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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15132/overview	Introduction The muscular and skeletal systems provide support to the body and allow for a wide range of movement. The bones of the skeletal system protect the body’s internal organs and support the weight of the body. The muscles of the muscular system contract and pull on the bones, allowing for movements as diverse as standing, walking, running, and grasping items. Injury or disease affecting the musculoskeletal system can be very debilitating. In humans, the most common musculoskeletal diseases worldwide are caused by malnutrition. Ailments that affect the joints are also widespread, such as arthritis, which can make movement difficult and—in advanced cases—completely impair mobility. In severe cases in which the joint has suffered extensive damage, joint replacement surgery may be needed. Progress in the science of prosthesis design has resulted in the development of artificial joints, with joint replacement surgery in the hips and knees being the most common. Replacement joints for shoulders, elbows, and fingers are also available. Even with this progress, there is still room for improvement in the design of prostheses. The state-of-the-art prostheses have limited durability and therefore wear out quickly, particularly in young or active individuals. Current research is focused on the use of new materials, such as carbon fiber, that may make prostheses more durable.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:17.628677	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15132/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15133/overview	Types of Skeletal Systems Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the different types of skeletal systems - Explain the role of the human skeletal system - Compare and contrast different skeletal systems A skeletal system is necessary to support the body, protect internal organs, and allow for the movement of an organism. There are three different skeleton designs that fulfill these functions: hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton, and endoskeleton. Hydrostatic Skeleton A hydrostatic skeleton is a skeleton formed by a fluid-filled compartment within the body, called the coelom. The organs of the coelom are supported by the aqueous fluid, which also resists external compression. This compartment is under hydrostatic pressure because of the fluid and supports the other organs of the organism. This type of skeletal system is found in soft-bodied animals such as sea anemones, earthworms, Cnidaria, and other invertebrates (Figure). Movement in a hydrostatic skeleton is provided by muscles that surround the coelom. The muscles in a hydrostatic skeleton contract to change the shape of the coelom; the pressure of the fluid in the coelom produces movement. For example, earthworms move by waves of muscular contractions of the skeletal muscle of the body wall hydrostatic skeleton, called peristalsis, which alternately shorten and lengthen the body. Lengthening the body extends the anterior end of the organism. Most organisms have a mechanism to fix themselves in the substrate. Shortening the muscles then draws the posterior portion of the body forward. Although a hydrostatic skeleton is well-suited to invertebrate organisms such as earthworms and some aquatic organisms, it is not an efficient skeleton for terrestrial animals. Exoskeleton An exoskeleton is an external skeleton that consists of a hard encasement on the surface of an organism. For example, the shells of crabs and insects are exoskeletons (Figure). This skeleton type provides defence against predators, supports the body, and allows for movement through the contraction of attached muscles. As with vertebrates, muscles must cross a joint inside the exoskeleton. Shortening of the muscle changes the relationship of the two segments of the exoskeleton. Arthropods such as crabs and lobsters have exoskeletons that consist of 30–50 percent chitin, a polysaccharide derivative of glucose that is a strong but flexible material. Chitin is secreted by the epidermal cells. The exoskeleton is further strengthened by the addition of calcium carbonate in organisms such as the lobster. Because the exoskeleton is acellular, arthropods must periodically shed their exoskeletons because the exoskeleton does not grow as the organism grows. Endoskeleton An endoskeleton is a skeleton that consists of hard, mineralized structures located within the soft tissue of organisms. An example of a primitive endoskeletal structure is the spicules of sponges. The bones of vertebrates are composed of tissues, whereas sponges have no true tissues (Figure). Endoskeletons provide support for the body, protect internal organs, and allow for movement through contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton. The human skeleton is an endoskeleton that consists of 206 bones in the adult. It has five main functions: providing support to the body, storing minerals and lipids, producing blood cells, protecting internal organs, and allowing for movement. The skeletal system in vertebrates is divided into the axial skeleton (which consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage), and the appendicular skeleton (which consists of the shoulders, limb bones, the pectoral girdle, and the pelvic girdle). Link to Learning Visit the interactive body site to build a virtual skeleton: select "skeleton" and click through the activity to place each bone. Human Axial Skeleton The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and includes the bones of the skull, ossicles of the middle ear, hyoid bone of the throat, vertebral column, and the thoracic cage (ribcage) (Figure). The function of the axial skeleton is to provide support and protection for the brain, the spinal cord, and the organs in the ventral body cavity. It provides a surface for the attachment of muscles that move the head, neck, and trunk, performs respiratory movements, and stabilizes parts of the appendicular skeleton. The Skull The bones of the skull support the structures of the face and protect the brain. The skull consists of 22 bones, which are divided into two categories: cranial bones and facial bones. The cranial bones are eight bones that form the cranial cavity, which encloses the brain and serves as an attachment site for the muscles of the head and neck. The eight cranial bones are the frontal bone, two parietal bones, two temporal bones, occipital bone, sphenoid bone, and the ethmoid bone. Although the bones developed separately in the embryo and fetus, in the adult, they are tightly fused with connective tissue and adjoining bones do not move (Figure). The auditory ossicles of the middle ear transmit sounds from the air as vibrations to the fluid-filled cochlea. The auditory ossicles consist of three bones each: the malleus, incus, and stapes. These are the smallest bones in the body and are unique to mammals. Fourteen facial bones form the face, provide cavities for the sense organs (eyes, mouth, and nose), protect the entrances to the digestive and respiratory tracts, and serve as attachment points for facial muscles. The 14 facial bones are the nasal bones, the maxillary bones, zygomatic bones, palatine, vomer, lacrimal bones, the inferior nasal conchae, and the mandible. All of these bones occur in pairs except for the mandible and the vomer (Figure). Although it is not found in the skull, the hyoid bone is considered a component of the axial skeleton. The hyoid bone lies below the mandible in the front of the neck. It acts as a movable base for the tongue and is connected to muscles of the jaw, larynx, and tongue. The mandible articulates with the base of the skull. The mandible controls the opening to the airway and gut. In animals with teeth, the mandible brings the surfaces of the teeth in contact with the maxillary teeth. The Vertebral Column The vertebral column, or spinal column, surrounds and protects the spinal cord, supports the head, and acts as an attachment point for the ribs and muscles of the back and neck. The adult vertebral column comprises 26 bones: the 24 vertebrae, the sacrum, and the coccyx bones. In the adult, the sacrum is typically composed of five vertebrae that fuse into one. The coccyx is typically 3–4 vertebrae that fuse into one. Around the age of 70, the sacrum and the coccyx may fuse together. We begin life with approximately 33 vertebrae, but as we grow, several vertebrae fuse together. The adult vertebrae are further divided into the 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, and 5 lumbar vertebrae (Figure). Each vertebral body has a large hole in the center through which the nerves of the spinal cord pass. There is also a notch on each side through which the spinal nerves, which serve the body at that level, can exit from the spinal cord. The vertebral column is approximately 71 cm (28 inches) in adult male humans and is curved, which can be seen from a side view. The names of the spinal curves correspond to the region of the spine in which they occur. The thoracic and sacral curves are concave (curve inwards relative to the front of the body) and the cervical and lumbar curves are convex (curve outwards relative to the front of the body). The arched curvature of the vertebral column increases its strength and flexibility, allowing it to absorb shocks like a spring (Figure). Intervertebral discs composed of fibrous cartilage lie between adjacent vertebral bodies from the second cervical vertebra to the sacrum. Each disc is part of a joint that allows for some movement of the spine and acts as a cushion to absorb shocks from movements such as walking and running. Intervertebral discs also act as ligaments to bind vertebrae together. The inner part of discs, the nucleus pulposus, hardens as people age and becomes less elastic. This loss of elasticity diminishes its ability to absorb shocks. The Thoracic Cage The thoracic cage, also known as the ribcage, is the skeleton of the chest, and consists of the ribs, sternum, thoracic vertebrae, and costal cartilages (Figure). The thoracic cage encloses and protects the organs of the thoracic cavity, including the heart and lungs. It also provides support for the shoulder girdles and upper limbs, and serves as the attachment point for the diaphragm, muscles of the back, chest, neck, and shoulders. Changes in the volume of the thorax enable breathing. The sternum, or breastbone, is a long, flat bone located at the anterior of the chest. It is formed from three bones that fuse in the adult. The ribs are 12 pairs of long, curved bones that attach to the thoracic vertebrae and curve toward the front of the body, forming the ribcage. Costal cartilages connect the anterior ends of the ribs to the sternum, with the exception of rib pairs 11 and 12, which are free-floating ribs. Human Appendicular Skeleton The appendicular skeleton is composed of the bones of the upper limbs (which function to grasp and manipulate objects) and the lower limbs (which permit locomotion). It also includes the pectoral girdle, or shoulder girdle, that attaches the upper limbs to the body, and the pelvic girdle that attaches the lower limbs to the body (Figure). The Pectoral Girdle The pectoral girdle bones provide the points of attachment of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton. The human pectoral girdle consists of the clavicle (or collarbone) in the anterior, and the scapula (or shoulder blades) in the posterior (Figure). The clavicles are S-shaped bones that position the arms on the body. The clavicles lie horizontally across the front of the thorax (chest) just above the first rib. These bones are fairly fragile and are susceptible to fractures. For example, a fall with the arms outstretched causes the force to be transmitted to the clavicles, which can break if the force is excessive. The clavicle articulates with the sternum and the scapula. The scapulae are flat, triangular bones that are located at the back of the pectoral girdle. They support the muscles crossing the shoulder joint. A ridge, called the spine, runs across the back of the scapula and can easily be felt through the skin (Figure). The spine of the scapula is a good example of a bony protrusion that facilitates a broad area of attachment for muscles to bone. The Upper Limb The upper limb contains 30 bones in three regions: the arm (shoulder to elbow), the forearm (ulna and radius), and the wrist and hand (Figure). An articulation is any place at which two bones are joined. The humerus is the largest and longest bone of the upper limb and the only bone of the arm. It articulates with the scapula at the shoulder and with the forearm at the elbow. The forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist and consists of two bones: the ulna and the radius. The radius is located along the lateral (thumb) side of the forearm and articulates with the humerus at the elbow. The ulna is located on the medial aspect (pinky-finger side) of the forearm. It is longer than the radius. The ulna articulates with the humerus at the elbow. The radius and ulna also articulate with the carpal bones and with each other, which in vertebrates enables a variable degree of rotation of the carpus with respect to the long axis of the limb. The hand includes the eight bones of the carpus (wrist), the five bones of the metacarpus (palm), and the 14 bones of the phalanges (digits). Each digit consists of three phalanges, except for the thumb, when present, which has only two. The Pelvic Girdle The pelvic girdle attaches to the lower limbs of the axial skeleton. Because it is responsible for bearing the weight of the body and for locomotion, the pelvic girdle is securely attached to the axial skeleton by strong ligaments. It also has deep sockets with robust ligaments to securely attach the femur to the body. The pelvic girdle is further strengthened by two large hip bones. In adults, the hip bones, or coxal bones, are formed by the fusion of three pairs of bones: the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The pelvis joins together in the anterior of the body at a joint called the pubic symphysis and with the bones of the sacrum at the posterior of the body. The female pelvis is slightly different from the male pelvis. Over generations of evolution, females with a wider pubic angle and larger diameter pelvic canal reproduced more successfully. Therefore, their offspring also had pelvic anatomy that enabled successful childbirth (Figure). The Lower Limb The lower limb consists of the thigh, the leg, and the foot. The bones of the lower limb are the femur (thigh bone), patella (kneecap), tibia and fibula (bones of the leg), tarsals (bones of the ankle), and metatarsals and phalanges (bones of the foot) (Figure). The bones of the lower limbs are thicker and stronger than the bones of the upper limbs because of the need to support the entire weight of the body and the resulting forces from locomotion. In addition to evolutionary fitness, the bones of an individual will respond to forces exerted upon them. The femur, or thighbone, is the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the body. The femur and pelvis form the hip joint at the proximal end. At the distal end, the femur, tibia, and patella form the knee joint. The patella, or kneecap, is a triangular bone that lies anterior to the knee joint. The patella is embedded in the tendon of the femoral extensors (quadriceps). It improves knee extension by reducing friction. The tibia, or shinbone, is a large bone of the leg that is located directly below the knee. The tibia articulates with the femur at its proximal end, with the fibula and the tarsal bones at its distal end. It is the second largest bone in the human body and is responsible for transmitting the weight of the body from the femur to the foot. The fibula, or calf bone, parallels and articulates with the tibia. It does not articulate with the femur and does not bear weight. The fibula acts as a site for muscle attachment and forms the lateral part of the ankle joint. The tarsals are the seven bones of the ankle. The ankle transmits the weight of the body from the tibia and the fibula to the foot. The metatarsals are the five bones of the foot. The phalanges are the 14 bones of the toes. Each toe consists of three phalanges, except for the big toe that has only two (Figure). Variations exist in other species; for example, the horse’s metacarpals and metatarsals are oriented vertically and do not make contact with the substrate. Evolution Connection Evolution of Body Design for Locomotion on Land The transition of vertebrates onto land required a number of changes in body design, as movement on land presents a number of challenges for animals that are adapted to movement in water. The buoyancy of water provides a certain amount of lift, and a common form of movement by fish is lateral undulations of the entire body. This back and forth movement pushes the body against the water, creating forward movement. In most fish, the muscles of paired fins attach to girdles within the body, allowing for some control of locomotion. As certain fish began moving onto land, they retained their lateral undulation form of locomotion (anguilliform). However, instead of pushing against water, their fins or flippers became points of contact with the ground, around which they rotated their bodies. The effect of gravity and the lack of buoyancy on land meant that body weight was suspended on the limbs, leading to increased strengthening and ossification of the limbs. The effect of gravity also required changes to the axial skeleton. Lateral undulations of land animal vertebral columns cause torsional strain. A firmer, more ossified vertebral column became common in terrestrial tetrapods because it reduces strain while providing the strength needed to support the body’s weight. In later tetrapods, the vertebrae began allowing for vertical motion rather than lateral flexion. Another change in the axial skeleton was the loss of a direct attachment between the pectoral girdle and the head. This reduced the jarring to the head caused by the impact of the limbs on the ground. The vertebrae of the neck also evolved to allow movement of the head independently of the body. The appendicular skeleton of land animals is also different from aquatic animals. The shoulders attach to the pectoral girdle through muscles and connective tissue, thus reducing the jarring of the skull. Because of a lateral undulating vertebral column, in early tetrapods, the limbs were splayed out to the side and movement occurred by performing “push-ups.” The vertebrae of these animals had to move side-to-side in a similar manner to fish and reptiles. This type of motion requires large muscles to move the limbs toward the midline; it was almost like walking while doing push-ups, and it is not an efficient use of energy. Later tetrapods have their limbs placed under their bodies, so that each stride requires less force to move forward. This resulted in decreased adductor muscle size and an increased range of motion of the scapulae. This also restricts movement primarily to one plane, creating forward motion rather than moving the limbs upward as well as forward. The femur and humerus were also rotated, so that the ends of the limbs and digits were pointed forward, in the direction of motion, rather than out to the side. By placement underneath the body, limbs can swing forward like a pendulum to produce a stride that is more efficient for moving over land. Section Summary The three types of skeleton designs are hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons, and endoskeletons. A hydrostatic skeleton is formed by a fluid-filled compartment held under hydrostatic pressure; movement is created by the muscles producing pressure on the fluid. An exoskeleton is a hard external skeleton that protects the outer surface of an organism and enables movement through muscles attached on the inside. An endoskeleton is an internal skeleton composed of hard, mineralized tissue that also enables movement by attachment to muscles. The human skeleton is an endoskeleton that is composed of the axial and appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is composed of the bones of the skull, ossicles of the ear, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and ribcage. The skull consists of eight cranial bones and 14 facial bones. Six bones make up the ossicles of the middle ear, while the hyoid bone is located in the neck under the mandible. The vertebral column contains 26 bones, and it surrounds and protects the spinal cord. The thoracic cage consists of the sternum, ribs, thoracic vertebrae, and costal cartilages. The appendicular skeleton is made up of the limbs of the upper and lower limbs. The pectoral girdle is composed of the clavicles and the scapulae. The upper limb contains 30 bones in the arm, the forearm, and the hand. The pelvic girdle attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. The lower limb includes the bones of the thigh, the leg, and the foot. Review Questions The forearm consists of the: - radius and ulna - radius and humerus - ulna and humerus - humerus and carpus Hint: A The pectoral girdle consists of the: - clavicle and sternum - sternum and scapula - clavicle and scapula - clavicle and coccyx Hint: C All of the following are groups of vertebrae except ________, which is a curvature. - thoracic - cervical - lumbar - pelvic Hint: D Which of these is a facial bone? - frontal - occipital - lacrimal - temporal Hint: C Free Response What are the major differences between the male pelvis and female pelvis that permit childbirth in females? Hint: The female pelvis is tilted forward and is wider, lighter, and shallower than the male pelvis. It is also has a pubic angle that is broader than the male pelvis. What are the major differences between the pelvic girdle and the pectoral girdle that allow the pelvic girdle to bear the weight of the body? Hint: The pelvic girdle is securely attached to the body by strong ligaments, unlike the pectoral girdle, which is sparingly attached to the ribcage. The sockets of the pelvic girdle are deep, allowing the femur to be more stable than the pectoral girdle, which has shallow sockets for the scapula. Most tetrapods have 75 percent of their weight on the front legs because the head and neck are so heavy; the advantage of the shoulder joint is more degrees of freedom in movement.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:17.666970	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15133/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15134/overview	Bone Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Classify the different types of bones in the skeleton - Explain the role of the different cell types in bone - Explain how bone forms during development Bone, or osseous tissue, is a connective tissue that constitutes the endoskeleton. It contains specialized cells and a matrix of mineral salts and collagen fibers. The mineral salts primarily include hydroxyapatite, a mineral formed from calcium phosphate. Calcification is the process of deposition of mineral salts on the collagen fiber matrix that crystallizes and hardens the tissue. The process of calcification only occurs in the presence of collagen fibers. The bones of the human skeleton are classified by their shape: long bones, short bones, flat bones, sutural bones, sesamoid bones, and irregular bones (Figure). Long bones are longer than they are wide and have a shaft and two ends. The diaphysis, or central shaft, contains bone marrow in a marrow cavity. The rounded ends, the epiphyses, are covered with articular cartilage and are filled with red bone marrow, which produces blood cells (Figure). Most of the limb bones are long bones—for example, the femur, tibia, ulna, and radius. Exceptions to this include the patella and the bones of the wrist and ankle. Short bones, or cuboidal bones, are bones that are the same width and length, giving them a cube-like shape. For example, the bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals) are short bones (Figure). Flat bones are thin and relatively broad bones that are found where extensive protection of organs is required or where broad surfaces of muscle attachment are required. Examples of flat bones are the sternum (breast bone), ribs, scapulae (shoulder blades), and the roof of the skull (Figure). Irregular bones are bones with complex shapes. These bones may have short, flat, notched, or ridged surfaces. Examples of irregular bones are the vertebrae, hip bones, and several skull bones. Sesamoid bones are small, flat bones and are shaped similarly to a sesame seed. The patellae are sesamoid bones (Figure). Sesamoid bones develop inside tendons and may be found near joints at the knees, hands, and feet. Sutural bones are small, flat, irregularly shaped bones. They may be found between the flat bones of the skull. They vary in number, shape, size, and position. Bone Tissue Bones are considered organs because they contain various types of tissue, such as blood, connective tissue, nerves, and bone tissue. Osteocytes, the living cells of bone tissue, form the mineral matrix of bones. There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. Compact Bone Tissue Compact bone (or cortical bone) forms the hard external layer of all bones and surrounds the medullary cavity, or bone marrow. It provides protection and strength to bones. Compact bone tissue consists of units called osteons or Haversian systems. Osteons are cylindrical structures that contain a mineral matrix and living osteocytes connected by canaliculi, which transport blood. They are aligned parallel to the long axis of the bone. Each osteon consists of lamellae, which are layers of compact matrix that surround a central canal called the Haversian canal. The Haversian canal (osteonic canal) contains the bone’s blood vessels and nerve fibers (Figure). Osteons in compact bone tissue are aligned in the same direction along lines of stress and help the bone resist bending or fracturing. Therefore, compact bone tissue is prominent in areas of bone at which stresses are applied in only a few directions. Art Connection Which of the following statements about bone tissue is false? - Compact bone tissue is made of cylindrical osteons that are aligned such that they travel the length of the bone. - Haversian canals contain blood vessels only. - Haversian canals contain blood vessels and nerve fibers. - Spongy tissue is found on the interior of the bone, and compact bone tissue is found on the exterior. Spongy Bone Tissue Whereas compact bone tissue forms the outer layer of all bones, spongy bone or cancellous bone forms the inner layer of all bones. Spongy bone tissue does not contain osteons that constitute compact bone tissue. Instead, it consists of trabeculae, which are lamellae that are arranged as rods or plates. Red bone marrow is found between the trabuculae. Blood vessels within this tissue deliver nutrients to osteocytes and remove waste. The red bone marrow of the femur and the interior of other large bones, such as the ileum, forms blood cells. Spongy bone reduces the density of bone and allows the ends of long bones to compress as the result of stresses applied to the bone. Spongy bone is prominent in areas of bones that are not heavily stressed or where stresses arrive from many directions. The epiphyses of bones, such as the neck of the femur, are subject to stress from many directions. Imagine laying a heavy framed picture flat on the floor. You could hold up one side of the picture with a toothpick if the toothpick was perpendicular to the floor and the picture. Now drill a hole and stick the toothpick into the wall to hang up the picture. In this case, the function of the toothpick is to transmit the downward pressure of the picture to the wall. The force on the picture is straight down to the floor, but the force on the toothpick is both the picture wire pulling down and the bottom of the hole in the wall pushing up. The toothpick will break off right at the wall. The neck of the femur is horizontal like the toothpick in the wall. The weight of the body pushes it down near the joint, but the vertical diaphysis of the femur pushes it up at the other end. The neck of the femur must be strong enough to transfer the downward force of the body weight horizontally to the vertical shaft of the femur (Figure). Link to Learning View micrographs of musculoskeletal tissues as you review the anatomy. Cell Types in Bones Bone consists of four types of cells: osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteocytes, and osteoprogenitor cells. Osteoblasts are bone cells that are responsible for bone formation. Osteoblasts synthesize and secrete the organic part and inorganic part of the extracellular matrix of bone tissue, and collagen fibers. Osteoblasts become trapped in these secretions and differentiate into less active osteocytes. Osteoclasts are large bone cells with up to 50 nuclei. They remove bone structure by releasing lysosomal enzymes and acids that dissolve the bony matrix. These minerals, released from bones into the blood, help regulate calcium concentrations in body fluids. Bone may also be resorbed for remodeling, if the applied stresses have changed. Osteocytes are mature bone cells and are the main cells in bony connective tissue; these cells cannot divide. Osteocytes maintain normal bone structure by recycling the mineral salts in the bony matrix. Osteoprogenitor cells are squamous stem cells that divide to produce daughter cells that differentiate into osteoblasts. Osteoprogenitor cells are important in the repair of fractures. Development of Bone Ossification, or osteogenesis, is the process of bone formation by osteoblasts. Ossification is distinct from the process of calcification; whereas calcification takes place during the ossification of bones, it can also occur in other tissues. Ossification begins approximately six weeks after fertilization in an embryo. Before this time, the embryonic skeleton consists entirely of fibrous membranes and hyaline cartilage. The development of bone from fibrous membranes is called intramembranous ossification; development from hyaline cartilage is called endochondral ossification. Bone growth continues until approximately age 25. Bones can grow in thickness throughout life, but after age 25, ossification functions primarily in bone remodeling and repair. Intramembranous Ossification Intramembranous ossification is the process of bone development from fibrous membranes. It is involved in the formation of the flat bones of the skull, the mandible, and the clavicles. Ossification begins as mesenchymal cells form a template of the future bone. They then differentiate into osteoblasts at the ossification center. Osteoblasts secrete the extracellular matrix and deposit calcium, which hardens the matrix. The non-mineralized portion of the bone or osteoid continues to form around blood vessels, forming spongy bone. Connective tissue in the matrix differentiates into red bone marrow in the fetus. The spongy bone is remodeled into a thin layer of compact bone on the surface of the spongy bone. Endochondral Ossification Endochondral ossification is the process of bone development from hyaline cartilage. All of the bones of the body, except for the flat bones of the skull, mandible, and clavicles, are formed through endochondral ossification. In long bones, chondrocytes form a template of the hyaline cartilage diaphysis. Responding to complex developmental signals, the matrix begins to calcify. This calcification prevents diffusion of nutrients into the matrix, resulting in chondrocytes dying and the opening up of cavities in the diaphysis cartilage. Blood vessels invade the cavities, and osteoblasts and osteoclasts modify the calcified cartilage matrix into spongy bone. Osteoclasts then break down some of the spongy bone to create a marrow, or medullary, cavity in the center of the diaphysis. Dense, irregular connective tissue forms a sheath (periosteum) around the bones. The periosteum assists in attaching the bone to surrounding tissues, tendons, and ligaments. The bone continues to grow and elongate as the cartilage cells at the epiphyses divide. In the last stage of prenatal bone development, the centers of the epiphyses begin to calcify. Secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses as blood vessels and osteoblasts enter these areas and convert hyaline cartilage into spongy bone. Until adolescence, hyaline cartilage persists at the epiphyseal plate (growth plate), which is the region between the diaphysis and epiphysis that is responsible for the lengthwise growth of long bones (Figure). Growth of Bone Long bones continue to lengthen, potentially until adolescence, through the addition of bone tissue at the epiphyseal plate. They also increase in width through appositional growth. Lengthening of Long Bones Chondrocytes on the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate divide; one cell remains undifferentiated near the epiphysis, and one cell moves toward the diaphysis. The cells, which are pushed from the epiphysis, mature and are destroyed by calcification. This process replaces cartilage with bone on the diaphyseal side of the plate, resulting in a lengthening of the bone. Long bones stop growing at around the age of 18 in females and the age of 21 in males in a process called epiphyseal plate closure. During this process, cartilage cells stop dividing and all of the cartilage is replaced by bone. The epiphyseal plate fades, leaving a structure called the epiphyseal line or epiphyseal remnant, and the epiphysis and diaphysis fuse. Thickening of Long Bones Appositional growth is the increase in the diameter of bones by the addition of bony tissue at the surface of bones. Osteoblasts at the bone surface secrete bone matrix, and osteoclasts on the inner surface break down bone. The osteoblasts differentiate into osteocytes. A balance between these two processes allows the bone to thicken without becoming too heavy. Bone Remodeling and Repair Bone renewal continues after birth into adulthood. Bone remodeling is the replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue. It involves the processes of bone deposition by osteoblasts and bone resorption by osteoclasts. Normal bone growth requires vitamins D, C, and A, plus minerals such as calcium, phosphorous, and magnesium. Hormones such as parathyroid hormone, growth hormone, and calcitonin are also required for proper bone growth and maintenance. Bone turnover rates are quite high, with five to seven percent of bone mass being recycled every week. Differences in turnover rate exist in different areas of the skeleton and in different areas of a bone. For example, the bone in the head of the femur may be fully replaced every six months, whereas the bone along the shaft is altered much more slowly. Bone remodeling allows bones to adapt to stresses by becoming thicker and stronger when subjected to stress. Bones that are not subject to normal stress, for example when a limb is in a cast, will begin to lose mass. A fractured or broken bone undergoes repair through four stages: - Blood vessels in the broken bone tear and hemorrhage, resulting in the formation of clotted blood, or a hematoma, at the site of the break. The severed blood vessels at the broken ends of the bone are sealed by the clotting process, and bone cells that are deprived of nutrients begin to die. - Within days of the fracture, capillaries grow into the hematoma, and phagocytic cells begin to clear away the dead cells. Though fragments of the blood clot may remain, fibroblasts and osteoblasts enter the area and begin to reform bone. Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that connect the broken bone ends, and osteoblasts start to form spongy bone. The repair tissue between the broken bone ends is called the fibrocartilaginous callus, as it is composed of both hyaline and fibrocartilage (Figure). Some bone spicules may also appear at this point. - The fibrocartilaginous callus is converted into a bony callus of spongy bone. It takes about two months for the broken bone ends to be firmly joined together after the fracture. This is similar to the endochondral formation of bone, as cartilage becomes ossified; osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and bone matrix are present. - The bony callus is then remodelled by osteoclasts and osteoblasts, with excess material on the exterior of the bone and within the medullary cavity being removed. Compact bone is added to create bone tissue that is similar to the original, unbroken bone. This remodeling can take many months, and the bone may remain uneven for years. Scientific Method Connection Decalcification of Bones Question: What effect does the removal of calcium and collagen have on bone structure? Background: Conduct a literature search on the role of calcium and collagen in maintaining bone structure. Conduct a literature search on diseases in which bone structure is compromised. Hypothesis: Develop a hypothesis that states predictions of the flexibility, strength, and mass of bones that have had the calcium and collagen components removed. Develop a hypothesis regarding the attempt to add calcium back to decalcified bones. Test the hypothesis: Test the prediction by removing calcium from chicken bones by placing them in a jar of vinegar for seven days. Test the hypothesis regarding adding calcium back to decalcified bone by placing the decalcified chicken bones into a jar of water with calcium supplements added. Test the prediction by denaturing the collagen from the bones by baking them at 250°C for three hours. Analyze the data: Create a table showing the changes in bone flexibility, strength, and mass in the three different environments. Report the results: Under which conditions was the bone most flexible? Under which conditions was the bone the strongest? Draw a conclusion: Did the results support or refute the hypothesis? How do the results observed in this experiment correspond to diseases that destroy bone tissue? Section Summary Bone, or osseous tissue, is connective tissue that includes specialized cells, mineral salts, and collagen fibers. The human skeleton can be divided into long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. Compact bone tissue is composed of osteons and forms the external layer of all bones. Spongy bone tissue is composed of trabeculae and forms the inner part of all bones. Four types of cells compose bony tissue: osteocytes, osteoclasts, osteoprogenitor cells, and osteoblasts. Ossification is the process of bone formation by osteoblasts. Intramembranous ossification is the process of bone development from fibrous membranes. Endochondral ossification is the process of bone development from hyaline cartilage. Long bones lengthen as chondrocytes divide and secrete hyaline cartilage. Osteoblasts replace cartilage with bone. Appositional growth is the increase in the diameter of bones by the addition of bone tissue at the surface of bones. Bone remodeling involves the processes of bone deposition by osteoblasts and bone resorption by osteoclasts. Bone repair occurs in four stages and can take several months. Art Exercise FigureWhich of the following statements about bone tissue is false? - Compact bone tissue is made of cylindrical osteons that are aligned such that they travel the length of the bone. - Haversian canals contain blood vessels only. - Haversian canals contain blood vessels and nerve fibers. - Spongy tissue is found on the interior of the bone, and compact bone tissue is found on the exterior. Hint: Review Questions The Haversian canal: - is arranged as rods or plates - contains the bone’s blood vessels and nerve fibers - is responsible for the lengthwise growth of long bones - synthesizes and secretes matrix Hint: B The epiphyseal plate: - is arranged as rods or plates - contains the bone’s blood vessels and nerve fibers - is responsible for the lengthwise growth of long bones - synthesizes and secretes bone matrix Hint: C The cells responsible for bone resorption are ________. - osteoclasts - osteoblasts - fibroblasts - osteocytes Hint: A Compact bone is composed of ________. - trabeculae - compacted collagen - osteons - calcium phosphate only Hint: C Free Response What are the major differences between spongy bone and compact bone? Hint: Compact bone tissue forms the hard external layer of all bones and consists of osteons. Compact bone tissue is prominent in areas of bone at which stresses are applied in only a few directions. Spongy bone tissue forms the inner layer of all bones and consists of trabeculae. Spongy bone is prominent in areas of bones that are not heavily stressed or at which stresses arrive from many directions. What are the roles of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts? Hint: Osteocytes function in the exchange of nutrients and wastes with the blood. They also maintain normal bone structure by recycling the mineral salts in the bony matrix. Osteoclasts remove bone tissue by releasing lysosomal enzymes and acids that dissolve the bony matrix. Osteoblasts are bone cells that are responsible for bone formation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:17.705028	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15134/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15135/overview	Joints and Skeletal Movement Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Classify the different types of joints on the basis of structure - Explain the role of joints in skeletal movement The point at which two or more bones meet is called a joint, or articulation. Joints are responsible for movement, such as the movement of limbs, and stability, such as the stability found in the bones of the skull. Classification of Joints on the Basis of Structure There are two ways to classify joints: on the basis of their structure or on the basis of their function. The structural classification divides joints into bony, fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints depending on the material composing the joint and the presence or absence of a cavity in the joint. Fibrous Joints The bones of fibrous joints are held together by fibrous connective tissue. There is no cavity, or space, present between the bones and so most fibrous joints do not move at all, or are only capable of minor movements. There are three types of fibrous joints: sutures, syndesmoses, and gomphoses. Sutures are found only in the skull and possess short fibers of connective tissue that hold the skull bones tightly in place (Figure). Syndesmoses are joints in which the bones are connected by a band of connective tissue, allowing for more movement than in a suture. An example of a syndesmosis is the joint of the tibia and fibula in the ankle. The amount of movement in these types of joints is determined by the length of the connective tissue fibers. Gomphoses occur between teeth and their sockets; the term refers to the way the tooth fits into the socket like a peg (Figure). The tooth is connected to the socket by a connective tissue referred to as the periodontal ligament. Cartilaginous Joints Cartilaginous joints are joints in which the bones are connected by cartilage. There are two types of cartilaginous joints: synchondroses and symphyses. In a synchondrosis, the bones are joined by hyaline cartilage. Synchondroses are found in the epiphyseal plates of growing bones in children. In symphyses, hyaline cartilage covers the end of the bone but the connection between bones occurs through fibrocartilage. Symphyses are found at the joints between vertebrae. Either type of cartilaginous joint allows for very little movement. Synovial Joints Synovial joints are the only joints that have a space between the adjoining bones (Figure). This space is referred to as the synovial (or joint) cavity and is filled with synovial fluid. Synovial fluid lubricates the joint, reducing friction between the bones and allowing for greater movement. The ends of the bones are covered with articular cartilage, a hyaline cartilage, and the entire joint is surrounded by an articular capsule composed of connective tissue that allows movement of the joint while resisting dislocation. Articular capsules may also possess ligaments that hold the bones together. Synovial joints are capable of the greatest movement of the three structural joint types; however, the more mobile a joint, the weaker the joint. Knees, elbows, and shoulders are examples of synovial joints. Classification of Joints on the Basis of Function The functional classification divides joints into three categories: synarthroses, amphiarthroses, and diarthroses. A synarthrosis is a joint that is immovable. This includes sutures, gomphoses, and synchondroses. Amphiarthroses are joints that allow slight movement, including syndesmoses and symphyses. Diarthroses are joints that allow for free movement of the joint, as in synovial joints. Movement at Synovial Joints The wide range of movement allowed by synovial joints produces different types of movements. The movement of synovial joints can be classified as one of four different types: gliding, angular, rotational, or special movement. Gliding Movement Gliding movements occur as relatively flat bone surfaces move past each other. Gliding movements produce very little rotation or angular movement of the bones. The joints of the carpal and tarsal bones are examples of joints that produce gliding movements. Angular Movement Angular movements are produced when the angle between the bones of a joint changes. There are several different types of angular movements, including flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction. Flexion, or bending, occurs when the angle between the bones decreases. Moving the forearm upward at the elbow or moving the wrist to move the hand toward the forearm are examples of flexion. Extension is the opposite of flexion in that the angle between the bones of a joint increases. Straightening a limb after flexion is an example of extension. Extension past the regular anatomical position is referred to as hyperextension. This includes moving the neck back to look upward, or bending the wrist so that the hand moves away from the forearm. Abduction occurs when a bone moves away from the midline of the body. Examples of abduction are moving the arms or legs laterally to lift them straight out to the side. Adduction is the movement of a bone toward the midline of the body. Movement of the limbs inward after abduction is an example of adduction. Circumduction is the movement of a limb in a circular motion, as in moving the arm in a circular motion. Rotational Movement Rotational movement is the movement of a bone as it rotates around its longitudinal axis. Rotation can be toward the midline of the body, which is referred to as medial rotation, or away from the midline of the body, which is referred to as lateral rotation. Movement of the head from side to side is an example of rotation. Special Movements Some movements that cannot be classified as gliding, angular, or rotational are called special movements. Inversion involves the soles of the feet moving inward, toward the midline of the body. Eversion is the opposite of inversion, movement of the sole of the foot outward, away from the midline of the body. Protraction is the anterior movement of a bone in the horizontal plane. Retraction occurs as a joint moves back into position after protraction. Protraction and retraction can be seen in the movement of the mandible as the jaw is thrust outwards and then back inwards. Elevation is the movement of a bone upward, such as when the shoulders are shrugged, lifting the scapulae. Depression is the opposite of elevation—movement downward of a bone, such as after the shoulders are shrugged and the scapulae return to their normal position from an elevated position. Dorsiflexion is a bending at the ankle such that the toes are lifted toward the knee. Plantar flexion is a bending at the ankle when the heel is lifted, such as when standing on the toes. Supination is the movement of the radius and ulna bones of the forearm so that the palm faces forward. Pronation is the opposite movement, in which the palm faces backward. Opposition is the movement of the thumb toward the fingers of the same hand, making it possible to grasp and hold objects. Types of Synovial Joints Synovial joints are further classified into six different categories on the basis of the shape and structure of the joint. The shape of the joint affects the type of movement permitted by the joint (Figure). These joints can be described as planar, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, or ball-and-socket joints. Planar Joints Planar joints have bones with articulating surfaces that are flat or slightly curved faces. These joints allow for gliding movements, and so the joints are sometimes referred to as gliding joints. The range of motion is limited in these joints and does not involve rotation. Planar joints are found in the carpal bones in the hand and the tarsal bones of the foot, as well as between vertebrae (Figure). Hinge Joints In hinge joints, the slightly rounded end of one bone fits into the slightly hollow end of the other bone. In this way, one bone moves while the other remains stationary, like the hinge of a door. The elbow is an example of a hinge joint. The knee is sometimes classified as a modified hinge joint (Figure). Pivot Joints Pivot joints consist of the rounded end of one bone fitting into a ring formed by the other bone. This structure allows rotational movement, as the rounded bone moves around its own axis. An example of a pivot joint is the joint of the first and second vertebrae of the neck that allows the head to move back and forth (Figure). The joint of the wrist that allows the palm of the hand to be turned up and down is also a pivot joint. Condyloid Joints Condyloid joints consist of an oval-shaped end of one bone fitting into a similarly oval-shaped hollow of another bone (Figure). This is also sometimes called an ellipsoidal joint. This type of joint allows angular movement along two axes, as seen in the joints of the wrist and fingers, which can move both side to side and up and down. Saddle Joints Saddle joints are so named because the ends of each bone resemble a saddle, with concave and convex portions that fit together. Saddle joints allow angular movements similar to condyloid joints but with a greater range of motion. An example of a saddle joint is the thumb joint, which can move back and forth and up and down, but more freely than the wrist or fingers (Figure). Ball-and-Socket Joints Ball-and-socket joints possess a rounded, ball-like end of one bone fitting into a cuplike socket of another bone. This organization allows the greatest range of motion, as all movement types are possible in all directions. Examples of ball-and-socket joints are the shoulder and hip joints (Figure). Link to Learning Watch this animation showing the six types of synovial joints. Career Connection Rheumatologist Rheumatologists are medical doctors who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the joints, muscles, and bones. They diagnose and treat diseases such as arthritis, musculoskeletal disorders, osteoporosis, and autoimmune diseases such as ankylosing spondylitis and rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an inflammatory disorder that primarily affects the synovial joints of the hands, feet, and cervical spine. Affected joints become swollen, stiff, and painful. Although it is known that RA is an autoimmune disease in which the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue, the cause of RA remains unknown. Immune cells from the blood enter joints and the synovium causing cartilage breakdown, swelling, and inflammation of the joint lining. Breakdown of cartilage causes bones to rub against each other causing pain. RA is more common in women than men and the age of onset is usually 40–50 years of age. Rheumatologists can diagnose RA on the basis of symptoms such as joint inflammation and pain, X-ray and MRI imaging, and blood tests. Arthrography is a type of medical imaging of joints that uses a contrast agent, such as a dye, that is opaque to X-rays. This allows the soft tissue structures of joints—such as cartilage, tendons, and ligaments—to be visualized. An arthrogram differs from a regular X-ray by showing the surface of soft tissues lining the joint in addition to joint bones. An arthrogram allows early degenerative changes in joint cartilage to be detected before bones become affected. There is currently no cure for RA; however, rheumatologists have a number of treatment options available. Early stages can be treated with rest of the affected joints by using a cane or by using joint splints that minimize inflammation. When inflammation has decreased, exercise can be used to strengthen the muscles that surround the joint and to maintain joint flexibility. If joint damage is more extensive, medications can be used to relieve pain and decrease inflammation. Anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, topical pain relievers, and corticosteroid injections may be used. Surgery may be required in cases in which joint damage is severe. Section Summary The structural classification of joints divides them into bony, fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints. The bones of fibrous joints are held together by fibrous connective tissue; the three types of fibrous joints are sutures, syndesomes, and gomphoses. Cartilaginous joints are joints in which the bones are connected by cartilage; the two types of cartilaginous joints are synchondroses and symphyses. Synovial joints are joints that have a space between the adjoining bones. The functional classification divides joints into three categories: synarthroses, amphiarthroses, and diarthroses. The movement of synovial joints can be classified as one of four different types: gliding, angular, rotational, or special movement. Gliding movements occur as relatively flat bone surfaces move past each other. Angular movements are produced when the angle between the bones of a joint changes. Rotational movement is the movement of a bone as it rotates around its own longitudinal axis. Special movements include inversion, eversion, protraction, retraction, elevation, depression, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, supination, pronation, and opposition. Synovial joints are also classified into six different categories on the basis of the shape and structure of the joint: planar, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket. Review Questions Synchondroses and symphyses are: - synovial joints - cartilaginous joints - fibrous joints - condyloid joints Hint: B The movement of bone away from the midline of the body is called ________. - circumduction - extension - adduction - abduction Hint: D Which of the following is not a characteristic of the synovial fluid? - lubrication - shock absorption - regulation of water balance in the joint - protection of articular cartilage Hint: C The elbow is an example of which type of joint? - hinge - pivot - saddle - gliding Hint: A Free Response What movements occur at the hip joint and knees as you bend down to touch your toes? Hint: The hip joint is flexed and the knees are extended. What movement(s) occur(s) at the scapulae when you shrug your shoulders? Hint: Elevation is the movement of a bone upward, such as when the shoulders are shrugged, lifting the scapulae. Depression is the downward movement of a bone, such as after the shoulders are shrugged and the scapulae return to their normal position from an elevated position.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:17.739634	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15135/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15136/overview	Muscle Contraction and Locomotion Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Classify the different types of muscle tissue - Explain the role of muscles in locomotion Muscle cells are specialized for contraction. Muscles allow for motions such as walking, and they also facilitate bodily processes such as respiration and digestion. The body contains three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle (Figure). Skeletal muscle tissue forms skeletal muscles, which attach to bones or skin and control locomotion and any movement that can be consciously controlled. Because it can be controlled by thought, skeletal muscle is also called voluntary muscle. Skeletal muscles are long and cylindrical in appearance; when viewed under a microscope, skeletal muscle tissue has a striped or striated appearance. The striations are caused by the regular arrangement of contractile proteins (actin and myosin). Actin is a globular contractile protein that interacts with myosin for muscle contraction. Skeletal muscle also has multiple nuclei present in a single cell. Smooth muscle tissue occurs in the walls of hollow organs such as the intestines, stomach, and urinary bladder, and around passages such as the respiratory tract and blood vessels. Smooth muscle has no striations, is not under voluntary control, has only one nucleus per cell, is tapered at both ends, and is called involuntary muscle. Cardiac muscle tissue is only found in the heart, and cardiac contractions pump blood throughout the body and maintain blood pressure. Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated, but unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle cannot be consciously controlled and is called involuntary muscle. It has one nucleus per cell, is branched, and is distinguished by the presence of intercalated disks. Skeletal Muscle Fiber Structure Each skeletal muscle fiber is a skeletal muscle cell. These cells are incredibly large, with diameters of up to 100 µm and lengths of up to 30 cm. The plasma membrane of a skeletal muscle fiber is called the sarcolemma. The sarcolemma is the site of action potential conduction, which triggers muscle contraction. Within each muscle fiber are myofibrils—long cylindrical structures that lie parallel to the muscle fiber. Myofibrils run the entire length of the muscle fiber, and because they are only approximately 1.2 µm in diameter, hundreds to thousands can be found inside one muscle fiber. They attach to the sarcolemma at their ends, so that as myofibrils shorten, the entire muscle cell contracts (Figure). The striated appearance of skeletal muscle tissue is a result of repeating bands of the proteins actin and myosin that are present along the length of myofibrils. Dark A bands and light I bands repeat along myofibrils, and the alignment of myofibrils in the cell causes the entire cell to appear striated or banded. Each I band has a dense line running vertically through the middle called a Z disc or Z line. The Z discs mark the border of units called sarcomeres, which are the functional units of skeletal muscle. One sarcomere is the space between two consecutive Z discs and contains one entire A band and two halves of an I band, one on either side of the A band. A myofibril is composed of many sarcomeres running along its length, and as the sarcomeres individually contract, the myofibrils and muscle cells shorten (Figure). Myofibrils are composed of smaller structures called myofilaments. There are two main types of filaments: thick filaments and thin filaments; each has different compositions and locations. Thick filaments occur only in the A band of a myofibril. Thin filaments attach to a protein in the Z disc called alpha-actinin and occur across the entire length of the I band and partway into the A band. The region at which thick and thin filaments overlap has a dense appearance, as there is little space between the filaments. Thin filaments do not extend all the way into the A bands, leaving a central region of the A band that only contains thick filaments. This central region of the A band looks slightly lighter than the rest of the A band and is called the H zone. The middle of the H zone has a vertical line called the M line, at which accessory proteins hold together thick filaments. Both the Z disc and the M line hold myofilaments in place to maintain the structural arrangement and layering of the myofibril. Myofibrils are connected to each other by intermediate, or desmin, filaments that attach to the Z disc. Thick and thin filaments are themselves composed of proteins. Thick filaments are composed of the protein myosin. The tail of a myosin molecule connects with other myosin molecules to form the central region of a thick filament near the M line, whereas the heads align on either side of the thick filament where the thin filaments overlap. The primary component of thin filaments is the actin protein. Two other components of the thin filament are tropomyosin and troponin. Actin has binding sites for myosin attachment. Strands of tropomyosin block the binding sites and prevent actin–myosin interactions when the muscles are at rest. Troponin consists of three globular subunits. One subunit binds to tropomyosin, one subunit binds to actin, and one subunit binds Ca2+ ions. Link to Learning View this animation showing the organization of muscle fibers. Sliding Filament Model of Contraction For a muscle cell to contract, the sarcomere must shorten. However, thick and thin filaments—the components of sarcomeres—do not shorten. Instead, they slide by one another, causing the sarcomere to shorten while the filaments remain the same length. The sliding filament theory of muscle contraction was developed to fit the differences observed in the named bands on the sarcomere at different degrees of muscle contraction and relaxation. The mechanism of contraction is the binding of myosin to actin, forming cross-bridges that generate filament movement (Figure). When a sarcomere shortens, some regions shorten whereas others stay the same length. A sarcomere is defined as the distance between two consecutive Z discs or Z lines; when a muscle contracts, the distance between the Z discs is reduced. The H zone—the central region of the A zone—contains only thick filaments and is shortened during contraction. The I band contains only thin filaments and also shortens. The A band does not shorten—it remains the same length—but A bands of different sarcomeres move closer together during contraction, eventually disappearing. Thin filaments are pulled by the thick filaments toward the center of the sarcomere until the Z discs approach the thick filaments. The zone of overlap, in which thin filaments and thick filaments occupy the same area, increases as the thin filaments move inward. ATP and Muscle Contraction The motion of muscle shortening occurs as myosin heads bind to actin and pull the actin inwards. This action requires energy, which is provided by ATP. Myosin binds to actin at a binding site on the globular actin protein. Myosin has another binding site for ATP at which enzymatic activity hydrolyzes ATP to ADP, releasing an inorganic phosphate molecule and energy. ATP binding causes myosin to release actin, allowing actin and myosin to detach from each other. After this happens, the newly bound ATP is converted to ADP and inorganic phosphate, Pi. The enzyme at the binding site on myosin is called ATPase. The energy released during ATP hydrolysis changes the angle of the myosin head into a “cocked” position. The myosin head is then in a position for further movement, possessing potential energy, but ADP and Pi are still attached. If actin binding sites are covered and unavailable, the myosin will remain in the high energy configuration with ATP hydrolyzed, but still attached. If the actin binding sites are uncovered, a cross-bridge will form; that is, the myosin head spans the distance between the actin and myosin molecules. Pi is then released, allowing myosin to expend the stored energy as a conformational change. The myosin head moves toward the M line, pulling the actin along with it. As the actin is pulled, the filaments move approximately 10 nm toward the M line. This movement is called the power stroke, as it is the step at which force is produced. As the actin is pulled toward the M line, the sarcomere shortens and the muscle contracts. When the myosin head is “cocked,” it contains energy and is in a high-energy configuration. This energy is expended as the myosin head moves through the power stroke; at the end of the power stroke, the myosin head is in a low-energy position. After the power stroke, ADP is released; however, the cross-bridge formed is still in place, and actin and myosin are bound together. ATP can then attach to myosin, which allows the cross-bridge cycle to start again and further muscle contraction can occur (Figure). Link to Learning Watch this video explaining how a muscle contraction is signaled. Art Connection Which of the following statements about muscle contraction is true? - The power stroke occurs when ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and phosphate. - The power stroke occurs when ADP and phosphate dissociate from the myosin head. - The power stroke occurs when ADP and phosphate dissociate from the actin active site. - The power stroke occurs when Ca2+ binds the calcium head. Link to Learning View this animation of the cross-bridge muscle contraction. Regulatory Proteins When a muscle is in a resting state, actin and myosin are separated. To keep actin from binding to the active site on myosin, regulatory proteins block the molecular binding sites. Tropomyosin blocks myosin binding sites on actin molecules, preventing cross-bridge formation and preventing contraction in a muscle without nervous input. Troponin binds to tropomyosin and helps to position it on the actin molecule; it also binds calcium ions. To enable a muscle contraction, tropomyosin must change conformation, uncovering the myosin-binding site on an actin molecule and allowing cross-bridge formation. This can only happen in the presence of calcium, which is kept at extremely low concentrations in the sarcoplasm. If present, calcium ions bind to troponin, causing conformational changes in troponin that allow tropomyosin to move away from the myosin binding sites on actin. Once the tropomyosin is removed, a cross-bridge can form between actin and myosin, triggering contraction. Cross-bridge cycling continues until Ca2+ ions and ATP are no longer available and tropomyosin again covers the binding sites on actin. Excitation–Contraction Coupling Excitation–contraction coupling is the link (transduction) between the action potential generated in the sarcolemma and the start of a muscle contraction. The trigger for calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm is a neural signal. Each skeletal muscle fiber is controlled by a motor neuron, which conducts signals from the brain or spinal cord to the muscle. The area of the sarcolemma on the muscle fiber that interacts with the neuron is called the motor end plate. The end of the neuron’s axon is called the synaptic terminal, and it does not actually contact the motor end plate. A small space called the synaptic cleft separates the synaptic terminal from the motor end plate. Electrical signals travel along the neuron’s axon, which branches through the muscle and connects to individual muscle fibers at a neuromuscular junction. The ability of cells to communicate electrically requires that the cells expend energy to create an electrical gradient across their cell membranes. This charge gradient is carried by ions, which are differentially distributed across the membrane. Each ion exerts an electrical influence and a concentration influence. Just as milk will eventually mix with coffee without the need to stir, ions also distribute themselves evenly, if they are permitted to do so. In this case, they are not permitted to return to an evenly mixed state. The sodium–potassium ATPase uses cellular energy to move K+ ions inside the cell and Na+ ions outside. This alone accumulates a small electrical charge, but a big concentration gradient. There is lots of K+ in the cell and lots of Na+ outside the cell. Potassium is able to leave the cell through K+ channels that are open 90% of the time, and it does. However, Na+ channels are rarely open, so Na+ remains outside the cell. When K+ leaves the cell, obeying its concentration gradient, that effectively leaves a negative charge behind. So at rest, there is a large concentration gradient for Na+ to enter the cell, and there is an accumulation of negative charges left behind in the cell. This is the resting membrane potential. Potential in this context means a separation of electrical charge that is capable of doing work. It is measured in volts, just like a battery. However, the transmembrane potential is considerably smaller (0.07 V); therefore, the small value is expressed as millivolts (mV) or 70 mV. Because the inside of a cell is negative compared with the outside, a minus sign signifies the excess of negative charges inside the cell, −70 mV. If an event changes the permeability of the membrane to Na+ ions, they will enter the cell. That will change the voltage. This is an electrical event, called an action potential, that can be used as a cellular signal. Communication occurs between nerves and muscles through neurotransmitters. Neuron action potentials cause the release of neurotransmitters from the synaptic terminal into the synaptic cleft, where they can then diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to a receptor molecule on the motor end plate. The motor end plate possesses junctional folds—folds in the sarcolemma that create a large surface area for the neurotransmitter to bind to receptors. The receptors are actually sodium channels that open to allow the passage of Na+ into the cell when they receive neurotransmitter signal. Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter released by motor neurons that binds to receptors in the motor end plate. Neurotransmitter release occurs when an action potential travels down the motor neuron’s axon, resulting in altered permeability of the synaptic terminal membrane and an influx of calcium. The Ca2+ ions allow synaptic vesicles to move to and bind with the presynaptic membrane (on the neuron), and release neurotransmitter from the vesicles into the synaptic cleft. Once released by the synaptic terminal, ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft to the motor end plate, where it binds with ACh receptors. As a neurotransmitter binds, these ion channels open, and Na+ ions cross the membrane into the muscle cell. This reduces the voltage difference between the inside and outside of the cell, which is called depolarization. As ACh binds at the motor end plate, this depolarization is called an end-plate potential. The depolarization then spreads along the sarcolemma, creating an action potential as sodium channels adjacent to the initial depolarization site sense the change in voltage and open. The action potential moves across the entire cell, creating a wave of depolarization. ACh is broken down by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) into acetyl and choline. AChE resides in the synaptic cleft, breaking down ACh so that it does not remain bound to ACh receptors, which would cause unwanted extended muscle contraction (Figure). Art Connection The deadly nerve gas Sarin irreversibly inhibits acetycholinesterase. What effect would Sarin have on muscle contraction? After depolarization, the membrane returns to its resting state. This is called repolarization, during which voltage-gated sodium channels close. Potassium channels continue at 90% conductance. Because the plasma membrane sodium–potassium ATPase always transports ions, the resting state (negatively charged inside relative to the outside) is restored. The period immediately following the transmission of an impulse in a nerve or muscle, in which a neuron or muscle cell regains its ability to transmit another impulse, is called the refractory period. During the refractory period, the membrane cannot generate another action potential. . The refractory period allows the voltage-sensitive ion channels to return to their resting configurations. The sodium potassium ATPase continually moves Na+ back out of the cell and K+ back into the cell, and the K+ leaks out leaving negative charge behind. Very quickly, the membrane repolarizes, so that it can again be depolarized. Control of Muscle Tension Neural control initiates the formation of actin–myosin cross-bridges, leading to the sarcomere shortening involved in muscle contraction. These contractions extend from the muscle fiber through connective tissue to pull on bones, causing skeletal movement. The pull exerted by a muscle is called tension, and the amount of force created by this tension can vary. This enables the same muscles to move very light objects and very heavy objects. In individual muscle fibers, the amount of tension produced depends on the cross-sectional area of the muscle fiber and the frequency of neural stimulation. The number of cross-bridges formed between actin and myosin determine the amount of tension that a muscle fiber can produce. Cross-bridges can only form where thick and thin filaments overlap, allowing myosin to bind to actin. If more cross-bridges are formed, more myosin will pull on actin, and more tension will be produced. The ideal length of a sarcomere during production of maximal tension occurs when thick and thin filaments overlap to the greatest degree. If a sarcomere at rest is stretched past an ideal resting length, thick and thin filaments do not overlap to the greatest degree, and fewer cross-bridges can form. This results in fewer myosin heads pulling on actin, and less tension is produced. As a sarcomere is shortened, the zone of overlap is reduced as the thin filaments reach the H zone, which is composed of myosin tails. Because it is myosin heads that form cross-bridges, actin will not bind to myosin in this zone, reducing the tension produced by this myofiber. If the sarcomere is shortened even more, thin filaments begin to overlap with each other—reducing cross-bridge formation even further, and producing even less tension. Conversely, if the sarcomere is stretched to the point at which thick and thin filaments do not overlap at all, no cross-bridges are formed and no tension is produced. This amount of stretching does not usually occur because accessory proteins, internal sensory nerves, and connective tissue oppose extreme stretching. The primary variable determining force production is the number of myofibers within the muscle that receive an action potential from the neuron that controls that fiber. When using the biceps to pick up a pencil, the motor cortex of the brain only signals a few neurons of the biceps, and only a few myofibers respond. In vertebrates, each myofiber responds fully if stimulated. When picking up a piano, the motor cortex signals all of the neurons in the biceps and every myofiber participates. This is close to the maximum force the muscle can produce. As mentioned above, increasing the frequency of action potentials (the number of signals per second) can increase the force a bit more, because the tropomyosin is flooded with calcium. Section Summary The body contains three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. Skeleton muscle tissue is composed of sarcomeres, the functional units of muscle tissue. Muscle contraction occurs when sarcomeres shorten, as thick and thin filaments slide past each other, which is called the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. ATP provides the energy for cross-bridge formation and filament sliding. Regulatory proteins, such as troponin and tropomyosin, control cross-bridge formation. Excitation–contraction coupling transduces the electrical signal of the neuron, via acetylcholine, to an electrical signal on the muscle membrane, which initiates force production. The number of muscle fibers contracting determines how much force the whole muscle produces. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements about muscle contraction is true? - The power stroke occurs when ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and phosphate. - The power stroke occurs when ADP and phosphate dissociate from the myosin head. - The power stroke occurs when ADP and phosphate dissociate from the actin active site. - The power stroke occurs when Ca2+ binds the calcium head. Hint: Figure B Figure The deadly nerve gas Sarin irreversibly inhibits acetycholinesterase. What effect would Sarin have on muscle contraction? Hint: Figure In the presence of Sarin, acetycholine is not removed from the synapse, resulting in continuous stimulation of the muscle plasma membrane. At first, muscle activity is intense and uncontrolled, but the ion gradients dissipate, so electrical signals in the T-tubules are no longer possible. The result is paralysis, leading to death by asphyxiation. Review Questions In relaxed muscle, the myosin-binding site on actin is blocked by ________. - titin - troponin - myoglobin - tropomyosin Hint: D The cell membrane of a muscle fiber is called a ________. - myofibril - sarcolemma - sarcoplasm - myofilament Hint: B The muscle relaxes if no new nerve signal arrives. However the neurotransmitter from the previous stimulation is still present in the synapse. The activity of ________ helps to remove this neurotransmitter. - myosin - action potential - tropomyosin - acetylcholinesterase Hint: D The ability of a muscle to generate tension immediately after stimulation is dependent on: - myosin interaction with the M line - overlap of myosin and actin - actin attachments to the Z line - none of the above Hint: D Free Response How would muscle contractions be affected if ATP was completely depleted in a muscle fiber? Hint: Because ATP is required for myosin to release from actin, muscles would remain rigidly contracted until more ATP was available for the myosin cross-bridge release. This is why dead vertebrates undergo rigor mortis. What factors contribute to the amount of tension produced in an individual muscle fiber? Hint: The cross-sectional area, the length of the muscle fiber at rest, and the frequency of neural stimulation. What effect will low blood calcium have on neurons? What effect will low blood calcium have on skeletal muscles? Hint: Neurons will not be able to release neurotransmitter without calcium. Skeletal muscles have calcium stored and don’t need any from the outside.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:17.780629	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15136/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15137/overview	Introduction Breathing is an involuntary event. How often a breath is taken and how much air is inhaled or exhaled are tightly regulated by the respiratory center in the brain. Humans, when they aren’t exerting themselves, breathe approximately 15 times per minute on average. Canines, like the dog in Figure, have a respiratory rate of about 15–30 breaths per minute. With every inhalation, air fills the lungs, and with every exhalation, air rushes back out. That air is doing more than just inflating and deflating the lungs in the chest cavity. The air contains oxygen that crosses the lung tissue, enters the bloodstream, and travels to organs and tissues. Oxygen (O2) enters the cells where it is used for metabolic reactions that produce ATP, a high-energy compound. At the same time, these reactions release carbon dioxide (CO2) as a by-product. CO2 is toxic and must be eliminated. Carbon dioxide exits the cells, enters the bloodstream, travels back to the lungs, and is expired out of the body during exhalation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:17.799353	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15137/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15138/overview	Systems of Gas Exchange Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the passage of air from the outside environment to the lungs - Explain how the lungs are protected from particulate matter The primary function of the respiratory system is to deliver oxygen to the cells of the body’s tissues and remove carbon dioxide, a cell waste product. The main structures of the human respiratory system are the nasal cavity, the trachea, and lungs. All aerobic organisms require oxygen to carry out their metabolic functions. Along the evolutionary tree, different organisms have devised different means of obtaining oxygen from the surrounding atmosphere. The environment in which the animal lives greatly determines how an animal respires. The complexity of the respiratory system is correlated with the size of the organism. As animal size increases, diffusion distances increase and the ratio of surface area to volume drops. In unicellular organisms, diffusion across the cell membrane is sufficient for supplying oxygen to the cell (Figure). Diffusion is a slow, passive transport process. In order for diffusion to be a feasible means of providing oxygen to the cell, the rate of oxygen uptake must match the rate of diffusion across the membrane. In other words, if the cell were very large or thick, diffusion would not be able to provide oxygen quickly enough to the inside of the cell. Therefore, dependence on diffusion as a means of obtaining oxygen and removing carbon dioxide remains feasible only for small organisms or those with highly-flattened bodies, such as many flatworms (Platyhelminthes). Larger organisms had to evolve specialized respiratory tissues, such as gills, lungs, and respiratory passages accompanied by complex circulatory systems, to transport oxygen throughout their entire body. Direct Diffusion For small multicellular organisms, diffusion across the outer membrane is sufficient to meet their oxygen needs. Gas exchange by direct diffusion across surface membranes is efficient for organisms less than 1 mm in diameter. In simple organisms, such as cnidarians and flatworms, every cell in the body is close to the external environment. Their cells are kept moist and gases diffuse quickly via direct diffusion. Flatworms are small, literally flat worms, which ‘breathe’ through diffusion across the outer membrane (Figure). The flat shape of these organisms increases the surface area for diffusion, ensuring that each cell within the body is close to the outer membrane surface and has access to oxygen. If the flatworm had a cylindrical body, then the cells in the center would not be able to get oxygen. Skin and Gills Earthworms and amphibians use their skin (integument) as a respiratory organ. A dense network of capillaries lies just below the skin and facilitates gas exchange between the external environment and the circulatory system. The respiratory surface must be kept moist in order for the gases to dissolve and diffuse across cell membranes. Organisms that live in water need to obtain oxygen from the water. Oxygen dissolves in water but at a lower concentration than in the atmosphere. The atmosphere has roughly 21 percent oxygen. In water, the oxygen concentration is much smaller than that. Fish and many other aquatic organisms have evolved gills to take up the dissolved oxygen from water (Figure). Gills are thin tissue filaments that are highly branched and folded. When water passes over the gills, the dissolved oxygen in water rapidly diffuses across the gills into the bloodstream. The circulatory system can then carry the oxygenated blood to the other parts of the body. In animals that contain coelomic fluid instead of blood, oxygen diffuses across the gill surfaces into the coelomic fluid. Gills are found in mollusks, annelids, and crustaceans. The folded surfaces of the gills provide a large surface area to ensure that the fish gets sufficient oxygen. Diffusion is a process in which material travels from regions of high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached. In this case, blood with a low concentration of oxygen molecules circulates through the gills. The concentration of oxygen molecules in water is higher than the concentration of oxygen molecules in gills. As a result, oxygen molecules diffuse from water (high concentration) to blood (low concentration), as shown in Figure. Similarly, carbon dioxide molecules in the blood diffuse from the blood (high concentration) to water (low concentration). Tracheal Systems Insect respiration is independent of its circulatory system; therefore, the blood does not play a direct role in oxygen transport. Insects have a highly specialized type of respiratory system called the tracheal system, which consists of a network of small tubes that carries oxygen to the entire body. The tracheal system is the most direct and efficient respiratory system in active animals. The tubes in the tracheal system are made of a polymeric material called chitin. Insect bodies have openings, called spiracles, along the thorax and abdomen. These openings connect to the tubular network, allowing oxygen to pass into the body (Figure) and regulating the diffusion of CO2 and water vapor. Air enters and leaves the tracheal system through the spiracles. Some insects can ventilate the tracheal system with body movements. Mammalian Systems In mammals, pulmonary ventilation occurs via inhalation (breathing). During inhalation, air enters the body through the nasal cavity located just inside the nose (Figure). As air passes through the nasal cavity, the air is warmed to body temperature and humidified. The respiratory tract is coated with mucus to seal the tissues from direct contact with air. Mucus is high in water. As air crosses these surfaces of the mucous membranes, it picks up water. These processes help equilibrate the air to the body conditions, reducing any damage that cold, dry air can cause. Particulate matter that is floating in the air is removed in the nasal passages via mucus and cilia. The processes of warming, humidifying, and removing particles are important protective mechanisms that prevent damage to the trachea and lungs. Thus, inhalation serves several purposes in addition to bringing oxygen into the respiratory system. Art Connection Which of the following statements about the mammalian respiratory system is false? - When we breathe in, air travels from the pharynx to the trachea. - The bronchioles branch into bronchi. - Alveolar ducts connect to alveolar sacs. - Gas exchange between the lung and blood takes place in the alveolus. From the nasal cavity, air passes through the pharynx (throat) and the larynx (voice box), as it makes its way to the trachea (Figure). The main function of the trachea is to funnel the inhaled air to the lungs and the exhaled air back out of the body. The human trachea is a cylinder about 10 to 12 cm long and 2 cm in diameter that sits in front of the esophagus and extends from the larynx into the chest cavity where it divides into the two primary bronchi at the midthorax. It is made of incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage and smooth muscle (Figure). The trachea is lined with mucus-producing goblet cells and ciliated epithelia. The cilia propel foreign particles trapped in the mucus toward the pharynx. The cartilage provides strength and support to the trachea to keep the passage open. The smooth muscle can contract, decreasing the trachea’s diameter, which causes expired air to rush upwards from the lungs at a great force. The forced exhalation helps expel mucus when we cough. Smooth muscle can contract or relax, depending on stimuli from the external environment or the body’s nervous system. Lungs: Bronchi and Alveoli The end of the trachea bifurcates (divides) to the right and left lungs. The lungs are not identical. The right lung is larger and contains three lobes, whereas the smaller left lung contains two lobes (Figure). The muscular diaphragm, which facilitates breathing, is inferior to (below) the lungs and marks the end of the thoracic cavity. In the lungs, air is diverted into smaller and smaller passages, or bronchi. Air enters the lungs through the two primary (main) bronchi (singular: bronchus). Each bronchus divides into secondary bronchi, then into tertiary bronchi, which in turn divide, creating smaller and smaller diameter bronchioles as they split and spread through the lung. Like the trachea, the bronchi are made of cartilage and smooth muscle. At the bronchioles, the cartilage is replaced with elastic fibers. Bronchi are innervated by nerves of both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems that control muscle contraction (parasympathetic) or relaxation (sympathetic) in the bronchi and bronchioles, depending on the nervous system’s cues. In humans, bronchioles with a diameter smaller than 0.5 mm are the respiratory bronchioles. They lack cartilage and therefore rely on inhaled air to support their shape. As the passageways decrease in diameter, the relative amount of smooth muscle increases. The terminal bronchioles subdivide into microscopic branches called respiratory bronchioles. The respiratory bronchioles subdivide into several alveolar ducts. Numerous alveoli and alveolar sacs surround the alveolar ducts. The alveolar sacs resemble bunches of grapes tethered to the end of the bronchioles (Figure). In the acinar region, the alveolar ducts are attached to the end of each bronchiole. At the end of each duct are approximately 100 alveolar sacs, each containing 20 to 30 alveoli that are 200 to 300 microns in diameter. Gas exchange occurs only in alveoli. Alveoli are made of thin-walled parenchymal cells, typically one-cell thick, that look like tiny bubbles within the sacs. Alveoli are in direct contact with capillaries (one-cell thick) of the circulatory system. Such intimate contact ensures that oxygen will diffuse from alveoli into the blood and be distributed to the cells of the body. In addition, the carbon dioxide that was produced by cells as a waste product will diffuse from the blood into alveoli to be exhaled. The anatomical arrangement of capillaries and alveoli emphasizes the structural and functional relationship of the respiratory and circulatory systems. Because there are so many alveoli (~300 million per lung) within each alveolar sac and so many sacs at the end of each alveolar duct, the lungs have a sponge-like consistency. This organization produces a very large surface area that is available for gas exchange. The surface area of alveoli in the lungs is approximately 75 m2. This large surface area, combined with the thin-walled nature of the alveolar parenchymal cells, allows gases to easily diffuse across the cells. Link to Learning Watch the following video to review the respiratory system. Protective Mechanisms The air that organisms breathe contains particulate matter such as dust, dirt, viral particles, and bacteria that can damage the lungs or trigger allergic immune responses. The respiratory system contains several protective mechanisms to avoid problems or tissue damage. In the nasal cavity, hairs and mucus trap small particles, viruses, bacteria, dust, and dirt to prevent their entry. If particulates do make it beyond the nose, or enter through the mouth, the bronchi and bronchioles of the lungs also contain several protective devices. The lungs produce mucus—a sticky substance made of mucin, a complex glycoprotein, as well as salts and water—that traps particulates. The bronchi and bronchioles contain cilia, small hair-like projections that line the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles (Figure). These cilia beat in unison and move mucus and particles out of the bronchi and bronchioles back up to the throat where it is swallowed and eliminated via the esophagus. In humans, for example, tar and other substances in cigarette smoke destroy or paralyze the cilia, making the removal of particles more difficult. In addition, smoking causes the lungs to produce more mucus, which the damaged cilia are not able to move. This causes a persistent cough, as the lungs try to rid themselves of particulate matter, and makes smokers more susceptible to respiratory ailments. Section Summary Animal respiratory systems are designed to facilitate gas exchange. In mammals, air is warmed and humidified in the nasal cavity. Air then travels down the pharynx, through the trachea, and into the lungs. In the lungs, air passes through the branching bronchi, reaching the respiratory bronchioles, which house the first site of gas exchange. The respiratory bronchioles open into the alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli. Because there are so many alveoli and alveolar sacs in the lung, the surface area for gas exchange is very large. Several protective mechanisms are in place to prevent damage or infection. These include the hair and mucus in the nasal cavity that trap dust, dirt, and other particulate matter before they can enter the system. In the lungs, particles are trapped in a mucus layer and transported via cilia up to the esophageal opening at the top of the trachea to be swallowed. Figure Which of the following statements about the mammalian respiratory system is false? - When we breathe in, air travels from the pharynx to the trachea. - The bronchioles branch into bronchi. - Alveolar ducts connect to alveolar sacs. - Gas exchange between the lung and blood takes place in the alveolus. Hint: Figure B Review Questions The respiratory system ________. - provides body tissues with oxygen - provides body tissues with oxygen and carbon dioxide - establishes how many breaths are taken per minute - provides the body with carbon dioxide Hint: A Air is warmed and humidified in the nasal passages. This helps to ________. - ward off infection - decrease sensitivity during breathing - prevent damage to the lungs - all of the above Hint: C Which is the order of airflow during inhalation? - nasal cavity, trachea, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli - nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli - nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchioles, bronchi, alveoli - nasal cavity, trachea, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli Hint: B Free Response Describe the function of these terms and describe where they are located: main bronchus, trachea, alveoli, and acinus. Hint: The main bronchus is the conduit in the lung that funnels air to the airways where gas exchange occurs. The main bronchus attaches the lungs to the very end of the trachea where it bifurcates. The trachea is the cartilaginous structure that extends from the pharynx to the primary bronchi. It serves to funnel air to the lungs. The alveoli are the sites of gas exchange; they are located at the terminal regions of the lung and are attached to the respiratory bronchioles. The acinus is the structure in the lung where gas exchange occurs. How does the structure of alveoli maximize gas exchange? Hint: The sac-like structure of the alveoli increases their surface area. In addition, the alveoli are made of thin-walled parenchymal cells. These features allow gases to easily diffuse across the cells.