary practice thoroughly, ensuring you're comfortable with the meanings and usage of each word. Submit Proof of Completion: Take a screenshot of one completed Quizlet session and submit it as proof of completion. QUIZLET LINK If the link above does not work, you can copy and paste this link to a different tab: https://quizlet.com/914773216/polite-words-in-spanish-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1qqt PART 2: Commands Learn more 'commands' phrases with the Quizlet below. Then, create a Google Sheets, Excel Sheet (or similar) document where you will type in the words from the Quizlet. Title the document: Your Name Spanish Glossary (Example: Maria Spanish Glossary) as this is a document you will use in future activities and that will help you keep track of phrases so you can review them and add to the list. - Submit a screenshot of the completed Quizlet practice lesson. - Submit your Spanish Glossary as a PDF that is separate from the Module template document. QUIZLET https://quizlet.com/914777920/commands-in-spanish-imperative-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1jqt \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab What is Fluency? Watch the video below, and based on the video, in English, share 2 new or interesting facts you learned about what FLUENCY means or its myths. Share what you think your current Spanish fluency level is and what level you hope to achieve in the future, even beyond this class. Note that it is OK to share if you are not planning on reaching any level of fluency beyond what you reach in this class! \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work More Commands Increase your command of Spanish commands with some interactive practice with SpanishDict. Click on the SpanishDict link below, and: - Choose at least 3 lessons/activities from the page (see image below which will show you what the screen looks like) and complete the activities. Submit a screenshot(s) showing completion. NOTE: If you have not registered yet to SpanishDict, you will need to do so with a Google Account. It is a free platform, but if you have the means, the paid version is highly recommended by students! SPANISHDICT ACTIVITIES Hint: In the SpanishDict activities, if you hover with your mouse above the Spanish sentences, you will see the English translation. If the above link does not work, copy and paste this link to a new tab: https://www.spanishdict.com/guide/commands \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture Formal and Informal Speech In Spanish, there are different ways to address people depending on their age, relationship to you, and their position. Although it will vary across different regions and people, typically the 'formal' form of speech (especially as it referes to the pronoun YOU and the way the verbs are conjugated) have to do with respect. As a beginner Spanish speaker, you want to be aware of this as you work with Spanish-speaking patients, especially those who are older that you, as generally, they expect the 'formal' manner of address. However, this will take time and practice, so for now, just be aware of it. To learn about Formal and Informal speech in Spanish, please read over this Spanish Experiment lesson. Then, please watch the provided video and: - Explain the different Spanish pronouns for YOU and how/when each is used. - From the video, share two phrases (or facts) that you found to be new, interesting, or valuable, especially as they pertain to your current or future field in the Health Professions. When relevant, ensure that you include sufficient details and evidence from the video to support your responses. Your submission should include both English and Spanish audio in the form of a link, as well as written text. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Additional Resources (Optional) This Duolingo lesson will show you a written list of Commands. Module 4: Emergencies Emergencies Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up 911 and Need for Interpreters Watch the video below which showcases a real-life scenario of a Spanish-speaker calling 911. - Based on the outcome of the video, in English, explain what you would have done differently if you were the 911 dispatcher receving the call. How could you have helped the caller? What could you have said or done? - Then, create at least 3 phrases (English with Spanish translation) that would be helpful if you were ever in a situation where a Spanish speaker is asking you for emergency help, and you do not know enough Spanish to assist. What would you need to do AND say if you encounter a caller who speaks only Spanish? NOTE: if you already speak Spanish, think of actions and at least 3 phrases that you would recommend to a 911 dispatcher who does NOT speak Spanish. What should they learn/know to say and do if they receive a call from a Spanish speaker? - Submit phrases as text and audio in both languages. Submit answers to what actions should take place as text only. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation Emergency Phrases Whether it is for travel, daily life or work, it is important to know Spanish phrases for emergencies. Watch the following video for a few basic emergency phrases. - For beginner Spanish-language students: List FIVE emergency words/phrases you learned from the video - For intermediate to advanced Spanish-language students: Share/Create FIVE short emergency phrases that you recommend a new Spanish-learner in the Medical/Healthcare field SHOULD commit to memory and explain why. You will find the video is not enough for all the possible emergencies one might encounter or the most likely ones depending on the situation. - Therefore, please conduct some research and find: - ONE video to help you learn phrases for emergencies in Spanish. - ONE website or online resource to help you learn phrases for emergencies in Spanish. - Share the resource(s) and explain how each would be helpful. - Please respond to the post of at least one other student by visiting the links they provided and commenting on the usefulness of the video/resources/websites they shared AND two (2) new emergency words/phrases (English and Spanish versions) you learned from the resources shared in the post you responded to. All posts must be respectful and contribute positively to an atmosphere of civility and cooperation. Post to the appropriate Discussion Board area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) NOTE: If posting to a PADLET wall, please take a screenshot (or copy and paste the text) to also submit with the rest of the Module sections. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder Note: There are 2 parts to this Section PARTE 1: Emergency words and phrases Click HERE to access a Quizlet set of flashcards. Choose any mode to practice and share a screenshot showing completion. If the link above does not work, copy and paste the following onto a new tab: https://quizlet.com/387639223/practical-spanish-emergency-wordspalabras-de-emergencia-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1jqt PARTE 2: Numbers Learn the Spanish numbers from 0-100 with the lesson below. Record yourself reading the numbers and submit an audio link AND/OR you may choose to complete the two interactive lessons (0-20 and 21-100) and submit a screenshot(s) as proof of completion. SPANISHDICT LESSON: https://www.spanishdict.com/guide/numbers-in-spanish-0-100 FOR ADVANCED SPANISH LEARNERS OR THOSE WHO WANT ADDITIONAL PRACTICE, YOU MAY CHOOSE TO COMPLETE THIS LESSON: When a submission requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab Shadowing Practice You will now use an engaging method to help your Spanish skills: Shadowing. Unlike the Repeating method where you listen to a word or phrase and repeat after it, with Shadowing, you try to speak at just about the same time as the speaker. This is not unlike singing along with your favorite song, and it helps you with the mechanics, rate of speech and intonation of language as it is spoken. So you may or may not have heard of the method of Shadowing as a strategy to increase your fluency in Spanish (or any language), but if not familiar with this method of increasing your Spanish fluency, this video will explain what it is. Shadowing is sometimes difficult for beginners, but for this assignment, do give it a try!!!! - Watch (and listen) to one or both of the videos below and record yourself SHADOWING FOR AT LEAST THREE MINUTES. - Share a bit about your experience and the answers to the following: - Share the link to the source (audio, video, etc.) you chose to shadow and explain WHY you chose it. - What was your experience like with shadowing? (Fun? Challenging? Stressful? Simple? Useful?) Explain in English, as text. - Based on this experience, do you think shadowing might (or might not) be a good way to increase your Spanish skills? Explain in English, as text. - Please note that Shadowing is NOT repeating after you hear the phrase, it is saying the phrase at the same time (follow along) as you hear the phrases. - Submit and audio link of your shadowing practice and the response to the questions above. When a submission requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. *** CHOOSE ONE OF THE VIDEOS BELOW TO SHADOW DEPENDING ON YOUR SPANISH LEVEL OR INTEREST BASIC (SPANISH WITH ENGLISH SHADOWING) ADVANCED (SHADOWING ONLY IN SPANISH) \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work With the video below, learn 5 basic Spanish phrases a first-responder (in this case a Police Officer) find useful when communicating with a Spanish speaker. What makes this video interesting is that the individual is a Spanish learner himself! Therefore, there might be a few grammatical errors in his phrases, but do not worry as these do NOT interfere with understanding. This is something to keep in mind: your Spanish does NOT have to be perfect, you just need to be understood! - Based on the video, write a list by hand/handwritten of the phrases in English and Spanish. Submit your written list and audio of you reading the phrases. - For advanced Spanish-learners (or those interested in additional practice), in addition to the phrases from the video, create 5 additional phrases that you would share with a first-responder who does not speak Spanish and who has asked you for help in learning useful phrases to help in their work as first-responder. Submit your written list and audio of you reading the phrases. Note: If you spot any grammatical errors, you are welcome to share these as well. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture Gender of Nouns In Spanish, nouns are either feminine or masculine. There are no netural nouns. This is important to know for effective communication and assistance. Please visit the SpanishDict lesson provided via the link below to learn about this topic which will be helpful in 'real-lfe' and 'at work' as matching gender of nouns to articles and adjectives will help avoid confusion. NOTE FOR FIRST TIME SPANISHDICT USERS: You will need to register to the platform using a gmail/google account. There is a free version which has a lot of ads, so watch out for those. If you have the means, the paid version is highly recommended. - Complete the Activity Lessons located at the top of the page. Choose at least 3 lessons you will complete (choose the 1st lesson and then choose 2 others) and click on each lesson. - Provide a screenshot of each completed lesson as evidence of your completion. If you complete lessons at different times, you can submit separate screenshots. If you complete them all at one, you can submit one screenshot that shows they have been completed. SPANISHDICT ACTIVITY THE SECTION IS TITLED: GENDER OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. The screen should look like the image below. If it does not, it could be somehow you were routed to a different lesson. If that is the case, you may need to try again or do a search for SpanishDict lessons/activities on GENDER OF PRONOUNS Interactive lessons at the top of the page for which you will submit screenshot(s) as proof of completion) Click on each of the lessons to complete. Choose 3 including the 1st lesson. This means you will complete the first lesson and choose 2 others to complete as well. - Note: When completing the lesson activities, you can hover over the Spanish sentences to view the English translation \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Additional Resources or Information (Optional) Module 5: Talking about the Body Talking about the Body Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up Body Parts Begin learning (or reviewing) body parts in Spanish as well as get some excellent listening practice with the video below. Based on the video, list 3 new or interesting phrases (not just single words) that you learned. - Submit your list in Spanish and English as audio and text. To view subtitles, click on the icon. When a submission requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation Conversation using Medical Professions and Titles vocabulary Learn vocabulary essential for effective conversation in a medical setting with the lesson below from The Leaf Project. Read the entire lesson, but for the Discussion Board post, go to the lesson section titled Adapt. Based on the section: - For your Original Post, choose 3 of the questions from the Adapt section, and post them as text and audio in English and Spanish - For the Response Posts, choose the posts of 2 other students, and respond to the questions they posted. You can use as a model the responses found in the lesson and/or you can adapt the responses to any situation you may find helpful or realistic for you. Post in English and Spanish as audio and text. LEAF PROJECT LESSON When a submission requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder Body Parts Vocabulary Learn or practice important vocabulary by doing the following: Watch the video below Listen and Repeat: Record yourself repeating each of the vocabulary words Submit Proof of Completion: Submit a Vocaroo link of your audio. To learn more about Body Parts in Spanish, visit this SpanishDict lesson. When a submission requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab Latin and Greek Roots Did you know both English and Spanish are heavily influenced by the Latin and Greek languages? This is especially true in the Medical and Legal fields, but it is evident in general language as you will see in the video belos. Learn more with the video, and based on the video: - By hand (handwritten) make two lists of the words of Greek origin and Latin origin. - Label each list as Greek and Latin - Under the correct list, write the words mentioned in the video (these will be in English) - Using a translation app, translate each of the words from your list into Spanish. - Submit a screenshot of your completed list. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work Mira y escucha (Watch and listen) - Watch the following video in Spanish (with NO subtitles/captions/English translation) and try to understand using the Spanish you know and context clues. - Share a statement of how much you THINK you were able to understand and what strategies you used to help you understand. - Then, re-watch the video with English captions (use the CC captions on YouTube) and compare your initial understanding with the actual translation. How much did you ACTUALLY understand? What was the video about? Provide enough details so it is evident you watched the entire video. - How was this experience for you? - What did you learn from doing this activity (both about your Spanish listening comprehension and/or a Medical Physical Exam) \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture Respeto (Respect) Learn about the Importance of Respect in the Latino Culture for Healthcare professionals from the video below. Based on what you learned from the video: - List 3 new, interesting or useful facts you learned. - Explain why you chose them, and indicate how they would be helpful for you in your career in the Health Professions. - Explain if it is proper to use first names with patients and why or why not. Share the above in English or both English and Spanish if you would like the practice. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Additional Resources (Optional) Module 6: Talking about feelings, pain and emotions Talking about feelings, pain and emotions Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up Feelings Learn and practice how to express 'sensations/feelings' such as hunger, thirst and more. Please watch the video below and: - Share 3 new, interesting or useful full sentences you learned from the video about expressing how we feel, in English and Spanish, as text and audio. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation To have to do something Tener que and Hay que are phrases that indicate something needs to be 'done'. Learn more with the video below and this lesson from BaseLang. - Based on what you learn, create 1 statement using HAY QUE and 1 statement using TENER QUE (you can conjugate TENER to 1st, 2nd or 3rd person) about tasks that NEED to be completed (by you or someone else) for your current (or future) profession in the Health/Medical field. - Post your statements in English and Spanish as audio and text. - Please respond to the post of at least one other student stating whether you 'want to' or are 'able to' complete whatever 'tasks' the student stated need to be completed OR asking for further clarification. - Respond with text and audio in English and Spanish. All posts must be respectful and contribute positively to an atmosphere of civility and cooperation. Post to the appropriate Discussion Board area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) NOTE: If posting to a PADLET wall, please take a screenshot (or copy and paste the text) to also submit with the rest of the Module sections. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder Emotions and Feelings Start learning Spanish words for emotions and feelings with the video below, and complete the activities below. Activity 1: As you watch the video, record yourself repeating each of the words and phrases from the video. Submit a link to your audio. Activity 2: Type the list of words to your Spanish Glossary (English and Spanish versions) and submit a screenshot of the list in your Spanish Glossary or a separate PDF document containing the list in your Spanish Glossary. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab Images for Communication Charts, drawings, images, etc. can be helpful to communicate. Coupled with words, they can be a useful tool at work. Below is a 'pain' chart that can be used with patients to help them articulate their level of pain. - Using any resources available to you, translate the chart to English and create a bilingual (Spanish-English version) of the chart. You can be as creative as you would like, as long as your chart conveys the same information as the image below. Submit your chart. - Note: If there is another type of chart that you know would be more useful for your work situation, you are welcome to create it instead of the one shown below. You can use a free, online platform such as Canva or you can use Google Slides, Power Point or any other platform that allows you to design something that resembles a business card! Additional Resource: For a useful written Glossary of terms for 'pain' in Spanish, this PDF lin from the International Medical Interpreters Association will help! \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work Forming questions Turning a statement into a question in Spanish is simple! Watch this video lesson to learn how we can turn a statement into a question in Spanish without having to change the words or word order. Based on what you learn from the video: - Explain the 3 ways in which we can form questions in Spanish - Now, refer back to the statments using TENER QUE and HAY QUE from the previous section. Re-write your statements as questions. Submit both sets (statements and questions) as text and audio in both languages. Make sure to change your tone so it is evident which one is a statement and which one is a question! \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture Don't do this in a Mexican household (according to moms!) You may or may not know about the use of chanclas as a discipline tool Mexican moms (and other Hispanic moms as well) use on their kids. Learn a bit about this with the video below: - Based on the video (and any research you need to conduct) what is the literal meaning of chancla and what is the cultural/discipline related meaning of the chancla? - Create a list of at least 3 things one should 'not' do in order to avoid the chancla. - As a current or future medical professional, if a child told you his mother threw a chancla at him or her, how would you react? Would you be concerned? What would you do now that you know about the chancla compared to how you would have reacted if you did not know about the chancla? - Create a set of two follow-up questions you may ask a child who told you his mother threw a chancla at him/her. Share your sentences in English and Spanish as audio and text. Your submission can be in English, Spanish or both as written text. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Additional Resource (Optional) For a useful written Glossary of terms of 'pain' in Spanish, this PDF lin from the International Medical Interpreters Association will help! Module 7: At the Doctor's Office and Hospital At the Doctor's Office and Hospital Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up It hurts! Learn and practice how to express 'sensations/feelings' such as pain. Please watch the video below and: - Share 3 new, interesting or useful full sentences you learned from the video, in English and Spanish, as text and audio. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation Videos of your profession Conduct your own research and find two videos in Spanish (that are from a credible source, appropriate, and for the level of this class) that you would recommend for someone who would like to improve their Spanish for a profession/work in YOUR current or future field. - Share the links to the videos chose and their titles - State why you chose the videos and why you would recommend them to someone else. - Watch at least one video posted by a peer and comment on your experience with the video (What did you learn? How was it helpful? etc.). - Also, share TWO new phrases you learned from that video (Spanish and English - audio and text) Post to the appropriate Discussion Board area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. Sample video for the dental field. I chose this because my career will be as a Dental Hygienist. This individual is a dental hygienist, and she shows a typical conversation in Spanish between the patient and the dentist, with English captions that I pressed CC to turn on. It also has a section dedicated to specific vocabulary with the Spanish and English versions. I recommend this video because the content is simple but useful for anyone who will work with patients in a dentist office or other medical office. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder Patient Intake Form Start learning Spanish words and phrases for Medical Intake forms which at the same time will help you review Spanish basics. Click here to access a Patient Intake form, and WITHOUT any translation apps, translate as much of PAGE 1 and PAGE 5 as you can. You can print the form and translate by hand or ue any other method that is convenient, but please make sure that your translation appears ON the form. You will submit this translation and title it ORIGINAL TRANSLATION. Then, use a translation app and translate all items in PAGE 1 and PAGE 5 and title this translation and title it APP TRANSLATION. Then compare both translations and answer the following: - How long did this process take? - What did you learn based on doing the translation? - List 10 words or phrases (in Englih and Spanish) that were new or useful for you Optional: If you would lke additional practice OR to see a bilingual form, click here. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab Tarjeta de negocios (Business cards) Whether your work or business requires a business card, these are an excellent way to introduce yourself as well as provide basic information about you and your business or work. For this assignment, you will create (all in Spanish) a business card that includes your name, a fictional business name or future place of employment, address, phone number and website address. You can use a free, online platform such as Canva or you can use Google Slides, Power Point or any other platform that allows you to design something that resembles a business card! Submit your work as a Word or PDF document in the appropriate assignment submission area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) When applicable: Please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio or Screencast-o-matic to record videos, and share the link. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work Spanish for Patient Visits Learn useful Spanish for patient visits with the video below. Based on the video you will: PARTE 1 - From the video, list the eight phrases to use during a new patient visit. English and Spanish, audio and text. - You will use the phrases in the next Part (PARTE 2) PARTE 2 - Create a short script of a conversation between a doctor (or health professional) and a patient or client during a medical/health-related visit. It should be related to your current or future field. - Incorporate the 4 phrases from PARTE 1 into the script. - The script should consist of at least 10 lines (5 for each of the characters speaking) and it should be in Spanish and English - Record the audio for the script. You can play the voice for both 'characters' in the recording or you can have a friend or family help you record by playing the second character. - Submit the written script and audio link. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture What are proxemics? Proxemics is the study of personal space and the degree of separation individuals maintain in social situations. It is a form of non-verbal communication, and it can vary widely amongst different cultures. You will explore proxemics as a comparison across cultures through a variety of readings, videos and other activities. Submit responses in English only (Spanish version optional if you would like the practice). - Watch videos below explaining proxemics Thinking about what you have learned about proxemics (often referred to as our 'bubble'): - State the 4 Proxemics distances mentioned in one of the videos. - Based on those distances, what is the typical distance at which you feel 'comfortable' in different situations (family, social, school, work) - To what do you attribute that distance? Upbringing? Culture? Personal preference? Societal norms? - Have you been in a situation where your proxemics were different from someone else's? How did you navigate that situation? - Why is it important to be aware of proxemics in the workplace? Explain how this might be important in your chosen profession. Submit your work as a Word or PDF document in the appropriate assignment submission area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) When applicable: Please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio or Screencast-o-matic to record videos, and share the link. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Module 8: Giving Instructions and Directions Giving Instructions and Directions Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up Asking for directions Would you know how to ask for and give directions in Spanish? This may be a helpful skill at work, school, travel or anywhere! Find out with the following video. - Based on the lesson or video, share as text 5 of the phrases/sentences (not single, individual words with no context) that would be most useful for you to commit to memory (in English and Spanish as audio and text) and explain how these phrases would be useful for you. SPANISH EXPERIMENT LESSON \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation How do I get to? Based on this Spanish Experiment lesson which you can also access by clicking below, on the Discussion Board: - Original Post: Choose 3 of the directions questions (questions asking for directions) from the lesson (English and Spanish as audio and text) and post them to the Discussion Board as though you were asking a classmate for those directions. The questions should be geared towards asking directions to (or within) your current or future place of work in the medical/healthcare field such as hospital, doctor's office, clinic, etc. - Response Posts: Choose the posts of two classmates, and answer their questions by 'giving them directions'. Obviously, you will have to 'make-up' the directions, but this will be great practice for the time when you actually need to help a Spanish speaker to find a place! www.thespanishexperiment.com/learn-spanish/directions All posts must be respectful and contribute positively to an atmosphere of civility and cooperation. Post to the appropriate Discussion Board area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) NOTE: If posting to a PADLET wall, please take a screenshot (or copy and paste the text) to also submit with the rest of the Module sections. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder Opposite words To increase our Spanish vocabulary may sometimes mean we need to memorize words, phrases, etc. However, this is best done by repetition and by seeing them in context. Nonetheless, we must begin somewhere, and a great place to start is with taking a look at useful antonyms. With the video in this section, you will access quite a long yet very useful set of vocabulary words that are worth writing down to refer to them later. Therefore, please watch the following video of opposite Spanish words, and based on the video - Write a list (handwritten or typed) of the opposite words, in English and Spanish. - Submit your typed list or a screenshot of your handwritten word list. - Useful Hint: Consider adding this list to the Spanish Glossary you created in a previous Module! NOTE: The list is quite extensive, and it may be easier/quicker (and better for memory retention) to write them by hand as you watch the video and submit a screenshot of your list. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab Repeat after me You will now use an engaging method to help your Spanish skills: Repeating. The Repeating method is when you listen to a word or phrase and repeat after it - Watch (listen) to the video below and record yourself REPEATING all the vocabulary phrases in both languages. - Share a bit about your experience and the answers to the following: - What was your experience like with repeating? (Fun? Challenging? Stressful? Simple? Useful?) Explain in English, as text. - Based on this experience, do you think shadowing might (or might not) be a good way to increase your Spanish skills? Explain in English, as text. - Submit and audio link of your shadowing practice and the response to the questions above. When a submission requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work More Directions Practice giving directions to a potential patient or customer at work. First, watch the video below, which will also give you some great listening practice. Based on the video: - Choose 3 phrases which would be helpful for you to know. - You will use the phrases in the next Part - Create a short script of a conversation between you as though you are working in a medical setting and a Spanish-speaking patient who is asking for directions (within the medical setting: how to get to the pharmacy, the emergency room, the cafeteria, etc. - you choose!) - The script should consist of at least 10 lines (5 for each of the characters speaking) and it should be in Spanish and English - Record the audio for the script. You can play the voice for both 'characters' in the recording or you can have a friend or family help you record by playing the second character. - Submit your script and audio link. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture Most useful languages to learn Given that you are studying Spanish (whether it is an academic requirement or not!) and given the growth of the Spanish language here in the U.S. it might be worthwhile to explore some career possibilities for those of you who are (or plan to be) bilingual. You already know that Spanish is helpful in the Health Professions, but it may be interesting for you to see what other professions are options for those who are bilingual. Watch the videos below about careers for bilingual individuals and the most useful languages to learn. Based on the videos (Ignore any 'sales' aspects of the videos): - List the 7 most useful languages to learn (based on the video). - From the video, what are 2 reasons we should learn a foreign language? - From your own experience or goals, what are 2 reasons you should learn a foreign language? - List your future Spanish goals: What level of Spanish would you like to acquire? What do you feel is your current level of Spanish? Submit your work as a Word or PDF document in the appropriate assignment submission area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) When applicable: Please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio or Screencast-o-matic to record videos, and share the link. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Module 9: Medical Terminology Medical Terminology Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up Talking about health Learn some health-related Spanish conversation and get some listening practiceby watching the video below and: - Share 5 new, interesting or useful phrases you learned from the video, in English and Spanish, as text and audio. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation Medical Terms Scavenger Hunt Conduct your own research and: - Find two videos where Spanish-learners such as yourself can learn about Medical Terms in Spanish. The videos should be from a credible source, appropriate, and for the level of this class that you would recommend for someone who would like to improve their Spanish for a profession/work in YOUR current or future field. - Share the links to the videos chose and their titles - State why you chose the videos and why you would recommend them to someone else. - Watch at least one video posted by a peer and comment on your experience with the video (What did you learn? How was it helpful? etc.). - Also, share TWO new phrases you learned from that video (Spanish and English - audio and text) Post to the appropriate Discussion Board area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. Sample video and explanation: I chose this because it has medical terminology in Spanish but also explains the terms in English. I recommend this video because the content is simple but useful for someone who is studying anything related to the medicap profession or anatomy. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder Hospital Vocabulary Learn or practice important vocabulary by doing the following: Activity 1: Access the Spanish Academy Lesson Link below: Click the provided link to access the vocabulary practice set. Review and Practice: Familiarize yourself with the vocabulary words, phrases and their meanings. Record audio of you reading all the phrases from the Section titled: Useful Hospital in Spanish Phrases Submit Proof of Completion: Submit a link of your audio Activity 2: Also from the lesson, choose at least 10 words or phrases that would be useful for you in your current or future career. Type the list of words to your Spanish Glossary (English and Spanish versions) and submit a screenshot of the list in your Spanish Glossary or a separate PDF document containing the list in your Spanish Glossary. Spanish Academy Lesson Link Optional: For a comprehensive glossary of Medical terms, click here. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab False Friends Learn about False Cognates (also known as False Friends) in Spanish from the slides below which you can access by clicking the link below. Based on what you learned from the slides: - Type the list of words to your Spanish Glossary (English and Spanish versions) and submit a screenshot of the list or a separate PDF document containing the list. - Research and find 5 other False Cognates in Spanish and include them in your Spanish Glossary. Submit a screenshot of the list or a separate PDF document containing the list. Make sure that the False Cognates YOU found are clearly labeled as such. - Explain why it is important for you to be aware of these (and other) Spanish-English False Cognates and how now knowing them might negatively affect an outome at work. SLIDES LINK Additional Resource: 55 False Cognates in Spanish That Will Kill Your Conversation \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work Common Healthcare Phrases Learn useful Spanish for patient visits with the video below. Based on the video you will: PARTE 1 - From the video, list all the healthcare phrases, in English and Spanish as audio and text. - You will use the phrases in the next Part (PARTE 2) PARTE 2 - Create a short script of a conversation between a doctor (or other health professional related to your field) and a patient or client during a medical/health-related visit. It should be related to your current or future field. - Incorporate the 4 phrases from PARTE 1 into the script. - The script should consist of at least 10 lines (5 for each of the characters speaking) and it should be in Spanish and English - Record the audio for the script. You can play the voice for both 'characters' in the recording or you can have a friend or family help you record by playing the second character. - Submit the written script and audio link. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture High and Low-Context Cultures Learn a bit more about differences in cultures as far as how they communicate (and with 'how many' words!) . Based on the videos below (and any extra research you need to conduct): - Define high-context and low-context cultures - Is the U.S. a high-context or low-context culture? Explain - Are Latin American countries high or low context? Explain - Why might it be important for your current or future career to be aware of the distinction betwee High and Low context cultures? - If you were to work with/ assist someone from a Latin American culture, what would you do in order to establish trust? Use specific evidence from the video as well as your own opinion. - Share links/resources where you got the information Submit your work as a Word or PDF document in the appropriate assignment submission area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) When applicable: Please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio or Screencast-o-matic to record videos, and share the link. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. . \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Module 10: Food and Nutrition Food and Nutrition Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up La siesta To exemplify a cultural difference in routines between the U.S. and Spain (and some Latin American countries) that relates to time and food, there is no better example than the siesta. An interesting part of daily routines in Spain is the Siesta. There are also medical (and other) reasons for this tradition as you will learn from the videos below Watch the following videos, and based on the videos, In English: - Explain the concept of a siesta and how you feel about it! Did you know about it? Would you like to incorporate it into your daily life? How would U.S. be different if the siesta was a part of our culture? - Explain sobremesa and how it might be important to be aware of this practice whether in daily life or in the workplace if working with individuals from other countries. - What is the 'medical' explanation behind the need for a siesta? Where does the term come from? - Please provide enough details and evidence from the videos as well as your own thoughts in your submission. Please submit your assignment in the appropriate assignment submission area of your course with a video link a Word document or PDF. Submit your work as a Word or PDF document in the appropriate assignment submission area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) When applicable: Please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio or Screencast-o-matic to record videos, and share the link. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. . \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation At the restaurant A common place we visit at home, at work or when traveling is a restaurant, so knowing how to order food in Spanish can be helpful. To learn more about ordering food, watch the following videos. Based on the conversations from the YouTube Playlist videos you will: PARTE 1 - From each video, choose 2 phrases which would be helpful for you to know. - You will use the phrases in the next Part (PARTE 2) PARTE 2 - Create a short script of a conversation of two or more people where you are at a work dinner, work cafeteria, etc. Incorporate the 4 phrases from PARTE 1 into the script. The character pairs could be: - you and a friend/colleague about to order at a restaurant/function/banquet, etc. - you and a waiter/waitress - The script should consist of at least 10 lines (5 for each of the characters speaking) and it should be in Spanish and English - Record the audio for the script. You can play the voice for both 'characters' in the recording or you can have a friend or family help you record by playing the second character. - Post your script. You do not have to but are encouraged to read, listen and respond to the posts of others. All posts must be respectful and contribute positively to an atmosphere of civility and cooperation. Post to the appropriate Discussion Board area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) NOTE: If posting to a PADLET wall, please take a screenshot (or copy and paste the text) to also submit with the rest of the Module sections. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder Food Vocabulary Activity 1: As you watch the video, record yourself repeating each of the words and phrases from the video. Submit a link to your audio. Activity 2: Type the list of words to your Spanish Glossary (English and Spanish versions) and submit a screenshot of the list in your Spanish Glossary or a separate PDF document containing the list in your Spanish Glossary. Additional Resource: Featured Food and Drink lists \| SpanishDictionary.com \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab Train your Brain There are many challenges we are faced with when learning something new. However, for most of us, few of those challenges have to do with the subject matter itself but rather our approach or thoughts. Learn some strategies on how to overcome some of these challenges by watching the video below. - Based on the video, in English: - State 3 new, interesting or useful facts you learned about learning. Provide enough details from the video to fully explain. - Explain how you will use the knowledge/strategies from the video to help you learn Spanish more efficiently. - Based on your own experience, in English: - What are the biggest challenges you have faced in this class so far? - How have you/will/could you overcome them? - Have your views on your ability to learn Spanish changed since the beginning of the course? Explain. - Have your views on your interest in learning Spanish changed since the beginning of the course? Explain with enough details to support your answer. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work Nutrition Learn useful Spanish for patient visits with the video below. Based on the video you will: PARTE 1 - From the video, list fove (5) healthcare phrases related to nutirition and exercise (actual phrases, sentences or questions and NOT single vocabulary words), in English and Spanish as audio and text. - You will use the phrases in the next Part (PARTE 2) PARTE 2 - Create a short script of a conversation between a doctor (or health, nutrition or exercise professional) and a patient or client during a medical/health-related visit. - Incorporate 3 phrases from PARTE 1 into the script. - The script should consist of at least 10 lines (5 for each of the characters speaking) and it should be in Spanish and English - Record the audio for the script. You can play the voice for both 'characters' in the recording or you can have a friend or family help you record by playing the second character. - Submit the written script and audio link. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture Different Words for the Same Thing Be surprised by learning how different Spanish-speaking countries have various words for the same thing by watching the video below. - Based on each video, share 3 'items/things' mentioned and share the different Spanish words for each. This will be 3 set of words from each video, for a total of 6. Include the English version and all the Spanish versions. - Why might it be important in your current or future profession to be aware that there are different words for the same thing in Spanish? For example: Auto/Car can be: Auto, automovil, carro and coche (Please use other examples! Do not use Auto) . \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Additional Resources (Optional) Food and more food! Whether at home, school, work or travel, we all have to eat! To increase your vocabulary of food items, click on the lesson below to access SpanishDict quizzes where you will learn some food-related vocabulary. Module 11: Technology and the Office Technology and the Office Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up Signs Many signs, such as the traffic STOP sign are almost universal in that they have the same (or similar) shapes and colors that can easily be recognized. Other signs, however, rely more on words. Whether in or out of an office, it is a good idea to be able to recognize signs written in Spanish. Click on the slides show below which has several images of signs in Spanish. Based on the signs on the slides: - Compile a list of the Spanish words and phrases from each sign, and find an English translation for each. - Then, find an equivalent image of that sign in English. - Submit a list with 3 columns; 1 column for the Spanish words/phrases from the sign; 1 column for the English version; 1 column for the image of the sign. - Recommended: Add this list to your Spanish Glossary SIGNS SLIDES \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation Technology Items Learn about some technology items commonly found in an office (and at home) with the video below. Based on the video, to the Discussion Board: - List 5 items that were new or useful for you, in Engllish and Spanish. - Post your written list - Then, think of your current or future place of work in the Health/Medical field, and in English and Spanish: - Create a list of 10 items (supplies, machinery, technology, etc.) that would be essential there. - Post your written list and include your job title and the location/workplace/type of office where these items would be found. - Try to find the post of a classmate who will be working in a similar position or workplace as you, and respond to their post with comparisons of the items you chose or any other information or comments you would like to make. If there is no one with a similar position, then chose any other post to respond to. Additional Resource: Tech Vocab Quizlet: (there is one misspelling - Chat room = Sala de charla) \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder Cognates to increase vocabulary quickly Cognates are pairs of words that sound alike and have the same meaning in two different languages. They are useful first steps in learning a new language. Spanish and English share hundreds of cognates and have borrowed from each other for centuries. Below is a video to get you started, and also, please go to this online lesson from Real Fast Spanish. (Note: the video has an error with the cognate for delicious - in Spanish, it is delicioso. Extra credit if you can spot some additional errors!) - List the 12 cognate rules mentioned in the video. - State your profession and/or major (in Spanish and English) - Based on your current or future work situation(s), conduct some research and find 20 Spanish-English cognates that would be useful to know for your current or future profession - Submit a list of the 20 cognates in Spanish and English AND explain why you chose them/how they would be helpful for you - Submit an audio recording link of you stating the cognates (English and Spanish) Submit your work as a Word or PDF document in the appropriate assignment submission area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) When applicable: Please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio or Screencast-o-matic to record videos, and share the link. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab Translating by using context For this assignment, you will try out translating first WITHOUT help and then WITH the help of online resources. NOTE: The goal here is NOT to have a perfect translation but to give you a sense of translating by using context. This will help you for upcoming tasks where you will translate business documents. You will first read the text you will find at the end of this page. Then: 1. Translate the text to English WITHOUT using any apps - title this translation NO APP TRANSLATION (remember the goal is not an accurate translation but for you to give translation a try!) 2. Create a list of 10-20 words that you did not know and translate them using any of the resources you have (Linguee, SpanishDict, etc. - try to extend beyond Google Translate) - TYPE YOUR LIST IN BOTH LANGUAGES and title this translation NEW WORDS 3. Return to original and translate again. Did the translation get better? Explain. 4. Now, copy and paste (or type) the original Spanish text into translator app and compare YOUR TRANSLATION with the APP translation. Title this new translation APP TRANSLATION 5. Compare translations - how close was your translation to the APP translation? Yours might be more accurate than the app, do you think so? Submit ALL written translations, properly labeled as per the instructions above AND: Included with your translations document: Share how this process went for you: (1) How long did it take? (2) How accurate was your initial translation? (3) How did the translation improve after you increased your vocabulary by looking up the words? (4) Was this activity challenging? Simple? Fun? Useful? Explain. Translate the following 6 ejercicios que practica cada día la neurocientífica Wendy Suzuki para mejorar su fortaleza mental Es raro imaginar la ansiedad como algo positivo. ¿Qué tiene de bueno sentirse nervioso y preocupado? Según Wendy Suzuki, neurocientífica y profesora del Centro de Ciencias Neuronales de la Universidad de Nueva York, la ansiedad puede ser una buena emoción. En lugar de luchar contra ella, Suzuki cuenta que durante su vida ha utilizado esa emoción para ser más productiva, más optimista, y, en última instancia, más resistente. La investigadora —autora del libro Good Anxiety: Harnessing the Power of the Most Misunderstood Emotion ("Ansiedad buena: aprovechando el poder de la emoción más incomprendida" en español, que se publica este mes)— se ha especializado en el estudio de la plasticidad del cerebro y los efectos transformadores del ejercicio físico en la salud mental y el desarrollo cognitivo. Full Article: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-58442859 Submit your work as a Word or PDF document in the appropriate assignment submission area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) When applicable: Please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio or Screencast-o-matic to record videos, and share the link. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work Technology for Work At work, school and daily life, we all use technology. It is helpful to know some common terms and phrases in Spanish, especially if we encounter a Spanish-speaker. Watch the following video, which will also give you some excellent listening practice (notice the accent from Argentina!). - Based on the video, list 5 different phrases (not single words) that may be useful for you in your current or future job. - The phrases should be in English and Spanish as audio and text. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture Cultural Differences Read this article from Abasto titled Cultural Differences between Americans and Hispanics Based on the article you read about cultural differences between the American and Hispanic Cultures: - Create an image-with-text artifact highlighting the five differences between both cultures you found most interesting. Include enough detail about these differences and conduct additional research if needed. - For each difference, explain how this knowledge would be helpful in your carrer/field. You could create a Padlet, Google Slides, PowerPoint, Quizlet or you could create an infographic using the Canva platform. It does not matter what you use as long as you include the 5 differences with images to augment the text. SAMPLE SUBMISSION Submit your work as a PDF document in the appropriate assignment submission area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) When applicable: Please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio or Screencast-o-matic to record videos, and share the link. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Additional Resources (Optional) \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Additional Resources Complete cognates lesson from Real Fast Spanish: https://www.realfastspanish.com/vocabulary/spanish-cognates Module 12: Forms and Paperwork Forms and Paperwork Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up How computers translate human language Have you thought about how computers (translation apps) translate human language? Learn about this topic with the video below, and based on the video, in English, Spanish or both: - State 2 new, interesting or useful facts you learned. - What are 2 ways you will/could/might be more aware when using app translations for daily life, class and work as a result of what you learned from the video? \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation 100 palabras (100 words) Would you believe that 100 Spanish words cover 50% of spoken conversation? Decide for yourself by watching this 5-minute video containing the words. - After you watch the video, create a set of THREE ESSENTIAL phrases for your work using ONLY the words in the video. - Submit the sentences in English and Spanish and explain: - Were you able to create complete sentences? - You may want to check your sentences using more than one translation app since some translation apps 'fix' grammatical errors in translation. - Did you have to add words? What type of words? (verbs, nouns, adjectives, etc) - What type of words would you need to add to the 100-word list? Why? - What did you learn from this assignment? - Were you able to create complete sentences? - You do not need to respond to the posts of others but are encouraged to! Post to the appropriate Discussion Board area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder Common vocabulary found on forms and applications Learn or practice important vocabulary for filling out forms in Spanish (or helping out a Spanish-speaker filling out a form in English) by doing the following: Access the Quizlet Link: Click the provided Quizlet link to access the vocabulary practice set. Review and Practice: Familiarize yourself with the vocabulary words and their meanings. Practice using different study modes available on Quizlet. Complete the Practice: Work through the vocabulary practice thoroughly, ensuring you're comfortable with the meanings and usage of each word. Submit Proof of Completion: Take a screenshot of one completed Quizlet session and submit it as proof of completion. QUIZLET LINK Note: There are 2 misspelled words in the flashcards. One is the Spanish word for FEMININE which in Spanish is FEMENINO/A. As a challenge, try to find the other misspelled word! If the link above does not work, you can copy and paste this link to a different tab: https://quizlet.com/569248743/spanish-filling-out-forms-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1jqt \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab Translating a patient form Learn some vocabulary useful for a translating a patient form from Spanish to English with the form below. - First, look at the image below and try to translate it WITHOUT using a translation app. You can print the form and write the translation by hand, take a screenshot and type your translation on a document to submit, etc.) - Remember, translate as much of the application as you are able to do WITHOUT looking at a translator app and save the file. Name it ORIGINAL TRANSLATION - DO NOT worry about how little or how accurate this is. It does not matter at this time! - Remember, translate as much of the application as you are able to do WITHOUT looking at a translator app and save the file. Name it ORIGINAL TRANSLATION - Then, click on the link below the image and find the actual English translation to compare with your original translation. - Submit your original translation as a screenshot (or copy and paste text or separate document) AND include a short statement of how this activity went for you? About how much were you able to translate without the app? What strategies did you use? How useful was this exercise/ What did you learn? Translate the following form: PDF link (from Cigna Health) to check your translation is on Page 36. Here you can also find a collection of Medical-related forms in English and Spanish. If the link above does not work, copy and paste this link to a new tab: https://www.cigna.com/static/www-cigna-com/docs/commonly-used-spanish-patient-forms.pdf \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work Phrases for Medical Professionals Increase your knowledge of Spanish phrases related to helping patients during a medical visit with some interactive practice with SpanishDict. Click on the SpanishDict link below, and: - Complete all 3 lessons/activities from the page (see image below which will show you what the screen looks like) and complete the activities. Submit a screenshot(s) showing completion. NOTE: If you have not registered yet to SpanishDict, you will need to do so with a Google Account. It is a free platform, but if you have the means, the paid version is highly recommended by students! SPANISHDICT ACTIVITIES Hint: In the SpanishDict activities, if you hover with your mouse above the Spanish sentences, you will see the English translation. If the above link does not work, copy and paste this link to a new tab: https://www.spanishdict.com/guide/basic-spanish-for-medical-professionals \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture (There are 2 parts in this section) PARTE 1: Learn Honorifics As you already know, in Spanish, there is a formal and informal way to address people, and honorifics are one such way. This will help when speaking to individuals as well as when filling out forms. - Watch the video below to learn (or review) honorifics, and based on the video, list all the honorifics you learned and include a brief description of how/when each is used. PARTE 2: Practice Honorifics Now, test your newly acquired honorifics vocabulary with the video below. Complete the activity as per the video instructions, and submit a statement of how well you did. Were you able to get them all correct? Could you use more practice? \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Module 13: Mental Health Phrases Mental Health Phrases Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up What is Mental Health? (Escucha / Listen) Mental Health (Salud Mental in Spanish) is an important topic. Learn about Mental Health as it would be explained to a child, in Spanish, and at the same time, get some listening and comprehension practice. - First, watch the video below. Watch it all in Spanish (without English captions) and DO NOT worry about understanding much at this time. - Listen for words, phrases you recognize and use context clues and take notes by hand as you watch because you will write a summary later. You can stop and start the video as needed, but play it only in Spanish. LATER, YOU CAN TURN ON THE AUTO-TRANSLATE CAPTIONS, BUT THE FIRST TIME, PLEASE DO NOT USE THE ENGLISH CAPTIONS. HOWEVER, YOU CAN USE THE SPANISH SUBTITLES/CAPTIONS. - Then, write a short summary of the video, by hand/handwritten (in English) OR take handwritten notes as you watch. If you are a beginner Spanish speaker, your summary (or notes) will be limited, and that is OK!!! - Keep the summary and notes (the notes should be hand-written!) so you can compare it to the actual video content. - Now, re-watch the video, but this time, click on the CC icon at the bottom-right of the video screen, and you will see the captions in English. - Read the English captions as you watch again and when done, compare the actual video content to your summary. How close were you? How much were you able to understand initially? What strategies did you use to understand? - Submit your initial handwritten summary and handwritten notes (upload photo, image of you summary sheet), answers to the above questions and share how this experience went for you? Simple? Challenging? Frustrating? What did you learn? YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation Mental Health Resources Conduct some reasearh on resources where Health Professionals can learn about Mental Health Phrases in Spanish. - On the Discussion Board, share the 2 best resources you found and explain how they would be useful. - As a response post, visit the resources from at least to other students, and share your thoughts on the resources and how or if they would be helpful for you. Post to the appropriate Discussion Board area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder Mental Health Vocabulary Learn or practice important vocabulary by doing the following: - Based on the resources you found in the previous Section where you researched resources for Mental Health Phrases in Spanish, choose at least 10 phrases from each of the resources (for a total of at least 20) and type them into your Spanish Glossary which you created in an earlier Module and to which you have been adding content throughout. Submit a screenshot of the list as shown in your Glossary. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab Language Learning through Input More and more, it is becoming accepted that language learning is most effective when it is 'input' based rather than filled with grammatical drills and other traditional methods. But, what is input based learning? Learn more about this with the following 13-minute video, and based on the video, answer the following questions, in English: - What are the 4 important points to acquire language mentioned? List and briefly explain each. - From the methods or learning strategies you have used in this course, which would you consider 'input' based? - Define 'comprehensible input' - What is the difference between 'acqusition' and 'learning' language? - Based on what you learned from the video (or any research you conduct), do you agree comprehensible input is an effective method to learn languages? Explain why or why not? - Moving forward, which other methods would you like to incorporate to help you increase your Spanish skills? Or which will you continue using? Why? Which ones would you stop using, if any? Submit your work as a Word or PDF document in the appropriate assignment submission area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) When applicable: Please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio or Screencast-o-matic to record videos, and share the link. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work What is Mental Health? Watch the video below. Based on the video, create your own script (or you can duplicate what is in the video) and using your script, create a narrated slide show (or screencast video or video of yourself) where you define SALUD MENTAL as though you were presenting to potential clients, students or patients, just as the video host from the vide below. The audio should be in Spanish, and there should be English subtitles or captions, just like the example video. Your Spanish audio should be between 3 - 5 minutes. Submit a link to your video or narrated slides. Please DO NOT upload video or slides files. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture Mental Health Issues Learn more about Mental Health issues that may affect individuals from Latin America who are in the U.S. from the video below. Based on what you learn from the video, list at least 3 new or useful things you learned and explain why this is useful for you to know these as a current (or future) Healthcare/Medical professional. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. Module 14: Saying Goodbye Saying Goodbye Sections to complete and approximate time needed to complete each (may vary depending on your Spanish level, effort and interest) - Warm-Up (15 - 30 minutes) - Authentic Conversation (30 - 60 minutes) - Vocabulary Builder (15 - 30 minutes) - Language Learning Lab (30 - 60 minutes) - At Work (30 - 60 minutes) - Culture (15 - 30 minutes) - "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" (15 minutes): Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to get started with the first section! \| Section 1: Warm-Up Ojalá Ojalá is a versatile word to indicate wishes and hopes. If you spend enough time around native Spanish speakers, you will hear it a lot1 It also has an interesting story which relates its origins to Arabic. Based on the video below: - Share 3 new or useful phrases you learned from the video that use Ojalá. The phrases should be in English and Spanish as audio and text. - Create 3 phrases/sentences that use Ojalá that would be useful for you to know. The phrases should be in English and Spanish as audio and text. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 2: Authentic Conversation Adiós Did you know? Adiós is Spanish for "goodbye" or "farewell". As we are nearing the end of this Spanish-learning journey, which hopefully you will continue, let's learn and practice how say 'goodbye' in Spanish. Literally translated, the word is the contraction of "a" (to) and "Dios" (God), from the old Spanish phrase "A Dios vais" ("You're going to God", meaning to the Kingdom of Heaven), which appears in the novel Don Quixote. - Here, we will say adiós to the course and each other. Hopefully you have had an enjoyable time, learned some basic Spanish language and culture as well as learned from and gotten to know some classmates. - On the appropriate discussion board area, you are also welcome to reflect upon your Spanish journey as well as say goodbye to classmates. - Meanwhile, learn 6 ways to say goodbye in Spanish with the video below, and make sure to practice them on your posts! All posts must be respectful and contribute positively to an atmosphere of civility and cooperation. Post to the appropriate Discussion Board area of your course's Learning Management System (Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, Google classroom, etc.) NOTE: If posting to a PADLET wall, please take a screenshot (or copy and paste the text) to also submit with the rest of the Module sections. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. If the post requires an audio file, please do not upload video or audio files. Instead, use a tool such as Vocaroo to record audio and share the link. Note: If the Discussion Board is in a 'Padlet', this platform has an audio recording function as well. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 3: Vocabulary Builder Terms related to Death and Dying Learn or practice important vocabulary by doing the following: Access the Quizlet Link: Click the provided Quizlet link to access the vocabulary practice set. Review and Practice: Familiarize yourself with the vocabulary words and their meanings. Practice using different study modes available on Quizlet. Complete the Practice: Work through the vocabulary practice thoroughly, ensuring you're comfortable with the meanings and usage of each word. Submit Proof of Completion: Take a screenshot of one completed Quizlet session and submit it as proof of completion. QUIZLET LINK NOTE: There is one Spanish term misspelled: Well being = Bienestar (not Bienester) If the link above does not work, you can copy and paste this link to a different tab: https://quizlet.com/215528514/spanish-level-3-death-and-dying-flash-cards/?i=e5fdo&x=1jqt \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 4: Language Learning Lab A Faster Way to Learn a Language Continuing with the topic of how to learn languages most efficiently while enjoying the process, please watch the following video about another individual's perspective (and literal journey!) to learn languages (running time of about 14 minutes BUT YOU ONLY NEED TO WATCH THE FIRST 6 MINUTES- please disregard any 'sales' pitches/commercials and don't sign up for anything!) Based on the video: - Share what strategies or facts about language learning were new, most surprising or most useful to you. - Define "High Frequency" words and whether you agree with this approach to language learning. Why or why not? - List 50 'High Frequency' words that would be useful to know in Spanish for you for your current or future work in the Medical field - [Spanish and English list] STATE how/why you chose these words AND how they would be helpful. (Hint: Add these words to your Spanish Glossary) - Define the PARETO PRINCIPLE as shown on video (and further research as needed) and how you might apply it to language learning? to learning in general? - Did the video inspire you to do something different in the way you approach language learning? Why or why not? Explain Please submit assignment in the appropriate submission area. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 5: At Work Talking about Death While not easy to talk about, it is necessary to learn how to talk about death, in any language. With the following video, you will not only get some excellent Spanish listening practice (notice the accent is from Spain!) but also learn some terms related to death and much more. Based on the video: - List the 5 signs to recognize a patient is dying, in English and Spanish, as audio and text. YouTube Tips: To view subtitles, click on the icon. To view subtitles translated to any language, click on the icon, then click on the icon, click on ‘Auto-translate’ and choose the language you would like. To slow down the audio speed of a video, click on the icon, click on ‘Playback Speed’ and choose the speed. When applicable: Use a tool such as Google Translate, Forvo, DeepL or SpanishDict to check your grammar and/or pronunciation. Please share which (if any) translation platforms you used. \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 6: Culture Celebrations around Death Unlike in most of the U.S. death may not be 'celebrated', however, that is not the case in Mexico and many parts of Latin America. But, why and how? Learn about this topin in the videos below, and based on EACH video: - List 3 new or interesting facts you learned from each video. - Share how the views shown on the video about death and the celebration differ from your own. - Explain how the information from the videos might be helpful for you to know. . \| Scroll down to continue to the next section \| Section 7: "Academic Honesty and Resource Acknowledgment Statement" Please submit a statement affirming that the work you submit is your own, indicating that you have watched the videos, read the lessons, recorded your own audio, any screenshots are of your own work that you completed, and that composed your own sentences. Additionally, please provide an explanation of the resources or help, including any AI tools, that you utilized in the process of completing this work.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:18.169829	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115809/overview", "title": "Spanish for the Health Professions", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/128148/overview	2. Lección complementaria: Tráfico sexual \| Derechos, Respeto, Responsabilidad 3. 3R Curriculum Downloads \| Advocates for Youth Rights, Respect, Responsibility: Sex Trafficking (High School Lesson Information) Overview Young people are often targeted for sex trafficking, and the physical and psychological abuse they endure can have lifelong consequences, including anxiety, depression, substance abuse, and post-traumatic stress disorder. This informational page outlines a supplemental lesson from Advocates for Youth's Rights, Respect, Responsibility curriculum, designed to educate high school students about sex trafficking. The lesson explores the recruitment tactics used by traffickers and provides strategies to help reduce the risk of exploitation. Rights, Respect, Responsibility \| Sex Trafficking Lesson Plan (High School) Purpose Rights, Respect, Responsibility is a K-12 sexuality education curriculum from Advocates for Youth, comprised of more than 130 lessons.In 2021, supplemental lessons were added to Rights, Respect, Responsibility to align with the National Sex Education Standards, Second Edition, 2020. These lessons cover topics that did not explicitly exist in the original 3Rs. This lesson on sex trafficking is one of those supplements. By the end of this lesson, students will be able to: - Define sex trafficking - Explain at least two recruitment tactics sex traffickers/ exploiters use - Identify at least two ways to reduce risk related to sex trafficking - Recall at least two credible resources related to sex trafficking and sexual violence prevention and intervention Information about Developer of Rights, Respect, Responsibility Instructional Materials Advocates for Youth partners with youth leaders, adult allies, and youth-serving organizations to advocate for policies and champion programs that recognize young people’s rights to honest sexual health information; accessible, confidential, and affordable sexual health services; and the resources and opportunities necessary to create sexual health equity for all youth. More information about Authors Instructional Materials Review Review Detail and Comments from Reviewers The 2022 Comprehensive Sexual Health Education Instructional Materials Review of selected instructional materials was a joint project of the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI) and the Washington Department of Health (DOH). The review was conducted by OSPI’s Sexual Health Education Instructional Materials Review Panel. Rights, Respect, Responsibility was found in that review to be consistent with Washington requirements for comprehensive sexual health education. Comments Rights, Respect, Responsibility: A K-12 Sexuality Education Curriculum is available for free download from the Advocates for Youth website. An email and physical address are required to download materials on the individual supplemental lesson plan pages linked below (English and Spanish versions).. Additionally, on the curriculum download page, you'll find bulk download options for the full curriculum, teacher's guide, adaptations, and other resources. Select the Washington Lessons box to be directed to a Google drive that is organized into grade band folders. You may select any lesson, including the additional supplemental lessons, from those folders for download. Important note: These materials are not under an open license; however, they are intended for free educational use.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:18.199993	Washington OSPI OER Project	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/128148/overview", "title": "Rights, Respect, Responsibility: Sex Trafficking (High School Lesson Information)", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93454/overview	Inglés para las profesiones Overview Bienvenido a este recurso que está diseñado como un curso altamente interactivo para ayudarle a obtener o aumentar las habilidades de inglés que son útiles para tu futura (o actual) carrera, la vida cotidiana y los viajes. Encontrarás actividades para construir su vocabulario y mejorar sus habilidades comunicativas, así como explorar los Recursos Educativos Abiertos (Open Educational Resources) que son gratuitos y disponibles para todos los usuarios. El contenido será práctico, auténtico y atractivo, pero lo más importante es que aprenderás mucho. El recurso está dividido en 14 unidades, cada una de los cuales se centra en temas y estructuras gramaticales específicos. Aunque la gramática es esencial para el aprendizaje de cualquier idioma, en este curso descubrirá que hablar el idioma, las estrategias para aprender idiomas y la cultura son tan importantes (o incluso más) que los extensos ejercicios de gramática. Introducción al curso ¡Bienvenido a la clase de inglés! Bienvenido a este recurso que está diseñado como un curso altamente interactivo para ayudarte a obtener o aumentar las habilidades de inglés que son útiles para tu futura (o actual) carrera, la vida cotidiana y los viajes. Encontrarás actividades para construir su vocabulario y mejorar sus habilidades comunicativas, así como explorar los Recursos Educativos Abiertos (Open Educational Resources) que son gratuitos y disponibles para todos los usuarios. El contenido será práctico, auténtico y atractivo, pero lo más importante es que aprenderás mucho. El curso está dividido en 14 unidades, cada una de los cuales se centra en temas y estructuras gramaticales específicos. Aunque la gramática es esencial para el aprendizaje de cualquier idioma, en este curso descubrirás que hablar el idioma, las estrategias para aprender idiomas y la cultura son tan importantes (o incluso más) que los extensos ejercicios de gramática. Además, este curso anima a los estudiantes a utilizar plataformas de traducción para adquirir conocimientos lingüísticos avanzados de forma acelerada en lugar de basarse en la memorización y los ejercicios. Por lo tanto, este es un curso diseñado para seguir un enfoque comunicativo en lugar de un enfoque más "tradicional" para el aprendizaje de idiomas que puede retrasar a los estudiantes de acceder, navegar y beneficiarse de las actividades más avanzadas e interesantes, además de las conversaciones de la vida real que experimentarían al viajar o alrededor de hablantes nativos. En la medida de lo posible, en las actividades de este libro en línea, los estudiantes participarán en una inmersión lingüística en la "vida real" en lugar de los típicos ejercicios en el aula, lo que hará que el estudiante esté más comprometido y pueda ser autodirigido, aprender a su propio ritmo y adaptar su aprendizaje en función de sus necesidades e intereses. En cada unidad, puedes esperar uno o más de los siguientes tipos de actividades: Conversación auténtica: Ver y escuchar conversaciones auténticas en inglés y practicar sus habilidades orales Laboratorio de aprendizaje: Aprender "cómo aprender" y practicar cosas como la pronunciación. En el trabajo: Adquirir habilidades gramaticales y de escritura Cultura: Conocer los aspectos fascinantes de las culturas de los EEUU Cada unidad ha sido diseñada para representar una semana de clase con un compromiso de tiempo de entre 4 y 6 horas por semana. Por supuesto, algunos estudiantes tardarán menos tiempo y otros tardarán más, dependiendo de muchos factores. En cualquier caso, ¡obtendrás tanto aprendizaje de este curso como la cantidad de tiempo y esfuerzo que dedique! Para avanzar en el contenido, haz clic en el botón Next para empezar. Nota: Esta alternativa a un libro de texto en línea está destinada a acompañar un curso en línea que está alojado en un sistema de gestión de aprendizaje (LMS) como Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, etc. Por lo tanto, aunque las instrucciones de asignación se encontrarán aquí, cualquier trabajo del estudiante se presentará en las secciones apropiadas del curso LMS. Los estudiantes que deseen trabajar de forma independiente (sin formar parte de un curso escolar/universitario) podrán seguir beneficiándose del contenido, pero podrán presentar el trabajo. Unidad 1: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Conversación auténtica (CA) Vamos a conocernos - Let's get to know each other - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA): Planificando el éxito - Planning for Success - En el trabajo (ET): Los idiomas más útiles para aprender - Most useful languages to learn - Cultura: Saludos alrededor del mundo - Greetings around the World Unidad 1: Conversación auténtica Vamos a conocernos - Let's get to know each other Preséntate en el área de presentación del Tablero de discusión correspondiente a tu curso. En inglés, por favor, comparte tu nombre, edad (opcional), tu especialidad (lo que estás estudiando en la escuela), de dónde eres y cualquier otra cosa que te gustaría compartir sobre ti mismo como aficiones, intereses, mascotas, etc. Usa frases que aprendas de los videos y puedes usar plataformas para traducir. Si te sientes cómodo, publica una foto tuya o sube una imagen que te represente. Por favor, comparte por qué has elegido la imagen. Sugerencia: Los vídeos de YouTube te mostrará algunos saludos básicos y auténticos en inglés. Por favor, asegúrate de responder a los mensajes de al menos otro estudiante.Todos los mensajes deben contribuir positivamente a un ambiente de cooperación y civismo. Utiliza Forvo y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . . . Unidad 1: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Planificando el éxito - Planning for Success Como probablemente ya sepas, gestionar los estudios, el trabajo, la familia y los compromisos sociales es todo un reto. Sin embargo, hay formas de planificar el éxito en todos los ámbitos. Para esta clase, y específicamente para aprender cualquier idioma, hay enfoques y pasos que pueden ayudarte a hacerlo bien y que vale la pena explorar. Por favor, mira los vídeos que aparecen a continuación y basándote en ellos, responde a las siguientes preguntas: - Basándote en el vídeo Bilingual Brain, ¿cuáles son los beneficios de ser bilingüe? (enumera al menos dos beneficios) - Basándote en el vídeo Para aprender idiomas... enumera tres estrategias que puedes emplear para aprender un nuevo idioma. - Basándote en How to manage your time more effectively, ¿qué 3 o más estrategias podrías incorporar más fácilmente a tus estudios de español este semestre? - ¿Qué dos estrategias del vídeo de Thomas Frank te serían más útiles? - Basándote en tu propia experiencia/motivación, además de tus razones académicas y profesionales para inscribirte en este curso, por favor comparte tus objetivos para aprender inglés: personales, negocios, viajes, diversión, vida diaria, etc. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . . . Unidad 1: En el trabajo Los idiomas más útiles para aprender - Most useful languages to learn Dado que estás estudiando inglés ya sea un requisito académico o no, podría valer la pena explorar algunas posibilidades de carrera para aquellos que son (o planean ser) bilingües. Mira los videos abajo de YouTube sobre carreras para personas bilingües. Basándote en los vídeos: - Enumera tres de las profesiones mencionadas (en inglés y en español) - Enumera los 7 idiomas más útiles para aprender - Explica cómo aprender inglés sería útil para tu carrera actual o futura o para tu vida personal Toma la siguiente prueba de nivel de inglés. Haz la prueba una sola vez utilizando tus conocimientos de inglés, aunque sean limitados. La puntuación no importa, lo único que importa es ver cuál es tu nivel de inglés actual en este momento, y luego compararlo al final de la clase. - Envía una captura de pantalla de tu puntuación una vez que hayas terminado como prueba de que ha completado el curso - Enumera tus objetivos para este curso: ¿Qué nivel de inglés te gustaría adquirir? ¿Por qué te has inscrito en este curso? ¿Cuál es tu nivel actual de inglés? Haz clic al enlance abajo donde vas a encontrar la prueba que es un recurso externo de Transparent.com PRUEBA DE NIVEL DE INGLES Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . Recursos adicionales Unidad 1: Cultura Saludos alrededor del mundo - Greetings around the World Did you know? (¿Lo sabías?) En los Estados Unidos no es común ni está aceptado saludar con un beso en la mejilla. Aprende acerca de los saludos alrededor del mundo con dos breves vídeos. Te sorprenderá saber que en un país se "saca la lengua" para saludar a alguien. De cada vídeo, en español: - Elige tu favorite greeting (saludo favorito) - Indica los países de tu saludo favorito, explica el saludo y por qué es tu favorito. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. s . Unidad 2: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Conversación auténtica (CA): ¡Sigamos conociéndonos! - Let's continue to get to know each other! - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA):Tarjetas de negocios - Business cards - En el trabajo (ET):Discurso formal e informal - Formal and informal speech - Cultura: America o EE.UU. Unidad 2: Conversación auténtica ¡Sigamos conociéndonos! - Let's continue to get to know each other! Seguiremos conociéndonos, en inglés, con texto y audio. Esto será una gran práctica para las presentaciones al conocer a otras personas, como nuevos amigos, colegas, etc. Basándote en lo que has aprendido de los vídeos (y en cualquier investigación que realices), en el Tablero de discusión (Discussion board) apropiado de tu curso, en inglés y español: PARTE 1: Mensaje (post) original - Escribe una breve presentación de ti mismo de unas cinco (5) frases. - Después de crear tu presentación, crea un conjunto de tres (3) preguntas (en español) que podrías hacer a un nuevo amigo de la universidad o a un nuevo compañero de trabajo, etc. - Graba un audio de ti mismo leyendo tu presentación y las preguntas. - Publica la versión de texto de tu presentación así como un enlace al audio PARTE 2: Responde a los mensajes (posts) de otros dos (2) estudiantes - Elige dos posts de otros estudiantes a los que responderás - Escucha sus presentaciones y lee sus posts prestando mucha atención a las preguntas que hacen - Crea una grabación de audio en la que respondas a sus preguntas. - Publica un enlace a tu respuesta de audio como respuesta a su mensaje original. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . Recursos adicionales Thoughtco: How to introduce yourself in English Unidad 2: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Tarjetas de negocios - Business cards Es posible que tu trabajo o negocio requieran una tarjeta de necogios. Estas a veces se llaman tarjetas de visita y son una excelente manera de presentarte, proporcionar información básica tuya y de tu negocio. - Para esta tarea, crearás una tarjeta de visita inglés que incluya tu nombre, el nombre de tu negocio (ficticio o real), la dirección ficticia, el número de teléfono ficticio y la dirección ficticia del sitio web. Puedes utilizar una plataforma online gratuita como Canva o puedes utilizar Google Slides, Power Point o cualquier otra plataforma que te permita diseñar algo que se parezca a una tarjeta de visita. Utiliza DeepL o Linguee para confirmar que tu traducción sea precisa. Comparte tu tarjeta en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. No tienes que responder al post de otros. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Recursos adicionales Cómo diseñar una tarjeta de negocios con Canva Usando Visme: Unidad 2: En el trabajo Discurso formal e informal - Formal and informal speech En muchos idiomas, como el español, hay diferentes maneras de dirigirse a las personas dependiendo de muchos factores; hay una manera formal y otra informal, especialmente cuando se trata de pronombres TÚ, USTED, VOS, USTEDES, VOSOTROS . En inglés no hay pronombres diferentes para indicar la formalidad. En inglés solamente se usa YOU no importa si es en singular, plural, segunda o tercera persona. Sin embargo, hay otras formas de hablar que varían según el nivel de formalidad. Basado en los vídeos que verás a continuación y tu propia investigación, explica, en español e inglés: - De cada vídeo, enumera tres datos nuevos, útiles o interesantes que hayas aprendido e incluye el título del vídeo en el que has encontrado los datos. - Haz una lista de los titulos antes de los nombres que se usan y cuando. - Realiza una investigación sobre el discurso formal e informal en inglés y, basándote en tu investigación, explica por qué es importante saber cuándo utilizar el discurso formal e informal. Puedes completar la tarea en escrito y/o con audio. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . Unidad 2: Cultura América o EE.UU. En el extranjero, las personas que son de los Estados Unidos, si se les pregunta "¿De dónde es usted?", a veces responden que son de los Estados Unidos y a veces, responden que son de América. Esta última respuesta puede crear cierta confusión, especialmente cuando se habla con personas de América Latina. ¿Cómo responderías a la pregunta "¿De dónde eres?", en inglés, si fueras de otro país pero estuvieras de visita o viviendo en los Estados Unidos? Esto es lo que explorarás en esta lección. Mira los siguientes vídeos sobre cómo responder a la pregunta "¿De dónde eres?" en inglés y: - Crea un párrafo corto, en inglés, donde te presentes y digas de dónde eres. - Basándote en el párrafo que has escrito, crea un vídeo de un minuto (o diapositivas con narración de audio que incluyan imágenes para aumentar el audio) en el que te presentes en inglés y compartas alguna información sobre ti. Puedes usar una plataforma gratis como Screencast-o-matic para crear el video. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF con el enlace del video. Por favor NO subas el video. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . Recursos adicionales Puedes guiarte con este video al crear el tuyo. . Unidad 3: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Conversación auténtica (CA): ¿Qué te gusta hacer? - What do you like to do? - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA): Los plurales - Plurals - En el trabajo (ET): ¿Qué te gusta hacer en el trabajo? - What do you like to do at work? - Cultura: La proxémica - Proxemics Unidad 3: Conversación auténtica ¿Qué te gusta hacer? - What do you like to do? En esta lección, explorarás los pasatiempos y las aficiones en inglés. En el tablero de discusión correspondiente, comparte lo que le gusta hacer en su tiempo libre. Para ayudarte a empezar, ve los siguientes vídeos cortos sobre aficiones y lo que a la gente le gusta hacer en su tiempo libre. Basado en lo que aprendas de los videos y en este sitio web podcasteningles: - Por favor, comparte tres frases nuevas de cada vídeo que hayan sido nuevas, interesantes y/o útiles para ti, en inglés y español como texto y audio. - Por favor, comparte una lista de tres aficiones/cosas que le guste hacer. La lista debe estar en inglés y español, con texto y audio. - Por favor, comparte una lista de tres cosas que NO te gusta hacer. La lista debe estar en inglés y español, con texto y audio. - Además, responde a los mensajes de al menos otros DOS estudiantes en inglés y español con texto y audio. Algunas ideas para guiar tus respuestas: ¿Comparten intereses? ¿Has aprendido algo nuevo? ¿Te disgustan las mismas cosas? etc. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Recursos adicionales Recursos adicionales Hablar de aficiones en inglés: https://koe.cl/KOE-Noticia-aprende-contar-hobbies-ingles Unidad 3: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Los plurales - Plurals Formar plurales en inglés es bastante sencillo. En esta lección aprenderás las reglas. Hay dos partes en esta tarea. Parte 1 Primero, visita esta lección de FluentU sobre los plurales y después mira cada uno de los vídeos que aparecen a continuación Basado en los vídeos: - Explica brevemente cada una de las reglas del plural presentadas. - Elige 10 sustantivos que te resulte útil conocer en inglés y presenta una lista (en español y en inglés) con la forma singular del sustantivo y la forma plural del mismo. Parte 2 A continuación, completa el cuestionario (quiz) que aparece a continuación sobre los plurales. Completa el quiz tantas veces como necesites para obtener una puntuación del 90%. Envía una captura de pantalla de tu puntuación en el cuestionario como prueba de que lo has completado Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . Recursos adicionales https://www.ef.com/wwen/english-resources/english-grammar/singular-and-plural-nouns/ . Unidad 3: En el trabajo ¿Qué te gusta hacer en el trabajo? - What do you like to do at work? Aprende más sobre "I like to" y "I don't like to" (Me gusta y No me gusta) en esta lección y basándote en tu situación profesional actual o futura - Crea un conjunto de tres (3) frases de tareas relacionadas con el trabajo que te gusta hacer - Crea un conjunto de tres (3) frases de tareas relacionadas con el trabajo que no te gusta hacer Envía una lista escrita y un audio de tus frases en inglés y español, con texto y audio. Asegúrate de incluir tu profesión actual/futura EJEMPLO PARCIAL Profesión actual: Profesor - Me gusta trabajar con los alumnos - I like working with students - No me gusta ir a las reuniones - I don't like going to meetings Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . . Recursos adicionales Unidad 3: Cultura La proxémica - Proxemics ¿Qué es la proxémica? (What are proxemics?) Eso vas a aprender. La proxémica es el estudio del espacio personal y el grado de separación que los individuos mantienen en situaciones sociales. Es una forma de comunicación no verbal, y puede variar mucho entre diferentes culturas. Explorarás la proxémica como una comparación entre culturas a través de una variedad de lecturas, videos y otras actividades. Envía las respuestas sólo en español. - Lee este recurso acerca del tema de la proxémica - Ve los vídeos siguientes que explican la proxémica - Piensa en lo que has aprendido sobre la proxémica (a menudo denominada nuestra "burbuja") - Enuncia las 4 distancias proxémicas mencionadas en uno de los vídeos. - Basándote en esas distancias, ¿cuál es la distancia típica a la que te sientes "cómodo" en diferentes situaciones (familiares, sociales, escolares, laborales) - ¿A qué atribuyes esa distancia? ¿A la educación? ¿A la cultura? ¿Preferencia personal? ¿Normas sociales? - ¿Cómo podrías tener que ajustar tu proxémica al trabajar con una persona de Estados Unidos? Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . . Unidad 4: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Conversación auténtica (CA): Rutinas - Routines - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA): Traducir utilizando el contexto - Translate using context - En el trabajo (ET): Cronémica - Chronemics - Cultura: Diferencias culturales - Cultural differences Unidad 4: Conversación auténtica Rutinas - Routines Basándote en lo que vas a aprender con los siguientes vídeos sobre las actividades diarias, así como en cualquier investigación que desee realizar: - Comparte un horario de un día típico de trabajo para ti desde que llegas al trabajo hasta que sales de él (ya sea su trabajo actual o futuro). - Tu horario debe incluir al menos 5 elementos "rutinarios" y debe incluir la hora (en palabras para la versión en inglés) - Incluye la versión en inglés y en español del punto del horario. - Además, grábate leyendo tu horario. - No tienes que responder a los posts de otros EJEMPLO PARCIAL - 8:00 AM: Trabajo en la computadora desde las ocho de la mañana hasta el mediodía I work on the computer from eight o'clock in the morning to noon. - 12:00 PM: A las doce, almuerzo con mis compañeros de trabajo. At noon, I eat lunch with my co-workers. - https://voca.ro/1gTYLAlOrE6g Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . Recursos adicionales . Unidad 4: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Traducir utilizando el contexto - Translate using context Para esta tarea, vas a traducir primero SIN ayuda y luego CON la ayuda de recursos en línea. El objetivo aquí NO es tener una traducción perfecta, sino darlt una idea de cómo traducir utilizando el contexto. Primero vas a leer el texto que aparece en el final de esta página. Luego: 1. Traduce el texto al español SIN usar ninguna aplicación - titula esta traducción NO APP TRANSLATION (¡recuerda que el objetivo no es una traducción exacta!) 2. Después de traducir por tu cuenta (sin una app) Crea una lista de 10 a 20 palabras que no conozcas y tradúcelas usando cualquiera de los recursos que tengas (DeepL, SpanishDict, etc. - ve más allá de Google Translate) - escribe tu lista en ambos idiomas y titula esta traducción PALABRAS NUEVAS 3. Vuelve al original y traduce de nuevo. ¿Ha mejorado la traducción? Explica. 4. Ahora, copia y pega (o escribe) el texto original en español en la aplicación de traducción y compara TU TRADUCCIÓN con la de la APP. Titula esta nueva traducción APP TRANSLATION 5. Compara las traducciones: ¿cuánto se aproxima tu traducción a la de la APP? La tuya podría ser más precisa que la de la app, ¿te parece? 6. Envía TODAS las traducciones escritas, debidamente etiquetadas según las instrucciones anteriores y: - Comparte cómo fue este proceso para usted: (1) ¿Cuánto tiempo le llevó? - ¿Cuál fue la precisión de tu traducción inicial? - ¿Cómo mejoró la traducción después de ampliar el vocabulario buscando las palabras? - ¿Fue esta actividad un reto? ¿Simple? ¿Divertida? ¿Útil? Explica. Traduce lo siguiente Hello! My name is Susan, and I am 18 years old. I live in San Diego with my mother and father. I wake up at 6:00 AM every day. Usually, I have a breakfast of eggs and toast with butter and jelly. I also like strong coffee. Every day, I go to work at a pharmacy where I work as an assistant. I work from 10:00 AM until 5:00 PM. Sometimes I walk to work, and sometimes I take the bus. On Thursdays, I take a Spanish class at the local college. The class is at 6:00 PM and lasts two hours. After class, my friends and I go out to eat. We like pizza and burgers. Usually, a friend will drive me home. When I get home, I do my homework and then watch some TV shows. I like comedies and dramas. I go to sleep around 11:00 PM. Unidad 4: En el trabajo Cronémica - Chronemics Es importante conocer la cronémica como tipo de comunicación, así como la forma en que las diferentes culturas experimentan el tiempo. Para aprender, lee el siguiente artículo de Indeed y ve los videos al final. Basándote en lo que has aprendido, - Encuentra 10 palabras nuevas del artículo: 5 para describir el tiempo policrónico y 5 para describir el tiempo monocrónico. Tradúcelas a tu español y graba un audio diciendo las palabras en ambos idiomas. - Basándote en lo que has aprendido de los vídeos de abajo, del artículo y de tu propia experiencia, ¿tu país es generalmente policrónico o monocrónico? ¿Qué te parece Estados Unidos? - Si tuvieras que hacer negocios o mantener una amistad personal con personas de Estados Unidos, ¿cómo tendrías que ajustar tu enfoque de la cronémica? Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . Recursos adicionales Recurso acerca de la comunicación no verbal: https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/es-equipos-de-proyectos-multiculturales-de-comunicacion-verbal-7089 Unidad 4: Cultura Diferencias culturales - Cultural differences Es posible que en el futuro tengas o busques oportunidades para vivir y/o trabajar en el extranjero. Si no es así, es probable que en algún momento trabaje con personas (ya sea como compañeros de trabajo, clientes, etc.) de otros países, y para esta tarea, nos concentraremos específicamente en la posibilidad de que éstas sean de países de habla inglesa como los Estados Unidos. Aprende algunas "costumbres" observadas en otros países viendo los siguientes vídeos. Ten en cuenta que no se trata de normas, sino de sugerencias o información sobre ciertas peculiaridades que uno puede encontrar en otros países. - Utilizando como modelo lo que has aprendido en el vídeo y en este recurso de Abasto crea un "guión" en el que le digas a un posible recién llegado de otro país a EE.UU. al menos CINCO cosas que no debería hacer en EE.UU. o que debería tener en cuenta. - Envíe el texto del guión, en inglés y español. Por favor, que la lista sea divertida, animada y positiva. (asegúrate también de revisar la gramática) - A continuación, basándose en su guión, cree una presentación de vídeo TODA en inglés, como si le hubieran encargado que compartiera esta información con los recién llegados que van a trabajar en su empresa. Por lo tanto, hazlo atractivo y lo más profesional posible, sin olvidar a tu público. (Los recursos para la creación del vídeo se encuentran en el área de contenido que se encuentra debajo de esta tarea) - Antes de grabar y enviar el vídeo, compruebe su ortografía, gramática y pronunciación con una herramienta como Grammarly. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Abasto: DIFERENCIAS CULTURALES . . . . Unidad 5: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Conversación auténtica (CA): Trabajos ideales - Ideal Jobs - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA): Personaliza tu aprendizaje - Personalize your learning - En el trabajo (ET): Cognados para aumentar el vocabulario rápidamente - Cognates to increase vocabulary quickly - Cultura: Etiqueta de negocios en América del Norte vs. América Latina - Business Etiquette in North America vs. Latin America Unidad 5: Conversación auténtica Trabajos ideales - Ideal Jobs Mira los siguientes vídeos de YouTube en los que se habla de profesiones y trabajos ideales. Basándose en los vídeos: - Comparte TRES frases de cada vídeo sobre empleos/carreras/profesiones que te hayan resultado nuevas, interesantes o útiles, en inglés y español, con audio y texto. - En en inglés y español, comparte tu profesión actual (o futura) y explica si es tu TRABAJO IDEAL. Si es así, explica por qué. Si no es así, cuéntanos tu TRABAJO IDEAL y cómo/por qué es ideal. (audio y texto). - Basado en el primer vídeo, comparte dos de las preguntas que harías a un nuevo amigo/compañero de clase sobre su trabajo actual, futuro o ideal en inglés y españolcomo audio y texto. - Elige al menos un mensaje de otro estudiante al que responderás. Responde en audio y texto (reply to post) a TODAS las preguntas de al menos otro estudiante en en inglés y español, con audio y texto Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. ota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . Recursos adicionales Nombres de profesiones: https://lingokids.com/es/ingles-para-ninos/profesiones Unidad 5: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Personaliza tu aprendizaje - Personalize your learning Como puedes imaginar, el aprendizaje de un idioma es mucho más que lo que se puede abarcar en un curso en línea (o incluso presencial). Por lo tanto, si tu objetivo es ser competente en un idioma, debes preguntarte qué nivel de competencia/fluidez te gustaría alcanzar, así como en qué contexto. ¿Trabajarás con hablantes de inglés en el sector de la construcción? ¿En el ámbito médico? ¿Tecnología? ¿educación? ¿En los negocios? ¿Utilizarás el inglés para viajar y divertirte? ¿Amigos y familia? Sean cuales sean tus motivos, querrás personalizar tu aprendizaje lo máximo posible. Para empezar con algunas ideas, vea los siguientes vídeos y basándote en ellos: - De cada vídeo, enumera 3 estrategias nuevas, útiles o interesantes para personalizar tu viaje de aprendizaje del inglés. ¿Por qué las has elegido? - ¿Cuáles vas a poner en práctica en tu aprendizaje del inglés? - Si no pondrías en práctica ninguna de ellas, ¿por qué no? - ¿Usarías o has usado otras que no sean las del vídeo? ¿Te han ayudado? ¿De qué manera? Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . . Unidad 5: En el trabajo Cognados para aumentar el vocabulario rápidamente - Cognates to increase vocabulary quickly Los cognados son pares de palabras que suenan igual y tienen el mismo significado en dos idiomas diferentes. Son útiles como primer paso en el aprendizaje de una nueva lengua. El español y el inglés comparten cientos de cognados y se han prestado mutuamente durante siglos. A continuación encontrarás un vídeo para empezar, y aquí una lección de Real Fast Spanish para ayudarte a empezar con los cognados. A partir de lo que aprendas Enumera las reglas de los cognados mencionadas en el vídeo. Indica tu profesión y/o especialidad o situación elegida en inglés y en español. ¿Son cognados? Basándote en tu(s) situación(es) laboral(es) actual(es) o futura(s), realiza una investigación y encuentra 20 cognados español-inglés que sería útil conocer para tu profesión actual o futura Envíe una lista de los 20 cognados en español e inglés Y explique por qué los ha elegido/ cómo le serían útiles Envíe un enlace de grabación de audio en el que se le vea pronunciando los cognados en inglés y en español Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 5: Cultura Etiqueta de negocios en América del Norte vs. América Latina - Business Etiquette in North America vs. Latin America Lee el breve artículo que aparece a continuación y mira los vídeos para empezar a conocer algunas de las formas de hacer negocios en Estados Unidos. - Basándote en el artículo y los videos elije dos elementos o hechos de cada recurso que te resulten interesantes y/o útiles y realiza una investigación adicional sobre ellos. Comparte los hechos y explica su utilidad. - Explica en qué se diferencian las costumbres latinas de las estadounidenses, por qué es importante conocer esas diferencias y por qué has elegido esos dos elementos. Artículo de BBC . Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Recursos adicionales . Unidad 6: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Conversación auténtica (CA): Vídeos de tu profesión - Videos of your profession - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA): Sombreado - Shadowing - En el trabajo (ET): Dar instrucciones - Giving instructions - Cultura: Palabras de cortesía - Polite words Unidad 6: Conversación auténtica Vídeos de tu profesión - Videos of your profession Realiza tu propia investigación y encuentra dos vídeos en inglés (que sean de una fuente creíble, apropiados y para el nivel de esta clase) que recomendarías para alguien que quisiera mejorar su inglés para una profesión/trabajo en SU campo actual o futuro. - Comparte los enlaces a los vídeos elegidos y sus títulos - Indica por qué has elegido los vídeos y por qué los recomendarías a otra persona. - Mira al menos un vídeo publicado por un compañero y comenta tu experiencia con el vídeo. Además, comparte DOS frases nuevas que hayas aprendido de ese vídeo en inglés y en español con audio y texto. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Recursos adicionales Unidad 6: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Shadowing o repetición Puede que hayas oído hablar (o no) de los métodos de Shadowing y repetición como estrategias para aumentar tu fluidez en inglés (o en cualquier idioma). El Shadowing es a veces difícil para los principiantes, por lo que también podría utilizar el método de repetición. Para esta tarea, usted: - Mira los siguientes vídeos para aprender la diferencia entre los métodos. - A continuación, prueba ambos métodos mientras ve/escucha cualquier audio/vídeo en inglés de tu elección. Graba un audio de ti mismo utilizando cada método durante al menos 3 minutos cada uno. - Comparte un poco tu experiencia y las respuestas a lo siguiente: - ¿Qué método(s) preferiste? ¿Por qué elegiste uno sobre el otro? - Si no has probado ambos métodos, ¿por qué? - ¿Cómo fue tu experiencia con cada uno de los métodos? (¿Divertida? ¿Desafiante? ¿Simple? ¿Util?) - Basándote en esta experiencia, ¿crees que estos métodos podrían (o no) ser una buena manera de aumentar tus conocimientos de inglés? Explica - Envía tus respuestas a las preguntas anteriores Y algún tipo de prueba de que has utilizado los métodos, como una grabación de Vocaroo en la que sigas/repitas el vídeo Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota 1: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Nota 2: Puedes reducir la velocidad de los vídeos de YouTube haciendo clic en el icono del engranaje en la parte inferior de la pantalla del vídeo y eligiendo una velocidad más lenta. . Unidad 6: En el trabajo Dar instrucciones - Giving instructions Piensa en tus interacciones diarias en el trabajo (o en posibles interacciones futuras) y piensa en conjuntos de tareas que pedirías (o te pedirían) siguiendo un determinado orden y utilizando números ordinales. A partir de esto, crea: PARTE 1 (Instructions) - Un conjunto escrito de al menos CINCO instrucciones/pasos que alguien deberá seguir para completar una tarea en inglés - Graba un audio de ti mismo diciendo esos pasos en ambos idiomas PARTE 2 (Questions and problems) - Un conjunto escrito de CINCO POSIBLES PREGUNTAS o PROBLEMAS que podría plantear la persona a la que está dando las instrucciones en respuesta a sus instrucciones en inglés - Graba un audio de ti mismo exponiendo esas preguntas/problemas en ambos idiomas PARTE 3 (Your response) - Un conjunto de respuestas escritas a cada una de las preguntas en la Parte 2 que podrías proporcionar - Graba en audio tus respuestas en ambos idiomas Ejemplo parcial para un profesor PART 1 (Instructions) CLICK HERE TO HEAR PARTIAL AUDIO AS A FULL SCRIPT WITH PARTS 1, 2 & 3 - First, listen to my instructions. - Primero, escucha mis intrucciones - Second... Segundo... - Lastly....Por último PART 2 (Questions and problems of the students) - Teacher. I can't. I'm tired. - No puedo, maestra. Estoy cansado. PART 3 (Teacher's response) - I am sorry you are tired. Does that mean you will not be going to recess either? - Lo siento que estés cansado. Supongo que eso significa que tampoco vas al receso. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Recursos para ayudar . . Unidad 7: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Conversación auténtica (CA): Preguntar a la gente qué ha hecho - Asking people what they did - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA): Traducir usando el contexto - Translating by using context - En el trabajo (ET): Comunicaciones por escrito - Written communications - Cultura: Tradiciones y celebraciones - Traditions and celebrations Unidad 6: Cultura Palabras de cortesía - Polite words Si has dicho "lo siento" a alguien cuando te dan una mala noticia y has dicho "perdón" cuando quieres disculparte, te van a sorprender que en inglés solo se dice "I am sorry" en ambos caso. El problema es que a veces si usas "I am sorry", te puedan contestar: "No necesitas disculparte, no es TU culpa"? Aprende más sobre estos tipos de frases de cortesía que pueden significar cosas diferentes (o que simplemente son útiles de conocer) con los vídeos siguientes: Luego, piensa en otras palabras de cortesía que sería útil conocer en inglés en una situación de TRABAJO e investiga cómo escribirlas y decirlas. - Publica una lista de 5 palabras/frases de cortesía en inglés basadas en uno de los videos. La lista deberen inglés y español con audio y texto - Publica una lista de 5 palabras/frases de cortesía en inglés que no aparezcan en los vídeos y que te sean útiles en tu actual o posible futuro trabajo. La lista deberen inglés y español con audio y texto Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . . Unidad 7: Conversación auténtica Preguntar a la gente qué ha hecho - Asking people what they did Ahora vamos a pasar del presente al pasado en la conversación. Esto es útil tanto en el ámbito personal como en el laboral para poder preguntar y responder sobre hechos que ya han sucedido. Vamos a practicar una conversación de la vida real preguntando a nuestros compañeros sobre su día, fin de semana o pasado. Mira los siguientes vídeos y, basándote en ellos, y utilizando el tiempo verbal adecuado, harás y responderás preguntas en este tablero de discusión. Basándote en lo que has aprendido de los vídeos: - Enumera tres preguntas del vídeo que te serían útiles para saber cómo preguntar y responder en inglés - (texto y audio) - Publica TRES preguntas en inglés que le harías a un amigo sobre lo que ha hecho en el pasado reciente. (texto y audio) - Elige al menos un post al que responderás en inglés y contesta a las tres preguntas que el compañero ha publicado. (texto y audio) Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. ota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . En este video vas a escuchar un accento diferente que no es de Estados Unidos. Unidad 7: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Traducir usando el contexto - Translating by using context Para esta tarea, vas a traducir primero SIN ayuda y luego CON la ayuda de recursos en línea. El objetivo aquí NO es tener una traducción perfecta, sino darlt una idea de cómo traducir utilizando el contexto. Primero vas a leer el texto que aparece en el final de esta página. Luego: 1. Traduce el texto al español SIN usar ninguna aplicación - titula esta traducción NO APP TRANSLATION (¡recuerda que el objetivo no es una traducción exacta!) 2. Después de traducir por tu cuenta (sin una app) Crea una lista de 10 a 20 palabras que no conozcas y tradúcelas usando cualquiera de los recursos que tengas (DeepL, SpanishDict, etc. - amplía más allá de Google Translate) - escribe tu lista en ambos idiomas y titula esta traducción PALABRAS NUEVAS 3. Vuelve al original y traduce de nuevo. ¿Ha mejorado la traducción? Explica. 4. Ahora, copia y pega (o escribe) el texto original en español en la aplicación de traducción y compara TU TRADUCCIÓN con la de la APP. Titula esta nueva traducción APP TRANSLATION 5. Compara las traducciones: ¿cuánto se aproxima tu traducción a la de la APP? La tuya podría ser más precisa que la de la app, ¿te parece? 6. Envía TODAS las traducciones escritas, debidamente etiquetadas según las instrucciones anteriores y: - Comparte cómo fue este proceso para usted: (1) ¿Cuánto tiempo le llevó? - ¿Cuál fue la precisión de tu traducción inicial? - ¿Cómo mejoró la traducción después de ampliar el vocabulario buscando las palabras? - ¿Fue esta actividad un reto? ¿Simple? ¿Divertida? ¿Útil? Explica. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Traduce lo siguiente The United States is the third largest country in the world with a population of more than 332 million, according to the U.S. Census Bureau. A child is born every 9 seconds, and a person dies every 11 seconds. Because of this, the United States is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world, according to The London School. Nearly every region of the world has influenced American culture, most notably the English who colonized the country beginning in the early 1600s, according to the Library of Congress. U.S. culture has also been shaped by the cultures of Indigenous Americans, Latin Americans, Africans and Asians. The United States is sometimes described as a "melting pot" in which different cultures have contributed their own distinct "flavors" to American culture. Just as cultures from around the world have influenced American culture, today American culture influences the world. Fuente del artículo: https://www.livescience.com/28945-american-culture.html Unidad 7: En el trabajo Comunicaciones por escrito - Written communications Para prepararte para las próximas tareas que impliquen comunicaciones escritas relacionadas con el trabajo aprende la escritura en inglés con el artículo y lo videos siguientes. Usando la información que has aprendido: - Escribe una carta adecuada en inglés que contenga las fechas tal y como se escriben en inglés, los saludos adecuados y la despedida. La carta puede ser del tipo que quieras, como una carta personal, una carta de solicitud de empleo, una carta de agradecimiento, etc. Proporciona la versión en inglés y en español. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto.. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Artículo de FluentU: Cómo escribir una carta en inglés . . . Recursos adicionales . Unidad 7: Cultura Tradiciones y celebraciones - Traditions and celebrations Estar al tanto de las tradiciones y celebraciones de los EE.UU. no sólo es útil para saber cuando se hacen negocios con personas de diferentes países, ¡sino que también es divertido! - Ve los siguientes videos y enumera y describe todas las celebraciones mencionadas en los vídeos - Investiga por tu cuenta o encuentra otra celebración (de los EEUU) o elige una de uno de los vídeos. - Basado en la celebración que hayas investigado y elegido, crea un "guión" (en español e inglés) y grábate explicando con detalle las celebraciones que hayas elegido como si estuvieras hablando con un amigo/compañero de habla hispana que no supiera nada al respecto. - Comparte los enlaces donde encontraste la información, una imagen de la celebración y una versión de audio y texto de tu guión en español e inglés Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto.. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . Unidad 8: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Conversación auténtica (CA): Charla - Small-talk - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA): Escucha - Listen - En el trabajo (ET): Charla en el trabajo - Small-talk at work - Cultura: Proxemics Unidad 8: Conversación auténtica Charla - Small-talk La charla, en inglés se suele llamar small talk, que es lo que vamos a hacer en esta lección. Primero, mira estos videos sobre la charla en inglés y luego publica siguiendo las pautas que verás a continuación. POST ORIGINAL - Crea un conjunto de 5 frases de 'Small Talk' (a partir de los vídeos y de tu propia experiencia, intereses) que utilizarías al hablar con un amigo, colega o familiar que NO ves todos los días (inglés y español con audio y texto) - Crea un conjunto de 2 preguntas de "Small Talk" que podrías hacer a un amigo, colega o familiar que NO ves todos los días (inglés y español con audio y texto) - Publica tus frases y preguntas escritas, así como un enlace a tu grabación de audio PAUTAS PARA LOS MENSAJES DE RESPUESTA - Elige al menos un mensaje de otro estudiante al que responderás - Lee y escucha su charla y sus preguntas - Responde a las preguntas (en inglés y español con audio y texto) y publica el enlace del audio como Respuesta Idea: Utiliza las frases de los vídeos pero adapta las preguntas y las respuestas a tu situación específica. Compruebe su pronunciación basándose en la pronunciación de los vídeos o con SpanishDict. PERO ten en cuenta que transmitir tu mensaje es mucho más importante que ser 100% preciso en la pronunciación. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. ota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . Unidad 8: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Escucha - Listen Practiquemos las habilidades de escucha y comprensión con un vídeo que muestra una conversación básica sobre entrevistas de trabajo Primero, mira el vídeo y escucha las palabras y frases que reconozcas y utiliza las pistas del contexto. A continuación, escribe un breve resumen del vídeo, a mano (en inglés). Si eres un principiante en español, tu resumen puede ser limitado, ¡y no pasa nada! Conserva el resumen (¡debe estar escrito a mano!) para poder compararlo con el contenido real del vídeo. Ahora, vuelve a ver el vídeo, pero esta vez, haz clic en el icono CC de la parte inferior derecha de la pantalla del vídeo, y verás los subtítulos en inglés. Lee los subtítulos mientras los ves de nuevo y, cuando termines, compara el contenido real del vídeo con tu resumen. ¿Qué tan cerca estuviste? ¿Cuánto pudiste entender inicialmente? ¿Qué estrategias utilizaste para comprender? Envía tu resumen inicial escrito a mano (sube una foto, una imagen de tu hoja de resumen), las respuestas a las preguntas anteriores y comparte cómo te fue en esta experiencia? ¿Fácil? ¿Desafiante? ¿Frustrante? ¿Qué has aprendido? Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Recursos adicionales Unidad 8: En el trabajo Charla en el trabajo - Small-talk at work Es probable que en tu trabajo hables de manera más "formal" a tus compañeros y/o jefes y/o clientes. Para ayudarte a entender esta distinción y cómo utilizarla para comunicarte correctamente, lee este artículo de ThoughtCo que contiene algunos ejemplos estupendos y mira los videos. Ahora que ya conoce algunos aspectos básicos de la small talk en inglés, piense en las siguientes situaciones: - Hablar con un posible empleador - Hablar con un posible cliente nuevo - Hablar con un compañero de trabajo Basándote en una de las situaciones anteriores, crea un conjunto de 2 frases de small talk que podrías utilizar para cada una de ellas. Compártelas en inglés y español con audio y texto. Explica por qué has elegido cada frase. ¡Asegúrate de utilizar correctamente las formas formales e informales! Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. En este video vas a escuchar un accento diferente que no es de Estados Unidos. Esto es bueno para entender en inglés en general. Recursos adicionales Unidad 8: Cultura La Proxémica - Proxemics La proxémica, también conocida como proxemia, es el estudio del espacio personal y el grado de separación que los individuos mantienen en situaciones sociales. Es una forma de comunicación no verbal y puede variar mucho entre las distintas culturas. A través de los vídeos que se muestran a continuación, podrás comparar la proxémica con otras culturas. Piensa en lo que has aprendido sobre la proxémica (a menudo denominada nuestra "burbuja"): - Enuncia las 4 distancias proxémicas mencionadas en uno de los vídeos. - Basándote en esas distancias, ¿cuál es la distancia típica a la que te sientes "cómodo" en diferentes situaciones (familiares, sociales, escolares, laborales) - ¿A qué atribuyes esa distancia? ¿A la educación? ¿A la cultura? ¿Preferencia personal? - ¿Has estado en una situación en la que tu proxémica era diferente a la de otra persona? ¿Cómo has manejado esa situación? - ¿Por qué es importante ser consciente de la proxémica en el lugar de trabajo y en la vida cotidiana? Explica. - Proporciona suficientes detalles y pruebas del vídeo, así como tus propias ideas. Envía las respuestas sólo en español (la versión en inglés es opcional si quieres practicar). Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . Unidad 9: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Conversación auténtica (CA): ¿Adónde debo ir? - Where should I go? - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA): Frases útiles para viajar - Useful travel phrases - En el trabajo (ET): Pedir direcciones - Asking for directions - Cultura: Geografía y cultura - Geography and Culture Unidad 9: Conversación auténtica ¿Adónde debo ir? - Where should I go? Con el siguiente video que destaca los mejores lugares para visitar en los EE.UU. para aprender sobre los diferentes lugares que se recomienda visitar, vas a crear una conversación auténtica con preguntas y respuestas en inglés. PARTE 1 - Elije los TRES MEJORES lugares del vídeo que visitaría primero si tuviera la oportunidad y explique por qué (en español e inglés con texto) PARTE 2 - Investiga sobre UNO de los lugares que has elegido y escribe un breve resumen sobre él (en español e inglés con texto) - Busca y comparte al menos UNA imagen del lugar PARTE 3 - Crea una lista de al menos CINCO preguntas y CINCO frases (en español y en inglés con texto y audio) que sería imprescindible que conocieras en inglés si fueras a visitar estos lugares - Grábate leyendo las frases y preguntas en ambos idiomas - Añade las frases escritas y el enlace de audio a tu presentación PARTE 4 - Contesta las preguntas de uno de los posts de otro estudiante. A menos que conozcas las respuestas verdaderas, vas a tener que inventarlas. (en español e inglés con texto y audio) Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 9: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Frases útiles para viajar - Useful travel phrases Basado en los videos y esta lección de ThoughtCo, aprende acerca de frases de viaje. Al final de la pagina, vas a ver un Travel Vocabulary Quiz. Por favor, completa el quiz y envía una captura de pantalla del quiz completado y comparte cuantas preguntas tuviste correctas y cuantas incorrectas. THOUGHCO - TRAVEL PHRASES Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . Unidad 9: En el trabajo Pedir direcciones/indicaciones - Asking for directions Para familiarizarte con las indicaciones/direcciones básicas, accede a los siguientes vídeos. - Basado en cada vídeo, escribe 5 preguntas y/o frases de direcciones y grábate leyendo cada una de las preguntas frases. Puedes grabarte repitiendo después del audio para no tener que empezar y parar cada vez. - Envía las lista escrita y enlace de audio tuyo leyendo todas las preguntas y/o frases en inglés y español. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . Recursos adicionales British Council - Directions in English . Unidad 9: Cultura Geografía y cultura - Geography and Culture Mira un vídeo interesante sobre la geografía de los Estados Unidos de América. Basándote en el vídeo: - Enumera 3 datos nuevos, útiles o interesantes que hayas aprendido - ¿Cómo crees que la geografía de los Estados Unidos de América afecta a la cultura de cada estado? Explica. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 10: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Conversación auténtica (CA): En el restaurante - At the Restaurant - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA): Pares de palabras confusas - Confusing word pairs - En el trabajo (ET): Preguntar cuánto cuesta algo - Asking how much something costs - Cultura: Bares y restaurantes en Estados Unidos - Bars and Restaurants in the U.S. Unidad 10: Conversación auténtica En el restaurante - At the Restaurant Ya sea para viajes, eventos profesionales, la cafetería de la oficina, cenas de negocios o por razones personales, saber cómo pedir comida en inglés puede ser útil. Basado en los videos y recursos: - Crea un breve guión de una conversación de dos o más personas en la que se encuentren en un restaurante/cena de trabajo, etc. Las parejas de personajes podrían ser - Tú y un amigo o colega van ordenar en un restaurante/cena de trabajo/banquete, etc. - Uno de los personajes va a ser un camarero/camarera - El guión debe constar de al menos 10 líneas (5 para cada una de las personas/personajes que hablan) y debe estar en inglés. - Graba el audio del guión. Puedes poner la voz de todos los "personajes" en la grabación o puedes pedirle a un amigo ofamiliar que te ayude a grabar interpretando al segundo personaje. - Presenta el guión escrito y el audio en inglés y español Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. No tienes que contestar a los posts de otros ota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Wall Street English: FRASES PARA ORDENAR COMIDA . Recursos adicionales Unidad 10: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Pares de palabras confusas - Confusing word pairs Hay muchas parejas de palabras confusas en inglés. Las palabras pueden sonar igual pero significan cosas diferentes. Basado en la siguiente lección de "English Live": - Presenta la lista de cada uno de los 10 pares de palabras en inglés con su traducción al español. - Además, graba un audio de ti mismo leyendo cada una de las palabras con sus correspondientes ejemplos de frases. ENGLISH LIVE: PARES DE PALABRAS CONFUSAS Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 10: En el trabajo Preguntar cuánto cuesta algo - Asking how much something costs Aprender a preguntar el precio de algo es importante y puede ser divertido, ya que si alguna vez viajas y vas a diferentes mercados, ¡podrías negociar un precio diferente al que está marcado! También puede ser útil cuando hagas compras comerciales en las que necesites averiguar o negociar un precio. Mira el siguiente vídeo para aprender varias formas de preguntar el coste de algo. Basándote en el vídeo, haz una lista de las formas mencionadas de preguntar por precios y las de como contestar (en inglés) y envía tu lista escrita de las preguntas, así como un audio de ti leyéndolas. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . Recursos adicionales . Unidad 10: Cultura Bares y restaurantes en Estados Unidos - Bars and Restaurants in the U.S. En España y América Latina, los bares son establecimientos para todas las edades para tomar café, aperitivos, comidas, etc. Sin embargo, en EE.UU., los bares son normalmente lugares para que los mayores de 21 años tomen bebidas alcohólicas. Algunos bares en EE.UU. permiten a los clientes menores de 21 años (simplemente no les sirven alcohol), y puede haber partes del bar o restaurante que estén prohibidas para los clientes menores de 21 años. Otro hecho interesante es que se espera que a los camareros de los bares y restaurantes de Estados Unidos se les den propinas. Los salarios de los camareros (y a veces del personal de apoyo) son inferiores al salario mínimo federal o estatal, porque se espera que la diferencia se compense con las propinas. La propina más baja es el 10% de la cuenta antes de impuestos. Sin embargo, la norma suele ser el 15% y el 20% para un servicio excepcional. - Aprende acerca de esto en los videos a siguiente y realiza tu propia investigación. - Basado en lo que aprendiste haz una comparación entre los bares y restaurantes de tu pais y los de Estados Unidos. La comparación debe tener por lo menos 5 hechos comparados. - Envía tu lista escrita de las preguntas, así como un audio de ti leyéndola. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . . Unidad 11: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Conversación auténtica (CA): Anuncio de empleo (expresando el interés por el trabajo) - Job ad (expressing job interest) Anuncio de empleo (expresando el interés por el trabajo) - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA): Cómo los intérpretes hacen malabares con dos idiomas - How interpreters juggle two languages - En el trabajo (ET): Presentación en el trabajo - Presentation at work - Cultura: Culturas de alto y bajo contexto - High and Low Context Cultures Unidad 11: Conversación auténtica Anuncio de empleo (expresando el interés por el trabajo) - Job ad (expressing job interest) Indeed es un servicio gratuito para quienes buscan empleo, en el que se puede buscar puestos de trabajo, guardarlos y solicitarlos directamente. Para esta tarea, visita el sitio web de Indeed y realice una búsqueda de un empleo en tu campo. Se trataría de un puesto para el que, si fueras el jefe o el propietario de la empresa, contratarías a alguien. - ORIGINAL POST: En el tablero de discusión, comparte el enlace a la oferta de trabajo e incluye el título del puesto y un breve resumen del mismo en español. - RESPOND TO THE POST OF OTHERS: Busca un anuncio de empleo en el post de otro estudiante y, como respuesta a su post, escribe una breve nota expresando tu interés en el puesto que ha publicado y haz dos preguntas sobre el mismo. Escribe tu mensaje en inglés y en español. - RESPOND TO QUESTIONS TO YOUR POST: Si puedes, responde a las preguntas que hagan a tu mensaje Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. ota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 11: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Cómo los intérpretes hacen malabares con dos idiomas - How interpreters juggle two languages Vea el siguiente vídeo sobre la importancia de traducir correctamente. Basándote en el vídeo: - Enumera 2 datos nuevos, interesantes o útiles que hayas aprendido. - Además, enumera 2 situaciones en las que la traducción precisa no es esencial y 2 situaciones en las que la traducción precisa es esencial, y explica las razones. Las situaciones pueden estar relacionadas con los viajes, la vida cotidiana, el trabajo, las emergencias, etc. - Entrega tu lista en español a menos que quieras hacerlo también en inglés para practicar Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . Recursos adicionales . Unidad 11: En el trabajo Presentación en el trabajo - Presentation at work Las habilidades orales y escritas son esenciales en cualquier negocio. Para esta tarea, practicarás la realización de una presentación oral en inglés. Basándote en su situación profesional actual (o futura), piensa en un tema o situación sobre el que sería probable (o te gustaría) tener que hacer una presentación: discurso de ventas, proyecciones, lección, reunión de oficina, formación de empleados, etc. Piensa en ti mismo como un empleado/jefe/propietario de un negocio, etc. que va a hacer la presentación. - Crea una breve presentación en vídeo (de unos 3 a 5 minutos) basada en la situación que has elegido para presentar. Se trata de una presentación que es oral y que contiene diapositivas. - La presentación será en inglés con subtítulos o transcripción en español. - Envía el enlace del vídeo junto con las diapositivas. Asegúrate de indicar la "situación" para la que haces la presentación, el sector, el público objetivo, etc. Algunas ideas: Utilizando una plataforma como screencast-o-matic, puedes grabarte a ti mismo junto con las diapositivas en la pantalla de tu ordenador haciendo la presentación. Puedes grabarte a ti mismo dando la presentación como si estuvieras en una oficina/reunión de ventas/auditorio real, etc. y te estuvieran grabando. Puedes subir el vídeo a YouTube y hacer que no aparezca en la lista (para que sólo puedan verlo quienes tengan el enlace) Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Recursos adicionales Unidad 11: Cultura Culturas de alto y bajo contexto Aprende sobre las diferencias de las culturas en cuanto a cómo se comunican (¡y con "cuántas" palabras!) con los videos y el artículo siguiente. Basándote en el vídeo y el artículo que aparecen a continuación (y en cualquier investigación adicional que necesites realizar): - Define las culturas de alto y bajo contexto - ¿Es Estados Unidos una cultura de alto o bajo contexto? Explica - ¿Los países latinoamericanos son de alto o bajo contexto? Explique - Si vivieras, visitaras o trabajaras en una cultura latinoamericana o con personas de América Latina, ¿qué harías para obtener una ventaja en los negocios o para hacer amigos y establecer confianza? Utiliza pruebas específicas del vídeo, así como tu propia opinión. - Comparte los enlaces/recursos de donde obtuviste la información - Tu presentación puede ser sólo en español , pero se recomienda la versión en español e inglés. Artículo en español NARTRAN Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 12: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Conversación auténtica (CA): Háblame de ti.- Tell me about yourself.... - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA): Escucha una entrevista - Listen to an interview - En el trabajo (ET): Resume/CV - Cultura: Modismos - Idioms Unidad 12: Conversación auténtica Háblame de ti - Tell me about yourself.... Un tipo de pregunta con la que casi se puede contar durante una entrevista de trabajo es "Háblame de ti" o "Tell me about yourself" en inglés. Esta pregunta permite que el entrevistador escuche una versión breve y resumida de tus antecedentes y habilidades, y le da una idea de la experiencia y las cualificaciones que crees que son más relevantes para el puesto al que te presentas. Será esa pregunta (o una parecida) la que responderás en esta tarea, en inglés. En UN minuto, grábate (en audio o vídeo) respondiendo a esta pregunta,"Tell me about yourself", como si estuvieras en una entrevista real en inglés para un trabajo que podrías solicitar o un trabajo ideal que te gustaría. Presenta el texto y el audio en inglés y en español. NOTA: Como vaprenderás de los recursos que aparecen a continuación, esta pregunta de la entrevista NO es el momento de hablar de tu vida personal, sino de presentar al entrevistador tu historial profesional y lo que "aportas" (cómo se beneficiaría la empresa de contratarte) Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. No tienes que responder a los posts de otros. ota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 12: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Escucha una entrevista - Listen to an interview Practiquemos las habilidades de escucha y comprensión con un vídeo que muestra una conversación básica sobre entrevistas de trabajo - Primero, mira el vídeo y escucha las palabras y frases que reconozcas y utiliza las pistas del contexto. - A continuación, escribe un breve resumen del vídeo, a mano (en inglés). Si eres un principiante en español, tu resumen puede ser limitado, ¡y no pasa nada! - Conserva el resumen (¡debe estar escrito a mano!) para poder compararlo con el contenido real del vídeo. - Ahora, vuelve a ver el vídeo, pero esta vez, haz clic en el icono CC de la parte inferior derecha de la pantalla del vídeo, y verás los subtítulos en español. - Lee los subtítulos mientras los ves de nuevo y, cuando termines, compara el contenido real del vídeo con tu resumen. - ¿Qué tan cerca estuviste? - ¿Cuánto pudiste entender inicialmente? - ¿Qué estrategias has utilizado para comprender? - Finalmente, comparte una lista de 5 frases nuevas que aprendiste que te puedan ayudar en una entrevista. La lista debe estar en inglés y español Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 12: En el trabajo Résumé/CV Redactar un currículum (a veces también conocido como CV o Résumé - dependiendo de el lugar y la profesión) es una habilidad importante sin importar el idioma. Como esta es una clase de inglés, crearás un currículum en español. Accede a los enlaces externos que aparecen a continuación para aprender más sobre esta habilidad y luego crea un currículum en español para un futuro (o un sueño) trabajo al que quieras aspirar. Quizás quieras crearlo primero en inglés y luego traducirlo al español. Indeed: Cómo hacer un currículum vitae Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 12: Cultura Modismos - Idioms Las expresiones idiomáticas o modismos, son una gran manera de aprender a comunicarse y entender un idioma de forma auténtica. Basándose en el vídeo 20 modismos en inglés y sus significados que aparece a continuación, por favor: - Elige al menos cinco (5) de los modismos en español y compártalos aquí junto con su significado literal, así como lo que significan como modismo. - Encuentra otros 5 modismos que no se encuentren en el vídeo y compártalos aquí junto con su significado literal así como lo que significan como modismo. - Además, explica por qué o si crees que aprender modismos es una parte importante del aprendizaje de un nuevo idioma. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 13: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividadess - Conversación auténtica (CA): Preguntas y respuestas de la entrevista de trabajo - Job interview questions and answers - Laboratorio de aprendizaje (LA): Aprendizaje de idiomas a través del input - Language learning through input - En el trabajo (ET): Emergencias - Emergencies - Cultura: Cartas de agradecimiento - Thank you letters Unidad 13: Conversación auténtica Preguntas y respuestas de la entrevista de trabajo - Job interview questions and answers Mira los siguientes vídeos sobre las preguntas y respuestas típicas de las entrevistas. Basándote en los vídeos: - Presenta una lista de 5 preguntas y 5 respuestas que te serían útiles en una entrevista de trabajo. - Envía la lista escrita en inglés y español como audio y texto. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. . Unidad 13: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Aprendizaje de idiomas a través del input - Language learning through input Cada vez se acepta más que el aprendizaje de idiomas es más eficaz cuando se basa en el "input" en lugar de estar lleno de ejercicios gramaticales y otros métodos tradicionales. Pero, ¿qué es el aprendizaje basado en input? Aprenda más sobre esto con el siguiente vídeo de 13 minutos y, basándose en él, responde a las siguientes preguntas en español: - ¿Cuáles son los 4 puntos importantes para la adquisición del lenguaje que se mencionan? Enumera y explica brevemente cada uno de ellos. - De los métodos que ha utilizado en este curso, ¿cuál consideraría que está basado en el 'input'? - Define "input comprensible". - ¿Cuál es la diferencia entre "adquisición" y "aprendizaje" de la lengua? - Basándote en lo que has aprendido en el vídeo (o en cualquier investigación que realice), ¿está de acuerdo en que el input comprensible es un método eficaz? ¿Explica por qué o por qué no? - De cara al futuro, ¿qué otros métodos te gustaría incorporar para ayudarte a aumentar tu nivel de español? ¿O cuáles seguirás utilizando? ¿Por qué? Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 13: En el trabajo Emergencias - Emergencies Ya sea para viajar, para la vida diaria o para el trabajo, es importante conocer frases en inglés para casos de emergencia. - Mira el siguiente vídeo para conocer algunas frases básicas de emergencia. - Enumera 5 palabras/frases de emergencia que hayas aprendido en el vídeo - Verás que el vídeo no es suficiente para todas las posibles emergencias que uno puede encontrar o las más probables dependiendo de la situación. Por lo tanto, investigue un poco y encuentra: - un vídeo que te ayude a aprender frases para emergencias en inglés - un sitio web o recurso en línea que te ayude a aprender frases para emergencias en inglés - Comparte los recursos y explica en qué te pueden ayudar. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 13: Cultura Cartas de agradecimiento - Thank you letters En el mundo de negocios, al igual que en la vida cotidiana, es bueno demostrar agradecimiento. Aprende acerca de como dar las gracias con cartas. - Piensa en una situacion relacionada con un trabajo o negocios por la cual vas a enviar una carta de agradecimiento. - Primero, escribela en español y después usa un app para traducirla al inglés (Google Translate, SpanishDict, DeepL, Apple Translate, etc.). La carta debe tener por lo menos cinco oraciones, la fecha correcta en inglés, un saludo y una despedida. - Después de tener tu carta en inglés, elige 2 aplicaciones de traducción diferentes a la que usaste al principio y tradúcela de nuevo al español con cada aplicación. - ¿Son idénticas las traducciones? - ¿Qué diferencias hay? - ¿Qué plataforma ha dado la traducción más precisa basándose en tu original? - ¿Qué aprendiste acerca de las aplicaciones de traducir? - Envía todas las versiones de las cartas y las respuestas a las preguntas. Puede responder a las preguntas en español. The Balance Career - Business letters Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 14: Información general En esta unidad, completarás las siguientes actividades - Authentic Conversation (AC): 100 palabras - 100 words Language Learning Lab (LLL): A Faster Way to Learn a Language - Una forma más rápida de aprender un idioma At Work (AW): Work communications (Translations - advanced) - Comunicaciones de trabajo (Traducciones - avanzadas) Culture: Pronunciation - Pronunciación Unidad 14: Conversación auténtica 100 palabras - (100 words) ¿Crees que 100 palabras en inglés cubren el 50% de la conversación hablada? Decídelo viendo el vídeo siguiente que contiene las palabras más comunes en inglés. Si es cierto (o incluso si no lo es), ¡los 5 minutos serán un tiempo bien empleado! Basándose en las palabras del vídeo, cree un conjunto de 10 frases en español que le resulten útiles utilizando SÓLO las palabras del vídeo. A continuación, tradúcelas al inglés y comprueba si el mensaje fue preciso y completo. ¿Fue gramaticalmente correcto? ¿Qué palabras te gustaría haber podido utilizar en tus frases para mejorarlas? ¿Qué has aprendido de esta experiencia? Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Envía tus mensajes en el tablero de discusión apropiado de su curso. ota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Recursos adicionales Unidad 14: Laboratorio de aprendizaje Una forma más rápida de aprender un idioma - A Faster Way to Learn a Language Siguiendo con el tema de cómo aprender idiomas de la manera más eficiente y disfrutando del proceso, por favor, ve el siguiente vídeo sobre la perspectiva de otra persona para aprender idiomas (duración de unos 14 minutos PERO SÓLO NECESITAS VER LOS PRIMEROS 6 MINUTOS - ¡por favor, no hagas caso de los comerciales de "venta" y no te apuntes a nada!) Basándote en el vídeo, en español: - Comparte qué estrategias o hechos sobre el aprendizaje de idiomas fueron nuevos, más sorprendentes o más útiles para usted. - Defina las palabras de "alta frecuencia - "high frequency" y si está de acuerdo con este enfoque del aprendizaje de idiomas. ¿Por qué o por qué no? - Enumere 20 palabras de "Alta Frecuencia" que le sería útil conocer en español según su interés o situación (¿trabajo? ¿escuela? ¿amigos?) - [lista en español e inglés] Di por qué has elegido estas palabras Y cómo te serían útiles. - Define el PRINCIPIO DE PARETO tal y como se muestra en el vídeo (e investiga más si es necesario) y cómo podrías aplicarlo al aprendizaje de idiomas? al aprendizaje en general? - ¿Te ha inspirado el vídeo para hacer algo diferente en tu forma de enfocar el aprendizaje de idiomas? ¿Por qué o por qué no? Explica Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Unidad 14: En el trabajo Comunicaciones de trabajo (Traducciones - avanzadas) - Work communications (Translations - advanced) A medida que nos acercamos a los últimos módulos de esta clase, es importante explorar las comunicaciones escritas relacionadas con el trabajo, ya que el inglés es una habilidad útil en muchas profesiones. También es una buena idea traducir utilizando pistas de contexto, ya que, si no lo has descubierto ya, no se puede traducir cualquier idioma palabra por palabra y esperar una traducción precisa. Para esta tarea, primero intentarás traducir un documento del español al inglés SIN utilizar una plataforma de traducción. El objetivo NO es conseguir una traducción exacta, sino más bien que intentes traducir. - Visita esta página web de LEXICO a la que puedes acceder haciendo clic aquí, y de la lista de cartas/documentos, elige UNO en inglés que parezca más útil, interesante o sencilla para ti de la sección titulada The World of Work - Después de intentar traducir por tu cuenta, comprobará su traducción con una herramienta como Google Translate, SpanishDict y DeepL. Las instrucciones detalladas se encuentran a continuación. INSTRUCCIONES - Elige UNA carta/documento en inglés y tradúcela SIN una aplicación de traducción. Escríbelo para que puedas utilizarlo en el siguiente paso. No te preocupes por la exactitud en este punto - sólo trata de hacerlo lo mejor posible con lo que sabes, incluso si no es mucho. (Titula esta traducción como OT) - A continuación, escribe la versión en español en Google Translate Y SpanishDict Y DeepL para obtener una traducción al inglés de cada plataforma. (Titula la traducción de Google Translate GT, la de SpanishDict SD y la de DeepL DL) - ¿Qué tan cercanas son las 4 traducciones? (la tuya, la de Google Translate, la de DeepL y la de SpanishDict?) ¿Cómo fue este proceso para ti: qué aprendiste? ¿retos? ¿simple? útil? - Envía todas las traducciones y las respuestas a la pregunta anterior. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema. Recursos adicionales Unidad 14: Cultura Pronunciación - Pronunciation Mira los siguientes vídeos sobre la pronunciación y cómo hablar inglés como un estadounidense. Ten en cuenta que transmitir tu mensaje en inglés es mucho más importante que una pronunciación precisa. - Del vídeo titulado How to Talk Like a Native Speaker, enumera y describe las 4 estrategias explicadas (con tus propias palabras y con suficientes pruebas de los vídeos) - Del vídeo titulado 5 Tips to Sound Like an American, enumera 3 cosas nuevas, interesantes o útiles que hayas aprendido. - Explica si tu opinión sobre la pronunciación ha cambiado (o no) después de ver los vídeos. - De cara al futuro, ¿podrías enfocar el hablar o escuchar en inglés de forma diferente basándote en esta nueva información? Explica por qué o por qué no. Utiliza Forvo, DeepL y Linguee para confirmar que tu pronunciación en inglés y tu traducción son precisas y están en contexto. Utiliza Vocaroo para grabar tu audio o puedes utilizar cualquier plataforma de grabación de audio con la que estés familiarizado. Por favor, envía tu tarea en el área de presentación de tareas apropiada de su curso como un documento de Word o PDF. Nota: Si un vídeo de YouTube está en inglés, puedes ver los subtítulos en español haciendo clic en el icono de subtítulos para activar los subtítulos, luego haz clic en el icono de configuración y elige el idioma al que quieres que traduzca el sistema.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:18.373481	Vanessa Botts	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93454/overview", "title": "Inglés para las profesiones", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113589/overview	EcoCircle's competence framework Overview EcoCircle's competence framework aims to define the required set of knowledge, skills & attitudes needed for a sustainable digital business growth and creation, thanks to the understanding and incorporation of targeted Circular Economy’s fundamentals, which will enable individuals and organizations to navigate successfully the global digital economy. Finally each of the identified competences, within the Framework correspond to the different e-learning modules of our platform and e-game levels of our application (download on: AppStore or Playstore). The framework is also available in Dutch, Finnish, French, Italien, Slovenian & Spanish here https://ecocircleproject.com/results/ EcoCircle's competence framework EcoCircle's competence framework aims at developing a dedicated framework of competences for present and future young social entrepreneurs and those interested in social entrepreneurship and environmental learning, such as educators and youth workers, educating the users on the skills, capacities and attitudes necessary to embrace Circular Economy as a business model and, to provide entrepreneurs with the tools to build a more successful and sustainable future. The framework mapped against existing relevant national & European instruments & qualification frameworks also with the view of exploring opportunities for recognition in formal and non-formal learning. The instruments to be considered, includes the Entrepreneurship Competence Framework (EntreComp), the European Digital Competence Framework (DigComp) & he European Sustainability Competence Framework (GreenComp). Overall, this document aims to define the required set of knowledge, skills & attitudes needed for a sustainable digital business growth and creation, thanks to the understanding and incorporation of targeted Circular Economy’s fundamentals, which will enable individuals and organizations to navigate successfully the global digital economy. Finally each of the identified competences, within the Framework correspond to the different e-learning modules of our platform and e-game levels of our application (download on: AppStore or Playstore) Indeed, young people will play a key role in the shaping of a sustainable future for our society, as outlined in “Youth and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”. Through educating young people in the power of their actions toward diversity, poverty, gender inequality, climate change and other pressing societal issues, the project ECO-CIRCLE looks to instil young people with the capacities to build a more sustainable future. Therefore, in this scenario, it is clear that the project ECO-CIRCLE: “Circular Economy as a tool to develop as a tool to develop an innovative eco-inclusive social entrepreneurship educational pattern for youth" aims to develop an educational framework for young social entrepreneurs and educators to instil them with knowledge in regards to an eco-inclusive Circular Economy business model. The project ECO-CIRCLE was developed considering the fact that current socio-economic practices are no longer sustainable for our society or for the planet itself. There is an urgent need for new educational patterns to organize and promote a more eco-inclusive approach designed to benefit entrepreneurs, businesses, employees, society and the environment.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:18.399647	Higher Education	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113589/overview", "title": "EcoCircle's competence framework", "author": "Environmental Studies" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64448/overview	Grade K - 2 Learning Resources Overview Resource suggestions to explore and consider as a way to support your family learning during school closures. Grade K - 2 Learning Resources Art & Music The Arts: This site offers printable art worksheets, resources on how to read and play music, and provide information on the history of music. Arts Ed Washington: This site provides curriculum designed for K-6 teachers to integrate visual arts into their classrooms with ease. The Kennedy Center - ART with Mo Willems: Mo Willems invites YOU into his studio every day for his LUNCH DOODLE. Learners worldwide can draw, doodle and explore new ways of writing by visiting Mo’s studio virtually once a day for the next few weeks. Comprehensive School Counseling BrainPOP for SEL: Brain POP is committed to developing SEL content that supports the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) framework. CASEL: The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) is a trusted source for knowledge about high quality, evidence-based social and emotional learning (SEL). Inside SEL: SEL curates relevant headlines, policy updates, and articles pertaining to social-emotional learning. Dual Language Bartolo and extended suite of resources at Imactiva: Resources en español de Chile. Bartolo es una línea de software educativo para apoyar la enseñanza y el aprendizaje de las asignaturas de lenguaje, matemática, ciencias sociales y ciencias naturales, desde pre kínder a 4º básico. Spanish language resources from Chile: Bartolo is a line of educational software to support teaching and learning in language, math, social studies and science, from Pre-K to 4th grade. English Language Arts National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) Resources for Virtual Instruction and Online Learning: Curated list of blog posts, journal articles, resources and activities. PBS Kids: PBS KIDS leverages the full spectrum of media and technology to build knowledge, critical thinking, imagination and curiosity. PBS Learning Media - ELA: This site focuses on bring language arts to life through interactive games, animations and engaging media resources. ReadWorks: Read Works focuses on reading comprehension instruction with curated high-impact instructional materials and tools. Scholastic Learn at Home: Scholastic Learn at how provides day-by-day projects to keep kids reading, thinking and growing. English Language Development Biblioteca Virtual Infantil: Children's Virtual Library for Ages 0 -12. Biblioteca Virtual Universal presenta una de las más grandes colecciones de libros digitalizados en toda Latinoamérica; con acceso directo a las obras y con un sistema de búsquedas por Título de la Obra, Autor y Clasificación por Materias. The Children's Virtual Library is one of the largest collections of digital books in all of Latin America; with direct access to the books and a search feature by Title, Author, and Genre. BrainPOP for Emerging Bilinguals, BrainPOP en Español, and BrainPOP Maestros: BrainPop provides learning games, animated movies and activities that are designed with relevance, depth and humor. Colorín Colorado: Colorín Colorado has been providing free research-based information, activities, and advice to parents, schools, and communities. English Learners Success Forum: This site focuses on Math and ELA activities and scaffolds that can be strategically built into lessons and units to deepen and accelerate English learners’ content area learning over time. Kahn Academy en Español: Students practice at their own pace, first filling in gaps in their understanding and then accelerating their learning. Reading Rockets: Reading Rockets immerse kids in language and stories, build background knowledge, and inspire creative play. Health Education BrainPOP Jr.: Brain Pop provides learning games, animated movies and activities that are designed with relevance, depth and humor. CATCH Health at Home (Coordinated Approach to Child Health): By uniting multiple players in a child’s life to create a community of health, CATCH is proven to prevent childhood obesity. Create Safer Schools by Choosing Love SEL Curriculum: This site focuses on character development and Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) program that teaches educators and their students how to choose love in any circumstance through wonderfully simple yet powerful themes. EVERFI Health & Wellness: EVERFI’s health and wellness resources teach students to make healthy choices in a safe environment. Mathematics Bedtime Math: Every day, we serve up a quick bite of wacky math just for fun. Whether it’s flamingos, ninjas or pillow forts, kids can see the math in their favorite topics. DREME Storybook Guides (Development and Research in Early Math Education): These reading guides are intended to help you use interactive reading strategies that can help foster children’s literacy and mathematical thinking. IXL: IXL helps students master essential skills at their own pace through fun and interactive questions, built in support, and motivating awards. PBS Learning Media: This site focuses on bring math concepts to life through interactive games, animations and engaging media resources. Prodigy: Prodigy is an engaging game-based learning platform that Johns Hopkins University links to independent learning. Physical Education BE Physically Active 2Day (BEPA 2.0): BE Physically Active 2Day (BEPA 2.0) is a classroom-based physical activity program aligned to national Health Education (HE) and Physical Education (PE) standards for grades K-5. Cosmic Kids Yoga: Yoga, mindfulness and relaxation designed specially for kids aged 3+, used in schools and homes all over the world. Online Physical Education Network (OPEN): This site focuses on games and calendars for families to use to make their home an Active Home. Science #Going 3-D - Gathering, Reasoning and Communicating: These lessons utilize local phenomenon and are organized by grade level. By organizing instruction around local phenomenon, students are provided with a reason to learn shifting the focus from learning about a disconnected topic to figuring out why or how something happens. Next Generation Storylines: This site focuses on a coherent sequence of lessons, in which each step is driven by students' questions that arise from their interactions with phenomena. PBS Learning Media: This site explores natural phenomena and scientific practices with videos, lesson plans, and interactive tools. Teach Engineering: Teach Engineering is a digital library comprised of engineering curricula for K-12 educators to make applied science and math come alive through engineering design. Social Science General EDSITEment: EDSITEment is a project of the National Endowment for the Humanities. EDSITEment offers free resources for teachers, students, and parents searching for high-quality K-12 humanities education materials in the subject areas of history and social studies, literature and language arts, foreign languages, arts, and culture. Library of Congress Grade Level Social Science Lesson Plans: Teacher-created, classroom-tested lesson plans using primary sources from the Library of Congress. Civics Center for Civics Education: The Center’s lesson plans include We the People: The Citizen and the Constitution; Project Citizen; the School Violence Prevention Demonstration Program; Representative Democracy in America; Citizens, Not Spectators; and Foundations of Democracy. Kid Citizen: Kid Citizen provides a growing set of interactive Episodes where K-5 students work with primary source photographs to explore Congress and Civic Engagement. Teaching Civics: Lessons for civics, government, and law-related education in elementary, middle, and high school classrooms. Includes simulations, discussions, mock trials, case studies and other research based materials. Economics EconEd: Econ Ed Link provides classroom-tested, Internet-based economic and personal finance lesson materials for K-12 teachers and their students. Geography National Geographic: Search a databank of lessons and resources by grade, content type and subject. U.S. History/Oregon History Experience Oregon: Curriculum for the Oregon Historical Society’s (OHS) core Oregon history exhibition, Experience Oregon, aligns with state and national standards. All classes can use this curriculum, regardless of whether they physically visit the exhibit. PBS Learning Media: U.S. History is broken down by time periods, ranging from Three Worlds Meet (beginnings to 1620) to Contemporary United States (1968 - today). Teaching Tolerance: These classroom lessons offer breadth and depth, spanning essential social justice topics and reinforcing critical social emotional learning skills. World History PBS Learning Media: World History is an expansive subject, these lesson will engage student with learning opportunities focusing on the eras from the Agricultural Revolution to World War II. STEM Career Exploration: This site has compiled a list of career exploration activities and resources categorized by grade level. Oregon Connections: Oregon Connections is the next generation, web-based tool that makes it easy for industry professionals to connect with K-20 educators. Professionals can share their skills and expertise to bring real world, authentic learning opportunities to all our students helping to create the next generation of innovators. STEM Works: STEM-Works provides resource for teachers, mentors, parents, STEM professionals, volunteers, and everyone passionate about getting children eager to learn about science, technology, engineering, and math. World Languages PBS Learning Media: This site focuses on bring world languages and cultures into your classroom with resources on world languages. Image by Esi Grünhagen from Pixabay	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:18.424603	Elementary Education	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64448/overview", "title": "Grade K - 2 Learning Resources", "author": "Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113665/overview	Hands-On AI Projects for the Classroom: A Guide on Ethics and AI Overview ISTE and GM have partnered to create Hands-On AI Projects for the Classroom guides to provide educators with a variety of activities to teach students about AI across various grade levels and subject areas. Each guide includes background information for teachers and student-driven project ideas that relate to subject-area standards. The hands-on activities in the guides range from “unplugged” projects to explore the basic concepts of how AI works to creating chatbots and simple video games with AI, allowing students to work directly with innovative AI technologies and demonstrate their learning. Introduction The Hands-On AI Projects for the Classroom series is a set of guides for teachers who are seeking instructional and curricular resources about artificial intelligence (AI) for various grade levels and across a range of subject areas. Developed by ISTE in partnership with General Motors, these guides are an extension of ISTE's work and feature student-driven AI projects curated from educators in the field, as well as strategies to support teachers in implementing the projects in a variety of K–12 classrooms. The projects engage students in both unplugged and technology-infused activities that explore key facets of AI technologies. Click here to access the full Ethics and AI resource in English.