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:17.832896	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15138/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15139/overview	Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Name and describe lung volumes and capacities - Understand how gas pressure influences how gases move into and out of the body The structure of the lung maximizes its surface area to increase gas diffusion. Because of the enormous number of alveoli (approximately 300 million in each human lung), the surface area of the lung is very large (75 m2). Having such a large surface area increases the amount of gas that can diffuse into and out of the lungs. Basic Principles of Gas Exchange Gas exchange during respiration occurs primarily through diffusion. Diffusion is a process in which transport is driven by a concentration gradient. Gas molecules move from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Blood that is low in oxygen concentration and high in carbon dioxide concentration undergoes gas exchange with air in the lungs. The air in the lungs has a higher concentration of oxygen than that of oxygen-depleted blood and a lower concentration of carbon dioxide. This concentration gradient allows for gas exchange during respiration. Partial pressure is a measure of the concentration of the individual components in a mixture of gases. The total pressure exerted by the mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of the components in the mixture. The rate of diffusion of a gas is proportional to its partial pressure within the total gas mixture. This concept is discussed further in detail below. Lung Volumes and Capacities Different animals have different lung capacities based on their activities. Cheetahs have evolved a much higher lung capacity than humans; it helps provide oxygen to all the muscles in the body and allows them to run very fast. Elephants also have a high lung capacity. In this case, it is not because they run fast but because they have a large body and must be able to take up oxygen in accordance with their body size. Human lung size is determined by genetics, sex, and height. At maximal capacity, an average lung can hold almost six liters of air, but lungs do not usually operate at maximal capacity. Air in the lungs is measured in terms of lung volumes and lung capacities (Figure and Table). Volume measures the amount of air for one function (such as inhalation or exhalation). Capacity is any two or more volumes (for example, how much can be inhaled from the end of a maximal exhalation). \| Lung Volumes and Capacities (Avg Adult Male) \| \|\|\| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Volume/Capacity \| Definition \| Volume (liters) \| Equations \| \| Tidal volume (TV) \| Amount of air inhaled during a normal breath \| 0.5 \| - \| \| Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) \| Amount of air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation \| 1.2 \| - \| \| Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) \| Amount of air that can be further inhaled after a normal inhalation \| 3.1 \| - \| \| Residual volume (RV) \| Air left in the lungs after a forced exhalation \| 1.2 \| - \| \| Vital capacity (VC) \| Maximum amount of air that can be moved in or out of the lungs in a single respiratory cycle \| 4.8 \| ERV+TV+IRV \| \| Inspiratory capacity (IC) \| Volume of air that can be inhaled in addition to a normal exhalation \| 3.6 \| TV+IRV \| \| Functional residual capacity (FRC) \| Volume of air remaining after a normal exhalation \| 2.4 \| ERV+RV \| \| Total lung capacity (TLC) \| Total volume of air in the lungs after a maximal inspiration \| 6.0 \| RV+ERV+TV+IRV \| \| Forced expiratory volume (FEV1) \| How much air can be forced out of the lungs over a specific time period, usually one second \| ~4.1 to 5.5 \| - \| The volume in the lung can be divided into four units: tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and residual volume. Tidal volume (TV) measures the amount of air that is inspired and expired during a normal breath. On average, this volume is around one-half liter, which is a little less than the capacity of a 20-ounce drink bottle. The expiratory reserve volume (ERV) is the additional amount of air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation. It is the reserve amount that can be exhaled beyond what is normal. Conversely, the inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) is the additional amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation. The residual volume (RV) is the amount of air that is left after expiratory reserve volume is exhaled. The lungs are never completely empty: There is always some air left in the lungs after a maximal exhalation. If this residual volume did not exist and the lungs emptied completely, the lung tissues would stick together and the energy necessary to re-inflate the lung could be too great to overcome. Therefore, there is always some air remaining in the lungs. Residual volume is also important for preventing large fluctuations in respiratory gases (O2 and CO2). The residual volume is the only lung volume that cannot be measured directly because it is impossible to completely empty the lung of air. This volume can only be calculated rather than measured. Capacities are measurements of two or more volumes. The vital capacity (VC) measures the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled during a respiratory cycle. It is the sum of the expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and inspiratory reserve volume. The inspiratory capacity (IC) is the amount of air that can be inhaled after the end of a normal expiration. It is, therefore, the sum of the tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume. The functional residual capacity (FRC) includes the expiratory reserve volume and the residual volume. The FRC measures the amount of additional air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation. Lastly, the total lung capacity (TLC) is a measurement of the total amount of air that the lung can hold. It is the sum of the residual volume, expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and inspiratory reserve volume. Lung volumes are measured by a technique called spirometry. An important measurement taken during spirometry is the forced expiratory volume (FEV), which measures how much air can be forced out of the lung over a specific period, usually one second (FEV1). In addition, the forced vital capacity (FVC), which is the total amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled, is measured. The ratio of these values (FEV1/FVC ratio) is used to diagnose lung diseases including asthma, emphysema, and fibrosis. If the FEV1/FVC ratio is high, the lungs are not compliant (meaning they are stiff and unable to bend properly), and the patient most likely has lung fibrosis. Patients exhale most of the lung volume very quickly. Conversely, when the FEV1/FVC ratio is low, there is resistance in the lung that is characteristic of asthma. In this instance, it is hard for the patient to get the air out of his or her lungs, and it takes a long time to reach the maximal exhalation volume. In either case, breathing is difficult and complications arise. Career Connection Respiratory Therapist Respiratory therapists or respiratory practitioners evaluate and treat patients with lung and cardiovascular diseases. They work as part of a medical team to develop treatment plans for patients. Respiratory therapists may treat premature babies with underdeveloped lungs, patients with chronic conditions such as asthma, or older patients suffering from lung disease such as emphysema and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). They may operate advanced equipment such as compressed gas delivery systems, ventilators, blood gas analyzers, and resuscitators. Specialized programs to become a respiratory therapist generally lead to a bachelor’s degree with a respiratory therapist specialty. Because of a growing aging population, career opportunities as a respiratory therapist are expected to remain strong. Gas Pressure and Respiration The respiratory process can be better understood by examining the properties of gases. Gases move freely, but gas particles are constantly hitting the walls of their vessel, thereby producing gas pressure. Air is a mixture of gases, primarily nitrogen (N2; 78.6 percent), oxygen (O2; 20.9 percent), water vapor (H2O; 0.5 percent), and carbon dioxide (CO2; 0.04 percent). Each gas component of that mixture exerts a pressure. The pressure for an individual gas in the mixture is the partial pressure of that gas. Approximately 21 percent of atmospheric gas is oxygen. Carbon dioxide, however, is found in relatively small amounts, 0.04 percent. The partial pressure for oxygen is much greater than that of carbon dioxide. The partial pressure of any gas can be calculated by: Patm, the atmospheric pressure, is the sum of all of the partial pressures of the atmospheric gases added together, × (percent content in mixture). The pressure of the atmosphere at sea level is 760 mm Hg. Therefore, the partial pressure of oxygen is: and for carbon dioxide: At high altitudes, Patm decreases but concentration does not change; the partial pressure decrease is due to the reduction in Patm. When the air mixture reaches the lung, it has been humidified. The pressure of the water vapor in the lung does not change the pressure of the air, but it must be included in the partial pressure equation. For this calculation, the water pressure (47 mm Hg) is subtracted from the atmospheric pressure: and the partial pressure of oxygen is: These pressures determine the gas exchange, or the flow of gas, in the system. Oxygen and carbon dioxide will flow according to their pressure gradient from high to low. Therefore, understanding the partial pressure of each gas will aid in understanding how gases move in the respiratory system. Gas Exchange across the Alveoli In the body, oxygen is used by cells of the body’s tissues and carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product. The ratio of carbon dioxide production to oxygen consumption is the respiratory quotient (RQ). RQ varies between 0.7 and 1.0. If just glucose were used to fuel the body, the RQ would equal one. One mole of carbon dioxide would be produced for every mole of oxygen consumed. Glucose, however, is not the only fuel for the body. Protein and fat are also used as fuels for the body. Because of this, less carbon dioxide is produced than oxygen is consumed and the RQ is, on average, about 0.7 for fat and about 0.8 for protein. The RQ is used to calculate the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolar spaces within the lung, the alveolar Above, the partial pressure of oxygen in the lungs was calculated to be 150 mm Hg. However, lungs never fully deflate with an exhalation; therefore, the inspired air mixes with this residual air and lowers the partial pressure of oxygen within the alveoli. This means that there is a lower concentration of oxygen in the lungs than is found in the air outside the body. Knowing the RQ, the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli can be calculated: With an RQ of 0.8 and a in the alveoli of 40 mm Hg, the alveolar is equal to: Notice that this pressure is less than the external air. Therefore, the oxygen will flow from the inspired air in the lung ( = 150 mm Hg) into the bloodstream ( = 100 mm Hg) (Figure). In the lungs, oxygen diffuses out of the alveoli and into the capillaries surrounding the alveoli. Oxygen (about 98 percent) binds reversibly to the respiratory pigment hemoglobin found in red blood cells (RBCs). RBCs carry oxygen to the tissues where oxygen dissociates from the hemoglobin and diffuses into the cells of the tissues. More specifically, alveolar is higher in the alveoli ( = 100 mm Hg) than blood (40 mm Hg) in the capillaries. Because this pressure gradient exists, oxygen diffuses down its pressure gradient, moving out of the alveoli and entering the blood of the capillaries where O2 binds to hemoglobin. At the same time, alveolar is lower = 40 mm Hg than blood = (45 mm Hg). CO2 diffuses down its pressure gradient, moving out of the capillaries and entering the alveoli. Oxygen and carbon dioxide move independently of each other; they diffuse down their own pressure gradients. As blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins, the venous = 100 mm Hg, whereas the venous = 40 mm Hg. As blood enters the systemic capillaries, the blood will lose oxygen and gain carbon dioxide because of the pressure difference of the tissues and blood. In systemic capillaries, = 100 mm Hg, but in the tissue cells, = 40 mm Hg. This pressure gradient drives the diffusion of oxygen out of the capillaries and into the tissue cells. At the same time, blood = 40 mm Hg and systemic tissue = 45 mm Hg. The pressure gradient drives CO2 out of tissue cells and into the capillaries. The blood returning to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries has a venous = 40 mm Hg and a = 45 mm Hg. The blood enters the lung capillaries where the process of exchanging gases between the capillaries and alveoli begins again (Figure). Art Connection Which of the following statements is false? - In the tissues, drops as blood passes from the arteries to the veins, while increases. - Blood travels from the lungs to the heart to body tissues, then back to the heart, then the lungs. - Blood travels from the lungs to the heart to body tissues, then back to the lungs, then the heart. - is higher in air than in the lungs. In short, the change in partial pressure from the alveoli to the capillaries drives the oxygen into the tissues and the carbon dioxide into the blood from the tissues. The blood is then transported to the lungs where differences in pressure in the alveoli result in the movement of carbon dioxide out of the blood into the lungs, and oxygen into the blood. Link to Learning Watch this video to learn how to carry out spirometry. Section Summary The lungs can hold a large volume of air, but they are not usually filled to maximal capacity. Lung volume measurements include tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and residual volume. The sum of these equals the total lung capacity. Gas movement into or out of the lungs is dependent on the pressure of the gas. Air is a mixture of gases; therefore, the partial pressure of each gas can be calculated to determine how the gas will flow in the lung. The difference between the partial pressure of the gas in the air drives oxygen into the tissues and carbon dioxide out of the body. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements is false? - In the tissues, drops as blood passes from the arteries to the veins, while increases. - Blood travels from the lungs to the heart to body tissues, then back to the heart, then the lungs. - Blood travels from the lungs to the heart to body tissues, then back to the lungs, then the heart. - is higher in air than in the lungs. Hint: Figure C Review Questions The inspiratory reserve volume measures the ________. - amount of air remaining in the lung after a maximal exhalation - amount of air that the lung holds - amount of air the can be further exhaled after a normal breath - amount of air that can be further inhaled after a normal breath Hint: D Of the following, which does not explain why the partial pressure of oxygen is lower in the lung than in the external air? - Air in the lung is humidified; therefore, water vapor pressure alters the pressure. - Carbon dioxide mixes with oxygen. - Oxygen is moved into the blood and is headed to the tissues. - Lungs exert a pressure on the air to reduce the oxygen pressure. Hint: D The total lung capacity is calculated using which of the following formulas? - residual volume + tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume - residual volume + expiratory reserve volume + inspiratory reserve volume - expiratory reserve volume + tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume - residual volume + expiratory reserve volume + tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume Hint: D Free Response What does FEV1/FVC measure? What factors may affect FEV1/FVC? Hint: FEV1/FVC measures the forced expiratory volume in one second in relation to the total forced vital capacity (the total amount of air that is exhaled from the lung from a maximal inhalation). This ratio changes with alterations in lung function that arise from diseases such as fibrosis, asthma, and COPD. What is the reason for having residual volume in the lung? Hint: If all the air in the lung were exhaled, then opening the alveoli for the next inspiration would be very difficult. This is because the tissues would stick together. How can a decrease in the percent of oxygen in the air affect the movement of oxygen in the body? Hint: Oxygen moves from the lung to the bloodstream to the tissues according to the pressure gradient. This is measured as the partial pressure of oxygen. If the amount of oxygen drops in the inspired air, there would be reduced partial pressure. This would decrease the driving force that moves the oxygen into the blood and into the tissues. is also reduced at high elevations: at high elevations is lower than at sea level because the total atmospheric pressure is less than atmospheric pressure at sea level. If a patient has increased resistance in his or her lungs, how can this detected by a doctor? What does this mean? Hint: A doctor can detect a restrictive disease using spirometry. By detecting the rate at which air can be expelled from the lung, a diagnosis of fibrosis or another restrictive disease can be made.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:17.873579	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15139/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15140/overview	Breathing Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe how the structures of the lungs and thoracic cavity control the mechanics of breathing - Explain the importance of compliance and resistance in the lungs - Discuss problems that may arise due to a V/Q mismatch Mammalian lungs are located in the thoracic cavity where they are surrounded and protected by the rib cage, intercostal muscles, and bound by the chest wall. The bottom of the lungs is contained by the diaphragm, a skeletal muscle that facilitates breathing. Breathing requires the coordination of the lungs, the chest wall, and most importantly, the diaphragm. Types of Breathing Amphibians have evolved multiple ways of breathing. Young amphibians, like tadpoles, use gills to breathe, and they don’t leave the water. Some amphibians retain gills for life. As the tadpole grows, the gills disappear and lungs grow. These lungs are primitive and not as evolved as mammalian lungs. Adult amphibians are lacking or have a reduced diaphragm, so breathing via lungs is forced. The other means of breathing for amphibians is diffusion across the skin. To aid this diffusion, amphibian skin must remain moist. Birds face a unique challenge with respect to breathing: They fly. Flying consumes a great amount of energy; therefore, birds require a lot of oxygen to aid their metabolic processes. Birds have evolved a respiratory system that supplies them with the oxygen needed to enable flying. Similar to mammals, birds have lungs, which are organs specialized for gas exchange. Oxygenated air, taken in during inhalation, diffuses across the surface of the lungs into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the lungs and expelled during exhalation. The details of breathing between birds and mammals differ substantially. In addition to lungs, birds have air sacs inside their body. Air flows in one direction from the posterior air sacs to the lungs and out of the anterior air sacs. The flow of air is in the opposite direction from blood flow, and gas exchange takes place much more efficiently. This type of breathing enables birds to obtain the requisite oxygen, even at higher altitudes where the oxygen concentration is low. This directionality of airflow requires two cycles of air intake and exhalation to completely get the air out of the lungs. Evolution Connection Avian Respiration Birds have evolved a respiratory system that enables them to fly. Flying is a high-energy process and requires a lot of oxygen. Furthermore, many birds fly in high altitudes where the concentration of oxygen in low. How did birds evolve a respiratory system that is so unique? Decades of research by paleontologists have shown that birds evolved from therapods, meat-eating dinosaurs (Figure). In fact, fossil evidence shows that meat-eating dinosaurs that lived more than 100 million years ago had a similar flow-through respiratory system with lungs and air sacs. Archaeopteryx and Xiaotingia, for example, were flying dinosaurs and are believed to be early precursors of birds. Most of us consider that dinosaurs are extinct. However, modern birds are descendants of avian dinosaurs. The respiratory system of modern birds has been evolving for hundreds of millions of years. All mammals have lungs that are the main organs for breathing. Lung capacity has evolved to support the animal’s activities. During inhalation, the lungs expand with air, and oxygen diffuses across the lung’s surface and enters the bloodstream. During exhalation, the lungs expel air and lung volume decreases. In the next few sections, the process of human breathing will be explained. The Mechanics of Human Breathing Boyle’s Law is the gas law that states that in a closed space, pressure and volume are inversely related. As volume decreases, pressure increases and vice versa (Figure). The relationship between gas pressure and volume helps to explain the mechanics of breathing. There is always a slightly negative pressure within the thoracic cavity, which aids in keeping the airways of the lungs open. During inhalation, volume increases as a result of contraction of the diaphragm, and pressure decreases (according to Boyle’s Law). This decrease of pressure in the thoracic cavity relative to the environment makes the cavity less than the atmosphere (Figurea). Because of this drop in pressure, air rushes into the respiratory passages. To increase the volume of the lungs, the chest wall expands. This results from the contraction of the intercostal muscles, the muscles that are connected to the rib cage. Lung volume expands because the diaphragm contracts and the intercostals muscles contract, thus expanding the thoracic cavity. This increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity lowers pressure compared to the atmosphere, so air rushes into the lungs, thus increasing its volume. The resulting increase in volume is largely attributed to an increase in alveolar space, because the bronchioles and bronchi are stiff structures that do not change in size. The chest wall expands out and away from the lungs. The lungs are elastic; therefore, when air fills the lungs, the elastic recoil within the tissues of the lung exerts pressure back toward the interior of the lungs. These outward and inward forces compete to inflate and deflate the lung with every breath. Upon exhalation, the lungs recoil to force the air out of the lungs, and the intercostal muscles relax, returning the chest wall back to its original position (Figureb). The diaphragm also relaxes and moves higher into the thoracic cavity. This increases the pressure within the thoracic cavity relative to the environment, and air rushes out of the lungs. The movement of air out of the lungs is a passive event. No muscles are contracting to expel the air. Each lung is surrounded by an invaginated sac. The layer of tissue that covers the lung and dips into spaces is called the visceral pleura. A second layer of parietal pleura lines the interior of the thorax (Figure). The space between these layers, the intrapleural space, contains a small amount of fluid that protects the tissue and reduces the friction generated from rubbing the tissue layers together as the lungs contract and relax. Pleurisy results when these layers of tissue become inflamed; it is painful because the inflammation increases the pressure within the thoracic cavity and reduces the volume of the lung. Link to Learning View how Boyle’s Law is related to breathing and watch a video on Boyle’s Law. The Work of Breathing The number of breaths per minute is the respiratory rate. On average, under non-exertion conditions, the human respiratory rate is 12–15 breaths/minute. The respiratory rate contributes to the alveolar ventilation, or how much air moves into and out of the alveoli. Alveolar ventilation prevents carbon dioxide buildup in the alveoli. There are two ways to keep the alveolar ventilation constant: increase the respiratory rate while decreasing the tidal volume of air per breath (shallow breathing), or decrease the respiratory rate while increasing the tidal volume per breath. In either case, the ventilation remains the same, but the work done and type of work needed are quite different. Both tidal volume and respiratory rate are closely regulated when oxygen demand increases. There are two types of work conducted during respiration, flow-resistive and elastic work. Flow-resistive refers to the work of the alveoli and tissues in the lung, whereas elastic work refers to the work of the intercostal muscles, chest wall, and diaphragm. Increasing the respiration rate increases the flow-resistive work of the airways and decreases the elastic work of the muscles. Decreasing the respiratory rate reverses the type of work required. Surfactant The air-tissue/water interface of the alveoli has a high surface tension. This surface tension is similar to the surface tension of water at the liquid-air interface of a water droplet that results in the bonding of the water molecules together. Surfactant is a complex mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins that works to reduce the surface tension that exists between the alveoli tissue and the air found within the alveoli. By lowering the surface tension of the alveolar fluid, it reduces the tendency of alveoli to collapse. Surfactant works like a detergent to reduce the surface tension and allows for easier inflation of the airways. When a balloon is first inflated, it takes a large amount of effort to stretch the plastic and start to inflate the balloon. If a little bit of detergent was applied to the interior of the balloon, then the amount of effort or work needed to begin to inflate the balloon would decrease, and it would become much easier to start blowing up the balloon. This same principle applies to the airways. A small amount of surfactant to the airway tissues reduces the effort or work needed to inflate those airways. Babies born prematurely sometimes do not produce enough surfactant. As a result, they suffer from respiratory distress syndrome, because it requires more effort to inflate their lungs. Surfactant is also important for preventing collapse of small alveoli relative to large alveoli. Lung Resistance and Compliance Pulmonary diseases reduce the rate of gas exchange into and out of the lungs. Two main causes of decreased gas exchange are compliance (how elastic the lung is) and resistance (how much obstruction exists in the airways). A change in either can dramatically alter breathing and the ability to take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Examples of restrictive diseases are respiratory distress syndrome and pulmonary fibrosis. In both diseases, the airways are less compliant and they are stiff or fibrotic. There is a decrease in compliance because the lung tissue cannot bend and move. In these types of restrictive diseases, the intrapleural pressure is more positive and the airways collapse upon exhalation, which traps air in the lungs. Forced or functional vital capacity (FVC), which is the amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after taking the deepest breath possible, is much lower than in normal patients, and the time it takes to exhale most of the air is greatly prolonged (Figure). A patient suffering from these diseases cannot exhale the normal amount of air. Obstructive diseases and conditions include emphysema, asthma, and pulmonary edema. In emphysema, which mostly arises from smoking tobacco, the walls of the alveoli are destroyed, decreasing the surface area for gas exchange. The overall compliance of the lungs is increased, because as the alveolar walls are damaged, lung elastic recoil decreases due to a loss of elastic fibers, and more air is trapped in the lungs at the end of exhalation. Asthma is a disease in which inflammation is triggered by environmental factors. Inflammation obstructs the airways. The obstruction may be due to edema (fluid accumulation), smooth muscle spasms in the walls of the bronchioles, increased mucus secretion, damage to the epithelia of the airways, or a combination of these events. Those with asthma or edema experience increased occlusion from increased inflammation of the airways. This tends to block the airways, preventing the proper movement of gases (Figure). Those with obstructive diseases have large volumes of air trapped after exhalation and breathe at a very high lung volume to compensate for the lack of airway recruitment. Dead Space: V/Q Mismatch Pulmonary circulation pressure is very low compared to that of the systemic circulation. It is also independent of cardiac output. This is because of a phenomenon called recruitment, which is the process of opening airways that normally remain closed when cardiac output increases. As cardiac output increases, the number of capillaries and arteries that are perfused (filled with blood) increases. These capillaries and arteries are not always in use but are ready if needed. At times, however, there is a mismatch between the amount of air (ventilation, V) and the amount of blood (perfusion, Q) in the lungs. This is referred to as ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) mismatch. There are two types of V/Q mismatch. Both produce dead space, regions of broken down or blocked lung tissue. Dead spaces can severely impact breathing, because they reduce the surface area available for gas diffusion. As a result, the amount of oxygen in the blood decreases, whereas the carbon dioxide level increases. Dead space is created when no ventilation and/or perfusion takes place. Anatomical dead space or anatomical shunt, arises from an anatomical failure, while physiological dead space or physiological shunt, arises from a functional impairment of the lung or arteries. An example of an anatomical shunt is the effect of gravity on the lungs. The lung is particularly susceptible to changes in the magnitude and direction of gravitational forces. When someone is standing or sitting upright, the pleural pressure gradient leads to increased ventilation further down in the lung. As a result, the intrapleural pressure is more negative at the base of the lung than at the top, and more air fills the bottom of the lung than the top. Likewise, it takes less energy to pump blood to the bottom of the lung than to the top when in a prone position. Perfusion of the lung is not uniform while standing or sitting. This is a result of hydrostatic forces combined with the effect of airway pressure. An anatomical shunt develops because the ventilation of the airways does not match the perfusion of the arteries surrounding those airways. As a result, the rate of gas exchange is reduced. Note that this does not occur when lying down, because in this position, gravity does not preferentially pull the bottom of the lung down. A physiological shunt can develop if there is infection or edema in the lung that obstructs an area. This will decrease ventilation but not affect perfusion; therefore, the V/Q ratio changes and gas exchange is affected. The lung can compensate for these mismatches in ventilation and perfusion. If ventilation is greater than perfusion, the arterioles dilate and the bronchioles constrict. This increases perfusion and reduces ventilation. Likewise, if ventilation is less than perfusion, the arterioles constrict and the bronchioles dilate to correct the imbalance. Link to Learning View the mechanics of breathing. Section Summary The structure of the lungs and thoracic cavity control the mechanics of breathing. Upon inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and lowers. The intercostal muscles contract and expand the chest wall outward. The intrapleural pressure drops, the lungs expand, and air is drawn into the airways. When exhaling, the intercostal muscles and diaphragm relax, returning the intrapleural pressure back to the resting state. The lungs recoil and airways close. The air passively exits the lung. There is high surface tension at the air-airway interface in the lung. Surfactant, a mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins, acts like a detergent in the airways to reduce surface tension and allow for opening of the alveoli. Breathing and gas exchange are both altered by changes in the compliance and resistance of the lung. If the compliance of the lung decreases, as occurs in restrictive diseases like fibrosis, the airways stiffen and collapse upon exhalation. Air becomes trapped in the lungs, making breathing more difficult. If resistance increases, as happens with asthma or emphysema, the airways become obstructed, trapping air in the lungs and causing breathing to become difficult. Alterations in the ventilation of the airways or perfusion of the arteries can affect gas exchange. These changes in ventilation and perfusion, called V/Q mismatch, can arise from anatomical or physiological changes. Review Questions How would paralysis of the diaphragm alter inspiration? - It would prevent contraction of the intercostal muscles. - It would prevent inhalation because the intrapleural pressure would not change. - It would decrease the intrapleural pressure and allow more air to enter the lungs. - It would slow expiration because the lung would not relax. Hint: B Restrictive airway diseases ________. - increase the compliance of the lung - decrease the compliance of the lung - increase the lung volume - decrease the work of breathing Hint: B Alveolar ventilation remains constant when ________. - the respiratory rate is increased while the volume of air per breath is decreased - the respiratory rate and the volume of air per breath are increased - the respiratory rate is decreased while increasing the volume per breath - both a and c Hint: D Free Response How would increased airway resistance affect intrapleural pressure during inhalation? Hint: Increased airway resistance increases the volume and pressure in the lung; therefore, the intrapleural pressure would be less negative and breathing would be more difficult. Explain how a puncture to the thoracic cavity (from a knife wound, for instance) could alter the ability to inhale. Hint: A puncture to the thoracic cavity would equalize the pressure inside the thoracic cavity to the outside environment. For the lung to function properly, the intrapleural pressure must be negative. This is caused by the contraction of the diaphragm pulling the lungs down and drawing air into the lungs. When someone is standing, gravity stretches the bottom of the lung down toward the floor to a greater extent than the top of the lung. What implication could this have on the flow of air in the lungs? Where does gas exchange occur in the lungs? Hint: The lung is particularly susceptible to changes in the magnitude and direction of gravitational forces. When someone is standing or sitting upright, the pleural pressure gradient leads to increased ventilation further down in the lung.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:17.907688	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15140/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15141/overview	Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe how oxygen is bound to hemoglobin and transported to body tissues - Explain how carbon dioxide is transported from body tissues to the lungs Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is unloaded, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli to be expelled from the body. Although gas exchange is a continuous process, the oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by different mechanisms. Transport of Oxygen in the Blood Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues. Hemoglobin Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule found in red blood cells (erythrocytes) made of four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits (Figure). Each subunit surrounds a central heme group that contains iron and binds one oxygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Molecules with more oxygen bound to the heme groups are brighter red. As a result, oxygenated arterial blood where the Hb is carrying four oxygen molecules is bright red, while venous blood that is deoxygenated is darker red. It is easier to bind a second and third oxygen molecule to Hb than the first molecule. This is because the hemoglobin molecule changes its shape, or conformation, as oxygen binds. The fourth oxygen is then more difficult to bind. The binding of oxygen to hemoglobin can be plotted as a function of the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood (x-axis) versus the relative Hb-oxygen saturation (y-axis). The resulting graph—an oxygen dissociation curve—is sigmoidal, or S-shaped (Figure). As the partial pressure of oxygen increases, the hemoglobin becomes increasingly saturated with oxygen. Art Connection The kidneys are responsible for removing excess H+ ions from the blood. If the kidneys fail, what would happen to blood pH and to hemoglobin affinity for oxygen? Factors That Affect Oxygen Binding The oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin determines how much oxygen is carried in the blood. In addition to , other environmental factors and diseases can affect oxygen carrying capacity and delivery. Carbon dioxide levels, blood pH, and body temperature affect oxygen-carrying capacity (Figure). When carbon dioxide is in the blood, it reacts with water to form bicarbonate and hydrogen ions (H+). As the level of carbon dioxide in the blood increases, more H+ is produced and the pH decreases. This increase in carbon dioxide and subsequent decrease in pH reduce the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. The oxygen dissociates from the Hb molecule, shifting the oxygen dissociation curve to the right. Therefore, more oxygen is needed to reach the same hemoglobin saturation level as when the pH was higher. A similar shift in the curve also results from an increase in body temperature. Increased temperature, such as from increased activity of skeletal muscle, causes the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen to be reduced. Diseases like sickle cell anemia and thalassemia decrease the blood’s ability to deliver oxygen to tissues and its oxygen-carrying capacity. In sickle cell anemia, the shape of the red blood cell is crescent-shaped, elongated, and stiffened, reducing its ability to deliver oxygen (Figure). In this form, red blood cells cannot pass through the capillaries. This is painful when it occurs. Thalassemia is a rare genetic disease caused by a defect in either the alpha or the beta subunit of Hb. Patients with thalassemia produce a high number of red blood cells, but these cells have lower-than-normal levels of hemoglobin. Therefore, the oxygen-carrying capacity is diminished. Transport of Carbon Dioxide in the Blood Carbon dioxide molecules are transported in the blood from body tissues to the lungs by one of three methods: dissolution directly into the blood, binding to hemoglobin, or carried as a bicarbonate ion. Several properties of carbon dioxide in the blood affect its transport. First, carbon dioxide is more soluble in blood than oxygen. About 5 to 7 percent of all carbon dioxide is dissolved in the plasma. Second, carbon dioxide can bind to plasma proteins or can enter red blood cells and bind to hemoglobin. This form transports about 10 percent of the carbon dioxide. When carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin, a molecule called carbaminohemoglobin is formed. Binding of carbon dioxide to hemoglobin is reversible. Therefore, when it reaches the lungs, the carbon dioxide can freely dissociate from the hemoglobin and be expelled from the body. Third, the majority of carbon dioxide molecules (85 percent) are carried as part of the bicarbonate buffer system. In this system, carbon dioxide diffuses into the red blood cells. Carbonic anhydrase (CA) within the red blood cells quickly converts the carbon dioxide into carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid is an unstable intermediate molecule that immediately dissociates into bicarbonate ions and hydrogen (H+) ions. Since carbon dioxide is quickly converted into bicarbonate ions, this reaction allows for the continued uptake of carbon dioxide into the blood down its concentration gradient. It also results in the production of H+ ions. If too much H+ is produced, it can alter blood pH. However, hemoglobin binds to the free H+ ions and thus limits shifts in pH. The newly synthesized bicarbonate ion is transported out of the red blood cell into the liquid component of the blood in exchange for a chloride ion (Cl-); this is called the chloride shift. When the blood reaches the lungs, the bicarbonate ion is transported back into the red blood cell in exchange for the chloride ion. The H+ ion dissociates from the hemoglobin and binds to the bicarbonate ion. This produces the carbonic acid intermediate, which is converted back into carbon dioxide through the enzymatic action of CA. The carbon dioxide produced is expelled through the lungs during exhalation. The benefit of the bicarbonate buffer system is that carbon dioxide is “soaked up” into the blood with little change to the pH of the system. This is important because it takes only a small change in the overall pH of the body for severe injury or death to result. The presence of this bicarbonate buffer system also allows for people to travel and live at high altitudes: When the partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide change at high altitudes, the bicarbonate buffer system adjusts to regulate carbon dioxide while maintaining the correct pH in the body. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning While carbon dioxide can readily associate and dissociate from hemoglobin, other molecules such as carbon monoxide (CO) cannot. Carbon monoxide has a greater affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen. Therefore, when carbon monoxide is present, it binds to hemoglobin preferentially over oxygen. As a result, oxygen cannot bind to hemoglobin, so very little oxygen is transported through the body (Figure). Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas and is therefore difficult to detect. It is produced by gas-powered vehicles and tools. Carbon monoxide can cause headaches, confusion, and nausea; long-term exposure can cause brain damage or death. Administering 100 percent (pure) oxygen is the usual treatment for carbon monoxide poisoning. Administration of pure oxygen speeds up the separation of carbon monoxide from hemoglobin. Section Summary Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that is comprised of two alpha and two beta subunits that surround an iron-containing heme group. Oxygen readily binds this heme group. The ability of oxygen to bind increases as more oxygen molecules are bound to heme. Disease states and altered conditions in the body can affect the binding ability of oxygen, and increase or decrease its ability to dissociate from hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide can be transported through the blood via three methods. It is dissolved directly in the blood, bound to plasma proteins or hemoglobin, or converted into bicarbonate. The majority of carbon dioxide is transported as part of the bicarbonate system. Carbon dioxide diffuses into red blood cells. Inside, carbonic anhydrase converts carbon dioxide into carbonic acid (H2CO3), which is subsequently hydrolyzed into bicarbonate and H+. The H+ ion binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, and bicarbonate is transported out of the red blood cells in exchange for a chloride ion. This is called the chloride shift. Bicarbonate leaves the red blood cells and enters the blood plasma. In the lungs, bicarbonate is transported back into the red blood cells in exchange for chloride. The H+ dissociates from hemoglobin and combines with bicarbonate to form carbonic acid with the help of carbonic anhydrase, which further catalyzes the reaction to convert carbonic acid back into carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide is then expelled from the lungs. Art Connections Review Questions Which of the following will NOT facilitate the transfer of oxygen to tissues? - decreased body temperature - decreased pH of the blood - increased carbon dioxide - increased exercise Hint: A The majority of carbon dioxide in the blood is transported by ________. - binding to hemoglobin - dissolution in the blood - conversion to bicarbonate - binding to plasma proteins Hint: C The majority of oxygen in the blood is transported by ________. - dissolution in the blood - being carried as bicarbonate ions - binding to blood plasma - binding to hemoglobin Hint: D Free Response What would happen if no carbonic anhydrase were present in red blood cells? Hint: Without carbonic anhydrase, carbon dioxide would not be hydrolyzed into carbonic acid or bicarbonate. Therefore, very little carbon dioxide (only 15 percent) would be transported in the blood away from the tissues. How does the administration of 100 percent oxygen save a patient from carbon monoxide poisoning? Why wouldn’t giving carbon dioxide work? Hint: Carbon monoxide has a higher affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen. This means that carbon monoxide will preferentially bind to hemoglobin over oxygen. Administration of 100 percent oxygen is an effective therapy because at that concentration, oxygen will displace the carbon monoxide from the hemoglobin.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:17.937103	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15141/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15142/overview	Introduction Most animals are complex multicellular organisms that require a mechanism for transporting nutrients throughout their bodies and removing waste products. The circulatory system has evolved over time from simple diffusion through cells in the early evolution of animals to a complex network of blood vessels that reach all parts of the human body. This extensive network supplies the cells, tissues, and organs with oxygen and nutrients, and removes carbon dioxide and waste, which are byproducts of respiration. At the core of the human circulatory system is the heart. The size of a clenched fist, the human heart is protected beneath the rib cage. Made of specialized and unique cardiac muscle, it pumps blood throughout the body and to the heart itself. Heart contractions are driven by intrinsic electrical impulses that the brain and endocrine hormones help to regulate. Understanding the heart’s basic anatomy and function is important to understanding the body’s circulatory and respiratory systems. Gas exchange is one essential function of the circulatory system. A circulatory system is not needed in organisms with no specialized respiratory organs because oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse directly between their body tissues and the external environment. However, in organisms that possess lungs and gills, oxygen must be transported from these specialized respiratory organs to the body tissues via a circulatory system. Therefore, circulatory systems have had to evolve to accommodate the great diversity of body sizes and body types present among animals.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:17.954072	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15142/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15143/overview	Overview of the Circulatory System Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe an open and closed circulatory system - Describe interstitial fluid and hemolymph - Compare and contrast the organization and evolution of the vertebrate circulatory system. In all animals, except a few simple types, the circulatory system is used to transport nutrients and gases through the body. Simple diffusion allows some water, nutrient, waste, and gas exchange into primitive animals that are only a few cell layers thick; however, bulk flow is the only method by which the entire body of larger more complex organisms is accessed. Circulatory System Architecture The circulatory system is effectively a network of cylindrical vessels: the arteries, veins, and capillaries that emanate from a pump, the heart. In all vertebrate organisms, as well as some invertebrates, this is a closed-loop system, in which the blood is not free in a cavity. In a closed circulatory system, blood is contained inside blood vessels and circulates unidirectionally from the heart around the systemic circulatory route, then returns to the heart again, as illustrated in Figurea. As opposed to a closed system, arthropods—including insects, crustaceans, and most mollusks—have an open circulatory system, as illustrated in Figureb. In an open circulatory system, the blood is not enclosed in the blood vessels but is pumped into a cavity called a hemocoel and is called hemolymph because the blood mixes with the interstitial fluid. As the heart beats and the animal moves, the hemolymph circulates around the organs within the body cavity and then reenters the hearts through openings called ostia. This movement allows for gas and nutrient exchange. An open circulatory system does not use as much energy as a closed system to operate or to maintain; however, there is a trade-off with the amount of blood that can be moved to metabolically active organs and tissues that require high levels of oxygen. In fact, one reason that insects with wing spans of up to two feet wide (70 cm) are not around today is probably because they were outcompeted by the arrival of birds 150 million years ago. Birds, having a closed circulatory system, are thought to have moved more agilely, allowing them to get food faster and possibly to prey on the insects. Circulatory System Variation in Animals The circulatory system varies from simple systems in invertebrates to more complex systems in vertebrates. The simplest animals, such as the sponges (Porifera) and rotifers (Rotifera), do not need a circulatory system because diffusion allows adequate exchange of water, nutrients, and waste, as well as dissolved gases, as shown in Figurea. Organisms that are more complex but still only have two layers of cells in their body plan, such as jellies (Cnidaria) and comb jellies (Ctenophora) also use diffusion through their epidermis and internally through the gastrovascular compartment. Both their internal and external tissues are bathed in an aqueous environment and exchange fluids by diffusion on both sides, as illustrated in Figureb. Exchange of fluids is assisted by the pulsing of the jellyfish body. For more complex organisms, diffusion is not efficient for cycling gases, nutrients, and waste effectively through the body; therefore, more complex circulatory systems evolved. Most arthropods and many mollusks have open circulatory systems. In an open system, an elongated beating heart pushes the hemolymph through the body and muscle contractions help to move fluids. The larger more complex crustaceans, including lobsters, have developed arterial-like vessels to push blood through their bodies, and the most active mollusks, such as squids, have evolved a closed circulatory system and are able to move rapidly to catch prey. Closed circulatory systems are a characteristic of vertebrates; however, there are significant differences in the structure of the heart and the circulation of blood between the different vertebrate groups due to adaptation during evolution and associated differences in anatomy. Figure illustrates the basic circulatory systems of some vertebrates: fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. As illustrated in Figurea Fish have a single circuit for blood flow and a two-chambered heart that has only a single atrium and a single ventricle. The atrium collects blood that has returned from the body and the ventricle pumps the blood to the gills where gas exchange occurs and the blood is re-oxygenated; this is called gill circulation. The blood then continues through the rest of the body before arriving back at the atrium; this is called systemic circulation. This unidirectional flow of blood produces a gradient of oxygenated to deoxygenated blood around the fish’s systemic circuit. The result is a limit in the amount of oxygen that can reach some of the organs and tissues of the body, reducing the overall metabolic capacity of fish. In amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, blood flow is directed in two circuits: one through the lungs and back to the heart, which is called pulmonary circulation, and the other throughout the rest of the body and its organs including the brain (systemic circulation). In amphibians, gas exchange also occurs through the skin during pulmonary circulation and is referred to as pulmocutaneous circulation. As shown in Figureb, amphibians have a three-chambered heart that has two atria and one ventricle rather than the two-chambered heart of fish. The two atria (superior heart chambers) receive blood from the two different circuits (the lungs and the systems), and then there is some mixing of the blood in the heart’s ventricle (inferior heart chamber), which reduces the efficiency of oxygenation. The advantage to this arrangement is that high pressure in the vessels pushes blood to the lungs and body. The mixing is mitigated by a ridge within the ventricle that diverts oxygen-rich blood through the systemic circulatory system and deoxygenated blood to the pulmocutaneous circuit. For this reason, amphibians are often described as having double circulation. Most reptiles also have a three-chambered heart similar to the amphibian heart that directs blood to the pulmonary and systemic circuits, as shown in Figurec. The ventricle is divided more effectively by a partial septum, which results in less mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Some reptiles (alligators and crocodiles) are the most primitive animals to exhibit a four-chambered heart. Crocodilians have a unique circulatory mechanism where the heart shunts blood from the lungs toward the stomach and other organs during long periods of submergence, for instance, while the animal waits for prey or stays underwater waiting for prey to rot. One adaptation includes two main arteries that leave the same part of the heart: one takes blood to the lungs and the other provides an alternate route to the stomach and other parts of the body. Two other adaptations include a hole in the heart between the two ventricles, called the foramen of Panizza, which allows blood to move from one side of the heart to the other, and specialized connective tissue that slows the blood flow to the lungs. Together these adaptations have made crocodiles and alligators one of the most evolutionarily successful animal groups on earth. In mammals and birds, the heart is also divided into four chambers: two atria and two ventricles, as illustrated in Figured. The oxygenated blood is separated from the deoxygenated blood, which improves the efficiency of double circulation and is probably required for the warm-blooded lifestyle of mammals and birds. The four-chambered heart of birds and mammals evolved independently from a three-chambered heart. The independent evolution of the same or a similar biological trait is referred to as convergent evolution. Section Summary In most animals, the circulatory system is used to transport blood through the body. Some primitive animals use diffusion for the exchange of water, nutrients, and gases. However, complex organisms use the circulatory system to carry gases, nutrients, and waste through the body. Circulatory systems may be open (mixed with the interstitial fluid) or closed (separated from the interstitial fluid). Closed circulatory systems are a characteristic of vertebrates; however, there are significant differences in the structure of the heart and the circulation of blood between the different vertebrate groups due to adaptions during evolution and associated differences in anatomy. Fish have a two-chambered heart with unidirectional circulation. Amphibians have a three-chambered heart, which has some mixing of the blood, and they have double circulation. Most non-avian reptiles have a three-chambered heart, but have little mixing of the blood; they have double circulation. Mammals and birds have a four-chambered heart with no mixing of the blood and double circulation. Review Questions Why are open circulatory systems advantageous to some animals? - They use less metabolic energy. - They help the animal move faster. - They do not need a heart. - They help large insects develop. Hint: A Some animals use diffusion instead of a circulatory system. Examples include: - birds and jellyfish - flatworms and arthropods - mollusks and jellyfish - None of the above Hint: D Blood flow that is directed through the lungs and back to the heart is called ________. - unidirectional circulation - gill circulation - pulmonary circulation - pulmocutaneous circulation Hint: C Free Response Describe a closed circulatory system. Hint: A closed circulatory system is a closed-loop system, in which blood is not free in a cavity. Blood is separate from the bodily interstitial fluid and contained within blood vessels. In this type of system, blood circulates unidirectionally from the heart around the systemic circulatory route, and then returns to the heart. Describe systemic circulation. Hint: Systemic circulation flows through the systems of the body. The blood flows away from the heart to the brain, liver, kidneys, stomach, and other organs, the limbs, and the muscles of the body; it then returns to the heart.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:17.980319	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15143/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15144/overview	Components of the Blood Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - List the basic components of the blood - Compare red and white blood cells - Describe blood plasma and serum Hemoglobin is responsible for distributing oxygen, and to a lesser extent, carbon dioxide, throughout the circulatory systems of humans, vertebrates, and many invertebrates. The blood is more than the proteins, though. Blood is actually a term used to describe the liquid that moves through the vessels and includes plasma (the liquid portion, which contains water, proteins, salts, lipids, and glucose) and the cells (red and white cells) and cell fragments called platelets. Blood plasma is actually the dominant component of blood and contains the water, proteins, electrolytes, lipids, and glucose. The cells are responsible for carrying the gases (red cells) and immune the response (white). The platelets are responsible for blood clotting. Interstitial fluid that surrounds cells is separate from the blood, but in hemolymph, they are combined. In humans, cellular components make up approximately 45 percent of the blood and the liquid plasma 55 percent. Blood is 20 percent of a person’s extracellular fluid and eight percent of weight. The Role of Blood in the Body Blood, like the human blood illustrated in Figure is important for regulation of the body’s systems and homeostasis. Blood helps maintain homeostasis by stabilizing pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, and by eliminating excess heat. Blood supports growth by distributing nutrients and hormones, and by removing waste. Blood plays a protective role by transporting clotting factors and platelets to prevent blood loss and transporting the disease-fighting agents or white blood cells to sites of infection. Red Blood Cells Red blood cells, or erythrocytes (erythro- = “red”; -cyte = “cell”), are specialized cells that circulate through the body delivering oxygen to cells; they are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow. In mammals, red blood cells are small biconcave cells that at maturity do not contain a nucleus or mitochondria and are only 7–8 µm in size. In birds and non-avian reptiles, a nucleus is still maintained in red blood cells. The red coloring of blood comes from the iron-containing protein hemoglobin, illustrated in Figurea. The principal job of this protein is to carry oxygen, but it also transports carbon dioxide as well. Hemoglobin is packed into red blood cells at a rate of about 250 million molecules of hemoglobin per cell. Each hemoglobin molecule binds four oxygen molecules so that each red blood cell carries one billion molecules of oxygen. There are approximately 25 trillion red blood cells in the five liters of blood in the human body, which could carry up to 25 sextillion (25 × 1021) molecules of oxygen in the body at any time. In mammals, the lack of organelles in erythrocytes leaves more room for the hemoglobin molecules, and the lack of mitochondria also prevents use of the oxygen for metabolic respiration. Only mammals have anucleated red blood cells, and some mammals (camels, for instance) even have nucleated red blood cells. The advantage of nucleated red blood cells is that these cells can undergo mitosis. Anucleated red blood cells metabolize anaerobically (without oxygen), making use of a primitive metabolic pathway to produce ATP and increase the efficiency of oxygen transport. Not all organisms use hemoglobin as the method of oxygen transport. Invertebrates that utilize hemolymph rather than blood use different pigments to bind to the oxygen. These pigments use copper or iron to the oxygen. Invertebrates have a variety of other respiratory pigments. Hemocyanin, a blue-green, copper-containing protein, illustrated in Figureb is found in mollusks, crustaceans, and some of the arthropods. Chlorocruorin, a green-colored, iron-containing pigment is found in four families of polychaete tubeworms. Hemerythrin, a red, iron-containing protein is found in some polychaete worms and annelids and is illustrated in Figurec. Despite the name, hemerythrin does not contain a heme group and its oxygen-carrying capacity is poor compared to hemoglobin. The small size and large surface area of red blood cells allows for rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the plasma membrane. In the lungs, carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is taken in by the blood. In the tissues, oxygen is released from the blood and carbon dioxide is bound for transport back to the lungs. Studies have found that hemoglobin also binds nitrous oxide (NO). NO is a vasodilator that relaxes the blood vessels and capillaries and may help with gas exchange and the passage of red blood cells through narrow vessels. Nitroglycerin, a heart medication for angina and heart attacks, is converted to NO to help relax the blood vessels and increase oxygen flow through the body. A characteristic of red blood cells is their glycolipid and glycoprotein coating; these are lipids and proteins that have carbohydrate molecules attached. In humans, the surface glycoproteins and glycolipids on red blood cells vary between individuals, producing the different blood types, such as A, B, and O. Red blood cells have an average life span of 120 days, at which time they are broken down and recycled in the liver and spleen by phagocytic macrophages, a type of white blood cell. White Blood Cells White blood cells, also called leukocytes (leuko = white), make up approximately one percent by volume of the cells in blood. The role of white blood cells is very different than that of red blood cells: they are primarily involved in the immune response to identify and target pathogens, such as invading bacteria, viruses, and other foreign organisms. White blood cells are formed continually; some only live for hours or days, but some live for years. The morphology of white blood cells differs significantly from red blood cells. They have nuclei and do not contain hemoglobin. The different types of white blood cells are identified by their microscopic appearance after histologic staining, and each has a different specialized function. The two main groups, both illustrated in Figure are the granulocytes, which include the neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, and the agranulocytes, which include the monocytes and lymphocytes. Granulocytes contain granules in their cytoplasm; the agranulocytes are so named because of the lack of granules in their cytoplasm. Some leukocytes become macrophages that either stay at the same site or move through the blood stream and gather at sites of infection or inflammation where they are attracted by chemical signals from foreign particles and damaged cells. Lymphocytes are the primary cells of the immune system and include B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells. B cells destroy bacteria and inactivate their toxins. They also produce antibodies. T cells attack viruses, fungi, some bacteria, transplanted cells, and cancer cells. T cells attack viruses by releasing toxins that kill the viruses. Natural killer cells attack a variety of infectious microbes and certain tumor cells. One reason that HIV poses significant management challenges is because the virus directly targets T cells by gaining entry through a receptor. Once inside the cell, HIV then multiplies using the T cell’s own genetic machinery. After the HIV virus replicates, it is transmitted directly from the infected T cell to macrophages. The presence of HIV can remain unrecognized for an extensive period of time before full disease symptoms develop. Platelets and Coagulation Factors Blood must clot to heal wounds and prevent excess blood loss. Small cell fragments called platelets (thrombocytes) are attracted to the wound site where they adhere by extending many projections and releasing their contents. These contents activate other platelets and also interact with other coagulation factors, which convert fibrinogen, a water-soluble protein present in blood serum into fibrin (a non-water soluble protein), causing the blood to clot. Many of the clotting factors require vitamin K to work, and vitamin K deficiency can lead to problems with blood clotting. Many platelets converge and stick together at the wound site forming a platelet plug (also called a fibrin clot), as illustrated in Figureb. The plug or clot lasts for a number of days and stops the loss of blood. Platelets are formed from the disintegration of larger cells called megakaryocytes, like that shown in Figurea. For each megakaryocyte, 2000–3000 platelets are formed with 150,000 to 400,000 platelets present in each cubic millimeter of blood. Each platelet is disc shaped and 2–4 μm in diameter. They contain many small vesicles but do not contain a nucleus. Plasma and Serum The liquid component of blood is called plasma, and it is separated by spinning or centrifuging the blood at high rotations (3000 rpm or higher). The blood cells and platelets are separated by centrifugal forces to the bottom of a specimen tube. The upper liquid layer, the plasma, consists of 90 percent water along with various substances required for maintaining the body’s pH, osmotic load, and for protecting the body. The plasma also contains the coagulation factors and antibodies. The plasma component of blood without the coagulation factors is called the serum. Serum is similar to interstitial fluid in which the correct composition of key ions acting as electrolytes is essential for normal functioning of muscles and nerves. Other components in the serum include proteins that assist with maintaining pH and osmotic balance while giving viscosity to the blood. The serum also contains antibodies, specialized proteins that are important for defense against viruses and bacteria. Lipids, including cholesterol, are also transported in the serum, along with various other substances including nutrients, hormones, metabolic waste, plus external substances, such as, drugs, viruses, and bacteria. Human serum albumin is the most abundant protein in human blood plasma and is synthesized in the liver. Albumin, which constitutes about half of the blood serum protein, transports hormones and fatty acids, buffers pH, and maintains osmotic pressures. Immunoglobin is a protein antibody produced in the mucosal lining and plays an important role in antibody mediated immunity. Evolution Connection Blood Types Related to Proteins on the Surface of the Red Blood Cells Red blood cells are coated in antigens made of glycolipids and glycoproteins. The composition of these molecules is determined by genetics, which have evolved over time. In humans, the different surface antigens are grouped into 24 different blood groups with more than 100 different antigens on each red blood cell. The two most well known blood groups are the ABO, shown in Figure, and Rh systems. The surface antigens in the ABO blood group are glycolipids, called antigen A and antigen B. People with blood type A have antigen A, those with blood type B have antigen B, those with blood type AB have both antigens, and people with blood type O have neither antigen. Antibodies called agglutinougens are found in the blood plasma and react with the A or B antigens, if the two are mixed. When type A and type B blood are combined, agglutination (clumping) of the blood occurs because of antibodies in the plasma that bind with the opposing antigen; this causes clots that coagulate in the kidney causing kidney failure. Type O blood has neither A or B antigens, and therefore, type O blood can be given to all blood types. Type O negative blood is the universal donor. Type AB positive blood is the universal acceptor because it has both A and B antigen. The ABO blood groups were discovered in 1900 and 1901 by Karl Landsteiner at the University of Vienna. The Rh blood group was first discovered in Rhesus monkeys. Most people have the Rh antigen (Rh+) and do not have anti-Rh antibodies in their blood. The few people who do not have the Rh antigen and are Rh– can develop anti-Rh antibodies if exposed to Rh+ blood. This can happen after a blood transfusion or after an Rh– woman has an Rh+ baby. The first exposure does not usually cause a reaction; however, at the second exposure, enough antibodies have built up in the blood to produce a reaction that causes agglutination and breakdown of red blood cells. An injection can prevent this reaction. Link to Learning Play a blood typing game on the Nobel Prize website to solidify your understanding of blood types. Section Summary Specific components of the blood include red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and the plasma, which contains coagulation factors and serum. Blood is important for regulation of the body’s pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, the circulation of nutrients and removal of waste, the distribution of hormones from endocrine glands, and the elimination of excess heat; it also contains components for blood clotting. Red blood cells are specialized cells that contain hemoglobin and circulate through the body delivering oxygen to cells. White blood cells are involved in the immune response to identify and target invading bacteria, viruses, and other foreign organisms; they also recycle waste components, such as old red blood cells. Platelets and blood clotting factors cause the change of the soluble protein fibrinogen to the insoluble protein fibrin at a wound site forming a plug. Plasma consists of 90 percent water along with various substances, such as coagulation factors and antibodies. The serum is the plasma component of the blood without the coagulation factors. Review Questions White blood cells: - can be classified as granulocytes or agranulocytes - defend the body against bacteria and viruses - are also called leucocytes - All of the above Hint: D Platelet plug formation occurs at which point? - when large megakaryocytes break up into thousands of smaller fragments - when platelets are dispersed through the blood stream - when platelets are attracted to a site of blood vessel damage - none of the above Hint: C In humans, the plasma comprises what percentage of the blood? - 45 percent - 55 percent - 25 percent - 90 percent Hint: B The red blood cells of birds differ from mammalian red blood cells because: - they are white and have nuclei - they do not have nuclei - they have nuclei - they fight disease Hint: C Free Response Describe the cause of different blood type groups. Hint: Red blood cells are coated with proteins called antigens made of glycolipids and glycoproteins. When type A and type B blood are mixed, the blood agglutinates because of antibodies in the plasma that bind with the opposing antigen. Type O blood has no antigens. The Rh blood group has either the Rh antigen (Rh+) or no Rh antigen (Rh–). List some of the functions of blood in the body. Hint: Blood is important for regulation of the body’s pH, temperature, and osmotic pressure, the circulation of nutrients and removal of wastes, the distribution of hormones from endocrine glands, the elimination of excess heat; it also contains components for the clotting of blood to prevent blood loss. Blood also transports clotting factors and disease-fighting agents. How does the lymphatic system work with blood flow? Hint: Lymph capillaries take fluid from the blood to the lymph nodes. The lymph nodes filter the lymph by percolation through connective tissue filled with white blood cells. The white blood cells remove infectious agents, such as bacteria and viruses, to clean the lymph before it returns to the bloodstream.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.013282	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15144/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15145/overview	Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the structure of the heart and explain how cardiac muscle is different from other muscles - Describe the cardiac cycle - Explain the structure of arteries, veins, and capillaries, and how blood flows through the body The heart is a complex muscle that pumps blood through the three divisions of the circulatory system: the coronary (vessels that serve the heart), pulmonary (heart and lungs), and systemic (systems of the body), as shown in Figure. Coronary circulation intrinsic to the heart takes blood directly from the main artery (aorta) coming from the heart. For pulmonary and systemic circulation, the heart has to pump blood to the lungs or the rest of the body, respectively. In vertebrates, the lungs are relatively close to the heart in the thoracic cavity. The shorter distance to pump means that the muscle wall on the right side of the heart is not as thick as the left side which must have enough pressure to pump blood all the way to your big toe. Art Connection Which of the following statements about the circulatory system is false? - Blood in the pulmonary vein is deoxygenated. - Blood in the inferior vena cava is deoxygenated. - Blood in the pulmonary artery is deoxygenated. - Blood in the aorta is oxygenated. Structure of the Heart The heart muscle is asymmetrical as a result of the distance blood must travel in the pulmonary and systemic circuits. Since the right side of the heart sends blood to the pulmonary circuit it is smaller than the left side which must send blood out to the whole body in the systemic circuit, as shown in Figure. In humans, the heart is about the size of a clenched fist; it is divided into four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. There is one atrium and one ventricle on the right side and one atrium and one ventricle on the left side. The atria are the chambers that receive blood, and the ventricles are the chambers that pump blood. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the superior vena cava, which drains blood from the jugular vein that comes from the brain and from the veins that come from the arms, as well as from the inferior vena cava which drains blood from the veins that come from the lower organs and the legs. In addition, the right atrium receives blood from the coronary sinus which drains deoxygenated blood from the heart itself. This deoxygenated blood then passes to the right ventricle through the atrioventricular valve or the tricuspid valve, a flap of connective tissue that opens in only one direction to prevent the backflow of blood. The valve separating the chambers on the left side of the heart valve is called the biscuspid or mitral valve. After it is filled, the right ventricle pumps the blood through the pulmonary arteries, by-passing the semilunar valve (or pulmonic valve) to the lungs for re-oxygenation. After blood passes through the pulmonary arteries, the right semilunar valves close preventing the blood from flowing backwards into the right ventricle. The left atrium then receives the oxygen-rich blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins. This blood passes through the bicuspid valve or mitral valve (the atrioventricular valve on the left side of the heart) to the left ventricle where the blood is pumped out through aorta, the major artery of the body, taking oxygenated blood to the organs and muscles of the body. Once blood is pumped out of the left ventricle and into the aorta, the aortic semilunar valve (or aortic valve) closes preventing blood from flowing backward into the left ventricle. This pattern of pumping is referred to as double circulation and is found in all mammals. Art Connection Which of the following statements about the heart is false? - The mitral valve separates the left ventricle from the left atrium. - Blood travels through the bicuspid valve to the left atrium. - Both the aortic and the pulmonary valves are semilunar valves. - The mitral valve is an atrioventricular valve. The heart is composed of three layers; the epicardium, the myocardium, and the endocardium, illustrated in Figure. The inner wall of the heart has a lining called the endocardium. The myocardium consists of the heart muscle cells that make up the middle layer and the bulk of the heart wall. The outer layer of cells is called the epicardium, of which the second layer is a membranous layered structure called the pericardium that surrounds and protects the heart; it allows enough room for vigorous pumping but also keeps the heart in place to reduce friction between the heart and other structures. The heart has its own blood vessels that supply the heart muscle with blood. The coronary arteries branch from the aorta and surround the outer surface of the heart like a crown. They diverge into capillaries where the heart muscle is supplied with oxygen before converging again into the coronary veins to take the deoxygenated blood back to the right atrium where the blood will be re-oxygenated through the pulmonary circuit. The heart muscle will die without a steady supply of blood. Atherosclerosis is the blockage of an artery by the buildup of fatty plaques. Because of the size (narrow) of the coronary arteries and their function in serving the heart itself, atherosclerosis can be deadly in these arteries. The slowdown of blood flow and subsequent oxygen deprivation that results from atherosclerosis causes severe pain, known as angina, and complete blockage of the arteries will cause myocardial infarction: the death of cardiac muscle tissue, commonly known as a heart attack. The Cardiac Cycle The main purpose of the heart is to pump blood through the body; it does so in a repeating sequence called the cardiac cycle. The cardiac cycle is the coordination of the filling and emptying of the heart of blood by electrical signals that cause the heart muscles to contract and relax. The human heart beats over 100,000 times per day. In each cardiac cycle, the heart contracts (systole), pushing out the blood and pumping it through the body; this is followed by a relaxation phase (diastole), where the heart fills with blood, as illustrated in Figure. The atria contract at the same time, forcing blood through the atrioventricular valves into the ventricles. Closing of the atrioventricular valves produces a monosyllabic “lup” sound. Following a brief delay, the ventricles contract at the same time forcing blood through the semilunar valves into the aorta and the artery transporting blood to the lungs (via the pulmonary artery). Closing of the semilunar valves produces a monosyllabic “dup” sound. The pumping of the heart is a function of the cardiac muscle cells, or cardiomyocytes, that make up the heart muscle. Cardiomyocytes, shown in Figure, are distinctive muscle cells that are striated like skeletal muscle but pump rhythmically and involuntarily like smooth muscle; they are connected by intercalated disks exclusive to cardiac muscle. They are self-stimulated for a period of time and isolated cardiomyocytes will beat if given the correct balance of nutrients and electrolytes. The autonomous beating of cardiac muscle cells is regulated by the heart’s internal pacemaker that uses electrical signals to time the beating of the heart. The electrical signals and mechanical actions, illustrated in Figure, are intimately intertwined. The internal pacemaker starts at the sinoatrial (SA) node, which is located near the wall of the right atrium. Electrical charges spontaneously pulse from the SA node causing the two atria to contract in unison. The pulse reaches a second node, called the atrioventricular (AV) node, between the right atrium and right ventricle where it pauses for approximately 0.1 second before spreading to the walls of the ventricles. From the AV node, the electrical impulse enters the bundle of His, then to the left and right bundle branches extending through the interventricular septum. Finally, the Purkinje fibers conduct the impulse from the apex of the heart up the ventricular myocardium, and then the ventricles contract. This pause allows the atria to empty completely into the ventricles before the ventricles pump out the blood. The electrical impulses in the heart produce electrical currents that flow through the body and can be measured on the skin using electrodes. This information can be observed as an electrocardiogram (ECG)—a recording of the electrical impulses of the cardiac muscle. Link to Learning Visit this site to see the heart’s “pacemaker” in action. Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries The blood from the heart is carried through the body by a complex network of blood vessels (Figure). Arteries take blood away from the heart. The main artery is the aorta that branches into major arteries that take blood to different limbs and organs. These major arteries include the carotid artery that takes blood to the brain, the brachial arteries that take blood to the arms, and the thoracic artery that takes blood to the thorax and then into the hepatic, renal, and gastric arteries for the liver, kidney, and stomach, respectively. The iliac artery takes blood to the lower limbs. The major arteries diverge into minor arteries, and then smaller vessels called arterioles, to reach more deeply into the muscles and organs of the body. Arterioles diverge into capillary beds. Capillary beds contain a large number (10 to 100) of capillaries that branch among the cells and tissues of the body. Capillaries are narrow-diameter tubes that can fit red blood cells through in single file and are the sites for the exchange of nutrients, waste, and oxygen with tissues at the cellular level. Fluid also crosses into the interstitial space from the capillaries. The capillaries converge again into venules that connect to minor veins that finally connect to major veins that take blood high in carbon dioxide back to the heart. Veins are blood vessels that bring blood back to the heart. The major veins drain blood from the same organs and limbs that the major arteries supply. Fluid is also brought back to the heart via the lymphatic system. The structure of the different types of blood vessels reflects their function or layers. There are three distinct layers, or tunics, that form the walls of blood vessels (Figure). The first tunic is a smooth, inner lining of endothelial cells that are in contact with the red blood cells. The endothelial tunic is continuous with the endocardium of the heart. In capillaries, this single layer of cells is the location of diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the endothelial cells and red blood cells, as well as the exchange site via endocytosis and exocytosis. The movement of materials at the site of capillaries is regulated by vasoconstriction, narrowing of the blood vessels, and vasodilation, widening of the blood vessels; this is important in the overall regulation of blood pressure. Veins and arteries both have two further tunics that surround the endothelium: the middle tunic is composed of smooth muscle and the outermost layer is connective tissue (collagen and elastic fibers). The elastic connective tissue stretches and supports the blood vessels, and the smooth muscle layer helps regulate blood flow by altering vascular resistance through vasoconstriction and vasodilation. The arteries have thicker smooth muscle and connective tissue than the veins to accommodate the higher pressure and speed of freshly pumped blood. The veins are thinner walled as the pressure and rate of flow are much lower. In addition, veins are structurally different than arteries in that veins have valves to prevent the backflow of blood. Because veins have to work against gravity to get blood back to the heart, contraction of skeletal muscle assists with the flow of blood back to the heart. Section Summary The heart muscle pumps blood through three divisions of the circulatory system: coronary, pulmonary, and systemic. There is one atrium and one ventricle on the right side and one atrium and one ventricle on the left side. The pumping of the heart is a function of cardiomyocytes, distinctive muscle cells that are striated like skeletal muscle but pump rhythmically and involuntarily like smooth muscle. The internal pacemaker starts at the sinoatrial node, which is located near the wall of the right atrium. Electrical charges pulse from the SA node causing the two atria to contract in unison; then the pulse reaches the atrioventricular node between the right atrium and right ventricle. A pause in the electric signal allows the atria to empty completely into the ventricles before the ventricles pump out the blood. The blood from the heart is carried through the body by a complex network of blood vessels; arteries take blood away from the heart, and veins bring blood back to the heart. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements about the heart is false? - The mitral valve separates the left ventricle from the left atrium. - Blood travels through the bicuspid valve to the left atrium. - Both the aortic and the pulmonary valves are semilunar valves. - The mitral valve is an atrioventricular valve. Hint: Figure B Review Questions The heart’s internal pacemaker beats by: - an internal implant that sends an electrical impulse through the heart - the excitation of cardiac muscle cells at the sinoatrial node followed by the atrioventricular node - the excitation of cardiac muscle cells at the atrioventricular node followed by the sinoatrial node - the action of the sinus Hint: B During the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle, the heart is ________. - contracting - relaxing - contracting and relaxing - filling with blood Hint: A Cardiomyocytes are similar to skeletal muscle because: - they beat involuntarily - they are used for weight lifting - they pulse rhythmically - they are striated Hint: D How do arteries differ from veins? - Arteries have thicker smooth muscle layers to accommodate the changes in pressure from the heart. - Arteries carry blood. - Arteries have thinner smooth muscle layers and valves and move blood by the action of skeletal muscle. - Arteries are thin walled and are used for gas exchange. Hint: A Free Response Describe the cardiac cycle. Hint: The heart receives an electrical signal from the sinoatrial node triggering the cardiac muscle cells in the atria to contract. The signal pauses at the atrioventricular node before spreading to the walls of the ventricles so the blood is pumped through the body. This is the systolic phase. The heart then relaxes in the diastole and fills again with blood. What happens in capillaries? Hint: The capillaries basically exchange materials with their surroundings. Their walls are very thin and are made of one or two layers of cells, where gases, nutrients, and waste are diffused. They are distributed as beds, complex networks that link arteries as well as veins.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.049210	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15145/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15146/overview	Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the system of blood flow through the body - Describe how blood pressure is regulated Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure exerted by blood on the walls of a blood vessel that helps to push blood through the body. Systolic blood pressure measures the amount of pressure that blood exerts on vessels while the heart is beating. The optimal systolic blood pressure is 120 mmHg. Diastolic blood pressure measures the pressure in the vessels between heartbeats. The optimal diastolic blood pressure is 80 mmHg. Many factors can affect blood pressure, such as hormones, stress, exercise, eating, sitting, and standing. Blood flow through the body is regulated by the size of blood vessels, by the action of smooth muscle, by one-way valves, and by the fluid pressure of the blood itself. How Blood Flows Through the Body Blood is pushed through the body by the action of the pumping heart. With each rhythmic pump, blood is pushed under high pressure and velocity away from the heart, initially along the main artery, the aorta. In the aorta, the blood travels at 30 cm/sec. As blood moves into the arteries, arterioles, and ultimately to the capillary beds, the rate of movement slows dramatically to about 0.026 cm/sec, one-thousand times slower than the rate of movement in the aorta. While the diameter of each individual arteriole and capillary is far narrower than the diameter of the aorta, and according to the law of continuity, fluid should travel faster through a narrower diameter tube, the rate is actually slower due to the overall diameter of all the combined capillaries being far greater than the diameter of the individual aorta. The slow rate of travel through the capillary beds, which reach almost every cell in the body, assists with gas and nutrient exchange and also promotes the diffusion of fluid into the interstitial space. After the blood has passed through the capillary beds to the venules, veins, and finally to the main venae cavae, the rate of flow increases again but is still much slower than the initial rate in the aorta. Blood primarily moves in the veins by the rhythmic movement of smooth muscle in the vessel wall and by the action of the skeletal muscle as the body moves. Because most veins must move blood against the pull of gravity, blood is prevented from flowing backward in the veins by one-way valves. Because skeletal muscle contraction aids in venous blood flow, it is important to get up and move frequently after long periods of sitting so that blood will not pool in the extremities. Blood flow through the capillary beds is regulated depending on the body’s needs and is directed by nerve and hormone signals. For example, after a large meal, most of the blood is diverted to the stomach by vasodilation of vessels of the digestive system and vasoconstriction of other vessels. During exercise, blood is diverted to the skeletal muscles through vasodilation while blood to the digestive system would be lessened through vasoconstriction. The blood entering some capillary beds is controlled by small muscles, called precapillary sphincters, illustrated in Figure. If the sphincters are open, the blood will flow into the associated branches of the capillary blood. If all of the sphincters are closed, then the blood will flow directly from the arteriole to the venule through the thoroughfare channel (see Figure). These muscles allow the body to precisely control when capillary beds receive blood flow. At any given moment only about 5-10% of our capillary beds actually have blood flowing through them. Art Connection Varicose veins are veins that become enlarged because the valves no longer close properly, allowing blood to flow backward. Varicose veins are often most prominent on the legs. Why do you think this is the case? Link to Learning See the circulatory system’s blood flow. Proteins and other large solutes cannot leave the capillaries. The loss of the watery plasma creates a hyperosmotic solution within the capillaries, especially near the venules. This causes about 85% of the plasma that leaves the capillaries to eventually diffuses back into the capillaries near the venules. The remaining 15% of blood plasma drains out from the interstitial fluid into nearby lymphatic vessels (Figure). The fluid in the lymph is similar in composition to the interstitial fluid. The lymph fluid passes through lymph nodes before it returns to the heart via the vena cava. Lymph nodes are specialized organs that filter the lymph by percolation through a maze of connective tissue filled with white blood cells. The white blood cells remove infectious agents, such as bacteria and viruses, to clean the lymph before it returns to the bloodstream. After it is cleaned, the lymph returns to the heart by the action of smooth muscle pumping, skeletal muscle action, and one-way valves joining the returning blood near the junction of the venae cavae entering the right atrium of the heart. Evolution Connection Vertebrate Diversity in Blood Circulation Blood circulation has evolved differently in vertebrates and may show variation in different animals for the required amount of pressure, organ and vessel location, and organ size. Animals with longs necks and those that live in cold environments have distinct blood pressure adaptations. Long necked animals, such as giraffes, need to pump blood upward from the heart against gravity. The blood pressure required from the pumping of the left ventricle would be equivalent to 250 mm Hg (mm Hg = millimeters of mercury, a unit of pressure) to reach the height of a giraffe’s head, which is 2.5 meters higher than the heart. However, if checks and balances were not in place, this blood pressure would damage the giraffe’s brain, particularly if it was bending down to drink. These checks and balances include valves and feedback mechanisms that reduce the rate of cardiac output. Long-necked dinosaurs such as the sauropods had to pump blood even higher, up to ten meters above the heart. This would have required a blood pressure of more than 600 mm Hg, which could only have been achieved by an enormous heart. Evidence for such an enormous heart does not exist and mechanisms to reduce the blood pressure required include the slowing of metabolism as these animals grew larger. It is likely that they did not routinely feed on tree tops but grazed on the ground. Living in cold water, whales need to maintain the temperature in their blood. This is achieved by the veins and arteries being close together so that heat exchange can occur. This mechanism is called a countercurrent heat exchanger. The blood vessels and the whole body are also protected by thick layers of blubber to prevent heat loss. In land animals that live in cold environments, thick fur and hibernation are used to retain heat and slow metabolism. Blood Pressure The pressure of the blood flow in the body is produced by the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid (blood) against the walls of the blood vessels. Fluid will move from areas of high to low hydrostatic pressures. In the arteries, the hydrostatic pressure near the heart is very high and blood flows to the arterioles where the rate of flow is slowed by the narrow openings of the arterioles. During systole, when new blood is entering the arteries, the artery walls stretch to accommodate the increase of pressure of the extra blood; during diastole, the walls return to normal because of their elastic properties. The blood pressure of the systole phase and the diastole phase, graphed in Figure, gives the two pressure readings for blood pressure. For example, 120/80 indicates a reading of 120 mm Hg during the systole and 80 mm Hg during diastole. Throughout the cardiac cycle, the blood continues to empty into the arterioles at a relatively even rate. This resistance to blood flow is called peripheral resistance. Blood Pressure Regulation Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by the heart in one minute. It is calculated by multiplying the number of heart contractions that occur per minute (heart rate) times the stroke volume (the volume of blood pumped into the aorta per contraction of the left ventricle). Therefore, cardiac output can be increased by increasing heart rate, as when exercising. However, cardiac output can also be increased by increasing stroke volume, such as if the heart contracts with greater strength. Stroke volume can also be increased by speeding blood circulation through the body so that more blood enters the heart between contractions. During heavy exertion, the blood vessels relax and increase in diameter, offsetting the increased heart rate and ensuring adequate oxygenated blood gets to the muscles. Stress triggers a decrease in the diameter of the blood vessels, consequently increasing blood pressure. These changes can also be caused by nerve signals or hormones, and even standing up or lying down can have a great effect on blood pressure. Section Summary Blood primarily moves through the body by the rhythmic movement of smooth muscle in the vessel wall and by the action of the skeletal muscle as the body moves. Blood is prevented from flowing backward in the veins by one-way valves. Blood flow through the capillary beds is controlled by precapillary sphincters to increase and decrease flow depending on the body’s needs and is directed by nerve and hormone signals. Lymph vessels take fluid that has leaked out of the blood to the lymph nodes where it is cleaned before returning to the heart. During systole, blood enters the arteries, and the artery walls stretch to accommodate the extra blood. During diastole, the artery walls return to normal. The blood pressure of the systole phase and the diastole phase gives the two pressure readings for blood pressure. Art Connections Figure Varicose veins are veins that become enlarged because the valves no longer close properly, allowing blood to flow backward. Varicose veins are often most prominent on the legs. Why do you think this is the case? Hint: Figure Blood in the legs is farthest away from the heart and has to flow up to reach it. Review Questions High blood pressure would be a result of ________. - a high cardiac output and high peripheral resistance - a high cardiac output and low peripheral resistance - a low cardiac output and high peripheral resistance - a low cardiac output and low peripheral resistance Hint: A Free Response How does blood pressure change during heavy exercise? Hint: The heart rate increases, which increases the hydrostatic pressure against the artery walls. At the same time, the arterioles dilate in response to the increased exercise, which reduces peripheral resistance.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.074726	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15146/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15147/overview	Introduction The daily intake recommendation for human water consumption is eight to ten glasses of water. In order to achieve a healthy balance, the human body should excrete the eight to ten glasses of water every day. This occurs via the processes of urination, defecation, sweating and, to a small extent, respiration. The organs and tissues of the human body are soaked in fluids that are maintained at constant temperature, pH, and solute concentration, all crucial elements of homeostasis. The solutes in body fluids are mainly mineral salts and sugars, and osmotic regulation is the process by which the mineral salts and water are kept in balance. Osmotic homeostasis is maintained despite the influence of external factors like temperature, diet, and weather conditions.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.092645	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15147/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15148/overview	Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define osmosis and explain its role within molecules - Explain why osmoregulation and osmotic balance are important body functions - Describe active transport mechanisms - Explain osmolarity and the way in which it is measured - Describe osmoregulators or osmoconformers and how these tools allow animals to adapt to different environments Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane in response to osmotic pressure caused by an imbalance of molecules on either side of the membrane. Osmoregulation is the process of maintenance of salt and water balance (osmotic balance) across membranes within the body’s fluids, which are composed of water, plus electrolytes and non-electrolytes. An electrolyte is a solute that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water. A non-electrolyte, in contrast, doesn’t dissociate into ions during water dissolution. Both electrolytes and non-electrolytes contribute to the osmotic balance. The body’s fluids include blood plasma, the cytosol within cells, and interstitial fluid, the fluid that exists in the spaces between cells and tissues of the body. The membranes of the body (such as the pleural, serous, and cell membranes) are semi-permeable membranes. Semi-permeable membranes are permeable (or permissive) to certain types of solutes and water. Solutions on two sides of a semi-permeable membrane tend to equalize in solute concentration by movement of solutes and/or water across the membrane. As seen in Figure, a cell placed in water tends to swell due to gain of water from the hypotonic or “low salt” environment. A cell placed in a solution with higher salt concentration, on the other hand, tends to make the membrane shrivel up due to loss of water into the hypertonic or “high salt” environment. Isotonic cells have an equal concentration of solutes inside and outside the cell; this equalizes the osmotic pressure on either side of the cell membrane which is a semi-permeable membrane. The body does not exist in isolation. There is a constant input of water and electrolytes into the system. While osmoregulation is achieved across membranes within the body, excess electrolytes and wastes are transported to the kidneys and excreted, helping to maintain osmotic balance. Need for Osmoregulation Biological systems constantly interact and exchange water and nutrients with the environment by way of consumption of food and water and through excretion in the form of sweat, urine, and feces. Without a mechanism to regulate osmotic pressure, or when a disease damages this mechanism, there is a tendency to accumulate toxic waste and water, which can have dire consequences. Mammalian systems have evolved to regulate not only the overall osmotic pressure across membranes, but also specific concentrations of important electrolytes in the three major fluid compartments: blood plasma, extracellular fluid, and intracellular fluid. Since osmotic pressure is regulated by the movement of water across membranes, the volume of the fluid compartments can also change temporarily. Because blood plasma is one of the fluid components, osmotic pressures have a direct bearing on blood pressure. Transport of Electrolytes across Cell Membranes Electrolytes, such as sodium chloride, ionize in water, meaning that they dissociate into their component ions. In water, sodium chloride (NaCl), dissociates into the sodium ion (Na+) and the chloride ion (Cl–). The most important ions, whose concentrations are very closely regulated in body fluids, are the cations sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca+2), magnesium (Mg+2), and the anions chloride (Cl-), carbonate (CO3-2), bicarbonate (HCO3-), and phosphate(PO3-). Electrolytes are lost from the body during urination and perspiration. For this reason, athletes are encouraged to replace electrolytes and fluids during periods of increased activity and perspiration. Osmotic pressure is influenced by the concentration of solutes in a solution. It is directly proportional to the number of solute atoms or molecules and not dependent on the size of the solute molecules. Because electrolytes dissociate into their component ions, they, in essence, add more solute particles into the solution and have a greater effect on osmotic pressure, per mass than compounds that do not dissociate in water, such as glucose. Water can pass through membranes by passive diffusion. If electrolyte ions could passively diffuse across membranes, it would be impossible to maintain specific concentrations of ions in each fluid compartment therefore they require special mechanisms to cross the semi-permeable membranes in the body. This movement can be accomplished by facilitated diffusion and active transport. Facilitated diffusion requires protein-based channels for moving the solute. Active transport requires energy in the form of ATP conversion, carrier proteins, or pumps in order to move ions against the concentration gradient. Concept of Osmolality and Milliequivalent In order to calculate osmotic pressure, it is necessary to understand how solute concentrations are measured. The unit for measuring solutes is the mole. One mole is defined as the gram molecular weight of the solute. For example, the molecular weight of sodium chloride is 58.44. Thus, one mole of sodium chloride weighs 58.44 grams. The molarity of a solution is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. The molality of a solution is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. If the solvent is water, one kilogram of water is equal to one liter of water. While molarity and molality are used to express the concentration of solutions, electrolyte concentrations are usually expressed in terms of milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L): the mEq/L is equal to the ion concentration (in millimoles) multiplied by the number of electrical charges on the ion. The unit of milliequivalent takes into consideration the ions present in the solution (since electrolytes form ions in aqueous solutions) and the charge on the ions. Thus, for ions that have a charge of one, one milliequivalent is equal to one millimole. For ions that have a charge of two (like calcium), one milliequivalent is equal to 0.5 millimoles. Another unit for the expression of electrolyte concentration is the milliosmole (mOsm), which is the number of milliequivalents of solute per kilogram of solvent. Body fluids are usually maintained within the range of 280 to 300 mOsm. Osmoregulators and Osmoconformers Persons lost at sea without any fresh water to drink are at risk of severe dehydration because the human body cannot adapt to drinking seawater, which is hypertonic in comparison to body fluids. Organisms such as goldfish that can tolerate only a relatively narrow range of salinity are referred to as stenohaline. About 90 percent of all bony fish are restricted to either freshwater or seawater. They are incapable of osmotic regulation in the opposite environment. It is possible, however, for a few fishes like salmon to spend part of their life in fresh water and part in sea water. Organisms like the salmon and molly that can tolerate a relatively wide range of salinity are referred to as euryhaline organisms. This is possible because some fish have evolved osmoregulatory mechanisms to survive in all kinds of aquatic environments. When they live in fresh water, their bodies tend to take up water because the environment is relatively hypotonic, as illustrated in Figurea. In such hypotonic environments, these fish do not drink much water. Instead, they pass a lot of very dilute urine, and they achieve electrolyte balance by active transport of salts through the gills. When they move to a hypertonic marine environment, these fish start drinking sea water; they excrete the excess salts through their gills and their urine, as illustrated in Figureb. Most marine invertebrates, on the other hand, may be isotonic with sea water (osmoconformers). Their body fluid concentrations conform to changes in seawater concentration. Cartilaginous fishes’ salt composition of the blood is similar to bony fishes; however, the blood of sharks contains the organic compounds urea and trimethylamine oxide (TMAO). This does not mean that their electrolyte composition is similar to that of sea water. They achieve isotonicity with the sea by storing large concentrations of urea. These animals that secrete urea are called ureotelic animals. TMAO stabilizes proteins in the presence of high urea levels, preventing the disruption of peptide bonds that would occur in other animals exposed to similar levels of urea. Sharks are cartilaginous fish with a rectal gland to secrete salt and assist in osmoregulation. Career Connection Dialysis TechnicianDialysis is a medical process of removing wastes and excess water from the blood by diffusion and ultrafiltration. When kidney function fails, dialysis must be done to artificially rid the body of wastes. This is a vital process to keep patients alive. In some cases, the patients undergo artificial dialysis until they are eligible for a kidney transplant. In others who are not candidates for kidney transplants, dialysis is a life-long necessity. Dialysis technicians typically work in hospitals and clinics. While some roles in this field include equipment development and maintenance, most dialysis technicians work in direct patient care. Their on-the-job duties, which typically occur under the direct supervision of a registered nurse, focus on providing dialysis treatments. This can include reviewing patient history and current condition, assessing and responding to patient needs before and during treatment, and monitoring the dialysis process. Treatment may include taking and reporting a patient’s vital signs and preparing solutions and equipment to ensure accurate and sterile procedures. Section Summary Solute concentrations across a semi-permeable membranes influence the movement of water and solutes across the membrane. It is the number of solute molecules and not the molecular size that is important in osmosis. Osmoregulation and osmotic balance are important bodily functions, resulting in water and salt balance. Not all solutes can pass through a semi-permeable membrane. Osmosis is the movement of water across the membrane. Osmosis occurs to equalize the number of solute molecules across a semi-permeable membrane by the movement of water to the side of higher solute concentration. Facilitated diffusion utilizes protein channels to move solute molecules from areas of higher to lower concentration while active transport mechanisms are required to move solutes against concentration gradients. Osmolarity is measured in units of milliequivalents or milliosmoles, both of which take into consideration the number of solute particles and the charge on them. Fish that live in fresh water or saltwater adapt by being osmoregulators or osmoconformers. Review Questions When a dehydrated human patient needs to be given fluids intravenously, he or she is given: - water, which is hypotonic with respect to body fluids - saline at a concentration that is isotonic with respect to body fluids - glucose because it is a non-electrolyte - blood Hint: B The sodium ion is at the highest concentration in: - intracellular fluid - extracellular fluid - blood plasma - none of the above Hint: B Cells in a hypertonic solution tend to: - shrink due to water loss - swell due to water gain - stay the same size due to water moving into and out of the cell at the same rate - none of the above Hint: A Free Response Why is excretion important in order to achieve osmotic balance? Hint: Excretion allows an organism to rid itself of waste molecules that could be toxic if allowed to accumulate. It also allows the organism to keep the amount of water and dissolved solutes in balance. Why do electrolyte ions move across membranes by active transport? Hint: Electrolyte ions often require special mechanisms to cross the semi-permeable membranes in the body. Active transport is the movement against a concentration gradient.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.120003	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15148/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15149/overview	The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain how the kidneys serve as the main osmoregulatory organs in mammalian systems - Describe the structure of the kidneys and the functions of the parts of the kidney - Describe how the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and explain how it actively filters blood and generates urine - Detail the three steps in the formation of urine: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion Although the kidneys are the major osmoregulatory organ, the skin and lungs also play a role in the process. Water and electrolytes are lost through sweat glands in the skin, which helps moisturize and cool the skin surface, while the lungs expel a small amount of water in the form of mucous secretions and via evaporation of water vapor. Kidneys: The Main Osmoregulatory Organ The kidneys, illustrated in Figure, are a pair of bean-shaped structures that are located just below and posterior to the liver in the peritoneal cavity. The adrenal glands sit on top of each kidney and are also called the suprarenal glands. Kidneys filter blood and purify it. All the blood in the human body is filtered many times a day by the kidneys; these organs use up almost 25 percent of the oxygen absorbed through the lungs to perform this function. Oxygen allows the kidney cells to efficiently manufacture chemical energy in the form of ATP through aerobic respiration. The filtrate coming out of the kidneys is called urine. Kidney Structure Externally, the kidneys are surrounded by three layers, illustrated in Figure. The outermost layer is a tough connective tissue layer called the renal fascia. The second layer is called the perirenal fat capsule, which helps anchor the kidneys in place. The third and innermost layer is the renal capsule. Internally, the kidney has three regions—an outer cortex, a medulla in the middle, and the renal pelvis in the region called the hilum of the kidney. The hilum is the concave part of the bean-shape where blood vessels and nerves enter and exit the kidney; it is also the point of exit for the ureters. The renal cortex is granular due to the presence of nephrons—the functional unit of the kidney. The medulla consists of multiple pyramidal tissue masses, called the renal pyramids. In between the pyramids are spaces called renal columns through which the blood vessels pass. The tips of the pyramids, called renal papillae, point toward the renal pelvis. There are, on average, eight renal pyramids in each kidney. The renal pyramids along with the adjoining cortical region are called the lobes of the kidney. The renal pelvis leads to the ureter on the outside of the kidney. On the inside of the kidney, the renal pelvis branches out into two or three extensions called the major calyces, which further branch into the minor calyces. The ureters are urine-bearing tubes that exit the kidney and empty into the urinary bladder. Art Connection Which of the following statements about the kidney is false? - The renal pelvis drains into the ureter. - The renal pyramids are in the medulla. - The cortex covers the capsule. - Nephrons are in the renal cortex. Because the kidney filters blood, its network of blood vessels is an important component of its structure and function. The arteries, veins, and nerves that supply the kidney enter and exit at the renal hilum. Renal blood supply starts with the branching of the aorta into the renal arteries (which are each named based on the region of the kidney they pass through) and ends with the exiting of the renal veins to join the inferior vena cava. The renal arteries split into several segmental arteries upon entering the kidneys. Each segmental artery splits further into several interlobar arteries and enters the renal columns, which supply the renal lobes. The interlobar arteries split at the junction of the renal cortex and medulla to form the arcuate arteries. The arcuate “bow shaped” arteries form arcs along the base of the medullary pyramids. Cortical radiate arteries, as the name suggests, radiate out from the arcuate arteries. The cortical radiate arteries branch into numerous afferent arterioles, and then enter the capillaries supplying the nephrons. Veins trace the path of the arteries and have similar names, except there are no segmental veins. As mentioned previously, the functional unit of the kidney is the nephron, illustrated in Figure. Each kidney is made up of over one million nephrons that dot the renal cortex, giving it a granular appearance when sectioned sagittally. There are two types of nephrons—cortical nephrons (85 percent), which are deep in the renal cortex, and juxtamedullary nephrons (15 percent), which lie in the renal cortex close to the renal medulla. A nephron consists of three parts—a renal corpuscle, a renal tubule, and the associated capillary network, which originates from the cortical radiate arteries. Art Connection Which of the following statements about the nephron is false? - The collecting duct empties into the distal convoluted tubule. - The Bowman’s capsule surrounds the glomerulus. - The loop of Henle is between the proximal and distal convoluted tubules. - The loop of Henle empties into the distal convoluted tubule. Renal Corpuscle The renal corpuscle, located in the renal cortex, is made up of a network of capillaries known as the glomerulus and the capsule, a cup-shaped chamber that surrounds it, called the glomerular or Bowman's capsule. Renal Tubule The renal tubule is a long and convoluted structure that emerges from the glomerulus and can be divided into three parts based on function. The first part is called the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) due to its proximity to the glomerulus; it stays in the renal cortex. The second part is called the loop of Henle, or nephritic loop, because it forms a loop (with descending and ascending limbs) that goes through the renal medulla. The third part of the renal tubule is called the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and this part is also restricted to the renal cortex. The DCT, which is the last part of the nephron, connects and empties its contents into collecting ducts that line the medullary pyramids. The collecting ducts amass contents from multiple nephrons and fuse together as they enter the papillae of the renal medulla. Capillary Network within the Nephron The capillary network that originates from the renal arteries supplies the nephron with blood that needs to be filtered. The branch that enters the glomerulus is called the afferent arteriole. The branch that exits the glomerulus is called the efferent arteriole. Within the glomerulus, the network of capillaries is called the glomerular capillary bed. Once the efferent arteriole exits the glomerulus, it forms the peritubular capillary network, which surrounds and interacts with parts of the renal tubule. In cortical nephrons, the peritubular capillary network surrounds the PCT and DCT. In juxtamedullary nephrons, the peritubular capillary network forms a network around the loop of Henle and is called the vasa recta. Link to Learning Go to this website to see another coronal section of the kidney and to explore an animation of the workings of nephrons. Kidney Function and Physiology Kidneys filter blood in a three-step process. First, the nephrons filter blood that runs through the capillary network in the glomerulus. Almost all solutes, except for proteins, are filtered out into the glomerulus by a process called glomerular filtration. Second, the filtrate is collected in the renal tubules. Most of the solutes get reabsorbed in the PCT by a process called tubular reabsorption. In the loop of Henle, the filtrate continues to exchange solutes and water with the renal medulla and the peritubular capillary network. Water is also reabsorbed during this step. Then, additional solutes and wastes are secreted into the kidney tubules during tubular secretion, which is, in essence, the opposite process to tubular reabsorption. The collecting ducts collect filtrate coming from the nephrons and fuse in the medullary papillae. From here, the papillae deliver the filtrate, now called urine, into the minor calyces that eventually connect to the ureters through the renal pelvis. This entire process is illustrated in Figure. Glomerular Filtration Glomerular filtration filters out most of the solutes due to high blood pressure and specialized membranes in the afferent arteriole. The blood pressure in the glomerulus is maintained independent of factors that affect systemic blood pressure. The “leaky” connections between the endothelial cells of the glomerular capillary network allow solutes to pass through easily. All solutes in the glomerular capillaries, except for macromolecules like proteins, pass through by passive diffusion. There is no energy requirement at this stage of the filtration process. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the volume of glomerular filtrate formed per minute by the kidneys. GFR is regulated by multiple mechanisms and is an important indicator of kidney function. Link to Learning To learn more about the vascular system of kidneys, click through this review and the steps of blood flow. Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion Tubular reabsorption occurs in the PCT part of the renal tubule. Almost all nutrients are reabsorbed, and this occurs either by passive or active transport. Reabsorption of water and some key electrolytes are regulated and can be influenced by hormones. Sodium (Na+) is the most abundant ion and most of it is reabsorbed by active transport and then transported to the peritubular capillaries. Because Na+ is actively transported out of the tubule, water follows it to even out the osmotic pressure. Water is also independently reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries due to the presence of aquaporins, or water channels, in the PCT. This occurs due to the low blood pressure and high osmotic pressure in the peritubular capillaries. However, every solute has a transport maximum and the excess is not reabsorbed. In the loop of Henle, the permeability of the membrane changes. The descending limb is permeable to water, not solutes; the opposite is true for the ascending limb. Additionally, the loop of Henle invades the renal medulla, which is naturally high in salt concentration and tends to absorb water from the renal tubule and concentrate the filtrate. The osmotic gradient increases as it moves deeper into the medulla. Because two sides of the loop of Henle perform opposing functions, as illustrated in Figure, it acts as a countercurrent multiplier. The vasa recta around it acts as the countercurrent exchanger. Art Connection Loop diuretics are drugs sometimes used to treat hypertension. These drugs inhibit the reabsorption of Na+ and Cl- ions by the ascending limb of the loop of Henle. A side effect is that they increase urination. Why do you think this is the case? By the time the filtrate reaches the DCT, most of the urine and solutes have been reabsorbed. If the body requires additional water, all of it can be reabsorbed at this point. Further reabsorption is controlled by hormones, which will be discussed in a later section. Excretion of wastes occurs due to lack of reabsorption combined with tubular secretion. Undesirable products like metabolic wastes, urea, uric acid, and certain drugs, are excreted by tubular secretion. Most of the tubular secretion happens in the DCT, but some occurs in the early part of the collecting duct. Kidneys also maintain an acid-base balance by secreting excess H+ ions. Although parts of the renal tubules are named proximal and distal, in a cross-section of the kidney, the tubules are placed close together and in contact with each other and the glomerulus. This allows for exchange of chemical messengers between the different cell types. For example, the DCT ascending limb of the loop of Henle has masses of cells called macula densa, which are in contact with cells of the afferent arterioles called juxtaglomerular cells. Together, the macula densa and juxtaglomerular cells form the juxtaglomerular complex (JGC). The JGC is an endocrine structure that secretes the enzyme renin and the hormone erythropoietin. When hormones trigger the macula densa cells in the DCT due to variations in blood volume, blood pressure, or electrolyte balance, these cells can immediately communicate the problem to the capillaries in the afferent and efferent arterioles, which can constrict or relax to change the glomerular filtration rate of the kidneys. Career Connection NephrologistA nephrologist studies and deals with diseases of the kidneys—both those that cause kidney failure (such as diabetes) and the conditions that are produced by kidney disease (such as hypertension). Blood pressure, blood volume, and changes in electrolyte balance come under the purview of a nephrologist. Nephrologists usually work with other physicians who refer patients to them or consult with them about specific diagnoses and treatment plans. Patients are usually referred to a nephrologist for symptoms such as blood or protein in the urine, very high blood pressure, kidney stones, or renal failure. Nephrology is a subspecialty of internal medicine. To become a nephrologist, medical school is followed by additional training to become certified in internal medicine. An additional two or more years is spent specifically studying kidney disorders and their accompanying effects on the body. Section Summary The kidneys are the main osmoregulatory organs in mammalian systems; they function to filter blood and maintain the osmolarity of body fluids at 300 mOsm. They are surrounded by three layers and are made up internally of three distinct regions—the cortex, medulla, and pelvis. The blood vessels that transport blood into and out of the kidneys arise from and merge with the aorta and inferior vena cava, respectively. The renal arteries branch out from the aorta and enter the kidney where they further divide into segmental, interlobar, arcuate, and cortical radiate arteries. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney, which actively filters blood and generates urine. The nephron is made up of the renal corpuscle and renal tubule. Cortical nephrons are found in the renal cortex, while juxtamedullary nephrons are found in the renal cortex close to the renal medulla. The nephron filters and exchanges water and solutes with two sets of blood vessels and the tissue fluid in the kidneys. There are three steps in the formation of urine: glomerular filtration, which occurs in the glomerulus; tubular reabsorption, which occurs in the renal tubules; and tubular secretion, which also occurs in the renal tubules. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements about the nephron is false? - The collecting duct empties into the distal convoluted tubule. - The Bowman’s capsule surrounds the glomerulus. - The loop of Henle is between the proximal and distal convoluted tubules. - The loop of Henle empties into the distal convoluted tubule. Hint: Figure A Figure Loop diuretics are drugs sometimes used to treat hypertension. These drugs inhibit the reabsorption of Na+ and Cl- ions by the ascending limb of the loop of Henle. A side effect is that they increase urination. Why do you think this is the case? Hint: Figure Loop diuretics decrease the excretion of salt into the renal medulla, thereby reducing its osmolality. As a result, less water is excreted into the medulla by the descending limb, and more water is excreted as urine. Review Questions The macula densa is/are: - present in the renal medulla. - dense tissue present in the outer layer of the kidney. - cells present in the DCT and collecting tubules. - present in blood capillaries. Hint: C The osmolarity of body fluids is maintained at ________. - 100 mOsm - 300 mOsm - 1000 mOsm - it is not constantly maintained Hint: B The gland located at the top of the kidney is the ________ gland. - adrenal - pituitary - thyroid - thymus Hint: A Free Response Why are the loop of Henle and vasa recta important for the formation of concentrated urine? Hint: The loop of Henle is part of the renal tubule that loops into the renal medulla. In the loop of Henle, the filtrate exchanges solutes and water with the renal medulla and the vasa recta (the peritubular capillary network). The vasa recta acts as the countercurrent exchanger. The kidneys maintain the osmolality of the rest of the body at a constant 300 mOsm by concentrating the filtrate as it passes through the loop of Henle. Describe the structure of the kidney. Hint: Externally, the kidneys are surrounded by three layers. The outermost layer is a tough connective tissue layer called the renal fascia. The second layer is called the perirenal fat capsule, which helps anchor the kidneys in place. The third and innermost layer is the renal capsule. Internally, the kidney has three regions—an outer cortex, a medulla in the middle, and the renal pelvis in the region called the hilum of the kidney, which is the concave part of the “bean” shape.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.158588	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15149/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15150/overview	Excretion Systems Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain how vacuoles, present in microorganisms, work to excrete waste - Describe the way in which flame cells and nephridia in worms perform excretory functions and maintain osmotic balance - Explain how insects use Malpighian tubules to excrete wastes and maintain osmotic balance Microorganisms and invertebrate animals use more primitive and simple mechanisms to get rid of their metabolic wastes than the mammalian system of kidney and urinary function. Three excretory systems evolved in organisms before complex kidneys: vacuoles, flame cells, and Malpighian tubules. Contractile Vacuoles in Microorganisms The most fundamental feature of life is the presence of a cell. In other words, a cell is the simplest functional unit of a life. Bacteria are unicellular, prokaryotic organisms that have some of the least complex life processes in place; however, prokaryotes such as bacteria do not contain membrane-bound vacuoles. The cells of microorganisms like bacteria, protozoa, and fungi are bound by cell membranes and use them to interact with the environment. Some cells, including some leucocytes in humans, are able to engulf food by endocytosis—the formation of vesicles by involution of the cell membrane within the cells. The same vesicles are able to interact and exchange metabolites with the intracellular environment. In some unicellular eukaryotic organisms such as the amoeba, shown in Figure, cellular wastes and excess water are excreted by exocytosis, when the contractile vacuoles merge with the cell membrane and expel wastes into the environment. Contractile vacuoles (CV) should not be confused with vacuoles, which store food or water. Flame Cells of Planaria and Nephridia of Worms As multi-cellular systems evolved to have organ systems that divided the metabolic needs of the body, individual organs evolved to perform the excretory function. Planaria are flatworms that live in fresh water. Their excretory system consists of two tubules connected to a highly branched duct system. The cells in the tubules are called flame cells (or protonephridia) because they have a cluster of cilia that looks like a flickering flame when viewed under the microscope, as illustrated in Figurea. The cilia propel waste matter down the tubules and out of the body through excretory pores that open on the body surface; cilia also draw water from the interstitial fluid, allowing for filtration. Any valuable metabolites are recovered by reabsorption. Flame cells are found in flatworms, including parasitic tapeworms and free-living planaria. They also maintain the organism’s osmotic balance. Earthworms (annelids) have slightly more evolved excretory structures called nephridia, illustrated in Figureb. A pair of nephridia is present on each segment of the earthworm. They are similar to flame cells in that they have a tubule with cilia. Excretion occurs through a pore called the nephridiopore. They are more evolved than the flame cells in that they have a system for tubular reabsorption by a capillary network before excretion. Malpighian Tubules of Insects Malpighian tubules are found lining the gut of some species of arthropods, such as the bee illustrated in Figure. They are usually found in pairs and the number of tubules varies with the species of insect. Malpighian tubules are convoluted, which increases their surface area, and they are lined with microvilli for reabsorption and maintenance of osmotic balance. Malpighian tubules work cooperatively with specialized glands in the wall of the rectum. Body fluids are not filtered as in the case of nephridia; urine is produced by tubular secretion mechanisms by the cells lining the Malpighian tubules that are bathed in hemolymph (a mixture of blood and interstitial fluid that is found in insects and other arthropods as well as most mollusks). Metabolic wastes like uric acid freely diffuse into the tubules. There are exchange pumps lining the tubules, which actively transport H+ ions into the cell and K+ or Na+ ions out; water passively follows to form urine. The secretion of ions alters the osmotic pressure which draws water, electrolytes, and nitrogenous waste (uric acid) into the tubules. Water and electrolytes are reabsorbed when these organisms are faced with low-water environments, and uric acid is excreted as a thick paste or powder. Not dissolving wastes in water helps these organisms to conserve water; this is especially important for life in dry environments. Link to Learning See a dissected cockroach, including a close-up look at its Malpighian tubules. Section Summary Many systems have evolved for excreting wastes that are simpler than the kidney and urinary systems of vertebrate animals. The simplest system is that of contractile vacuoles present in microorganisms. Flame cells and nephridia in worms perform excretory functions and maintain osmotic balance. Some insects have evolved Malpighian tubules to excrete wastes and maintain osmotic balance. Review Questions Active transport of K+ in Malpighian tubules ensures that: - water follows K+ to make urine - osmotic balance is maintained between waste matter and bodily fluids - both a and b - neither a nor b Hint: C Contractile vacuoles in microorganisms: - exclusively perform an excretory function - can perform many functions, one of which is excretion of metabolic wastes - originate from the cell membrane - both b and c Hint: D Flame cells are primitive excretory organs found in ________. - arthropods - annelids - mammals - flatworms Hint: D Free Response Why might specialized organs have evolved for excretion of wastes? Hint: The removal of wastes, which could otherwise be toxic to an organism, is extremely important for survival. Having organs that specialize in this process and that operate separately from other organs provides a measure of safety for the organism. Explain two different excretory systems other than the kidneys. Hint: (1) Microorganisms engulf food by endocytosis—the formation of vacuoles by involution of the cell membrane within the cells. The same vacuoles interact and exchange metabolites with the intracellular environment. Cellular wastes are excreted by exocytosis when the vacuoles merge with the cell membrane and excrete wastes into the environment. (2) Flatworms have an excretory system that consists of two tubules. The cells in the tubules are called flame cells; they have a cluster of cilia that propel waste matter down the tubules and out of the body. (3) Annelids have nephridia which have a tubule with cilia. Excretion occurs through a pore called the nephridiopore. Annelids have a system for tubular reabsorption by a capillary network before excretion. (4) Malpighian tubules are found in some species of arthropods. They are usually found in pairs, and the number of tubules varies with the species of insect. Malpighian tubules are convoluted, which increases their surface area, and they are lined with microvilli for reabsorption and maintenance of osmotic balance. Metabolic wastes like uric acid freely diffuse into the tubules. Potassium ion pumps line the tubules, which actively transport out K+ ions, and water follows to form urine. Water and electrolytes are reabsorbed when these organisms are faced with low-water environments, and uric acid is excreted as a thick paste or powder. By not dissolving wastes in water, these organisms conserve water.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.184803	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15150/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15151/overview	Nitrogenous Wastes Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Compare and contrast the way in which aquatic animals and terrestrial animals can eliminate toxic ammonia from their systems - Compare the major byproduct of ammonia metabolism in vertebrate animals to that of birds, insects, and reptiles Of the four major macromolecules in biological systems, both proteins and nucleic acids contain nitrogen. During the catabolism, or breakdown, of nitrogen-containing macromolecules, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are extracted and stored in the form of carbohydrates and fats. Excess nitrogen is excreted from the body. Nitrogenous wastes tend to form toxic ammonia, which raises the pH of body fluids. The formation of ammonia itself requires energy in the form of ATP and large quantities of water to dilute it out of a biological system. Animals that live in aquatic environments tend to release ammonia into the water. Animals that excrete ammonia are said to be ammonotelic. Terrestrial organisms have evolved other mechanisms to excrete nitrogenous wastes. The animals must detoxify ammonia by converting it into a relatively nontoxic form such as urea or uric acid. Mammals, including humans, produce urea, whereas reptiles and many terrestrial invertebrates produce uric acid. Animals that secrete urea as the primary nitrogenous waste material are called ureotelic animals. Nitrogenous Waste in Terrestrial Animals: The Urea Cycle The urea cycle is the primary mechanism by which mammals convert ammonia to urea. Urea is made in the liver and excreted in urine. The overall chemical reaction by which ammonia is converted to urea is 2 NH3 (ammonia) + CO2 + 3 ATP + H2O → H2N-CO-NH2 (urea) + 2 ADP + 4 Pi + AMP. The urea cycle utilizes five intermediate steps, catalyzed by five different enzymes, to convert ammonia to urea, as shown in Figure. The amino acid L-ornithine gets converted into different intermediates before being regenerated at the end of the urea cycle. Hence, the urea cycle is also referred to as the ornithine cycle. The enzyme ornithine transcarbamylase catalyzes a key step in the urea cycle and its deficiency can lead to accumulation of toxic levels of ammonia in the body. The first two reactions occur in the mitochondria and the last three reactions occur in the cytosol. Urea concentration in the blood, called blood urea nitrogen or BUN, is used as an indicator of kidney function. Evolution Connection Excretion of Nitrogenous WasteThe theory of evolution proposes that life started in an aquatic environment. It is not surprising to see that biochemical pathways like the urea cycle evolved to adapt to a changing environment when terrestrial life forms evolved. Arid conditions probably led to the evolution of the uric acid pathway as a means of conserving water. Nitrogenous Waste in Birds and Reptiles: Uric Acid Birds, reptiles, and most terrestrial arthropods convert toxic ammonia to uric acid or the closely related compound guanine (guano) instead of urea. Mammals also form some uric acid during breakdown of nucleic acids. Uric acid is a compound similar to purines found in nucleic acids. It is water insoluble and tends to form a white paste or powder; it is excreted by birds, insects, and reptiles. Conversion of ammonia to uric acid requires more energy and is much more complex than conversion of ammonia to urea Figure. Everyday Connection GoutMammals use uric acid crystals as an antioxidant in their cells. However, too much uric acid tends to form kidney stones and may also cause a painful condition called gout, where uric acid crystals accumulate in the joints, as illustrated in Figure. Food choices that reduce the amount of nitrogenous bases in the diet help reduce the risk of gout. For example, tea, coffee, and chocolate have purine-like compounds, called xanthines, and should be avoided by people with gout and kidney stones. Section Summary Ammonia is the waste produced by metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds like proteins and nucleic acids. While aquatic animals can easily excrete ammonia into their watery surroundings, terrestrial animals have evolved special mechanisms to eliminate the toxic ammonia from their systems. Urea is the major byproduct of ammonia metabolism in vertebrate animals. Uric acid is the major byproduct of ammonia metabolism in birds, terrestrial arthropods, and reptiles. Review Questions BUN is ________. - blood urea nitrogen - blood uric acid nitrogen - an indicator of blood volume - an indicator of blood pressure Hint: A Human beings accumulate ________ before excreting nitrogenous waste. - nitrogen - ammonia - urea - uric acid Hint: C Free Response In terms of evolution, why might the urea cycle have evolved in organisms? Hint: It is believed that the urea cycle evolved to adapt to a changing environment when terrestrial life forms evolved. Arid conditions probably led to the evolution of the uric acid pathway as a means of conserving water. Compare and contrast the formation of urea and uric acid. Hint: The urea cycle is the primary mechanism by which mammals convert ammonia to urea. Urea is made in the liver and excreted in urine. The urea cycle utilizes five intermediate steps, catalyzed by five different enzymes, to convert ammonia to urea. Birds, reptiles, and insects, on the other hand, convert toxic ammonia to uric acid instead of urea. Conversion of ammonia to uric acid requires more energy and is much more complex than conversion of ammonia to urea.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.207282	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15151/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15152/overview	Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain how hormonal cues help the kidneys synchronize the osmotic needs of the body - Describe how hormones like epinephrine, norepinephrine, renin-angiotensin, aldosterone, anti-diuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic peptide help regulate waste elimination, maintain correct osmolarity, and perform other osmoregulatory functions While the kidneys operate to maintain osmotic balance and blood pressure in the body, they also act in concert with hormones. Hormones are small molecules that act as messengers within the body. Hormones are typically secreted from one cell and travel in the bloodstream to affect a target cell in another portion of the body. Different regions of the nephron bear specialized cells that have receptors to respond to chemical messengers and hormones. Table summarizes the hormones that control the osmoregulatory functions. \| Hormones That Affect Osmoregulation \| \|\| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Hormone \| Where produced \| Function \| \| Epinephrine and Norepinephrine \| Adrenal medulla \| Can decrease kidney function temporarily by vasoconstriction \| \| Renin \| Kidney nephrons \| Increases blood pressure by acting on angiotensinogen \| \| Angiotensin \| Liver \| Angiotensin II affects multiple processes and increases blood pressure \| \| Aldosterone \| Adrenal cortex \| Prevents loss of sodium and water \| \| Anti-diuretic hormone (vasopressin) \| Hypothalamus (stored in the posterior pituitary) \| Prevents water loss \| \| Atrial natriuretic peptide \| Heart atrium \| Decreases blood pressure by acting as a vasodilator and increasing glomerular filtration rate; decreases sodium reabsorption in kidneys \| Epinephrine and Norepinephrine Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by the adrenal medulla and nervous system respectively. They are the flight/fight hormones that are released when the body is under extreme stress. During stress, much of the body’s energy is used to combat imminent danger. Kidney function is halted temporarily by epinephrine and norepinephrine. These hormones function by acting directly on the smooth muscles of blood vessels to constrict them. Once the afferent arterioles are constricted, blood flow into the nephrons stops. These hormones go one step further and trigger the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, illustrated in Figure proceeds through several steps to produce angiotensin II, which acts to stabilize blood pressure and volume. Renin (secreted by a part of the juxtaglomerular complex) is produced by the granular cells of the afferent and efferent arterioles. Thus, the kidneys control blood pressure and volume directly. Renin acts on angiotensinogen, which is made in the liver and converts it to angiotensin I. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels. It also triggers the release of the mineralocorticoid aldosterone from the adrenal cortex, which in turn stimulates the renal tubules to reabsorb more sodium. Angiotensin II also triggers the release of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) from the hypothalamus, leading to water retention in the kidneys. It acts directly on the nephrons and decreases glomerular filtration rate. Medically, blood pressure can be controlled by drugs that inhibit ACE (called ACE inhibitors). Mineralocorticoids Mineralocorticoids are hormones synthesized by the adrenal cortex that affect osmotic balance. Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid that regulates sodium levels in the blood. Almost all of the sodium in the blood is reclaimed by the renal tubules under the influence of aldosterone. Because sodium is always reabsorbed by active transport and water follows sodium to maintain osmotic balance, aldosterone manages not only sodium levels but also the water levels in body fluids. In contrast, the aldosterone also stimulates potassium secretion concurrently with sodium reabsorption. In contrast, absence of aldosterone means that no sodium gets reabsorbed in the renal tubules and all of it gets excreted in the urine. In addition, the daily dietary potassium load is not secreted and the retention of K+ can cause a dangerous increase in plasma K+ concentration. Patients who have Addison's disease have a failing adrenal cortex and cannot produce aldosterone. They lose sodium in their urine constantly, and if the supply is not replenished, the consequences can be fatal. Antidiurectic Hormone As previously discussed, antidiuretic hormone or ADH (also called vasopressin), as the name suggests, helps the body conserve water when body fluid volume, especially that of blood, is low. It is formed by the hypothalamus and is stored and released from the posterior pituitary. It acts by inserting aquaporins in the collecting ducts and promotes reabsorption of water. ADH also acts as a vasoconstrictor and increases blood pressure during hemorrhaging. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide Hormone The atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) lowers blood pressure by acting as a vasodilator. It is released by cells in the atrium of the heart in response to high blood pressure and in patients with sleep apnea. ANP affects salt release, and because water passively follows salt to maintain osmotic balance, it also has a diuretic effect. ANP also prevents sodium reabsorption by the renal tubules, decreasing water reabsorption (thus acting as a diuretic) and lowering blood pressure. Its actions suppress the actions of aldosterone, ADH, and renin. Section Summary Hormonal cues help the kidneys synchronize the osmotic needs of the body. Hormones like epinephrine, norepinephrine, renin-angiotensin, aldosterone, anti-diuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic peptide help regulate the needs of the body as well as the communication between the different organ systems. Review Questions Renin is made by ________. - granular cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus - the kidneys - the nephrons - All of the above. Hint: A Patients with Addison's disease ________. - retain water - retain salts - lose salts and water - have too much aldosterone Hint: C Which hormone elicits the “fight or flight” response? - epinephrine - mineralcorticoids - anti-diuretic hormone - thyroxine Hint: A Free Response Describe how hormones regulate blood pressure, blood volume, and kidney function. Hint: Hormones are small molecules that act as messengers within the body. Different regions of the nephron bear specialized cells, which have receptors to respond to chemical messengers and hormones. The hormones carry messages to the kidney. These hormonal cues help the kidneys synchronize the osmotic needs of the body. Hormones like epinephrine, norepinephrine, renin-angiotensin, aldosterone, anti-diuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic peptide help regulate the needs of the body as well as the communication between the different organ systems. How does the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism function? Why is it controlled by the kidneys? Hint: The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system acts through several steps to produce angiotensin II, which acts to stabilize blood pressure and volume. Thus, the kidneys control blood pressure and volume directly. Renin acts on angiotensinogen, which is made in the liver and converts it to angiotensin I. ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme) converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels. It triggers the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex, which in turn stimulates the renal tubules to reabsorb more sodium. Angiotensin II also triggers the release of anti-diuretic hormone from the hypothalamus, which leads to water retention. It acts directly on the nephrons and decreases GFR.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.234672	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15152/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15153/overview	Introduction The environment consists of numerous pathogens, which are agents, usually microorganisms, that cause diseases in their hosts. A host is the organism that is invaded and often harmed by a pathogen. Pathogens include bacteria, protists, fungi and other infectious organisms. We are constantly exposed to pathogens in food and water, on surfaces, and in the air. Mammalian immune systems evolved for protection from such pathogens; they are composed of an extremely diverse array of specialized cells and soluble molecules that coordinate a rapid and flexible defense system capable of providing protection from a majority of these disease agents. Components of the immune system constantly search the body for signs of pathogens. When pathogens are found, immune factors are mobilized to the site of an infection. The immune factors identify the nature of the pathogen, strengthen the corresponding cells and molecules to combat it efficiently, and then halt the immune response after the infection is cleared to avoid unnecessary host cell damage. The immune system can remember pathogens to which it has been exposed to create a more efficient response upon re-exposure. This memory can last several decades. Features of the immune system, such as pathogen identification, specific response, amplification, retreat, and remembrance are essential for survival against pathogens. The immune response can be classified as either innate or active. The innate immune response is always present and attempts to defend against all pathogens rather than focusing on specific ones. Conversely, the adaptive immune response stores information about past infections and mounts pathogen-specific defenses.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.250820	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15153/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15154/overview	Innate Immune Response Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe physical and chemical immune barriers - Explain immediate and induced innate immune responses - Discuss natural killer cells - Describe major histocompatibility class I molecules - Summarize how the proteins in a complement system function to destroy extracellular pathogens The immune system comprises both innate and adaptive immune responses. Innate immunity occurs naturally because of genetic factors or physiology; it is not induced by infection or vaccination but works to reduce the workload for the adaptive immune response. Both the innate and adaptive levels of the immune response involve secreted proteins, receptor-mediated signaling, and intricate cell-to-cell communication. The innate immune system developed early in animal evolution, roughly a billion years ago, as an essential response to infection. Innate immunity has a limited number of specific targets: any pathogenic threat triggers a consistent sequence of events that can identify the type of pathogen and either clear the infection independently or mobilize a highly specialized adaptive immune response. For example, tears and mucus secretions contain microbicidal factors. Physical and Chemical Barriers Before any immune factors are triggered, the skin functions as a continuous, impassable barrier to potentially infectious pathogens. Pathogens are killed or inactivated on the skin by desiccation (drying out) and by the skin’s acidity. In addition, beneficial microorganisms that coexist on the skin compete with invading pathogens, preventing infection. Regions of the body that are not protected by skin (such as the eyes and mucus membranes) have alternative methods of defense, such as tears and mucus secretions that trap and rinse away pathogens, and cilia in the nasal passages and respiratory tract that push the mucus with the pathogens out of the body. Throughout the body are other defenses, such as the low pH of the stomach (which inhibits the growth of pathogens), blood proteins that bind and disrupt bacterial cell membranes, and the process of urination (which flushes pathogens from the urinary tract). Despite these barriers, pathogens may enter the body through skin abrasions or punctures, or by collecting on mucosal surfaces in large numbers that overcome the mucus or cilia. Some pathogens have evolved specific mechanisms that allow them to overcome physical and chemical barriers. When pathogens do enter the body, the innate immune system responds with inflammation, pathogen engulfment, and secretion of immune factors and proteins. Pathogen Recognition An infection may be intracellular or extracellular, depending on the pathogen. All viruses infect cells and replicate within those cells (intracellularly), whereas bacteria and other parasites may replicate intracellularly or extracellularly, depending on the species. The innate immune system must respond accordingly: by identifying the extracellular pathogen and/or by identifying host cells that have already been infected. When a pathogen enters the body, cells in the blood and lymph detect the specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the pathogen’s surface. PAMPs are carbohydrate, polypeptide, and nucleic acid “signatures” that are expressed by viruses, bacteria, and parasites but which differ from molecules on host cells. The immune system has specific cells, described in Figure and shown in Figure, with receptors that recognize these PAMPs. A macrophage is a large phagocytic cell that engulfs foreign particles and pathogens. Macrophages recognize PAMPs via complementary pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). PRRs are molecules on macrophages and dendritic cells which are in contact with the external environment. A monocyte is a type of white blood cell that circulates in the blood and lymph and differentiates into macrophages after it moves into infected tissue. Dendritic cells bind molecular signatures of pathogens and promote pathogen engulfment and destruction. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a type of PRR that recognizes molecules that are shared by pathogens but distinguishable from host molecules). TLRs are present in invertebrates as well as vertebrates, and appear to be one of the most ancient components of the immune system. TLRs have also been identified in the mammalian nervous system. Cytokine Release Effect The binding of PRRs with PAMPs triggers the release of cytokines, which signal that a pathogen is present and needs to be destroyed along with any infected cells. A cytokine is a chemical messenger that regulates cell differentiation (form and function), proliferation (production), and gene expression to affect immune responses. At least 40 types of cytokines exist in humans that differ in terms of the cell type that produces them, the cell type that responds to them, and the changes they produce. One type cytokine, interferon, is illustrated in Figure. One subclass of cytokines is the interleukin (IL), so named because they mediate interactions between leukocytes (white blood cells). Interleukins are involved in bridging the innate and adaptive immune responses. In addition to being released from cells after PAMP recognition, cytokines are released by the infected cells which bind to nearby uninfected cells and induce those cells to release cytokines, which results in a cytokine burst. A second class of early-acting cytokines is interferons, which are released by infected cells as a warning to nearby uninfected cells. One of the functions of an interferon is to inhibit viral replication. They also have other important functions, such as tumor surveillance. Interferons work by signaling neighboring uninfected cells to destroy RNA and reduce protein synthesis, signaling neighboring infected cells to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death), and activating immune cells. In response to interferons, uninfected cells alter their gene expression, which increases the cells’ resistance to infection. One effect of interferon-induced gene expression is a sharply reduced cellular protein synthesis. Virally infected cells produce more viruses by synthesizing large quantities of viral proteins. Thus, by reducing protein synthesis, a cell becomes resistant to viral infection. Phagocytosis and Inflammation The first cytokines to be produced are pro-inflammatory; that is, they encourage inflammation, the localized redness, swelling, heat, and pain that result from the movement of leukocytes and fluid through increasingly permeable capillaries to a site of infection. The population of leukocytes that arrives at an infection site depends on the nature of the infecting pathogen. Both macrophages and dendritic cells engulf pathogens and cellular debris through phagocytosis. A neutrophil is also a phagocytic leukocyte that engulfs and digests pathogens. Neutrophils, shown in Figure, are the most abundant leukocytes of the immune system. Neutrophils have a nucleus with two to five lobes, and they contain organelles, called lysosomes, that digest engulfed pathogens. An eosinophil is a leukocyte that works with other eosinophils to surround a parasite; it is involved in the allergic response and in protection against helminthes (parasitic worms). Neutrophils and eosinophils are particularly important leukocytes that engulf large pathogens, such as bacteria and fungi. A mast cell is a leukocyte that produces inflammatory molecules, such as histamine, in response to large pathogens. A basophil is a leukocyte that, like a neutrophil, releases chemicals to stimulate the inflammatory response as illustrated in Figure. Basophils are also involved in allergy and hypersensitivity responses and induce specific types of inflammatory responses. Eosinophils and basophils produce additional inflammatory mediators to recruit more leukocytes. A hypersensitive immune response to harmless antigens, such as in pollen, often involves the release of histamine by basophils and mast cells. Cytokines also send feedback to cells of the nervous system to bring about the overall symptoms of feeling sick, which include lethargy, muscle pain, and nausea. These effects may have evolved because the symptoms encourage the individual to rest and prevent them from spreading the infection to others. Cytokines also increase the core body temperature, causing a fever, which causes the liver to withhold iron from the blood. Without iron, certain pathogens, such as some bacteria, are unable to replicate; this is called nutritional immunity. Link to Learning Watch this 23-second stop-motion video showing a neutrophil that searches for and engulfs fungus spores during an elapsed time of about 79 minutes. Natural Killer Cells Lymphocytes are leukocytes that are histologically identifiable by their large, darkly staining nuclei; they are small cells with very little cytoplasm, as shown in Figure. Infected cells are identified and destroyed by natural killer (NK) cells, lymphocytes that can kill cells infected with viruses or tumor cells (abnormal cells that uncontrollably divide and invade other tissue). T cells and B cells of the adaptive immune system also are classified as lymphocytes. T cells are lymphocytes that mature in the thymus gland, and B cells are lymphocytes that mature in the bone marrow. NK cells identify intracellular infections, especially from viruses, by the altered expression of major histocompatibility class (MHC) I molecules on the surface of infected cells. MHC I molecules are proteins on the surfaces of all nucleated cells, thus they are scarce on red blood cells and platelets which are non-nucleated. The function of MHC I molecules is to display fragments of proteins from the infectious agents within the cell to T-cells; healthy cells will be ignored, while “non-self” or foreign proteins will be attacked by the immune system. MHC II molecules are found mainly on cells containing antigens (“non-self proteins”) and on lymphocytes. MHC II molecules interact with helper T-cells to trigger the appropriate immune response, which may include the inflammatory response. An infected cell (or a tumor cell) is usually incapable of synthesizing and displaying MHC I molecules appropriately. The metabolic resources of cells infected by some viruses produce proteins that interfere with MHC I processing and/or trafficking to the cell surface. The reduced MHC I on host cells varies from virus to virus and results from active inhibitors being produced by the viruses. This process can deplete host MHC I molecules on the cell surface, which NK cells detect as “unhealthy” or “abnormal” while searching for cellular MHC I molecules. Similarly, the dramatically altered gene expression of tumor cells leads to expression of extremely deformed or absent MHC I molecules that also signal “unhealthy” or “abnormal.” NK cells are always active; an interaction with normal, intact MHC I molecules on a healthy cell disables the killing sequence, and the NK cell moves on. After the NK cell detects an infected or tumor cell, its cytoplasm secretes granules comprised of perforin, a destructive protein that creates a pore in the target cell. Granzymes are released along with the perforin in the immunological synapse. A granzyme is a protease that digests cellular proteins and induces the target cell to undergo programmed cell death, or apoptosis. Phagocytic cells then digest the cell debris left behind. NK cells are constantly patrolling the body and are an effective mechanism for controlling potential infections and preventing cancer progression. Complement An array of approximately 20 types of soluble proteins, called a complement system, functions to destroy extracellular pathogens. Cells of the liver and macrophages synthesize complement proteins continuously; these proteins are abundant in the blood serum and are capable of responding immediately to infecting microorganisms. The complement system is so named because it is complementary to the antibody response of the adaptive immune system. Complement proteins bind to the surfaces of microorganisms and are particularly attracted to pathogens that are already bound by antibodies. Binding of complement proteins occurs in a specific and highly regulated sequence, with each successive protein being activated by cleavage and/or structural changes induced upon binding of the preceding protein(s). After the first few complement proteins bind, a cascade of sequential binding events follows in which the pathogen rapidly becomes coated in complement proteins. Complement proteins perform several functions. The proteins serve as a marker to indicate the presence of a pathogen to phagocytic cells, such as macrophages and B cells, and enhance engulfment; this process is called opsonization. Certain complement proteins can combine to form attack complexes that open pores in microbial cell membranes. These structures destroy pathogens by causing their contents to leak, as illustrated in Figure. Section Summary The innate immune system serves as a first responder to pathogenic threats that bypass natural physical and chemical barriers of the body. Using a combination of cellular and molecular attacks, the innate immune system identifies the nature of a pathogen and responds with inflammation, phagocytosis, cytokine release, destruction by NK cells, and/or a complement system. When innate mechanisms are insufficient to clear an infection, the adaptive immune response is informed and mobilized. Review Questions Which of the following is a barrier against pathogens provided by the skin? - high pH - mucus - tears - desiccation Hint: D Although interferons have several effects, they are particularly useful against infections with which type of pathogen? - bacteria - viruses - fungi - helminths Hint: B Which organelle do phagocytes use to digest engulfed particles? - lysosome - nucleus - endoplasmic reticulum - mitochondria Hint: A Which innate immune system component uses MHC I molecules directly in its defense strategy? - macrophages - neutrophils - NK cells - interferon Hint: C Free Response Different MHC I molecules between donor and recipient cells can lead to rejection of a transplanted organ or tissue. Suggest a reason for this. Hint: If the MHC I molecules expressed on donor cells differ from the MHC I molecules expressed on recipient cells, NK cells may identify the donor cells as “non-self” and produce perforin and granzymes to induce the donor cells to undergo apoptosis, which would destroy the transplanted organ. If a series of genetic mutations prevented some, but not all, of the complement proteins from binding antibodies or pathogens, would the entire complement system be compromised? Hint: The entire complement system would probably be affected even when only a few members were mutated such that they could no longer bind. Because the complement involves the binding of activated proteins in a specific sequence, when one or more proteins in the sequence are absent, the subsequent proteins would be incapable of binding to elicit the complement’s pathogen-destructive effects.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.282620	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15154/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15155/overview	Adaptive Immune Response Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain adaptive immunity - Compare and contrast adaptive and innate immunity - Describe cell-mediated immune response and humoral immune response - Describe immune tolerance The adaptive, or acquired, immune response takes days or even weeks to become established—much longer than the innate response; however, adaptive immunity is more specific to pathogens and has memory. Adaptive immunity is an immunity that occurs after exposure to an antigen either from a pathogen or a vaccination. This part of the immune system is activated when the innate immune response is insufficient to control an infection. In fact, without information from the innate immune system, the adaptive response could not be mobilized. There are two types of adaptive responses: the cell-mediated immune response, which is carried out by T cells, and the humoral immune response, which is controlled by activated B cells and antibodies. Activated T cells and B cells that are specific to molecular structures on the pathogen proliferate and attack the invading pathogen. Their attack can kill pathogens directly or secrete antibodies that enhance the phagocytosis of pathogens and disrupt the infection. Adaptive immunity also involves a memory to provide the host with long-term protection from reinfection with the same type of pathogen; on re-exposure, this memory will facilitate an efficient and quick response. Antigen-presenting Cells Unlike NK cells of the innate immune system, B cells (B lymphocytes) are a type of white blood cell that gives rise to antibodies, whereas T cells (T lymphocytes) are a type of white blood cell that plays an important role in the immune response. T cells are a key component in the cell-mediated response—the specific immune response that utilizes T cells to neutralize cells that have been infected with viruses and certain bacteria. There are three types of T cells: cytotoxic, helper, and suppressor T cells. Cytotoxic T cells destroy virus-infected cells in the cell-mediated immune response, and helper T cells play a part in activating both the antibody and the cell-mediated immune responses. Suppressor T cells deactivate T cells and B cells when needed, and thus prevent the immune response from becoming too intense. An antigen is a foreign or “non-self” macromolecule that reacts with cells of the immune system. Not all antigens will provoke a response. For instance, individuals produce innumerable “self” antigens and are constantly exposed to harmless foreign antigens, such as food proteins, pollen, or dust components. The suppression of immune responses to harmless macromolecules is highly regulated and typically prevents processes that could be damaging to the host, known as tolerance. The innate immune system contains cells that detect potentially harmful antigens, and then inform the adaptive immune response about the presence of these antigens. An antigen-presenting cell (APC) is an immune cell that detects, engulfs, and informs the adaptive immune response about an infection. When a pathogen is detected, these APCs will phagocytose the pathogen and digest it to form many different fragments of the antigen. Antigen fragments will then be transported to the surface of the APC, where they will serve as an indicator to other immune cells. Dendritic cells are immune cells that process antigen material; they are present in the skin (Langerhans cells) and the lining of the nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines. Sometimes a dendritic cell presents on the surface of other cells to induce an immune response, thus functioning as an antigen-presenting cell. Macrophages also function as APCs. Before activation and differentiation, B cells can also function as APCs. After phagocytosis by APCs, the phagocytic vesicle fuses with an intracellular lysosome forming phagolysosome. Within the phagolysosome, the components are broken down into fragments; the fragments are then loaded onto MHC class I or MHC class II molecules and are transported to the cell surface for antigen presentation, as illustrated in Figure. Note that T lymphocytes cannot properly respond to the antigen unless it is processed and embedded in an MHC II molecule. APCs express MHC on their surfaces, and when combined with a foreign antigen, these complexes signal a “non-self” invader. Once the fragment of antigen is embedded in the MHC II molecule, the immune cell can respond. Helper T- cells are one of the main lymphocytes that respond to antigen-presenting cells. Recall that all other nucleated cells of the body expressed MHC I molecules, which signal “healthy” or “normal.” Link to Learning This animation from Rockefeller University shows how dendritic cells act as sentinels in the body's immune system. T and B Lymphocytes Lymphocytes in human circulating blood are approximately 80 to 90 percent T cells, shown in Figure, and 10 to 20 percent B cells. Recall that the T cells are involved in the cell-mediated immune response, whereas B cells are part of the humoral immune response. T cells encompass a heterogeneous population of cells with extremely diverse functions. Some T cells respond to APCs of the innate immune system, and indirectly induce immune responses by releasing cytokines. Other T cells stimulate B cells to prepare their own response. Another population of T cells detects APC signals and directly kills the infected cells. Other T cells are involved in suppressing inappropriate immune reactions to harmless or “self” antigens. T and B cells exhibit a common theme of recognition/binding of specific antigens via a complementary receptor, followed by activation and self-amplification/maturation to specifically bind to the particular antigen of the infecting pathogen. T and B lymphocytes are also similar in that each cell only expresses one type of antigen receptor. Any individual may possess a population of T and B cells that together express a near limitless variety of antigen receptors that are capable of recognizing virtually any infecting pathogen. T and B cells are activated when they recognize small components of antigens, called epitopes, presented by APCs, illustrated in Figure. Note that recognition occurs at a specific epitope rather than on the entire antigen; for this reason, epitopes are known as “antigenic determinants.” In the absence of information from APCs, T and B cells remain inactive, or naïve, and are unable to prepare an immune response. The requirement for information from the APCs of innate immunity to trigger B cell or T cell activation illustrates the essential nature of the innate immune response to the functioning of the entire immune system. Naïve T cells can express one of two different molecules, CD4 or CD8, on their surface, as shown in Figure, and are accordingly classified as CD4+ or CD8+ cells. These molecules are important because they regulate how a T cell will interact with and respond to an APC. Naïve CD4+ cells bind APCs via their antigen-embedded MHC II molecules and are stimulated to become helper T (TH) lymphocytes, cells that go on to stimulate B cells (or cytotoxic T cells) directly or secrete cytokines to inform more and various target cells about the pathogenic threat. In contrast, CD8+ cells engage antigen-embedded MHC I molecules on APCs and are stimulated to become cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), which directly kill infected cells by apoptosis and emit cytokines to amplify the immune response. The two populations of T cells have different mechanisms of immune protection, but both bind MHC molecules via their antigen receptors called T cell receptors (TCRs). The CD4 or CD8 surface molecules differentiate whether the TCR will engage an MHC II or an MHC I molecule. Because they assist in binding specificity, the CD4 and CD8 molecules are described as coreceptors. Art Connection Which of the following statements about T cells is false? - Helper T cells release cytokines while cytotoxic T cells kill the infected cell. - Helper T cells are CD4+, while cytotoxic T cells are CD8+. - MHC II is a receptor found on most body cells, while MHC I is a receptor found on immune cells only. - The T cell receptor is found on both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Consider the innumerable possible antigens that an individual will be exposed to during a lifetime. The mammalian adaptive immune system is adept in responding appropriately to each antigen. Mammals have an enormous diversity of T cell populations, resulting from the diversity of TCRs. Each TCR consists of two polypeptide chains that span the T cell membrane, as illustrated in Figure; the chains are linked by a disulfide bridge. Each polypeptide chain is comprised of a constant domain and a variable domain: a domain, in this sense, is a specific region of a protein that may be regulatory or structural. The intracellular domain is involved in intracellular signaling. A single T cell will express thousands of identical copies of one specific TCR variant on its cell surface. The specificity of the adaptive immune system occurs because it synthesizes millions of different T cell populations, each expressing a TCR that differs in its variable domain. This TCR diversity is achieved by the mutation and recombination of genes that encode these receptors in stem cell precursors of T cells. The binding between an antigen-displaying MHC molecule and a complementary TCR “match” indicates that the adaptive immune system needs to activate and produce that specific T cell because its structure is appropriate to recognize and destroy the invading pathogen. Helper T Lymphocytes The TH lymphocytes function indirectly to identify potential pathogens for other cells of the immune system. These cells are important for extracellular infections, such as those caused by certain bacteria, helminths, and protozoa. TH lymphocytes recognize specific antigens displayed in the MHC II complexes of APCs. There are two major populations of TH cells: TH1 and TH2. TH1 cells secrete cytokines to enhance the activities of macrophages and other T cells. TH1 cells activate the action of cyotoxic T cells, as well as macrophages. TH2 cells stimulate naïve B cells to destroy foreign invaders via antibody secretion. Whether a TH1 or a TH2 immune response develops depends on the specific types of cytokines secreted by cells of the innate immune system, which in turn depends on the nature of the invading pathogen. The TH1-mediated response involves macrophages and is associated with inflammation. Recall the frontline defenses of macrophages involved in the innate immune response. Some intracellular bacteria, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, have evolved to multiply in macrophages after they have been engulfed. These pathogens evade attempts by macrophages to destroy and digest the pathogen. When M. tuberculosis infection occurs, macrophages can stimulate naïve T cells to become TH1 cells. These stimulated T cells secrete specific cytokines that send feedback to the macrophage to stimulate its digestive capabilities and allow it to destroy the colonizing M. tuberculosis. In the same manner, TH1-activated macrophages also become better suited to ingest and kill tumor cells. In summary; TH1 responses are directed toward intracellular invaders while TH2 responses are aimed at those that are extracellular. B Lymphocytes When stimulated by the TH2 pathway, naïve B cells differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells. A plasma cell is an immune cell that secrets antibodies; these cells arise from B cells that were stimulated by antigens. Similar to T cells, naïve B cells initially are coated in thousands of B cell receptors (BCRs), which are membrane-bound forms of Ig (immunoglobulin, or an antibody). The B cell receptor has two heavy chains and two light chains connected by disulfide linkages. Each chain has a constant and a variable region; the latter is involved in antigen binding. Two other membrane proteins, Ig alpha and Ig beta, are involved in signaling. The receptors of any particular B cell, as shown in Figure are all the same, but the hundreds of millions of different B cells in an individual have distinct recognition domains that contribute to extensive diversity in the types of molecular structures to which they can bind. In this state, B cells function as APCs. They bind and engulf foreign antigens via their BCRs and then display processed antigens in the context of MHC II molecules to TH2 cells. When a TH2 cell detects that a B cell is bound to a relevant antigen, it secretes specific cytokines that induce the B cell to proliferate rapidly, which makes thousands of identical (clonal) copies of it, and then it synthesizes and secretes antibodies with the same antigen recognition pattern as the BCRs. The activation of B cells corresponding to one specific BCR variant and the dramatic proliferation of that variant is known as clonal selection. This phenomenon drastically, but briefly, changes the proportions of BCR variants expressed by the immune system, and shifts the balance toward BCRs specific to the infecting pathogen. T and B cells differ in one fundamental way: whereas T cells bind antigens that have been digested and embedded in MHC molecules by APCs, B cells function as APCs that bind intact antigens that have not been processed. Although T and B cells both react with molecules that are termed “antigens,” these lymphocytes actually respond to very different types of molecules. B cells must be able to bind intact antigens because they secrete antibodies that must recognize the pathogen directly, rather than digested remnants of the pathogen. Bacterial carbohydrate and lipid molecules can activate B cells independently from the T cells. Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes CTLs, a subclass of T cells, function to clear infections directly. The cell-mediated part of the adaptive immune system consists of CTLs that attack and destroy infected cells. CTLs are particularly important in protecting against viral infections; this is because viruses replicate within cells where they are shielded from extracellular contact with circulating antibodies. When APCs phagocytize pathogens and present MHC I-embedded antigens to naïve CD8+ T cells that express complementary TCRs, the CD8+ T cells become activated to proliferate according to clonal selection. These resulting CTLs then identify non-APCs displaying the same MHC I-embedded antigens (for example, viral proteins)—for example, the CTLs identify infected host cells. Intracellularly, infected cells typically die after the infecting pathogen replicates to a sufficient concentration and lyses the cell, as many viruses do. CTLs attempt to identify and destroy infected cells before the pathogen can replicate and escape, thereby halting the progression of intracellular infections. CTLs also support NK lymphocytes to destroy early cancers. Cytokines secreted by the TH1 response that stimulates macrophages also stimulate CTLs and enhance their ability to identify and destroy infected cells and tumors. CTLs sense MHC I-embedded antigens by directly interacting with infected cells via their TCRs. Binding of TCRs with antigens activates CTLs to release perforin and granzyme, degradative enzymes that will induce apoptosis of the infected cell. Recall that this is a similar destruction mechanism to that used by NK cells. In this process, the CTL does not become infected and is not harmed by the secretion of perforin and granzymes. In fact, the functions of NK cells and CTLs are complementary and maximize the removal of infected cells, as illustrated in Figure. If the NK cell cannot identify the “missing self” pattern of down-regulated MHC I molecules, then the CTL can identify it by the complex of MHC I with foreign antigens, which signals “altered self.” Similarly, if the CTL cannot detect antigen-embedded MHC I because the receptors are depleted from the cell surface, NK cells will destroy the cell instead. CTLs also emit cytokines, such as interferons, that alter surface protein expression in other infected cells, such that the infected cells can be easily identified and destroyed. Moreover, these interferons can also prevent virally infected cells from releasing virus particles. Art Connection Based on what you know about MHC receptors, why do you think an organ transplanted from an incompatible donor to a recipient will be rejected? Plasma cells and CTLs are collectively called effector cells: they represent differentiated versions of their naïve counterparts, and they are involved in bringing about the immune defense of killing pathogens and infected host cells. Mucosal Surfaces and Immune Tolerance The innate and adaptive immune responses discussed thus far comprise the systemic immune system (affecting the whole body), which is distinct from the mucosal immune system. Mucosal immunity is formed by mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, which functions independently of the systemic immune system, and which has its own innate and adaptive components. Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT), illustrated in Figure, is a collection of lymphatic tissue that combines with epithelial tissue lining the mucosa throughout the body. This tissue functions as the immune barrier and response in areas of the body with direct contact to the external environment. The systemic and mucosal immune systems use many of the same cell types. Foreign particles that make their way to MALT are taken up by absorptive epithelial cells called M cells and delivered to APCs located directly below the mucosal tissue. M cells function in the transport described, and are located in the Peyer’s patch, a lymphoid nodule. APCs of the mucosal immune system are primarily dendritic cells, with B cells and macrophages having minor roles. Processed antigens displayed on APCs are detected by T cells in the MALT and at various mucosal induction sites, such as the tonsils, adenoids, appendix, or the mesenteric lymph nodes of the intestine. Activated T cells then migrate through the lymphatic system and into the circulatory system to mucosal sites of infection. MALT is a crucial component of a functional immune system because mucosal surfaces, such as the nasal passages, are the first tissues onto which inhaled or ingested pathogens are deposited. The mucosal tissue includes the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus, and the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and urogenital tracts. The immune system has to be regulated to prevent wasteful, unnecessary responses to harmless substances, and more importantly so that it does not attack “self.” The acquired ability to prevent an unnecessary or harmful immune response to a detected foreign substance known not to cause disease is described as immune tolerance. Immune tolerance is crucial for maintaining mucosal homeostasis given the tremendous number of foreign substances (such as food proteins) that APCs of the oral cavity, pharynx, and gastrointestinal mucosa encounter. Immune tolerance is brought about by specialized APCs in the liver, lymph nodes, small intestine, and lung that present harmless antigens to an exceptionally diverse population of regulatory T (Treg) cells, specialized lymphocytes that suppress local inflammation and inhibit the secretion of stimulatory immune factors. The combined result of Treg cells is to prevent immunologic activation and inflammation in undesired tissue compartments and to allow the immune system to focus on pathogens instead. In addition to promoting immune tolerance of harmless antigens, other subsets of Treg cells are involved in the prevention of the autoimmune response, which is an inappropriate immune response to host cells or self-antigens. Another Treg class suppresses immune responses to harmful pathogens after the infection has cleared to minimize host cell damage induced by inflammation and cell lysis. Immunological Memory The adaptive immune system possesses a memory component that allows for an efficient and dramatic response upon reinvasion of the same pathogen. Memory is handled by the adaptive immune system with little reliance on cues from the innate response. During the adaptive immune response to a pathogen that has not been encountered before, called a primary response, plasma cells secreting antibodies and differentiated T cells increase, then plateau over time. As B and T cells mature into effector cells, a subset of the naïve populations differentiates into B and T memory cells with the same antigen specificities, as illustrated in Figure. A memory cell is an antigen-specific B or T lymphocyte that does not differentiate into effector cells during the primary immune response, but that can immediately become effector cells upon re-exposure to the same pathogen. During the primary immune response, memory cells do not respond to antigens and do not contribute to host defenses. As the infection is cleared and pathogenic stimuli subside, the effectors are no longer needed, and they undergo apoptosis. In contrast, the memory cells persist in the circulation. Art Connection The Rh antigen is found on Rh-positive red blood cells. An Rh-negative female can usually carry an Rh-positive fetus to term without difficulty. However, if she has a second Rh-positive fetus, her body may launch an immune attack that causes hemolytic disease of the newborn. Why do you think hemolytic disease is only a problem during the second or subsequent pregnancies? If the pathogen is never encountered again during the individual’s lifetime, B and T memory cells will circulate for a few years or even several decades and will gradually die off, having never functioned as effector cells. However, if the host is re-exposed to the same pathogen type, circulating memory cells will immediately differentiate into plasma cells and CTLs without input from APCs or TH cells. One reason the adaptive immune response is delayed is because it takes time for naïve B and T cells with the appropriate antigen specificities to be identified and activated. Upon reinfection, this step is skipped, and the result is a more rapid production of immune defenses. Memory B cells that differentiate into plasma cells output tens to hundreds-fold greater antibody amounts than were secreted during the primary response, as the graph in Figure illustrates. This rapid and dramatic antibody response may stop the infection before it can even become established, and the individual may not realize they had been exposed. Vaccination is based on the knowledge that exposure to noninfectious antigens, derived from known pathogens, generates a mild primary immune response. The immune response to vaccination may not be perceived by the host as illness but still confers immune memory. When exposed to the corresponding pathogen to which an individual was vaccinated, the reaction is similar to a secondary exposure. Because each reinfection generates more memory cells and increased resistance to the pathogen, and because some memory cells die, certain vaccine courses involve one or more booster vaccinations to mimic repeat exposures: for instance, tetanus boosters are necessary every ten years because the memory cells only live that long. Mucosal Immune Memory A subset of T and B cells of the mucosal immune system differentiates into memory cells just as in the systemic immune system. Upon reinvasion of the same pathogen type, a pronounced immune response occurs at the mucosal site where the original pathogen deposited, but a collective defense is also organized within interconnected or adjacent mucosal tissue. For instance, the immune memory of an infection in the oral cavity would also elicit a response in the pharynx if the oral cavity was exposed to the same pathogen. Career Connection VaccinologistVaccination (or immunization) involves the delivery, usually by injection as shown in Figure, of noninfectious antigen(s) derived from known pathogens. Other components, called adjuvants, are delivered in parallel to help stimulate the immune response. Immunological memory is the reason vaccines work. Ideally, the effect of vaccination is to elicit immunological memory, and thus resistance to specific pathogens without the individual having to experience an infection. Vaccinologists are involved in the process of vaccine development from the initial idea to the availability of the completed vaccine. This process can take decades, can cost millions of dollars, and can involve many obstacles along the way. For instance, injected vaccines stimulate the systemic immune system, eliciting humoral and cell-mediated immunity, but have little effect on the mucosal response, which presents a challenge because many pathogens are deposited and replicate in mucosal compartments, and the injection does not provide the most efficient immune memory for these disease agents. For this reason, vaccinologists are actively involved in developing new vaccines that are applied via intranasal, aerosol, oral, or transcutaneous (absorbed through the skin) delivery methods. Importantly, mucosal-administered vaccines elicit both mucosal and systemic immunity and produce the same level of disease resistance as injected vaccines. Currently, a version of intranasal influenza vaccine is available, and the polio and typhoid vaccines can be administered orally, as shown in Figure. Similarly, the measles and rubella vaccines are being adapted to aerosol delivery using inhalation devices. Eventually, transgenic plants may be engineered to produce vaccine antigens that can be eaten to confer disease resistance. Other vaccines may be adapted to rectal or vaginal application to elicit immune responses in rectal, genitourinary, or reproductive mucosa. Finally, vaccine antigens may be adapted to transdermal application in which the skin is lightly scraped and microneedles are used to pierce the outermost layer. In addition to mobilizing the mucosal immune response, this new generation of vaccines may end the anxiety associated with injections and, in turn, improve patient participation. Primary Centers of the Immune System Although the immune system is characterized by circulating cells throughout the body, the regulation, maturation, and intercommunication of immune factors occur at specific sites. The blood circulates immune cells, proteins, and other factors through the body. Approximately 0.1 percent of all cells in the blood are leukocytes, which encompass monocytes (the precursor of macrophages) and lymphocytes. The majority of cells in the blood are erythrocytes (red blood cells). Lymph is a watery fluid that bathes tissues and organs with protective white blood cells and does not contain erythrocytes. Cells of the immune system can travel between the distinct lymphatic and blood circulatory systems, which are separated by interstitial space, by a process called extravasation (passing through to surrounding tissue). The cells of the immune system originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. Cytokines stimulate these stem cells to differentiate into immune cells. B cell maturation occurs in the bone marrow, whereas naïve T cells transit from the bone marrow to the thymus for maturation. In the thymus, immature T cells that express TCRs complementary to self-antigens are destroyed. This process helps prevent autoimmune responses. On maturation, T and B lymphocytes circulate to various destinations. Lymph nodes scattered throughout the body, as illustrated in Figure, house large populations of T and B cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages. Lymph gathers antigens as it drains from tissues. These antigens then are filtered through lymph nodes before the lymph is returned to circulation. APCs in the lymph nodes capture and process antigens and inform nearby lymphocytes about potential pathogens. The spleen houses B and T cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and NK cells. The spleen, shown in Figure, is the site where APCs that have trapped foreign particles in the blood can communicate with lymphocytes. Antibodies are synthesized and secreted by activated plasma cells in the spleen, and the spleen filters foreign substances and antibody-complexed pathogens from the blood. Functionally, the spleen is to the blood as lymph nodes are to the lymph. Section Summary The adaptive immune response is a slower-acting, longer-lasting, and more specific response than the innate response. However, the adaptive response requires information from the innate immune system to function. APCs display antigens via MHC molecules to complementary naïve T cells. In response, the T cells differentiate and proliferate, becoming TH cells or CTLs. TH cells stimulate B cells that have engulfed and presented pathogen-derived antigens. B cells differentiate into plasma cells that secrete antibodies, whereas CTLs induce apoptosis in intracellularly infected or cancerous cells. Memory cells persist after a primary exposure to a pathogen. If re-exposure occurs, memory cells differentiate into effector cells without input from the innate immune system. The mucosal immune system is largely independent from the systemic immune system but functions in a parallel fashion to protect the extensive mucosal surfaces of the body. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements about T cells is false? - Helper T cells release cytokines while cytotoxic T cells kill the infected cell. - Helper T cells are CD4+, while cytotoxic T cells are CD8+. - MHC II is a receptor found on most body cells, while MHC I is a receptor found on immune cells only. - The T cell receptor is found on both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Hint: Figure C Figure Based on what you know about MHC receptors, why do you think an organ transplanted from an incompatible donor to a recipient will be rejected? Hint: Figure MHC receptors differ from person to person. Thus, MHC receptors on an incompatible donor are considered “non-self” and are rejected by the immune system. Figure The Rh antigen is found on Rh-positive red blood cells. An Rh-negative female can usually carry an Rh-positive fetus to term without difficulty. However, if she has a second Rh-positive fetus, her body may launch an immune attack that causes hemolytic disease of the newborn. Why do you think hemolytic disease is only a problem during the second or subsequent pregnancies? Hint: Figure If the blood of the mother and fetus mixes, memory cells that recognize the Rh antigen can form late in the first pregnancy. During subsequent pregnancies, these memory cells launch an immune attack on the fetal blood cells. Injection of anti-Rh antibody during the first pregnancy prevents the immune response from occurring. Review Questions Which of the following is both a phagocyte and an antigen-presenting cell? - NK cell - eosinophil - neutrophil - macrophage Hint: D Which immune cells bind MHC molecules on APCs via CD8 coreceptors on their cell surfaces? - TH cells - CTLs - mast cells - basophils Hint: B What “self” pattern is identified by NK cells? - altered self - missing self - normal self - non-self Hint: B The acquired ability to prevent an unnecessary or destructive immune reaction to a harmless foreign particle, such as a food protein, is called ________. - the TH2 response - allergy - immune tolerance - autoimmunity Hint: C A memory B cell can differentiate upon re-exposure to a pathogen of which cell type? - CTL - naïve B cell - memory T cell - plasma cell Hint: D Foreign particles circulating in the blood are filtered by the ________. - spleen - lymph nodes - MALT - lymph Hint: A Free Response Explain the difference between an epitope and an antigen. Hint: An antigen is a molecule that reacts with some component of the immune response (antibody, B cell receptor, T cell receptor). An epitope is the region on the antigen through which binding with the immune component actually occurs. What is a naïve B or T cell? Hint: A naïve T or B cell is one that has not been activated by binding to the appropriate epitope. Naïve T and B cells cannot produce responses. How does the TH1 response differ from the TH2 response? Hint: The TH1 response involves the secretion of cytokines to stimulate macrophages and CTLs and improve their destruction of intracellular pathogens and tumor cells. It is associated with inflammation. The TH2 response is involved in the stimulation of B cells into plasma cells that synthesize and secrete antibodies. In mammalian adaptive immune systems, T cell receptors are extraordinarily diverse. What function of the immune system results from this diversity, and how is this diversity achieved? Hint: The diversity of TCRs allows the immune system to have millions of different T cells, and thereby to be specific in distinguishing antigens. This diversity arises from mutation and recombination in the genes that encode the variable regions of TCRs. How do B and T cells differ with respect to antigens that they bind? Hint: T cells bind antigens that have been digested and embedded in MHC molecules by APCs. In contrast, B cells function themselves as APCs to bind intact, unprocessed antigens. Why is the immune response after reinfection much faster than the adaptive immune response after the initial infection? Hint: Upon reinfection, the memory cells will immediately differentiate into plasma cells and CTLs without input from APCs or TH cells. In contrast, the adaptive immune response to the initial infection requires time for naïve B and T cells with the appropriate antigen specificities to be identified and activated.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.333905	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15155/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15156/overview	Antibodies Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain cross-reactivity - Describe the structure and function of antibodies - Discuss antibody production An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a protein that is produced by plasma cells after stimulation by an antigen. Antibodies are the functional basis of humoral immunity. Antibodies occur in the blood, in gastric and mucus secretions, and in breast milk. Antibodies in these bodily fluids can bind pathogens and mark them for destruction by phagocytes before they can infect cells. Antibody Structure An antibody molecule is comprised of four polypeptides: two identical heavy chains (large peptide units) that are partially bound to each other in a “Y” formation, which are flanked by two identical light chains (small peptide units), as illustrated in Figure. Bonds between the cysteine amino acids in the antibody molecule attach the polypeptides to each other. The areas where the antigen is recognized on the antibody are variable domains and the antibody base is composed of constant domains. In germ-line B cells, the variable region of the light chain gene has 40 variable (V) and five joining (J) segments. An enzyme called DNA recombinase randomly excises most of these segments out of the gene, and splices one V segment to one J segment. During RNA processing, all but one V and J segment are spliced out. Recombination and splicing may result in over 106 possible VJ combinations. As a result, each differentiated B cell in the human body typically has a unique variable chain. The constant domain, which does not bind antibody, is the same for all antibodies. Similar to TCRs and BCRs, antibody diversity is produced by the mutation and recombination of approximately 300 different gene segments encoding the light and heavy chain variable domains in precursor cells that are destined to become B cells. The variable domains from the heavy and light chains interact to form the binding site through which an antibody can bind a specific epitope on an antigen. The numbers of repeated constant domains in Ig classes are the same for all antibodies corresponding to a specific class. Antibodies are structurally similar to the extracellular component of the BCRs, and B cell maturation to plasma cells can be visualized in simple terms as the cell acquires the ability to secrete the extracellular portion of its BCR in large quantities. Antibody Classes Antibodies can be divided into five classes—IgM, IgG, IgA, IgD, IgE—based on their physiochemical, structural, and immunological properties. IgGs, which make up about 80 percent of all antibodies, have heavy chains that consist of one variable domain and three identical constant domains. IgA and IgD also have three constant domains per heavy chain, whereas IgM and IgE each have four constant domains per heavy chain. The variable domain determines binding specificity and the constant domain of the heavy chain determines the immunological mechanism of action of the corresponding antibody class. It is possible for two antibodies to have the same binding specificities but be in different classes and, therefore, to be involved in different functions. After an adaptive defense is produced against a pathogen, typically plasma cells first secrete IgM into the blood. BCRs on naïve B cells are of the IgM class and occasionally IgD class. IgM molecules make up approximately ten percent of all antibodies. Prior to antibody secretion, plasma cells assemble IgM molecules into pentamers (five individual antibodies) linked by a joining (J) chain, as shown in Figure. The pentamer arrangement means that these macromolecules can bind ten identical antigens. However, IgM molecules released early in the adaptive immune response do not bind to antigens as stably as IgGs, which are one of the possible types of antibodies secreted in large quantities upon re-exposure to the same pathogen. Figure summarizes the properties of immunoglobulins and illustrates their basic structures. IgAs populate the saliva, tears, breast milk, and mucus secretions of the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and genitourinary tracts. Collectively, these bodily fluids coat and protect the extensive mucosa (4000 square feet in humans). The total number of IgA molecules in these bodily secretions is greater than the number of IgG molecules in the blood serum. A small amount of IgA is also secreted into the serum in monomeric form. Conversely, some IgM is secreted into bodily fluids of the mucosa. Similar to IgM, IgA molecules are secreted as polymeric structures linked with a J chain. However, IgAs are secreted mostly as dimeric molecules, not pentamers. IgE is present in the serum in small quantities and is best characterized in its role as an allergy mediator. IgD is also present in small quantities. Similar to IgM, BCRs of the IgD class are found on the surface of naïve B cells. This class supports antigen recognition and maturation of B cells to plasma cells. Antibody Functions Differentiated plasma cells are crucial players in the humoral response, and the antibodies they secrete are particularly significant against extracellular pathogens and toxins. Antibodies circulate freely and act independently of plasma cells. Antibodies can be transferred from one individual to another to temporarily protect against infectious disease. For instance, a person who has recently produced a successful immune response against a particular disease agent can donate blood to a nonimmune recipient and confer temporary immunity through antibodies in the donor’s blood serum. This phenomenon is called passive immunity; it also occurs naturally during breastfeeding, which makes breastfed infants highly resistant to infections during the first few months of life. Antibodies coat extracellular pathogens and neutralize them, as illustrated in Figure, by blocking key sites on the pathogen that enhance their infectivity (such as receptors that “dock” pathogens on host cells). Antibody neutralization can prevent pathogens from entering and infecting host cells, as opposed to the CTL-mediated approach of killing cells that are already infected to prevent progression of an established infection. The neutralized antibody-coated pathogens can then be filtered by the spleen and eliminated in urine or feces. Antibodies also mark pathogens for destruction by phagocytic cells, such as macrophages or neutrophils, because phagocytic cells are highly attracted to macromolecules complexed with antibodies. Phagocytic enhancement by antibodies is called opsonization. In a process called complement fixation, IgM and IgG in serum bind to antigens and provide docking sites onto which sequential complement proteins can bind. The combination of antibodies and complement enhances opsonization even further and promotes rapid clearing of pathogens. Affinity, Avidity, and Cross Reactivity Not all antibodies bind with the same strength, specificity, and stability. In fact, antibodies exhibit different affinities (attraction) depending on the molecular complementarity between antigen and antibody molecules, as illustrated in Figure. An antibody with a higher affinity for a particular antigen would bind more strongly and stably, and thus would be expected to present a more challenging defense against the pathogen corresponding to the specific antigen. The term avidity describes binding by antibody classes that are secreted as joined, multivalent structures (such as IgM and IgA). Although avidity measures the strength of binding, just as affinity does, the avidity is not simply the sum of the affinities of the antibodies in a multimeric structure. The avidity depends on the number of identical binding sites on the antigen being detected, as well as other physical and chemical factors. Typically, multimeric antibodies, such as pentameric IgM, are classified as having lower affinity than monomeric antibodies, but high avidity. Essentially, the fact that multimeric antibodies can bind many antigens simultaneously balances their slightly lower binding strength for each antibody/antigen interaction. Antibodies secreted after binding to one epitope on an antigen may exhibit cross reactivity for the same or similar epitopes on different antigens. Because an epitope corresponds to such a small region (the surface area of about four to six amino acids), it is possible for different macromolecules to exhibit the same molecular identities and orientations over short regions. Cross reactivity describes when an antibody binds not to the antigen that elicited its synthesis and secretion, but to a different antigen. Cross reactivity can be beneficial if an individual develops immunity to several related pathogens despite having only been exposed to or vaccinated against one of them. For instance, antibody cross reactivity may occur against the similar surface structures of various Gram-negative bacteria. Conversely, antibodies raised against pathogenic molecular components that resemble self molecules may incorrectly mark host cells for destruction and cause autoimmune damage. Patients who develop systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) commonly exhibit antibodies that react with their own DNA. These antibodies may have been initially raised against the nucleic acid of microorganisms but later cross-reacted with self-antigens. This phenomenon is also called molecular mimicry. Antibodies of the Mucosal Immune System Antibodies synthesized by the mucosal immune system include IgA and IgM. Activated B cells differentiate into mucosal plasma cells that synthesize and secrete dimeric IgA, and to a lesser extent, pentameric IgM. Secreted IgA is abundant in tears, saliva, breast milk, and in secretions of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. Antibody secretion results in a local humoral response at epithelial surfaces and prevents infection of the mucosa by binding and neutralizing pathogens. Section Summary Antibodies (immunoglobulins) are the molecules secreted from plasma cells that mediate the humoral immune response. There are five antibody classes; an antibody's class determines its mechanism of action and production site but does not control its binding specificity. Antibodies bind antigens via variable domains and can either neutralize pathogens or mark them for phagocytosis or activate the complement cascade. Review Questions The structure of an antibody is similar to the extracellular component of which receptor? - MHC I - MHC II - BCR - none of the above Hint: C The first antibody class to appear in the serum in response to a newly encountered pathogen is ________. - IgM - IgA - IgG - IgE Hint: A What is the most abundant antibody class detected in the serum upon reexposure to a pathogen or in reaction to a vaccine? - IgM - IgA - IgG - IgE Hint: C Breastfed infants typically are resistant to disease because of ________. - active immunity - passive immunity - immune tolerance - immune memory Hint: B Free Response What are the benefits and costs of antibody cross reactivity? Hint: Cross reactivity of antibodies can be beneficial when it allows an individual's immune system to respond to an array of similar pathogens after being exposed to just one of them. A potential cost of cross reactivity is an antibody response to parts of the body (self) in addition to the appropriate antigen.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.363301	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15156/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15157/overview	Disruptions in the Immune System Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe hypersensitivity - Define autoimmunity A functioning immune system is essential for survival, but even the sophisticated cellular and molecular defenses of the mammalian immune response can be defeated by pathogens at virtually every step. In the competition between immune protection and pathogen evasion, pathogens have the advantage of more rapid evolution because of their shorter generation time and other characteristics. For instance, Streptococcus pneumoniae (bacterium that cause pneumonia and meningitis) surrounds itself with a capsule that inhibits phagocytes from engulfing it and displaying antigens to the adaptive immune system. Staphylococcus aureus (bacterium that can cause skin infections, abscesses, and meningitis) synthesizes a toxin called leukocidin that kills phagocytes after they engulf the bacterium. Other pathogens can also hinder the adaptive immune system. HIV infects TH cells via their CD4 surface molecules, gradually depleting the number of TH cells in the body; this inhibits the adaptive immune system’s capacity to generate sufficient responses to infection or tumors. As a result, HIV-infected individuals often suffer from infections that would not cause illness in people with healthy immune systems but which can cause devastating illness to immune-compromised individuals. Maladaptive responses of immune cells and molecules themselves can also disrupt the proper functioning of the entire system, leading to host cell damage that could become fatal. Immunodeficiency Failures, insufficiencies, or delays at any level of the immune response can allow pathogens or tumor cells to gain a foothold and replicate or proliferate to high enough levels that the immune system becomes overwhelmed. Immunodeficiency is the failure, insufficiency, or delay in the response of the immune system, which may be acquired or inherited. Immunodeficiency can be acquired as a result of infection with certain pathogens (such as HIV), chemical exposure (including certain medical treatments), malnutrition, or possibly by extreme stress. For instance, radiation exposure can destroy populations of lymphocytes and elevate an individual’s susceptibility to infections and cancer. Dozens of genetic disorders result in immunodeficiencies, including Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID), Bare lymphocyte syndrome, and MHC II deficiencies. Rarely, primary immunodeficiencies that are present from birth may occur. Neutropenia is one form in which the immune system produces a below-average number of neutrophils, the body’s most abundant phagocytes. As a result, bacterial infections may go unrestricted in the blood, causing serious complications. Hypersensitivities Maladaptive immune responses toward harmless foreign substances or self antigens that occur after tissue sensitization are termed hypersensitivities. The types of hypersensitivities include immediate, delayed, and autoimmunity. A large proportion of the population is affected by one or more types of hypersensitivity. Allergies The immune reaction that results from immediate hypersensitivities in which an antibody-mediated immune response occurs within minutes of exposure to a harmless antigen is called an allergy. In the United States, 20 percent of the population exhibits symptoms of allergy or asthma, whereas 55 percent test positive against one or more allergens. Upon initial exposure to a potential allergen, an allergic individual synthesizes antibodies of the IgE class via the typical process of APCs presenting processed antigen to TH cells that stimulate B cells to produce IgE. This class of antibodies also mediates the immune response to parasitic worms. The constant domain of the IgE molecules interact with mast cells embedded in connective tissues. This process primes, or sensitizes, the tissue. Upon subsequent exposure to the same allergen, IgE molecules on mast cells bind the antigen via their variable domains and stimulate the mast cell to release the modified amino acids histamine and serotonin; these chemical mediators then recruit eosinophils which mediate allergic responses. Figure shows an example of an allergic response to ragweed pollen. The effects of an allergic reaction range from mild symptoms like sneezing and itchy, watery eyes to more severe or even life-threatening reactions involving intensely itchy welts or hives, airway contraction with severe respiratory distress, and plummeting blood pressure. This extreme reaction is known as anaphylactic shock. If not treated with epinephrine to counter the blood pressure and breathing effects, this condition can be fatal. Delayed hypersensitivity is a cell-mediated immune response that takes approximately one to two days after secondary exposure for a maximal reaction to be observed. This type of hypersensitivity involves the TH1 cytokine-mediated inflammatory response and may manifest as local tissue lesions or contact dermatitis (rash or skin irritation). Delayed hypersensitivity occurs in some individuals in response to contact with certain types of jewelry or cosmetics. Delayed hypersensitivity facilitates the immune response to poison ivy and is also the reason why the skin test for tuberculosis results in a small region of inflammation on individuals who were previously exposed to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. That is also why cortisone is used to treat such responses: it will inhibit cytokine production. Autoimmunity Autoimmunity is a type of hypersensitivity to self antigens that affects approximately five percent of the population. Most types of autoimmunity involve the humoral immune response. Antibodies that inappropriately mark self components as foreign are termed autoantibodies. In patients with the autoimmune disease myasthenia gravis, muscle cell receptors that induce contraction in response to acetylcholine are targeted by antibodies. The result is muscle weakness that may include marked difficultly with fine and/or gross motor functions. In systemic lupus erythematosus, a diffuse autoantibody response to the individual’s own DNA and proteins results in various systemic diseases. As illustrated in Figure, systemic lupus erythematosus may affect the heart, joints, lungs, skin, kidneys, central nervous system, or other tissues, causing tissue damage via antibody binding, complement recruitment, lysis, and inflammation. Autoimmunity can develop with time, and its causes may be rooted in molecular mimicry. Antibodies and TCRs may bind self antigens that are structurally similar to pathogen antigens, which the immune receptors first raised. As an example, infection with Streptococcus pyogenes (bacterium that causes strep throat) may generate antibodies or T cells that react with heart muscle, which has a similar structure to the surface of S. pyogenes. These antibodies can damage heart muscle with autoimmune attacks, leading to rheumatic fever. Insulin-dependent (Type 1) diabetes mellitus arises from a destructive inflammatory TH1 response against insulin-producing cells of the pancreas. Patients with this autoimmunity must be injected with insulin that originates from other sources. Section Summary Immune disruptions may involve insufficient immune responses or inappropriate immune targets. Immunodeficiency increases an individual's susceptibility to infections and cancers. Hypersensitivities are misdirected responses either to harmless foreign particles, as in the case of allergies, or to host factors, as in the case of autoimmunity. Reactions to self components may be the result of molecular mimicry. Review Questions Allergy to pollen is classified as: - an autoimmune reaction - immunodeficiency - delayed hypersensitivity - immediate hypersensitivity Hint: D A potential cause of acquired autoimmunity is ________. - tissue hypersensitivity - molecular mimicry - histamine release - radiation exposure Hint: B Autoantibodies are probably involved in: - reactions to poison ivy - pollen allergies - systemic lupus erythematosus - HIV/AIDS Hint: C Which of the following diseases is not due to autoimmunity? - rheumatic fever - systemic lupus erythematosus - diabetes mellitus - HIV/AIDS Hint: D	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.387497	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15157/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15158/overview	Introduction Animal reproduction is necessary for the survival of a species. In the animal kingdom, there are innumerable ways that species reproduce. Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical organisms (clones), whereas in sexual reproduction, the genetic material of two individuals combines to produce offspring that are genetically different from their parents. During sexual reproduction the male gamete (sperm) may be placed inside the female’s body for internal fertilization, or the sperm and eggs may be released into the environment for external fertilization. Seahorses, like the one shown in Figure, provide an example of the latter. Following a mating dance, the female lays eggs in the male seahorse’s abdominal brood pouch where they are fertilized. The eggs hatch and the offspring develop in the pouch for several weeks.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.405122	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15158/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15159/overview	Reproduction Methods Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction - Discuss asexual reproduction methods - Discuss sexual reproduction methods Animals produce offspring through asexual and/or sexual reproduction. Both methods have advantages and disadvantages. Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent because the offspring are all clones of the original parent. A single individual can produce offspring asexually and large numbers of offspring can be produced quickly. In a stable or predictable environment, asexual reproduction is an effective means of reproduction because all the offspring will be adapted to that environment. In an unstable or unpredictable environment asexually-reproducing species may be at a disadvantage because all the offspring are genetically identical and may not have the genetic variation to survive in new or different conditions. On the other hand, the rapid rates of asexual reproduction may allow for a speedy response to environmental changes if individuals have mutations. An additional advantage of asexual reproduction is that colonization of new habitats may be easier when an individual does not need to find a mate to reproduce. During sexual reproduction the genetic material of two individuals is combined to produce genetically diverse offspring that differ from their parents. The genetic diversity of sexually produced offspring is thought to give species a better chance of surviving in an unpredictable or changing environment. Species that reproduce sexually must maintain two different types of individuals, males and females, which can limit the ability to colonize new habitats as both sexes must be present. Asexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms (bacteria) and in some eukaryotic single-celled and multi-celled organisms. There are a number of ways that animals reproduce asexually. Fission Fission, also called binary fission, occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms and in some invertebrate, multi-celled organisms. After a period of growth, an organism splits into two separate organisms. Some unicellular eukaryotic organisms undergo binary fission by mitosis. In other organisms, part of the individual separates and forms a second individual. This process occurs, for example, in many asteroid echinoderms through splitting of the central disk. Some sea anemones and some coral polyps (Figure) also reproduce through fission. Budding Budding is a form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part of a cell or body region leading to a separation from the original organism into two individuals. Budding occurs commonly in some invertebrate animals such as corals and hydras. In hydras, a bud forms that develops into an adult and breaks away from the main body, as illustrated in Figure, whereas in coral budding, the bud does not detach and multiplies as part of a new colony. Link to Learning Watch a video of a hydra budding. Fragmentation Fragmentation is the breaking of the body into two parts with subsequent regeneration. If the animal is capable of fragmentation, and the part is big enough, a separate individual will regrow. For example, in many sea stars, asexual reproduction is accomplished by fragmentation. Figure illustrates a sea star for which an arm of the individual is broken off and regenerates a new sea star. Fisheries workers have been known to try to kill the sea stars eating their clam or oyster beds by cutting them in half and throwing them back into the ocean. Unfortunately for the workers, the two parts can each regenerate a new half, resulting in twice as many sea stars to prey upon the oysters and clams. Fragmentation also occurs in annelid worms, turbellarians, and poriferans. Note that in fragmentation, there is generally a noticeable difference in the size of the individuals, whereas in fission, two individuals of approximate size are formed. Parthenogenesis Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction where an egg develops into a complete individual without being fertilized. The resulting offspring can be either haploid or diploid, depending on the process and the species. Parthenogenesis occurs in invertebrates such as water flees, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, wasps, and bees. Bees use parthenogenesis to produce haploid males (drones). If eggs are fertilized, diploid females develop, and if the fertilized eggs are fed special diet (so called royal jelly), a queen is produced. Some vertebrate animals—such as certain reptiles, amphibians, and fish—also reproduce through parthenogenesis. Although more common in plants, parthenogenesis has been observed in animal species that were segregated by sex in terrestrial or marine zoos. Two female Komodo dragons, a hammerhead shark, and a blacktop shark have produced parthenogenic young when the females have been isolated from males. Sexual Reproduction Sexual reproduction is the combination of (usually haploid) reproductive cells from two individuals to form a third (usually diploid) unique offspring. Sexual reproduction produces offspring with novel combinations of genes. This can be an adaptive advantage in unstable or unpredictable environments. As humans, we are used to thinking of animals as having two separate sexes—male and female—determined at conception. However, in the animal kingdom, there are many variations on this theme. Hermaphroditism Hermaphroditism occurs in animals where one individual has both male and female reproductive parts. Invertebrates such as earthworms, slugs, tapeworms and snails, shown in Figure, are often hermaphroditic. Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize or may mate with another of their species, fertilizing each other and both producing offspring. Self fertilization is common in animals that have limited mobility or are not motile, such as barnacles and clams. Sex Determination Mammalian sex determination is determined genetically by the presence of X and Y chromosomes. Individuals homozygous for X (XX) are female and heterozygous individuals (XY) are male. The presence of a Y chromosome causes the development of male characteristics and its absence results in female characteristics. The XY system is also found in some insects and plants. Avian sex determination is dependent on the presence of Z and W chromosomes. Homozygous for Z (ZZ) results in a male and heterozygous (ZW) results in a female. The W appears to be essential in determining the sex of the individual, similar to the Y chromosome in mammals. Some fish, crustaceans, insects (such as butterflies and moths), and reptiles use this system. The sex of some species is not determined by genetics but by some aspect of the environment. Sex determination in some crocodiles and turtles, for example, is often dependent on the temperature during critical periods of egg development. This is referred to as environmental sex determination, or more specifically as temperature-dependent sex determination. In many turtles, cooler temperatures during egg incubation produce males and warm temperatures produce females. In some crocodiles, moderate temperatures produce males and both warm and cool temperatures produce females. In some species, sex is both genetic- and temperature-dependent. Individuals of some species change their sex during their lives, alternating between male and female. If the individual is female first, it is termed protogyny or “first female,” if it is male first, its termed protandry or “first male.” Oysters, for example, are born male, grow, and become female and lay eggs; some oyster species change sex multiple times. Section Summary Reproduction may be asexual when one individual produces genetically identical offspring, or sexual when the genetic material from two individuals is combined to produce genetically diverse offspring. Asexual reproduction occurs through fission, budding, and fragmentation. Sexual reproduction may mean the joining of sperm and eggs within animals’ bodies or it may mean the release of sperm and eggs into the environment. An individual may be one sex, or both; it may start out as one sex and switch during its life, or it may stay male or female. Review Questions Which form of reproduction is thought to be best in a stable environment? - asexual - sexual - budding - parthenogenesis Hint: A Which form of reproduction can result from damage to the original animal? - asexual - fragmentation - budding - parthenogenesis Hint: B Which form of reproduction is useful to an animal with little mobility that reproduces sexually? - fission - budding - parthenogenesis - hermaphroditism Hint: D Genetically unique individuals are produced through ________. - sexual reproduction - parthenogenesis - budding - fragmentation Hint: A Free Response Why is sexual reproduction useful if only half the animals can produce offspring and two separate cells must be combined to form a third? Hint: Sexual reproduction produces a new combination of genes in the offspring that may better enable them to survive changes in the environment and assist in the survival of the species. What determines which sex will result in offspring of birds and mammals? Hint: The presence of the W chromosome in birds determines femaleness and the presence of the Y chromosome in mammals determines maleness. The absence of those chromosomes and the homogeneity of the offspring (ZZ or XX) leads to the development of the other sex.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.432797	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15159/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15160/overview	Fertilization Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss internal and external methods of fertilization - Describe the methods used by animals for development of offspring during gestation - Describe the anatomical adaptions that occurred in animals to facilitate reproduction Sexual reproduction starts with the combination of a sperm and an egg in a process called fertilization. This can occur either inside (internal fertilization) or outside (external fertilization) the body of the female. Humans provide an example of the former whereas seahorse reproduction is an example of the latter. External Fertilization External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs and sperm are released into the water. After the sperm reaches the egg, fertilization takes place. Most external fertilization happens during the process of spawning where one or several females release their eggs and the male(s) release sperm in the same area, at the same time. The release of the reproductive material may be triggered by water temperature or the length of daylight. Nearly all fish spawn, as do crustaceans (such as crabs and shrimp), mollusks (such as oysters), squid, and echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers). Figure shows salmon spawning in a shallow stream. Frogs, like those shown in Figure, corals, molluscs, and sea cucumbers also spawn. Pairs of fish that are not broadcast spawners may exhibit courtship behavior. This allows the female to select a particular male. The trigger for egg and sperm release (spawning) causes the egg and sperm to be placed in a small area, enhancing the possibility of fertilization. External fertilization in an aquatic environment protects the eggs from drying out. Broadcast spawning can result in a greater mixture of the genes within a group, leading to higher genetic diversity and a greater chance of species survival in a hostile environment. For sessile aquatic organisms like sponges, broadcast spawning is the only mechanism for fertilization and colonization of new environments. The presence of the fertilized eggs and developing young in the water provides opportunities for predation resulting in a loss of offspring. Therefore, millions of eggs must be produced by individuals, and the offspring produced through this method must mature rapidly. The survival rate of eggs produced through broadcast spawning is low. Internal Fertilization Internal fertilization occurs most often in land-based animals, although some aquatic animals also use this method. There are three ways that offspring are produced following internal fertilization. In oviparity, fertilized eggs are laid outside the female’s body and develop there, receiving nourishment from the yolk that is a part of the egg. This occurs in most bony fish, many reptiles, some cartilaginous fish, most amphibians, two mammals, and all birds. Reptiles and insects produce leathery eggs, while birds and turtles produce eggs with high concentrations of calcium carbonate in the shell, making them hard. Chicken eggs are an example of this second type. In ovoviparity, fertilized eggs are retained in the female, but the embryo obtains its nourishment from the egg’s yolk and the young are fully developed when they are hatched. This occurs in some bony fish (like the guppy Lebistes reticulatus), some sharks, some lizards, some snakes (such as the garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis), some vipers, and some invertebrate animals (like the Madagascar hissing cockroach Gromphadorhina portentosa). In viviparity the young develop within the female, receiving nourishment from the mother’s blood through a placenta. The offspring develops in the female and is born alive. This occurs in most mammals, some cartilaginous fish, and a few reptiles. Internal fertilization has the advantage of protecting the fertilized egg from dehydration on land. The embryo is isolated within the female, which limits predation on the young. Internal fertilization enhances the fertilization of eggs by a specific male. Fewer offspring are produced through this method, but their survival rate is higher than that for external fertilization. The Evolution of Reproduction Once multicellular organisms evolved and developed specialized cells, some also developed tissues and organs with specialized functions. An early development in reproduction occurred in the Annelids. These organisms produce sperm and eggs from undifferentiated cells in their coelom and store them in that cavity. When the coelom becomes filled, the cells are released through an excretory opening or by the body splitting open. Reproductive organs evolved with the development of gonads that produce sperm and eggs. These cells went through meiosis, an adaption of mitosis, which reduced the number of chromosomes in each reproductive cell by half, while increasing the number of cells through cell division. Complete reproductive systems were developed in insects, with separate sexes. Sperm are made in testes and then travel through coiled tubes to the epididymis for storage. Eggs mature in the ovary. When they are released from the ovary, they travel to the uterine tubes for fertilization. Some insects have a specialized sac, called a spermatheca, which stores sperm for later use, sometimes up to a year. Fertilization can be timed with environmental or food conditions that are optimal for offspring survival. Vertebrates have similar structures, with a few differences. Non-mammals, such as birds and reptiles, have a common body opening, called a cloaca, for the digestive, excretory and reproductive systems. Coupling between birds usually involves positioning the cloaca openings opposite each other for transfer of sperm. Mammals have separate openings for the systems in the female and a uterus for support of developing offspring. The uterus has two chambers in species that produce large numbers of offspring at a time, while species that produce one offspring, such as primates, have a single uterus. Sperm transfer from the male to the female during reproduction ranges from releasing the sperm into the watery environment for external fertilization, to the joining of cloaca in birds, to the development of a penis for direct delivery into the female’s vagina in mammals. Section Summary Sexual reproduction starts with the combination of a sperm and an egg in a process called fertilization. This can occur either outside the bodies or inside the female. Both methods have advantages and disadvantages. Once fertilized, the eggs can develop inside the female or outside. If the egg develops outside the body, it usually has a protective covering over it. Animal anatomy evolved various ways to fertilize, hold, or expel the egg. The method of fertilization varies among animals. Some species release the egg and sperm into the environment, some species retain the egg and receive the sperm into the female body and then expel the developing embryo covered with shell, while still other species retain the developing offspring through the gestation period. Review Questions External fertilization occurs in which type of environment? - aquatic - forested - savanna - steppe Hint: A Which term applies to egg development within the female with nourishment derived from a yolk? - oviparity - viviparity - ovoviparity - ovovoparity Hint: C Which term applies to egg development outside the female with nourishment derived from a yolk? - oviparity - viviparity - ovoviparity - ovovoparity Hint: A Free Response What are the advantages and disadvantages of external and internal forms of fertilization? Hint: External fertilization can create large numbers of offspring without requiring specialized delivery or reproductive support organs. Offspring develop and mature quickly compared to internally fertilizing species. A disadvantage is that the offspring are out in the environment and predation can account for large loss of offspring. The embryos are susceptible to changes in the environment, which further depletes their numbers. Internally fertilizing species control their environment and protect their offspring from predators but must have specialized organs to complete these tasks and usually produce fewer embryos. Why would paired external fertilization be preferable to group spawning? Hint: Paired external fertilization allows the female to select the male for mating. It also has a greater chance of fertilization taking place, whereas spawning just puts a large number of sperm and eggs together and random interactions result in the fertilization.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.457799	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15160/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15161/overview	Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe human male and female reproductive anatomies - Discuss the human sexual response - Describe spermatogenesis and oogenesis and discuss their differences and similarities As animals became more complex, specific organs and organ systems developed to support specific functions for the organism. The reproductive structures that evolved in land animals allow males and females to mate, fertilize internally, and support the growth and development of offspring. Human Reproductive Anatomy The reproductive tissues of male and female humans develop similarly in utero until a low level of the hormone testosterone is released from male gonads. Testosterone causes the undeveloped tissues to differentiate into male sexual organs. When testosterone is absent, the tissues develop into female sexual tissues. Primitive gonads become testes or ovaries. Tissues that produce a penis in males produce a clitoris in females. The tissue that will become the scrotum in a male becomes the labia in a female; that is, they are homologous structures. Male Reproductive Anatomy In the male reproductive system, the scrotum houses the testicles or testes (singular: testis), including providing passage for blood vessels, nerves, and muscles related to testicular function. The testes are a pair of male reproductive organs that produce sperm and some reproductive hormones. Each testis is approximately 2.5 by 3.8 cm (1.5 by 1 in) in size and divided into wedge-shaped lobules by connective tissue called septa. Coiled in each wedge are seminiferous tubules that produce sperm. Sperm are immobile at body temperature; therefore, the scrotum and penis are external to the body, as illustrated in Figure so that a proper temperature is maintained for motility. In land mammals, the pair of testes must be suspended outside the body at about 2° C lower than body temperature to produce viable sperm. Infertility can occur in land mammals when the testes do not descend through the abdominal cavity during fetal development. Art Connection Which of the following statements about the male reproductive system is false? - The vas deferens carries sperm from the testes to the penis. - Sperm mature in seminiferous tubules in the testes. - Both the prostate and the bulbourethral glands produce components of the semen. - The prostate gland is located in the testes. Sperm mature in seminiferous tubules that are coiled inside the testes, as illustrated in Figure. The walls of the seminiferous tubules are made up of the developing sperm cells, with the least developed sperm at the periphery of the tubule and the fully developed sperm in the lumen. The sperm cells are mixed with “nursemaid” cells called Sertoli cells which protect the germ cells and promote their development. Other cells mixed in the wall of the tubules are the interstitial cells of Leydig. These cells produce high levels of testosterone once the male reaches adolescence. When the sperm have developed flagella and are nearly mature, they leave the testicles and enter the epididymis, shown in Figure. This structure resembles a comma and lies along the top and posterior portion of the testes; it is the site of sperm maturation. The sperm leave the epididymis and enter the vas deferens (or ductus deferens), which carries the sperm, behind the bladder, and forms the ejaculatory duct with the duct from the seminal vesicles. During a vasectomy, a section of the vas deferens is removed, preventing sperm from being passed out of the body during ejaculation and preventing fertilization. Semen is a mixture of sperm and spermatic duct secretions (about 10 percent of the total) and fluids from accessory glands that contribute most of the semen’s volume. Sperm are haploid cells, consisting of a flagellum as a tail, a neck that contains the cell’s energy-producing mitochondria, and a head that contains the genetic material. Figure shows a micrograph of human sperm as well as a diagram of the parts of the sperm. An acrosome is found at the top of the head of the sperm. This structure contains lysosomal enzymes that can digest the protective coverings that surround the egg to help the sperm penetrate and fertilize the egg. An ejaculate will contain from two to five milliliters of fluid with from 50–120 million sperm per milliliter. The bulk of the semen comes from the accessory glands associated with the male reproductive system. These are the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the bulbourethral gland, all of which are illustrated in Figure. The seminal vesicles are a pair of glands that lie along the posterior border of the urinary bladder. The glands make a solution that is thick, yellowish, and alkaline. As sperm are only motile in an alkaline environment, a basic pH is important to reverse the acidity of the vaginal environment. The solution also contains mucus, fructose (a sperm mitochondrial nutrient), a coagulating enzyme, ascorbic acid, and local-acting hormones called prostaglandins. The seminal vesicle glands account for 60 percent of the bulk of semen. The penis, illustrated in Figure, is an organ that drains urine from the renal bladder and functions as a copulatory organ during intercourse. The penis contains three tubes of erectile tissue running through the length of the organ. These consist of a pair of tubes on the dorsal side, called the corpus cavernosum, and a single tube of tissue on the ventral side, called the corpus spongiosum. This tissue will become engorged with blood, becoming erect and hard, in preparation for intercourse. The organ is inserted into the vagina culminating with an ejaculation. During intercourse, the smooth muscle sphincters at the opening to the renal bladder close and prevent urine from entering the penis. An orgasm is a two-stage process: first, glands and accessory organs connected to the testes contract, then semen (containing sperm) is expelled through the urethra during ejaculation. After intercourse, the blood drains from the erectile tissue and the penis becomes flaccid. The walnut-shaped prostate gland surrounds the urethra, the connection to the urinary bladder. It has a series of short ducts that directly connect to the urethra. The gland is a mixture of smooth muscle and glandular tissue. The muscle provides much of the force needed for ejaculation to occur. The glandular tissue makes a thin, milky fluid that contains citrate (a nutrient), enzymes, and prostate specific antigen (PSA). PSA is a proteolytic enzyme that helps to liquefy the ejaculate several minutes after release from the male. Prostate gland secretions account for about 30 percent of the bulk of semen. The bulbourethral gland, or Cowper’s gland, releases its secretion prior to the release of the bulk of the semen. It neutralizes any acid residue in the urethra left over from urine. This usually accounts for a couple of drops of fluid in the total ejaculate and may contain a few sperm. Withdrawal of the penis from the vagina before ejaculation to prevent pregnancy may not work if sperm are present in the bulbourethral gland secretions. The location and functions of the male reproductive organs are summarized in Table. \| Male Reproductive Anatomy \| \|\| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Organ \| Location \| Function \| \| Scrotum \| External \| Carry and support testes \| \| Penis \| External \| Deliver urine, copulating organ \| \| Testes \| Internal \| Produce sperm and male hormones \| \| Seminal Vesicles \| Internal \| Contribute to semen production \| \| Prostate Gland \| Internal \| Contribute to semen production \| \| Bulbourethral Glands \| Internal \| Clean urethra at ejaculation \| Female Reproductive Anatomy A number of reproductive structures are exterior to the female’s body. These include the breasts and the vulva, which consists of the mons pubis, clitoris, labia majora, labia minora, and the vestibular glands, all illustrated in Figure. The location and functions of the female reproductive organs are summarized in Table. The vulva is an area associated with the vestibule which includes the structures found in the inguinal (groin) area of women. The mons pubis is a round, fatty area that overlies the pubic symphysis. The clitoris is a structure with erectile tissue that contains a large number of sensory nerves and serves as a source of stimulation during intercourse. The labia majora are a pair of elongated folds of tissue that run posterior from the mons pubis and enclose the other components of the vulva. The labia majora derive from the same tissue that produces the scrotum in a male. The labia minora are thin folds of tissue centrally located within the labia majora. These labia protect the openings to the vagina and urethra. The mons pubis and the anterior portion of the labia majora become covered with hair during adolescence; the labia minora is hairless. The greater vestibular glands are found at the sides of the vaginal opening and provide lubrication during intercourse. \| Female Reproductive Anatomy \| \|\| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Organ \| Location \| Function \| \| Clitoris \| External \| Sensory organ \| \| Mons pubis \| External \| Fatty area overlying pubic bone \| \| Labia majora \| External \| Covers labia minora \| \| Labia minora \| External \| Covers vestibule \| \| Greater vestibular glands \| External \| Secrete mucus; lubricate vagina \| \| Breast \| External \| Produce and deliver milk \| \| Ovaries \| Internal \| Carry and develop eggs \| \| Oviducts (Fallopian tubes) \| Internal \| Transport egg to uterus \| \| Uterus \| Internal \| Support developing embryo \| \| Vagina \| Internal \| Common tube for intercourse, birth canal, passing menstrual flow \| The breasts consist of mammary glands and fat. The size of the breast is determined by the amount of fat deposited behind the gland. Each gland consists of 15 to 25 lobes that have ducts that empty at the nipple and that supply the nursing child with nutrient- and antibody-rich milk to aid development and protect the child. Internal female reproductive structures include ovaries, oviducts, the uterus, and the vagina, shown in Figure. The pair of ovaries is held in place in the abdominal cavity by a system of ligaments. Ovaries consist of a medulla and cortex: the medulla contains nerves and blood vessels to supply the cortex with nutrients and remove waste. The outer layers of cells of the cortex are the functional parts of the ovaries. The cortex is made up of follicular cells that surround eggs that develop during fetal development in utero. During the menstrual period, a batch of follicular cells develops and prepares the eggs for release. At ovulation, one follicle ruptures and one egg is released, as illustrated in Figurea. The oviducts, or fallopian tubes, extend from the uterus in the lower abdominal cavity to the ovaries, but they are not in contact with the ovaries. The lateral ends of the oviducts flare out into a trumpet-like structure and have a fringe of finger-like projections called fimbriae, illustrated in Figureb. When an egg is released at ovulation, the fimbrae help the non-motile egg enter into the tube and passage to the uterus. The walls of the oviducts are ciliated and are made up mostly of smooth muscle. The cilia beat toward the middle, and the smooth muscle contracts in the same direction, moving the egg toward the uterus. Fertilization usually takes place within the oviducts and the developing embryo is moved toward the uterus for development. It usually takes the egg or embryo a week to travel through the oviduct. Sterilization in women is called a tubal ligation; it is analogous to a vasectomy in males in that the oviducts are severed and sealed. The uterus is a structure about the size of a woman’s fist. This is lined with an endometrium rich in blood vessels and mucus glands. The uterus supports the developing embryo and fetus during gestation. The thickest portion of the wall of the uterus is made of smooth muscle. Contractions of the smooth muscle in the uterus aid in passing the baby through the vagina during labor. A portion of the lining of the uterus sloughs off during each menstrual period, and then builds up again in preparation for an implantation. Part of the uterus, called the cervix, protrudes into the top of the vagina. The cervix functions as the birth canal. The vagina is a muscular tube that serves several purposes. It allows menstrual flow to leave the body. It is the receptacle for the penis during intercourse and the vessel for the delivery of offspring. It is lined by stratified squamous epithelial cells to protect the underlying tissue. Sexual Response during Intercourse The sexual response in humans is both psychological and physiological. Both sexes experience sexual arousal through psychological and physical stimulation. There are four phases of the sexual response. During phase one, called excitement, vasodilation leads to vasocongestion in erectile tissues in both men and women. The nipples, clitoris, labia, and penis engorge with blood and become enlarged. Vaginal secretions are released to lubricate the vagina to facilitate intercourse. During the second phase, called the plateau, stimulation continues, the outer third of the vaginal wall enlarges with blood, and breathing and heart rate increase. During phase three, or orgasm, rhythmic, involuntary contractions of muscles occur in both sexes. In the male, the reproductive accessory glands and tubules constrict placing semen in the urethra, then the urethra contracts expelling the semen through the penis. In women, the uterus and vaginal muscles contract in waves that may last slightly less than a second each. During phase four, or resolution, the processes described in the first three phases reverse themselves and return to their normal state. Men experience a refractory period in which they cannot maintain an erection or ejaculate for a period of time ranging from minutes to hours. Gametogenesis (Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis) Gametogenesis, the production of sperm and eggs, takes place through the process of meiosis. During meiosis, two cell divisions separate the paired chromosomes in the nucleus and then separate the chromatids that were made during an earlier stage of the cell’s life cycle. Meiosis produces haploid cells with half of each pair of chromosomes normally found in diploid cells. The production of sperm is called spermatogenesis and the production of eggs is called oogenesis. Spermatogenesis Spermatogenesis, illustrated in Figure, occurs in the wall of the seminiferous tubules (Figure), with stem cells at the periphery of the tube and the spermatozoa at the lumen of the tube. Immediately under the capsule of the tubule are diploid, undifferentiated cells. These stem cells, called spermatogonia (singular: spermatagonium), go through mitosis with one offspring going on to differentiate into a sperm cell and the other giving rise to the next generation of sperm. Meiosis starts with a cell called a primary spermatocyte. At the end of the first meiotic division, a haploid cell is produced called a secondary spermatocyte. This cell is haploid and must go through another meiotic cell division. The cell produced at the end of meiosis is called a spermatid and when it reaches the lumen of the tubule and grows a flagellum, it is called a sperm cell. Four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte that goes through meiosis. Stem cells are deposited during gestation and are present at birth through the beginning of adolescence, but in an inactive state. During adolescence, gonadotropic hormones from the anterior pituitary cause the activation of these cells and the production of viable sperm. This continues into old age. Link to Learning Visit this site to see the process of spermatogenesis. Oogenesis Oogenesis, illustrated in Figure, occurs in the outermost layers of the ovaries. As with sperm production, oogenesis starts with a germ cell, called an oogonium (plural: oogonia), but this cell undergoes mitosis to increase in number, eventually resulting in up to about one to two million cells in the embryo. The cell starting meiosis is called a primary oocyte, as shown in Figure. This cell will start the first meiotic division and be arrested in its progress in the first prophase stage. At the time of birth, all future eggs are in the prophase stage. At adolescence, anterior pituitary hormones cause the development of a number of follicles in an ovary. This results in the primary oocyte finishing the first meiotic division. The cell divides unequally, with most of the cellular material and organelles going to one cell, called a secondary oocyte, and only one set of chromosomes and a small amount of cytoplasm going to the other cell. This second cell is called a polar body and usually dies. A secondary meiotic arrest occurs, this time at the metaphase II stage. At ovulation, this secondary oocyte will be released and travel toward the uterus through the oviduct. If the secondary oocyte is fertilized, the cell continues through the meiosis II, producing a second polar body and a fertilized egg containing all 46 chromosomes of a human being, half of them coming from the sperm. Egg production begins before birth, is arrested during meiosis until puberty, and then individual cells continue through at each menstrual cycle. One egg is produced from each meiotic process, with the extra chromosomes and chromatids going into polar bodies that degenerate and are reabsorbed by the body. Section Summary As animals became more complex, specific organs and organ systems developed to support specific functions for the organism. The reproductive structures that evolved in land animals allow males and females to mate, fertilize internally, and support the growth and development of offspring. Processes developed to produce reproductive cells that had exactly half the number of chromosomes of each parent so that new combinations would have the appropriate amount of genetic material. Gametogenesis, the production of sperm (spermatogenesis) and eggs (oogenesis), takes place through the process of meiosis. Figure Which of the following statements about the male reproductive system is false? - The vas deferens carries sperm from the testes to the penis. - Sperm mature in seminiferous tubules in the testes. - Both the prostate and the bulbourethral glands produce components of the semen. - The prostate gland is located in the testes. Hint: Figure D Review Questions Sperm are produced in the ________. - scrotum - seminal vesicles - seminiferous tubules - prostate gland Hint: C Most of the bulk of semen is made by the ________. - scrotum - seminal vesicles - seminiferous tubules - prostate gland Hint: C Which of the following cells in spermatogenesis is diploid? - primary spermatocyte - secondary spermatocyte - spermatid - sperm Hint: A Which female organ has the same embryonic origin as the penis? - clitoris - labia majora - greater vestibular glands - vagina Hint: A Which female organ has an endometrial lining that will support a developing baby? - labia minora - breast - ovaries - uterus Hint: D How many eggs are produced as a result of one meiotic series of cell divisions? - one - two - three - four Hint: A Free Response Describe the phases of the human sexual response. Hint: In phase one (excitement), vasodilation leads to vasocongestion and enlargement of erectile tissues. Vaginal secretions are released to lubricate the vagina during intercourse. In phase two (plateau), stimulation continues, the outer third of the vaginal wall enlarges with blood, and breathing and heart rate increase. In phase three (orgasm), rhythmic, involuntary contractions of muscles occur. In the male, reproductive accessory glands and tubules constrict, depositing semen in the urethra; then, the urethra contracts, expelling the semen through the penis. In women, the uterus and vaginal muscles contract in waves that may last slightly less than a second each. In phase four (resolution), the processes listed in the first three phases reverse themselves and return to their normal state. Men experience a refractory period in which they cannot maintain an erection or ejaculate for a period of time ranging from minutes to hours. Women do not experience a refractory period. Compare spermatogenesis and oogenesis as to timing of the processes and the number and type of cells finally produced. Hint: Stem cells are laid down in the male during gestation and lie dormant until adolescence. Stem cells in the female increase to one to two million and enter the first meiotic division and are arrested in prophase. At adolescence, spermatogenesis begins and continues until death, producing the maximum number of sperm with each meiotic division. Oogenesis continues again at adolescence in batches of oogonia with each menstrual cycle. These oogonia finish the first meiotic division, producing a primary oocyte with most of the cytoplasm and its contents, and a second cell called a polar body containing 23 chromosomes. The second meiotic division results in a secondary oocyte and a second oocyte. At ovulation, a mature haploid egg is released. If this egg is fertilized, it finishes the second meiotic division, including the chromosomes donated by the sperm in the finished cell. This is a diploid, fertilized egg.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.499315	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15161/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15162/overview	Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction Overview By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: - Describe the roles of male and female reproductive hormones - Discuss the interplay of the ovarian and menstrual cycles - Describe the process of menopause The human male and female reproductive cycles are controlled by the interaction of hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary with hormones from reproductive tissues and organs. In both sexes, the hypothalamus monitors and causes the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. When the reproductive hormone is required, the hypothalamus sends a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) to the anterior pituitary. This causes the release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary into the blood. Note that the body must reach puberty in order for the adrenals to release the hormones that must be present for GnRH to be produced. Although FSH and LH are named after their functions in female reproduction, they are produced in both sexes and play important roles in controlling reproduction. Other hormones have specific functions in the male and female reproductive systems. Male Hormones At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus causes the release of FSH and LH into the male system for the first time. FSH enters the testes and stimulates the Sertoli cells to begin facilitating spermatogenesis using negative feedback, as illustrated in Figure. LH also enters the testes and stimulates the interstitial cells of Leydig to make and release testosterone into the testes and the blood. Testosterone, the hormone responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics that develop in the male during adolescence, stimulates spermatogenesis. These secondary sex characteristics include a deepening of the voice, the growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, and the beginnings of the sex drive. A negative feedback system occurs in the male with rising levels of testosterone acting on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to inhibit the release of GnRH, FSH, and LH. The Sertoli cells produce the hormone inhibin, which is released into the blood when the sperm count is too high. This inhibits the release of GnRH and FSH, which will cause spermatogenesis to slow down. If the sperm count reaches 20 million/ml, the Sertoli cells cease the release of inhibin, and the sperm count increases. Female Hormones The control of reproduction in females is more complex. As with the male, the anterior pituitary hormones cause the release of the hormones FSH and LH. In addition, estrogens and progesterone are released from the developing follicles. Estrogen is the reproductive hormone in females that assists in endometrial regrowth, ovulation, and calcium absorption; it is also responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics of females. These include breast development, flaring of the hips, and a shorter period necessary for bone maturation. Progesterone assists in endometrial re-growth and inhibition of FSH and LH release. In females, FSH stimulates development of egg cells, called ova, which develop in structures called follicles. Follicle cells produce the hormone inhibin, which inhibits FSH production. LH also plays a role in the development of ova, induction of ovulation, and stimulation of estradiol and progesterone production by the ovaries. Estradiol and progesterone are steroid hormones that prepare the body for pregnancy. Estradiol produces secondary sex characteristics in females, while both estradiol and progesterone regulate the menstrual cycle. The Ovarian Cycle and the Menstrual Cycle The ovarian cycle governs the preparation of endocrine tissues and release of eggs, while the menstrual cycle governs the preparation and maintenance of the uterine lining. These cycles occur concurrently and are coordinated over a 22–32 day cycle, with an average length of 28 days. The first half of the ovarian cycle is the follicular phase shown in Figure. Slowly rising levels of FSH and LH cause the growth of follicles on the surface of the ovary. This process prepares the egg for ovulation. As the follicles grow, they begin releasing estrogens and a low level of progesterone. Progesterone maintains the endometrium to help ensure pregnancy. The trip through the fallopian tube takes about seven days. At this stage of development, called the morula, there are 30-60 cells. If pregnancy implantation does not occur, the lining is sloughed off. After about five days, estrogen levels rise and the menstrual cycle enters the proliferative phase. The endometrium begins to regrow, replacing the blood vessels and glands that deteriorated during the end of the last cycle. Art Connection Which of the following statements about hormone regulation of the female reproductive cycle is false? - LH and FSH are produced in the pituitary, and estradiol and progesterone are produced in the ovaries. - Estradiol and progesterone secreted from the corpus luteum cause the endometrium to thicken. - Both progesterone and estradiol are produced by the follicles. - Secretion of GnRH by the hypothalamus is inhibited by low levels of estradiol but stimulated by high levels of estradiol. Just prior to the middle of the cycle (approximately day 14), the high level of estrogen causes FSH and especially LH to rise rapidly, then fall. The spike in LH causes ovulation: the most mature follicle, like that shown in Figure, ruptures and releases its egg. The follicles that did not rupture degenerate and their eggs are lost. The level of estrogen decreases when the extra follicles degenerate. Following ovulation, the ovarian cycle enters its luteal phase, illustrated in Figure and the menstrual cycle enters its secretory phase, both of which run from about day 15 to 28. The luteal and secretory phases refer to changes in the ruptured follicle. The cells in the follicle undergo physical changes and produce a structure called a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum produces estrogen and progesterone. The progesterone facilitates the regrowth of the uterine lining and inhibits the release of further FSH and LH. The uterus is being prepared to accept a fertilized egg, should it occur during this cycle. The inhibition of FSH and LH prevents any further eggs and follicles from developing, while the progesterone is elevated. The level of estrogen produced by the corpus luteum increases to a steady level for the next few days. If no fertilized egg is implanted into the uterus, the corpus luteum degenerates and the levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease. The endometrium begins to degenerate as the progesterone levels drop, initiating the next menstrual cycle. The decrease in progesterone also allows the hypothalamus to send GnRH to the anterior pituitary, releasing FSH and LH and starting the cycles again. Figure visually compares the ovarian and uterine cycles as well as the commensurate hormone levels. Art Connection Which of the following statements about the menstrual cycle is false? - Progesterone levels rise during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle and the secretory phase of the uterine cycle. - Menstruation occurs just after LH and FSH levels peak. - Menstruation occurs after progesterone levels drop. - Estrogen levels rise before ovulation, while progesterone levels rise after. Menopause As women approach their mid-40s to mid-50s, their ovaries begin to lose their sensitivity to FSH and LH. Menstrual periods become less frequent and finally cease; this is menopause. There are still eggs and potential follicles on the ovaries, but without the stimulation of FSH and LH, they will not produce a viable egg to be released. The outcome of this is the inability to have children. The side effects of menopause include hot flashes, heavy sweating (especially at night), headaches, some hair loss, muscle pain, vaginal dryness, insomnia, depression, weight gain, and mood swings. Estrogen is involved in calcium metabolism and, without it, blood levels of calcium decrease. To replenish the blood, calcium is lost from bone which may decrease the bone density and lead to osteoporosis. Supplementation of estrogen in the form of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) can prevent bone loss, but the therapy can have negative side effects. While HRT is thought to give some protection from colon cancer, osteoporosis, heart disease, macular degeneration, and possibly depression, its negative side effects include increased risk of: stroke or heart attack, blood clots, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, endometrial cancer, gall bladder disease, and possibly dementia. Career Connection Reproductive Endocrinologist A reproductive endocrinologist is a physician who treats a variety of hormonal disorders related to reproduction and infertility in both men and women. The disorders include menstrual problems, infertility, pregnancy loss, sexual dysfunction, and menopause. Doctors may use fertility drugs, surgery, or assisted reproductive techniques (ART) in their therapy. ART involves the use of procedures to manipulate the egg or sperm to facilitate reproduction, such as in vitro fertilization. Reproductive endocrinologists undergo extensive medical training, first in a four-year residency in obstetrics and gynecology, then in a three-year fellowship in reproductive endocrinology. To be board certified in this area, the physician must pass written and oral exams in both areas. Section Summary The male and female reproductive cycles are controlled by hormones released from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary as well as hormones from reproductive tissues and organs. The hypothalamus monitors the need for the FSH and LH hormones made and released from the anterior pituitary. FSH and LH affect reproductive structures to cause the formation of sperm and the preparation of eggs for release and possible fertilization. In the male, FSH and LH stimulate Sertoli cells and interstitial cells of Leydig in the testes to facilitate sperm production. The Leydig cells produce testosterone, which also is responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics of males. In females, FSH and LH cause estrogen and progesterone to be produced. They regulate the female reproductive system which is divided into the ovarian cycle and the menstrual cycle. Menopause occurs when the ovaries lose their sensitivity to FSH and LH and the female reproductive cycles slow to a stop. Art Connections Figure Which of the following statements about hormone regulation of the female reproductive cycle is false? - LH and FSH are produced in the pituitary, and estradiol and progesterone are produced in the ovaries. - Estradiol and progesterone secreted from the corpus luteum cause the endometrium to thicken. - Both progesterone and estradiol are produced by the follicles. - Secretion of GnRH by the hypothalamus is inhibited by low levels of estradiol but stimulated by high levels of estradiol. Hint: Figure C Figure Which of the following statements about the menstrual cycle is false? - Progesterone levels rise during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle and the secretory phase of the uterine cycle. - Menstruation occurs just after LH and FSH levels peak. - Menstruation occurs after progesterone levels drop. - Estrogen levels rise before ovulation, while progesterone levels rise after. Hint: Figure B Review Questions Which hormone causes Leydig cells to make testosterone? - FSH - LH - inhibin - estrogen Hint: A Which hormone causes FSH and LH to be released? - testosterone - estrogen - GnRH - progesterone Hint: C Which hormone signals ovulation? - FSH - LH - inhibin - estrogen Hint: B Which hormone causes the re-growth of the endometrial lining of the uterus? - testosterone - estrogen - GnRH - progesterone Hint: D Free Response If male reproductive pathways are not cyclical, how are they controlled? Hint: Negative feedback in the male system is supplied through two hormones: inhibin and testosterone. Inhibin is produced by Sertoli cells when the sperm count exceeds set limits. The hormone inhibits GnRH and FSH, decreasing the activity of the Sertoli cells. Increased levels of testosterone affect the release of both GnRH and LH, decreasing the activity of the Leydig cells, resulting in decreased testosterone and sperm production. Describe the events in the ovarian cycle leading up to ovulation. Hint: Low levels of progesterone allow the hypothalamus to send GnRH to the anterior pituitary and cause the release of FSH and LH. FSH stimulates follicles on the ovary to grow and prepare the eggs for ovulation. As the follicles increase in size, they begin to release estrogen and a low level of progesterone into the blood. The level of estrogen rises to a peak, causing a spike in the concentration of LH. This causes the most mature follicle to rupture and ovulation occurs.