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:18.438464	03/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113665/overview", "title": "Hands-On AI Projects for the Classroom: A Guide on Ethics and AI", "author": "Rebecca Henderson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64759/overview	Assessment: Parent Communications Resources Overview Educators and parents can use the Washington Starting Smarter site to better understand the scores and reports for the Smarter Balanced tests, see sample items, and access additional resources. All resources on the site are copyright The Regents of the University of California. Though the connected resources are free for viewing online, please note that your permitted use of the materials for other uses will vary. Image by StartupStockPhotos from Pixabay Helpful Websites Smarter Balanced: Starting Smarter Washington Starting Smarter \| The Regents of the University of California Educators and parents can use this site to better understand the scores and reports for the Smarter Balanced math and English language arts tests. There are also links to explore sample test items, by grade and content area, to better understand the expectations of the standard. Finally, there are a variety of free resources for parents to support their child learning of the standards. Image by StartupStockPhotos from Pixabay Except where otherwise noted, this work by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. All logos and trademarks are property of their respective owners. This resource contains links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring by OSPI. Please confirm the license status of any third-party resources and understand their terms of use before reusing them.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:18.454751	Barbara Soots	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64759/overview", "title": "Assessment: Parent Communications Resources", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104344/overview	Syllabus-SPANM200-Intermediate Spanish I Spanish M200-Intermediate Spanish I: Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Overview The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Course Description Intermediate Spanish I online, SPAN M200 Course Description: Prerequisite: SPAN M110, three years of high school Spanish, or equivalent. Intermediate SPAN M200 is the first section of a sequence of two courses (SPAN M200 and SPAN M210) covering the second year of college-level Spanish (transferable to CSU and UC systems). In the course of the semester lecciones 11- 15 in the textbook Portales and selected additional readings will be studied. SPAN M200 is an intermediate course that aims at improving Spanish proficiency and deepening students' knowledge of the Spanish language and of Spanish- speaking cultures and civilizations. The emphasis of the class will be on enriching the understanding of Spanish-speaking cultures through reading and writing, while at the same time learning and reviewing grammar concepts. The grammatical emphases of this class are the past, future, subjunctive, conditional, and perfect tenses. Studying selected aspects of Spanish-speaking cultures and civilizations are an important and integral part of the class. The goal of this class is to become proficient in oral and written Spanish and acquire a critical understanding of Spanish- speaking cultures. Since communication is the pivotal aspect of language learning, students will engage in live online chats to practice the target language. Course Learning Outcomes for Intermediate Spanish I: - demonstrate some knowledge and understanding of the cultures of the Spanish-speaking regions studied. - conduct interpersonal communications in the language, such as practical dialogues, in both oral and written form in all major time frames. - demonstrates comprehension of advanced-level authentic texts [reading, listening, and viewing] on day to day activities, such as advertisements, applications, instructions, articles, and schedules. - describe events and present information about some topics of general interest in both oral and written form in all major time frames. - apply technology to the language-learning process and cultural research projects. Action Plan One of the main ways open pedagogy and OER help my class be antiracist is by redistributing the power dynamics in my course to give students more agency in their learning process. The plan of action to redistribute the power dynamics in the class included the following: -Engaging students in co-creating a community agreement at the beginning of the semester to get input form students regarding what they feel would benefit them most as a learning community and be informed about what they value and what would help them feel safe and welcomed into our community. -Adapting OER discussion on identity and privilege wheel as an introductory discussion for students to get to know each other on deeper level while at the same time valuing the diversity in backgrounds and experiences they bring to the class. -Becoming more flexible on critical thinking assignments to give students the freedom to express their truest selves. Allowing students to choose answering discussions in diverse formats such as: written form, video, audio, presentation, poems, etc. Instead of dictating in every assignment the format they should use. I became more intentional on allowing more agency whenever possible. -Letting students decide what topics/authors/communities they want to study within a particular topic in the course instead of just following the traditional textbook materials. This allowed the content to be more current and relevant to the students. Ex: Students chose which poet to study and present. -OER sources allowed me to use more images that represented diverse populations in the Hispanic/Latinx context. I utilized more images of historically underrepresented populations such as black, indigenous, people of color, etc. -Include more critical topics to equity and anti-racist curriculum such as: - Racist nature of the use of a colonized language (history about repressing indigenous languages to establish dominance) - Diversity in language: value in diverse Spanish registers and the heritage speaker experience - Underrepresented populations in technology in the Latinx/Hispanic context - Disparate impact on environmental issues in indigenous populations in the Latinx/Hispanic context - Racism and Afro-Latinx populations in the Latinx/Hispanic context Antiracist Assignment / Module I have included two assignments as an example of the use of antiracist and open pedagogy in this class. In the first assignment students are asked to research about the Afro-Latina poet Mary Grueso. They are asked to research themselves to take agency in their learning process and form their own impressions before sharing with the class. Then students are asked to read one of her most famous poems that deals explicitly with the topic of racism and colorism in Latin American and Hispanic countries. Students then have to answer a set of comprehension questions and are asked to comment on their classmates' responses. Here is the link to the poem:Negra Soy This is an intermediate language class, their language skills are still somewhat limited regarding extensive literary analysis, but they can express overall impressions and engage in some analysis with focused ideas and key words. The second assignment is a follow-up to this one. After modeling an example of a relevant and diverse poet from a historically underrepresented poet, students are asked to research and select their own poet from one of the regions we studied before in the class, and they are asked to present it to the class in a discussion. This assignment aims to build confidence and agency as scholars to research and share their own poets and share their unique perspectives on those poets and their poems.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:18.486883	Alejandra Valenzuela Mares	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104344/overview", "title": "Spanish M200-Intermediate Spanish I: Open For Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101240/overview	Script Consecutive Interpretation - Ms. Ripoll Takes the Stand Overview Mock direct examination of a witness by the Prosecution. Accompanying recording (5:30 minutes) is included at approximately 128 WPM. The National Center for State Courts (NCSC) exam is approximately 120 WPM and the duration is 8 minutes. Overview Title image by Freepik Flaticon Mock direct examination of a witness by the Prosecution. Accompanying recording (5:30 minutes) is included at approximately 128 WPM. The National Center for State Courts (NCSC) exam is approximately 120 WPM and the duration is 8 minutes. There are 45 scoring units which represent objective characteristics of language that interpreters must understand and render appropriately during the interpretation. For more information on scoring units, please visit this LINK. The majority of these scoring units come from Quizlet sets available HERE. **The script and recording are for practice purposes only! It should not be perceived as legal advice. If you have any law questions or concerns, you should contact an attorney. Instructions 1) Students should first open the Google Doc, but not scroll down to the script. 2) They should get ready to consecutively interpret from English into Spanish and from Spanish into English and record themselves while doing so. A free, web-based, user-friendly app for voice recording is www.vocaroo.com. 3) Then students should listen to their own rendition while looking at the script. They should listen for how they interpreted the 45 scoring units and mark if they did so correctly, incorrectly, or if they omitted it all together. 4) Lastly, they should reflect on their own performance. What areas should they improve? Should they work on their vocabulary? Their speed? And how was the use of the formal verb tense (for example, in Spanish "usted", in Portuguese "você")? Suggestion: Look over the Oral Proficiency Levels in the Workplace poster published by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). Medical Interpreter is at an Advanced-Mid level of oral proficiency. https://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/guidelines/OralProficiencyWorkplacePoster.pdf About the author Fátima Cornwall arrived from the Azores Islands, Portugal in 1993. Since then her academic achievements include a M.A. in Spanish Literature from University of California - Santa Barbara, and a B.A. in Spanish from Boise State University. Fátima has many years of experience in different areas of the interpreting profession. She is a Federal Court Certified Interpreter, as well as an Idaho Court Certified Interpreter Master Level in Spanish and Certified Portuguese Interpreter. She is also a Certified Medical Interpreter through the National Board of Certification for Medical Interpreters (NBCMI). She has been serving as faculty for different workshops and training sessions for new and experienced interpreters and judges for the past five years. Fátima is also an interpreter assessment specialist and a rater for a national credentialing program for interpreters. Fátima has a great passion for teaching and learning, having published articles in the subject. She is a clinical assistant professor at Boise State University where she works as the Spanish Language Coordinator and teaches Portuguese and Spanish upper-division courses, including Introduction to Court Interpretation and Spanish for Healthcare. For any feedback, including corrections, suggestions and so forth please feel free to contact Fátima at fcornwal@boisestate.edu	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:18.511694	Languages	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101240/overview", "title": "Consecutive Interpretation - Ms. Ripoll Takes the Stand", "author": "Language, Grammar and Vocabulary" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79021/overview	English: UN Sustainable Development Goals (interactive mindmap) French: UN Sustainable Development Goals (interactive mindmap) Spanish: UN Sustainable Development Goals (interactive mindmap) UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) - Interactive Mind Map Overview An interactive reference work on the UN Sustainable Development Goals with short introductions to the goals, the official translations and numbering of the 17 goals and the 169 underlying targets, zoom in / zoom out at goal or target level, powerful search function, and "deep" hyperlinks to the UN website about the goals. Compact and online available interactive reference work that can be useful in all kinds of learning activities related to the SDGs. Currently available in English, Spanish, French and Dutch. Free to use online, but also to download and "embed" in other websites (HTML5); the source code is also freely available (MMAP). Synopsis This OER is an interactive reference work on the UN Sustainable Development Goals with short introductions to the goals, the official translations and numbering of the 17 goals and the 169 underlying targets, zoom in / zoom out at goal or target level, powerful search function, and "deep" hyperlinks to the UN website about the goals. It is a compact and online available interactive reference work that can be useful in all kinds of learning activities related to the SDGs. Currently the content is available in English, Spanish, French and Dutch. The underlying system uses the language set for the browser, as long as it is Chinese, Dutch, English, French, German, Japanese, Russian or Spanish, otherwise English. Free to use online, but also to download and "embed" in other websites (HTML5); the source code is also freely available (MMAP). For editing the source code you need Corel's Mindmanager 21 software (not free). Background The 2030 Agenda of the United Nations consists of 17 Sustainable Development Goals, subdivided into 169 targets. All things considered, that's a large amount of text that students can easily "drown" in and lose track of. In order to avoid having to provide the participants with a handout of roughly 20 pages for all kinds of workshops and learning activities, the texts are packaged in a collapsible mind map that is available online. The first and English edition of the interactive mind map was made for and by the Working Group Fab Labs and Sustainable Development Goals. The interactive mind map is used as a compact reference work during local workshops on aligning Fab Labs with the SDGs. For workshop materials including the facilitators manual, see http://bit.ly/fab14-sdgs-kit. Functions Don't worry about small print or blurry text; the interactive mind map is razor-sharp and you can zoom out up to 400%. - Portal - The interactive mind map initially only shows the 17 goals. If you click on a target, you will see an editorial explanation. You can also link to the relevant page of the UN website. - Zoom - You can also zoom in on one or more goals. Click on the branch to the right of a target and the underlying targets will appear. Click again and the targets disappear from view again. - Search - You can also freely search for text. Click on "Search" at the bottom left, type your search term (or part of it) and you will immediately see how often and where it appears in the goals and targets. Try eg "disaster". - Connect - The interactive mind map uses the official translations of the United Nations. The numbering of goals and targets is the same in every language. Therefore always use these number codes when communicating with colleagues in other language areas. - And more - For other possibilities of the interactive mind map, see Menu / Help: "Work with HTML5 maps". Credits - The source of all information displayed is https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/; (c) United Nations - [en][nl][sp][fr] UN Sustainable Development Goals and Targets (Interactive Mindmap); Pieter van der Hijden; Working Group "Fab Labs and SDGs"; Pieter van der Hijden, Enrico Bassi, Nagwa Elnwishy, Ted Hung, Beno Juarez, Noksy Letsoalo, Vaneza Caycho Ñuflo, Neville Govender, Yogesh Kulkarni, Wendy Neale; https://bit.ly/fab-sdgs-en (English) and -nl, -sp, -fr (Dutch, Spanish, French) - Creative Commons Attribute License (CC-AT) Fab Labs & SDGs Working Group (Pieter van der Hijden, pvdh@sofos.nl) et al.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:18.539406	Criminal Justice	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79021/overview", "title": "UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) - Interactive Mind Map", "author": "Career and Technical Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89928/overview	colombia Una Artista en Familia Video - Una artista en Familia Worksheet en parejas Una Artista en Familia - listening Overview This is.a listening (audio and visual) task utilizing both individual and group work to construct meaning in the target language (Spanish) and to be able to communicate that meaning withing small and large group contexts. Students will watch a video in Spanish, then talk about what they understood, first in pairs and then as a class. Included in the lesson are the necessary resources as well as an assessment rubric, should the teacher choose to use one. Listening Manuela is a little girl who moved to Kentucky from Colombia, the home country of her grandmother, Miriam Llamas. Miriam is a painter. During a visit to Kentucky, she showed Manuela some of her paintings and taught her some of the songs and dances of Columbia. Listen to the video clip, Una Artista en Familia, individually. After listening to the video, discuss with a partner these two questions: 1) What were some of the things Manuela learns from her abuela? (Identify at least 2) 2) What can we learn about the culture of Colombia through the interactions between Manuela and her abuela? (Think of at least 3) Worksheet en parejas Learning Goals of this activity Students will practice listening comprehension as the listen to and watch video in the target language. Students will construct meaning through both audio and visual cues. Students will share ideas in small and larger group settings about what they learned through the video in the target langugage. To extend learning in a future lesson, students will practice use of the target language as they create collages about the art and culture of Colombia. Now, listen to the video again, together with your partner, pausing where necessary, to answer the questions on the attached worksheet. At the end of class, we will share some of our ideas together as a class. Be ready! Tomorrow, be ready for some artistic fun of our own! We will be making collages about the culture of Colombia in class. Assessment See the attached assessment to know what is expected during this task.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:18.563357	Heather Walker	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89928/overview", "title": "Una Artista en Familia - listening", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105945/overview	In the Dark (MS) - A Curricular Framework Overview In the Dark is a Middle School curricular program framework created by EarthGen. For this unit, we offer professional development training and assistance with implementation. If you are interested in implementing this program at your school or district, please let us know! Please contact info@earthgenwa.org for more information. Overview In the Dark is a curricular program designed to support students in middle school as they explore their relationship to energy - what energy is, where it comes from, how we engage with it, and the consequences of our energy use. Students will grapple with the dynamics between population growth, per-capita consumption, and the growing impacts on Earth’s systems. In the Dark will support students in visioning a pathway for them to pursue careers that challenge the energy systems that cause harm and explore new technologies that aid in healthier interactions with the environment and those that live within them. Learning Goals Next Generation Science Standards The learning goals of In The Dark are closely informed by the Performance Expectations described in the Next Generation Science Standards, which guide the scientific concepts and practices that we focus on in the unit. In The Dark addresses the following standards: MS-ESS3-4 Earth and Human Activity Construct an argument supported by evidence for how increases in human population and per-capita consumption of natural resources impact Earth's systems. MS-ESS3-3 Earth and Human Activity Apply scientific principles to design a method for monitoring and minimizing a human impact on the environment. MS-ESS3-5 Earth and Human Activity Ask questions to clarify evidence of the factors that have caused the rise in global temperatures over the past century. Students will primarily address the first Performance Expectation (MS-ESS3-4) by engaging in argument from evidence as they act as advocates for community stakeholders impacted by the potential installation of a new energy storage facility, tackling assumptions that an increase in population necessitates an increase in per-capita consumption of natural resources, which leads to inevitable negative impacts on Earth’s systems, including Indigenous communities. Science Social Focus Framework After unpacking the complex relationship between population growth, per-capita consumption of natural resources, and the impacts on communities human and nonhuman, how should our community's energy use change to protect the environment, our health, and our futures? To explore this complex topic, In the Dark supports students to engage with social and cultural dimensions that are often not included within Western scientific knowledge. An additional framework that informed the creation of this unit is the Science Social Focus Framework designed by Anastasia Sanchez. This learning experience aims to move toward the following three learning goals that correspond to the three interconnected concepts in this Framework: Science Social Focus Concept \| Learning Goal Within In The Dark \| Critical consciousness: Promoting awareness of others and society to apply appropriate empathy or critique through the lens of environmental justice. \| \| Consequential concern: Grappling with matters of future well-being and ecological caring as students make connections between science content and the consequential concerns facing society. \| \| Critical and liberatory presence: Restorative justice-oriented representation that names the intersectional injustices faced by racially and socioeconomically marginalized communities — as well as their resistance, leadership, and flourishing. \| \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:36:18.594445	06/27/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105945/overview", "title": "In the Dark (MS) - A Curricular Framework", "author": "EarthGen Washington" }

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