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.532866	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15162/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15163/overview	Human Pregnancy and Birth Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain fetal development during the three trimesters of gestation - Describe labor and delivery - Compare the efficacy and duration of various types of contraception - Discuss causes of infertility and the therapeutic options available Pregnancy begins with the fertilization of an egg and continues through to the birth of the individual. The length of time of gestation varies among animals, but is very similar among the great apes: human gestation is 266 days, while chimpanzee gestation is 237 days, a gorilla’s is 257 days, and orangutan gestation is 260 days long. The fox has a 57-day gestation. Dogs and cats have similar gestations averaging 60 days. The longest gestation for a land mammal is an African elephant at 640 days. The longest gestations among marine mammals are the beluga and sperm whales at 460 days. Human Gestation Twenty-four hours before fertilization, the egg has finished meiosis and becomes a mature oocyte. When fertilized (at conception) the egg becomes known as a zygote. The zygote travels through the oviduct to the uterus (Figure). The developing embryo must implant into the wall of the uterus within seven days, or it will deteriorate and die. The outer layers of the zygote (blastocyst) grow into the endometrium by digesting the endometrial cells, and wound healing of the endometrium closes up the blastocyst into the tissue. Another layer of the blastocyst, the chorion, begins releasing a hormone called human beta chorionic gonadotropin (β-HCG) which makes its way to the corpus luteum and keeps that structure active. This ensures adequate levels of progesterone that will maintain the endometrium of the uterus for the support of the developing embryo. Pregnancy tests determine the level of β-HCG in urine or serum. If the hormone is present, the test is positive. The gestation period is divided into three equal periods or trimesters. During the first two to four weeks of the first trimester, nutrition and waste are handled by the endometrial lining through diffusion. As the trimester progresses, the outer layer of the embryo begins to merge with the endometrium, and the placenta forms. This organ takes over the nutrient and waste requirements of the embryo and fetus, with the mother’s blood passing nutrients to the placenta and removing waste from it. Chemicals from the fetus, such as bilirubin, are processed by the mother’s liver for elimination. Some of the mother’s immunoglobulins will pass through the placenta, providing passive immunity against some potential infections. Internal organs and body structures begin to develop during the first trimester. By five weeks, limb buds, eyes, the heart, and liver have been basically formed. By eight weeks, the term fetus applies, and the body is essentially formed, as shown in Figure. The individual is about five centimeters (two inches) in length and many of the organs, such as the lungs and liver, are not yet functioning. Exposure to any toxins is especially dangerous during the first trimester, as all of the body’s organs and structures are going through initial development. Anything that affects that development can have a severe effect on the fetus’ survival. During the second trimester, the fetus grows to about 30 cm (12 inches), as shown in Figure. It becomes active and the mother usually feels the first movements. All organs and structures continue to develop. The placenta has taken over the functions of nutrition and waste and the production of estrogen and progesterone from the corpus luteum, which has degenerated. The placenta will continue functioning up through the delivery of the baby. During the third trimester, the fetus grows to 3 to 4 kg (6 ½ -8 ½ lbs.) and about 50 cm (19-20 inches) long, as illustrated in Figure. This is the period of the most rapid growth during the pregnancy. Organ development continues to birth (and some systems, such as the nervous system and liver, continue to develop after birth). The mother will be at her most uncomfortable during this trimester. She may urinate frequently due to pressure on the bladder from the fetus. There may also be intestinal blockage and circulatory problems, especially in her legs. Clots may form in her legs due to pressure from the fetus on returning veins as they enter the abdominal cavity. Link to Learning Visit this site to see the stages of human fetal development. Labor and Birth Labor is the physical efforts of expulsion of the fetus and the placenta from the uterus during birth (parturition). Toward the end of the third trimester, estrogen causes receptors on the uterine wall to develop and bind the hormone oxytocin. At this time, the baby reorients, facing forward and down with the back or crown of the head engaging the cervix (uterine opening). This causes the cervix to stretch and nerve impulses are sent to the hypothalamus, which signals for the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. The oxytocin causes the smooth muscle in the uterine wall to contract. At the same time, the placenta releases prostaglandins into the uterus, increasing the contractions. A positive feedback relay occurs between the uterus, hypothalamus, and the posterior pituitary to assure an adequate supply of oxytocin. As more smooth muscle cells are recruited, the contractions increase in intensity and force. There are three stages to labor. During stage one, the cervix thins and dilates. This is necessary for the baby and placenta to be expelled during birth. The cervix will eventually dilate to about 10 cm. During stage two, the baby is expelled from the uterus. The uterus contracts and the mother pushes as she compresses her abdominal muscles to aid the delivery. The last stage is the passage of the placenta after the baby has been born and the organ has completely disengaged from the uterine wall. If labor should stop before stage two is reached, synthetic oxytocin, known as Pitocin, can be administered to restart and maintain labor. An alternative to labor and delivery is the surgical delivery of the baby through a procedure called a Caesarian section. This is major abdominal surgery and can lead to post-surgical complications for the mother, but in some cases it may be the only way to safely deliver the baby. The mother’s mammary glands go through changes during the third trimester to prepare for lactation and breastfeeding. When the baby begins suckling at the breast, signals are sent to the hypothalamus causing the release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary. Prolactin causes the mammary glands to produce milk. Oxytocin is also released, promoting the release of the milk. The milk contains nutrients for the baby’s development and growth as well as immunoglobulins to protect the child from bacterial and viral infections. Contraception and Birth Control The prevention of a pregnancy comes under the terms contraception or birth control. Strictly speaking, contraception refers to preventing the sperm and egg from joining. Both terms are, however, frequently used interchangeably. \| Contraceptive Methods \| \|\| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Method \| Examples \| Failure Rate in Typical Use Over 12 Months \| \| Barrier \| male condom, female condom, sponge, cervical cap, diaphragm, spermicides \| 15 to 24% \| \| Hormonal \| oral, patch, vaginal ring \| 8% \| \| injection \| 3% \| \| \| implant \| less than 1% \| \| \| Other \| natural family planning \| 12 to 25% \| \| withdrawal \| 27% \| \| \| sterilization \| less than 1% \| Table lists common methods of contraception. The failure rates listed are not the ideal rates that could be realized, but the typical rates that occur. A failure rate is the number of pregnancies resulting from the method’s use over a twelve-month period. Barrier methods, such as condoms, cervical caps, and diaphragms, block sperm from entering the uterus, preventing fertilization. Spermicides are chemicals that are placed in the vagina that kill sperm. Sponges, which are saturated with spermicides, are placed in the vagina at the cervical opening. Combinations of spermicidal chemicals and barrier methods achieve lower failure rates than do the methods when used separately. Nearly a quarter of the couples using barrier methods, natural family planning, or withdrawal can expect a failure of the method. Natural family planning is based on the monitoring of the menstrual cycle and having intercourse only during times when the egg is not available. A woman’s body temperature may rise a degree Celsius at ovulation and the cervical mucus may increase in volume and become more pliable. These changes give a general indication of when intercourse is more or less likely to result in fertilization. Withdrawal involves the removal of the penis from the vagina during intercourse, before ejaculation occurs. This is a risky method with a high failure rate due to the possible presence of sperm in the bulbourethral gland’s secretion, which may enter the vagina prior to removing the penis. Hormonal methods use synthetic progesterone (sometimes in combination with estrogen), to inhibit the hypothalamus from releasing FSH or LH, and thus prevent an egg from being available for fertilization. The method of administering the hormone affects failure rate. The most reliable method, with a failure rate of less than 1 percent, is the implantation of the hormone under the skin. The same rate can be achieved through the sterilization procedures of vasectomy in the man or of tubal ligation in the woman, or by using an intrauterine device (IUD). IUDs are inserted into the uterus and establish an inflammatory condition that prevents fertilized eggs from implanting into the uterine wall. Compliance with the contraceptive method is a strong contributor to the success or failure rate of any particular method. The only method that is completely effective at preventing conception is abstinence. The choice of contraceptive method depends on the goals of the woman or couple. Tubal ligation and vasectomy are considered permanent prevention, while other methods are reversible and provide short-term contraception. Termination of an existing pregnancy can be spontaneous or voluntary. Spontaneous termination is a miscarriage and usually occurs very early in the pregnancy, usually within the first few weeks. This occurs when the fetus cannot develop properly and the gestation is naturally terminated. Voluntary termination of a pregnancy is an abortion. Laws regulating abortion vary between states and tend to view fetal viability as the criteria for allowing or preventing the procedure. Infertility Infertility is the inability to conceive a child or carry a child to birth. About 75 percent of causes of infertility can be identified; these include diseases, such as sexually transmitted diseases that can cause scarring of the reproductive tubes in either men or women, or developmental problems frequently related to abnormal hormone levels in one of the individuals. Inadequate nutrition, especially starvation, can delay menstruation. Stress can also lead to infertility. Short-term stress can affect hormone levels, while long-term stress can delay puberty and cause less frequent menstrual cycles. Other factors that affect fertility include toxins (such as cadmium), tobacco smoking, marijuana use, gonadal injuries, and aging. If infertility is identified, several assisted reproductive technologies (ART) are available to aid conception. A common type of ART is in vitro fertilization (IVF) where an egg and sperm are combined outside the body and then placed in the uterus. Eggs are obtained from the woman after extensive hormonal treatments that prepare mature eggs for fertilization and prepare the uterus for implantation of the fertilized egg. Sperm are obtained from the man and they are combined with the eggs and supported through several cell divisions to ensure viability of the zygotes. When the embryos have reached the eight-cell stage, one or more is implanted into the woman’s uterus. If fertilization is not accomplished by simple IVF, a procedure that injects the sperm into an egg can be used. This is called intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) and is shown in Figure. IVF procedures produce a surplus of fertilized eggs and embryos that can be frozen and stored for future use. The procedures can also result in multiple births. Section Summary Human pregnancy begins with fertilization of an egg and proceeds through the three trimesters of gestation. The labor process has three stages (contractions, delivery of the fetus, expulsion of the placenta), each propelled by hormones. The first trimester lays down the basic structures of the body, including the limb buds, heart, eyes, and the liver. The second trimester continues the development of all of the organs and systems. The third trimester exhibits the greatest growth of the fetus and culminates in labor and delivery. Prevention of a pregnancy can be accomplished through a variety of methods including barriers, hormones, or other means. Assisted reproductive technologies may help individuals who have infertility problems. Review Questions Nutrient and waste requirements for the developing fetus are handled during the first few weeks by: - the placenta - diffusion through the endometrium - the chorion - the blastocyst Hint: B Progesterone is made during the third trimester by the: - placenta - endometrial lining - chorion - corpus luteum Hint: A Which contraceptive method is 100 percent effective at preventing pregnancy? - condom - oral hormonal methods - sterilization - abstinence Hint: D Which type of short term contraceptive method is generally more effective than others? - barrier - hormonal - natural family planning - withdrawal Hint: B Which hormone is primarily responsible for the contractions during labor? - oxytocin - estrogen - β-HCG - progesterone Hint: A Major organs begin to develop during which part of human gestation? - fertilization - first trimester - second trimester - third trimester Hint: B Free Response Describe the major developments during each trimester of human gestation. Hint: The first trimester lays down the basic structures of the body, including the limb buds, heart, eyes, and the liver. The second trimester continues the development of all of the organs and systems established during the first trimester. The placenta takes over the production of estrogen and high levels of progesterone and handles the nutrient and waste requirements of the fetus. The third trimester exhibits the greatest growth of the fetus, culminating in labor and delivery. Describe the stages of labor. Hint: Stage one of labor results in the thinning of the cervix and the dilation of the cervical opening. Stage two delivers the baby, and stage three delivers the placenta.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.568588	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15163/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15164/overview	Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss how fertilization occurs - Explain how the embryo forms from the zygote - Discuss the role of cleavage and gastrulation in animal development The process in which an organism develops from a single-celled zygote to a multi-cellular organism is complex and well-regulated. The early stages of embryonic development are also crucial for ensuring the fitness of the organism. Fertilization Fertilization, pictured in Figurea is the process in which gametes (an egg and sperm) fuse to form a zygote. The egg and sperm each contain one set of chromosomes. To ensure that the offspring has only one complete diploid set of chromosomes, only one sperm must fuse with one egg. In mammals, the egg is protected by a layer of extracellular matrix consisting mainly of glycoproteins called the zona pellucida. When a sperm binds to the zona pellucida, a series of biochemical events, called the acrosomal reactions, take place. In placental mammals, the acrosome contains digestive enzymes that initiate the degradation of the glycoprotein matrix protecting the egg and allowing the sperm plasma membrane to fuse with the egg plasma membrane, as illustrated in Figureb. The fusion of these two membranes creates an opening through which the sperm nucleus is transferred into the ovum. The nuclear membranes of the egg and sperm break down and the two haploid genomes condense to form a diploid genome. To ensure that no more than one sperm fertilizes the egg, once the acrosomal reactions take place at one location of the egg membrane, the egg releases proteins in other locations to prevent other sperm from fusing with the egg. If this mechanism fails, multiple sperm can fuse with the egg, resulting in polyspermy. The resulting embryo is not genetically viable and dies within a few days. Cleavage and Blastula Stage The development of multi-cellular organisms begins from a single-celled zygote, which undergoes rapid cell division to form the blastula. The rapid, multiple rounds of cell division are termed cleavage. Cleavage is illustrated in (Figurea). After the cleavage has produced over 100 cells, the embryo is called a blastula. The blastula is usually a spherical layer of cells (the blastoderm) surrounding a fluid-filled or yolk-filled cavity (the blastocoel). Mammals at this stage form a structure called the blastocyst, characterized by an inner cell mass that is distinct from the surrounding blastula, shown in Figureb. During cleavage, the cells divide without an increase in mass; that is, one large single-celled zygote divides into multiple smaller cells. Each cell within the blastula is called a blastomere. Cleavage can take place in two ways: holoblastic (total) cleavage or meroblastic (partial) cleavage. The type of cleavage depends on the amount of yolk in the eggs. In placental mammals (including humans) where nourishment is provided by the mother’s body, the eggs have a very small amount of yolk and undergo holoblastic cleavage. Other species, such as birds, with a lot of yolk in the egg to nourish the embryo during development, undergo meroblastic cleavage. In mammals, the blastula forms the blastocyst in the next stage of development. Here the cells in the blastula arrange themselves in two layers: the inner cell mass, and an outer layer called the trophoblast. The inner cell mass is also known as the embryoblast and this mass of cells will go on to form the embryo. At this stage of development, illustrated in Figure the inner cell mass consists of embryonic stem cells that will differentiate into the different cell types needed by the organism. The trophoblast will contribute to the placenta and nourish the embryo. Link to Learning Visit the Virtual Human Embryo project at the Endowment for Human Development site to step through an interactive that shows the stages of embryo development, including micrographs and rotating 3-D images. Gastrulation The typical blastula is a ball of cells. The next stage in embryonic development is the formation of the body plan. The cells in the blastula rearrange themselves spatially to form three layers of cells. This process is called gastrulation. During gastrulation, the blastula folds upon itself to form the three layers of cells. Each of these layers is called a germ layer and each germ layer differentiates into different organ systems. The three germs layers, shown in Figure, are the endoderm, the ectoderm, and the mesoderm. The ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system and the epidermis. The mesoderm gives rise to the muscle cells and connective tissue in the body. The endoderm gives rise to columnar cells found in the digestive system and many internal organs. Everyday Connection Are Designer Babies in Our Future? If you could prevent your child from getting a devastating genetic disease, would you do it? Would you select the sex of your child or select for their attractiveness, strength, or intelligence? How far would you go to maximize the possibility of resistance to disease? The genetic engineering of a human child, the production of "designer babies" with desirable phenotypic characteristics, was once a topic restricted to science fiction. This is the case no longer: science fiction is now overlapping into science fact. Many phenotypic choices for offspring are already available, with many more likely to be possible in the not too distant future. Which traits should be selected and how they should be selected are topics of much debate within the worldwide medical community. The ethical and moral line is not always clear or agreed upon, and some fear that modern reproductive technologies could lead to a new form of eugenics. Eugenics is the use of information and technology from a variety of sources to improve the genetic makeup of the human race. The goal of creating genetically superior humans was quite prevalent (although controversial) in several countries during the early 20th century, but fell into disrepute when Nazi Germany developed an extensive eugenics program in the 1930's and 40's. As part of their program, the Nazis forcibly sterilized hundreds of thousands of the so-called "unfit" and killed tens of thousands of institutionally disabled people as part of a systematic program to develop a genetically superior race of Germans known as Aryans. Ever since, eugenic ideas have not been as publicly expressed, but there are still those who promote them. Efforts have been made in the past to control traits in human children using donated sperm from men with desired traits. In fact, eugenicist Robert Klark Graham established a sperm bank in 1980 that included samples exclusively from donors with high IQs. The "genius" sperm bank failed to capture the public's imagination and the operation closed in 1999. In more recent times, the procedure known as prenatal genetic diagnosis (PGD) has been developed. PGD involves the screening of human embryos as part of the process of in vitro fertilization, during which embryos are conceived and grown outside the mother's body for some period of time before they are implanted. The term PGD usually refers to both the diagnosis, selection, and the implantation of the selected embryos. In the least controversial use of PGD, embryos are tested for the presence of alleles which cause genetic diseases such as sickle cell disease, muscular dystrophy, and hemophilia, in which a single disease-causing allele or pair of alleles has been identified. By excluding embryos containing these alleles from implantation into the mother, the disease is prevented, and the unused embryos are either donated to science or discarded. There are relatively few in the worldwide medical community that question the ethics of this type of procedure, which allows individuals scared to have children because of the alleles they carry to do so successfully. The major limitation to this procedure is its expense. Not usually covered by medical insurance and thus out of reach financially for most couples, only a very small percentage of all live births use such complicated methodologies. Yet, even in cases like these where the ethical issues may seem to be clear-cut, not everyone agrees with the morality of these types of procedures. For example, to those who take the position that human life begins at conception, the discarding of unused embryos, a necessary result of PGD, is unacceptable under any circumstances. A murkier ethical situation is found in the selection of a child's sex, which is easily performed by PGD. Currently, countries such as Great Britain have banned the selection of a child's sex for reasons other than preventing sex-linked diseases. Other countries allow the procedure for "family balancing", based on the desire of some parents to have at least one child of each sex. Still others, including the United States, have taken a scattershot approach to regulating these practices, essentially leaving it to the individual practicing physician to decide which practices are acceptable and which are not. Even murkier are rare instances of disabled parents, such as those with deafness or dwarfism, who select embryos via PGD to ensure that they share their disability. These parents usually cite many positive aspects of their disabilities and associated culture as reasons for their choice, which they see as their moral right. To others, to purposely cause a disability in a child violates the basic medical principle of Primum non nocere, "first, do no harm." This procedure, although not illegal in most countries, demonstrates the complexity of ethical issues associated with choosing genetic traits in offspring. Where could this process lead? Will this technology become more affordable and how should it be used? With the ability of technology to progress rapidly and unpredictably, a lack of definitive guidelines for the use of reproductive technologies before they arise might make it difficult for legislators to keep pace once they are in fact realized, assuming the process needs any government regulation at all. Other bioethicists argue that we should only deal with technologies that exist now, and not in some uncertain future. They argue that these types of procedures will always be expensive and rare, so the fears of eugenics and "master" races are unfounded and overstated. The debate continues. Section Summary The early stages of embryonic development begin with fertilization. The process of fertilization is tightly controlled to ensure that only one sperm fuses with one egg. After fertilization, the zygote undergoes cleavage to form the blastula. The blastula, which in some species is a hollow ball of cells, undergoes a process called gastrulation, in which the three germ layers form. The ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system and the epidermal skin cells, the mesoderm gives rise to the muscle cells and connective tissue in the body, and the endoderm gives rise to columnar cells and internal organs. Review Questions Which of the following is false? - The endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm are germ layers. - The trophoblast is a germ layer. - The inner cell mass is a source of embryonic stem cells. - The blastula is often a hollow ball of cells. Hint: B During cleavage, the mass of cells: - increases - decreases - doubles with every cell division - does not change significantly Hint: D Free Response What do you think would happen if multiple sperm fused with one egg? Hint: Multiple sperm can fuse with the egg, resulting in polyspermy. The resulting embryo is not genetically viable and dies within a few days. Why do mammalian eggs have a small concentration of yolk, while bird and reptile eggs have a large concentration of yolk? Hint: Mammalian eggs do not need a lot of yolk because the developing fetus obtains nutrients from the mother. Other species, in which the fetus develops outside of the mother’s body, such as occurs with birds, require a lot of yolk in the egg to nourish the embryo during development.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.596027	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15164/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15165/overview	Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the process of organogenesis - Identify the anatomical axes formed in vertebrates Gastrulation leads to the formation of the three germ layers that give rise, during further development, to the different organs in the animal body. This process is called organogenesis. Organogenesis is characterized by rapid and precise movements of the cells within the embryo. Organogenesis Organs form from the germ layers through the process of differentiation. During differentiation, the embryonic stem cells express specific sets of genes which will determine their ultimate cell type. For example, some cells in the ectoderm will express the genes specific to skin cells. As a result, these cells will differentiate into epidermal cells. The process of differentiation is regulated by cellular signaling cascades. Scientists study organogenesis extensively in the lab in fruit flies (Drosophila) and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Drosophila have segments along their bodies, and the patterning associated with the segment formation has allowed scientists to study which genes play important roles in organogenesis along the length of the embryo at different time points. The nematode C.elegans has roughly 1000 somatic cells and scientists have studied the fate of each of these cells during their development in the nematode life cycle. There is little variation in patterns of cell lineage between individuals, unlike in mammals where cell development from the embryo is dependent on cellular cues. In vertebrates, one of the primary steps during organogenesis is the formation of the neural system. The ectoderm forms epithelial cells and tissues, and neuronal tissues. During the formation of the neural system, special signaling molecules called growth factors signal some cells at the edge of the ectoderm to become epidermis cells. The remaining cells in the center form the neural plate. If the signaling by growth factors were disrupted, then the entire ectoderm would differentiate into neural tissue. The neural plate undergoes a series of cell movements where it rolls up and forms a tube called the neural tube, as illustrated in Figure. In further development, the neural tube will give rise to the brain and the spinal cord. The mesoderm that lies on either side of the vertebrate neural tube will develop into the various connective tissues of the animal body. A spatial pattern of gene expression reorganizes the mesoderm into groups of cells called somites with spaces between them. The somites, illustrated in Figure will further develop into the ribs, lungs, and segmental (spine) muscle. The mesoderm also forms a structure called the notochord, which is rod-shaped and forms the central axis of the animal body. Vertebrate Axis Formation Even as the germ layers form, the ball of cells still retains its spherical shape. However, animal bodies have lateral-medial (left-right), dorsal-ventral (back-belly), and anterior-posterior (head-feet) axes, illustrated in Figure. How are these established? In one of the most seminal experiments ever to be carried out in developmental biology, Spemann and Mangold took dorsal cells from one embryo and transplanted them into the belly region of another embryo. They found that the transplanted embryo now had two notochords: one at the dorsal site from the original cells and another at the transplanted site. This suggested that the dorsal cells were genetically programmed to form the notochord and define the axis. Since then, researchers have identified many genes that are responsible for axis formation. Mutations in these genes leads to the loss of symmetry required for organism development. Animal bodies have externally visible symmetry. However, the internal organs are not symmetric. For example, the heart is on the left side and the liver on the right. The formation of the central left-right axis is an important process during development. This internal asymmetry is established very early during development and involves many genes. Research is still ongoing to fully understand the developmental implications of these genes. Section Summary Organogenesis is the formation of organs from the germ layers. Each germ layer gives rise to specific tissue types. The first stage is the formation of the neural system in the ectoderm. The mesoderm gives rise to somites and the notochord. Formation of vertebrate axis is another important developmental stage. Review Questions Which of the following gives rise to the skin cells? - ectoderm - endoderm - mesoderm - none of the above Hint: A The ribs form from the ________. - notochord - neural plate - neural tube - somites Hint: D Free Response Explain how the different germ layers give rise to different tissue types. Hint: Organs form from the germ layers through the process of differentiation. During differentiation, the embryonic stem cells express a specific set of genes that will determine their ultimate fate as a cell type. For example, some cells in the ectoderm will express the genes specific to skin cells. As a result, these cells will differentiate into epidermal cells. The process of differentiation is regulated by cellular signaling cascades. Explain the role of axis formation in development. Hint: Animal bodies have lateral-medial (left-right), dorsal-ventral (back-belly), and anterior-posterior (head-feet) axes. The dorsal cells are genetically programmed to form the notochord and define the axis. There are many genes responsible for axis formation. Mutations in these genes lead to the loss of symmetry required for organism development.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.619114	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15165/overview", "title": "Biology, Animal Structure and Function", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120377/overview	Classroom Rules IRIS Iris Center Organize the Physical Classroom Teacher Establishes Routines Classroom Management Overview This is a template for an inquiry project in a senior level early childhood course. Purpose of the Project The purpose of this project is to explore the critical elements of classroom arrangement that contribute to effective teaching and learning environments for early childhood learners. We will examine why rules, routines, arrangement, and designing effective classrooms, impact how we aim to highlight how thoughtfully arranged classrooms can foster positive behavior and enhance student engagement. This project will investigate the importance of establishing clear rules and predictable routines, which provide students with a sense of security and structure. Furthermore, we will discuss how the physical arrangement of furniture and resources can support diverse learning styles and encourage collaboration among students. Ultimately, our goal is to design classrooms that not only meet educational needs but also create welcoming and inclusive spaces that promote academic success and social development. Sections in this course: Rules Routines Arrangement Designing effective classrooms Rules Introduction: In a classroom, teachers are required to create rules and routines for their students. The students are then expected to abide by these rules and follow the routines. Rules and routines help the teacher support their students by getting them ready to engage and clear the way for learning. Rules are a set of instructions that tell the students what they are allowed to do or not do inside the classroom. Routines are a sequence of actions that are performed as a part of regular procedure. Rules and routines provide the students with expectations from their teacher. The students know that if they follow the rules and routines they will be successful in achieving their goals. Why are rules important: Having rules implemented into your classroom is so important because it creates a positive learning environment for your students. Rules also create clear expectations for your students and ultimately improve their academic performance. Rules teach our students to be responsible,respectful, and have self discipline. Rules are also used to help the teacher maintain classroom routines and expectations. How to establish rules: When establishing rules inside the classroom, you should always focus on what the students are expected to do rather than what they shouldn’t do. You should also be sure to include the students when creating the rules for your classroom. Once you have established the rules for your classroom, it is imperative that you display them in the classroom where your students can always see them. After creating your classroom rules, as the teacher you should explain and enforce consequences if rules are not followed. In order for students to know what exactly is expected of them you should model the type of behavior that is expected. Throughout the school year you should revisit your classroom rules. Routines Having routines in the classroom is just as important as how you arrange, regulate your rules, and how you design your classroom. Your classroom routines are how you run your classroom, that is your rules, classroom management, and also your transitions and whatever curricular schedule your school has you on. Why should you have routines in your classroom? Your routines are the roots of your classroom. You can break it down and think of it this way: Your principal gives you your daily schedule during in service, this is going to be the base of your day. Once you have your daily schedule you then have to set all of your transitions, this is when the transition will take place, how they’re going to know they will be transitioning and what they’re transitioning to. Once you’ve decided on your transitions you have to decide your method for classroom management.These two things will come to play on the first day of school where you will be deciding your classroom rules with your class. -Laying out the groundwork in your class is so important. If you’re transitions aren’t strong your class will have no stability and if you have weak classroom management your class will lack structure. You need both of these things and both are crucial when you come to making your class rules and implementing them throughout the year. Arrangement Classroom arrangement can be important in so many ways, it is a learning environment for a well-organized classroom that supports a positive learning environment. It allows students to focus better on their tasks and enhances their engagement. Students should also have easy access to materials and resources easily. This is especially important for students with different needs. An arranged classroom helps teachers manage behavior more effectively. Clear sightlines and organized spaces can reduce distractions and maintain a conducive atmosphere for learning. Lastly, safety is very important in a classroom. We have to have clear pathways and emergency exits, ensuring that students can exit quickly in case of an emergency. A thoughtful classroom arrangement not only supports academic success but also fosters a safe and collaborative learning environment. Designing Effective Classrooms Some main things teachers need to focus on when designing their classrooms to be effective for the students: Focus on teacher Visibility Collaboration Inclusive environment Adaptability Supports digital learning Comfort Individual needs Accessibility Safety and navigation	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.650018	Kayli Deremo	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120377/overview", "title": "Classroom Management", "author": "Brooke Garza" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64064/overview	Education Standards Keeping Students Learning (pdf) Keeping Students Learning - Tips for Online and Offline Learning Overview Suggestions to help keep students updated and engaged when learning remotely. Tips for Online and Offline Learning Tips for Online Learning Motivate the students to manage their own learning. Write a message specific to your class and situation such as: Online learning offers you more flexibility as a student, but it also requires more of your focus and commitment to learn. It is easy to procrastinate or rush your work because there is no one directly guiding you. Keep in mind that you are in the driver’s seat of your learning. Teachers and others are here to help, but your success is ultimately up to you.Keep the technology manageable. Many platforms offer all sorts of options that can sound great for virtual learning, but they don’t all work smoothly and not in every situation. Focus on the technology you know for the backbone of your material such as shared documents (Google, SharePoint, Padlet, etc.) Then, venture into live web conferencing and other apps. - Analyze your current lessons and units to determine what is most important and what is manageable for online learning. Design what you assign with the “end user”, your students, in mind. Picture them in their home setting trying to work the assignment through. - Break up or “chunk” the learning activities and vary them. - Give clear expectations, timelines, instructions. In person, we can get feedback instantly and adjust our message. Online, we need to clearly state these. We should also check for understanding through a question, free write, or even a phone call. - Include fun activities and give students a stretch break. - Set guidelines for discussion rooms and monitor them. - If you have access to Zoom or other webinar platforms, record your session and make it available to students so they can review it. - Use screenshots to show students exactly what is meant. The Snipping Tool on PCs or shift-command-3 or 4 for Macs work well. Not Teaching Virtually? Tips for Keeping Students Learning Regular emails to students (or parents/guardians) to encourage and keep in touch. Include a message with encouragement to keep reading, writing, and learning at home. Email or send activities to do at home. - For teachers with smaller number of students, phone call to check in and see how they are doing. - For students who have online access, give directions for getting a library card and accessing online resources appropriate for their age. - If students have online access, use a streaming access such as Facebook to do read alouds. - Include activities that keep the students physically active. Encourage outdoor time. Attribution Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay License Except where otherwise noted, this work by the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License. All logos and trademarks are property of their respective owners.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.681314	Career and Technical Education	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64064/overview", "title": "Keeping Students Learning - Tips for Online and Offline Learning", "author": "Business and Communication" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104138/overview	CREDIT CARS: COSTS, RESPONSIBILITY, AND CONSEQUENCES Overview "Future Ready: Financial Literacy" is an educational resource that explores credit cards, emphasizing the importance of understanding their costs and potential hazards. Learners will develop rational thinking and decision-making skills through a cost-benefit analysis. The content focuses on financial responsibility, highlighting the benefits of wise money management and the costs of irresponsibility. The resource equips individuals with essential knowledge to make informed financial choices and maintain a healthy credit score. WHAT ARE CREDIT CARDS? Future Ready FINANCIAL LITERACY Learning about credit cards, their potential costs and hazards of using them What are credit cards? Photo by AVery Evans on Unsplash LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe rational thinking and behavior Demonstrate the process of making decisions using a cost-benefit analysis. Identify ways to be a financially responsible individual. Give examples of the benefits of financial responsibility. Give examples of the costs of financial irresponsibility. THE TRUE COST OF USING A CREDIT CARD Credit cards allow you to borrow money from the issuer to buy things, but it's important to remember that if you don't pay back what you borrow each month, you'll have to pay extra money in the form of interest and other fees [1]. So, it's important to be careful when using credit cards and make sure to understand the rules and conditions of the card agreement, so you don't end up with a lot of debt that costs you more money in the long run. THE BOTTOM LINE: Carrying a large balance on your credit card can result in paying a significant amount of interest, especially if the interest rate is high. This is why it's important to keep your balances low and make timely payments to avoid paying more in interest and to maintain a good credit score. VOCABULARY ARP the annual percentage of interest a borrower pays to the lender credit history a person’s individual history of paying bills HOW CAN YOU BORROW MONEY WISELY? To make smart choices when borrowing money, follow these steps: Read and understand the loan details and what it's for. Read and understand the loan details and pick the best one. Read and understand the loan details, like the interest rate and how you have to pay it back. Check if you can afford the monthly payments and the overall cost. Keep track of your loan and make payments on time. By doing these things, you'll be able to borrow money smartly and handle it well BENEFITS TO BEING FINANCIALLY RESPONSIBLE Handling your cash wisely has tons of perks. For instance, if you're in college, you won't need to ask your parents for dough if you're good with your money. This gives you more freedom and independence. After college, you won't have to worry about paying off student loans, a car, or credit cards, giving you the ability to do what you want. Earning more money is just one benefit. Other benefits include: earning more money having good credit having more opportunities gaining independence being prepared for an emergency THINKING CAREFULLY Walk through the thinking process for understanding credit cards and being financially responsible. Being careless with your money can also have consequences. Say you move into an apartment without considering if you can afford it. If you can't make rent, you might have to move back in with your folks. But, you'll owe the apartment company big bucks because you broke your lease. And, it can also hurt your credit score, making it tough to rent a place again for a while. Let’s take a look at a couple of scenarios that demonstrate the importance of becoming financially literate. Simon wants to get a credit card and he gets a form from his bank. He starts reading and sees some confusing terms like "annual percentage rate" and "transaction fee." He doesn't know what those mean and wants more info before deciding if it's the right card for him. What can Simon do? He needs to learn more about money. He can read a book about finances, Google the terms, take a class, call the credit card company, or ask someone who knows a lot about it. Even a bank worker could be a great help. If Simon understands more about money, he can figure out what important financial information means. Let's take a look at another example. Robin got her credit card bill and was shocked to see she owed $100 even though she didn't buy anything and her balance was $0. She called the credit card company and found out it was her annual fee. She realized she read the terms, but didn't understand she'd have to pay a fee every year. What should Robin have done? Before getting the credit card, she should have learned more about it. She should have found a credit card with no annual fee. Knowing more about money would have saved her money in this situation. Lastly, take a look at this final scenario. Anna wanted some new earrings but didn't have enough money. She used her credit card instead. When the bill came, she couldn't pay it all so she only paid part. The next month, the same thing happened. By the third month, she finally paid for the earrings but ended up paying an extra - $22.50 in interest. Paying more money is just one cost of irresponsibility. Other consequences of irresponsibility include: paying more money in fees, penalties, and interest; earning less money in interest; being dependent on others. NOW IT’S YOUR TURN. Use what you have learned to answer the question. Select the items from the following list that are included in financial literacy. using a credit card to make a purchase applying for a credit card selecting a college deciding to rent an apartment paying taxes opening a checking account CHOOSE THE RIGHT ANSWER. Answer the question below. Then read why each answer is correct or incorrect. Let’s say you decide you want to buy a new iPad or tablet that costs $300 but you haent’ had time to savvy up enough to buy it with cash. Your parents cosign the application, so you were able to get a credit card in your name. If the credit card company charges you 18% interest, and you only have to make a minimum payment of $15 a month, how long will it take you to pay off in full? Check to see if you chose the right answer. It sounds great, right? You just got a brand new tablet, didn’t have to spend any cash out of your pocket, and will only have to pay $15 a month. What a deal! Hold on a minute. At $15 a month and with an 18% interest rate, it will take you 24 months to pay off the balance in full. That means you will have paid $359 for the tablet ($300 for the original cost, plus $59 in interest). And if you happen to accidentally miss a payment, your interest rate will probably go up and you’ll be charged a late fee, maybe $25 or more. Does it still seem like a good deal? Now imagine that you only make the minimum monthly payment and continue to use your credit card for everyday purchases like lunch, clothes, and video games. Pretty soon you rack up a $3,000 balance. With an 18% interest rate - and even if you make no more purchases - it will take you nearly 22 years to pay off your credit card debt. If you were 18 when you make your first purchase, you will be 40 when you finally pay it off. You also will have paid $4,100 in interest charges during that time, well over the amount you originally spent. WHY IT MATTERS: Pay off your credit card balance in full each month by the due date. That way you won’t have to pay interest and you’ll never get hit with a late fee NOW IT’S YOUR TURN. To do well on questions about a text, follow these tips: Be a detective and gather information from the text, title, date, and author's background. Be an active reader and ask questions as you go. Stop and reread things you don't understand. Trust your first answer, but double check by looking back at the text to make sure it's right. Think about what the author is saying, the conclusions they make, the arguments they give, and the details they use to support those arguments. Find specific examples in the text that relate to the question. Which of the following is an example of financial irresponsibility? organizing financial documents spending your entire paycheck finding a new job before quitting your current job paying car payments on time Which of the following is an example of financial responsibility? spending money before you have earned it making impulse buys at the grocery store having medical insurance borrowing from your brother to make a car payment 2 more WRITING THE BEST ANSWER POSSIBLE Study the model below. It’s a good example of a written answer. Linda and her husband would like to buy a house soon. She continuously pays bills late. How do her actions affect her and others? Continuously paying bills late can have a negative impact on Lisa's credit score, which can make it more difficult and expensive for her to get a loan or a mortgage to buy a house. It can also affect her relationship with creditors and result in late fees or legal actions. Additionally, her actions may affect her husband's credit score as well if they plan to apply for a loan together. Late payments can also harm her reputation and credibility with utility companies, landlords, and other service providers. Overall, paying bills late can have far-reaching consequences for Lisa's financial well-being and her ability to achieve her goals. NOW IT’S YOUR TURN. Answer the question. Use what you have learned from the model. Do you already demonstrate some ways of showing financial responsibility? In the text box below, write a brief statement about 3-5 ways you already show financial responsibility. Also mention 3-4 areas you would like to start working on. GET READY FOR YOUR FUTURE! As you answer the questions below, remember to: Read each question carefully and consider your answer options. Take as much time as you need to complete these questions. When you finish, check your answers. 🤔Remember: Being financially responsible doesn't just affect you. It can also affect your family, neighbors, and even the world. For example, if you got a car loan and asked your parents to help you by signing for it, but then you kept missing payments, it would not only hurt your credit score, but also your parents' because they co-signed the loan. Answer each question. Read the following two descriptions. Decide who has better financial habits and attitudes. Lindsay doesn't feel that she will ever get her credit card paid off. After seeing her new bill, she tosses it aside so she doesn't have to think about it. Hillary receives a few bills in the mail. She takes out a piece of paper and starts figuring out a plan to pay these bills. Financial literacy includes information about income, banking, loans, and credit cards. True False Read the following actions and decide if they are responsible or irresponsible. checking my credit score: paying a credit card bill one day late: listing expenses in a budget: making decisions without all of the information: purchasing something because it is on sale: writing some goals: researching what a mutual fund is: making financial decisions without discussing it with your spouse: finding a savings account with a great interest rate: looking for the cheapest price for an item: Choose all that apply. A financially responsible person _____. has a budget pays bills on time spends less than they make sets goals pays for everything with a credit card saves their money List three or four effects of financial irresponsibility. REFERENCES, ATTRIBUTION, AND LICENSE References “Credit Card Glossary” by Bank of America CashOnHand - Credit Cards - Brandon - English \| CC BY-NC-ND Credit Card Analysis by Stuart Boersma \| CC BY-NC-SA Cards, Cars, and Currency Curriculum Unit by Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis \| CC BY-NC-ND Attribution Lesson by Benjamin Troutman, Griffin Bay School, San Juan Island School District Portions of content adapted from Credit Card Comparison Activity by Lexi Shafer \| CC BY-NC Credit Card Terms and Comparison Activity by Rebecca Kingsley \| CC BY-NC Credit Cards and Credit Scores by Lois Hixson \| CC BY-NC-SA License Except where otherwise noted, Future Ready Financial Literacy Learning about Credit Cars, Their Potential Costs and Hazards of Using Them by San Juan Island School District is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. All logos and trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Sections used under the fair use doctrine (17 U.S.C. § 107) are marked.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.711805	Mathematics	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104138/overview", "title": "CREDIT CARS: COSTS, RESPONSIBILITY, AND CONSEQUENCES", "author": "Finance" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104139/overview	MASTERING FINANCIAL LITERACY: BUDGETING AND STRATEGIES Overview "Future Ready: Financial Literacy" is an educational resource that focuses on teaching essential money management skills. Participants will learn about budgets, financial risks, and strategies to effectively manage their finances. The course covers important concepts such as budgeting, net worth, financial goals, insurance, and saving and investing. By following the provided guidelines and tips, learners will develop a solid understanding of how to manage money in a healthy and responsible way, paving the path towards a financially secure future. HOW DO YOU MANAGE YOUR MONEY? Future Ready FINANCIAL LITERACY Learning about budgets, financial risks, and strategies to manage them How do you manage money? Photo by Kenny Eliason on Unsplash LEARNING OBJECTIVES Understand important money words that will help you understand how to manage your money. Break down the parts of a plan for your money: a list of what you own and owe, what you want to save for, a spending plan, how you'll protect yourself, and a plan for growing your money. Make a plan for keeping your money organized and easy to manage. Understand the concept of a budget and how it helps you keep track of your money, plan for expenses, and achieve your financial goals. MANAGING MONEY IN A HEALTHY WAY When people hear the word "budget", they often think of having to give up things they want and being tight with money. But if you plan ahead and decide how much money you want to save and give, it can actually be very fulfilling. With a good plan, you might be able to save up enough money to do something really fun with your friends, like go on an amazing vacation! In this assignment, you'll learn how to manage your money and create a budget that works for you. VOCABULARY budget A careful plan for how much money you will spend and what you will buy with it net worth A list of what you own and owe financial goals What you want to save for insurance Something you buy to protect yourself in case something bad happens, like a fire or a flood. If that happens, the insurance company will give you money to help pay for what was damaged or destroyed. saving and investing A plan for growing your money net income The money you earn from your work or that you receive from investments after taxes HOW DO YOU MANAGE MONEY? Different financial experts have different ideas on managing money, but there are a few common tips they all agree on. Figure out why you're spending too much and avoid those reasons, like being bored, sad, or feeling pressure from others. Keep track of everything you spend because little purchases can add up quickly. Make a budget by setting goals that are specific, measurable, achievable, important, and have a deadline. Don’t get into debt or use credit cards too much in order to make smart money decisions and handle your finances well. THINKING CAREFULLY Walk through the thinking process for understanding budgeting, financial risks, and strategies to manage them. Here are 7 guidelines that will help you plan a working budget: Determine your income: Make a list of all sources of income, including salary, investments, and any other sources of money that you regularly receive. Identify your expenses: Make a list of all your monthly expenses, including rent or mortgage payments, utilities, food, transportation, entertainment, and other bills. The amount of money you have, minus the amount you owe is your net worth. Prioritize your expenses: Decide which expenses are most important, such as housing and food, and allocate your money accordingly. Track your spending: Keep a record of how much money you spend and on what, so you can see where your money is going and identify areas where you may be overspending. Set aside money for emergencies: It's important to have a reserve of money for unexpected expenses, such as car repairs or medical bills. Plan for long-term goals: Think about your future financial goals, such as buying a house, saving for retirement, or going to college, and make a plan for how to save for these expenses. Review and adjust your budget regularly: Your expenses and income may change over time, so it's important to review your budget regularly and make adjustments as needed to ensure you are staying on track. YOUR TURN Use what you have learned to answer the questions. Net worth is the amount you have, plus the amount you owe. True False A budget is a _____. A plan for spending money A list of expenses A way to save money All of the above Answer: A. A plan for spending money CHOOSING THE RIGHT ANSWER. Read the following and answer the question below. Then read why each answer is correct or incorrect. Managing your money wisely involves making a plan to spend your money on the things you need and want, while also saving for future goals. This plan is called a budget. To make a budget, you add up all the money you make in a month and subtract the money you save, give to charity, and spend on bills and other expenses. There are different ways to make a budget, like using envelopes for different categories of expenses or using computer programs or apps, like Mint, Personal Capital, YNAB, Every Dollar, and Goodbudget. The important thing is to find a method that works best for you. By creating a budget and sticking to it, you can make smart choices with your money and reach your financial goals. Why is a budget important? It helps you keep track of your wants It helps them make smart choices with their money It helps you spend your money freely A plan to spend as much money as possible on long-term purchases and goals. Check to see if you chose the right answer. A budget helps you to plan and manage your spending and saving, allowing you to make informed decisions with your money. It helps you prioritize your needs and wants, while also saving for future goals, and ensures that you don't overspend or run out of money before the end of the month. So, the correct answer is B: "It helps them make smart choices with their money". The other options are incorrect because a budget doesn't necessarily help you spend your money freely (Choice C) or on long-term purchases and goals (Choice D) without any plan or consideration. It also doesn't only help you keep track of your wants (Choice A), but rather helps you to balance your wants and needs with your financial goals. NOW IT’S YOUR TURN. When you're answering the following questions, follow these tips to make sure you get them right: Pay attention and read everything closely. If you don't understand something, ask yourself questions or read it again. Trust your gut, but double-check your answer by looking back at the text. Find specific examples from the text that can help you answer the question. Think about what the writer is saying and why they're saying it. This can help you understand their main ideas and conclusions. What is the first step in creating a budget? Identifying your expenses Prioritizing your expenses Determining your income Tracking your spending Why is it important to track your spending? To see where your money is going To identify areas where you may be overspending To make adjustments to your budget All of the above What is the importance of setting aside money for emergencies? To have money for unexpected expenses To pay off debt To save for long-term goals To buy luxury items Which of the following is a common tip agreed upon by financial experts to manage money? Spend money when you feel bored or sad. Don't keep track of your spending. Make a budget with specific goals. Get into debt and use credit cards excessively. WRITING THE BEST ANSWER POSSIBLE Study the model below. It’s a good example of a written answer. HOW TO START BUDGETING To start budgeting, you need to keep track of your expenses for one month. Think about where your money goes. Do you pay for your own lunches or your portion of the family's cell phone bill? Do you go to the movies often? Do you buy clothes or makeup regularly? Keep track of everything you spend money on for a week or two if you have trouble remembering. Next, figure out how much money you make each month, including allowance, payment for chores, and money from jobs after taxes or selling things (that is, your net income). Don't include occasional gifts or rewards that you only get once or twice a year. Add everything up to find your net monthly income. Then, put your spending into categories like food, clothing, transportation, and entertainment. Add up how much you spend in each category, and include any money you save or donate to charity. Make sure to calculate everything on a monthly basis. Describe how you would create a system to organize your financial information in two to three sentences. To keep track of my money, I would create a plan using a computer program that shows how much money I earn and spend each month, and I will make it look nice with colors and pictures. I will also learn more about important money ideas like saving and investing so that I can be smarter with my money in the future. The student's answer summarizes how to organize finances in a clear and concise way, including using a computer program and educating themselves. However, they could provide more detail on categorizing expenses (eg, food, clothes) and tracking progress over time (eg, weekly expense tracking). NOW IT’S YOUR TURN. Read the following and answer the question. Use what you have learned from the model. BUDGETING 101: CREATING A PLAN THAT FITS YOUR LIFE AND GOALS Creating a budget is easy once you know how much money you make and how much you spend each month. First, list all your income in one column and your expenses in another. It's important to remember your financial goals, like having enough money to cover living expenses for a few months. You should also have a stash of money for unexpected emergencies. After listing all your expenses, including savings and donations, subtract that from your total income. If you have money left over, that's great! You have a balanced budget. But if you spend more than you make, you'll need to adjust your expenses until you have a balanced budget. What's a good budget to follow? Some people use the 50-30-20 Rule if they have a family or live on their own. That means you should spend half of your income on things you need, like food, clothes, and housing, 30% on things you want, and 20% on savings. But if you live with your parents, it's good to save around 10-40% of your income and have a 10% emergency fund. This leaves the rest of your money for fun things like shopping, eating out, and activities. Everyone manages their money differently. It's crucial to create a budget that suits your specific situation to make the best financial decisions. In two to three sentences, how can budgeting help achieve long-term financial goals? GET READY FOR YOUR FUTURE! To ace the following questions, remember these steps: Read carefully and don't skip anything. If you're confused, stop and ask yourself questions or go back and read it again. Go with your first guess, but make sure it's right by checking the text. Look for specific parts of the text that can help you answer the question. Think about what the writer is trying to say and why they're saying it. This will help you understand their big picture and main points. Which of the following is NOT part of a plan for your money? What you own and owe What you want to save for A spending plan A plan for investing in stocks What is net worth? The money you earn from your work or investments after taxes A careful plan for how much money you will spend and what you will buy with it A list of what you own and owe What you want to save for What is insurance? A plan for growing your money How you'll protect yourself A list of what you own and owe What you want to save for What is the purpose of making a budget? To figure out why you're spending too much To keep track of everything you spend To allocate your money for your most important expenses All of the above What is one of the guidelines for planning a working budget? Determine your income Track your spending Set aside money for emergencies All of the above Which of the following is NOT a common tip for managing money? Keep track of everything you spend Figure out why you're spending too much Use credit cards as often as you can Make a budget What are the five parts of a plan for your money? How can you make sure you're not overspending on little purchases? Why is it important to set aside money for emergencies? Explain the concept of budgeting and how it helps you manage your money. Provide at least three examples of how you can make a budget and why each method might work well for certain individuals or situations. Financial Stability and Budgeting Having financial instability can cause many problems, like breaking up families and causing arguments. Money is very important to people and affects everything we do, like politics and wars. It's important to have financial stability because it gives us freedom and peace, and helps us reach our dreams. You don't have to be rich to be financially stable, you just need to manage your money well. Creating a budget can help you do that by separating your needs, like food and car payments, from your wants, like going out with friends. If you spend more than you earn, that's a problem, so you should try to cut back on some things. Making goals and tracking your expenses can help you stick to your budget and save money. If you're disciplined with your money, it can even help you make more money in the future. So, if you want to be financially stable and achieve your dreams, you should start by creating a budget. REFERENCES, ATTRIBUTION, AND LICENSE References Butler, Tamsen. The Complete Guide to Personal Finance for Teenagers and College Students. Atlantic Publishing Group, 2016, p. 79. Pant, Paula. "The 50/30/20 Rule of Thumb for Budgeting." Balance, December 21, 2018. https://www.thebalance.com/the-50-30-20-rule-of-thumb-453922. Attribution Lesson by Benjamin Troutman, Griffin Bay School, San Juan Island School District Portions of content adapted from Budgeting Compass Points Activity by Lexi Shafer \| CC BY-NC Weekly Budget Journal Templete for Financial Literacy by Heather LaGoy \| CC BY-NC-SA Foundations for College Success, Financial Literacy, Readings by Forrest Lane and Heather F. Adair \| CC BY License Except where otherwise noted, Future Ready Financial Literacy Learning about Budgets, Financial Risks, and Strategies to Manage Them by San Juan Island School District is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. All logos and trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Sections used under the fair use doctrine (17 U.S.C. § 107) are marked.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.744319	Mathematics	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104139/overview", "title": "MASTERING FINANCIAL LITERACY: BUDGETING AND STRATEGIES", "author": "Finance" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112072/overview	OER Fellowship Planning Template Overview OER Fellows are invited to remix this OER Fellowship Planning Template to articulate a) a plan to assess your institution's current state of OER awareness and implementation b) your goals for OER adoption and use, and their targeted success indicators; c) a plan for building and engaging your OER Coalition, Programs, and Partnerships; d) a plan for the development and roll out of campus-level policies, guidelines, and resolutions in support of OER; d) an OER outreach and advocacy plan; and e) a plan for building capacity of your OER initiative. Introduction OER Fellows are invited to remix this OER Fellowship Planning Template to a) a plan to assess your institution's current state of OER awareness and implementation b) your goals for OER adoption and use, and their targeted success indicators; c) a plan for building and engaging your OER Coalition, Programs, and Partnerships; d) a plan for the development and roll out of campus-level policies, guidelines, and resolutions in support of OER; e) an OER outreach and advocacy plan; and f) a plan for building capacity of your OER initiative. When remixing, please give your remix a new title that includes your institution's name and feel free to customize the images and sections to best fit your needs. You can also download this template to your computer by clicking on the cloud with an arrow icon on the upper right of this page or import it into google classroom. Analyzing the OER Landscape Gaining a deeper understanding of the OER landscape in your state, region, institution, and department can greatly help inform your OER initiative. This process might involve informal information gathering or more formal research. One approach is to adapt questions used in the statewide OER landscape studies for use at a specific institution. Because the landscape surveys are openly licensed, campuses are free to draw on the questions and methods used in those surveys to analyze the landscape of OER at their institutions. Applicable questions from the surveys that can be translated to local contexts include: What OER definitions, policies (including open licensing), programs, and courses are already in place? Are course markings being implemented? What individuals, offices, and roles, if any, lead OER efforts on campus? To what extent does internal and/or external collaboration support OER work? What OER enablers (such as professional development and funding) and barriers exist on campus? How does your campus collect data to assess the effectiveness and impact of OER? These questions could be distributed as questionnaires to library staff, administrators, or faculty at an institution informally, if a more formal research approach is not an option. Using campus listservs, putting flyers in faculty mailboxes, or other ways of reaching out directly to potential respondents will yield some information regarding OER awareness and initiatives. In addition, conversations with individuals across the institution, asking questions related to OER and how folks think about it, will provide a sense of the level of awareness on campus. Here is a sample survey that was created by OER Leads at Del Mar College OER (Open Educational Resources) Survey The purpose of this survey is to gain a snapshot of the extent DMC makes use of OER materials 1. Please list the course(s) whereby OER are utilized within your department (e.g. CHEM 1406, BIO 1308, etc.) Note: Don't be concerned if you don't capture every course. 2. To the best of your knowledge, for those who make use of OER, what type of material is it? - Textbook - Online homework portal - YouTube videos - Other 3. In general for those faculty who don't use OER, what are the primary reasons for this? - A suitable OER is not available - Faculty have not been made aware of current repository of OER in their respective disciplines (otherwise they may use such) - Content of course material changes frequently and OER lags behind - Other 4. OPTIONAL: Feel free to offer additional comments with respect to OER Share your plan below to assess your institution's current OER awareness and implementation. Our plan for informal information gathering: Our plan for formal research: OER Goals & Success Indicators OER Goals Articulating your reasons for dedicating people's time and resources to support OER adoption and use is an important place to start. There is not a one-size-fits-all OER goal; institutions are all different, and each institution must consider its unique size, mission, and culture. OER goals can be tied to larger strategic plan goals, such as student recruitment, equitable outcomes in access, retention, and attainment, and/or cost savings. Other important considerations include the needs of student populations and communities, library and instructional design staffing, and resources and budgets. If institutional or system goals are not in place, developing SMART goals can be helpful in narrowing down the focus of an OER Program. SMART stands for specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound. For example, the strategic plan for the Austin Community College District (ACCD) includes goals toward achieving equity and access, persistence and engagement, and completion and transition to employment/transfer. In ACCD's 2020-21 Student Success Report, OER initiatives are mentioned as key to supporting the goal of persistence and engagement. Compton College’s OER Initiative goal is to convert 85-100% of course offerings to rely on OER materials by 2035; ultimately, reducing the cost of course materials for students. Share your SMART goals below: OER Goal 1 OER Goal 2 OER Goal 3 OER Success Indicators After setting attainable and realistic goals for establishing OER programs and ensuring their sustainability, developing metrics for success and collecting data using the metrics is an essential next step. The OER Success Indicators Worksheet, which includes a broad list of possible success indicators that can be a helpful starting point to identify and brainstorm additional metrics to track. Review the list of indicators and identify any that you would like to track and brainstorm additional metrics to track below. OER Success Indicators Partnership Growth - Number or new or expanded partnerships - Diversity in the types of partnerships built - Number of individuals adopting the project at the state, district, or school level - Additional partnership growth metrics: Increased Awareness & Reach - Number of tweets about an initiative/project - Number of references in external publications - Number speaking engagements about the project - Number of collections or websites that host/refer to the project or resources - Additional increased awareness and reach metrics: Growth in an OER Collection - Number of new resources added - Number of derivative resources added - Number of user-generated tags added - Number of reviews or ratings added - Additional growth in an OER collection metrics: Impact on Teaching & Learning - Data showing changes in students’ length of time on the resources in the online environment - Percent of educators reporting changes in practice as a result of the OER intervention - Percent reporting changes in student engagement - Improved student test performance - Faculty and staff trained in OER - Faculty course adoptions, remixes, and creations - Faculty and student perceptions of OER - Additional impact on teaching and learning metrics: Cost & Other Efficiencies - Data showing decrease in student spending on course materials - Percent of educators reporting efficiencies gained from using OER - Additional cost and other efficiencies metrics: Additional Success Indicators: Building & Engaging Our OER Coalition, Programs, and Partnerships OER Coalition Once you have clear OER goals and success indicators, you will want to connect with collaborators who can contribute their expertise to help you grow your OER initiative. Before reaching out to your larger campus community, it is helpful to explore if there are any Champions and Early Adopters that are currently using OER, any existing partnerships with OER projects or providers, and any OER priorities, initiatives, policies, programs already in place. Below are a few suggested collaborators you can reach out to and their areas of expertise. Share which collaborators you will be engaging with for your OER initiative and what you will be asking them to contribute below. Campus Role \| Goals and Areas of Interest and Expertise \| Librarians \| Affordable learning, copyright, faculty development, discovery, and curation \| Faculty Adopters \| Equitable student success, equitable student access, academic freedom, course enrollments, engaging curriculum that is locally and culturally relevant, supporting social justice through open pedagogy, high-quality textbooks, readings, and ancillary materials \| Instructional Designers \| Course design, copyright permissions, accessibility \| Administrators \| Retention rates, student feedback, enrollments, equitable student success \| Student Leaders \| Cost savings, quality of curriculum, student engagement in courses, accessibility, equitable access to materials, relevant materials, belonging \| Our OER Coalition Collaborators include: \| Campus Role: \| Goals & Areas of Interest / Expertise \| Additional questions to consider while building and engaging with your OER Coalition include: Who should be included in OER efforts (a committee, taskforce, council, etc.)? How will we train and empower leaders? What leadership messaging needs to be in place that conveys that cross-institution partnerships are a priority on campus? What resources will help to empower those directly advancing open educational resources, so they are able to connect and build effective partnerships in their offices? How might students be engaged in partnerships to help share information and advocate for OER? What are the benefits of student involvement – both to students and the institution? How might academic and student affairs units (e.g., student support services like tutoring, math and writing centers, academic departments, advising, counseling, online and continuing education, instructional design, faculty senate, library, finance and budgeting) be engaged as experts and trusted advocates? What internal or external partners can offer skills or resources to support this work? OER Programs There are important supports available for institutions to develop plans for their OER programs, including participating in training academies, connecting with collaborators, and leveraging best practices. Establishing foundational knowledge on open educational resources and practices, and having a central place for institutions to collaborate, curate, and share resources help build a solid foundation to advance OER programs. The OER Program supports we will leverage include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. OER Partnerships Establishing or joining a consortium or less formal partnership across multiple campuses or institutions can help newer OER initiatives benefit from the work of others who are further along the path in their OER programs. Additionally, partners can take advantage of open licensing to create shared resources that can be developed and maintained by faculty across institutions. Such multi-institution relationships are important for both developing and mature OER programs to provide community support, share information and experience, and provide faculty collaborations around content creation, adaptation, and implementation. The Partnerships we plan to build and engage with include: 1. 2. 3. Developing Policies, Guidelines & Resolutions in Support of OER OER policies, guidelines, and resolutions can strengthen an institution’s existing initiatives and lay a foundation for long-term success. The range of options for policies is significant – they can serve to codify responsibilities, allocate resources, or provide a tacit demonstration of administrative support for the overarching purpose of the initiative. Examples exist not only at the campus and institutional levels, but also at the system, state, federal, and international levels. OER Policy Examples - States that have enacted OER-related policies available here SPARC's OER State Policy Tracker - In 2018, Houston Community College adopted the following policy: “Programs must... evaluate the best available open educational resources (OER) when reviewing books for a particular course. If any OER receives a similar score to another commercial textbook that is adopted by the program, the OER must also be adopted. An unlimited number of OER may be approved for adoption. In addition, it is strongly recommended that the Program Committee adopt minimum guidelines for the use of OER or any other free or online materials that have not been evaluated or approved as a textbook. Meeting minutes should note where no OER are available.” - Austin Community College recently updated the ACC policy on copyright ownership to support and encourage the use of Creative Commons licenses when possible. ACC makes it clear that “[c]reators should use the most appropriate license for their work.” - DOERS3 has developed a Tenure and Promotion Matrix and guidelines for institutions looking to make open publishing part of tenure and promotion. Which policies will you develop to support your OER initiative? OER Course Markings - Open License Policies - College Affordability Policies, Initiatives, and Resolutions - OER Outreach & Advocacy Plan Campuswide OER Advocacy Tips Focus on the Why - Focus on the problem that OER can solve for your stakeholders. For administrators, this might be textbook costs; for teachers, it might be lack of quality content. Maintain Objectivity - Listen and maintain your position of why. Being aware of the barriers to change will better equip you to relate to their challenges. Engage the Engaged - At the early stages of change, spend much of your effort on those who are listening. These are the early adopters, and they align with your “why.” Reinforce the Change - Keep your early adopters engaged through reinforcement strategies. Seek their feedback, showcase their work, and know what they are doing next. A helpful resource to show the impacts of OER adoption in Higher Education is this summary of empirical research by the OpenEd Group https://openedgroup.org/review OER Advocacy Steps 1. Tap Into Core Advocacy Skills - Successful OER advocacy requires a range of skills, knowledge, and interests, including the following: - Passion about the concept of open - Clarity on the economic and pedagogical benefits of OER - Insight into how the policy environment may constrain or enable OER use - Understanding of the pros and cons of different open licensing arrangements - Access to practical examples of OER used to illustrate key points - Up-to-date knowledge of the arguments for and against the use of OER - Ability to engage audiences effectively - Capacity to leverage students, administrators, teachers, and librarians and other staff as advocacy partners 2. Understand Your Policy Context - Before embarking on your advocacy effort, it is important to review the following policies that might impact the adoption of OER at your institution. - Intellectual property policies and employment contracts – These address how works created by staff within the scope of employment may be shared with or used by others. Under the United States Copyright Act, the author of the work is generally the owner of the copyright. However, if a work is created within the scope of the author’s employment, the employer holds the copyright unless there is an agreement to the contrary. Check your institution's intellectual property policies and employment contracts, or contact your library and/or intellectual property office for information on faculty and staff rights as creators and sharers of educational materials. - Human resource policy guidelines – These outline whether the creation of certain kinds of work (e.g., learning resources) constitutes part of the job description for faculty and staff, and what the implications are for remuneration and promotion purposes. It is important for OER creators and remixers to understand if their work will be funded and if it could be applied to tenure or promotion opportunities, for example. - Technology policy guidelines – These address access to and use of appropriate technology and technical support, as well as provision for version control and the storage systems for the institution’s educational resources. This impacts your OER work in concrete ways, providing clear strategies and guidelines for how to publish OER, how to manage remixes and versioning, and it can ensure that OER is discovered by those interested. - Materials development and quality assurance policy guidelines – These help ensure appropriate selection, development, quality assurance, and copyright clearance of works that may be shared. This category also encompasses library collection development policies and guidelines, and whether those policies explicitly support OER and open access as part of collection building. - Textbook and instructional materials adoption, ordering, and approval policies – These policies and practices are usually set by a college/university or instructional division and govern who can make decisions about textbook adoption, how adoptions are approved, and what criteria are used to approve textbook adoptions. 3. Understand the Barriers to OER Adoption Understanding the barriers to OER and why your stakeholders may be resistant to its adoption will help you to better tailor your advocacy strategy to specific audiences. Barreirs may include: - Gaps in technical skills to identify OER - Content curation and developemnent costs - Instructor training costs - Skepticism around OER quality - Lack of time, incentives, knowledge to work with OER - Lack of curatorial and collaborative workflows to support OER - Misalignment between open licensing and campus copyright guidlines - Lack of knowledge about intellectual propery rights and open licensing 4. Tailor Your Message - Sharing your passion and reason for being an OER champion is powerful, but what about your audience? Before presenting any change initiative, consider who is in the room and what is in it for them. 5. Formative Evaluation of your OER Program - A sustainable OER program involves not just a one-time evaluation of outcomes but an iterative process of formative evaluation and improvement to the program based on research findings and progress towards those success indicators. 6. Identify Your High-Impact Engagement Strategies - Below are some engagement strategies that have been identified by OER implementation project leads and that are encouraged for exploration. - Formal Presentation: Securing a time slot with one stakeholder group can allow you to focus on their interests and change their perspective on OER. Speaking the language of those in the audience is a stepping stone to cultural change. - Informal Sharing: Sharing your personal story is a great way to declare yourself as an OER champion in your community and can draw engagement and interest from people in a way that educating and informing may not. - Call to Action: Providing a clear “next step” when sharing information, presenting, or communicating via modeling or social media can drive interested parties to become implementers rather than consumers. - Modeling: The “unknown” of change can be the biggest barrier. Modeling the outcomes of change and helping people observe what the end state will or can be is a way to alleviate change-related apprehension. - Social Media: Consider blogging, tweeting, and posting on listservs as important tools for advocacy and outreach. A way to start is to read and comment on relevant blogs and to follow other educators who are writers and influencers on OER. Outreach Communication Planning: Identify your target audience and outreach goals - Content of your outreach – What do you want to share? Be sure to clearly communicate the value add for your intended audience, as well as any relevant links, images, resources, videos, etc. Outreach method – How will you share? (social media, blog, website, listservs, presentation, etc.) Outcome and impact – What action do you hope others will take as a result of your outreach? Upcoming Outreach Opportunities OERizona February 28-March 1 Open Ed Week March 4-8, 2024 Faculty Working Sessions for English, Math, Biology, and Psychology Courses March 29 (reach out to Megan C for more information) Open Ed Virtual Conference October 8-10, 2024 Open Ed Global Conference (dates TBD) Fall 2024 OER Fundamentals Academy (dates TBD) Spring 2025 OER Fellowship (dates TBD) OER Capacity Building There are various opportunities to explore to build capacity for your OER initiative. Identify which options you will prioritize below: OER Funding - Institutional Funding - - State Funded OER Grants - - Federal Grants - - Philanthropic Grants - Professional Learning Opportunities - OER Academies & Fellowship Program OER Conferences	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:18.786712	Joanna Schimizzi	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112072/overview", "title": "OER Fellowship Planning Template", "author": "Megan Simmons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115797/overview	Fundamentals of Pharmacy Calculations Overview This text is used as the required textbook for a 1 credit hour Pharmacy Calculations course at SIUE School of Pharmacy. It was written specifically for our course. We have shared it here in case you may find all or parts it useful for your needs. This textbook is provided as is under the Creative Commons BY license. Anyone may copy, display, and/or distribute the book with appropriate citation of the creators. No warranty, express or implied, is granted. Disclaimer: The purpose of this textbook is to develop quantitative competence for pharmacy practice. Nothing in the textbook is intended, nor should it be inferred, as medical advice or opinion. Healthcare professionals are solely responsible for their application of the information contained herein. Introduction to the Text This text is used as the required textbook for a 1 credit hour Pharmacy Calculations course at SIUE School of Pharmacy. It was written specifically for our course. We have shared it here in case you may find all or parts it useful for your needs. This textbook is provided as is under the Creative Commons BY license. Anyone may copy, display, and/or distribute the book with appropriate citation of the creators. No warranty, express or implied, is granted. Disclaimer: The purpose of this textbook is to develop quantitative competence for pharmacy practice. Nothing in the textbook is intended, nor should it be inferred, as medical advice or opinion. Healthcare professionals are solely responsible for their application of the information contained herein. Module 1: Fundamentals of Calculations Introduction Module 1 will introduce and review several fundamental topics: Measurement definitions and conversion between units; Decimal places, significant digits (figures) and rounding, exemplified with syringes; Institutional time notation; Abbreviations common in pharmacy and medicine; some Institute for Safe Medication Practices guidelines; and Ratio and proportion techniques. Module 1A: Measurement Definitions and Conversions A. Measurement Definitions and Conversions Here we review some basic conversion factors you will likely know at this point in your education. Recall the relationships between the Greek and Latin prefixes milli-, micro-, and kilo-. In this course, you will only use these exact conversions. Take some time to verify your familiarity with these units and conversion factors. Volume • 1 Liter = 1000 mL (milliliters) • 1 mL = 1000 mcL (microliters) • 1 teaspoonful (tsp) = 5 mL • 1 tablespoonful (Tbsp) = 15 mL • 1 fluidounce (fl oz) = 30 mL Mass or Weight • 1 gram = 1000 mg (milligrams) • 1 mg = 1000 mcg (micrograms) • 1 mcg = 1000 ng (nanograms) • 30 grams = 1 ounce Note: This is not an exact conversion - it is an approximate value used in reference to drug products. Do NOT use this conversion for calculating patient body weights. • 16 ounces = 1 pound (may be abbreviated 1 lb or 1 #) • 1000 g = 1 kg (kilogram) • 1 kg = 2.2 pounds Length • 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters • 12 inches = 1 foot • 100 centimeters = 1 meter Time • 60 seconds = 1 minute • 1 hour = 60 minutes • 1 day = 24 hours • 1 week = 7 days • 1 month = 30 days Notational Shorthand • A height listed as X’ Y” implies X feet and Y inches 5’ 10” means 5 feet and 10 inches. Example Problems: 1.1 Pounds and ounces to kilograms: A newborn baby weighs 7 pounds and 5 ounces. How many kilograms does the baby weigh? $7\:lbs\:5 oz\equiv 7\:lbs\;+\;\frac{5\;oz}{16\;\frac{oz}{lb}}=\frac{7.3125\;lbs}{2.2\frac{lb}{kg}}=3.32\;kg$ 1.2 Ounces to grams: A pharmacist dispenses 4 ounces of a steroid cream. How many grams were dispensed? $4\;oz\;\times\;\frac{30\;g}{1\;oz}=120\;g$ 1.3 Volume for dispensing: A patient will receive 1 teaspoonful of antibiotic suspension three times a day for 1 week. How many milliliters should you dispense? $1\;\frac{tsp}{dose}\;\times3\;\frac{doses}{day}\;\times7\;\frac{days}{week}\;\times\;5\;\frac{mL}{tsp}\;=\;105\;\frac{mL}{week}$ 1.4 Pounds to kilograms: $\frac{121\;lbs}{2.2\;\frac{lbs}{kg}}\;=\;55\;kg$ 1.5 Feet and inches to centimeters and meters: A patient is 5’ 7” tall. Calculate the patient’s height in centimeters and meters. $5\text{'}\;7\text{"}\;=\;67\text{"}$ $67\text{"}\;\times\;\frac{2.54\;cm}{1\;inch}\;=\;170.18\;cm\;\times\frac{1\;meter}{100\;cm}\;\simeq \;1.7\;meters$ 1.6 Hours to minutes: A patient’s urine was collected for 24 hours in order to perform a creatinine clearance evaluation. For how many minutes was the sample collected? $24\;hours\;\times\;\frac{60\;min}{1\;hr}\;=\;1440\;minutes$ 1.7 Days and months: You receive a prescription with directions for the patient to take 1 tablet daily. How many tablets should be dispensed to fill a 3-month supply? $1\;\frac{tablet}{day}\;\times\;\frac{30\;days}{1\;month}\;\times\;3\;months\;=\;90\;tablets$ Module 1B: Decimal Places, Significant Digits (Figures), and Rounding Decimal numbers represent a whole number and a fractional part of that number. A typical example is 3.125. This notation represents three and one hundred and twenty-five thousandths. We know you are very familiar with this notation, and it is included here as a prelude to discussing significant digits and rounding. For measurments using a graduated device, calculations should be rounded to match the precision of the device. For example, look at the 5 mL oral syringe. Note that the major markings on the barrel run from one to five milliliters. The minor markings are spaced every 0.2 mL. If a patient’s dosage volume calculation resulted in a value of 3.125 mL, how would you explain to the patient or caregiver how to use this device? An individual cannot accurately withdraw 3.125 mL with this syringe. A decision must be made about using the appropriate number of significant figures. In this case, you should advise the patient to measure 3.2 mL. While the actual calculation answer may be 3.125 mL, there is no practical way to make that measurement. Using 3.2 mL for the volume results in a relative error of 2.4%. If you selected 3 mL, the relative error would be 4%. Pharmacists are practical people. The example above demonstrates that selecting the number of milliliters to use is aided by the size and demarcation of the available measuring device. Different parenteral and oral syringes have various markings that range from 0.01 mL to 1 mL. You will see these devices routinely, and it will help you to memorize the table. \| Size (mL) \| Type (Oral or Parenteral) \| Smallest Division (mL) \| \| 1 \| Oral \| 0.01 \| \| 5 \| Oral \| 0.2 \| \| 10 \| Oral \| 0.2 \| \| 1 \| Parenteral \| 0.01 \| \| 3 \| Parenteral \| 0.1 \| \| 5 \| Parenteral \| 0.2 \| \| 10 \| Parenteral \| 0.2 \| Let’s look at another example where the physical situation helps us to determine a practical volume. Example 1.8: An 81.4 kg patient requires a drug dose of 5 mg/kg. $81.4\;kg\times \frac{5\;mg}{kg}=407\;mg$ Example 1.9: What volume of drug suspension is required if the drug concentration is 100 mg/mL? The calculator answer is: $\frac{407\;mg}{100\;\frac{mg}{mL}}=4.07\;mL$ We do not have a syringe with that degree of accuracy and precision. Based on the available parenteral syringes, you should recommend a dose of 400 mg and a volume of 4 mL. Before ending this section, several more issues about significant figures and rounding decimal places will be addressed. Counting significant digits begins with the farthest digit to the left of the decimal place that is not zero and ends with the digit farthest to the right of the decimal place that is not zero. You may have learned a slightly different definition in physics or chemistry, but this definition will work for pharmacy. Let’s look at some problems. In the above dosing calculation example, the patient weighs 81.4 kg. We could say that the patient’s weight is accurate to 3 significant figures or 1 decimal place. You will develop an understanding of how many significant figures are needed for particular situations. Now let’s look at the dose. Based on 5 mg/kg, the patient would receive 407 mg of the drug. How many significant figures are represented in the dose? The concentration of the drug in the vial is 100 mg/mL. Recall that volume = mass/concentration. The actual calculated volume is 4.07 mL. How many significant figures are represented in the volume? How many significant figures are represented in the volume we can accurately measure? Consider this problem from a recent national exam. The formula for a type of “magic mouthwash” is: \| Diphenhydramine syrup 12.5 mg/5 mL \| 80 mL \| \| Lidocaine oral solution 2% \| 30 mL \| \| Maalox antacid suspension \| 90 mL \| \| Total \| 200 mL \| The patient is instructed to orally swish 1 Tbsp (15 mL) of magic mouthwash (MM) three times a day. Example 1.10: How many milliliters of lidocaine solution will the patient receive with each treatment? $\frac{200\;mL\;MM}{30\;mL\;Lidocaine\;soln}=\frac{15\;mL\;MM}{x\;mL\;lidocaine\;soln}$ $x\;=\frac{15\;mL\;MM\;\times\;30\;mL\;lidocaine\;soln}{200\;mL\;MM}=2.25\;mL\;lidocaine\;soln$ What number would you tell a physician if they were curious about the amount of lidocaine the patient received with each dose? This topical therapy is intended to relieve pain in the oral cavity. The amount of lidocaine received is not so critical to the treatment as to require an answer to 2 decimal places. You could tell the physician that the patient receives approximately 2 mL per dose. Some calculations will require different rounding based, in part, on the needed significant figures and the practical circumstances involved with measurement. Your clinical judgment and decision-making skills will sharpen as you advance through the curriculum. The lectures will contain more guidance on this when specific topics are covered. Example 1.11: How many significant figures are represented in the numbers? a. 14.75 – 4 significant figures b. 2.37 – 3 significant figures c. 12.3 – 3 significant figures d. 18.789 – 5 significant figures e. 0.0205 – 3 significant figures f. 0.00330 – 2 significant figures g. 0.09105 – 4 significant figures Example 1.12: Round the numbers to the indicated decimal places. a. 8.357 (2 decimal places) = 8.36 b. 8.354 (2 decimal places) = 8.35 c. 12.276 (1 decimal place) = 12.3 d. 12.249 (1 decimal place) = 12.2 Example 1.13: Round the numbers to the indicated significant figures. a. 12.0041 (3 significant figures) = 12.0, but we do not write trailing zeros after a decimal point, so 12. (See section 1F: ISMP guidelines) b. 0.693147 (3 significant figures) = 0.693 c. 1.0402 (3 significant figures) = 1.04 Module 1C: Patient Weight and Height Pharmacists typically use patient weights in kilograms with two or three significant digits depending on the weight and age. Some healthcare institutions will only use two significant digits for patients weighing over 20 kg. When using metric units for height, either centimeters or meters, continue to use three significant digits. You will be using height in the equation for Body Surface Area. Let’s look at a range of examples. Example 1.14: Weight and height conversions a) A premature newborn weighs 1 pound and 4 ounces. Convert this weight to kg. There are 16 oz in 1 lb, so 1 lb 4 oz = 1.25 lb. $1.25\;lb\times\;\frac{1\;kg}{2.2\;lb}=0.5681818\;kg$ Use 0.568 kg for calculations. b) An infant weighs 19 pounds and 6 ounces. Use 8.81 kg for calculations. c) A child weighs 48 pounds. Use 21.8 kg. d) A teenager weighs 133 pounds. Use 60.5 kg. e) An adult weighs 189 pounds. Use 85.9 kg. f) An adult weighs 235 pounds. Use 107 kg. g) A child is 3’ 6” tall. Use 107 cm, 1.07 m. h) A teenager is 5’7” tall. Use 170 cm, 1.7 m. i) An adult is 6’3” tall. Use 191 cm, 1.91 m. Module 1D: Institutional Time (24 Hour Time) Institutional or 24-hour time is frequently used in healthcare settings to avoid the common 12-hour AM/PM ambiguity. - Institutional time is a 4-digit number, with the first two digits indicating the hour and the last two representing the minutes. - Midnight is 0000 - Morning times are identical in 12- and 24-hour time systems. - Add 12 to afternoon times to convert 12- to 24-hour time systems. If you would like more information, there are several tutorials available online. For example, https://www.militarytime.us/learn-military-time/ Some examples: \| 12 hour time \| 24 hour time \| \| 12:30 AM \| 0030 \| \| 8:00 AM \| 0800 \| \| 12:35 PM \| 1235 \| \| 2:30 PM \| 1430 \| \| 6:15 PM \| 1815 \| \| 11:05 PM \| 2305 \| Example 1.15: A patient received an IV bolus drug dose at 1800 on February 3 and another at 0445 on February 4. How much time elapsed between the 2 doses? 1800 -> 0000 = 6 hours + 4 hours and 45 minutes = 10 hours and 45 minutes = 10.75 hours Example 1.16: A surgeon ordered morphine 2 mg IV every 6 hours if needed for pain relief. The patient received his previous dose at 1730. What is the earliest time he may receive another dose? 1730 + 6 hours = 2330 Example 1.17: A patient is to receive gentamicin 80 mg in 50 mL of normal saline over 30 minutes every 8 hours. If the first infusion was started at 1500, when should the next 2 doses be started? 1500 + 8 hr = 2300 the same day; 2300 + 8 hr = 0700 the next morning Example 1.18: A patient received 300 mg of a drug by IV infusion starting at 0500. The infusion of 500 mL was completed at 0630. What was the infusion rate in mg/h? What was the solution flow rate in mL/min? The infusion ran from 0500 to 0630 or 1.5 hours. 300 mg/1.5 hr = 200 mg/hr = 5.6 mL/min Example 1.19: A patient is scheduled for surgery at 0730 on January 16. She is ordered to receive 2 doses of pre-operative medications 14 hours and 6 hours before surgery. When should the doses be given? 0730 - 6 hours = 0130 on surgery day (Jan 16) 0730 - 14 hours = 1730 the day before surgery (Jan 15) Module 1E: Common Pharmacy Abbreviations The electronic transmittal of prescriptions has reduced the use of historical Latin abbreviations. The Institute for Safe Medical Practices (ISMP, www.ismp.org) advises against using any abbreviations. However, the organization acknowledges that there are abbreviations that are so commonly used that restricting their use would lead to hardships. We expect you to memorize the abbreviations in the table. Table 2.2. Common Abbreviations used in Pharmacy Abbrev \| Meaning \| \| Abbrev \| Meaning \| Prescription Directions \| \| bid \| two times a day \| \| aa. \| of each \| \| tid \| three times a day \| ad \| up to, to make \| \| qid \| four times a day \| NR \| no refills \| \| q (t) h \| every (t) hours \| q.s. \| a sufficient quantity \| \| prn \| as needed \| q.s. ad \| enough to make \| \| \| \| stat \| immediately \| \| a.c. \| before meals \| ut dict \| as directed \| \| p.c. \| after meals \| \| \| \| q AM \| every morning \| Quantity and Measurement \| \| q PM \| every evening \| \| BSA \| body surface area \| \| q HS \| at bedtime \| m2 \| square meters \| \| \| \| \| \| \| p. o. \| by mouth (orally) \| cc, cm3 \| cubic centimeter, mL \| \| NPO \| nothing by mouth \| tsp \| teaspoonful (5 mL) \| \| \| \| Tbsp \| tablespoonful (15 mL) \| \| a.d. \| right ear \| \| \| \| a.s. \| left ear \| mcg \| microgram \| \| a.u. \| each ear \| ng \| nanogram \| \| \| \| mcL \| microliter \| \| o.d. \| right eye \| \| \| \| o.s. \| left eye \| mEq \| milliequivalent \| \| o.u \| each eye \| mmol \| millimole \| \| \| \| mOsm \| milliosmole \| \| IV \| intravenous \| \| \| \| IM \| intramuscular \| \| \| \| ID \| intradermal \| \| \| \| subQ \| subcutaneous \| Module 1F: Some ISMP Guidelines History has provided many opportunities for learning from our mistakes. Unfortunately, patients have suffered from a lack of exact directions or misinterpreting written instructions. IMSP has developed guidelines, and you must use the following in class. • Whole numbers should be written without a decimal point and without a terminal zero. For example, write 6 mg, not 6.0 mg. The decimal point might be missed, and the dose is interpreted as 60 mg. • A number with a value less than one should be written with a leading zero. For example, write 0.4 mg, not .4 mg. The decimal point might be missed, and the dose is interpreted as 4 mg. • Use whole numbers when possible and not the equivalent decimal fraction. Write 100 mg, not 0.1 g. • Do not use the abbreviation u or U for units. Spell out the word units. The letter U has been misinterpreted to represent zero (0). • Be especially careful about using the letter d when representing dose or day. When the situation may be ambiguous, spell out the intended word. What is the meaning of d when written as mg/kg/d? Is this mg/kg/dose or mg/kg/day? Always put the safety of the patient first in your activities. Consider your safety education to start now. Module 1G: Ratio and Proportion Many numerical problems in pharmacy calculations can be solved using ratios and proportions. A ratio compares two quantities, for example the fraction $\frac{4}{7}$, which can also be written as 4 : 7, means 4 parts of one component and 7 parts of the other. In addition to comparing one component to the other, the ratio can also be interpreted as the amount of one component in relation to the sum of all other components. The proportional relationship is usually written as: $\frac{a}{b}=\frac{c}{d}$ To solve this type of problem, you require three values and solve for the fourth by cross-multiplying and then dividing to isolate the term of interest. Remember to include the units and ensure that like units occupy numerators or denominators. Example 1.20: An injectable product contains 350 mcg of a drug in each 0.9 mL. How many micrograms are contained in 0.4 mL? $\frac{350\;mcg}{0.9\;mL}=\frac{x\;mcg}{0.4\;mL}\\\\$ $x\;mL=\frac{350\;mcg\times0.4\;mL}{0.9\;mL}=155.6\; mcg$ Module 1: Practice Problems - A patient will receive 5 mL PO bid of a medication x 10 days. What volume is required? - A patient will receive 3.5 mL PO tid of a medication x 8 days. What volume is required? - A patient will receive 2.5 mL PO qid of a medication x 7 days. What volume is required? - A child weighs 35#. What is the weight in kg? - A newborn weighs 5# 3oz. What is the weight in kg? - An infant weighs 7# 7oz. What is the weight in kg? - A patient weighs 186#. What is the weight in kg? - A patient is 6’4”. What is their height in cm and m? - A patient is 5’6”. What is their height in cm and m? - A patient is 3’7”. What is their height in cm and m? - A patient is 4’3”. What is their height in cm and m? - If you are paid $56.25 for 1 ½ hours of work, what is your hourly wage? - If you are paid $1075.20 for 42 hours of work, what is your hourly wage? - Risankizumab injection contains the following ingredients in each 0.83 mL dose: Risankizumab 75 mg, succinic acid 0.049 mg, sorbitol 34 mg, polysorbate 20 0.17 mg, and sodium succinate anhydrous 0.53 mg. How many milligrams of each ingredient would be present in 10 mL of the solution. - Prednisone is available in 5 mg tablets. How many tablets would be required to fill an Rx with the directions: Day 1 - take 40 mg one time Day 2 - take 30 mg one time, Day 3 - take 20 mg one time Day 4 - take 10 mg one time Days 5 - 10 - take 5 mg one time per day. - A surgeon ordered morphine 2 mg IV every 6 hours if needed for pain relief. The patient received his previous dose at 2230. What is the earliest time he may receive another dose? - A patient will receive an IV drug over 1 hour every 8 hours. If the first infusion was started at 1000 today, at what times should the subsequent 2 doses be started? - Levothyroxine sodium tablets are available in 12 different dosages, from 25 mcg to 300 mcg. Express that range in milligrams. - A patient is prescribed an antibiotic with the directions: 2 tsp qid x 4 days, then 1 tsp bid x 2 days. How many milliliters will the patient take over the course of therapy? - Each dose from a dry powder inhaler weighs a total of 12.5 mg - see label below. The powder mixture contains fluticasone propionate, salmeteral xinafoate, and lactose. The patient inhales two doses (blisters) a day. How many milligrams of lactose are inhaled in one week? 1.65 grams equals mg. 0.25 grams equals mcg. 0.1 grams equals ng. 0.5 mg = mcg If the contents of 1 vial of angiotensin II injection is diluted to a total of 500 mL with normal saline, what is the drug concentration in nanograms per mL (ng/mL). - Read the volume in each syringe \| A \| B \| C \| \| C \| D \| E \| \| G \| H \| I \| \| J \| K \| L \| Answers: - 100 mL - 84 mL - 70 mL - 15.9 kg - 2.36 kg - 3.38 kg - 84.5 kg - 193 cm, 1.93 m - 168 cm, 1.68 m - 109 cm, 1.09 m - 130 cm, 1.3 m - $37.50/h - $25.60/h - Risankizumab 903.6 mg Succinic acid 0.59 mg Sorbitol 409.6 mg Polysorbate 20 2.05 mg Sodium succinate anh. 6.39 mg - 26 tablets - 0430 - 1800, 0200 tomorrow - 0.025 mg – 0.3 mg - 180 mL - 166.985 mg (or 167 mg) lactose - 1650 mg. 250,000 mcg. 100,000,000 ng. 500 mcg. 5000 ng/mL A. 2.6 mL B. 0.8 mL C. 6.8 mL D. 0.68 mL E. 3.2 mL F. 0.62 mL G. 1.6 mL H. 0.35 mL I. 7.6 mL J. 0.51 mL K. 8.4 mL L. 4.8 mL Module 2: Working with Concentrations This module will introduce and review calculations involving different concentration units used in Pharmacy. Concentration A drug product contains one or more active ingredients mixed with excipients, such as diluents, flavorings, and colors. Different concentration terms are used to express the quantity of any single ingredient in relation to the entire mixture. - A suspension contains 250 mg of amoxicillin in every 5 mL of liquid, or 250 mg/5 mL - Tylenol contains 325 mg of acetaminophen in each tablet, or 325 mg/tablet - A cream contains 1% hydrocortisone - A cough suppressant elixir contains 5% alcohol as an inactive ingredient Pharmacists must work with concentrations to calculate the quantity of product to dispense, the dose a patient should take, and the amount of each ingredient required for compounded formulations. Table 2.1 defines the most common concentration terms used in pharmacy. You will need to know these definitions and be able to convert between them. Table 2.1. Common concentration terms Concentration term \| Definition \| Percent weight in volume (% w/v) \| Grams of component in 100 mL of mixture \| Percent weight in weight (% w/w) \| Grams of component in 100 g of mixture \| Percent volume in volume (% v/v) \| mL of component in 100 mL of mixture \| Molar (M) \| Moles of component in 1L of mixture \| Millimolar (mM) \| Millimoles of component in 1L of mixture \| Ratio strength (1:X) \| 1 gram or mL of component in every X g or mL of mixture \| g/mL, mg/mL, Units/mL, etc. \| The amount of component in a specified amount of mixture \| Module 2A: Percent Strength Percent w/v is commonly used for liquid dosage forms, such as solutions and suspensions. The amount of drug in the mixture is stated as grams (g) per 100 mL of the mixture. Example 2.1: A minoxidil 5% topical solution contains 5 g of the drug in every 100 mL of the product. Concentration does not change with the package size, so $\frac{5\;g}{100\;mL}=\frac{0.05\;g}{1\;mL}=\frac{2.5\;g}{50\;mL}=\frac{10\;g}{200\;mL}=\frac{50\;g}{L}=5\%\;w/v$ Example 2.2: How many milligrams of minoxidil are contained in a 60 mL bottle of 5% minoxidil solution? Solve using dimension analysis: $60\;mL \;solution\times\frac{5\;g\;minoxidil}{100\;mL\;solution}=3\;g \;minoxidil$ Solve using proportionality: $\frac{5\;g\;minoxidil}{100\;mL\;solution}=\frac{x\;g\;minoxidil}{60\;mL\;solution}$ Now solve for x: $(5\;g\;minoxidil)(60\;mL\;solution)=(x\;g\;minoxidil)(100\;mL\;solution)$ $\frac{(5\;g\;minoxidil)(60\;mL\;solution)}{(100\;mL\;solution)}=x\;g\;minoxidil$ $x=3\;g\;minoxidil\;in\;every\;60\;mL\;of\;5\%\;solution $ TIP: Whether you choose to solve problems using the dimension analysis or proportionality method, label all values with a unit (g, mL, etc.) and a name to indicate what the unit refers to. This will help organize your work and reduce errors when performing multi-step calculations. Example 2.3: What volume of 17% w/v solution can be prepared from 10 g of benzalkonium chloride (BC)? $17\%\;BC=\frac{17\;g\;BC}{100\;mL\;solution}$ There is 10 g of BC to make the solution, so the volume of solution to prepare is given by: $\frac{17\;g\;BC}{100\;mL\;}=\frac{10\;g\;BC}{x\;mL},\;x\;=\;58.8\;mL$ Percent w/w is used for semisolids (ointments, creams) and concentrated acids (for example, concentrated hydrochloric acid). It may also be used for powder mixtures. A 10% salicylic acid ointment contains 10 g of salicylic acid in every 100 g of the ointment. The weight of all ingredients, including any liquid ingredients, must be included in the ointment total. Example 2.4: An ointment was prepared according to the formula below. Calculate the percent strength (w/w) of triamcinolone acetonide in the ointment. Triamcinolone acetonide 500 mg Glycerin 12.5 g Hydrophilic petrolatum qs 200 g First, understand what the formula means. Triamcinolone acetonide (TA) is a powder. It is packaged in a jar and weighed out on a balance. This batch of ointment will contain 500 mg of TA. Glycerin is a liquid with a density of 1.25 g/mL. The pharmacist preparing the ointment may either measure out the correct volume of glycerin or weigh it into a tared beaker to obtain the required 12.5 g. Hydrophilic petrolatum (HP) is an ointment base, and the amount required is “qs 200 g”. The abbreviation qs means to add enough HP so the total mixture weighs 200 g. The total weight of the drug, TA, is 500 mg, or 0.5 g, and the total weight of the ointment is 200g. The percent strength of TA, then, can be calculated as: $\frac{0.5\;g\;TA}{200\;g\;ointment}=\frac{x\;g\;TA}{100\;g\;ointment}$ Solving for x, the concentration of the ointment is: $\frac{0.25\;g\;TA}{100\;g\;ointment}\;or\;0.25\%\;w/w$ The concentration of all components in a semi-solid are expressed as w/w, including liquids like glycerin, polysorbate 80, water, etc. The density of a liquid is used to convert between the weight and volume of a material, and it has units of g/mL. Glycerin has a density of 1.25 g/mL, so a 1 mL sample of glycerin weighs 1.25 g. Water has a density of 1 g/mL, so a 1 mL sample of water weighs 1 g. Density values for some common liquids are found in Table 2.2. The symbol for density is d, or the Greek letter rho, 𝜌. Example 2.5: A pharmacist requires 25 g of glycerin. Calculate the volume this represents. $25\;g \;glycerin\times\frac{1\;mL\;glycerin}{1.25\;g\;glycerin}=20\;mL\;glycerin$ Or solving by proportions, $\frac{1\;mL\;glycerin}{1.25\;g\;glycerin}=\frac{x\;mL\;glycerin}{25\;g\;glycerin}$ $x=\frac{1\;mL\;glycerin\;\times\;25\;g\;glycerin}{1.25\;g\;glycerin}=20\;mL\;glycerin$ Example 2.6: Calculate the percent strength of polysorbate 80 (PS80) in the cream formula. PS 80 is a liquid with a density of 1.1 g/mL. Lidocaine 10 g Polysorbate 80 10 mL Cream base 200 g This formula calls for the pharmacist to weigh out 10 g of lidocaine powder, 10 mL of PS80, and 200 g of cream base. The formula states that 200 g of base are needed. However, the total formula weight is not 200 grams but the sum of the three individual component weights. The weight of PS80 must be calculated: $10\;mL \;PS80\times\frac{1.1\;g\;PS80}{1\;mL\;PS80}=11\;g \;PS80 $ The formula's total weight is, then, 10 g (lidocaine) + 11 g (PS80) + 200 g (base)= 221 g. The percent strength of PS80 in the formula is then calculated as: $\frac{11\;g\;PS80}{221\;g\;cream}=\frac{x\;g\;PS80}{100\;g\;cream}$ Solving for x, the PS80 concentration is 4.977 g/100 g of cream, or 4.977% w/w. Applying the rules for significant figures from chapter 1, we should round the answer to 1 decimal place, giving an answer of 5.0. However, we do not write values with trailing zeros after the decimal point, so the proper answer is 5% w/w. Table 2.2. Densities of some common pharmaceutical liquids at room temperature. Liquid \| Density (g/mL) \| Alcohol USP \| 0.81 \| Glycerin \| 1.25 \| Mineral oil USP \| 0.89 \| Polyethylene glycol (PEG) 400 \| 1.03 \| Polysorbate 80 \| 1.1 \| Propylene glycol \| 1.04 \| Water \| 1 \| Values from Merck Index 14th Edition. Example 2.6. How many grams of petrolatum should be added to 35 g of zinc oxide to prepare a 10% zinc oxide ointment? 10% zinc oxide means every 100 g of ointment contains 10 g of zinc oxide. Therefore, for every 10 g of zinc oxide, there is 90 g of petrolatum in the product. A simple solution to this problem then, is: $\frac{10\;g\;Zinc\;oxide}{90\;g\;petrolatum}=\frac{35\;g\;zinc\;oxide}{x\;g\;petrolatum}$ x = 315 g petrolatum We can check the answer by using the result to calculate the concentration. $\frac{35\;g\;zinc\;oxide}{35\;g\;zinc\;oxide\;+\;315\;g\;petrolatum}\times100=10\%$ Concentrated acids are traditionally labeled as percent w/w. Concentrated hydrochloric acid, for example, is available as a 37% w/w solution (37 grams of HCl in every 100 g of solution) with a density of 1.2 g/mL. Concentrated phosphoric acid is a viscous solution with a concentration of 85% w/w (85 g of H3PO4 in every 100 g of solution) and a density of 1.84 g/mL. Example 2.7: How many mL of 85% phosphoric acid solution are required to provide 10 g of phosphoric acid (H3PO4). $10\;g\;H_{3}PO_{4}\times\frac{100\;g\;solution}{85\;g\;H_{3}PO_{4}}\times\frac{1\;mL\;solution}{1.84\;g\;solution}=6.4\;mL\;solution$ 6.4 mL of 85% phosphoric acid solution will provide 10 g of H3PO4. Alternatively, the problem can be solved using 2 proportionalities. First, find how many grams of 85% solution contain 10 g of H3PO4. $\frac{x\;g\;solution}{10\;g\;H_{3}PO_{4}}=\frac{100\;g\;solution}{85\;g\;H_{3}PO_{4}}$ Solving for x, 11.76 g of 85% phosphoric acid solution will provide 10 g of H3PO4. Next, convert 11.76 grams of 85% phosphoric acid to mL using the density: $\frac{11.76\;g\;solution}{x\;mL\;}=\frac{1.84\;g\;solution}{1\;mL}$ x = 6.4 mL of 85% solution. Percent v/v is usually used to express the concentration of a liquid solute in another liquid, such as alcohol (ethanol) or glycerin dissolved in water. Pharmacists sometimes use Alcohol USP as the source of ethanol for preparing solutions. Alcohol USP is a solution of ethanol and water with an ethanol concentration of 95% v/v. Example 2.8: A pharmacist needs to prepare 2 L of 70% v/v alcohol by mixing Alcohol USP and Purified Water. How much Alcohol USP is needed? $2\;L\times\frac{70\;mL\;EtOH}{100\;mL\;soln}\times\frac{1000\;mL}{1\;L}\times\frac{100\;mL\;Alc\;USP}{95\;mL\;EtOH}=1473.7\;mL\;Alc\;USP$ To prepare the solution, the pharmacist should measure out 1,473.7 mL of Alcohol USP and then add enough purified water to make the total volume of 2 L. What does it mean when a concentration is labeled with “%” without specifying w/w, w/v, or v/v? The meaning can be determined by using the definition of concentration and the conventions associated with specific types of mixtures. If they are not specified otherwise, then: - Topical products or semisolids are labeled as % w/w - Concentrated acids are labeled as % w/w - Alcohol solutions are labeled as % v/v - Other liquid mixtures are usually labeled as % w/v if the pure solute is a solid or v/v if the pure solute is a liquid. Most pure drugs are solid at room temperature. - Medicated powders, such as athlete’s foot powder, are labeled as % w/w. Module 2B: Molar and millimolar Some clinical chemistry and drug concentrations are expressed in molar units. Recall that 1 mole is the weight in grams equal to the molecular weight of a substance. Sucrose, or table sugar, has a molecular weight of 342, therefore there are 342 g per mole. Drugs are usually used in small amounts, so the more common unit is the millimole, 1/1000th of a mole, or 0.001 mole. A millimole can be defined as the weight in milligrams equal to the molecular weight of a substance. 1 millimole of sucrose weighs 342 mg. The concentration unit Molar (M) is defined as moles of solute contained in each 1 L of solution. Millimolar (mM) is defined as millimoles of solute contained in each 1 L of solution. These concentration units should be familiar because they are used extensively in chemistry and biology courses. Example 2.9: The concentration of glucose in blood, i.e. the blood glucose level, is used as a control measure for diabetic patients. The normal blood glucose level in a non-diabetic patient is approximately 5.5 mM or 5.5 millimoles of glucose per liter of blood. Glucose levels are also frequently expressed in mg of glucose per deciliter (dL, or 100 mL) of blood. Convert 5.5 mM glucose into mg/dL. Glucose is a solid with a molecular weight of 180 g/mole. Solving by dimension analysis: $\frac{5.5\;mmoL\;glucose}{1000\;mL\;blood}\times\frac{180\;mg\;glucose}{1\;mmol\;glucose}=\frac{0.99\;mg\;glucose\;USP}{mL}\times100=\frac{99\;mg\;glucose}{100\;mL}=\frac{99\;mg\;glucose}{dL}$ Alternatively, the problem can be solved by using two proportions to convert mmol of glucose to mg of glucose and 1 L of blood to 1 dL of blood. First, find the milligrams of glucose represented by 5.5 mmoles. $\frac{5.5\;mmol\;glucose}{x\;mg\;glucose}=\frac{1\;mmol\;glucose}{180\;mg\;glucose}$ x = 990 mg glucose. $5.5\;mM=\frac{990\;mg\;glucose}{1\;L\;blood}\;or\;\;\frac{990\;mg\;glucose}{1000\;mL\;blood}$ Next, convert the concentration to 100 mL (1 dL) in the denominator $\frac{990\;mg\;glucose}{1000\;mL\;blood}=\frac{x\;mg\;glucose}{100\;mL\;blood}$ $x=99\;mg,\;so\;\frac{99\;mg\;glucose}{100\;mL\;blood}\;or\;\frac{99\;mg\;glucose}{dL\;blood}$ Phosphate salts are often used for electrolyte replacement, either orally or by intravenous infusion. Intravenous phosphate supplementation is typically ordered in millimoles of phosphate. In water, salts containing phosphates exists as an equilibrium mixture of the dihydrogen phosphate (1– charge) and the monohydrogen phosphate (2– charge), depending on the pH of the solution. According to the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, the specific concentration of each anion form is determined by the appropriate phosphoric acid pKa and the surrounding solution pH. $H_{2}{PO_{4}^\;}^{-}\leftrightharpoons\;{HPO_{4}}^{2-}$ Both forms have 1 phosphorus (P) atom per anion, so 1 millimole of H2PO4– provides the same amount of phosphorus as 1 millimole of HPO4–2. The “phosphate concentration” is the total of both ion forms present in the solution. Example 2.10: A solution contains 12.42 g of monobasic sodium phosphate monohydrate (NaH2PO4 · H2O, MW = 138) and 6.39 g of dibasic sodium phosphate anhydrous (Na2HPO4, MW = 142) in a total volume of 45 mL. Calculate the phosphate concentration in mM. Monobasic (P1): $\frac{12.42\;g\;P1}{45\;mL\;soln}\times\frac{1\;mol\;P1}{138\;g\;P1}\times \frac{1000\;mmol\;P1}{mol\;P1}\times\frac{1000\;mL\;soln}{L\;soln}=\frac{2000\;mmol\;P1}{L\;soln}$ Dibasic (P2): $\frac{6.39\;g\;P2}{45\;mL\;soln}\;\times\;\frac{1\;mol\;P2}{142\;g\;P2}\;\times\;\frac{1000\;mmol\;P2}{mol\;P2}\;\times\;\frac{1000\;mL\;soln}{L\;soln}\;=\;\frac{1000\;mmol\;P2}{L\;soln}$ Total phosphate concentration = 2000 mM P1 + 1000 mM P2 = 3000 mM Millimoles and millimolar concentrations are also used to calculate solutions' osmolarity, which is an important patient safety consideration in intravenous drug therapy, intramuscular injections, and ophthalmic, otic and nasal solutions. Module 2C: Ratio Strength Ratio strength is typically used to express the concentration of dilute solutions, i.e., solutions with very low solute concentrations. It is important for pharmacists to understand ratio strength because the drug epinephrine is frequently expressed in terms of ratio strength. Ratio strength is expressed as 1:X, which means the concentration is 1 part of solute in X parts of solution. 1 part is either 1 g for a solid or 1 mL for a liquid. Epinephrine is a solid, so 1 part of epinephrine is 1 g. An aqueous solution is liquid, so 1 part of the solution is 1 mL. A 1:1000 epinephrine solution, then, contains 1 g of epinephrine in every 1000 mL of solution. The units are rarely written with the concentration. Most concentration units express how much solute is contained in a fixed amount of the mixture, e.g., millimoles in 1 L, grams in 1 dL, etc. Ratio strength is the exact opposite, because it expresses the amount of the mixture that contains 1 g or 1 mL of the solute. Ratio strength can be converted to other concentration units by expressing the ratio as a fraction and using dimensional analysis or proportions to solve for the desired unit. Example 2.11: An aqueous solution contains a drug at a concentration of 1:2500. Calculate the percent strength of the solution. 1:2500 means there is 1 g of drug in every 2500 mL of the solution. Percent means grams of drug in every 100 mL of solution. These definitions can be combined as a proportion to solve the problem. $\frac{1\;g\;drug}{2500\;mL\;soln}=\frac{x\;g\;drug}{100\;mL\;solution}$ $x=\frac{1\;g\;drug\;\times\;100\;mL\;soln}{2500\;mL\;soln}=0.04\;g\;drug\;in\;every\;100\;mL=0.04\%$ Example 2.12: A patient with a severe allergy to bee venom requires 300 mcg of epinephrine. What volume of a 1:1000 solution is required? This problem can be solved with proportions, as in the previous example. Alternatively, the dimension analysis approach is: $300\;mcg\;epi\times\frac{1\;g\;epi}{1,000,000\;mcg\;epi}\times\frac{1000\;mL\;soln}{1\;g\;epi}=0.3\;mL\;of\;1:1000\;solution$ Example 2.13: Calculate the concentration of epinephrine 1:1000 in mM units. Epinephrine MW = 183. $\frac{1\;g\;epi}{1000\;mL\;soln}\times\frac{1000\;mL\;soln}{1\;L\;soln}\times \frac{1\;mol\;epi}{183\;g\;epi}\times\frac{1000\;mmoL\;epi}{1\;mol\;epi}=\frac{5.5\;mmol\;epi}{L\;soln}=5.5mM\;epi$ Example 2.14: A solution is prepared by dissolving 1.5 mg of drug in enough water to make 3 L. Calculate the ratio strength of the finished solution. The simplest way to solve this problem is to write the concentration as milliliters of solution divided by grams of solute. We need to convert mg to g and L to mL: $\frac{3\;L\;\times\frac{1000\;mL}{L}}{1.5\;mg\;\times\frac{1\;g}{1000\;mg}}=2,000,000$ The ratio strength of the solution is 1:2,000,000. Module 2D: Units of Activity Some drugs, especially those derived from natural sources, are labeled in terms of “Units of activity.” The most important drug expressed as Units is insulin. Insulin concentration is expressed as U-100, U-200, or U-300, meaning 100 Units/mL, 200 Units/mL, or 300 Units/mL. Insulin Units are treated like mg, mmol, or any other term describing the weight of drug. Patients measure their daily insulin doses in terms of Units, either with pre-filled injector pens or traditional insulin syringes. Heparin, a natural anticoagulant, is available in injectable solutions containing 1000 USP Units/mL, 5000 USP Units/mL, 10,000 USP Units/mL, and 20,000 USP Units/mL. Example 2.15: How many microliters of U-200 insulin is required to provide a dose of 35 Units. $\frac{1\;mL}{200\;Units}=\frac{x\;mL}{35\;Units}$ $x\;mL=0.175\;mL\\\\$ $x=0.175\;mL\times\frac{1000\;mcL}{mL}=175\;mcL$ Safety note: Always spell out and capitalize Unit to avoid medication errors. Module 2E: Reducing and enlarging formulas The amount of a component in a mixture is easily scaled to a larger or smaller amount using proportionalities. Example 2.15: The formula for Urea Compounded Irrigation USP specifies using 10 g of urea and enough sodium chloride irrigation solution to make 50 mL. If you needed to prepare 240 mL instead of 50 mL, the amount of urea required would be easily calculated using the proportion: $\frac{10\;g\;urea}{50\;mL\;irrigation}=\frac{x\;g\;urea}{240\;mL\;irrigation}$ $x=48\;g\;urea$ Example 2.16: Compound Clioquinol Topical Powder USP is a solid mixture containing 4 ingredients. The formula for 1 kg of powder is given. a) Calculate the percent strength of clioquinol in the formula. b) Calculate the amount of lactose needed to prepare 250 g of the product. Ingredient \| Amount \| Clioquinol \| 250 g \| Lactic acid \| 25 g \| Zinc stearate \| 200 g \| Lactose \| 525 g \| (Total) \| 1000 g \| The percent strength should be expressed as % w/w because all of the components are solids. $\frac{250\;g\;clioquinol}{1000\;g\;mixture}=\frac{x\;g\;clioquinol}{100\;g\;mixture}$ x=25, so 25% clioquinol The amount of lactose required for 250 g of the mixture is calculated as: $\frac{525\;g\;lactose}{1000\;g\;mixture}=\frac{x\;g\;lactose}{250\;g\;mixture}$ $x=131.25\;g\;lactose\;in\;250\;g\;of\;mixture $ Example 2.17: A gabapentin cream is compounded according to the formula. a) Calculate the percent strength of glycerin in the cream. b) Calculate the grams and milliliters of glycerin required to prepare 60 g of cream. c) Calculate the ratio strength of methylparaben in the preparation. Ingredient \| Amount \| Gabapentin \| 3.5 g \| Glycerin \| 7.5 mL \| Methylparaben \| 75 mg \| Cream base \| qs 100 g \| The product is a cream, so the concentration should be expressed in % w/w. Glycerin is a liquid with a density of 1.25 (Table 2.2). The concentration of glycerin can be calculated as: $\frac{7.5\;mL\;glycerin\;\times\;\frac{1.25\;g\;glycerin}{1\;mL\;glycerin}}{100\;g\;cream}=\frac{9.375\;g\;glycerin}{100\;g\;cream}=9.4\%\;w/w\;glycerin $ The grams of glycerin required for 60 g of cream may be calculated from the percent strength as: $\frac{9.4\;g\;glycerin}{100\;g\;cream}=\frac{x\;g\;glycerin}{60\;g\;cream}$ $x=5.6\;g\;glycerin$ The milliliters of glycerin for 60 mL of cream is calculated from the original formula: $\frac{7.5\;mL\;glycerin}{100\;g\;cream}=\frac{x\;mL\;glycerin}{60\;g\;cream}$ $x=4.5\;mL$ The formula contains 75 mg or 0.075 g of methylparaben (MP) in 100 g of cream, so the ratio strength of MP is calculated as: $\frac{0.075\;g\;MP}{100\;g\;cream}=\frac{1\;g\;MP}{x\;g\;cream},\;x=1333.3$ $\text{The ratio strength of MP = 1:1333}$. Module 2: Practice Problems 1. Calculate the amount of urea in each 60 gram bottle of 40% urea lotion. 2. A solution contains 250 mg of drug, 15 g of sucrose, 250 mg of methylparaben, and 1 mL of grape flavor in every 8 fluidounces. Calculate the percent strength of the drug in the solution. 3. A pharmacist mixed 60 g of cyclodextrin, 20 mL of glycerin (d = 1.25), 1 gram of drug, and 30 mL of water. Calculate the glycerin concentration in % w/w. 4. Convert each concentration to mg/mL. 25% w/v 1:5,000 w/v 15 mM glucose (MW = 180) 45% v/v alcohol (d = 0.81) 5. Convert each concentration to ratio strength. 0.025% w/v 0.05 mg/mL 0.02 mM (MW = 350) 22.5 mL alcohol in 650 mL of solution 6. An ointment contains 1,500 mcg of triamcinolone acetonide in every 60 g tube. Calculate the percent strength of triamcinolone acetonide. 7. How many milliliters of polysorbate 80 (d=1.1) are required to prepare 350 mL of a 3% w/v solution. 8. Convert each concentration to mM. 25% w/v salicylic acid (MW = 138) 1:3300 w/v epinephrine (MW = 183) 50 mg/mL amoxicillin (MW = 365) 45% v/v alcohol (d = 0.81, MW = 46) 9. A pharmacist mixed 800 mg of drug (MW = 159), 20 mL of propylene glycol (d=1.04), and 40 mL of water, resulting in a final solution volume of 62 mL. A: Calculate the drug's millimolar concentration in the solution. B: Calculate the propylene glycol concentration in % w/w. 10. How many mL of 85% phosphoric acid (d=1.84) should be used to prepare 3 L of 2% w/v phosphoric acid solution? 11. Calculate the millimolar concentration of Sodium Bicarbonate Injection USP. Sodium bicarbonate MW = 84. 12. A veterinary product contains neomycin sulfate 2.5 mg and 0.25 mg of triamcinolone acetonide in every mL of solution. Calculate the percent strength of both drugs. 13. A 1% testosterone transdermal gel product delivers 1.25 g of product per actuation of the metered dose pump. How many milligrams of testosterone is contained in each pump? 14. A 0.1% estradiol transdermal gel contains 0.75 g of gel in each packet. How many micrograms of estradiol are contained in each packet? 15. Chlorhexidine gluconate 4% solution is used as an antibacterial skin cleanser. How many grams of chlorhexidine gluconate are contained in each 16-ounce bottle? 16. An allergen extract contains 100 mcg/mL of honey bee venom. Calculate the concentration in percent strength and ratio strength. 17. Sodium phosphates injection contains 276 mg of monobasic sodium phosphate monohydrate (NaH2PO4•H20, MW = 138) and 268 mg of dibasic sodium phosphate heptahydrate (Na2HPO4•7H20, MW = 268) in every milliliter. Calculate the total millimolar concentration of phosphate in the solution. HINT: Calculate the millimolar concentration of each individual salt, then add the numbers together. 18. A 2020 water analysis for Edwardsville IL, reported one sample contained 570 mcg of copper per liter of water. Convert this concentration to ratio strength. 19. A 2020 water analysis for Edwardsville IL, reported one sample contained 2.9 mcg of lead per liter of water. Convert this concentration to ratio strength. 20. A product contains an allergen extract at a concentration of 1:25,000. How many micrograms of allergen does a patient receive with each 0.3 mL dose? 21. Mannitol is available as a 20% solution in water for injection. What volume of mannitol solution is required to provide a dose of 100 g. 22. A pharmacist mixed 35 g of salicylic acid with 20 mL of polyethylene glycol (PEG) 400 (d=1.03) and 15 g of PEG 8000. Calculate the percent strength of salicylic acid, PEG 400, and PEG 8000 in the mixture. 23. Calculate the molarity of 20% mannitol (MW = 182) in water. 24. Sodium acetate injection contains 328 mg of sodium acetate (MW = 82) in every milliliter of solution. Calculate the millimolar concentration. 25. An injectable supplement contains 75.5 mg of manganese sulfate (MW = 151) in every 0.5 mL. Calculate the manganese sulfate concentration in millimolar, percent strength, and ratio strength. 26. Calcitonin salmon injection is a sterile solution containing 400 USP Units in each 2 mL vial. If a patient is ordered 240 USP Units every 6 hours, how many milliliters of the solution should the patient receive daily? 27. Bleomycin for injection is supplied as a vial containing 15 Units of a sterile powder. A hospital pharmacy reconstitutes each vial by adding 3 mL of sterile water for injection. Calculate the drug concentration in the reconstituted solution. Calculate how many milliliters of the reconstituted solution are required to supply a dose of 18 Units. Calculate how many vials are required to provide the dose. 28. How many milligrams of solute are contained in 25 mL of a 1:30,000 solution? 29. Dextrose monohydrate 50% injection is sometimes used to treat severe hypoglycemia. Calculate the solution's molarity. Dextrose·H2O MW = 198. 30. A solution was prepared by dissolving 12 g of monobasic sodium phosphate (NaH2PO4•H20, MW = 138) and 7.1 g of dibasic sodium phosphate (Na2HPO4•7H20, MW = 268) in water to a total volume of 50 mL. Calculate the phosphate concentration in mM. 31. An injectable solution contains aluminum (atomic wt = 27) as a contaminant at approximately 12.5 mcg/L concentration. Calculate the ratio strength, percent strength, and mM concentration of aluminum in the solution. Answers: 1. 24 g 2. 0.1% 3. 21.6% 4. 250 mg/mL 0.2 mg/mL 2.7 mg/mL 364.5 mg/mL 5. 1:4000 1:20,000 1:142857 1:29 6. 0.0025% 7. 9.5 mL 8. 1,812 mM 1.7 mM 137 mM 7924 mM 9. 81.2 mM 33.8% 10. 38.4 mL 11. 500 mM 12. 0.25% neomycin, 0.025% triamcinolone 13. 12.5 mg testosterone 14. 750 mcg estradiol 15. 19.2 g 16. 0.01% 1:10,000 17. 3000 mM 18. 1:1,754,386 19. 1:344,827,586 20. 12 mcg 21. 500 mL 22. 49.6% salicylic acid, 29.2% PEG400, 21.2% PEG8000 23. 1.1 M 24. 4000 mM 25. 1000 mM, 15.1% w/v, 1:6.6 26. 4.8 mL 27. 5 USP Units/mL 3.6 mL 1.2 vials 28. 0.83 mg 29. 2.5 M 30. 2269 mM 31. 1:80,000,000 0.00000125% 0.00046 mM Module 3: Dilution, Alligation, and Concentration This module introduces some mathematical techniques used to alter product strength, either decreasing the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) concentration or increasing the (API) concentration. The product's physical form could be a solution or a semi-solid, like an ointment or cream. Diluting a product with an appropriate patient-compatible solvent results in lowering the concentration. We can increase the concentration of, or fortify, a product by adding the API in pure form or by using another product with a higher concentration than the one we are working with. Finally, you will learn about an algebraic technique, alligation, which is unique to pharmacy. The method is useful when solving problems that require mixing two different concentrations to make a third concentration between the two starting values. Brief Review In the last module, you learned about concentrations and the various expressions pharmacists use to represent these concepts and relate them to products. As a reminder, the strength or concentration of a pharmaceutical product represents the amount of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) relative to the total amount of the product. Example 3.1: If 120 mL of an oral solution contains 6 grams of the drug, then the concentration of the API is 5%. $\frac{6\;g}{120\;mL}\times100\;= 5\;\text{%}$ If you add an additional 50 mL of solvent to the product, the API amount does not change, but the total content volume increases to 170 mL, thus reducing the strength. This is one example of a dilution. $\frac{6\;g}{120\;mL\;+\;50\;mL}\times100\;\cong 3.5\;\text{%}$ This cartoon from Wikipedia depicts a series of dilutions of the most concentrated solute, on the left, to a more dilute solute, on the right. Source: By Grasso Luigi - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=76044995 A very useful equation commonly used by pharmacists is C1V1 = C2V2. You most likely used this equation in your previous chemistry courses. We will demonstrate this equation with representative problems later in the module. Module 3A: Dilution Process Involving Liquids Dilution is a technique where you add a solvent, most commonly water, to a solute already in solution. The amount of the solute is constant, but the final volume is increased, thus decreasing concentration. The Wikipedia picture demonstrates the important formula, C1 · V1 = C2 · V2, and a pictorial cartoon to help visual learners see the outcome. By Theislikerice - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=69653928 Notice that this equation relates four parameters in an algebraic relationship. You may recall from high school algebra that you need three parameters to uniquely solve an equation that contains four parameters. A key fact to remember is that all units must be consistent. If one volume is in milliliters, the second must be in milliliters, not liters. If one concentration is in percent, the second concentration must be in percent, not mg/mL. Let’s see how you can use this equation in pharmacy practice. Example 3.2: What would be the new percent concentration (v/v) if you took 300 mL of a 12% solution and diluted it with water to a new volume of 400 mL? Let’s use C1 · V1 = C2 · V2. Based on the information in the problem, what values do you know? C1 = 12%. V1 = 300 mL. V2 = 400 mL. Now substitute the values into the equation and solve for the unknown value of C2. $\left(12\text{%}\right)\times\left(300\;mL\right)=\left(x\text{%} \right)\times\left(400\;mL \right)$ $x\text{%}=\frac{12\text{%}\;\times\;300\;mL}{400\;mL}$ $x=9\text{%}$ Example 3.3: How much water would you add to 250 mL of a 15% (v/v) aqueous solution to reduce its concentration to 5%? $\left(15\text{%}\right)\times\left(250\;mL\right)=\left(5\text{%} \right)\times\left(x\;mL \right)$ $x\;{mL}=\frac{15\text{%}\;\times\;250\;mL}{5\text{%}}=750\;mL$ This problem requires further explanation. The answer is easily calculated, but the number needs some further thought. The final volume is 750 mL. You started with 250 mL of solution. Therefore, you need to add 750 – 250 mL = 500 mL of water. Please pay close attention to this type of problem which asks how much solvent must be added to the original solution. Example 3.4: You need to prepare 4 L of a solution with a final API concentration of 0.04%. How many milliliters of an 8% stock solution should you use to make the solution? $\left(0.04\text{%}\right)\times\left(4000\;mL\right)=\left(8\text{%} \right)\times\left(x\;mL \right)$ $x\;{mL}=\frac{0.04\text{%}\;\times\;4000\;mL}{8\text{%}}=20\;mL$ Remember to verify that all units are the same throughout the problem. The initial volume was given as 4 L. I decided to use 4000 mL because the original problem asks for the answer in milliliters. Example 3.5: You have 120 mL of a 5% stock solution. What would be the new concentration if you added an additional 50 mL of water to the solution? I will alter the units to demonstrate that technique. Recall that 5% w/v = 50 mg/mL. $\frac{50\;mg}{mL}\times0.12\;L=\frac{x\;mg}{mL}\times0.17\;L $ $ \\\frac{x\;mg}{mL}=\frac{\frac{50\;mg}{mL}\;\times\;0.12\;L}{0.17\;L}\\\\ $ $x\cong \frac{35.3\;mg}{mL}\cong 3.5\text{%}$ Module 3B: Dilution Process Involving Solids and Semisolids Most people think of solutions when you mention the word dilution, but the same ideas, and equation, C1 · V1 = C2 · V2, apply when you are working with solids and semisolids. When working with powders or ointments, gels, and creams, we usually substitute the letter Q (quantity) for V in the equation, thus C1 · Q1 = C2 · Q2. Example 3.6: How much petrolatum base would you add to 60 g of a 2.5% (w/v) steroid ointment to reduce its concentration to 1.5%? Notice the similarity of this problem with Example 2 in the previous section. $\left(2.5\text{%}\right)\times\left(60\;g\right)=\left(1.5\text{%} \right)\times\left(x\;g \right)$ $x\;g=\frac{2.5\text{%}\;\times\;60\;g}{1.5\text{%}}$ Again, the answer is easily calculated, but the number needs further thought. The final quantity is 100 g. You started with 60 g of ointment. Therefore, you need to add an additional amount of petrolatum equal to 100 – 60 g = 40 g. Recall that this problem asks how much base must be added to the original ointment mass. Eample 3.7: How much carbomer gel should you mix with 15 g of 0.05% clobetasol propionate gel to reduce the concentration to 0.025%? $\left(0.05\text{%}\right)\times\left(15\;g\right)=\left(0.025\text{%} \right)\times\left(x\;g \right)$ $x\;g=\frac{0.05\text{%}\;\times\;15\;g}{0.025\text{%}}$ $x = 30\;g$ The final quantity is 30 g. You need to add 30 – 15 g = 15 g of carbomer gel. Example 3.8: A physician asks you to prepare 8 oz of a cream with a final API concentration of 3%. How many grams of a 10% stock cream should you use to make the product? The problem asks for the answer in grams, so I converted 8 oz to 240 g for the equation. $\left(3\text{%}\right)\times\left(240\;g\right)=\left(10\text{%} \right)\times\left(x\;g \right)$ $x\;g=\frac{3\text{%}\;\times\;240\;g}{10\text{%}}$ $x = 72\;g$ Consider the process where you are adding the active ingredient as a powder to a dosage form that already contains the API in the ointment. Example 3.9: What is the final concentration of tapinarof if you added 1 g of the powder to the contents of a 60 g tube of Vtama® (tapinarof) 1%? In these types of problems, the first task is to determine how much of the API is contained in the starting material. Then you sum the requested amount with the starting mass. Finally, divide by the new total amount of product. $\frac{1\;g\;T}{100\;g\;oint}=\frac{x\;g\;T}{60\;g\;oint} $, $x = 0.6\;g\;tapinarof\;from\;60\;g\;tube$ $\frac{1\;g\;+\;0.6\;g\;T}{1\;+\;60\;g\;oint}=\frac{1.6\;g\;T}{61\;g\;oint}=2.6\text{%}\;after\;adding\;1g\;drug\;powder$ Example 3.10: What is the final concentration of mupiricin if you added 2 g of the powder to the contents of a 22 g tube of Mupiricin ointment 2%? $\frac{2\;g\;M}{100\;g\;oint}=\frac{x\;g\;M}{22\;g\;oint}$, $x = 0.44\;g\;mupiricin$ $\frac{2\;g\;+\;0.44\;g\;M}{2\;g\;+\;22\;g\;oint}=\frac{2.44\;g\;M}{24\;g\;oint}=10.2\text{%}$ Dilution Practice Problems: 1. You have a stock solution of benzalkonium chloride 50% w/v. What is the final concentration if 2 mL of the solution is diluted to a final volume of 85 mL? (2 dp) (50%) x (2 mL)/(85 mL) = C2= 1.18% 2. How much water would you add to 185 mL of a 17.5% v/v aqueous solution to reduce its concentration to 12.5%? (17.5%) x (185 mL)/(12.5%) = V2 = 259 – 185 mL = 74 mL water 3. You need to prepare 2 L of a solution with a final API concentration of 25%. How many milliliters of a 70% stock solution should you use to make the solution? (25%) x (2000 mL/(70%) = V2 = 714 mL 4. You have 150 mL of a 60 mg/mL stock solution. What would be the new concentration if you added an additional 75 mL of water to the solution? (60 mg/mL) x (150 mL)/(225 mL) = 40 mg/mL and C2 = 4% 5. How much cream base should you mix with 45 g of 1% Vtama cream (tapinarof) to reduce the concentration to 0.3%? (1%) x (45 g)/(0.3%) = Q2 = 150 – 45 g = 105 g cream base 6. How many milliliters of Lidocaine 4% should be used to prepare 125 mL of an IV solution containing 4 mg/mL? (4 mg/mL) x (125 mL)/(40 mg/mL) = V2 = 12.5 mL 7. If you add 5 g of azelaic acid powder to 50 grams of an ointment containing 10% azelaic acid, what would be the final concentration in the ointment? 5 g + 5 g/55 g total ointment = 18.2% 8. What would be the final concentration of benzocaine in an ointment if you mixed 3 g of the API powder with 4 ounces of an ointment containing 10% benzocaine? 3 g + 12 g/123 g total ointment = 12.2% Module 3C: Alligation Alligation is an arithmetical technique for solving problems that require mixing two solutions to make a third solution. Words fail to describe the technique. It is much easier to demonstrate and work problems than to explain. The lecture will make the problem easier to understand. Alligation works very well when we must make a dilution that involves two solutions, one at a higher concentration and one at a lower concentration. The target concentration is between the upper and lower concentrations. Consider the common problem in pediatric Parenteral Nutrition solutions. The pharmacy prepared a PN solution with a dextrose concentration of 15%. The physicians want to increase the dextrose concentration to 20%. Do you need to prepare a new solution? No. We can add more dextrose solution to the bag to make the desired concentration. We can use Dextrose 70% (D70) or Dextrose 50% (D50), both base compounding solutions are readily available. Note, you cannot solve this problem using C1 · V1 = C2 · V2 , because there are three concentrations involved. Let’s look at the mechanics of the process using D 70. Example 3.11: Draw two vertical lines. The desired concentration stated in the problem goes in the middle space. The order of the concentrations on the LHS does not matter, but I put the larger concentration of the solution I am going to use (the juice) on the top left and the smaller starting concentration on the lower left. Now perform two diagonal subtractions, always resulting in a positive number. In this example D70 – D20 = 50. D20 – D15 = 5. Note that the difference between D70 and the desired strength, D20, represents the number of parts of D15 to be used. The actual volume of the D15 solution in the bag represents 50 parts. You need 5 parts of D70, so that would be equal to 1/10 the volume in the bag. After the addition, the PN volume will be larger. Example 3.12: How many milliliters of Dextrose 50% must be added to a bag of PN solution containing 150 mL of Dextrose 20% such that after the addition, the new dextrose concentration will equal 25%? There are a total of 30 parts. We know the PN bag that needs to be altered contains 150 mL of D20, and that represents the 25 parts in the calculation. Now we can solve for the 5 parts using ratios. $\frac{25\;parts}{150\;mL}=\frac{5\;parts}{x\;mL},\;x=30\;mL\;D50\;required$ New PN volume = 180 mL. Example 3.13: You need to prepare an ointment with a concentration of 2.5%. You have a 20% ointment that can be diluted with an ointment base that contains no drug. How many grams of each component do you need to make 16 ounces (480 g)? There is a total of 20 parts. The 20 parts represent the prescribed mass of ointment. Now we can solve for either part using ratios. $\frac{20\;parts}{480\;g}=\frac{17.5\;parts}{x\;g},\;x=420\;g\;ointment\;base$ $\frac{20\;parts}{480\;g}=\frac{2.5\;parts}{x\;g},\;x=60\;g\;20\%\;ointment\;base$ Total ointment weight = 420 + 60 = 480 g Example 3.14: How many grams of salicylic acid powder should be added to 60 g of polyethylene glycol ointment base to prepare a product containing 6% w/w of salicylic acid? Note that you are starting with 60 g of base, which contains no drug. That 60 g mass represents the 94 parts obtained from the alligation. Now you can solve for the amounts using ratios. $\frac{94\;parts}{60\;g}=\frac{6\;parts}{x\;g},\;x=3.83\;g\text{ salicylic acid powder}$ You can check your work, 3.83 g/63.83 g x 100 = 6%. Module 3: Practice Problems - What would be the new percent concentration (v/v) if you took 45 mL of a 15% solution and diluted it with water to a new volume of 390 mL? - How much water should you add to 75 mL of a 9% (v/v) aqueous solution to reduce its concentration to 5%? - You need to prepare 2.4 L of a solution with a final API concentration of 0.07%. How many milliliters of an 11% stock solution should you use to make the solution? - You have 85 mL of a 4% stock solution. What would be the new concentration, in mg/mL, if you added an additional 35 mL of water to the solution? - You have a stock solution of benzalkonium chloride 85% w/v. What is the final concentration if 12 mL of the solution is diluted to a final volume of 2250 mL? - How much petrolatum base should you add to 45 g of a 5% (w/v) steroid ointment to reduce its concentration to 2%? - How much ointment base should you mix with 45 g of 0.05% clobetasol propionate gel to reduce the concentration to 0.03%? - A physician asks you to prepare 6 oz of a 4% cream. How many grams of a 10% stock cream should you use to provide the correct amount of the API? - How much water would you add to 165 mL of an 18% v/v aqueous solution to reduce its concentration to 15%? - You need to prepare 1.5 L of a solution with a final API concentration of 0.9%. How many milliliters of a 23.4% stock solution should you use to make the solution? - You have 150 mL of a stock solution with a 40 mg/mL concentration. What would be the new concentration (%w/v) if you added an additional 75 mL of water to the solution? - How much cream base should you mix with 60 g of 1% Vtama cream (tapinarof) to reduce the concentration to 0.6%? - How many milliliters of Dobutamine 1.25% should be used to prepare 100 mL of an IV solution containing 4 mg/mL? - If you add 10 g of salicylic acid powder to 4 ounces of an ointment containing 100 mg/g of the API, what would be the final concentration in the ointment? - What would be the final concentration of benzocaine in an ointment if you added an additional 6 g of the API powder with 8 ounces of an ointment containing 10% benzocaine? - How many milliliters of Dextrose 70% must be added to a 300 mL bag of PN solution containing Dextrose 15% so that after the addition, the new dextrose concentration will be equal to 20%? (whole number) - How many milliliters of Dextrose 50% must be added to a 300 mL bag of PN solution containing Dextrose 15% so that after the addition, the new dextrose concentration will be equal to 20%? (whole number) - How many milliliters of Dextrose 70% must be added to a 180 mL bag of PN solution containing Dextrose 12.5% so that after the addition, the new dextrose concentration will be equal to 17.5%? (whole number) - How many milliliters of Dextrose 50% must be added to a 180 mL bag of PN solution containing Dextrose 12.5% so that after the addition, the new dextrose concentration will be equal to 17.5%? (whole number) - How many milliliters of Dextrose 70% must be added to a 200 mL bag of PN solution containing Dextrose 12.5% so that after the addition, the new dextrose concentration will be equal to 15%? (whole number) - How many milliliters of Dextrose 50% must be added to a 200 mL bag of PN solution containing Dextrose 12.5% so that after the addition, the new dextrose concentration will be equal to 15%? (whole number) - How many milliliters of Dextrose 70% must be added to a 450 mL bag of PN solution containing Dextrose 15% so that after the addition, the new dextrose concentration will be equal to 22.5%? (whole number) - How many milliliters of Dextrose 50% must be added to a 450 mL bag of PN solution containing Dextrose 15% so that after the addition, the new dextrose concentration will be equal to 22.5%? (whole number) - How many milliliters of Dextrose 70% must be added to a 150 mL bag of PN solution containing Dextrose 20% so that after the addition, the new dextrose concentration will be equal to 25%? (whole number) - How many milliliters of Dextrose 50% must be added to a 150 mL bag of PN solution containing Dextrose 20% so that after the addition, the new dextrose concentration will be equal to 25%? (whole number) - How many grams of 1% bexarotene gel and a gel base should be mixed in order to prepare 60 g of bexarotene 0.75%? - In what proportion should 5% and 1% ointments be mixed in order to prepare a 2.5% ointment - You have a 20% solution and an 8% solution. How many milliliters of each should be mixed in order to prepare 4 ounces of a 10% solution? - You have a 90% solution and a 50% solution. How many milliliters of each should be mixed in order to prepare 6 ounces of a 70% solution? Answers: - 1.7% - 60 mL - 15.3 mL - 28.3 mL - 0.45% - 67.5 g - 30 g - 72 g - 33 mL - 57.7 mL - 2.7% - 40 g - 32 mL - 16.9% - 12.2% - 30 mL - 50 mL - 17 mL - 28 mL - 9 mL - 14 mL - 71 mL - 123 mL - 17 mL - 30 mL - 45 g bexarotene gel and 15 g of base - 1.5 parts of 5% and 2.5 parts of 1% - 20% solution = 20 mL, and 8% solution = 100 mL - 90 mL of each solution Module 4: Milliequivalents and Milliosmoles This module will introduce and review calculations involving milliequivalents and milliosmoles and the concentration units mEq/L and mOsm/L. Module 4A: Equivalents and Milliequivalents Equivalents and milliequivalents express the concentration of ionic compounds or salts such as sodium chloride, potassium chloride, or sodium bicarbonate. An equivalent is a unit of mass related to a mole and has the symbol Eq. A milliequivalent is simply one thousandth (1/1000) of an equivalent and has the symbol mEq. The definition of an equivalent is based on the charge of the ions produced when the electrolyte dissolves. Recall that an ionic compound has an equal number of positive and negative charges, so the overall salt charge is zero. Positively charged ions are called cations, and negatively charged ions are called anions. Table 4.1 lists the common ions frequently used in pharmacy and medicine and their charges. The dose of an electrolyte may be ordered in terms of mEq (e.g. potassium chloride 40 mEq by IV infusion over 4 hours) and the concentration of an electrolyte solution may be expressed in mEq/mL or mEq/L (e.g. sodium bicarbonate 50 mEq/L infusion to run at 75 mL/hour). Table 4.1 Common pharmaceutical ions Cations \| Anions \| Sodium (Na+) \| Chloride (Cl–) \| Potassium (K+) \| Sulfate (SO42–) \| Calcium (Ca2+) \| Dihydrogen phosphate ion (H2PO4–) \| Magnesium (Mg2+) \| Acetate (C2H3O2–) \| Lithium (Li+) \| Gluconate (C6H11O7–) \| Iron (Fe2+) \| Bicarbonate (HCO3–) \| \| Carbonate (CO32–) \| An equivalent is the weight, measured in grams, equal to the molecular weight of a substance divided by the total cation or total anion charge in the chemical formula. Ionic charges are always whole numbers of 1 or higher, so the equivalent weight of an electrolyte is less than or equal to its molecular weight. $Equivalent\;weight\left( \frac{g}{Eq}\right)=\frac{Molecular\;weight\;(g)}{Total\;cation\;charges}$ $Milliequivalent\;wt\left( \frac{mg}{mEq} \right)=\frac{Molecular\;weight\;\left( mg \right)}{Total\;cation\;charges}$ Sodium chloride (NaCl) has a molecular weight of 58 g/mole. NaCl contains one mole of Na+ and one mole of Cl– ions. The total cation charge of NaCl is equal to 1, and the total anion charge is equal to 1, so each mole of NaCl represents 1 equivalent of NaCl. The equivalent weight of NaCl, therefore, is (58 g/mole)/(1 Eq/mole) = 58 g/Eq. One millimole of NaCl weighs 58 mg, so the milliequivalent weight of NaCl is 58 mg/mEq. Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) has molecular weight of 120 g/mole. MgSO4 contains 1 mole of Mg2+ and 1 mole of SO42–. The total cation and anion charges are each 2, so one mole of MgSO4 contains 2 equivalents. The equivalent weight of MgSO4 is therefore (120 g/mole)/(2 Eq/mole) = 60 g/Eq. One millimole of MgSO4 weighs 120 mg, so the milliequivalent weight of MgSO4 is 60 mg/mEq. Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) has a molecular weight of 74 g/mole. Li2CO3 contains 2 moles of Li+ and 1 mole of CO32–. The total cation and anion charges are each 2, so one mole of Li2CO3 contains 2 equivalents. The equivalent weight of Li2CO3 is therefore (74 g/mole)/(2 Eq/mole) = 37 g/Eq. One milliequivalent of Li2CO3 weighs 74 mg, so the milliequivalent weight is 37 mg. Example 4.1: Lithium carbonate is available as capsules containing 600 mg of Li2CO3 per capsule, so the number of milliequivalents per capsule is: $600\;mg\;Li_{2}CO_{3}\times\frac{1\;mEq\;Li_{2}CO_{3}}{37\;mg\;Li_{2}CO_{3}}=16.2\;mEq\;LiCO_{3}\;per\;capsule$ Clinicians sometimes refer to specific ions individually rather than as neutral salt. For example, Li+ is the pharmacologically active component of Li2CO3. The carbonate ion does not contribute to the pharmacologic effect; it is only a convenient salt-forming ion to deliver Li+. The target concentration of Li+ in blood is approximately 1 mEq/L, stated only in terms of the Li+ cation concentration, without reference to any anion. We have calculated that each 600 mg capsule of Li2CO3 represents 16.2 mEq of Li2CO3, but how many mEq of Li+ are present in each capsule? The mEq number for a salt refers to both the cation and the anion, so 16.2 mEq of Li2CO3 contains 16.2 mEq of Li+ and 16.2 mEq of CO32–. Example 4.2: Human plasma contains approximately 140 mEq of sodium ion per liter. How many grams of NaCl contain the same amount of Na+ as 5 liters of plasma. $5\;L\;plasma\times\frac{140\;mEq\;Na^{+}}{L\;plasma}=700\;mEq\;Na^{+}\;in\;5\;L\;of\;plasma$ Since 1 mEq of NaCl contains 1 mEq of Na+ ion, $700\;mEq\;Na^{+}\times\frac{1\;mEq\;NaCl}{1\;mEq\;Na^{+}}\times\frac{1\;mmol\;NaCl}{1\;mEq\;NaCl}\times\frac{58\;mg\;NaCl}{1\;mmol\;NaCl}\times\frac{1\;g}{1000\;mg}=40.6\;g\;NaCl$ Example 4.3: A solution contains 3.36 g of monobasic potassium phosphate (KH2PO4, MW = 136) and 3.54 g of dibasic potassium phosphate (K2HPO4, MW = 174) in every 15 mL vial. Calculate the potassium ion concentration in mEq/mL. Both phosphate salts contribute potassium ions to the solution, so the problem is solved by calculating the mEq/mL concentration of each salt individually and then adding the numbers together. The chemical formulas show that KH2PO4 has 1 Eq/mol, while K2HPO4 has 2 Eq/mol. $Monobasic:\frac{3.36\;g}{15\;mL}\times\frac{1\;mol}{136\;g}\times\frac{1\;Eq}{mol}\times\frac{1000\;mEq}{Eq}=\frac{1.65\;mEq}{mL}$ $Dibasic:\frac{3.54\;g}{15\;mL}\times\frac{1\;mol}{174\;g}\times\frac{2\;Eq}{mol}\times\frac{1000\;mEq}{Eq}=\frac{2.71\;mEq}{mL}$ $Total:\;1.65+2.71=4.36=4.4\;\frac{mEq\;K^{+}}{mL}$ Example 4.4: A pharmacist added 8 mL of sodium phosphates injection to a 250 mL bag of D5W. What is the phosphate concentration in the bag in mmol/mL and mmol/L? What is the sodium concentration in the bag in mEq/mL and mEq/L? This label shows that sodium phosphates injection contains “3 mM P per mL” and “4 mEq Na+ per mL.” Please note: “3 mM P” is an unusual and confusing abbreviation for 3 mmol/mL of phosphate. In every other context, “mM” means millimoles/L. DO NOT use “mM” as an abbreviation for mmole in this course. D5W contains no sodium or phosphate, so the concentrations are 0 mmol/mL phosphate and 0 mEq/mL Na+. The simplest solution to this problem is the C1 · V1 = C2 · V2 method. Solve for the phosphate concentration: $\left( \frac{3\;mmol}{mL} \right)\left( 8\;mL \right)=\left( \frac{x\;mmol}{mL} \right)\left( 8\;mL\;+\;250\;mL \right)$ $x\;=\;\frac{0.093\;mmol}{mL}\;\times\;\frac{1000\;mL}{1\;L}\;=\;93\;\frac{mmol}{L}$ Solve for the sodium concentration: $\left( \frac{4\;mEq}{mL} \right)\left( 8\;mL \right)=\left( \frac{x\;mEq}{mL} \right)\left( 8\;mL\;+\;250\;mL \right)$ $x\;=\;\frac{0.124\;mEq}{mL}\;\times\;\frac{1000\;mL}{1\;L}\;=\;124\;\frac{mEq}{L}$ After mixing, the bag contains 0.093 mmol/mL or 93 mmol/L of phosphate and 0.124 mEq/mL or 124 mEq/L of sodium ion. Example 4.5: A physician orders potassium chloride 30 mEq/L in 250 mL of D5W. How many mL of potassium chloride injection (2 mEq/mL) must be added to the 250 mL bag of D5W. Notice that the order is written in mEq/L, while the drug vial is labeled as mEq/mL. To use the alligation method, the concentrations must all be expressed in the same units. We will solve this problem in terms of mEq/L. 250 mL of D5W represents 1970 parts, so the proportion to solve the problem is: $\frac{250\;mL}{1970\;parts}=\frac{x\;mL}{30\;parts}$ $\\\\x=\text{3.8 mL of KCl injection should be added to the 250 mL bag of D5W.}$ Module 4B: Osmoles and Milliosmoles Osmolarity is a measure of the osmotic pressure or tonicity of a solution. Recall from biology and physiology courses that water molecules freely diffuse through semi-permeable cell membranes in response to osmotic pressure differences between the intracellular and extracellular solutions. You probably did a lab exercise where you placed a drop of blood on a microscope slide and then watched what happened to the red blood cells when you added different solutions to the slide. A ‘hypotonic’ solution has lower osmolarity than the interior of the blood cells. The solute concentration difference causes water to diffuse into the cells. The cells swell to a larger size and will eventually burst due to the influx of excess water attempting to reduce the solute concentration. This process is called lysis. A ‘hypertonic’ solution has a higher osmolarity than the interior of the cells. Here, the solute concentration difference causes water to diffuse out of the cells, causing their size to decrease. This process is called crenation. Finally, an ‘isotonic’ solution has equal osmolarity to the interior of the cells and does not cause any net change in the cells. Pharmacists must be aware of the osmolarity of the products that are injected or infused into the body, placed into the eye or ear, or inserted into the rectum or vagina to minimize the pain or tissue necrosis effects of hypotonic and hypertonic solutions. One osmole (Osm) is one mole of dissolved ions or molecules. Every dissolved ion or molecule has the same effect on osmotic pressure, irrespective of molecular weight. One milliosmole (mOsm) is one thousandth (1/1000) of an Osmole. To calculate milliosmoles, you must determine how many millimoles of dissolved ions or molecules result when the solid completely dissolves. For non-electrolytes, i.e., those compounds that do not dissociate into ions in solution, one millimole is equal to one milliosmole. Electrolytes dissociate into cations and anions when they dissolve, so the number of milliosmoles (mOsm) is greater than the number of millimoles (mmol) for the same mass of material. The chemical formula of the electrolyte tells you how many ions can be produced when complete dissociation occurs. If your background includes physical chemistry you are aware that complete dissociation does not occur, but that is beyond the scope of this course. However, this concept is often shown on parenteral product labels where the term osmolarity has calculated (calc) appended to the value. See the label below. For the purposes of calculations in this course, we define the normal osmolarity of body fluids as 308 mOsm/L. The terms hypotonic (or hypo-osmolar), hypertonic (hyper-osmolar), and isotonic (iso-osmolar) can be defined quantitatively with respect to the normal physiologic osmolarity of 308 mOsm/L. Hypo-osmolar refers to a solution with total solute concentration less than 308 mOsm/L. Iso-osmolar refers to a solution with total solute concentration equal to 308 mOsm/L. Hyper-osmolar refers to a solution with total solute concentration greater than 308 mOsm/L. The maximum osmolarity that should be infused via a peripheral vein is 600 mOsm/L. Any higher osmolarity must be administered via a central venous catheter which terminates into the inferior vena cava, where the blood flow rate is high enough to quickly dilute the solution to physiologic osmolarity. The formula for sodium chloride is NaCl. One millimole of NaCl dissociates into 1 mmol of Na+ and 1 mmole of Cl– in solution, so one mmol of NaCl produces 2 mOsm of dissolved ions. NaCl, therefore, contains 2 mOsm/mmol. Potassium chloride (KCl) dissociates into 1 mmol of K+ and 1 mmole of Cl– in solution, so KCL also contains 2 mOsm/mmol. Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) dissociates into 1 Mg2+ and 2 Cl–, so MgCl2 has 3 mOsm/mmol. Please note: the “polyatomic ions,” including acetate, sulfate, gluconate, and carbonate, remain intact when they dissolve: Sodium acetate: $NaC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}\;\to \;Na^{+}\;+\;C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}^{\;–}$ Sodium acetate contains 1 mEq/mmol and 2 mOsm/mmol. Potassium sulfate: $K_{2}SO_{4}\;\to \;2K^{+}\;+\;SO_{4}^{\;2–}$ Potassium acetate contains 2 mEq/mmol and 3 mOsm/mmol. Calcium gluconate: $Ca(C_{6}H_{11}O_{7})_{2}\;\to \;Ca^{2+}\;+\;2C_{6}H_{11}O_{7}^{\;–}$ Calcium gluconate contains 2 mEq/mmol and 3 mOsm/mmol. Sodium carbonate: $Na_{2}CO_{3}\;\to \;2Na^{+}\;+\;CO_{3}^{\;2–}$ Sodium carbonate contains 2 mEq/mmol and 3 mOsm/mmol. Please note: “waters of hydration” in a chemical formula are ignored when counting milliosmoles per millimole. Magnesium sulfate is produced in several crystalline forms with different waters of hydration and different molecular weights. However, they all have one Mg2+ and one SO42– per mole, so they all have 2 mOsm/mmol. Table 4.2. Hydrated forms of magnesium sulfate Crystal form \| Formula weight (g/mol) \| mOsm/mmol \| MgSO4 (anhydrous) \| 120 \| 2 \| MgSO4 · H2O \| 138 \| 2 \| MgSO4 · 3 H2O \| 174 \| 2 \| MgSO4 · 5 H2O \| 210 \| 2 \| MgSO4 · 6 H2O \| 228 \| 2 \| MgSO4 · 7 H2O \| 246 \| 2 \| Example 4.6: A solution was prepared by dissolving 15 g of magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (MgSO4 · 7 H2O, MW = 246), 10 g of dextrose monohydrate (C6H12O6 · H2O MW = 198), and 1.8 g of sodium chloride (NaCl, MW = 58) in enough water to make 200 mL. Calculate the osmolarity (mOsm/L) of the solution. There are 3 solutes with different molecular weights and mOsm/mmol values. Calculate the mOsm/L concentration for each solute and add the numbers together. $Mag\;sulf:\;\frac{15\;g\;MS}{200\:mL}\times\frac{1000\;mL}{L}\times\frac{1\;mol\;MS}{246\;g\;MS}\times\frac{2\;Osm}{1\;mol\;MS}\times\frac{1000\;mOsm}{1\;Osm}=610\frac{mOsm}{L}$ $NaCl:\;\frac{1.8\;g\;NaCl}{200\:mL}\times\frac{1000\;mL}{L}\times\frac{1\;mol\;NaCl}{58\;g\;NaCl}\times\frac{2\;Osm\;NaCl}{1\;mol\;NaCl}\times\frac{1000\;mOsm}{1\;Osm}=310\frac{mOsm}{L}$ $Dextrose: \frac{5\;g}{100\;mL}\times \frac{1000\;mL}{L}\times \frac{1\;mol}{198\;g}\times \frac{1\;Osm}{mol}\times \frac{1000\;mOsm}{Osm}=253\frac{mOsm}{L}$ The total solution osmolarity is: 610 + 310 + 253 = 1173 mOsm/L. This solution is very hyperosmolar. The osmolarity of injectable solutions is usually printed on the label. A 10% calcium chloride injection has an osmolarity of 2.04 mOsm/mL. A 0.45% sodium chloride injection, also referred to as half normal saline or ½ NS, has an osmolarity of 154 mOsm/L or 0.154 mOsm/mL. Example 4.7: A patient requires a 2 g dose of calcium chloride in ½ NS by IV infusion. The physician wants the solution to be as close to iso-osmolar as possible. ½ NS is available in bags containing 100, 250, 500, or 1000 mL. Which bag size should be used? To solve the problem, determine the volume of calcium chloride injection needed, then calculate the volume of ½ NS that would produce an iso-osmolar solution. Finally, choose the bag size closest to the calculated volume of ½ NS. $CaCl_{2}\;volume:\:2\;g\;CaCl_{2}\times\frac{100\;mL\;injection}{10\;g\;CaCl_{2}}=20\;mL\;CaCl_{2}\;injection$ Volume of ½ NS to make an iso-osmolar solution (osmolarities expressed as mOsm/mL) The volume of CaCl2 injection is 20 mL, so the proportion to solve for ½ NS volume is: $\frac{0.154\;parts}{20\:mL}=\frac{1.732\;parts}{x\:mL},\:x=224.9\;mL$ Adding 20 mL CaCl2 injection to 225 mL of ½ NS would produce an iso-osmolar solution. The closest available bag size to 225 mL is 250 mL, so the infusion should be prepared with 250 mL of ½ NS. Milliequivalents and milliosmoles are related to each other through millimoles, while millimoles and milligrams are related through molecular weight. These relationships allow conversion between milligrams, millimoles, milliequivalents, and milliosmoles for any substance. Example 4.8: Calculate the osmolarity of a solution containing 30 mEq/L of KCl in water. KCl has 1 mEq/mmol and 2 mOsm/mmol. These conversions can be used individually or combined into the single conversion 1 mEq/2 mOsm to solve the problem. $\frac{30\;mEq\;KCl}{L}\times\frac{1\;mmol\;KCl}{1\:mEq\;KCl}\times\frac{2\;mOsm\;KCl}{1\;mmol\;KCl}=60\frac{mOsm\;KCl}{L}$ $Or,\;\frac{30\;mEq\;KCl}{L}\times\frac{2\;mOsm\;KCl}{1\:mEq\;KCl}=60\frac{mOsm\;KCl}{L}$ Example 4.9: A patient is ordered 60 mmol of potassium phosphates in 250 mL of 0.9% sodium chloride injection, also called normal saline or NS. Would this solution be safe to administer in the peripheral vein? The osmolarity limit for peripheral infusion is 600 mOsm/L. Calculate the solution's osmolarity as ordered and determine whether it is greater than or less than 600 mOsm/L. KPhos injection contains 3 mmol/mL of phosphate and 7.4 mOsm/mL osmolarity. NS contains 308 mOsm/L or 0.308 mOsm/mL osmolarity. Calculate the milliosmoles contributed to the total from each solution, then divide by the total volume in liters. $60\;mmol\;KPhos\times\frac{1\;mL}{3\;mmol\;KPhos}=20\;mL\;of\;injection\times\frac{7.4\;mOsm}{mL}=148\;mOsm$ $\\\\\text{The volume of KPhos injection required is 20 mL, and it contributes 148 mOsm to the mixture.}$ $NS\;mOsm:\:250\;mL\times\frac{0.308\;mOsm}{mL\;NS}=77\;mOsm$ NS 250 mL contributes 250 mL of volume and 77 mOsm. The mixture, therefore, contains 148 + 77 = 225 mOsm in a total volume of 20 + 250 = 270 mL. The osmolarity is then calculated as: $\frac{225\;mOsm}{270\;mL}\times\frac{1000\;mL}{L}=833.3\frac{mOsm}{L}$ The maximum osmolarity for peripheral infusion is 600 mOsm/L, so this order with an osmolarity of 833 mOsm/L should be administered through a central venous catheter. Module 4: Practice Problems - Calculate the mEq/L concentration of a 15% potassium chloride (MW 74.6) solution. - A solution is prepared by dissolving 410 grams of sodium acetate (MW 82) in enough water to make 2.5 liters. Calculate the concentration in mEq/L. - Sodium bicarbonate injection is a sterile solution containing 8.4% sodium bicarbonate (MW 84) in water. A pharmacist added 150 mL of sodium bicarbonate injection to a 1 L bag of sterile water for injection. Calculate the solution concentration in mEq/L. - Calculate the osmolarity of a solution prepared by adding 100 mL of sodium bicarbonate injection (50 mEq/50 mL) to 1000 mL of sterile water for injection. - One liter of solution contains 6 g of sodium chloride (MW 58), 300 mg of potassium chloride (MW 74.6), 200 mg of calcium chloride dihydrate (MW 146), and 3.1 g of sodium lactate (NaC3H5O3, MW 112). Calculate the sodium concentration in mEq/L. Calculate the chloride concentration in mEq/L. - A supplement product contains 1.25 g of calcium gluconate (MW 430) per tablet. How many milliequivalents of calcium does the patient receive if the dose is 2 tablets? - A product contains 17.5 g of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4 MW 142), 3.1 g of potassium sulfate (K2SO4 MW 174), and 1.6 g of magnesium sulfate (MgSO4 MW 120) in 180 mL of solution. Calculate the sulfate concentration in mmol/L and mEq/L. - A product contains 17.5 g of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4 MW 142), 3.1 g of potassium sulfate (K2SO4 MW 174), and 1.6 g of magnesium sulfate (MgSO4 MW 120) in 180 mL of solution. Calculate the solution's osmolarity in mOsm/L. - Calculate the osmolarity of a 3% sodium chloride ophthalmic solution. Is the solution hypo-, iso-, or hyperosmolar? - Calculate the osmolarity of a sterile 10% sodium sulfacetamide (NaC8H10N2O3S; MW 236) ophthalmic solution. Is the solution hypo-, iso-, or hyperosmolar? - Calculate the osmolarity of 25% mannitol injection (non-electrolyte; mw 182). Can this product be safely infused into a peripheral vein? - Calculate the osmolarity of a solution prepared by adding 2 g of calcium chloride dihydrate (MW 147) using 10% calcium chloride dihydrate injection, USP. The injection volume is added to 250 mL of normal saline. Can this product be infused into a peripheral vein? - One liter of a total parenteral nutrition (TPN) solution for newborns has 10% dextrose monohydrate (198 g/mol) and 2.5 % amino acids (along with several additives that do not significantly affect the osmolarity). The source of amino acids is 7% amino acids in water with an osmolarity of 561 mOsm/L. Can the TPN solution be infused into a peripheral vein? - Calculate the osmolarity of an oral colon gavage solution containing: Sodium sulfate 21.5 g (142 g/mole) Sodium chloride 5.53 g (58.5 g/mole) Potassium chloride 2.82 g (74.5 g/mole) Sodium bicarbonate 6.36 g (84 g/mole) PEG 3350 227.1 g (3350 g/mole; non-electrolyte Water qs 4L - Calculate the osmolarity of 20 mmol of sodium phosphates IV added to 250 mL D5W. Is the solution safe to administer via a peripheral vein? - Calculate the osmolarity of 20 mmol of sodium phosphate IV added to 100 mL ½ NS. Is the solution safe to administer via a peripheral vein? - Calculate the osmolarity of calcium gluconate (mw 430) 2 g in 500 mL of sterile water. Is the solution safe to administer via a peripheral vein? - Calculate the volume of ½NS that should be added to 30 mEq of KCl injection solution to produce an iso-osmolar solution. - Calculate the volume of sterile water for injection that should be added to 30 mmol of sodium phosphates to produce an iso-osmolar solution. - Calculate the volume of 50 mM NaCl solution that should be added to 1 gram of calcium chloride dihydrate solution to produce an iso-osmolar solution. Answers: - 2010 mEq/L - 2000 mEq/L - 130 mEq/L - 182 mOsm/L - 131 mEq/L Na+ and 110 mEq/L Cl– - 11.6 mEq Ca2+ - 857.7 mM; 1715 mEq/L - 2500 mOsm/L - 1027 mOsm/L - 848 mOsm/L - 1374 mOsm/L; osmolarity too high for peripheral vein - 437 mOsm/L; okay to give by peripheral vein - 704 mOsm/L; osmolarity too high for peripheral vein - 235 mOsm/L - 427 mOsm/L; okay to give by peripheral vein - 582 mOsm/L; okay to give by peripheral vein - 28 mOsm/L; osmolarity may be too low for peripheral vein - 360 mL - 217 mL - 83 mL Module 5: Dose Calculation and Dose Checking We believe pharmacists should be responsible for verifying the right drug and appropriate dose of their patient’s prescribed medication. As you advance through the curriculum, you will learn how to apply the knowledge gained from your coursework to the correct selection of the pharmacologic agent. And it is probably clear that one dose cannot be appropriate for all patients. You will learn to use guidelines and dosing recommendation references. Those references often suggest dosing based on body weight, body surface area, estimated renal function using creatinine clearance, or liver function. Ethically, we are bound to consult with physicians when experience informs us that the drug or dose may be incorrect. This module will provide practice in calculating correct amounts based on different dosing recommendations. Module 5A: Patient-Specific Dosing (mg/kg) Many drugs used in pediatrics are dosed according to body weight (kilograms) or body surface area (m2). In this section, we will focus on mg/kg dosing. Typical calculations involve checking a prescribed dose. Example 5.1: A patient weighs 44 pounds. Recall that to convert patient weight to kilograms, divide the weight in pounds by 2.2. The physician orders Amoxicillin 250 mg PO tid, targeting 30 – 45 mg/kg/day. What is the mg/kg value per day and dose basis? Is the dose consistent with the guideline? $44\;lb\times \frac{1\;kg}{2.2\;lb}=20\;kg$ $\frac{\frac{750\;mg}{day}}{20\;kg}=37.5\;\text{mg/kg/day}$ $\frac{\frac{250\;mg}{dose}}{20\;kg}=12.5\;\text{mg/kg/dose}$ You can check the medication order and see that the physician’s prescribed dose is consistent with the recommended guidelines. When presented with the drug and dosing schedule, divide the dose by the patient’s weight and compare the answer to the recommendation. Practice problems. 1. A physician orders an IV loading dose of Remdesivir of 75 mg for a 33-pound patient. The recommended dose is 5 mg/kg. Is the dose correct? 75 mg/15 kg = 5 mg/kg. The dose is correct. 2. A physician orders Erythromycin ethylsuccinate 300 mg PO tid for a 50-pound patient. The recommended dose is 40 – 50 mg/kg/day. Is the dose correct? 900 mg/day/22.7 kg = 40 mg/kg/day. The dose is correct. 3. A physician orders Gentamicin sulfate 50 mg IV q 8° for a 22-pound patient. The recommended dose is 7.5 mg/kg/day. Is the dose correct? 150 mg/day/10 kg = 15 mg/kg/day. The dose is too high. Contact the physician. 4. A physician orders Gentamicin sulfate 50 mg IV for a 44-pound patient. The recommended dose is 2.5 mg/kg/dose. Is the dose correct? 50 mg/dose/20 kg = 2.5 mg/kg/dose. The dose is correct. 5. The recommended dose for Bactrim (Sulfamethoxazole 200 mg and Trimethoprim 40 mg per 5 mL) based on the TMP component, is 6 – 12 mg/kg/day. Physician orders 2-teaspoonsful q 12° for a 22-pound child. Is the dose correct? 160 mg TMP/day/10 kg = 16 mg/kg/day. The dose is too high. Contact the physician. Some of you will have the opportunity to “write” the drug orders for some patients. Let’s see how this works. I will also give you the product concentrations so you may practice writing realistic volumes along with the calculated doses. Example 5.2: A full-term newborn starts on Digoxin using the TDD 30 mcg/kg protocol. (TDD = total digitalizing dose). The recommended dosing schedule is ½ the TDD initially, followed by ¼ of the TDD for each subsequent dose at 6- to 8-hour intervals for 2 doses. The newborn weighs 6 pounds and 9 ounces. Digoxin oral solution is available as a 50 mcg/mL product. What dose and volume should you calculate for the two different doses? $6\;lb+\left( 9\;oz\times \frac{1\;lb}{16\;oz} \right)=6.5625\;lb$ $6.5625\;lb\times \frac{1\;kg}{2.2\;lb}=2.98\;kg$ The doses are divided into 15 mcg/kg for the first dose, then 7.5 mcg/kg for two additional doses. The TDD = 30 mcg/kg. $2.98\;kg\times \frac{15\;mg}{kg}=44.7\;mg,\;\text{round to 45 mg}$ $45\;mcg\times \frac{1\;mL}{50\;mcg}=0.9\;mL$ This is the initial dose. The next two doses are administered anywhere from 6 – 12 hours later, depending on the cardiologist's protocol. $2.98\;kg\times \frac{7.5\;mg}{kg}=22.4\;mg,\;\text{round to 22.5 mg}$ $22.5\;mcg\times \frac{1\;mL}{50\;mcg}=0.45\;mL$ The volume of the first dose will be 0.9 mL, and the two subsequent dose volumes will be 0.45 mL. Practice problems. 6. Acetaminophen solution contains 160 mg/5 mL. The recommended children's dose is 10 – 15 mg/kg/dose. What reasonable volume of solution should you recommend for a child who weighs 48 pounds? 21.8 kg x 10 – 15 mg/kg = dosage range 220 mg – 330 mg. 220 mg/160 mg/5 mL = 6.9 mL. 330 mg/160 mg/5 mL = 10.3 mL. A reasonable dose is 240 mg (1.5 teaspoonsful or 7.5 mL) 7. Amoxicillin suspension contains 250 mg/5 mL. The recommended children's dose is 15 mg/kg/dose. What reasonable volume of solution should you recommend for a child who weighs 23 pounds? 10.5 kg x 15 mg/kg/dose = 157.5 mg. 157.5 mg/50 mg/mL = 3.15 mL. A practical, measurable dose is 150 mg or 3 mL. 8. Fer-in-sol solution contains 15 mg/mL of elemental iron (75 mg/mL of ferrous sulfate). A recommended dose for iron deficiency anemia is 2 mg/kg/dose. What reasonable volume of solution should you recommend for a child who weighs 13 pounds? 5.91 kg x 2 mg/kg/dose = 11.8 mg. 11.8 mg/15 mg/mL = 0.79 mL. A reasonable volume with a 1 mL oral syringe is 0.8 mL or 12 mg. 9. Amikacin sulfate injection contains 250 mg/mL. A recommended pediatric dose is 7 mg/kg/dose. What reasonable volume of solution should you recommend for a child who weighs 23 pounds? 10.5 kg x 7 mg/kg/dose = 73.5 mg. 73.5 mg/250 mg/mL = 0.29 mL. A reasonable volume with a 1 mL syringe is 0.3 mL or 75 mg. Module 5B: Body Surface Area Some drugs are dosed based on the patient’s body surface area value, calculated in square meters (m2). Dubois and Dubois published some of the earliest works on BSA determination in 1916. Mosteller published a simplified equation in 1987, which is routinely used today. The equation uses the patient's weight in kg and their height in centimeters. You learned how to do these conversions in Module 1. Now, you finally have the opportunity to use the square root key on your calculator! 😊. Calculate all BSA values to 2 decimal places, for example, 1.62 m2. To calculate the patient’s BSA, use this formula, using the patient’s actual body weight: $BSA\;(m^{2})=\sqrt{\frac{wt\;(kg)\;\times\;ht\;(cm)}{3600}}$ Example 5.3: A patient weighs 21 kg and is 3’ 10” in height. Calculate the BSA. 3’ 10” = 46” = 117 cm. $BSA=\sqrt{\frac{21\;kg\;\times\;117\;cm}{3600}}=\sqrt{0.6825}=0.83\;m^{2}$ These problems require you to calculate the BSA, then multiply the dose given in mg/m2 to obtain the dose. Example 5.4: Calculate the dose of Allopurinol for a patient who weighs 25 kg and is 4’ 2”. The recommended dose is 200 mg/m2. $BSA(m^{2})=\sqrt{\frac{25\;kg\;\times\;127\;cm}{3600}}=\sqrt{0.8819}=0.94\;m^{2}$ $0.94\;m^{2}\times \frac{200\;mg}{m^{2}}=188\;mg$ Example 5.5: Calculate the dose of Methotrexate for a patient who weighs 48 kg and is 5’ 3”. The recommended dose is 12 g/m2. 5’ 3” = 63” = 160 cm $BSA(m^{2})=\sqrt{\frac{48\;kg\;\times\;160\;cm}{3600}}=\sqrt{2.1333}=1.46\;m^{2}$ $1.46\;m^{2}\times \frac{12\;g}{m^{2}}=17.5\;g$ Example 5.6: A physician prescribes hydrocortisone 20 mg for a patient. The recommended dose is 20 – 25 mg/m2/day. Is the dose correct? The patient weighs 22 kg and is 118 cm tall. $BSA(m^{2})=\sqrt{\frac{22\;kg\;\times\;118\;cm}{3600}}=\sqrt{0.7211}=0.85\;m^{2}$ $\frac{20\;mg}{0.85\;m^{2}}=\frac{23.5\;mg}{m^{2}}$ The dose is within the recommended range. Practice problems: 10. Caspofungin is an anti-fungal drug administered IV (over 1 hour) as a 70 mg/m2 loading dose the first day, followed by 50 mg/m2 daily thereafter. Calculate the loading dose and maintenance doses for a patient who weighs 24 kg and is 118 cm tall. 11. Dexamethasone is used in treating many conditions. A typical dosing range is 0.6 – 9 mg/m2/day in 3 or 4 divided doses. It is available as an oral solution containing 0.5 mg/5 mL. Calculate the amount and solution volume for a patient who weighs 18 kg and is 108 cm tall, based on 1.5 mg/m2/day of dexamethasone divided into three doses. What volume of the oral solution (0.5 mg/5 mL) should be taken at each dose? 12. Dronabinol is used for nausea prophylaxis in patients receiving chemotherapy. The National Cancer Institute (NCI) guideline for pediatric patients is 5 mg/m2 PO every 6 – 8 hours before beginning chemotherapy treatment, then 5 mg/m2 PO every 4 – 6 hours for up to 12 hours after the treatment. Calculate the dose for a patient who weighs 23 kg and is 114 cm tall. 13. Acyclovir is used to treat viral infections in children. The dosing guideline can range up to 600 mg/m2 every 6 hours for 10 days. The drug may be administered orally as a 40 mg/mL suspension or by an intermittent IV infusion. Each sterile vial (10 mL) contains acyclovir sodium equivalent to 500 mg of acyclovir. Calculate the dose for a patient who weighs 26 kg and is 125 cm tall. Module 5C: Estimating Body Surface Area Anatomically Several medical researchers devised an estimate of the body surface area based on anatomical regions from 1944 to 1960. These include Berkow, Boyd, Brewer, Chu, Lund, Pulaski, Tennison, and Wallace. These individuals were searching for a rapid way to estimate the areas involved with severe burns. The method is often referred to as the Rule of Nines. While the method has been criticized as selective, it has clinically proven its worth. Further information can be found on Wikipedia pages. One other note, many physicians use the rule of thumb that involves the area of the patient's palm. The patient's palm approximates 1% of the body surface area. The method is called the Rule of Nines because the body can be divided into 11 approximate areas with a common factor of 9% (head (1), arms (2), chest/abdoman (2), back (2), legs (4)) . The table explains the concept better than words. Note that children differ in some key areas. We’ll restrict our problems to adults. Note that in the color cartoon, a distinction is made between front and back. The entire torso represents approximately 36% of the BSA value. Body Part \| Estimated BSA Percentage \| \| Adults \| Children \| \| Left arm \| 9% \| 9% \| Right arm \| 9% \| 9% \| Head & neck \| 9% \| 18% \| Chest \| 9% \| 9% \| Abdomen \| 9% \| 9% \| Back \| 18% \| 18% \| Left leg \| 18% \| 14% \| Right leg \| 18% \| 14% \| Example 5.7: An adult oncology patient had their left leg amputated at the hip because of an osteogenic sarcoma tumor. Chemotherapy treatment includes methotrexate 15 g/m2. The patient’s pre-surgical BSA was 1.7 m2. What dose of methotrexate should be considered? Preoperatively, the patient would have received: $1.7\;m^{2}\times \frac{15\;g}{m^{2}}=25.5\;g$ The loss of the left leg results in an 18% reduction in body surface area, so the chemo dose will also need to be reduced by 18%: 25.5 g × 82% = 20.9 g Example 5.8: A treatment protocol requires the administration of IV fluids at a rate of 2 L per m2 per day. The patient had their right arm removed because of an accident. Before the accident, the patient’s BSA was 1.9 m2. What fluid rate (mL/h) should the patient receive? 2 L/ m2/day × 1.9 m2 = 3.8 L/day The loss of the right arm results in a 9% surface area reduction, so: 3.8 L/day × 0.91 = 3.458 L/day 3.458 L/day ≡ 3458 mL/24 h = 144 mL/h Module 5D: Ideal Body Weight The impact of height and weight on medical conditions has been studied since the early 1900s. Studies from the 1950s used the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company height and weight tables to understand these two variables' influence on health. One outcome of that statistical research was the development of the “ideal” body weight (IBW) for adult women and men. This concept is intimately associated with dosing for certain drugs. Devine (1974), Robinson (1983), and Miller (1983) have developed equations to estimate the IBW. A Google search will give you a good starting point for further reading if you are interested. A good review of the topic is the paper by Pai and Paloucek in the Annals of Pharmacotherapy (2000). As you progress through the curriculum, you will use the concept of IBW for calculating doses and estimating a patient’s creatinine clearance. We will use the Devine equation in this course. For Females: IBW = 45.5 kg + 2.3 kg for each inch in height over 60 inches. For Males: IBW = 50 kg + 2.3 kg for each inch in height over 60 inches. Example 5.9: Calculate the IBW for a female patient who is 5’ 5” tall. 45.5 kg + 2.3 kg × (65 – 60”) = 57 kg Example 5.10: Calculate the IBW for a male patient who is 5’ 11” tall. 50 kg + 2.3 kg × (71 – 60”) = 75.3 kg Module 5E: Adjusted Body Weight Certain drugs, when dosed on the patient’s total body weight, may lead to under or overdoses for patients defined as obese. While somewhat controversial, obesity is usually defined as the patient weighing more than 130% of their ideal body weight. In some therapeutic situations, it may be more appropriate to use the adjusted body weight for patients who are obese. There is a continuing controversy over the use of these formulas in patients. We recommend you follow the guidelines in place at your institution. The adjusted body weight formula can be confusing because it contains 2 words starting with the letter A. The adjusted body weight and the actual body weight are used in the formula, so pay close attention to the calculation. The same equation is used for women and men. Also, note that the adjustment factor can vary from one institution to another. The factor is usually within the range of 0.25 to 0.4. While this factor can vary among institutions and practitioners, for all calculations in this book we will use 0.4 as the adjustment factor. This equation should only be used when the product labeling or institutional policy specifies its use. Adj BW = IBW + 0.4 x (Actual BW – IBW) Example 5.11: Calculate the Adj BW (0.4) for a female patient weighing 194 pounds and 5 feet 4 inches tall. IBW = 45.5 kg + 2.3 kg × (64 – 60”) = 54.7 kg 194 lb = 88.2 kg Adj BW = 54.7 kg + 0.4 × (88.2 – 54.7) = 68.1 kg Module 5F: Creatinine Clearance Many drugs are cleared from the body by renal excretion. Depending on the drug, its clearance may be significant or minor. Reduced kidney function can lead to potentially toxic drug levels if renal excretion is a major clearance route. The kidneys receive about 20% of the cardiac output, which equates to a normal male glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of 90 – 120 mL/minute. Serum creatinine has been used as a marker of renal function for many years. Creatinine is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate resulting from the metabolism of muscle and protein. In 1976, D. W. Cockcroft and M. H. Gault published an equation that attempted to estimate an adult patient’s GFR using serum creatinine values. While the equation has been criticized over the years, (for example, see the National Kidney Foundation website https://www.kidney.org/professionals/KDOQI/gfr_calculatorCoc), the C-G CrCL equation remains useful for many drugs. For most patients and most drugs, it has been demonstrated that the Cockcroft and Gault equation estimates the GFR as well as the MDRD equation. An added benefit to using the C-G equation is related to its long historical use in various drug studies. During your career, it is possible that more accurate estimates of renal function may replace the C-G equation. For completeness, we note that the C-G CrCL overestimates the actual glomerular filtration rate by 10 – 20% due to the active secretion of creatinine by the peritubular capillaries. Now, let’s see the equations. $CrCL_{male}=\frac{(140-age)\;\times \;wt\;(kg)}{72\;\times \;SCr}$ where wt is the lower of ideal or actual body weight and SCr is the patient’s serum creatinine level in mg/dL. $CrCL_{female}=0.85\times \frac{(140-age)\;\times \;wt\;(kg)}{72\;\times \;SCr}$ The units for the CrCL are mL/min. Round the value to the closest whole (integer) number. Please note: The most common question students ask about this equation is which body weight should be used. Calculate ideal body weight and actual body weight in kilograms. Then use the lower of these values in the equation. Please note: The most common error students make when using this equation is forgetting to multiply by 0.85 for female patients. Example 5.12: A male patient is 60 years old, 5’ 6” tall, weighs 145#, with an ideal body weight of 140#. His serum creatinine is 1.2 mg/dL. Calculate his CrCL. $CrCL_{male}=\frac{(140\;-\;60)\;\times\;63.8\;kg}{72\;\times\;1.2}=59\;mL/min$ Example 5.13: A female patient is 45 years old, 5’3” tall, weighs 112#, with an ideal body weight of 115#. Her serum creatinine is 1.6 mg/dL. Calculate her CrCL. $CrCL_{female}=0.85\times \frac{(140\;-\;45)\;\times\;50.9\;kg}{72\;\times\;1.6}=36\;mL/min$ BSA-Adjusted Creatinine Clearance Certain drugs are dosed based on Body Surface Area adjusted Creatinine Clearance. The creatinine clearance calculation is dependent on the patient's muscle mass, so smaller or less muscular patients will have a lower CrCL value than larger more muscular patients, even if both patients have similar kidney function. BSA adjustment is done in an attempt to account for this effect. The formula used to adjust the patient's CrCL for BSA is: $BSA\;adjusted\;CrCL\;(mL/min/1.73\;m^{2})=CrCL (mL/min)\times \frac{1.73}{Patient's\;BSA}\;m^2$ The value 1.73 m2 is used because it has traditionally represented the average adult male BSA value. You may question the validity of using 1.73 m2 in light of the changes to the size of the average man in the U.S. since the factor was introduced. Like the C-G CrCL equation, the argument is made that the equation has proved its worth in clinical situations thereby justifying its continued use. Who knows, you may see a change in the value of that factor during your professional career. In summary, the BSA-adjusted CrCL is used to allow easier comparison of an individual patient's CrCL to the average normal adult. Consider an example. Patient A is 40 year old female patient, 5' tall and 45.5 kg (ideal body weight). Patient B is a 40 year old female, 6' tall and 73.1 kg (ideal body weight). Both patients have serum creatinine of 1.1 mg/dL. Table 5.1. Creatinine Clearance for Example Patients A and B. \| Statistic \| Patient A \| Patient B \| \| Age \| 40 \| 40 \| \| Height (feet) \| 5 \| 6 \| \| Weight (kg) \| 45.5 \| 73.1 \| \| Creatinine Clearance (mL/min) \| 50 \| 79 \| \| BSA (m2) \| 1.39 \| 1.93 \| \| BSA-adjusted CrCL (mL/min/1.73 m2) \| 62 \| 71 \| Patient A has CrCL of 50 mL/min, which would indicate possible minor decrease in kidney function. However, the BSA-adjusted CrCL calculation indicates that the patient's kidney function is actually better than CrCL would suggest. Similarly, Patient B has CrCL of 79 mL/min, which would suggest good kidney function. However, the BSA-adjusted CrCL calculation indicates that the patient's kidney function is not quite as good as CrCL would suggest. Example 5.14: A male patient is 60 years old, 5’ 6” tall, weighs 145#, with an ideal body weight of 140#. His serum creatinine is 1.2 mg/dL. Calculate his BSA-adjusted CrCL. There are a few steps to the calculation: i. Calculate CrCL using the lower of ideal or actual body weight. Actual body weight = 145 lb/2.2 = 65.9 kg Ideal body weight = 50 kg + 2.3 kg (66" - 60") = 63.8 kg. Use ideal body weight for CrCL. $CrCL_{male}=\frac{(140\;-\;60)\;\times\;63.8\;kg}{72\;\times\;1.2}=59\;mL/min$ ii. Calculate BSA using actual body weight $BSA\;(m^{2})=\sqrt{\frac{65.9\;kg\;\times\;168\;cm}{3600}}=1.75\;m^{2}$ This patient's BSA is very close to the normal value of 1.73 m2, so BSA-adjusted CrCL will be very similar to the non-adjusted CrCL value. iii. Calculate the BSA-adjusted CrCL. $59\;mL/min\;\times\;\frac{1.73}{1.75}\;m^2=58\;mL/min/1.73\;m^{2}$ Example 5.15: Calculate the BSA-adjusted CrCL for a 34 year old male, 5'1" tall and 51 kg, with SCr of 0.9 mg/dL. $CrCL=\frac{(140\;-\;34)\;\times\;51\;kg}{72\;\times\;0.9\;mg/dL}=83\;mL/min $ $BSA\;(m^{2})=\sqrt{\frac{51\;kg\;\times\;152\;cm}{3600}}=1.47\;m^{2} $ $BSA-adjusted\;CrCL=83\;mL/min\times \frac{1.73}{1.47}\;m^2=98\;mL/min/1.73\;m^{2}$ In this case, the patient's BSA is smaller than 1.73 m2, so the BSA-adjusted CrCl is larger than the previous example. Example 5.16: Calculate the BSA-adjusted CrCL for the female patient in example 5.13. Recall that the C-G equation uses the lesser value for actual body weight or ideal body weight. The Mosteller equation for BSA uses the patient's actual body weight. $BSA\;(m^{2})=\sqrt{\frac{50.9\;kg\;\times\;160\;cm}{3600}}\;=\;\sqrt{2.26}=1.5\;m^{2} $ $CrCL_{BSA-adj}\;=\;36\;mL/min\;\times\;\frac{1.73}{1.5}\;m^{2}\;=\;42\;mL/min$ Please note: BSA-adjusted CrCL has units of mL/min/1.73 m2. Please note: Only use BSA-adjusted CrCL for patient dose calculations when the guidelines for a particular drug specify that it should be used. As an example, the guideline for a particular drug states that the standard dose for adults with BSA-adjusted CrCL > 70 mL/min/1.73 m2 is 250 mg every 6 hours. For a patient of the same weight, but with BSA-adjusted CrCL of 30 mL/min/1.73 m2 should be administered 250 mg every 12 hours, or 1/2 the daily dose of the patient with normal renal function. Pediatric Estimation of Creatinine Clearance The Cockcroft & Gault equation was developed using data from male patients over 30. In 1976, George Schwartz and a team of researchers published a new equation for estimating the glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in pediatric patients from one week old to 17 years old. The CG equation was used for patients 18 years and older. Schwartz’s equation was updated in 2009 and is currently considered the best estimate of the GFR in that age range. Similar to the CG equation, the primary assumption is that the renal function is not acutely changing, and the serum creatinine value is constant. The original equation used six terms with multiple exponents. Applying some judicious statistical assumptions resulted in a more concise equation colloquially called the “bedside Schwartz.” The bedside Schwartz equation predicts the estimated GFR with the units mL/min/1.73 m2. $eGFR \left( mL/min/1.73^{2} \right) = 0.413\:\times\:\left( \frac{ht\;\left( cm \right)}{SCr\;\left( mg/dL \right)} \right)$ Example 5.17: Calculate the eGFR for a 6-yo male patient who is 45” tall and has a SCr = 1.5. $eGFR = 0.413\: \times \:\left( \frac{114}{1.5} \right)\:=\: 31\: mL/min/1.73^{2}$ Example 5.18: Calculate the eGFR for a 9-yo female patient who is 52” tall and has a SCr = 1.8. $eGFR = 0.413\: \times \:\left( \frac{132}{1.8} \right)\:=\: 30\: mL/min/1.73^{2}$ Example 5.19: Calculate the eGFR for a 14-yo female patient who is 5 ' 3” tall with a SCr = 0.8. $eGFR = 0.413\: \times \:\left( \frac{160}{0.8} \right)\:=\: 83\: mL/min/1.73^{2}$ Example 5.20: Calculate the eGFR for a 5-yo male patient who is 3' 4” tall with a SCr = 0.7. $eGFR = 0.413\: \times \:\left( \frac{102}{0.7} \right)\:=\: 60\: mL/min/1.73^{2}$ Module 5G: Body Mass Index (BMI) The body mass index was first used in a paper from 1972 in the Journal of Chronic Diseases. The calculation was first proposed in about 1840 to represent a scale useful in comparing different sized people. The application and interpretation of the BMI continues to invoke some controversy in medicine. We will not take a position on the socio-political ramifications of the index. Our task is to focus on the calculation and application of the index in appropriate clinical situations. The calculation is intended to be used in people over 20 years old. Please note, as with BSA-adjusted CrCl, only use BMI in dose calculations when a specific drug guideline tells you to. Please note: BMI can be confusing because it is not used directly to calculate a drug dose. Rather, it is usually used to decide whether to use ideal body weight, actual body weight, or adjusted body weight in the dose calculation. The calculation of the BMI is straightforward. $BMI=\frac{Weight\;(kg)}{(Height\;(m))^{2}}$ This formula is an application of earlier conversion factors. Recall the conversion process for height in feet and inches to meters. $6'4^{"}=76^{"}\times \frac{2.54\;cm}{inch}\times \frac{1\;m}{100\;cm}=1.93\;m$ Example 5.17: Calculate the BMI for a 35 yo patient who weighs 180 pounds and is 5’ 7” tall. $BMI=\frac{180\;lb\;\times\;\frac{1\;kg}{2.2\;lb}}{(67\;inches\;\times\;\frac{2.54\;cm}{inch}\;\times \;\frac{1\;m}{100\;cm})^{2}}\;=\;\frac{81.82\;kg}{\left( 1.7\;m \right)^2}\;=\;28.3\;kg/m^{2}$ Example 5.18: Calculate the BMI for a 22 yo patient who weighs 215 pounds and is 5’ 8” tall. $BMI=\frac{215\;lb\;\times\;\frac{1\;kg}{2.2\;lb}}{(68\;inches\;\times\;\frac{2.54\;cm}{inch}\;\times\; \frac{1\;m}{100\;cm})^{2}}\;=\;\frac{97.7\;kg}{\left( 1.73\;m \right)^2}\;=\;32.6\;kg/m^{2}$ Example 5.18: Calculate the BMI for a 61 yo patient who weighs 165 pounds and is 5’ 4” tall. $BMI\;=\;\frac{\frac{165}{2.2}}{\left( \frac{64\;\times\;2.54}{100} \right)^{2}}\;=\;\frac{75}{\left( 1.63 \right)^{2}}\;=\;28.2$ Module 5: Practice Problems 1. A physician wants to start a 7.3 kg pediatric patient on phenobarbital, 2.5 mg/kg/dose given twice daily. Phenobarbital liquid has a concentration of 20 mg/5 mL. Calculate the volume of solution needed to supply each dose. Where should you place the black line dosage marker on the syringe? 2. A physician wants to start a 4.4 kg pediatric patient on phenobarbital, 2 mg/kg/dose given tid. Phenobarbital liquid has a concentration of 20 mg/5 mL. What volume should you instruct the parents to administer? 3. A patient weighs 13 lbs 14 oz. Calculate the IV dose of sodium ampicillin at 100 mg/kg. Round the dose to the nearest 10 mg. 4. A physician orders 325 mg of acetaminophen PO every 4 – 6 hours as needed for pain relief for a patient weighing 35 pounds. The recommended dosage range is 10 – 15 mg/kg/dose. Is the order correct? If not, what dose should you recommend to the doctor? 5. An anesthesiologist orders fentanyl 0.75 mcg/kg/dose for a 30-pound patient. What amount should be prepared? Fentanyl is available as a 50 mcg/mL solution. What volume of fentanyl should be in the syringe? 6. A physician orders Tobramycin 50 mg IV for a 28-pound patient. The recommended dose is 2.5 mg/kg/dose. Is the dose correct? If not, what dose should you recommend to the doctor? The drug concentration is 40 mg/mL. What volume should be prepared? 7. A 25-pound patient needs ondansetron to treat their nausea and vomiting. The recommended dose is 0.15 mg/kg. The drug concentration is 2 mg/mL. How many milligrams of the drug should you order? What volume should be prepared? 8. Bactrim is a suspension containing Sulfamethoxazole 200 mg and Trimethoprim 40 mg per 5 mL. The recommended daily dose of the TMP component is 6 – 12 mg/kg/day. The product is usually administered twice daily. What dose should be prescribed at 8 mg/kg/day for a 43-pound patient? What volume of suspension is required for each dose? 9. What volume of Augmentin suspension (Amoxicillin/Clavulanate - 600 mg/42.9 mg/5 mL) should be administered per dose based on a 90 mg/kg/day amoxicillin component divided twice daily? The patient weighs 24 pounds. 10. Fer-in-sol solution contains 15 mg/mL of elemental iron (75 mg/mL of ferrous sulfate). A recommended dose for iron deficiency anemia is 2 mg/kg/dose administered three times a day. What reasonable volume of solution per dose should you recommend for a child who weighs 20 pounds? 11. A pediatric patient weighs 20 pounds. A physician orders: Amoxicillin suspension: 250 mg/5 mL Sig: 4 mL PO tid x 7 days The recommended dose for the patient’s condition is 45 mg/kg/day in divided doses, every 8 h. Is the dose correct? If not, what should the amount be? What volume should be administered? 12. A pediatric patient weighs 36 pounds. A physician orders: Azithromycin suspension: 200 mg/5 mL Sig: Day 1: 1 tsp PO, then Days 2 – 5: 1 tsp PO qd x 4 doses The recommended loading dose for the patient’s condition is 12 mg/kg on day 1. Subsequent daily doses are 6 mg/kg. Is the dose correct? If not, what should the amount be? What volume should be administered? 13. A pediatric patient weighs 42 pounds. A physician orders: Ibuprofen suspension: 100 mg/5 mL Sig: 1 tsp PO q 6 – 8 hours up to 5 days for pain relief The recommended dose for the patient’s condition is up to 40 mg/kg/day divided into 3 or 4 doses. Is the dosage correct according to the guidelines? If not, what should the amount be? Which size oral syringe should be provided to the parents? 14. The recommended IV dose of Amikacin is 15 mg/kg administered via an infusion over 1 hour. What dose should a 59-pound patient receive? The amikacin vial contains 250 mg/mL. What volume of the injection should be added to the IV bag? 15. A full-term newborn starts on Digoxin using the TDD 30 mcg/kg protocol. (TDD = total digitalizing dose). The recommended dosing schedule is ½ the TDD initially, followed by ¼ of the TDD for each subsequent dose at 8-hour intervals for 2 doses. The newborn weighs 7 pounds and 5 ounces. Digoxin oral solution is available as a 50 mcg/mL product. What dose and volume should you calculate for the two different doses? 16. A patient is 5’ 11” and weighs 206 pounds. Calculate their BSA. 17. A patient is 5’ 3” and weighs 122 pounds. Calculate their BSA. BSA Dosing Problems Use the drug dosing guidelines below to answer the questions about the patients whose height and weight is provided in the table. Patient \| Sex \| Age \| Ht (cm) \| Wt (kg) \| AS \| M \| 7 \| 115 \| 21 \| CY \| F \| 5 \| 118 \| 22 \| ES \| M \| 4 \| 118 \| 24 \| HT \| F \| 4 \| 108 \| 18 \| IM \| F \| 7 \| 114 \| 23 \| KE \| M \| 3 \| 104 \| 17 \| OS \| M \| 5 \| 101 \| 17 \| PC \| M \| 6 \| 109 \| 21 \| RX \| F \| 6 \| 95 \| 14 \| WL \| F \| 3 \| 91 \| 14 \| Refer to the drug labels for concentration information. Acyclovir can be used to treat viral infections in children. The guideline recommends doses as high as 600 mg/m2 every 6 hours for 10 days. The product is a 40 mg/mL oral suspension and sterile vials containing acyclovir sodium solution equivalent to 50 mg/mL. Allopurinol is used to prevent tumor lysis syndrome associated with certain cancer treatments. It is given as a short IV infusion of 200 mg/m2. Allopurinol is marketed as a sterile vial containing the equivalent of 500 mg of allopurinol (as the sodium salt) that is reconstituted to 30 mL before use, 16.7 mg/mL. Caspofungin is an anti-fungal drug given IV (over 1 hour) as a 70 mg/m2 loading dose the first day, followed by 50 mg/m2 daily thereafter. Dexamethasone is used in treating many conditions. The typical dose is 0.6 – 9 mg/m2/day in 3 or 4 divided doses. It is available as an oral solution containing 0.5 mg/5 mL. Dronabinol is used for nausea prophylaxis in chemotherapy patients. The National Cancer Institute (NCI) guideline for pediatric patients is 5 mg/m2 PO every 6 – 8 hours before beginning chemotherapy treatment, then 5 mg/m2 PO every 4 – 6 hours until 12 hours after the treatment. Hydrocortisone may be used to treat many conditions. For normal replacement therapy, the dosing guideline is 20 – 25 mg/m2/day. For congenital adrenal hyperplasia, the dosing guideline is 30 – 36 mg/m2/day, with 1/3 of the dose administered in the morning and 2/3 in the evening. 18. A physician orders acyclovir 600 mg/m2 for AS. What volume of the oral suspension is required for each dose? 19. CY requires 32 mg/m2/day of hydrocortisone for congenital adrenal hyperplasia. How should you instruct her mother to give the daily dose? 20. WL requires hydrocortisone for the treatment of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. The physician ordered hydrocortisone 12 mg in the morning and 24 mg in the evening daily. Is this dose within the recommended guidelines? 21. According to the dosing guidelines for immunocompromised patients, what is the total dose RX should receive for a 10-day course of acyclovir therapy? 22. PC requires allopurinol 200 mg/m2. The pharmacy prepared an infusion solution by transferring 12.5 mL of the sterile allopurinol solution into a 1L bag of normal saline. Is the correct amount of drug in the bag? What volume should have been added? 23. KE requires allopurinol before his chemotherapy. What volume of the reconstituted allopurinol solution should be added to KE’s infusion solution? 24. OS requires acyclovir 450 mg/m2 by IV infusion. What volume of acyclovir solution is required for each dose? 25. PC requires hydrocortisone replacement therapy. What dose should he receive each day? 26. RX requires caspofungin therapy. Calculate the appropriate dosing regimen. 27. WL is ordered dexamethasone 8.4 mg/m2/day in four divided doses. What volume of the oral solution (0.5 mg/5 mL) should she receive at each dose? 28. AS requires dronabinol per the NCI protocol. What dose should he receive? What volume? 29. CY requires allopurinol 200 mg/m2. What volume of the drug solution should be used to prepare the infusion? 30. A physician orders acyclovir 600 mg/m2 for ES. What volume of the drug solution should be used to prepare the bag for IV infusion? 31. HT requires normal hydrocortisone replacement therapy. What is the normal milligram range for this indication? 32. Calculate the caspofungin dosage regimen for IM. 33. KE has a severe allergic reaction, and his physician orders dexamethasone 2 mg every 6 hours. Is the prescribed amount correct? What is the normal range according to the guidelines? 34. Calculate the dose of dronabinol for OS. What volume should be given? 35. What percent loss in BSA would a patient experience whose right arm was amputated at the elbow. 36. A patient enrolled in an NCI protocol should receive an IV solution at 1.8 L/ m2 over 24 hours. Before their surgery, the patient’s BSA = 1.9 m2. What IV fluid rate should be used for the patient if their left arm has been amputated at the shoulder? 37. A patient with psoriasis has skin involvement over the upper chest area. What percentage of their skin surface area has psoriasis? 38. A patient has received severe 2nd and 3rd degree burns over the front of their two legs in a BBQ grilling accident. What percentage of their BSA has been burned? 39. Calculate the Ideal Body Weight for a female patient who is 5’ 6” tall. 40. Calculate the Adjusted Body Weight for a female patient who is 5’ 6” tall and weighs 210 pounds. Factor = 0.4. 41. A drug is dosed based on the adjusted body weight for obese patients using the factor 0.4. For these patients, the dose is 15 mg/kg. Calculate the dose for a female patient who is 5’ 3” and weighs 155 pounds. 42. A drug is dosed based on the adjusted body weight for obese patients using the factor 0.4. For these patients, the dose is 8 mg/kg. Calculate the dose for a female patient who is 5’ 7” and weighs 183 pounds. 43. Calculate the Ideal Body Weight for a male patient who is 5’ 8” tall. 44. Calculate the Adjusted Body Weight for a male patient who is 5’ 8” tall and weighs 215 pounds. Factor = 0.4. 45. A drug is dosed based on the adjusted body weight for obese patients using the factor 0.4. For these patients, the dose is 6 mg/kg. Calculate the dose for a male patient who is 6’ 5” and weighs 329 pounds. 46. A drug is dosed based on the adjusted body weight for obese patients using the factor 0.4. For these patients, the dose is 5 mg/kg. Calculate the dose for a male patient who is 5’ 10” and weighs 215 pounds. 47. Is this patient considered obese? Female, 5’ 4”, weighs 148 pounds. 48. Is this patient considered obese? Female, 5’ 5”, weighs 165 pounds. 49. Is this patient considered obese? Male, 5’ 9”, weighs 200 pounds. 50. Is this patient considered obese? Male, 5’ 11”, weighs 218 pounds. Problems 51 - 56 use the table from the Famvir® prescribing information, "Penciclovir dose adjustments in patients with renal insufficiency." 51. Male, 29 yo, SCr = 1.1 mg/dL, 6’ 1”, 185 pounds, suppressing genital herpes. 52. Male, 64 yo, SCr = 1.5 mg/dL, 5’ 2”, 120 pounds, treatment of herpes zoster. 53. Male, 75 yo, SCr = 1.3 mg/dL, 5’ 11”, 190 pounds, treatment of herpes zoster. 54. Female, 30 yo, SCr = 2.3 mg/dL, 5’ 0”, 210 pounds, suppressing genital herpes. 55. Female, 69 yo, SCr = 2.2 mg/dL, 5’ 2”, 105 pounds, treatment of herpes zoster. 56. Female, 64 yo, SCr = 2.7 mg/dL, 4’ 10”, 165 lb, suppressing genital herpes. Use Table 4 for problems #57 - 62. The dose calculation for this drug is based on the BSA-corrected CrCL. Calculate the patient's CrCL and BSA as usual, then use the following equation to calculate the BSA-adjusted value. $BSA\;adjusted\;CrCl\;(mL/min/1.73\;m^{2})=CrCl (mL/min)\times \frac{1.73}{Patient's\;BSA}\;m^2$ In the left column, choose the weight closest to the patient’s actual body weight. For example, if the patient weighs 52 kg, use the 50 kg dosing line. For a patient weighing 56 kg, use the 60 kg dosing line. Table 4: Reduced intravenous dosage of Primaxin I.V. in adult patients with impaired renal function and/or body weight < 70 kg 57. Male 75 yo, 4’ 11”, 119 pounds, SCr 1.1 mg/dL, imipenem 1 g/day. 58. Male 52 yo, 5’ 8”, 125 pounds, SCr 0.9 mg/dL, imipenem 1.5 g/day. 59. Male 31 yo, 6’ 4”, 202 pounds, SCr 1.5 mg/dL, imipenem 2 g/day. 60. Female 29 yo, 5’ 11”, 190 pounds, SCr 1 mg/dL, imipenem 1 g/day. 61. Female 63 yo, 5’ 2”, 103 pounds, SCr 2.4 mg/dL, imipenem 1.5 g/day. 62. Female 52 yo, 5’ 4”, 137 lb, SCr 1.6 mg/dL, imipenem 2 g/day. Practice calculating BMI 63. Calculate the BMI for a 47 yo patient who weighs 155 pounds and is 5’ 7” tall. 64. Calculate the BMI for a 28 yo patient who weighs 188 pounds and is 5’ 9” tall. 65. Calculate the BMI for a 22 yo patient who weighs 126 pounds and is 5’ 5” tall. 66. Calculate the BMI for a 36 yo patient who weighs 223 pounds and is 6’ 4” tall. Practice estimating affected BSA 67. A patient (BSA = 1.6 m2) is diagnosed with an osteogenic sarcoma involving the left fibula (lower leg). The oncologists recommended treatment with methotrexate 12 g/m2. Before chemotherapy starts, the patient will have a below-knee amputation. What methotrexate dose should be administered after the surgery? 68. An army veteran (pre-injury BSA = 1.8 m2) has been diagnosed with testicular cancer. The oncologists recommended treatment with dactinomycin 1000 mcg/m2. The patient lost their right arm during his tour of duty. What dactinomycin dose should be administered? What volume of solution is needed? The dactinomycin solution concentration is 500 mcg/mL. 69. A patient (pre-injury BSA = 1.5 m2) assigned to an NCI protocol should receive Lactated Ringer’s solution, 1800 mL/m2/day. The patient has had their left arm and left leg removed. Calculate the hourly fluid rate. 70. A woman comes to your store with a severe rash caused by exposure to poison ivy. Both legs are affected, from just above the knees to her ankles. She was walking on an overgrown woodland path. Estimate the percentage of her BSA affected by the rash. Practice using the "bedside" Schwartz equation Schwartz (bedside) eGFR (mL/min/1.73m2 ) \| Lean Body Weight (kg) q 12 h Dose (mcg) \| \| 5 kg \| 10 kg \| \| 30 \| 10 \| 20 \| 50 \| 12 \| 24 \| 70 \| 14 \| 28 \| 90 \| 16 \| 32 \| The q 12 h drug dose is based on the eGFR and the closest lean body weight. For example, if the patient weighs 7 kg, select the dose from the 5 kg column. If the patient weighs 8 kg, select the dose from the 10 kg column. 71. Calculate the drug dose for a 4.8 kg and 23 inches long baby. The SCr = 0.35 mg/dL. 72. Calculate the drug dose for an 11 kg and 33 inches long baby. The SCr = 1.2 mg/dL. 73. Calculate the drug dose for a 6.3 kg and 24 inches long baby. The SCr = 0.8 mg/dL. 74. Calculate the drug dose for a 9.5 kg and 30 inches long baby. The SCr = 0.35 mg/dL. Answers: 1. 4.6 mL 2. 2.2 mL 3. 630 mg 4. No! 160 – 240 mg 5. 10 mcg (0.2 mL) 6. No! 32 mg (0.8 mL) 7. 1.7 mg (0.8 – 0.85 mL)) 8. 160 mg (10 mL) 9. 4 mL 10. 1.2 mL 11. No! 135 mg (2.7 mL) 12. LD – OK. 100 mg (2.5 mL) 13. 190 mg (9.5 – 10 mL) 14. 400 mg (1.6 mL) 15. TDD = 100 mcg; 50 mcg (1 mL), 25 mcg (0.5 mL) 16. 2.2 m2 17. 1.6 m2 18. 12.3 mL 19. 9 mg AM, 18 mg PM 20. No! The range is 17.7 – 21.2 mg/day. 21. 14.64 g 22. No! ~ 9.6 mL 23. 8.4 mL 24. 6.2 mL 25. 16 – 20 mg/day 26. LD = 42.7 mg, then 30.5 mg/day 27. 12.5 mL 28. 4.1 mg (0.82 mL) 29. 10.2 mL 30. 10.7 mL 31. 14.6 – 18.3 mg 32. LD = 59.5 mg, then 42.5 mg/day 33. No, the dose is high. 0.4 – 6.3 mg/day. 34. 3.5 mg (0.7 mL) 35. ~ 4.5% 36. ~ 130 mL/h 37. ~ 9% 38. ~ 18% 39. 59.3 kg 40. 73.8 kg 41. 59.6 kg, 894 mg 42. 70.2 kg, 562 mg 43. 68.4 kg 44. 80.1 kg 45. 113.3 kg, 680 mg 46. 82.9 kg, 415 mg 47. No. < 130% of IBW 48. Yes. > 130% of IBW 49. No. < 130% of IBW 50. Yes. > 130% of IBW 51. 112 mL/min, 250 mg q12° 52. 38 mL/min, 500 mg q24° 53. 52 mL/min, 500 mg q12° 54. 26 mL/min, 125 mg q12° 55. 18 mL/min, 250 mg q24° 56. 14 mL/min, 125 mg q24° 57. 45 mL/min/1.73 m2, 125 mg q6° 58. 81 mL/min/1.73 m2, 250 mg q6° 59. 68 mL/min/1.73 m2, 500 mg q8° 60. 77 mL/min/1.73 m2, 250 mg q6° 61. 21 mL/min/1.73 m2, 250 mg q12° 62. 37 mL/min/1.73 m2, 250 mg q8° 63. 24.3 64. 27.8 65. 21 66. 27.1 67. 10.9 g. (Approx 9% loss of BSA) 68. 1650 mcg; 3.3 mL. (Approx 9% loss of BSA) 69. 82 mL/hr (Approx 27% loss of BSA) 70. Approx 18% 71. Dose = 14 mcg - q 12 h 72. Dose = 20 mcg - q 12 h 73. Dose = 10 mcg - q 12 h 74. Dose = 32 mcg - q 12 h Module 6: Intravenous Fluids and Drug Therapy This module will introduce and review the types of calculations associated with intravenous fluid therapy and intravenous drug administration. Module 6A: Intravenous Therapy A major component of hospital pharmacy practice involves preparing and assisting patient care staff with the appropriate use of intravenous drug therapy. Intravenous therapy can be given in different ways: - IV bolus injection, where a small volume of drug solution (e.g. up to 10 mL) is quickly introduced into a vein with a syringe. - Intermittent IV infusion, where a moderate volume of drug solution (e.g. 50 – 250 mL) is infused into a vein over a short period (e.g. 30 minutes – 2 hours) and repeated on a regular schedule. Most IV drug therapy in the hospital is administered via intermittent infusion. For example, a patient may receive a 30-minute infusion of ampicillin in 100 mL of normal saline every 8 hours for 5 days. - Continuous infusion, where an LVP solution (e.g. 500 or 1000 mL bag) is infused into a vein at a constant rate for several hours or longer. When one bag of solution empties, it is replaced with another bag. Therapy continues until the physician cancels or modifies the order. Hospitalized patients unable to drink enough are often administered IV maintenance fluids to help maintain circulatory volume. Intravenous fluid administration also plays an important role for patients being treated for dehydration, unusual fluid shifts within the body (third-spacing), or patients with heart and lung dysfunction. A commonly used weight-based dosing guideline is the Holliday-Segar method, which will be explained in the next section. Module 6B: Maintenance Fluid Calculations Everyone needs water and electrolytes to survive. Patients unable to eat and drink require fluids and salts to be administered via the vascular system (parenteral administration). While fluid management can be complex depending on the patient’s condition, this section will only introduce the basics. We will only deal with simple maintenance volume calculations. A reasonable question is how much water and salt is normally needed. The Holliday-Segar method was introduced for pediatric patients, but it has found wide applicability for all ages. The method uses the patient’s weight to calculate the daily fluid volume. Table 6.1. Holliday-Segar maintenance fluid calculation Weight \| Daily Requirement \| 1 – 10 kg \| 100 mL/kg \| 11 – 20 kg \| 1000 mL + 50 mL/kg for each kg > 10 kg \| > 20 kg \| 1500 mL + 20 mL/kg for each kg > 20 kg \| Example 6.1: What is the maintenance fluid requirement for a 2-month-old baby who weighs 5.3 kg? Calculate the hourly IV flow rate. $5.3\;kg\;\times\;100\;\frac{mL}{kg·day}\;=\;530\;\frac{mL}{day}$ $530\;\frac{mL}{day}\;\times\;\frac{1\;day}{24\;hours}\;=\;\frac{530\;mL}{24\;hours}\;=\;22.1\;mL/h\;or\;22\;mL/h$ Example 6.2: What is the maintenance fluid requirement for a 16-month-old toddler who weighs 16.5 kg? Calculate the hourly IV flow rate. $16.5\;kg\;=\;1000\;\frac{mL}{day}\;+\;\left( 50\;\frac{mL}{kg·day}\;\times\;6.5\;kg\right)=\;1325\;\frac{mL}{day}$ $1325\;\frac{mL}{day}\;\times\;\frac{1\;day}{24\;hours}\;=\;\frac{1325\;mL}{24\;hours}\;=\;55\;mL/h$ Example 6.3: What is the maintenance fluid requirement for a 10-year-old child who weighs 33 kg? Calculate the hourly IV flow rate. $33\;kg\;=\;1500\;\frac{mL}{day}\;+\;\left(20\;\frac{mL}{kg·day}\;\times\;13\;kg\right)=\;1760\;\frac{mL}{day}$ $1760\;\frac{mL}{day}\;\times\;\frac{1\;day}{24\;hours}\;=\;\frac{1760\;mL}{24\;hours}\;=\;73\;mL/h$ Depending on a patient’s fluid status or organ condition, a reduction or an increase in the maintenance fluid may be necessary. You may see an order to “run the patient a little dry at ¾ maintenance (75%).” Or, “Let’s run the IV at 1 ¼ maintenance (125%).” In these cases, you calculate the IV flow rate and multiply the hourly rate by the appropriate fraction. Example 6.4: For the 10-year-old child in example 3, calculate the IV flow rate if the physician decides to run the IV rate at 1 ¼ maintenance (125%). $1325\;\frac{mL}{day}\;\times\;\frac{1\;day}{24\;hours}\;=\;\frac{1325\;mL}{24\;hours}\;=\;55\;mL/h\;\times\;1.25\;=\;69\;mL/h$ Example 6.5: For the 16-month-old toddler in example 2, calculate the IV flow rate if the physician decides to run the IV rate at ¾ maintenance (75%). $1760\;\frac{mL}{day}\;\times\;\frac{1\;day}{24\;hours}\;=\;\frac{1760\;mL}{24\;hours}\;=\;73\;mL/h\;\times\;0.75\;=\;55\;mL/h$ Module 6C: Product Selection and Consideration Many drugs are manufactured in ready-to-use IV bags. The only preparation required is for the caregiver to connect the bag to the IV tubing and program the infusion pump to run at the correct flow rate and duration of time. Other drugs are supplied in vials as crystals or lyophilized powders that must be reconstituted before administration. The pharmacist must calculate the correct volume of drug to remove from the vial and inject the drug into the correct IV ‘base fluid.’ The most common base fluids are 0.9% sodium chloride injection (also called normal saline or NS) and dextrose 5% in water (also called D5W). Base fluids are available in IV bags containing 50, 100, 150, 250, 500, or 1000 mL to allow flexibility in drug compounding. It is important for patient safety and, sometimes, drug effectiveness to administer IV drugs at the correct infusion rate. Intermittent infusions are usually ordered to run over a convenient time appropriate to the drug and the patient size, e.g. gentamicin 40 mg in 50 mL NS over 1 hour. Some continuous infusions, especially those used in critical care, are administered at a rate depending on the patient body weight or body surface area. Dobutamine, for example, is used to increase a patient's cardiac output in cases of shock. The prescribing information document states, “The rate of infusion needed to increase cardiac output usually ranged from 2.5 to 15 mcg/kg/min ... On rare occasions, infusion rates up to 40 mcg/kg/min have been required to obtain the desired effect.” See: https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=89becb0c-da60-4f43-0a98-29ff7a9eca58. Note that the infusion rate is expressed in terms of drug mass per time. The solution flow rate in mL/hour to achieve a specified mcg/kg/min rate depends on the dobutamine concentration in the solution (mcg/mL) and the patient’s body weight (kg). As mentioned earlier, many critical care drugs are commercially available in standardized concentrations in NS or D5W. However, there are patients where the use of these standardized concentration products may not be useful because of total daily fluid volume restrictions. In those cases, pharmacists frequently prepare small volumes of a base solution with a concentration different from those available using vials of the drug. Module 6D: Overfill in IV bags Manufacturers overfill bags of IV fluids to ensure patients can get the full labeled amount out of the bag. Overfill also helps decrease the effect of water evaporation from the bag during storage. The amount of overfill varies by manufacturer and may vary from batch to batch, so it is impossible to state how much overfill is in any particular bag. For example, a customer service representative for an IV fluid manufacturer stated that their bags of IV fluid labeled as 100 mL contained between 105 and 113 mL at the time of manufacture. Since the volume of the IV bag is unknown, it is impossible to accurately state the drug concentration of a compounded IV solution. The standard of practice is to calculate the drug concentration assuming the bag contains the labeled amount of fluid. If the drug concentration in a solution is critical, the base fluid and drug can be individually added to an empty IV bag. This method will usually result in a more accurate and precise concentration. Example 6.6: A physician orders a patient to receive norepinephrine by IV infusion. The hospital policy is to prepare norepinephrine infusions by adding 16 mcg of norepinephrine injection for every 1 mL of fluid in the bag. Norepinephrine is provided in vials containing 4 mg in every 4 mL. How many mL of norepinephrine injection must be added to a 250 mL bag of NS to prepare the infusion? $ 250\;mL\times \frac{16\;mcg\;Nor}{mL\;infusion}\times \frac{1\;mg\;Nor}{1000\;mcg}\times \frac{4\;mL\;inj}{4\;mg\;Nor}=4\;mL\; Nor\;injection$ Example 6.7: Most adult patients achieve blood pressure control with norepinephrine infusion of 2 – 4 mcg/min. How long will 250 mL of a 16 mcg/mL solution last if the drug is infused at the average rate of 3 mcg/min? $250\;mL\;infusion\times \frac{16\;mcg\;Nor}{mL\;infusion}\times \frac{1\;min}{3\;mcg\;Nor}\times \frac{1\;hr}{60\;min}=22.2\;hr$ NOTE: The norepinephrine concentration is slightly less than 16 mcg/mL (due to bag overfill and not including the added drug volume) but this difference is ignored in clinical settings. Example 6.8: A 95 lb patient was ordered a dobutamine infusion to start at 7.5 mcg/kg/min. The pharmacy sent a bag containing 250 mg of dobutamine in 250 mL of D5W. The nurse set the infusion pump to run at 5.5 mL per hour. Did the nurse enter the correct flow rate? $95\;lb\times \frac{1\;kg}{2.2\;lb}\times \frac{7.5\;mcg\;Dob}{kg\;\times \;min}\times \frac{1\;mg}{1000\;mcg}\times \frac{250\;ml\;soln}{250\;mg\;Dob}\times \frac{60\;min}{hr}=19.4\;mL/hr$ The starting infusion rate of 7.5 mcg/kg/min requires a solution flow rate of 19.4 mL/hr. The nurse did not set the correct flow rate on the pump. Example 6.9: A pharmacist added 50 mL of a 4% drug solution to 250 mL of D5W. What is the flow rate (mL/hr) required to deliver 0.02 mg/kg/min for a 175 lb patient? First, calculate the drug concentration in the infusion solution. $Drug\;concentration=\frac{50\;mL\;soln\;\times\; \frac{4000\;mg\;drug}{100\;mL\;soln}}{250\;mL\;+\;50\;mL}=6.67\;mg/mL\;infusion$ Now, find the flow rate based on the patient's body weight. $175\;lb\times \frac{1\;kg}{2.2\;lb}\times \frac{0.02\;mg}{kg\;\times \;min}\times \frac{1\;mL\;infusion}{6.67\;mg}\times \frac{60\;min}{hr}=14.3\;mL/hr$ Example 6.10: A pharmacist prepared an IV solution by adding 4 mL of a 1 Unit/mL solution to 100 mL of normal saline. The nurse set the infusion pump to run at 2 mL/hr. Calculate the infusion rate in Units/min. $Drug\;concentration=\frac{4\;mL\;\times \;\frac{1\;Unit}{4\;mL}}{100\;mL\;+\;4\;mL}=0.038\;Units/mL\\\\$ $\frac{2\;mL}{hr}\times \frac{0.038\;Units}{mL}\times \frac{1\;hr}{60\;min}=0.0013\;Units/min$ Module 6E: Bag Overfill and Added Drug Volume Considerations We know the pre-filled IV bags must contain an overfill, so we cannot know the true volume in the bag at the start of our compounding procedure. A reasonable question is if we are required to compound a solution with a prescribed drug concentration, thus adding more volume to the bag, how do we know the final concentration? We can consider two scenarios. In one case, the entire contents of the bag are infused into the patient. As long as the entire volume is infused, we can conclude that the patient received the correct dose. For example, the pharmacy prepared a 50 mL bag of NS containing 1 g of ampicillin (total volume injected = 4 mL). What volume is in the bag? 50 mL + 4 mL + overfill > 54 mL If all of the solution is infused, the patient receives the prescribed 1-gram dose. The other case involves setting the infusion pump to deliver 50 mL over ½ or 1 hour. In this scenario, the patient’s dose will be decreased by at least 10%, depending on the overfill volume, since the bag contains over 55 mL. As mentioned in the introduction section, there are times when the patient’s fluid status is critical because of heart or kidney dysfunction, pulmonary gas exchange concerns, edema, etc. In these cases, the medical team carefully keeps track of the daily total fluid volume the patient receives. In these situations, you may decide to use a syringe instead of an IV bag to hold the contents. We administer many drugs as IV infusions in critical care settings, like dopamine, dobutamine, nitroglycerin, adenosine, lidocaine, etc. If the bags are pre-mixed by the manufacturers, we can safely conclude the concentrations are correct since they are required to assay the product before release. If the pharmacy prepares the bag, the contents are rarely, if ever, analyzed. How should you handle that situation? While there are recommended starting doses for these drugs, the IV flow rate is frequently tweaked to target a specific response, like blood pressure or heart rate. The actual starting concentration, while unknown, will be close to that prescribed. You can consider a rule of thumb regarding the amount of the added drug in these critical care infusions. You can ignore the added amount if the volume added to the bag is less than 2% of the labeled volume. For example, adding 1 mL or less to a 50 mL bag or 2 mL or less to a 100 mL bag. If the volume to be added is greater than 2% of the stated bag volume, you might consider initially withdrawing that volume of base solution from the bag before injecting the drug. Let’s consider this case. A patient is prescribed 400 mg of infliximab in NS 500 mL to be infused over 2 hours. Each 100 mg vial of the lyophilized product is reconstituted with 10 mL of sterile water for injection. The pharmacy adds 40 mL of the solution to the bag, which is now very full. The infusion is started and set to run at 250 mL/h. After two hours, the nurse was ready to disconnect the IV and send the patient home. However, there was still over 50 mL in the bag, which contained the valuable life-altering drug. This happened to me (BK). I had to request to allow all of the drug to be infused. Remember, depending on the drug and patient condition, the added volume may be significant or insignificant. Module 6: Practice Problems Note: (IVR = IV Flow Rate) 1. Calculate the daily fluid requirement for a newborn weighing 3.1 kg. Calculate the hourly IVR. 2. Calculate the daily fluid requirement for a 6-month-old baby weighing 8.5 kg. Calculate the hourly IVR. 3. Calculate the daily fluid requirement for a 1-year-old baby weighing 9.7 kg. Calculate the hourly IVR. 4. Calculate the daily fluid requirement for a 1-year-old baby weighing 10.5 kg. Calculate the hourly IVR. 5. Calculate the daily fluid requirement for a 3-year-old child weighing 15.6 kg. Calculate the hourly IVR. 6. Calculate the daily fluid requirement for a 5-year-old child weighing 18.3 kg. Calculate the hourly IVR. 7. Calculate the daily fluid requirement for a 6-year-old child weighing 20.2 kg. Calculate the hourly IVR. 8. Calculate the daily fluid requirement for an 8-year-old child weighing 25.4 kg. Calculate the hourly IVR. 9. Calculate the daily fluid requirement for a 16-year-old teen weighing 60.8 kg. Calculate the hourly IVR. 10. Calculate the daily fluid requirement for a 19-year-old weighing 73 kg. Calculate the hourly IVR. 11. A patient weighs 87 kg. Calculate the hourly flow rate for ¾ maintenance. 12. A patient weighs 61 kg. Calculate the hourly flow rate for 1 ¼ maintenance. 13. A patient weighs 7.6 kg. Calculate the hourly flow rate for ¾ maintenance 14. A patient weighs 31 kg. Calculate the hourly flow rate for 1 ¼ maintenance. 15. What IVR (mL/h) will deliver 5 mcg/kg/min for a 35 lb child? D5W 250 mL Dopamine 600 mg/L 16. What IVR (mL/h) will deliver 3 mcg/kg/min for a 40 lb child? D5W 100 mL Dobutamine 400 mg/L 17. What IVR (mL/h) will deliver 20 mcg/kg/min for a 10 kg child? D5W 250 mL Lidocaine 900 mg/L 18. What IVR (mL/h) will deliver 7.5 mcg/kg/min for a 52 lb child? D5W 500 mL Dobutamine 500 mg/L 19. What IVR (mL/h) will deliver 0.3 mcg/min for a 25 lb child? D5W 50 mL Norepinephrine 100 mg/L 20. For problem #15, how many milliliters of Dopamine HCl injection 40 mg/mL do you need to add to a 250 mL bag to make the requested solution? 21. For problem #16, how many milliliters of Dobutamine HCl injection 12.5 mg/mL do you need to add to a 100 mL bag to make the requested solution? 22. For problem #17, how many milliliters of Lidocaine HCl injection 4% do you need to add to a 250 mL bag to make the requested solution? 23. For problem #18, how many milliliters of Dobutamine HCl injection 12.5 mg/mL do you need to add to a 500 mL bag to make the requested solution? 24. For problem #19, how many milliliters of Norepinephrine bitartrate injection 0.1% do you need to add to a 50 mL bag to make the requested solution? 25. You have three commercially available pre-mixed infusions of Dopamine HCl with concentrations of a) 0.8 mg/mL, b) 1.6 mg/mL, and c) 3.2 mg/mL. What IV infusion rates must the pump be set to deliver the dose in problem #1? 26. You have two commercially available pre-mixed infusions of Lidocaine HCl with concentrations of a) 4 mg/mL and b) 8 mg/mL. What IV infusion rates must the pump be set to deliver the dose in problem #17? 27. You have three commercially available pre-mixed infusions of Dobutamine HCl with concentrations of a) 1 mg/mL, b) 2 mg/mL, and c) 4 mg/mL. What IV infusion rates must the pump be set to deliver the dose in problem #18? 28. What IVR (mL/h) will deliver 0.25 mcg/kg/min to a 6lbs 6oz infant? D5W 250 mL Nitroglycerin 50 mg 29. Nitroglycerin is also available as a pre-mixed solution in D5W: a) 25 mg/250 mL, and b) 100 mg/250 mL. What would be the IVR for those solutions to deliver the same dose in problem #28? 30. Labetalol injection contains 100 mg of labetalol in every 20 mL. If 30 mL of labetalol injection is added to 100 mL of NS, what flow rate (mL/hr) is required to infuse 2 mg of labetalol per minute? 31. Vancomycin is available as 500 mg of solid that is reconstituted with 10 mL of sterile water for injection before use to produce a 50 mg/mL solution. How many mL of the reconstituted solution is required to prepare a vancomycin dose of 1250 mg? 32. Vancomycin must be diluted for infusion to a concentration of 5 mg/mL or less. A patient is ordered a dose of 1750 mg of vancomycin in NS. The pharmacy has bags of 50, 100, 250, and 500 mL NS. Which NS bag(s) should be used for this order? 33. Gentamicin injection is a sterile solution containing 80 mg in every 2 mL. The normal dose of gentamicin for certain infections is 5 mg/kg/day in 3 equal doses. How much gentamicin injection is required for each individual dose for a 46 kg child? 34. If the normal dose of gentamicin for certain infections is 5 mg/kg/day in 3 equal doses, what is the recommended daily dose for a 185 lb patient? 35. A patient is ordered 250 mg of paclitaxel by IV infusion. How much paclitaxel injection (30 mg/5 mL) is required to prepare the infusion? 36. Mesna is administered after ifosfamide to protect the bladder from the excreted metabolite acrolein, which causes hemorrhagic cystitis. The recommended mesna dose is 240 mg/m2 to be administered immediately (0 hours) after, then 4 and 8 hours after each dose of ifosfamide. Mesna injection is a solution containing 1 g in 10 mL. How many total mL of mesna injection are required for 3 doses (0, 4, and 8 hours) for a patient with a BSA of 2.2 m2? 37. Argatroban is a ready-to-use injection containing 50 mg in 50 mL. A patient is ordered argatroban infusion at 180 mcg/minute. Calculate the flow rate in mL/hr. 38. A patient receives 50 mg/50 mL of argatroban at 12.5 mL/hr. Calculate the infusion rate in mcg/min. 39. Aggrastat® injection is a ready-to-use solution containing 12.5 mg in every 250 mL. It is administered as a loading dose by IV bolus injection of 25 mcg/kg, followed immediately by a maintenance infusion of 0.15 mcg/kg/min. Calculate the volume of Aggrastat required for the loading dose and the infusion flow rate for a 145 lb patient. 40. Dexmedetomidine is an anesthetic drug and is supplied as a 200 mcg/2 mL injection. It is recommended to be diluted to 4 mcg/mL for infusion by adding the correct volume of drug solution and normal saline to an empty sterile IV bag. A patient is ordered a 0.6 mcg/kg/hr infusion of dexmedetomidine. How many mL of dexmedetomidine injection and how many mL of NS should be mixed to provide enough solution for 28 hours of therapy for a 196 lb patient? 41. Propofol is marketed as an injectable emulsion containing 200 mg of propofol in every 20 mL. The emulsion is administered without further dilution. What flow rate (mL/hr) should be used to provide 125 mcg/kg/min for a 130 lb patient? 42. Micafungin is an antifungal drug. It is supplied as a sterile solid reconstituted with 5 mL of sterile water for injection to produce a 10 mg/mL solution. The normal dose is 2.5 mg/kg once daily for patients ≥ 30 kg or 3 mg/kg for patients < 30 kg. It should be diluted with D5W to a concentration less than 1.5 mg/mL for infusion. Calculate the volume of reconstituted micafungin to provide the dose for a 55 lb patient. The pharmacy has D5W bags in 50, 100, 250, and 500 mL. Which bag size should be used? 43. Lidocaine infusions over 1 hour can be used to treat pain in certain conditions. The dose is based on the smaller actual or ideal body weight value. Calculate the infusion rate needed to deliver 2 mg/kg for: a) male, 5’ 11”, 174#, and b) female, 5’ 3”, 113#. The IV bag contains 2000 mg Lidocaine HCl in 250 mL of D5W. 44. The manufacturer recommends diluting angiotensin II (Giapreza®, 2.5 mg/1 mL) to a total volume of 500 mL with normal saline. What is the solution concentration in ng/mL? 45. Angiotensin II (Giapreza®, 2.5 mg/1 mL) increases blood pressure in patients with septic shock. A typical infusion conentration is 2.5 mg in a total volume of 500 mL normal saline. What IV infusion rate should be used to deliver 20 ng/kg/min for a 55 kg patient? Answers: 1. 310 mL/day - 13 mL/hr 2. 850 mL/day - 35 mL/hr 3. 970 mL/day - 40 mL/hr 4. 1025 mL/day - 43 mL/hr 5. 1280 mL/day - 53 mL/hr 6. 1415 mL/day - 59 mL/hr 7. 1504 mL/day - 63 mL/hr 8. 1608 mL/day - 57 mL/hr 9. 2316 mL/day - 97 mL/hr 10. 2560 mL/day - 107 mL/hr 11. 89 mL/hr 12. 121 mL/hr 13. 24 mL/hr 14. 90 mL/hr 15. 8 mL/hr 16. 8.2 mL/hr 17. 13.3 mL/hr 18. 21.3 mL/hr 19. 2 mL/hr 20. 3.8 mL 21. 3.2 mL 22. 5.6 mL 23. 20 mL 24. 5 mL 25. a) 6 mL/hr, b) 3 mL/hr, c) 1.5 mL/hr 26. a) 3 mL/hr, b) 1.5 mL/hr 27. a) 10.6 mL/hr, b) 5.3 mL/hr, c) 2.7 mL/hr 28. 0.2 mL/hr 29. a) 0.4 or 0.5 mL/hr, b) 0.1 mL/hr 30. 104 mL/hr 31. 25 mL 32. 500 mL bag 33. 1.9 mL/dose 34. 420 mg/day 35. 41.7 mL 36. 15.8 mL 37. 10.8 mL/hr 38. 208 mcg/min 39. Load - 33 mL; maintenance flow rate = 11.9 mL/hr 40. 15 mL of drug; 360 mL of NS; empty 500 mL bag 41. 44.3 mL/hr 42. 25 kg, 75 mg dose = 7.5 mL, 50 mL bag D5W 43. a) 18.8 mL over 1 h, b) 12.8 mL over 1 h. 44. 5000 ng/mL 45. 13.2 mL/hr Module 7: Applications of Linear Regression in Pharmacy Introduction This module is about linear regression (LR). This will be an introduction to the topic for some. For others, it may be a review of material previously learned. In either case, we will concentrate on the mechanics of LR using the TI-84 Plus CE line of calculators. If you don’t own one, you can check one out from the Dean’s office for use during the semester. You will use a TI-84 Plus CE in PHPS 720 Pharmacokinetics next semester to run some PK programs that I have written to make your life a little easier in that course. In this section, you will use your calculator to find the equation of the best-fitting line to a data set. After the data is entered, the calculator will return values for the slope, y-intercept, and r2. R-squared (r2) measures how well a linear regression model predicts the data set. We will not be concerned with the mathematics of the process. If you are interested, you will find plenty of material online, in YouTube videos, or in a statistics course. Module 7A: What is Linear Regression? What is LR? LR is a method for applying a straight-line model between the explanatory variable (x), and the response variable (y). Recall that the equation for a straight-line is: $y\;=\;mx\;+\;b$ where the response (y) can be predicted by multiplying the variable (x) by the slope of the line and then adding the intercept. Too many words! Let’s look at a picture. The red diamonds are scattered, but the y-value seems to increase as the x-value increases. We could ask, “If we know the value of x can we predict the value of y?” Can we mathematically model that relationship? At the most basic level, this is what LR is about. If we know something about the x-value, can we predict the value of y? Let’s look at another case you will frequently be asked to solve. In this case, a straight line does not predict the plasma concentration values very well. The data points are below the line in the middle of the plot. The values are above the prediction line at either end of the data range. Some of you will recall that when dealing with drug plasma concentrations, the relationship is not linear but exponential. $C_{p}=C_{p,0}\;\times\;\,e^{-kt}$ We can linearize the equation by taking the natural log of both sides. $ln\;C_{p}=ln\;C_{p,0}-kt$ Let’s plot the above pharmacokinetic data on a logarithmic scale for the y-axis Cp values and see what we get. Now, this graph appears to show a linear relationship between the ln Cp value and time. What is a model? A model is a mathematical equation used to predict the value of y if you know x, or predict the value of x if you know y. For instance, is there a relationship between a patient’s height and their weight? How about between a patient’s serum creatinine and their creatinine clearance? Is there a relationship between the size of the drug dose and the patient’s peak plasma level? Is there a relationship between the patient’s plasma level and the time elapsed after the dose? You know these relationships exist based on your classes, but you may not be able to predict the y-value given an x-value because you are unaware of the particular model. Here are the two models you will apply most often during your time in the SoP. 1. Logarithmic, 1st – order model (the rate depends on the value of y): $C_{p}=C_{p,0}\;\times\;\,e^{-kt}$ a) Drug degradation from Solution dosage forms, b) Patient drug plasma levels, and c) Radioisotope counts and concentrations. 2. Linear, 0 – order model (the rate is constant): $C_{t}=C_{0}-kt$ d) Drug degradation from Suspension dosage forms, e) In this course, other examples that are not 1st order. What do you need to memorize? If the problem involves radioactivity, drug plasma levels, or drug degradation in solution, the model is 1st – order. If the problem does not involve a, b, or c, but only drug degradation from a suspension, then the model is 0 – order. Four representative examples are provided. Module 7B: Drug Degradation from Suspension Dosage Forms, 0-order, Linear Model A suspension dosage form degrades according to the 0-order model. The equation that predicts the concentration is the starting concentration, C0, minus the product of the 0-order rate constant and time: $C_{t}=C_{0}-kt$ Here is the data for the amount of drug remaining in a suspension over time. Note that time is the x-variable. The y-variable is the measured amount of drug, expressed as the concentration remaining in the bottle. Time (days since prepared) \| Concentration (mg/mL) \| 0 \| 49.8 \| 20 \| 46.6 \| 30 \| 46.1 \| 45 \| 44.8 \| 60 \| 41.7 \| 90 \| 39.9 \| Let’s take a look at the graph. The graph looks linear, although the data is not perfectly straight. We also know that suspensions degrade via a 0 – order process, so based on that scientific reasoning, we are justified in fitting the data to a straight line. We always see some degree of scatter in the data. This is expected since no man-made measurements are absolute. Now, let’s look at the mechanics of entering the data into your calculator. This module has a recorded lecture for the 707 course. If you use this text in an environment that cannot access the recorded lecture, you will find several videos on YouTube demonstrating how to perform linear regression with the TI family of calculators. Setting up your TI-84 Plus CE calculator (You only need to do this once.) 1. Goal: Verify that the stat diagnostics is turned ON. - Turn on the calculator. - Select mode. - Arrow down to stat diagnostics. - Arrow over to ON - Hit enter. 2. Goal: Clear the data columns of all data and equations. - Hit 2nd mem 3 (Clear all entries) - Hit 2nd mem 4 (Clear all lists) 3. Goal: Enter the data - Select stat - Select 1: Edit… - Enter all the x data (usually time) - Arrow over to L2 - Enter all the y data (usually concentration) 4. Goal: Running the Regression calculation - Select stat - Arrow over to CALC - Tab down to 4, or just enter 4. (LinReg(ax+b) 5. Goal: Verify the correct columns for the regression analysis. - You will see this screen. CRITICAL POINTS - You must specify which columns contain the x and y-values - You must verify that the Xlist is L1 and the Ylist is L2. - In this screenshot my Ylist shows L3 from another problem. - To change the Ylist, arrow down and type 2nd 2 (above the keypad for 2 is L2). Now, arrow down to Calculate and select enter. Let me start off by reminding everyone that we are focusing on the mechanics of performing a linear regression with a calculator. This is NOT a statistics course. We will not be asking questions about the interpretation of r or r2. 6. Goal: Interpreting the results of the regression calculation. • The heading reminds you of the regression type, in this case, linear regression. • Line 1 again reminds you of the model, y = ax + b. • Line 2 is the slope, - 0.111. The minus sign indicates the value of the slope is decreasing with increasing x (time) values. Another fine point to note. While the slope is – 0.111, the value of the rate constant is + 0.111. (The negative sign is accounted for in the model equation.) This is represented in the equation by m. The units for m are y units/x units, in this case, mg/mL/day. • Line 3 is the intercept, 49.339. That is the best statistical estimate of the time 0 concentration value. This is represented in the equation by b. The units for b are the units for y, in this case, mg/mL. The regression intercept is rarely, if ever, the same as the zero time value in the table. • Line 4 is r2, the coefficient of determination. It has a formal statistical definition, but we will not concern ourselves with the meaning. The value is not used in any calculations. It does provide interested researchers with information about the “goodness” of the model fit to the data. •Line 5 is r, the square root of r2 although here it is negative because the regression slope is negative. 7. Goal: Summary and writing the answer to the problem. You need to write down the linear regression equation and be able to use it to solve problems. For this problem, the equation is: $C_{t}=49.34\;mg/mL\;-0.111\;\frac{mg}{mL\;\times\; day}\times t \;(days) $ Here are some typical calculations you will be expected to perform. Example 7.1: Find the time required for the concentration to decrease to 45 mg/mL. $45\;\frac{mg}{mL}=49.34\;\frac{mg}{mL}-0.111\frac{mg}{mL\;\times\;day}\times t$ $\frac{(45\;-\;49.34)\;\frac{mg}{mL}}{-0.111\;\frac{mg}{mL\times day}}=39.1\;days$ Example 7.2: Find the concentration at 25 days. $C_{t=25d}=49.34\;\frac{mg}{mL}\;-0.111\;\frac{mg}{mL\;\times\;day}\times\;25\;days=46.6\;mg/mL $ Module 7C: Drug Degradation from Solution Dosage Forms, 1st-Order, Exponential Model Here is the data for the amount of drug remaining in a solution over time. Note that time is the x-variable. The y-variable is the measured amount of drug, expressed as the concentration remaining in the bottle. Time (days since prepared) \| Concentration (mg/mL) \| 2 \| 15.8 \| 5 \| 7.9 \| 8 \| 4.2 \| 12 \| 1.3 \| Let’s take a look at two graphs. In (a), we observe the data points do not fall on a straight line. Recall that drug degradation in solution occurs via a 1st -order process. For a 1st-order process, a plot of ln C versus time is linear. And that is what is observed in (b). We can start to perform the linear regression analysis, but first, let’s clear the data entry table. - Hit 2nd mem 3 (Clear all entries) - Hit 2nd mem 4 (Clear all lists) Enter the data, as described in the previous section (select stat, then Edit… . Your screen should look like this. Now, as shown here, use the arrow (toggle) keys to move the black insertion bar to the cell containing L3, at the top of the column. Note that the text under the table shows L3 = . We know the relationship between x and y should approximate a straight line when the y data is transformed to its natural log value. The command you use to transform all of the numbers at once is: ln ( then 2nd then L2 then enter The calculator inserts the values of ln(L2) in L3. [Note: you can select the number of digits the calculator displays by using the mode key, and tabbing down to float, then tabbing over to the number of digits you prefer. 2nd quit returns you to your previous screen.] Your screen should look like this: Now that the data is entered into the calculator, the next step is to run the regression, as previously described. Select stat, arrow to CALC, select 4: LinReg(ax+b). CRITICAL POINT In this case, the x-values are in L1 and the y-values are in L3. Tab down to Ylist, type 2nd L3 (L3 is above the key labeled 3, how convenient). Tab down to CALCULATE, then select enter. Here are your linear regression results for the ln transformed data. Results Here is how to interpret your results. • The screen heading reminds you that you performed a linear regression. • The model is y = ax + b. Of course, we think of it as y = mx + b. • The slope = - 0.248. This is the 1st-order degradation rate constant. The sign indicates the slope is negative and the concentration decreases with time. Another fine point to note. While the slope is – 0.248, the value of the rate constant is + 0.248. The negative sign is accounted for in the model equation. The units of k for the 1st order model are reciprocal time. In this case, the time units are days. The value of k is interpreted as 0.248/day or 0.248 d-1. • The y-intercept is 3.302. This is the best-fit value of the solution concentration at time = 0. Note the intercept is a transformed value. Recall that the concentration value at 2 hours was approximately 15 mg/mL. The intercept at time = 0 will be bigger than 15 mg/mL. Since the data was transformed by taking the ln (C), to return the real value, you perform the inverse of ln, raise e to the power b. That is eb, or e3.302 = 27.2 mg/mL. A common error is made when students forget to transform the intercept. • r2 = 0.994. (This represents a “good” fit.) • You can ignore the value of r in this course. Summary You need to correctly write and use the linear regression equation to solve problems. In this case, the equation is: $ln\;C_{t}=ln\;C_{0}-kt$ $ln\;C_{t}=3.302-0.248/day\times t$ Here are some typical calculations you will solve in the course. Example 7.3: Find when the solution concentration was 22.5 mg/mL. ln 22.5 = 3.302 – 0.248 × t 3.114 = 3.302 – 0.248 × t 3.302 – 3.114 = 0.248 × t $t=\frac{3.302\;-\;3.114}{0.248}=0.76\;days\cong 18\;hours$ Example 7.4: What is the expected concentration on day 4? $ln\;C(t=4\;days)=3.302-0.248/day\times 4\; days$ $ln\;C(4\;t=days)=2.31 $ $C(t=4\;d)=e^{2.31}=10.1\;mg/mL$ Here is another way to manipulate this equation that you may find quicker to perform with a calculator. This technique will be emphasized in the Pharmacokinetics course. $C_{smaller}=C_{larger}\;\times\;e^{-kt}$ Example 7.5: Let me redo 7.3, $22.5\;mg/mL=27.2\;mg/mL\times e^{-0.248t} $ $\frac{22.5\;mg/mL}{27.2\;mg/mL}=e^{-0.248t}$ $ln\;(\frac{22.5\;mg/mL}{27.2\;mg/mL})=ln(e^{-0.248t})$ $ln(0.827)\;=\;-0.248\;\times\;t$ $\frac{-0.19}{-0.248}=t=0.77\;days\;=\;18\;hours$ The difference between 7.3, (0.76 days) and 7.5, (0.77 days) is due to using three decimal places and general rounding and truncation errors. This is not significant difference as both answers round to 18 hours. Example 7.6: Let me redo 7.4, $C_{smaller}=27.2\;mg/mL\times e^{-0.248/day\;\times\;4\;days}=10.1\;mg/mL$ I am accustomed to using the exponential form of the equation (7.5 and 7.6). You should choose the form with which you feel most comfortable. Module 7D: Plasma Concentrations after an IV Bolus Dose, 1st-Order, Exponential Model The 1st-order model is used for drug degradation in solution dosage forms, plasma concentrations following an IV bolus dose, and in radioactive decay processes. The mathematics and the regression procedures are the same, so we will go a little quicker through these calculations. Please make sure to solve enough problems so you will feel confident when performing these calculations in practice. Here is data for a patient who received an IV bolus dose of a drug. Note that time is the x-variable. The y-variable is the measured plasma drug concentration. This problem is analogous to those in the previous section. Time (h post dose) \| Concentration (mcg/mL) \| 1 \| 28.1 \| 4 \| 16.2 \| 8 \| 6.8 \| 15 \| 1.9 \| Verify that the columns in your calculator are clear of data. - Hit 2nd mem 3 (Clear all entries) - Hit 2nd mem 4 (Clear all lists) Enter the data, and transform L2 to ln(L2) in column L3. Your screen should look like this. Run the regression, verifying that the Xlist is L1 and the Ylist is L3. Summary You need to correctly write the linear regression equation and use it to solve problems. In this case, the equation is: $ln\;C_{t}=ln\;C_0-kt$ $ln\;C_{t}=3.5265-0.1938/hr\times t\;(hr)$ Example 7.7: a) List the values for k, intercept (ln b) and eb, and r2. 0.1938/h, 3.5265, 34 mcg/mL, and 0.9988. b) At what time post-dose was the Cp = 4 mcg/mL? (Solve for t) $ln\;C_{t}=3.5265-0.1938/hr\times t\;(hr)$ $ln\;(4)=3.5265-0.1938/hr\times t\;(hr) $ $1.3863=3.5265-0.1938/hr\times t\;(hr) $ $\frac{1.3863\;-\;3.5265}{-\;0.1938\;\frac{1}{h}}\;=\;11\;h$ c) When will the Cp = 0.7 mcg/mL? (Solve for t) $ln\;(0.7)=3.5265-0.1938/hr\times t\;(hr)$ $-\;0.3567=3.5265-0.1938/hr\times t\;(hr) $ $\frac{-\;0.3567\;-\;3.5265}{-\;0.1938\;\frac{1}{h}}\;=\;20\;h$ d) What is the expected Cp 24 hours after administering the dose? (Solve for Ct) $ln\;C_{t}=3.5265-0.1938/hr\times 24\;hr$ $ln\;C_{t}=3.5265-4.6512$ $ln\;C_{t}=-\;1.1247$ $e^{ln\;C_t}=e^{-1.1247} $ $C_t\;=\;0.3\;\frac{mcg}{mL} $ Module 7E: Radioactive Isotope Decay, 1st-Order, Exponential Model Radioactive decay occurs via a 1st-order process. The decay constant is usually denoted by the Greek letter, 𝜆. Lambda (𝜆) has units of reciprocal time, time-1, for example: h-1, day-1, week-1, month-1, or year-1. Most clinically useful medical isotopes have a half-life measured in hours to days. Recall half-life = 0.693/𝜆. As is usually the case in pharmacy, time is the x-variable. The y-variable is the radioactivity, often measured in milliCurie or microCurie (mCi or 𝜇Ci). (The unit is named in honor of Marie and Pierre Curie.) Please note: Radioactivity remaining in a sample is often denoted by the letter A (activity). Therefore the general first-order equation is: $A_{t}=A_{0}e^{-\lambda t}$ or $Ln\;A_{t}=Ln\;A_{0}-\lambda t$ The mathematical approach to this example problem is analogous to the problems in sections C and D. Let's perform another regression. A radiopharmaceutical was prepared on day 0. Time (days) \| Activity (mCi) \| 2 \| 800 \| 5 \| 565 \| 10 \| 316 \| 24 \| 62 \| Before starting the regression procedure, verify that the columns are clear of data. - Hit 2nd mem 3 (Clear all entries) - Hit 2nd mem 4 (Clear all lists) Enter the data, and transform L2 to ln(L2) in L3. Your screen should look like this. Run the regression, verifying that the Xlist is L1 and Ylist is L3. $Ln\;A_{t}=Ln\;A_{0}-\lambda t$ $ln\;A_{t}=6.9718-0.1163/day\times t$ Example 7.8: a) List the values for 𝜆, intercept (ln b), eb, and r2. 0.1163/d, 6.9178, 1010 mCi, 0.999. b) At what time post-prep was the Activity = 400 mCi? (Solve for t) $ln\;A_{t}=6.9178-0.1163/day\times t\;(days)$ $ln\;(400)=6.9178-0.1163/day\times t\;(days) $ $5.9915=6.9178-0.1163/day\times t\;(days) $ $\frac{5.9915\;-\;6.9178}{-\;0.1163\;\frac{1}{day}}\;=\;8\;days$ c) What is the expected Activity on day 30? (Solve for Ct) $ln\;A_{t}=6.9178-0.1163/day\times 30\;days$ $ln\;A_{t}=6.9178-3.489$ $ln\;A_{t}=3.4288$ $e^{ln\;A_t}=e^{3.4288} $ $A_t\;=\;30.8\;mCi$ Module 7F: Working with Regression Results, the 0-Order Model The motivation for the next 4 sections is based on our experience helping students use the linear regression results to make valid conclusions and predictions. As mentioned earlier in the Module, the equation that describes the degradation of a drug in a suspension dosage form is: $C_{t}=C_0-kt$ Here Ct is the drug concentration at some time t after the suspension was prepared. C0 is the regression drug concentration at time = 0. You can use this equation to find the time when a sample will be a particular concentration. You can also use the equation to predict the sample concentration at a particular time. The important linear regression parameters are b, the y-intercept (C0 value), and k, the 0-order rate constant (the slope). The units for the zero-order rate constant are Conc × t-1. There are four parameters in the equation. LR returns C0 and k. If you want to predict the concentration at a particular time, past or future, solve the equation for Ct by inserting the desired value of t. If you want to predict when a suspension will be a particular concentration, use that value and solve for t. Below is a screen capture of a regression result for a oral suspension. Let’s examine how to manipulate the equation to extract our desired information. In this case, the rate constant units are mg/mL/days, and the concentration is mg/mL. Example 7.9: a) Write out the correct form of the linear regression equation: $C_{t}=C_0-kt$ b) Enter the calculated regression parameters in their correct places: $C_{t}=99.9\;mg/mL\;-0.61\;mg/mL/day\times t\;(days)$ c) What is the concentration of the suspension after 12 days? $C_{t}=99.9\;mg/mL\;-0.61\;mg/mL/day\times 12\;(days)=92.6\;mg/mL$ d) How long will it take for the concentration to decrease to 90 mg/mL? $\frac{(99.9\;-\;90)\;mg/mL}{0.61\;\frac{mg}{mL\;\times\;days}}=16.2\;days$ So, in summary, the equation has four parameters (or values). You obtain two of the values from the regression procedure. Thus, there are only 2 questions that can be asked. Given a time interval, how much drug is remaining? How long will it take to reach a certain concentration? Let’s look at the other three types. Module 7G: Working with Regression Results, the 1st-Order Model, Solution Degradation Below is a screen capture of a regression result from a solution stability study. Let’s review how to manipulate the equation to extract our desired information. In this case, the rate constant units are days-1, and the concentration is mg/mL. Example 7.10: What is the best estimate of the solution concentration at time = 0? $e^{4.3294}=75.9\;mg/mL$ When will the concentration equal 70 mg/mL? (ln 70 = 4.2485) $ln\;C_{t}=ln\;C_{0}-kt $ 4.2485 = 4.3294 - 0.0067 × t $t=\frac{4.3294\;-\;4.2485}{0.0067/day}=13.3\;days$ What is the expected solution concentration thirty days after preparation? $ln\;C_{t}=4.3294\;-\;0.0067\;1/days\;\times\;30\;days$ $ln\;C_{t}=4.3294\;-\;0.201$ $ln\;C_{t}=4.1284$ $C_{t=30\;days}=e^{4.1284}=62.1\;mg/mL$ Module 7H: Working with Regression Results, the 1st-Order Model, Drug Plasma Concentrations Here is another example of the 1st-order model applied to the interpretation of drug plasma concentrations following an IV bolus dose of a medication. This is a typical problem you will solve in the pharmacokinetics course. Below is a screen capture of a regression result from a patient pharmacokinetic study. In this case, the rate constant units are hours-1, and the concentration is mcg/mL. Example 7.11: What is the best estimate of the solution concentration at time = 0? $e^{2.915}=18.4\;mg/mL$ The next dose should be given when Cp = 3 mcg/mL. (Ln 3 = 1.0986) What time will that occur? $ln\;C_{t}=ln\;C_{0}-kt$ $1.0986=2.9150\;-\;0.3048\;\times\;t$ $t=\frac{2.915-1.0986}{0.3048/hr}=6\;hr \;post\;dose$ What is the expected Cp value three hours after the dose was administered? $ln\;C_{t}=2.9150\;-\;0.3048/h\;\times\;3h$ $ln\;C_{t}=2.9150\;-\;0.9144$ $ln\;C_{t}=2.0006$ $C_{t=3h}=e^{2.0006}=7.4\;mcg/mL$ Module 7I: Working with Regression Results, the 1st-Order Model, Radioactive Isotope Decay Recall that radioactive decay also occurs via a 1st-order process. The decay constant is usually denoted by the Greek letter 𝜆. Lambda (𝜆) has units of reciprocal time, time-1, for example, h-1, day-1, week-1, month-1, or year-1. Most clinically useful medical isotopes have a half-life measured in hours or days. Recall half-life = 0.693/𝜆. The units of radioactivity are often measured in milliCurie or microCurie (mCi or mCi). If you like to arise before dawn, nuclear pharmacy might be your specialty! A calibration study was done for 169Yb. The regression results are shown. Units for 𝜆 are in days-1. Example 7.12: What is the activity at t = 0? $A_{0}=e^{8.962}=7800\;mCi$ When will the activity = 3000 mCi? (Ln 3000 = 8.0064) $Ln\;A_{t}=Ln\;A_{0}-\lambda t$ $8.0064=8.9620\;-\;0.0216\;\times\;t$ $t=\frac{8.9620\;-\;8.0064}{0.0216/day}=44.2\;days\;after\;preparation$ Module 7: Practice Problems 1. Data for a drug suspension stability study are shown. Time (months) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 0 \| 100.0 \| 12 \| 94.1 \| 24 \| 86 \| 36 \| 81.4 \| 48 \| 69.5 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 40 mg/mL. Find the concentration at 18 months. 2. The stability of an extemporaneously prepared drug suspension was studied. Time (months) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 3 \| 46.8 \| 6 \| 44.4 \| 12 \| 40.5 \| 24 \| 24.5 \| \| \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 30 mg/mL. Find the initial concentration and the concentration at 4 months. 3. The stability of an experimental drug suspension was studied. Time (months) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 15 \| 13 \| 40 \| 7.8 \| 60 \| 5.0 \| 85 \| 0.3 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 5 mg/mL. Find the initial concentration and the concentration at 48 months. 4. The stability of a drug suspension was studied. Time (months) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 1 \| 247.6 \| 4 \| 240.4 \| 12 \| 221.9 \| 30 \| 196.6 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 225 mg/mL. Find the initial concentration and the concentration at 36 months. 5. A small-scale clinical study evaluated the utility of predicting a diabetic patient’s average serum glucose (y) based on their Hgb A1c values (x). These data are expected to follow a linear model. A1c (%) \| Ave Glucose (mg/dL) \| 4.7 \| 85 \| 5.2 \| 96 \| 5.7 \| 126 \| 6.4 \| 125 \| 6.8 \| 140 \| 6.9 \| 161 \| 7.5 \| 175 \| 7.7 \| 163 \| 7.9 \| 174 \| 8.2 \| 193 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. If a patient had an A1c value = 7, what would their average serum glucose have been? If a patient had an average serum glucose value = 150, what would be their % A1c? 6. The stability of a drug suspension was studied. Time (months) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 3 \| 0.982 \| 6 \| 0.973 \| 12 \| 0.951 \| 24 \| 0.858 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 0.8 mg/mL. Find the initial concentration and the concentration at 18 months. 7. A group of pediatric specialists conjecture they can predict the 50th percentile weight for patients between 3 and 30 months. These data are expected to follow a linear model. Age (months) \| 50th percentile Weight (kg) \| 3 \| 6 \| 12 \| 10.2 \| 30 \| 13.7 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. A patient is 18 months old. Predict their weight. A patient weighs 12 kg. Predict their age. 8. The stability of a commercial drug suspension was studied. Time (months) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 12 \| 48 \| 24 \| 42 \| 36 \| 40 \| 48 \| 33 \| \| \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 25 mg/mL. Find the initial concentration and the concentration at 6 months. 9. A small-scale clinical study evaluated the relationship between diabetic patients' BMI (y) and Hgb A1c values (x). These data are expected to follow a linear model. A1c (%) \| Ave BMI (kg/m2) \| 5.7 \| 25.3 \| 5.8 \| 26.2 \| 5.9 \| 27.1 \| 6.0 \| 28.4 \| 6.1 \| 29.6 \| 6.2 \| 30.7 \| 6.3 \| 27 \| 6.4 \| 35.1 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. If a patient had an A1c value = 6, what is the best estimate of their BMI? If a patient had a BMI = 32, what is the best estimate of their A1c value? 10. A small-scale clinical study evaluated the relationship between diabetic patients' Waist-to-Hip ratio (y) (WHR) and Hgb A1c values (x). These data are expected to follow a linear model. A1c (%) \| Waist/Hip \| 5.7 \| 0.84 \| 5.8 \| 0.85 \| 5.9 \| 0.84 \| 6.0 \| 0.88 \| 6.1 \| 0.98 \| 6.2 \| 0.93 \| 6.3 \| 0.88 \| 6.4 \| 0.89 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. If a patient had an A1c value = 6.1, what is the best estimate of their WHR? If a patient had a WHR = 0.9, what is the best estimate of their A1c value? 11. Data from a drug solution stability study are shown. Time (months) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 3 \| 10.39 \| 12 \| 9.78 \| 24 \| 9.65 \| 36 \| 9.34 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find t90, the time required for the conc to decrease to 90% of the starting conc. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 8 mg/mL. Find the concentration at 15 months. 12. Data from a drug solution stability study are shown. Time (days) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 2 \| 50 \| 14 \| 49 \| 20 \| 43 \| 30 \| 41.3 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find t90, the time required for the conc to decrease to 90% of the starting conc. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 40 mg/mL. Find the concentration at 25 days. 13. Data from a drug solution stability study are shown. Time (days) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 7 \| 24.3 \| 14 \| 23.4 \| 21 \| 20.5 \| 28 \| 19.1 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find t90, the time required for the conc to decrease to 90% of the starting conc. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 15 mg/mL. Find the concentration at 35 days. 14. Data from a drug solution stability study are shown. Time (days) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 10 \| 59.1 \| 20 \| 57.1 \| 25 \| 56.1 \| 30 \| 55.5 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time = 0 concentration. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 55 mg/mL. Find the predicted concentration at 25 days. 15. Data from a drug solution stability study are shown. Time (days) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 3 \| 11.9 \| 7 \| 11.5 \| 12 \| 10.1 \| 15 \| 9.9 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time = 0 concentration. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 9 mg/mL. Find the predicted concentration at 10 days. 16. Data from a drug solution stability study are shown. Time (days) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 2 \| 4.7 \| 5 \| 4.1 \| 10 \| 3.4 \| 15 \| 2.9 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time = 0 concentration. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 4.5 mg/mL. Find the predicted concentration at 6 days. 17. A hospital pharmacist formulated a pediatric extemporaneous solution. Samples were sent to SIUE for analysis. The data from the stability study are shown. Time (days) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 2 \| 28.3 \| 5 \| 17.1 \| 9 \| 7.8 \| 12 \| 5.0 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time = 0 concentration. Find the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 10 mg/mL. Find the predicted concentration at 10 days. 18. A drug solution stability study was conducted at an elevated temperature, 32 °C. The results are shown. Time (days) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 2 \| 96.5 \| 4 \| 92.2 \| 10 \| 81.4 \| 16 \| 75.5 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time = 0 concentration. Find the time needed for the drug concentration to decrease to 90 mg/mL. Find the predicted concentration at 15 days. 19. An oral drug solution product has the stability data below. Time (months) \| Conc (mg/mL) \| 6 \| 44.6 \| 12 \| 39.7 \| 24 \| 32.5 \| 48 \| 21.3 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time = 0 concentration. Find the time needed for the drug concentration to decrease to 40 mg/mL. Find the predicted concentration at 3 months. 20. Once opened, an injectable solution has a short half-life. The results of a stability study are shown. Time (hours) \| Conc (mcg/mL) \| 0.5 \| 7.1 \| 1.5 \| 6.6 \| 5 \| 4.6 \| 10 \| 2.8 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the time = 0 concentration. Find t90, the time required for the conc to decrease to 90% of the starting conc. 21. Patient plasma concentration data is shown. Time (h post dose) \| Conc (mcg/mL) \| 1 \| 29.5 \| 5 \| 13.6 \| 11 \| 5.1 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the concentration at time = 0 h. Calculate the drug’s half-life for this patient. (t0.5 = 0.693/ke) When will the Cp = 10 mcg/mL? 22. Patient plasma concentration data is shown. Time (h post dose) \| Conc (mcg/mL) \| 2 \| 8.6 \| 8 \| 2.9 \| 12 \| 1.4 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the concentration at time = 0 h. Calculate the drug’s half-life for this patient. (t0.5 = 0.693/ke) When will the Cp = 1 mcg/mL? 23. Patient plasma concentration data is shown. Time (h post dose) \| Conc (mg/L) \| 2 \| 74 \| 6 \| 67.2 \| 20 \| 16.3 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the concentration at time = 0 h. Calculate the drug’s half-life for this patient. (t0.5 = 0.693/ke) When will the Cp = 0.7 mg/L? 24. Patient plasma concentration data is shown. Time (h post dose) \| Conc (mg/L) \| 2 \| 16.8 \| 12 \| 11 \| 20 \| 5.6 \| 36 \| 4.4 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the concentration at time = 0 h. Calculate the drug’s half-life for this patient. (t0.5 = 0.693/ke) Calculate the Cp @ 48 h. 25. Patient plasma concentration data is shown. Time (h post dose) \| Conc (mg/L) \| 0.5 \| 211.8 \| 6 \| 94.1 \| 10 \| 31.9 \| 16 \| 16.6 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the concentration at time = 0 h. Calculate the drug’s half-life for this patient. (t0.5 = 0.693/ke) Calculate the Cp @ 12 h. 26. Patient plasma concentration data is shown. Time (h post dose) \| Conc (mcg/mL) \| 1 \| 33 \| 6 \| 12.6 \| 10.5 \| 8.8 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the concentration at time = 0. Calculate the drug’s half-life for this patient. (t0.5 = 0.693/ke) When will the Cp = 4 mcg/mL? 27. Patient plasma concentration data is shown. Time (h post dose) \| Conc (mcg/mL) \| 3 \| 9 \| 8 \| 7.2 \| 16 \| 4.4 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the concentration at time = 0 h. Calculate the drug’s half-life for this patient. (t0.5 = 0.693/ke) When will the Cp = 2 mcg/mL? 28. Patient plasma concentration data is shown. Time (h post dose) \| Conc (mcg/mL) \| 2 \| 12.6 \| 7.5 \| 3.1 \| 10 \| 1.7 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the concentration at time = 0 h. Calculate the drug’s half-life for this patient. (t0.5 = 0.693/ke) When will the Cp = 1 mcg/mL? 29. Patient plasma concentration data is shown. Time (h post dose) \| Conc (mcg/mL) \| 4 \| 25.9 \| 9 \| 7.9 \| 12.5 \| 2.9 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the concentration at time = 0 h. Calculate the drug’s half-life for this patient. (t0.5 = 0.693/ke) When will the Cp = 1.5 mcg/mL? 30. Patient plasma concentration data is shown. Time (h post dose) \| Conc (mcg/mL) \| 4 \| 15.6 \| 8.5 \| 4.4 \| 12 \| 0.9 \| Calculate the equation of the regression line and r2. Find the concentration at time = 0 h. Calculate the drug’s half-life for this patient. (t0.5 = 0.693/ke) When will the Cp = 2 mcg/mL? 31. A solution contains 60 mCi of a radiopharmaceutical five hours after preparation. At 10 hours, the sample contains 25 mCi. Calculate 𝜆 and t½. 32. The data from an analysis of a radioisotope is shown. Time (days) \| Activity (mCi) \| 2 \| 1000 \| 6 \| 358 \| 12 \| 77 \| Calculate 𝜆 and t ½. Find r2. Determine the activity on Day 0, when the isotope was prepared. 33. The data from an analysis of a radioisotope is shown. The isotope was prepared on Day 0. Time (days) \| Activity (mCi) \| 2 \| 143 \| 6 \| 129 \| 12 \| 111 \| Calculate 𝜆 and t ½. Determine the activity on Day 0, when the isotope was prepared. 34. The data from an analysis of a radioisotope is shown. The isotope was prepared on Day 0. Time (days) \| Activity (mCi) \| 3 \| 101 \| 9 \| 26 \| 15 \| 6.6 \| Calculate 𝜆 and t ½. Determine the activity on Day 0, when the isotope was prepared. 35. The data from an analysis of a radioisotope is shown. The isotope was prepared on Day 0. Time (h) \| Activity (mCi) \| 1.5 \| 55 \| 4 \| 48 \| 8 \| 39 \| Calculate 𝜆 and t ½. Determine the activity on Day 0, when the isotope was prepared. 36. The data from an analysis of a radioisotope is shown. The isotope was prepared on Day 0. Time (h) \| Activity (mCi) \| 2 \| 79 \| 5 \| 56 \| 10 \| 32 \| Calculate 𝜆 and t ½. Determine the activity on Day 0, when the isotope was prepared. 37. The data from an analysis of a radioisotope is shown. The isotope was prepared on Day 0. Time (h) \| Activity (mCi) \| 1 \| 342 \| 4 \| 110 \| 16 \| 1.2 \| Calculate 𝜆 and t ½. Determine the activity on Day 0, when the isotope was prepared. 38. The data from an analysis of a radioisotope is shown. The isotope was prepared on Day 0. Time (days) \| Activity (mCi) \| 1 \| 9 \| 7 \| 5 \| 14 \| 2 \| Calculate 𝜆 and t ½. Determine the activity on Day 0, when the isotope was prepared. 39. The data from an analysis of a radioisotope is shown. The isotope was prepared on Day 0. Time (days) \| Activity (mCi) \| 5 \| 31 \| 17 \| 24 \| 40 \| 15 \| Calculate 𝜆 and t ½. Determine the activity on Day 0, when the isotope was prepared. 40. The data from an analysis of a radioisotope is shown. The isotope was prepared on Day 0. Time (days) \| Activity (mCi) \| 1 \| 71 \| 20 \| 28 \| 35 \| 14 \| Calculate 𝜆 and t ½. Determine the activity on Day 0, when the isotope was prepared. 41. The regression parameters for a drug suspension stability study are shown. The rate constant units are mg/mL/day. a) What is the calculated concentration at time = 0? b) When will the concentration = 40 mg/mL? c) What is the expected concentration after 15 days? 42. The regression parameters for a drug suspension stability study are shown. The rate constant units are mg/mL/month. a) What is the calculated concentration at time = 0? b) When will the concentration = 110 mg/mL? c) What is the expected concentration after 105 days? 43. The regression parameters for a drug solution stability study are shown. The rate constant units are 1/month. The concentration units are mg/mL. a) What is the calculated concentration at time = 0? b) When will the concentration = 11 mg/mL? c) What is the expected concentration after 180 days? 44. The regression parameters for a drug solution stability study are shown. The rate constant units are 1/day. The concentration units are mg/mL. a) What is the calculated concentration at time = 0? b) When will the concentration = 36 mg/mL? c) What is the expected concentration after 40 days? 45. A patient received an IV bolus drug dose. The regression parameters are shown. The rate constant units are 1/hour. The concentration units are mcg/mL. a) What is the calculated concentration at time = 0? b) When will the concentration = 9 mcg/mL? c) What is the expected concentration after 18 hours? 46. A patient received an IV bolus drug dose. The regression parameters are shown. The rate constant units are 1/hour. The concentration units are mg/L. a) What is the calculated concentration at time = 0? b) When will the concentration = 6 mg/L? c) What is the expected concentration after 7 hours? 47. The regression parameters for a radiopharmaceutical product are shown. The rate constant units are 1/hour. a) What is the calculated activity (mCi) at time = 0? b) How many hours after preparation will the activity (mCi) = 50? c) What is the expected activity 12 hours after preparation? 48. The regression parameters for a radiopharmaceutical product are shown. The rate constant units are 1/days. a) What is the calculated activity (mCi) at time = 0? b) How many hours after preparation will the activity (mCi) = 10? c) What is the expected activity 30 hours after preparation? Answers 1. C = 100.94 mg/mL – 0.614 mg/mL/month · t; r2 = 0.979; 99.251 months to reach 40 mg/mL; 89.888 mg/mL at 18 months. 2. C = 51.07 mg/mL – 1.0684 mg/mL/month · t; r2 = 0.976; 19.721 months to reach 30 mg/mL; C0 = 51.07 mg/mL; 46.796 mg/mL at 4 months. 3. C = 15.44 mg/mL – 0.178 mg/mL/month · t; r2 = 0.996; 58.652 months to reach 5 mg/mL; C0 = 15.44 mg/mL; 6.896 mg/mL at 48 months. 4. C = 246.986 mg/mL – 1.732 mg/mL/month · t; r2 = 0.983; 12.694 months to reach 225 mg/mL; C0 = 246.986 mg/mL; 184.634 mg/mL at 36 months. 5. Ave Glu = - 51.09 mg/dL + 29.09% · A1c; r2 = 0.9443; %A1c = 6.9. 6. C = 1.0087 mg/mL – 0.00602 mg/mL/month · t; r2 = 0.966; 34.668 months to reach 0.8 mg/mL; C0 = 1.0087 mg/mL; 0.9 mg/mL at 18 months. 7. Wt @ 50th % = 0.272 kg/month × age (months) + 5.9 kg; 18 months old = 10.8 kg; 12 kg = 22.4 months of age. 8. C = 52.5 mg/mL – 0.392 mg/mL/month · t; r2 = 0.9625; 70.15 months to reach 25 mg/mL; C0 = 52.5 mg/mL; 50.1 mg/mL at 6 months. 9. Ave BMI (kg/m2) = - 32.26 (kg/ m2) + 10.07 kg/m2/% · A1c %; r2 = 0.6164; BMI = 28.16 kg/m2; A1c = 6.4%. 10. WHR = 0.1036 1/% · A1c % + 0.2596; r2 = 0.2596; WHR = 0.89; A1c = 6.2%. 11. Ln C = 2.336 – 0.0029 · t, r2 = 0.8957; (90% of C0 = 9.31 mg/mL) t90 = 36.2 months; 88.5 months; 9.9 mg/mL. 12. Ln C = 3.9442 – 0.0074 · t, r2 = 0.8457; (90% of C0 = 46.47 mg/mL) t90 = 14.2 days; 34.4 days; 42.9 mg/mL. 13. Ln C = 3.2920 – 0.0122 · t, r2 = 0.9608; (90% of C0 = 24.21 mg/mL) t90 = 8.6 days; 47.9 days; 17.6 mg/mL. 14. Ln C = 4.1101 – 0.0032 · t, r2 = 0.9926; C0 = 60.9 mg/mL; 31.8 days; 56.2 mg/mL. 15. Ln C = 2.5373 – 0.0169 · t, r2 = 0.9526; C0 = 12.6 mg/mL; 19.9 days; 10.6 mg/mL. 16. Ln C = 1.6071 – 0.0369 · t, r2 = 0.9950; C0 = 5 mg/mL; 2.9 days; 4 mg/mL. 17. Ln C = 3.6969 – 0.1765 · t, r2 = 0.9975; C0 = 40.3 mg/mL; 7.9 days; 6.9 mg/mL. 18. Ln C = 4.5957 – 0.0177 · t, r2 = 0.9844; C0 = 99.1 mg/mL; 5.4 days; 76 mg/mL. 19. Ln C = 3.8982 – 0.0175 · t, r2 = 0.9998; C0 = 49.3 mg/mL; 11.9 months; 46.8 mg/mL. 20. Ln C = 2.0219 – 0.0991 · t, r2 = 0.9994; C0 = 7.6 mcg/mL; (90% of C0 = 6.84 mcg/mL) t90 = 1.1 hours. 21. Ln C = 3.5304 – 0.1746 · t, r2 = 0.9978; C0 = 34.1 mcg/mL; t ½ = 4 h; C = 10 @ 7 h post-dose. 22. Ln C = 2.5153 – 0.1815 · t, r2 = 0.9999; C0 = 12.4 mcg/mL; t ½ = 3.8 h; C = 1 @ 13.9 h post-dose. 23. Ln C = 4.5939 – 0.0885 · t, r2 = 0.9758; C0 = 98.9 mg/L; t ½ = 7.8 h; C = 0.7 @ 55.9 h post-dose. 24. Ln C = 2.8184 – 0.0407 · t, r2 = 0.9051; C0 = 16.8 mg/L; t ½ = 17 h; C @ 48 h post-dose = 2.4 mg/L. 25. Ln C = 5.4297 – 0.1707 · t, r2 = 0.9741; C0 = 228 mg/L; t ½ = 4.1 h; C @ 12 h post-dose = 29.4 mg/L. 26. Ln C = 3.5523 – 0.1401 · t, r2 = 0.9491; C0 = 34.9 mg/L; t ½ = 4.9 h; C = 4 @ 15.5 h post-dose. 27. Ln C = 2.3852 – 0.0557 · t, r2 = 0.9934; C0 = 10.9 mg/L; t ½ = 12.4 h; C = 2 @ 30.4 h post-dose. 28. Ln C = 3.031 – 0.2511 · t, r2 = 0.9998; C0 = 20.7 mg/L; t ½ = 2.8 h; C = 1 @ 12.1 h post-dose. 29. Ln C = 4.3064 – 0.2562 · t, r2 = 0.9972; C0 = 74.2 mg/L; t ½ = 2.7 h; C = 1.5 @ 15.2 h post-dose. 30. Ln C = 4.2579 – 0.3531 · t, r2 = 0.9814; C0 = 70.7 mg/L; t ½ = 2 h; C = 2 @ 10.1 h post-dose. 31. 𝜆 = 0.175 h-1, t ½ = 4 h. 32. 𝜆 = 0.2564 h-1, t ½ = 2.7 days. r2 = 0.9999. C0 = 1668 mCi. 33. 𝜆 = 0.025 d-1, t ½ = 27.4 days. C0 = 150 mCi. 34. 𝜆 = 0.2273 d-1, t ½ = 3.05 days. C0 = 200 mCi. 35. 𝜆 = 0.0528 h-1, t ½ = 13.1 h. C0 = 59 mCi. 36. 𝜆 = 0.1129 h-1, t ½ = 6.1 h. C0 = 99 mCi. 37. 𝜆 = 0.3767 h-1, t ½ = 1.8 h. C0 = 498 mCi. 38. 𝜆 = 0.1161 d-1, t ½ = 6 d. C0 = 11 mCi. 39. 𝜆 = 0.0207 d-1, t ½ = 33.5 d. C0 = 34 mCi. 40. 𝜆 = 0.0478 d-1, t ½ = 14.5 d. C0 = 74 mCi. 41. 49.7 mg/mL, 59.7 days, 47.3 mg/mL. 42. 118.6 mg/mL, 10.2 months, 115.7 mg/mL. 43. 12.2 mg/mL, 23.9 months, 11.9 mg/mL. 44. 40 mg/mL, 27.7 days, 34.4 mg/mL. 45. 20.1 mcg/mL, 7.9 hours post-dose, 3.3 mcg/mL. 46. 45.1 mg/L, 5.8 hours post-dose, 4 mg/L. 47. 98 mCi, 6 hours, 26 mCi. 48. 19.4 mCi, 14.7 hours, 5 mCi. Module 8: Standardized Dosing Protocols This module will demonstrate some examples for calculating patient-specific doses according to institutional protocols and patient lab data. Standard protocols are established by medical societies or hospital committees as a guide for initiating and/or adjusting treatment with a particular drug based on the patient’s weight, kidney function, or other lab test results. They are intended to ensure appropriate personalized drug therapy for patients. It is probably easiest to understand with an example, so let’s jump into the first protocol. Note: Every hospital or institution is free to set their own drug therapy guidelines. These examples are intended to give experience and confidence in implementing treatment protocols. They are not intended as instructions for patient care. You must follow the treatment protocols in use at the institution where you practice. Module 8A: Amikacin Amikacin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic that is administered by IV infusion to treat infections with sensitive strains of Gram-negative bacteria. The dose and frequency of amikacin administration must be chosen appropriately to achieve effective therapy without causing excessive toxicity. If the dose is too low or not given frequently enough, then the amikacin concentration in the patient’s blood and tissues will be too low to cure the infection. If the dose is too high or given too frequently, then the drug concentration will build up in the patient’s blood and tissues to a potentially toxic level. An example protocol is shown below. Table 8.1 Amikacin Protocol \| \|\| CrCl > 60 mL/min \| CrCl 40 – 60 mL/min \| CrCl 20 – 40 mL/min \| 5 – 7.5 mg/kg q8h \| 5 – 7.5 mg/kg* q12h \| 5 – 7.5 mg/kg* q24h \| Use IBW if BMI < 40 kg/m2 \| The normal dose is 5 to 7.5 mg of amikacin per kg of body weight, and the dose is to be administered either every 8 hours, 12 hours, or 24 hours depending on the patient’s creatinine clearance. Body Mass Index (BMI) is used to determine which weight to use in the calculation. For patients with BMI < 40, the dose is calculated using the lower of actual body weight or ideal body weight (IBW). For patients with BMI ≥ 40, the dose is calculated using adjusted body weight (ABW), ABW = IBW + 0.4(Actual wt - IBW) Recall the equation for calculating BMI is the patient’s actual body weight in kg divided by the square of their height in meters. BMI therefore has units of kg/m2. Do not forget to square the patient height. $BMI=\frac{Pt\;actual\;wt\;(kg))}{(Pt\;height\;(m))^{2}}$ IBW and ABW are calculated as you learned in Module 5. Once the correct dose has been determined, the frequency of administration is based on the patient’s creatinine clearance, as you learned in Module 5. Remember to use the lower of ideal or actual body weight when calculating creatinine clearance. Let’s walk through an example. Example 8.1: A physician orders amikacin 7 mg/kg for a 35 year old female patient (165 lb and 5’7”). The patient’s serum creatinine is 1.5 mg/dL. Calculate the appropriate amikacin dose in mg and the correct frequency. Amikacin is supplied in sterile vials containing 500 mg in every 2 mL of solution. Calculate how many milliliters of the drug solution are required to prepare each dose of the drug for this patient. First calculate BMI to determine which weight to use in the dose calculation. $BMI=\frac{165\;lb\times \frac{1\;kg}{2.2\;lb}}{(67\;in\times \frac{2.54\;cm}{in}\times \frac{1\;m}{100\;cm})^{2}}=\frac{25.9\;kg}{m^{2}}$ BMI < 40, so calculate dose using the lower of actual body weight or ideal body weight. $Actual\;weight=165\;lb\times \frac{1\;kg}{2.2\;lb}=75\;kg$ $IBW=45.5\;kg +2.3\;kg(67"-60")=61.6\;kg$ Use IBW to calculate the dose. $Dose=61.6\;kg\times \frac{7\;mg}{kg}=431.2\;mg$ The calculated dose is 431.2 mg, so round this to a reasonable practical dose of 430 mg. Next calculate creatinine clearance to determine the frequency of administration. Remember to use the 0.85 factor for a female and IBW because it is lower than actual body weight. $CrCl=\frac{0.85\;\times \;(140-35)\;\times \;61.6\;kg}{72\;\times \;1.5}=50.9\;mL/min,\text{round to 51}\; mL/min$ 51 mL/min falls between 40 and 60 mL/min, so the appropriate frequency of administration according to Table 8.1 is every 12 hours. An appropriate dosage regimen for this patient, according to the prescriber’s order of 7 mg/kg, is 430 mg every 12 hours. The volume of amikacin solution required for each infusion is calculated as: $430\;mg\times \frac{2\;mL}{500\;mg}=1.7\;mL$ Module 8B: Vancomycin AUC:MIC Ratio Vancomycin is another antibiotic that is administered by IV infusion. Similar to amikacin, the dose and frequency must be chosen to ensure effective therapy while minimizing toxicity. The AUC:mic ratio, or ratio of vancomycin area under the curve (AUC) to minimum inhibitory concentration of the drug for the infecting bacterium can be used to calculate the optimal vancomycin dose. MIC is reported by the microbiology lab, while AUC is estimated from the patient’s creatinine clearance. Vancomycin is primarily eliminated from the body by urinary excretion, so the patient’s kidney function is a major factor in determining the dose. The vancomycin dose is calculated to target AUC as a chosen multiple of MIC, typically 400 or 450. The vancomycin dose is calculated using the equation $\text{Vancomycin daily dose} (\frac{mg}{24\;hr})=0.045\times CrCl\times MIC\times target\;multiple$ Calculate CrCl using the lower of IBW or actual body weight as usual. The factor 0.045 is a unit conversion factor so that the result gives an answer in mg of vancomycin. We note here that some physicians advocate for using the actual body weight when estimating the CrCl for use in this vancomycin calculation. As we have mentioned previously, this text is not offering medical or therapeutic advice. When in practice adhere to the standards in use at your facility. NOTE 1: The daily dose is rounded up to the nearest 250 mg (250, 500, 750, 1000, 1250, 1500, 1750, 2000, etc.)) If the calculated value is 2050 mg per day, then the daily dose should be rounded up to 2250 mg per day. (You will learn more about vancomycin dosing in Pharmacokinetics and Integrated Therapeutics courses.) NOTE 2: The equation calculates the required daily dose of vancomycin, and vancomycin is typically administered every 12 hours. Each individual dose is ½ of the daily dose. Example 8.2: A 60 yo female patient (5’5”, 145 lb, SCr = 0.9 mg/dL) has an infection the physician would like to treat with vancomycin. The MIC for the organism is 1.2 mcg/mL. Calculate the daily dose to target 400 × MIC. The patients actual body weight is 145 lb or 65.9 kg. $IBW=45.5\;kg +2.3\;kg\times\;(65"-60")=57\;kg$ Calculate CrCl using 57 kg. $CrCl=\frac{0.85\;\times \;(140-60)\;\times \;57\;kg}{72\;\times \;0.9}=59.8\;mL/min,\text{round to 60}\; mL/min$ $\text{Daily dose (mg per 24 hours)}=0.045\times 60\times 1.2\times \;400=1296\;mg/24\;hr$ The calculated daily dose of 1296 mg is rounded up to the nearest multiple of 250 mg, or 1500 mg day. Since vancomycin in given every 12 hours, each individual dose is 750 mg. This patient should receive 750 mg every 12 hours. Module 8C: Intravenous Phosphate Supplementation Phosphate is an important plasma electrolyte. Patients with low phosphate levels may require supplements to prevent the negative health effects. Phosphate supplements should be given orally if the patient is able to take it. Many institutions have treatment guidelines to ensure safe intravenous phosphate supplementation when the oral route is not sufficient. Intravenous phosphate supplement products include Sodium Phosphates Injection and Potassium Phosphates Injection. Both products are highly concentrated, containing 3 mmoles of phosphate per mL or 3 moles per liter. Sodium phosphates contains 4 mEq/mL of Na+ and potassium phosphates contains 4.4 mEq/mL of K+. Sodium and potassium are also important electrolytes, and their concentrations must be maintained at a healthy level when administering phosphate supplements. The normal sodium level in plasma is approximately 140 mEq/L, and excess sodium is excreted in the urine. A patient with normal kidney function will excrete any excess sodium that is administered as sodium phosphate supplementation. The normal potassium level in plasma is approximately 3.5 – 5 mEq/L. A patient can experience serious adverse effects if their potassium level falls too low below 3.5 mEq/L or is elevated above 5 mEq/L. For an adult patient, an intravenous dose of 40 mEq of K+ is expected to raise the plasma potassium level by approximately 0.5 mEq/L. Pharmacists must be aware of the patient’s potassium status and the amount of potassium in an order for potassium phosphates infusion to avoid raising the patient’s potassium level above 5 mEq/L. If a patient receives an order for phosphates infusion and their phosphate level is normal, the best choice for phosphate supplementation would be sodium phosphates. If the patient requires both potassium and phosphate supplementation, then potassium phosphates is the convenient choice. Finally, both sodium and potassium phosphates are highly concentrated solutions with osmolarity of 7 or 7.4 mOsm/mL, or 7000 mOsm/L or 7400 mOsm/L. These products must be diluted in a large enough volume to bring the infusion to an osmolarity less than 600 mOsm/L for peripheral infusion. It is useful to memorize the osmolarity of the common base fluids so that you do not need to calculate them for every problem: - 0.9% Sodium Chloride Injectin (Normal Saline, NS), = 308 mOsm/L - 0.45% Sodium Chloride Injection (1/2 Normal Saline, 1/2 NS) = 154 mOsm/L - 5% Dextrose Injection (D5W) = 252 mOsm/L - Sterile Water for Injection (SWI) has no solutes, so 0 mOsm/L Example 8.3: A patient with Na+ of 138 mEq/L and K+ 4.9 mEq/L is ordered 50 mmoles of potassium phosphates in 250 mL of D5W over 6 hours to supplement their low serum phosphate level. How many mEq of potassium would the patient receive from this solution? How much would this raise the patient’s potassium level? Is this the best choice to treat the patient? If not, what should you recommend. Potassium phosphates contains 3 mmoles phosphate and 4.4 mEq potassium per mL. The potassium dose represented by 50 mmoles of potassium phosphate and the resulting expected increase in blood potassium level is: $50\;mmol\;P\times \frac{4.4\;mEq\;K^{+}}{3\;mmol\;P}=73.3\;mEq\;K^{+}\times \frac{0.5\;mEq/L}{40\;mEq\;K^{+}}=0.9\;mEq/L\;increase$ 50 mmoles of potassium phosphate carries a K+ dose of 73.3 mEq, which would raise the K+ level to approximately 4.9 + 0.9 = 5.8 mEq/L. This is higher than the upper limit of normal K+, so it should be avoided. Recommend for patient safety that the supplement order be changed to sodium phosphates 50 mmoles. Example 8.4: An intravenous phosphate supplement is prepared by adding 20 mL of sodium phosphates injection to 250 mL of D5W. Calculate the osmolarity of the solution. Should this be given via peripheral IV line? The solution is prepared by mixing 20 mL of a 7000 mOsm/L solution with 250 mL of a 252 mOsm/L solution. The mixture osmolarity is calculated (with volumes in liters): $\frac{(0.02L\;\times \;\frac{7000\;mOsm}{L})\;+\;(0.25\;L\;\times \;\frac{252\;mOsm}{L})}{0.02\;+\;0.25\;L}=\frac{752\;mOsm}{L}$ The infusion osmolarity is greater than the recommended limit of 600 mOsm/L for peripheral infusion. The sodium phosphate supplement should be diluted in a larger volume. For example, if 20 mL of sodium phosphates injection was added to 500 mL of D5W the osmolarity would be 511 mOsm/L, which is acceptable for peripheral infusion. If the prescriber does not want to use 500 mL of D5W, the phosphate dose could be prepared in other ways. For example, it could be combined with 435 mL of sterile water for injection in an empty IV bag to give an isoosmolar solution (308 mOsm/L). Module 8D: Cisplatin-Etoposide for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cancer chemotherapy is generally administered according to a standard protocol based on the type of cancer being treated and patient-specific variables. As an example, a protocol for treating non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) uses two drugs on a defined schedule: - Cisplatin: 80 mg/m2 by IV infusion on day 1 of cycle, - Etoposide 100 mg/m2/day by IV infusion on days 1, 2, and 3 of cycle. Repeat the cycle every 21 days for 4 cycles. One cycle is 3 days of treatment, with both cisplatin and etoposide on day 1 and only etoposide on days 2 and 3. The patient then waits 18 days to start the next cycle. Cisplatin and etoposide doses are based on the patient’s body surface area. Cisplatin is diluted in 2 L of fluid containing 5% dextrose, ⅓ to ½ normal saline, and 37.5 g of mannitol. Etoposide must be diluted to a concentration of 0.2 to 0.4 mg/mL in D5W or NS and should be infused over 60 minutes. Example 8.5: A 47 year old male patient (5’11” and 198 lb) is ordered cisplatin and etoposide according to the protocol above. Calculate the total amount of cisplatin and etoposide the patient should receive in the first cycle. The cycle represents one dose cisplatin and 3 doses of etoposide. Calculate the dose of each. $BSA=\sqrt{\frac{71\;in\;\times \;\frac{2.54\;cm}{in}\;\times \;198\;lb\;\times \;\frac{1\;kg}{2.2\;lb}}{3600}}=2.12m^{2}$ - Cisplatin dose: 2.12 m2 x 80 mg/m2 = 169.6 mg; round this to 170 mg. - Etoposide dose: 2.12 m2 x 100 mg/m2 = 212 mg; round this to 210 mg. - The total cisplatin for 1 cycle is 170 mg. - The total etoposide for 1 cycle is 3 x 210 mg = 630 mg. Module 8E: Dose Rounding for Biologic Drugs Many institutions have implemented a dose rounding policy for biologic drugs, especially those used to treat cancer. These products tend to be expensive and any leftover partial vials represent significant loss of money. Dose rounding protocols are used to manage the cost of cancer therapy. There are several papers in the pharmacy literature describing how hospital or health system pharmacies have saved millions of dollars per year using this approach. The protocol is generally very simple: if the ordered dose for a patient is within ± 10% of a whole number of the drug vials, then the dose is automatically rounded to the nearest whole vial size. Doses may be rounded up or down within the accepted range. NOTE: Some hospitals may use a different percent of the dose when rounding, e.g., ± 5%. As always, follow the specific instructions at your institution. For the purpose of this course, we will use ± 10%. The procedure for determining the appropriate dose for a patient under a dose rounding protocol is: - Calculate dose according to treatment guideline. - Calculate (dose – 10%) and (dose + 10%). - Determine if whole vial sizes fall within the acceptable dose range. If yes – round dose to the whole vial size. If no – use the dose calculated from treatment guideline. NOTE: There may be more than 1 acceptable answer for a particular problem, depending on the vial sizes for a particular drug. Any combination of full vials to provide the correct dose is acceptable for this course. Example 8.6: Bevacizumab is used treat some cancers and is available in 100 mg and 400 mg vials. A 56 kg patient is ordered bevacizumab 5 mg/kg. Calculate the appropriate dose for this patient. $56\;kg\;\times\;5\;\frac{mg}{kg}=280\;mg$ 280 mg ± 10% spans the range 252 – 308 mg. 300 mg represents 3 full 100 mg vials. The acceptable dose range (252 – 308 mg) contains 300 mg, which represents 3 full 100 mg vials. The dose should be rounded up to 300 mg. The figure shows the available full vial doses from combining 100 mg and/or 400 mg vials. The blue box represents the acceptable dose range of 252-308 mg. The mark for 300 mg (3 x 100 mg vials) is within the acceptable range, so the dose should be rounded to 300 mg. Example 8.7: A 70 kg patient is ordered 5 mg/kg of bevacizumab = 350 mg. 350 mg ± 10% is 315 – 385 mg. No combination of full vials falls within this range. Leave dose at 350 mg. Some drug waste is unavoidable in this case. Module 8: Practice Problems - MM is a 53 y.o. female, 5’3” tall and 130 lb, with serum creatinine of 2.1 mg/dL. MM’s physician orders amikacin 7.5 mg/kg. a. Calculate the correct dose and frequency for MM. Round it to the nearest 10 mg. b. Calculate the volume of drug solution for each dose. Round it to a reasonable number. - RP is a 64 y.o. male, 5’8” tall and 265 lb, with serum creatinine of 1.7 mg/dL. RP’s physician orders amikacin 5 mg/kg. a. Calculate the correct dose and frequency for RP. Round it to the nearest 10 mg. b. Calculate the volume of drug solution for each dose. Round it to a reasonable number. - DH is a 39 y.o. male, 6’ tall and 210 lb, with serum creatinine of 1.4 mg/dL. DH’s physician orders amikacin 6 mg/kg. a. Calculate the correct dose and frequency for DH. Round it to the nearest 10 mg. b. Calculate the volume of drug solution for each dose. Round it to a reasonable number. - A 34 yo male patient (5’8”, 155 lb, SCr = 0.8 mg/dL) has an infection the physician would like to treat with vancomycin. The MIC for the organism is 1.2 mcg/mL. Calculate the daily dose to target 400mic and the volume of drug solution required for each individual dose. - A 45 yo female patient (5’11”, 165 lb, SCr = 1.1 mg/dL) has an infection the physician would like to treat with vancomycin. The MIC for the organism is 1.3 mcg/mL. Calculate the daily dose to target 500mic and the volume of drug solution required for each individual dose. - A 62 yo male patient (5’10”, 150 lb, SCr = 1.4 mg/dL) has an infection the physician would like to treat with vancomycin. The MIC for the organism is 1.4 mcg/mL. Calculate the daily dose to target 450*mic and the volume of drug solution required for each individual dose. - Calculate the volume of vancomycin injection required per dose for each patient according to the protocol. a. CrCl = 25 mL/min, AUC/MIC multiple = 400, MIC = 1.1 mcg/mL. b. CrCl = 35 mL/min, AUC/MIC multiple = 500, MIC = 1.3 mcg/mL. c. CrCl = 45 mL/min, AUC/MIC multiple = 600, MIC = 1.5 mcg/mL. d. CrCl = 55 mL/min, AUC/MIC multiple = 500, MIC = 1.3 mcg/mL. e. CrCl = 75 mL/min, AUC/MIC multiple = 400, MIC = 1.1 mcg/mL. f. CrCl = 90 mL/min, AUC/MIC multiple = 500, MIC = 1.3 mcg/mL. - A patient with Na+ of 138 mEq/L and K+ 4.9 mEq/L is ordered 40 mmoles of potassium phosphates in 250 mL of D5W over 6 hours to supplement their low serum phosphate level. How many mEq of potassium would the patient receive from this solution? Is this the best choice to treat the patient? If not, what would you recommend. - A patient with Na+ of 142 mEq/L and K+ 3.7 mEq/L is ordered 35 mmoles of potassium phosphates in 250 mL of D5W over 6 hours to supplement their low serum phosphate level. How many mL of drug solution is required to fill the order. What is the osmolarity of the solution as ordered. Should it be given by peripheral line? - A patient with Na+ of 148 mEq/L and K+ 4.1 mEq/L is ordered 25 mmoles of potassium phosphates in 250 mL of D5W over 6 hours to supplement their low serum phosphate level. How many mL of drug solution is required to fill the order. How many mEq of potassium would the patient receive from this solution? - A 63 year old female patient, 4’11” and 150 lb, is ordered cisplatin-etoposide. Calculate the cisplatin and etoposide dose for day 1 of the treatment cycle. - Calculate the cisplatin and etoposide dose according to the protocol for a 32 year old male, 6’2” and 195 lb. - A patient is ordered cisplatin 150 mg to be added to 2L of fluid containing 5% dextrose, ½ normal saline, and 37.5 g of mannitol. The 2L of fluid diluent is prepared by mixing the appropriate volumes of sterile water for injection, dextrose 70% injection, sodium chloride 4 mEq/mL injection, and mannitol 20% injection. Recall that normal saline is 140 mEq/L of NaCl. Calculate the volume of each component to prepare the 2L of base fluid. Dose Rounding Problems Bevacizumab is supplied in 100 mg and 400 mg vials and is administered at 5, 10, or 15 mg/kg of body weight. - A physician orders a dose of 10 mg/kg for a 75 kg patient. What dose should the patient receive. - A physician orders a dose of 5 mg/kg for a 52 kg patient. What dose should the patient receive. - A physician orders a dose of 15 mg/kg for a 91 kg patient. What dose should the patient receive. - A physician orders a dose of 10 mg/kg for a 147 kg patient. What dose should the patient receive. Daratumumab is supplied in 100 mg and 400 mg vials. It is administered at 16 mg/kg of body weight. - A physician orders a dose of 16 mg/kg for a 75 kg patient. What dose should the patient receive. - A physician orders a dose of 16 mg/kg for a 52 kg patient. What dose should the patient receive. - A physician orders a dose of 16 mg/kg for a 91 kg patient. What dose should the patient receive. - A physician orders a dose of 16 mg/kg for a 63 kg patient. What dose should the patient receive. Trastuzumab is supplied in 150 mg and 420 mg vials. It is administered at 2, 4, 6, or 8 mg/kg of body weight. - A physician orders a dose of 2 mg/kg for a 75 kg patient. What dose should the patient receive. - A physician orders a dose of 4 mg/kg for a 52 kg patient. What dose should the patient receive. - A physician orders a dose of 6 mg/kg for a 91 kg patient. What dose should the patient receive. - A physician orders a dose of 8 mg/kg for a 82 kg patient. What dose should the patient receive. Answers - 390 mg q24h, 1.6 mL - 450 mg q12h, 1.8 mL - 470 mg q8h, 1.9 mL - 2750 mg/day, 27.5 mL per dose - 2250 mg/day, 22.5 mL per dose - 1500 mg/day, 15 mL per dose - a. 5 mL; b. 12.5 mL; c. 20 mL; d. 17.5 mL; e. 15 mL; f. 27.5 mL. - 58.7 mEq K+ would raise patient level 0.7 mEq/L to 5.6 mEq/L. Sodium phosphate would be a better choice. - 11.7 mL of solution required, infusion osmolarity 567 mOsm/L. Okay for peripheral infusion. - 8.3 mL, 36.7 mEq K+. - (134.4 mg) 135 mg cisplatin and (168 mg) 170 mg etoposide. - (172 mg) 170 mg cisplatin and 215 mg etoposide. - 142.9 mL 70% dextrose, 35 mL NaCl 4 mEq/mL, 187.5 mL mannitol 20%, and 1634.6 mL sterile water for injection. Ordered dose 10 mg/kg x 75 kg = 750 mg ± 10% = 675 – 825 mg. 2 x 400 mg vials = 800 mg or 1 x 400 + 3 x 100 = 700 mgOrdered dose 5 mg/kg x 52 kg = 260 mg ± 10% = 234 – 286 mg. This range does not allow for full vial use. The dose of 260 mg should be used.Ordered dose 15 mg/kg x 91 kg = 1365 mg ± 10% = 1228 – 1502 mg. 3 x 400 mg + 1 x 100 mg = 1300 mg or 3 x 400 mg + 2 x 100 mg = 1400 mg Ordered dose 10 mg/kg x 147 kg = 1470 mg ± 10% = 1323 – 1617 mg. 4 x 400 mg = 1600 mg (fewest vials), or 3 x 400 mg + 2 x 100 mg = 1400 mg, or 3 x 400 mg + 3 x 100 mg = 1500 mg (closest to ordered dose)Ordered dose 16 mg/kg x 75 kg = 1200 mg ± 10% = 1080 – 1320 mg. 3 x 400 mg = 1200 mgOrdered dose 16 mg/kg x 52 kg = 832 mg ± 10% = 748 – 915 mg. 2 x 400 mg = 800 mg (fewest vials and closest to ordered dose)Ordered dose 16 mg/kg x 91 kg = 1456 mg ± 10% = 1310 – 1601 mg. 4 x 400 mg = 1600 mg (fewest vials) or 3 x 400 mg + 3 x 100 mg = 1500 mg (closest to ordered dose)Ordered dose 16 mg/kg x 63 kg = 1008 mg ± 10% = 907 – 1109 mg. 2 x 400 mg + 2 x 100 mg = 1000 mg. (closest to ordered dose and fewest vials)Ordered dose 2 mg/kg x 75 kg = 150 mg ± 10% = 135 – 165 mg. 1 x 150 mg = 150 mgOrdered dose 4 mg/kg x 52 kg = 208 mg ± 10% = 187 – 229 mg. This range does not allow for full vial use. The dose of 208 mg should be used.Ordered dose 6 mg/kg x 91 kg = 546 mg ± 10% = 491 – 601 mg. 1 x 150 mg + 1 x 420 mg = 570 mgOrdered dose 8 mg/kg x 82 kg = 656 mg ± 10% = 590 – 722 mg. 1 x 420 mg + 2 x 150 mg = 720 mg Module 9: Case Based Problems This modele applies concepts from the prior 8 modules to case-based problems with more than one calculated answer. The solution to a particular problem may require calculations obtained from earlier steps. Module 9A: Compound an Oral Suspension for Marshmallow the Cat Example 9.1: Marshmallow, a 3 year old cat that weighs 9 lb 4 oz, is diagnosed with a bacterial infection in her intestines. A veterinarian has prescribed metronidazole at a dose of 8 mg/kg twice a day for 7 days. A compounding pharmacy prepared a suspension containing 50 mg/mL of metronidazole. - How many milligrams of metronidazole does Marshmallow require per dose? - How many milliliters of the suspension are required per dose? $9\;lb\;4\;oz=9.25\;lb\times \frac{1\;kg}{2.2\;lb}\times \frac{8\;mg}{kg}=\frac{33.6\;mg}{dose}$ $\frac{33.6\;mg}{dose}\times \frac{1\;mL}{50\;mg\;MTZ}=0.67\;mL/dose,\;round\;to\;0.7\;mL$ Marshmallow refuses to take the metronidazole suspension, probably due to the bad taste of the drug. The vet then orders metronidazole benzoate suspension because cats tend to find the taste less offensive. Metronidazole benzoate is an ester prodrug of metronidazole with a molecular weight of 275.3 g/mole. The prodrug is hydrolyzed in the body to generate metronidazole, which has molecular weight of 171.2 g/mole. The vet wants Marshmallow to receive the equivalent of 8 mg/kg of metronidazole twice daily for 7 days. Metronidazole benzoate suspension may be compounded using the formula:1 Metronidazole benzoate 8 g Glycerin 10 mL Flavoring agent (optional) qs Simple syrup qs 100 mL - How many milligrams of metronidazole benzoate are required to provide the equivalent of 8 mg/kg of metronidazole? - How many milliliters of metronidazole benzoate suspension are required to provide this dose? We already determined that 8 mg/kg of metronidazole is 33.6 mg. We need to adjust the dose using the molecular weights to account for the drug being delivered as the benzoate ester. $33.6\;mg\;MTZ\times \frac{\frac{275.3\;g\;MTZ Benz}{mole}}{\frac{171.2\;g\;MTZ}{mole}}=54\;mg\;MTZ\;Benz\;per\;dose$ The suspension formula specifies 8 g (8000 mg) of metronidazole benzoate per 100 mL of the suspension, so the volume of suspension required per dose is: $54\;mg\;MTZ\;Benz\times \frac{100\;mL}{8000\;mg\;MTZ\;Benz}=0.68\;mL,\;round\;to\;0.7\;mL$ - How much of the metronidazole benzoate suspension should be dispensed to provide 7 days of therapy? $\frac{0.7\;mL}{dose}\times \frac{2\;doses}{day}\times7\;days =9.8\;mL\;required$ You should dispense more than 10 mL to account for some waste, slight measurement errors, etc. Dispensing 15 mL (approximately 5 mL more than the required volume) should allow 7 full days of therapy at 0.7 mL per dose. Marshmallow’s owner is concerned about giving her metronidazole benzoate because they read that benzoates are toxic to cats. A veterinary medical reference states that benzoate is safe in cats if the exposure is less than 200 mg/kg/day. - How many mg/kg of benzoate will Marshmallow ingest per day at a dose of 0.7 mL of metronidazole benzoate suspension twice a day? Metronidazole molecular weight is 171.2 g/mole while metronidazole benzoate molecular weight is 275.3 g/mole. Therefore, metronidazole benzoate is approximately equivalent to 171.2 g of metronidazole and 104.1 g (275.3 – 171.2) of benzoate per mole. $\frac{2\;doses}{day}\times \frac{54\;mg\;MTZ\;Benz}{dose}\times \frac{104.1\;g\;Benzoate}{275.3\;g\;MTZ\;Benz}=40.8\;mg\;benzoate\;per\;day$ Marshmallow weighs 9¼ lb or 4.2 kg, so benzoate intake per day is $\frac{40.8\;mg}{day}=9.7\;mg/kg/day$ This is much lower than the 200 mg/kg/day limit. According to the guidelines, this dose should be safe. Marshmallow takes the metronidazole benzoate suspension without struggling and, after a followup visit, the vet orders another 7 days supply at the same dose. Marshmallow’s owner finds it inconvenient to measure 0.7 mL per dose and would like the suspension to be compounded so that each dose is given in a larger volume. - What volume of suspension should be dispensed if each dose is 2.5 mL? - How much metronidazole benzoate is required to compound this volume of suspension? - How much glycerin is required if the same proportion is used, i.e. 10 mL of glycerin per 100 mL of suspension? $\frac{2.5\;mL}{dose}\times \frac{2\;doses}{day}\times 7\;days=35\;mL\;for\;7\;days.\;Dispense\;40\;mL$ The amount of metronidazole per dose is 54 mg and it will be delivered in 2.5 mL per dose. The total amount of metronidazole benzoate required to compound 40 mL of suspension is: $40\;mL\times \frac{54\;mg\;MTZ\;Benz}{2.5\;mL}=864\;MTZ\;Benz\;needed$ Glycerin is included in the original published suspension formulation at 10 mL per 100 mL of suspension, so for 40 mL of suspension: $\frac{10\;mL\;glycerin}{100\;mL\;suspension}=\frac{x\;mL\;glycerin}{40\;mL\;suspension}=4\;mL\;glycerin\;needed$ 1U.S. Pharmacist 2023;48(4):71-72. Module 9B: Phenytoin Products for Treating Seizure Disorder Phenytoin is an anticonvulsant drug used to treat some types of seizure disorders. It is available in 5 dosage forms as shown in table 9.1. The different dosage forms have different absorption rates and different potencies, so switching from one dosage form to another must be done carefully. Phenytoin chewable tablets and phenytoin suspension contain phenytoin as the free acid. Extended phenytoin sodium capsules and phenytoin injection contain phenytoin sodium. Each milligram of phenytoin sodium has the equivalent of 0.92 mg of phenytoin free acid, and this difference must be taken into account when switching from phenytoin sodium and phenytoin free acid products. Fosphenytoin sodium is an injectable prodrug of phenytoin and each 1.5 mg of fosphenytoin sodium contains the equivalent of 1 mg of phenytoin sodium. In an effort to reduce errors in dose calculation, fosphenytoin sodium is labeled in terms of phenytoin sodium equivalent (PE) dose, where 1.5 mg of fosphenytoin sodium represents 1 mg PE (1 mg of phenytoin sodium). Phenytoin product equivalencies are summarized as: 1 mg PE = 1 mg phenytoin sodium = 0.92 mg phenytoin Table 9.1 Some Phenytoin Dosage Forms Example 9.2: CJ (10 years old, 45 kg, 4’9” tall) has been healthy, taking no regular medications or over-the-counter products until experiencing a serious seizure. CJ is taken to the hospital and the physician orders a fosphenytoin loading dose of 15 mg PE/kg to be infused at a rate of 2 mg PE/kg/min or 150 mg PE/min, whichever is slower. This hospital dilutes fosphenytoin sodium in the smallest volume of D5W that gives a drug concentration less than 25 mg PE/mL. - Calculate the fosphenytoin loading dose in mg PE for CJ. $45\;kg\times \frac{15\;mg\;PE}{kg}=675\;mg\;PE$ - Calculate the volume of fosphenytoin injection required for the dose (see label in Table 9.1). The hospital pharmacy stocks D5W in 50 mL, 100 mL, 250 mL and 500 mL bags. Calculate which bag should the dose be prepared in. $675\;mg\;PE\times \frac{1\;mL}{50\;mg\;PE}=13.5\;mL\;fosphenytoin\;injection$ $\frac{675\;mg\;PE}{x\;mL}=\frac{25\;mg\;PE}{1\;mL},\;x=\;27\;mL$ If the dose was diluted to a total of 27 mL the concentration would be 25 mg PE/mL. The smallest bag is 50 mL, so 50 mL D5W + 13.5 mL fosphenytoin inj = 63.5 mL. Use the 50 mL bag. - Calculate the required solution flow rate in mL/min. From the calculations above, the drug concentration is 675 mg PE/63.5 mL. The preferred flow rate is 2 mg PE/kg/min. $45\;kg\times \frac{2\;mg\;PE}{kg\;\times\;min}\times\frac{63.5\;mL}{675\;mg\;PE} =8.5\;mL/min$ - How many minutes will it take to infuse the loading dose? $63.5\;mL\times \frac{1\;min}{8.5\;mL}=7.5\;min$ After the loading dose has been administered, the physician orders a maintenance dose of fosphenytoin 4 mg PE/kg by IV infusion every 12 hours at a rate of 2 mg PE/kg/min or 150 mg PE/min, whichever is slower. - Calculate the fosphenytoin maintenance dose in mg PE for CJ. $45\;kg\times \frac{4\;mg\;PE}{kg}=180\;mg\;PE$ - Calculate the volume of fosphenytoin injection required for each maintenance dose. $180\;mg\;PE\times \frac{1\;mL}{50\;mg\;PE}=3.6\;mL\;fosphenytoin\;injection$ - What D5W bag size should be used? $\frac{180\;mg\;PE}{x\;mL}=\frac{25\;mg\;PE}{mL},\;x=7.2\;mL$ If the dose was diluted to a total of 7.2 mL the concentration would be 25 mg PE/mL. The smallest bag is 50 mL, so 50 mL D5W + 3.6 mL fosphenytoin inj = 53.6 mL. Use the 50 mL bag. - Calculate the required solution flow rate in mL/min. $45\;kg\times \frac{2\;mg\;PE}{kg\;\times\;min}\times \frac{53.6\;mL}{180\;mg\;PE}=26.8\;mL/min$ - How many minutes will it take to infuse each maintenance dose? $53.6\;mL\times \frac{1\;min}{26.8\;mL}=2\;min$ When CJ is stabilized and ready for discharge, the physician would like to switch from fosphenytoin to phenytoin chewable tablets for CJ’s outpatient maintenance therapy. - Read the phenytoin product labels. Calculate the dose of phenytoin free acid that is equivalent to each fosphenytoin maintenance dose. $180\;mg\;PE\times \frac{0.92\;mg\;phenytoin}{1\;mg\;PE}=165.6\;mg\;phenytoin$ - The physician orders the phenytoin chewable tablets to be administered twice daily. Calculate how many tablets should CJ take per dose. $165.6\;mg\;phenytoin\times \frac{1\;tab}{50\;mg\;phenytoin}=3.3\;tablets$ It is not practicle to break the chewable tablets to obtain a dose of 3.3 tablets. Suggest to the physician to round the dose up to 3.5 tablets. - Calculate how many tablets should be dispensed for a 90 days’ supply. $90\;days\times \frac{2\;doses}{day}\times \frac{3.5\;tabs}{dose}=630\;tablets$ Module 9C: Gentamicin Extended Interval Dosing Nomogram Gentamicin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic administered by IV infusion for treating infections caused by susceptible strains of Gram-negative bacteria. The dose and frequency of gentamicin administration must be carefully chosen to provide effective therapy while minimizing the risk of toxicity to the kidneys. Gentamicin has traditionally been administered in 3 doses per day. Extended interval dosing is an alternative approach to treat patients with normal renal function and uncomplicated infections. These protocols involve giving a single dose of drug every 1 to 2 days, guided by the plasma concentration of gentamicin after the first dose. Extended interval dosing uses a standard weight-based dose and a nomogram to determine the frequency of administration. SIUE Gentamicin protocol2 - The standard dose of gentamicin is 7 mg/kg. Use actual body weight. For patients whose actual body weight is higher than 1.2 x IBW, use adjusted body weight (factor 0.4): (IBW + 0.4 × (Actual weight - IBW)). - Gentamicin is diluted in 100 mL of D5W and infused over 60 minutes. - Obtain the gentamicin plasma level 6 – 12 hours after the first dose is started. If the dose begins at 0800, order a gentamicin level to be drawn between 1400 and 2000 the same day. - Plot the gentamicin concentration and the blood draw time on the nomogram (Figure 9.1) to determine the appropriate interval for subsequent doses. If the concentration is above the borderline for the Q48h interval, then the patient is not a candidate for extended interval dosing and should be treated according to the traditional approach (not covered here). - Check the gentamicin trough plasma level one time per week. Draw the trough blood sample six hours prior to a dose. The concentration should be less than 1 mcg/mL. If the trough value is higher than 1 mcg/mL, refer to the infectious disease team for dose adjustment (not covered here). Examples (see nomogram below): - A - the blood sample was drawn10 hours after the first dose was started and the gentamicin concentration was 4 mcg/mL. The patient should continue to receive 7 mg/kg at an interval of every 24 hours. - B - the blood sample was drawn 8 hours after the first dose was started and the gentamicin concentration was 8 mcg/mL. The patient should continue to receive 7 mg/kg at an interval of every 36 hours. - C - the blood sample was drawn 11 hours after the first dose was started and the gentamicin concentration was 7 mcg/mL. The patient should continue to receive 7 mg/kg at an interval of every 48 hours. - D - the blood sample was drawn 9.5 hours after the first dose was started and the gentamicin concentration was 12 mcg/mL. The patient should not be treated according to the extended dosing protocol. Figure 9.1 - Gentamicin nomogram Example 9.3: Patient BZ (70 yo male, 210 lb, 5’9”) is prescribed gentamicin 7 mg/kg per the protocol. - What weight should you use to calculate the dose? $Actual\;weight=210\;lb\times \frac{1\;kg}{2.2\;lb}=95.5\;kg$ $IBW=50\;kg\;+\;2.3\;kg(69-60^{"})=70.7\;kg$ $\frac{Actual}{IBW}=\frac{95.5\;kg}{70.7\;kg}=1.35\gt 1.2,\;use\;adjusted\;body\;weight$ $ABW=70.7\;kg\;+\;0.4(95.5-70.7\;kg)=80.6\;kg$ - Calculate the dose in milligrams for BZ. $Dose=80.6\;kg\times\frac{7\;mg}{kg}=564\;mg,\;round\;to\;565\;mg $ - Calculate how many milliliters of the gentamicin injection are required for each dose and the flow rate (mL/min) that should be used to infuse the drug. $565\;mg\;gent\times \frac{1\;mL\;inj}{40\;mg\;gent}=14.1\;mL\;injection \;per\;dose $ The drug is added to 100 mL D5W, so concentration = 565 mg/114.1 mL. The drug is infused over 60 minutes, so flow rate = 114.1 mL/60 min = 1.9 mL/min. - BZ’s first infusion started at 0800 on 1/15/24. A blood sample was drawn at 1830 the same day and the gentamicin level was 5.6 mcg/mL. When (dates and times) should the next 3 doses be administered? The gentamicin level was 5.6 mcg/mL at 10.5 hours after the infusion was started. This point falls into the Q36h section of the nomogram. The next 3 doses should be given at: - Dose 2: 0800 1/15/24 + 36 hours = 2000 1/16/24 - Dose 3: 2000 1/16/24 + 36 hours = 0800 1/18/24 - Dose 4: 0800 1/18/24 + 36 hours = 2000 1/19/24 - The physician wants to check the gentamicin trough level before the 4th dose. When (date and time) should the blood sample be drawn. Troughs are drawn 6 hours prior to a dose. Dose 4 scheduled for 2000 on 1/19/24, so trough should be drawn at 1400 on 1/19/24. 2Based on Stanford Health Care Aminoglycosides Dosing Guidelines (https://med.stanford.edu/content/dam/sm/bugsanddrugs/documents/antimicrobial-dosing-protocols/SHC-Aminoglycoside-Dosing-Guide.pdf) Module 9D: Intravenous Phosphate Supplementation Begin by reviewing the phosphate supplementation examples in Module 8 - Sodium phosphates injection contains 3 mmoles of phosphate and 4 mEq sodium per mL. - Potassium phosphates injection contains 3 mmoles of phosphate and 4.4 mEq potassium per mL. - The plasma potassium level is expected to increase by 0.5 mEq/L for every 40 mEq of potassium administered. - The normal potassium plasma level for this course is 3.5 – 5 mEq/L. (Some institutions or testing labs may have slightly different normal values.) The osmolarity of phosphates infusions must be checked to determine if peripheral infusion is appropriate. The maximum osmolarity for peripheral infusion is 600 mOsm/L. Example 9.4: Patient HP has K+ level of 4.1 mEq/L and requires 45 mmoles of phosphate. The expected K+ level after the dose is less than 5, so this KPhos dose is saf - Calculate the expected potassium level after administering 45 mmoles of potassium phosphates. - Is it safe to administer the dose as potassium phosphates? $45\;mmol\;Phos\times \frac{4.4\;mEq\;K^{+}}{3\;mmol\;Phos}=66\;mEq\;K^{+}\\\\ $ $\frac{4.1\;mEq\;K^{+}}{L}\;+\;66\;mEq\times \frac{0.5\;mEq/L}{40\;mEq\;K^{+}\;dose}=4.9\;mEq\;K^{+}/L\;after\;dose $ The expected K+ level after the dose is less than 5, so this KPhos dose is safe. - What is the minimum volume of D5W that the dose be diluted in (50, 100, 250, 500, or 1000 mL) for peripheral administration, i.e. what volume of D5W will give osmolarity < 600 mOsm/L. $45\;mmol\;KPhos\times \frac{1\;mL}{3\;mmol\;Phos}=15\;mL\;KPhos\;injection$ Find the volume of D5W that will give a final 600 mOsm/L using alligation. The KPhos label shows the injection osmolarity is 7.4 mOsm/mL. Recall D5W osmolarity is 252 mOsm/L or 0.252 mOsm/mL. 600 mOsm/L or 0.6 mOsm/mL is the target value. $\frac{15\;mL}{0.348\;parts}=\frac{x\;mL}{6.4\;parts},\;x=276\text{ mL or larger D5W required. Use 500 mL bag}$ - If HP receives 45 mmoles of potassium phosphates in the smallest appropriate bag for peripheral infusion, what flow rate (mL/hr) should be used to administer the dose over 6 hours. The drug volume is 15 mL and the bag volume is 500 mL = 515 mL total. 515 mL/6 hr = 85.8 or 86 mL/hour Example 9.5: RG has K+ level of 4.8 mEq/L. A physician ordered potassium phosphates 25 mmoles in 250 mL of ½ NS. Is this order safe and appropriate? Determine if any changes are needed, i.e. is the appropriate phosphates salt ordered (final K+ level 5 mEq/L or less) and the osmolarity of the solution 600 mOsm/L or less? If the K+ dose is too high, recommend using the Na Phosphates injection. If the osmolarity is too high, use a larger volume of fluid. $25\;mmol\;Phos\;\times\;\frac{4.4\;mEq\;K^+}{3\;mmol\;Phos}=\;36.7\;mEq\;of\;K^+\;ordered$ $\frac{4.8\;mEq\;K^{+}}{L}\;+\;36.7\;mEq\;\times \frac{0.5\;mEq/L}{40\;mEq\;K^{+}\;dose}=5.3\;mEq\;K^{+}/L\;after\;dose$ This dose is not safe. Recommend sodium phosphates injection. $25\;mmol\;Phos\times \frac{1\;mL}{3\;mmol\;Phos}=8.3\;mL\;NaPhos\;injection$ $Osmolarity=\frac{\left(8.3\;mL\times \frac{7\;mOsm}{mL} \right)+\left(250\;mL\times \frac{0.154\;mOsm}{mL} \right)}{8.3\;+\;250\;mL}\times \frac{1000\;mL}{L}=373\;mOsm/L. $ NaPhos 25 mmol in 250 mL of 1/2 NS is appropriate for administration via a peripheral infusion. Module 9E: Parenteral Nutrition Calculations Stanley Dudrick’s development and introduction of parenteral nutrition (PN) solutions in the 1960s profoundly influenced patient care. From the beginning, Dr. Dudrick insisted that pharmacists be members of the Nutrition Support Team. The American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (ASPEN) is a professional organization dedicated to advancing the science and practice of clinical nutrition and metabolism. It publishes detailed information on feeding guidelines for patients receiving parenteral nutrition. If you are interested in clinical nutrition, consider joining this organization. A PN solution typically consists of amino acids, dextrose, fat emulsions, and water. Electrolytes, vitamins, and micronutrients are also used to support normal physiology. The pharmacist typically prepares a PN solution by calculating the component volumes and caloric contributions. You may recall the caloric contributions from biochemistry for dextrose (a monosaccharide carbohydrate), amino acids, and fat. Carbohydrates provide 4 kcal/g, but parenteral solutions use dextrose monohydrate with a caloric value of 3.4 kcal/g. In general, we do not count the calories provided by amino acids since these molecules are used for tissue synthesis and are not intended as an energy source for the nourished patient. If fully metabolized, they would contribute 4 kcal/g. Finally, fat is an essential source of calories and essential fatty acids and has a caloric contribution of 9 kcal/g. Component \| Calories \| Amino Acids \| Not counted, but 4 kcal/g \| Dextrose · H2O \| 3.4 kcal/g \| Fat \| 9 kcal/g \| Several manufacturers offer Amino Acid Solutions (AA). Amino acid product solutions are available in several w/v concentrations. Some brand names include Aminosyn, Plenamine, Prosol, Travasol, and Troph-Amine. There are others. We will not discuss the individual amino acid amounts as they do not directly influence calculation issues. The nutrition team usually refers to amino acids as protein. Dextrose USP injection is available in solutions at 50% and 70% w/v concentrations. Fat emulsions (ILE – intravenous lipid emulsions) are available with several different oil components, and the three commercial concentrations are 10%, 20%, and 30% w/v. Sterile Water for injection (SWFI) makes the final volume after adding electrolytes, vitamins, and minerals. These calculations are identical to the w/v calculations seen in Module 2A. When writing PN orders use 1 decimal place in the percentages for protein, dextrose, and fat. Consider the PN solution order for a hospitalized 180-pound, medically stable patient unable to eat following GI tract surgery. The electrolytes, vitamins, and micronutrients add 65 mL to the total volume. Total daily volume = 2000 mL. The nutrition team wants to provide 20 - 30 kcal/kg/day of energy, not counting the contribution from protein. Amino Acids 3 % Dextrose 19 % Lipids 3 % Your PN compounding supplies include Dextrose 70% injection, an Amino Acid 15% solution, a 20% IV fat emulsion, and sterile water for injection. What volume (mL) of each component is needed to prepare the 2L solution? Dextrose How many grams of Dextrose are in 2000 mL of the PN solution? $\frac{19\;g\;Dextrose}{100\; mL}\;=\frac{X\;g\;Dextrose}{2000\;mL};\;X\;=\;380\;g$ What volume of D70 provides 380 g? $\frac{70\;g\;Dextrose}{100\; mL}\;=\frac{380\;g\;Dextrose}{X\;mL};\;X\;=\;543\;mL$ Amino Acids How many grams of Protein are in 2000 mL? $\frac{3\;g\;Plenamine}{100\; mL}\;=\frac{X\;g\;Plenamine}{2000\;mL};\;X\;=\;60\;g$ What volume of Plenamine 15% provides 60 g? $\frac{15\;g\;Plenamine}{100\; mL}\;=\frac{60\;g\;Plenamine}{X\;mL};\;X\;=\;400\;mL$ Fat How many grams of Fat are in 2000 mL? $\frac{3\;g\;Fat}{100\; mL}\;=\frac{X\;g\;Fat}{2000\;mL};\;X\;=\;60\;g$ What volume of SMOFLipid 20% provides 60 g? $\frac{20\;g\;Fat}{100\; mL}\;=\frac{60\;g\;Fat}{X\;mL};\;X\;=\;300\;mL$ SWFI How much SWFI is needed to qs to 2000 mL? $2000\;mL\;-\;543\;mL\:-\;400\;mL\;-\;300\;mL\;-\;65\;mL\;=\;692\;mL\;water $ Dextrose calories How many kcal are provided by Dextrose when the patient receives the 2000 mL? $380\; g\;\times \;3.4\;\frac{kcal}{g}\;=\;1292\;kcal$ Fat calories How many fat calories are provided by the 2000 mL PN solution per day? Intravenous lipid emulsion (ILE) products use emulsifiers and glycerin in the formulation. The egg phospholipid emulsifiers and glycerin increase the caloric value beyond what you might calculate based on 9 kcal/g of fat. The caloric values per milliliter for several products are summarized in the table. Product \| kcal/mL \| Intralipid 10 % \| 1.1 \| Intralipid 20 % \| 2 \| Intralipid 30 % \| 3 \| Nutrilipid 20 % \| 2 \| Omegaven 10 % \| 1.1 \| SMOFLipid 20 % \| 2 \| $300\; mL\;\times \;2\;\frac{kcal}{mL}\;=\;600\;kcal$ Total Nonprotein Calories An ASPEN guideline suggests providing a total energy (carbohydrate and fat) component of 20 – 30 kcal/kg/day. Does the PN solution attain that target? $1292\;+\;600\;=\;1892\;kcal/day$ $\frac{1892\;kcal/day}{82\;kg}\;=\;23\;kcal/kg/day$ Yes, the formulation meets the target goal. Module 9: Practice Problems 1. Chewbacca needs metronidazole too. Chewbacca is a 17 lb male Maine Coon cat. The veterinarian ordered metronidazole 50 mg/mL suspension, 2 mL PO BID x 10 days for an infection. - The usual dose for this indication in cats is 8 mg/kg BID. Check the dose – if it is not the usual dose, what should you report as the usual dose and volume of 50 mg/mL suspension per dose for Chewbacca when checking with the vet? - Chewbacca’s vet thanks you and accepts your recommendation for the dose. What volume of the drug suspension should be dispensed according to the dosing guideline? (Add about 5 mL extra to allow for some loss during the week of therapy.) - What size of oral syringe should you dispense with the suspension. Your pharmacy compounds metronidazole suspension according to the formula: Metronidazole 5 g Ora Plus® suspending agent 40 mL Flavor concentrate 2.5 mL Purified water qs 100 mL - How many 250 metronidazole tablets should be used to compound the required amount of suspension for Chewbacca? - The flavor concentrate contains fish flavor and 35% v/v propylene glycol in water. - Calculate the percent strength of propylene glycol in the metronidazole suspension. 2. BK (9 years old, 53 kg) is hospitalized for new onset seizures. The physician orders fosphenytoin loading dose and maintenance dose according to the guidelines. - Calculate the recommended loading dose of fosphenytoin for BK - Calculate the recommended flow rate and time required to admininster the loading dose. - Calculate the recommended maintenance dose of fosphenytoin. - Calculate the recommended flow rate and time required to administer the maintenance dose. - Calculate the recommended oral phenytoin dose and the number of infatabs required per dose. - Calculate the number of infatabs that should be dispensed for one month of therapy. Gentamicin Practice Cases 3. Patient IB (38 yo male, 6’1”, 320 lb) is prescribed gentamicin 7 mg/kg per protocol. - Calculate the dose in milligrams for IB. - Calculate how many milliliters of the gentamicin injection are required to prepare each dose and the appropriate flow rate in mL/min. - IB’s first infusion started at 1900 on 2/12/24. A blood sample was drawn at 0630 the next morning and the gentamicin level was 8.8 mcg/mL. When (dates and times) should the next doses be administered? 4. Patient HD (52 yo female, 5’10”, 155 lb) is prescribed gentamicin 7 mg/kg per protocol. - Calculate the dose in milligrams for HD. - Calculate the volume of gentamicin injection required to prepare the dose and the appropriate flow rate in mL/hr. - The first dose infusion was started at 1300 on 2/3/24. What is the window of time (earliest to latest) for the first blood sample to be drawn to determine the gentamicin plasma level according to the protocol. - The first gentamicin plasma level was 3.2 mcg/mL, taken 11 hours after starting the infusion. When should the next dose be administered. Phosphate Practice Cases 5. A 45 year old patient has K+ level of 4.3 mEq/L. The patient is ordered 55 mmol of KPhos to be administered as an isotonic solution by IV infusion over 6 hours. Determine if the order is safe as written. If it is not safe, what should you recommend. The pharmacy will prepare the dose by adding the correct amounts of phosphates injection and sterile water for injection to an empty IV bag. Calculate the volume of sterile water required to make the infusion isotonic. 6. A patient with potassium level of 4.1 mEq/L is ordered 40 mmol of K phos in 250 mL of D5W. Is the order safe and appropriate? If not, recommend an appropriate order. 7. A patient with potassium level of 4.8 mEq/L is ordered 50 mmol of K phos in 250 mL of ½ NS. Is the order safe and appropriate? If not, recommend an appropriate order. 8. A patient with potassium level of 4.6 mEq/L is ordered 30 mmol of K phos to be administered as an isotonic solution in sterile water for injection. Is the order safe and appropriate? If not recommend an appropriate order. Calculate the volume of sterile water required for the final order. 9. A PN solution order is written for a 150-pound, medically stable patient who will use the solution at home after discharge from the hospital. The electrolytes, vitamins, and micronutrients add 90 mL to the total volume. Total daily volume = 1800 mL. Amino Acids 4.1 % Dextrose 20 % Lipids 2.6 % Your PN compounding supplies include Dextrose 50% for injection, an Amino Acids 15%, a 20% IV Fat emulsion, and Sterile Water For Injection. What volume (mL) of each component is needed to prepare 2 L of the solution? How many g/kg/day of amino acids does the patient receive? How many carbohydrate calories are provided by the formula? How many fat calories are provided by the ILE product? How many non-protein kcal/kg/day does the patient receive? How much SWFI is required to make the 1800 mL total volume? 10. Write a PN solution order for a 70 kg patient that provides 1 g/kg/day of amino acids, 0.8 g/kg/day of fat, and 1540 kcal of carbohydrate. Your starting materials are a 10% amino acid solution, a 20% ILE product, Dextrose 70%, and SWFI. The electrolytes, vitamins, and micronutrients add 110 mL to the total volume. The total PN daily volume is 2100 mL. How much SWFI is needed to bring the total volume to 2100 mL? To start, calculate the number of grams needed for each component. Calculate the final concentrations, as in the above problem. You will need to calculate the component volumes to find the required volume of SWFI. 11. A PN solution order is written for a 66-pound, medically stable patient who will use the solution at home after discharge from the hospital. The electrolytes, vitamins, and micronutrients add 50 mL to the total volume. Total daily volume = 1360 mL. Amino Acids 4.4 % Dextrose 19.5 % Lipids 4.4 % Your PN compounding supplies include Dextrose 50% injection, an Amino acid 15% solution, a 20% IV Fat emulsion, and Sterile water for injection. What volume (mL) of each component is needed to prepare the 2 L solution? How many g/kg/day of amino acids does the patient receive? How many carbohydrate calories are provided by the formula? How many fat calories are provided by the ILE product? How many non-protein kcal/kg/day does the patient receive? How much SWFI is required to make the 1360 mL total volume? 12. Write a PN solution order for a 3 kg patient that provides 3 g/kg/day of amino acids, 2.5 g/kg/day of fat, and 176 kcal of carbohydrate. Your starting materials are a 15% amino acid solution, a 30% ILE product, Dextrose 70%, and SWFI. The electrolytes, vitamins, and micronutrients add 41 mL to the total volume. The total PN daily volume is 240 mL. How much SWFI is needed to bring the total volume to 240 mL? To start, calculate the number of grams needed for each component. Calculate the final concentrations, as in the above problem. You will need to calculate the component volumes to find the required volume of SWFI. Follow the advice provided in problem 10. 13. A PN solution order is written for a 55-pound, medically stable patient who is hospitalized and unable to eat. The electrolytes, vitamins, and micronutrients add 60 mL to the total volume. Total daily PN volume = 1200 mL. Amino Acids 4.6 % Dextrose 27 % Lipids 4.4 % Your PN compounding supplies include a 70% dextrose injection, a 15% amino acid solution, a 20% IV Fat emulsion, and Sterile Water for Injection. What volume (mL) of each component is needed to prepare the 2 L solution? How many g/kg/day of amino acids does the patient receive? How many carbohydrate calories are provided by the formula? How many fat calories are provided by the ILE product? How many non-protein kcal/kg/day does the patient receive? How much SWFI is required to make the 1200 mL total volume? 14. Write a PN solution order for a 7 kg patient that provides 2.5 g/kg/day of amino acids, 3 g/kg/day of fat, and 515 kcal of carbohydrate. Your starting materials are a 15% amino acid solution, a 30% ILE product, Dextrose 70%, and SWFI. The electrolytes, vitamins, and micronutrients add 50 mL to the total volume. The total PN daily volume is 630 mL. How much SWFI is needed to bring the total volume to 630 mL? To start, calculate the number of grams needed for each component. Calculate the final concentrations, as in the above problem. You will need to calculate the component volumes to find the required volume of SWFI. Follow the advice provided in problem 10. Answers: Practice Case 1 – Chewbacca the cat - The ordered dose represents 12.9 mg/kg; the dose guideline for Chewbacca is 61.8 mg or 1.2 – 1.3 mL BID. - 1.3 mL BID x 10 days is 26 mL; dispense 30 mL - Dispense a 3 mL (preferred) or 5 mL oral syringe - Six (6) tablets are needed - The propylene glycol concentration is 0.875 or 0.9% v/v Practice Case 2 – Phenytoin - Loading dose 780 mg PE - 15.6 mL fosphenytoin injection required; dose should be diluted in a 50 mL bag of D5W, and infused at 8.7 mL/min, infusion will run for 7.5 minutes - Maintenance dose 210 mg PE (rounded up from 208) - MD should be diluted in 50 mL D5W and infused at 27.1 mL/min, for 2 minutes. - Oral dose 200 mg (rounded up from 191 mg – with MD approval), requires 4 infatabs per dose; dispense 240 tablets for 30 days supply. Practice Cases 3 and 4 - Gentamicin - Calculate 743 mg, round to 745 mg - 18. 6 mL of injection, flow rate 2 mL/min for 118.6 mL - 1900 0630 is 11.5 hours. 8.8 mcg/mL @ 11.5 hours is above the 48 hour line - Protocol is not appropriate for this patient – refer to the infectious disease team - Calculate 494 mg, round to 495 mg - 12.4 mL of injection, 1.9 mL/min to infuse 112.4 mL - Draw 1st level between 6 and 12 hours after starting first dose – so between 1900 2/3 and 0100 2/4 - 3.2 mcg/mL @ 11 hours indicates 24 hr interval, so next dose at 0800 2/4 Practice Cases 5, 6, 7, and 8 - Phosphate Supplementation 5. The K+ level would be 5.3 mEq/L after the dose – recommend 55 mmol Na Phos instead. To produce an isotonic solution, mix 398 mL sterile water + 18.3 mL of NaPhos injection. 6. The K+ level would be 4.8 mEq/L after the dose, so K Phos is appropriate. The osmolarity will be too high (614 mOsm/L) in 250 mL of D5W – recommend 500 mL D5W (438 mOsm/L). 7. The K+ level would be 5.7 mEq/L after the dose – recommend Na Phos. The osmolarity would be 582 mOsm/L in 250 mL of ½ NS, so this volume is appropriate. 8. The K+ level would be 5.2 mEq/L after the dose – recommend Na Phos. The required amount of sterile water is 217 mL. Parenteral Nutrition 9. A PN solution order for a 150-pound, medically stable patient who will use the solution at home after discharge from the hospital. - AA 15% 492 mL D 50% 720 mL ILE 20% 238 mL (Other 90 mL) SEFI 264 mL - Protein ~ 1.1 g/kg/day - Carbs 1224 kcal/day - Fat 476 kcal/day - Calories ~ 25 kcal/kg/day 10. A PN solution for a 70 kg patient. - Amino acids 3.3 % Dextrose 21.6 % Lipids 2.7 % SWFI = 369 mL 11. A PN solution for a 66-pound patient. - AA 15% 400 mL D 50% 529 mL ILE 20% 300 mL (Other 50 mL) SWFI 81 mL - Protein ~ 2 g/kg/day - Carbs 902 kcal/day - Fat 600 kcal/day - Calories ~ 50 kcal/kg/day 12. A PN solution for a 3 kg patient. - Amino acids 3.75 % Dextrose 21.6 % Lipids 3.1 % SWFI = 40 mL 13. A PN solution for a 55-pound patient. - AA 15% 368 mL D 70% 463 mL ILE 20% 264 mL (Other 60 mL) SWFI 45 mL - Protein 2.2 g/kg/day - Carbs 1102 kcal/day - Fat 526 kcal/day - Calories ~ 65 kcal/kg/day 14. A PN solution for a 7 kg patient. - Amino acids 2.8 % Dextrose 24 % Lipids 3.3 % SWFI = 177 mL	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:19.786922	Timothy McPherson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115797/overview", "title": "Fundamentals of Pharmacy Calculations", "author": "Module" }
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OpenStax Why Maslow's Hierarchy Matters Introduction to Psychology Overview This course introduces students to the scientific study of the mind and behavior and to the applications of psychological theory to life. Topics include: research methods; biopsychology; lifespan development; memory; learning; social psychology; personality; and psychological health and disorders. This course will establish a foundation for subsequent study in psychology. Resources include: Video, Articles, and Class Activities. Introduction to Psychology This course introduces students to the scientific study of the mind and behavior and to the applications of psychological theory to life. Topics include: research methods; biopsychology; lifespan development; memory; learning; social psychology; personality; and psychological health and disorders. This course will establish a foundation for subsequent study in psychology. History of Psychology Overview: This section will cover the History of Psychology Bio-psychology The human brain is the command center for the human nervous system. It receives signals from the body's sensory organs and outputs information to the muscles. The human brain has the same basic structure as other mammal brains but is larger in relation to body size than any other brains. Facts about the human brain - The human brain is the largest brain of all vertebrates relative to body size. - It weighs about 3.3 lbs. (1.5 kilograms). - The average male has a brain volume of 1,274 cubic centimeters. - The average female brain has a volume of 1,131 cm3. - The brain makes up about 2 percent of a human's body weight. - The cerebrum makes up 85 percent of the brain's weight. - It contains about 86 billion nerve cells (neurons) — the "gray matter." - It contains billions of nerve fibers (axons and dendrites) — the "white matter." - These neurons are connected by trillions of connections, or synapses. Anatomy of the human brain The largest part of the human brain is the cerebrum, which is divided into two hemispheres, according to the Mayfield Clinic. Underneath lies the brainstem, and behind that sits the cerebellum. The outermost layer of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex, which consists of four lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. [Nervous System: Facts, Functions & Diseases] Like all vertebrate brains, the human brain develops from three sections known as the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. Each of these contains fluid-filled cavities called ventricles. The forebrain develops into the cerebrum and underlying structures; the midbrain becomes part of the brainstem; and the hindbrain gives rise to regions of the brainstem and the cerebellum. The cerebral cortex is greatly enlarged in human brains and is considered the seat of complex thought. Visual processing takes place in the occipital lobe, near the back of the skull. The temporal lobe processes sound and language, and includes the hippocampus and amygdala, which play roles in memory and emotion, respectively. The parietal lobe integrates input from different senses and is important for spatial orientation and navigation. The brainstem connects to the spinal cord and consists of the medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain. The primary functions of the brainstem include relaying information between the brain and the body; supplying some of the cranial nerves to the face and head; and performing critical functions in controlling the heart, breathing and consciousness. Between the cerebrum and brainstem lie the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus relays sensory and motor signals to the cortex and is involved in regulating consciousness, sleep and alertness. The hypothalamus connects the nervous system to the endocrine system — where hormones are produced — via the pituitary gland. The cerebellum lies beneath the cerebrum and has important functions in motor control. It plays a role in coordination and balance and may also have some cognitive functions. Humans vs. other animals Overall brain size doesn't correlate with level of intelligence. For instance, the brain of a sperm whale is more than five times heavier than the human brain but humans are considered to be of higher intelligence than sperm whales. The more accurate measure of how intelligent an animal may be is the ratio between the size of the brain and the body size, according to the University of California San Diego's Temporal Dynamics of Learning Center. Among humans, however, brain size doesn't indicate how smart someone is. Some geniuses in their field have smaller- than-average brains, while others larger than average, according to Christof Koch, a neuroscientist and president of the Allen Institute for Brain Science in Seattle. For example, compare the brains of two highly acclaimed writers. The Russian novelist Ivan Turgenev's brain was found to be 2,021 grams, while writer Anatole France's brain weighed only 1,017 grams. Humans have a very high brain-weight-to-body-weight ratio, but so do other animals. The reason why the human's intelligence, in part, is neurons and folds. Humans have more neurons per unit volume than other animals, and the only way to do that with the brain's layered structure is to make folds in the outer layer, or cortex, said Eric Holland, a neurosurgeon and cancer biologist at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center and the University of Washington. "The more complicated a brain gets, the more gyri and sulci, or wiggly hills and valleys, it has," Holland told Live Science. Other intelligent animals, such as monkeys and dolphins, also have these folds in their cortex, whereas mice have smooth brains, he said. Humans also have the largest frontal lobes of any animal, Holland said. The frontal lobes are associated with higher-level functions such as self-control, planning, logic and abstract thought — basically, "the things that make us particularly human," he said. Left brain vs. right brain The human brain is divided into two hemispheres, the left and right, connected by a bundle of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum. The hemispheres are strongly, though not entirely, symmetrical. The left brain controls all the muscles on the right-hand side of the body and the right brain controls the left side. One hemisphere may be slightly dominant, as with left- or right-handedness. The popular notions about "left brain" and "right brain" qualities are generalizations that are not well supported by evidence. Still, there are some important differences between these areas. The left brain contains regions involved in speech and language (called the Broca's area and Wernicke's area, respectively) and is also associated with mathematical calculation and fact retrieval, Holland said. The right brain plays a role in visual and auditory processing, spatial skills and artistic ability — more instinctive or creative things, Holland said — though these functions involve both hemispheres. "Everyone uses both halves all the time," he said. BRAIN Initiative In April 2013, President Barack Obama announced a scientific grand challenge known as the BRAIN Initiative, short for Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies. The $100-million-plus effort aimed to develop new technologies that will produce a dynamic picture of the human brain, from the level of individual cells to complex circuits. Like other major science efforts such as the Human Genome Project, although it's expensive, it's usually worth the investment, Holland said. Scientists hope the increased understanding will lead to new ways to treat, cure and prevent brain disorders. The project contains members from several government agencies, including the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), as well as private research organizations, including the Allen Institute for Brain Science and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in Chevy Chase, Maryland. In March 2013, the project's backers outlined their goals in the journal Science. In September 2014, the NIH announced $46 million in BRAIN Initiative grants. Members of industry pledged another $30 million to support the effort, and major foundations and universities also agreed to apply more than $240 million of their own research toward BRAIN Initiative goals. When the project was announced, President Obama convened a commission to evaluate the ethical issues involved in research on the brain. In May 2014, the commission released the first half of its report, calling for ethics to be integrated early and explicitly in neuroscience research. In March 2015, the commission released the second half of the report, which focused on issues of cognitive enhancement, informed consent and using neuroscience in the legal system. The Brain Initiative has achieved several of its goals. As of 2018, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) has "invested more than $559 million in the research of more than 500 scientists," and Congress appropriated "close to $400 million in NIH funding for fiscal year 2018," according to the initiative's website. The research funding facilitated the development of new brain-imaging and brain-mapping tools, and helped create the BRAIN Initiative Cell Census Network — an effort to catalog the brain's "parts' list." Together, these efforts contribute to major advancements in understanding the brain. Additional resources - "Evolution of the brain and Intelligence," by Gerhard Roth and Ursula Dicke, in Trends in Cognitive Sciences (May 2005) - NIH: The BRAIN Initiative - NSF: Understanding the Brain Parts of the human body - Bladder: Facts, Function & Disease - Colon (Large Intestine): Facts, Function & Diseases - Ears: Facts, Function & Disease - Esophagus: Facts, Function & Diseases - How the Human Eye Works - Gallbladder: Function, Problems & Healthy Diet - Human Heart: Anatomy, Function & Facts - Kidneys: Facts, Function & Diseases - Liver: Function, Failure & Disease - Lungs: Facts, Function & Diseases - Nose: Facts, Function & Diseases - Pancreas: Function, Location & Diseases - Small Intestine: Function, Length & Problems - Spleen: Function, Location & Problems - Stomach: Facts, Function & Diseases - The Tongue: Facts, Function & Diseases This article was updated on Sept. 28, 2018, by Live Science contributor Alina Bradford. Research Methods Research Methods: the ways we collect data to answer a research question data collection techniques including how we get respondents, how we ask questions, role of researcher in research and in the respondents/participants lives’, how we analyze the data Research Design: plan for how to answer the research question · Determine which methods are best used for answering the question · Map out how each method will be utilized · Determine limitations of each method for a research project Why do we need a research design? 1. To answer research question systematically/scientifically 2. To control variance: a. Maximize experimental variance (variance of key concepts) b. Minimize extraneous variance (confounding variables, and error) Textbook vs. Real research Academic vs. Applied research Data Collection + Data Analysis = Research Methods and Research Design Quantitative vs. Qualitative Paradigms: Data Collection Methods \| Quantitative: distinct methods Inductive, apriorism hypotheses, Positivism, Durkheim, functionalism, researcher separate from participants \| Qualitative: fluid lines, Deductive, no apriorism hypotheses, Interpretivism, Weber, Symbolic Interactionism, researcher interacts with participants \| \| Experiments: true, quasi \| Observation: participant, non-participant \| \| Surveys: f-to-f, mail, phone \| In-depth interviews: structured, unstructured \| \| Longitudinal: \| Advanced Qualitative Methods: \| \| a. trend: follow 1 variable over timeb. cohort: follow a pop over timec. panel: follow same group over time \| ethnomethodology: study small interactions (moments, situations), look for rules/methods of interaction \| \| phenomenology: study experiences \| \| \| case study, extended case study \| Other data collection methods: historical, document analysis, existing data Dichotomy of Quantitative and Qualitative Methods: Multi-methods: Using more than one research method Evaluation research, applied, action research = use qual + quant research methods Mixed Methods: Usually this works well, but depending on the topic/population, there can be limits: Ex: Doing Grounded Theory with Survey data: really impossible because whomever developed the survey had to have some theory/thoughts to even come up with questions Ex: Ethnography and experiments do not work together Exploratory research often draws on elements of both qual and quant data collection: Can be qualitative or quantitative. Most qualitative research is exploratory. The results of exploratory research often guide additional studies on the topic. · No literature to draw on · Developing a theory/model · Small sample, not representative Rationale Quantitative Research: There is one reality/truth that exists independent of the research. We can know it before observing reality. We can summarize it in words. We can measure it and test it objectively (free from researcher bias, values). “Based on my particular explanation of how the world works, this is what I expect to observe. If I find evidence supporting expectation, then the explanation is correct.” Positivism Quantitative Relationship between theory and method: T+ (theory) RQ+ (research question) M+ (method) T (theory) Rationale Qualitative Research: There is no one reality for a theory (as quantitatively known) to capture. There is no one understanding. Meanings and reality change across people, place and time. Let reality drive understanding (grounded theory). Researcher’s values enhance/shape the study. (Bias) Interpretivism Qualitative Relationship between theory and method: RQ+M+T Which methods you use will influence your research design, research question, researcher, theory, resources, study participants, goals, etc.… Examples of qualitative research questions: 1. Why don’t men go to the doctor when they are sick? 2. How does economic status shape a person’s beliefs and values? 3. How do boys play differently than girls? Examples of quantitative research questions: 1. What is the effect of information seeking on health status? 2. How many women in Pitt County have been raped in their lives? 3. What is the effect of race on women’s career success? Some people only do one method or do only qualitative or quant · Training · Politics · Interest: the types of RQs they ask are best studied with that method · Skills All Research Questions begin with some theory (except grounded theory) Theory: theory shapes concepts, theory determines what is important, previous research leaves holes in understanding: Theory = Symbolic Interaction, Sample RQ = does taking the role of other lower prejudice? Theory= Feminist Theory, Sample RQ = how do men subordinate other men in everyday life? Research Goals Do Quantitative if: · Need to generalize · Need to answer “what” questions, estimate prevalence, incidence of a phenomenon · Need to do research quickly (1 year) Do Qualitative if: · Need to answer how or why questions · If it is a process · If too complicated of a phenomenon to operationalize questions · If you don’t know enough about the phenomenon to develop questions that would reflect the entire the phenomenon · If you think people wouldn’t or couldn’t tell the truth on a survey or experiment · Impossible to reach the people you need to study by survey/experiment · You want to learn about people’s understandings, experiences Developing/writing Research questions Choosing/developing a research question is influenced by researcher, theory, importance of topic to discipline and society Develop research question by: · Reading lit · Talking to people who know about subject · Talking to people who live the subject Start out broad and get narrower as you become familiar with literature and then narrower when you choose your research design Writing Research questions: written clearly, no unnecessary words, no fancy words · Free from ambiguity · Central ideas, key concepts identify · Express relationships btw. Concepts · It is an empirically answerable question · Terminology reflects design: Qualitative = shape, explore / Quant = cause, relationship, influence, affect/effect You will need to refine your research question as you learn more about it from the scientific literature and from experts. With qualitative research: you might refine the question during the study: With quantitative research: you cannot change RQ once data collection has started. So you need to spend a great deal of time upfront nailing down RQs. Your hypotheses can be developed during research, somewhat. Hypotheses in quantitative research: · Conceptual hypotheses follow from research question ex. · The more experiences a person has with taking the role of others, the less prejudice they are. · Operationalized hypothesis follows from conceptual ones after methods are selected: Ex. Respondents who have higher scores on the role taking scale will have lower scores on the prejudice scale than respondents who have lower scores on the role taking scale. · Statistical hypotheses follow from operationalized hyps: mean group 1 < mean group 2 Hypotheses in qualitative research: Do not have hypotheses. You may have expectations. Research Process: How a research project unfolds Quantitative Research Process: impersonal relationship between researcher and study, and between researcher and study participants Theory research question conceptual hypotheses choose methods operationalized hypothesis collect data test data interpret results (support/refute theory) Theory = explanation Theory guides every step in the research process: question, choice of methods, management of concepts Several studies support theory, theory becomes more credible All studies support theory, theory becomes a law (rare in the social sciences) Biases: · Theory determines every part of the research process. Variable selection and msmt. Build a model to test based on theory. Predisposes data to support theory. (Ex. Gender models, measure gender with sex) · Operationalizations error · Variable sociology: build unrealistic “models” and then play god, talk about relationships between variables, differences between variables, · Context free: doesn’t always translate to anything real or meaningful about real life Sections to a Quantitative paper Abstract, Introduction (statement of problem), Lit Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, Conclusion (either summarize paper or review limitations of study) Qualitative Research Process: not a set pattern like quantitative research, process depends on method used Grounded theory: research question choose methods collect data revise research question collect data results (look for patterns) build theory from patterns draw on lit to further develop/validate explanation (Theory is built from data) Ethnography: same as grounded theory or: research question choose methods collect data revise research question collect data results (look for patterns) draw on theory/lit to explain patterns (draw on theory/lit at end rather than at beginning) Phenomenology: research question methods results (No theory) General qualitative: similar to quantitative process: Theory research question choose methods lit review collect data revise research question collect data results (look for patterns, do they support theory) Bias: 1. generalizations poor (“Here is how the world looked when I observed it.”), impossible to do true grounded theory 2. Only micro topics Sections to a Qualitative paper: no 1 format, depends on method, writing personal Ethnography: Abstract* (not always with qual paper), Introduction/Theory/Research Q, Methods, Results/Discussion (These sections are usually combined, explain findings as you present them drawing on theory and lit to explain) Grounded Theory: Abstract, Intro/ Research Q, Methods, Results/Discussion (draw on lit, explain theory that is built from data) General Qualitative: same as quantitative Research Proposal Sections 1. Introduction: make reader care, written plainly,no fancy words statement of problem initial research question hy important: how important to society, discipline 2. Literature Review: Summarize findings of previous or related research explain theory review previous work on research question a. What do we already know: Findings, how studied, concepts, limitations/problems, Identify your narrowed down research question, how your study will be different from previous work, conceptual hypotheses (if quant) only review articles which are directly related to your research question. Exception: there are no other studies on your question (not recommended for thesis) 3. Research Design: · Data collection methods why chose this method · Sampling: who observed/interviewed, unit of analysis · Variables/questions/measurement (interview guide) · Data documentation (video, audio) · Length of data collection · Role of researcher · Operationalized specific hypotheses · Data analysis plans · Statistical hypotheses (*bridge to results in papers) · Potential limitations of methods · Appendices: diagram of research design, survey, interview guide, informed consent, timeline of data collection, statistical model to be tested Learning and Memory Learning and memory are closely related concepts. Learning is the acquisition of skill or knowledge, while memory is the expression of what you’ve acquired. Another difference is the speed with which the two things happen. If you acquire the new skill or knowledge slowly and laboriously, that’s learning. If acquisition occurs instantly, that’s making a memory. The relationship between learning and memory is incredibly close and intertwined. As stated by the American Psychological Association, learning means securing various skills and information, while memory relates to how the mind stores and recalls information. It is almost impossible for an individual to truly learn something without also having the memory to retain what they have learned. In many ways, learning and memory maintain a very interdependent relationship, one that is much more nuanced and complex than it may appear to be on the surface. The Interdependence Of Learning And Memory Learning and memory share quite interesting parallels. First and foremost, both functions exist in and rely upon the brain. Without the brain, both learning and memory would be impossible. While learning can concern events that can take place in the past, present, and future, memory pertains to occurrences that have already passed. In other words, an individual can learn something new at virtually any time. Information, however, can only be mentally processed and stored in memory after learning. The ability to learn relies upon one's memory. Learning requires brain stimulation from the memory just as memory needs functional learning processes to collect and store new information. Everyone has different styles of learning, and sometimes some extra assistance from an educator or a counselor is needed to improve a person's ability to learn and retain information. However, there are things that you can do on your own to help improve these essential cognitive functions. What Is Learning? Learning is an adaptive function by which our nervous system changes in relation to stimuli in the environment, thus changing our behavioral responses and permitting us to function in our environment. The process occurs initially in our nervous system in response to environmental stimuli. Neural pathways can be strengthened, pruned, activated, or rerouted, all of which cause changes in our behavioral responses. Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors—they occur naturally and do not involve learning. In contrast, learning is a change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. The field of behavioral psychology focuses largely on measurable behaviors that are learned, rather than trying to understand internal states such as emotions and attitudes. Types of Learning There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning, in which associations are made between events that occur together. Observational learning is just as it sounds: learning by observing others. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a process by which we learn to associate events, or stimuli, that frequently happen together; as a result of this, we learn to anticipate events. Ivan Pavlov conducted a famous study involving dogs in which he trained (or conditioned) the dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the presence of a piece of meat. The conditioning is achieved when the sound of the bell on its own makes the dog salivate in anticipation for the meat. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is the learning process by which behaviors are reinforced or punished, thus strengthening or extinguishing a response. Edward Thorndike coined the term “law of effect,” in which behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. B. F. Skinner researched operant conditioning by conducting experiments with rats in what he called a “Skinner box.” Over time, the rats learned that stepping on the lever directly caused the release of food, demonstrating that behavior can be influenced by rewards or punishments. He differentiated between positive and negative reinforcement, and also explored the concept of extinction. Observational Learning Observational learning occurs through observing the behaviors of others and imitating those behaviors—even if there is no reinforcement at the time. Albert Bandura noticed that children often learn through imitating adults, and he tested his theory using his famous Bobo-doll experiment. Through this experiment, Bandura learned that children would attack the Bobo doll after viewing adults hitting the doll. Adapted from: Introduction to Learning \| Boundless Psychology Sensation and Perception Sensation and perception are two separate processes that are very closely related. Sensation is input about the physical world obtained by our sensory receptors, and perception is the process by which the brain selects, organizes, and interprets these sensations. In other words, senses are the physiological basis of perception. Perception of the same senses may vary from one person to another because each person’s brain interprets stimuli differently based on that individual’s learning, memory, emotions, and expectations. The sensitivity of a given sensory system to the relevant stimuli can be expressed as an absolute threshold. Absolute threshold refers to the minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time. Another way to think about this is by asking how dim can a light be or how soft can a sound be and still be detected half of the time. The sensitivity of our sensory receptors can be quite amazing. It has been estimated that on a clear night, the most sensitive sensory cells in the back of the eye can detect a candle flame 30 miles away (Okawa & Sampath, 2007). Under quiet conditions, the hair cells (the receptor cells of the inner ear) can detect the tick of a clock 20 feet away (Galanter, 1962). It is also possible for us to get messages that are presented below the threshold for conscious awareness—these are called subliminal messages. A stimulus reaches a physiological threshold when it is strong enough to excite sensory receptors and send nerve impulses to the brain: this is an absolute threshold. A message below that threshold is said to be subliminal: we receive it, but we are not consciously aware of it. Therefore, the message is sensed, but for whatever reason, it has not been selected for processing in working or short-term memory. Over the years there has been a great deal of speculation about the use of subliminal messages in advertising, rock music, and self-help audio programs. Research evidence shows that in laboratory settings, people can process and respond to information outside of awareness. But this does not mean that we obey these messages like zombies; in fact, hidden messages have little effect on behavior outside the laboratory (Kunst-Wilson & Zajonc, 1980; Rensink, 2004; Nelson, 2008; Radel, Sarrazin, Legrain, & Gobancé, 2009; Loersch, Durso, & Petty, 2013). Perception While our sensory receptors are constantly collecting information from the environment, it is ultimately how we interpret that information that affects how we interact with the world. Perception refers to the way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced. Perception involves both bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing refers to the fact that perceptions are built from sensory input. On the other hand, how we interpret those sensations is influenced by our available knowledge, our experiences, and our thoughts. This is called top-down processing. Look at the shape in Figure 3 below. Seen alone, your brain engages in bottom-up processing. There are two thick vertical lines and three thin horizontal lines. There is no context to give it a specific meaning, so there is no top-down processing involved. Figure 3. What is this image? Without any context, you must use bottom-up processing. Now, look at the same shape in two different contexts. Surrounded by sequential letters, your brain expects the shape to be a letter and to complete the sequence. In that context, you perceive the lines to form the shape of the letter “B.” Figure 4. With top-down processing, you use context to give meaning to this image. Surrounded by numbers, the same shape now looks like the number “13.” Figure 5. With top-down processing, you use context to give meaning to this image. When given a context, your perception is driven by your cognitive expectations. Now you are processing the shape in a top-down fashion. One way to think of this concept is that sensation is a physical process, whereas perception is psychological. For example, upon walking into a kitchen and smelling the scent of baking cinnamon rolls, the sensation is the scent receptors detecting the odor of cinnamon, but the perception may be “Mmm, this smells like the bread Grandma used to bake when the family gathered for holidays.” Although our perceptions are built from sensations, not all sensations result in perception. In fact, we often don’t perceive stimuli that remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time. This is known as sensory adaptation. Imagine entering a classroom with an old analog clock. Upon first entering the room, you can hear the ticking of the clock; as you begin to engage in conversation with classmates or listen to your professor greet the class, you are no longer aware of the ticking. The clock is still ticking, and that information is still affecting sensory receptors of the auditory system. The fact that you no longer perceive the sound demonstrates sensory adaptation and shows that while closely associated, sensation and perception are different. Adapted from: Sensation and Perception \| Introduction to Psychology Motivation and Emotion Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs The Hierarchy of Needs Maslow contextualized his theory of self-actualization within a hierarchy of needs. The hierarchy represents five needs arranged from lowest to highest, as follows: - Physiological needs: These include needs that keep us alive, such as food, water, shelter, warmth, and sleep. - Safety needs: The need to feel secure, stable, and unafraid. - Love and belongingness needs: The need to belong socially by developing relationships with friends and family. - Esteem needs: The need to feel both (a) self-esteem based on one’s achievements and abilities and (b) recognition and respect from others. - Self-actualization needs: The need to pursue and fulfill one’s unique potentials. When Maslow originally explained the hierarchy in 1943, he stated that higher needs generally won’t be pursued until lower needs are met. However, he added, a need does not have to be completely satisfied for someone to move onto the next need in the hierarchy. Instead, the needs must be partially satisfied, meaning that an individual can pursue all five needs, at least to some extent, at the same time. Maslow included caveats in order to explain why certain individuals might pursue higher needs before lower ones. For example, some people who are especially driven by the desire to express themselves creatively may pursue self-actualization even if their lower needs are unmet. Similarly, individuals who are particularly dedicated to pursuing higher ideals may achieve self-actualization despite adversity that prevents them from meeting their lower needs. Defining Self-Actualization To Maslow, self-actualization is the ability to become the best version of oneself. Maslow stated, “This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.” Of course, we all hold different values, desires, and capacities. As a result, self-actualization will manifest itself differently in different people. One person may self-actualize through artistic expression, while another will do so by becoming a parent, and yet another by inventing new technologies. Maslow believed that, because of the difficulty of fulfilling the four lower needs, very few people would successfully become self-actualized, or would only do so in a limited capacity. He proposed that the people who can successfully self actualize share certain characteristics. He called these people self-actualizers. According to Maslow, self-actualizers share the ability to achieve peak experiences, or moments of joy and transcendence. While anyone can have a peak experience, self-actualizers have them more frequently. In addition, Maslow suggested that self-actualizers tend to be highly creative, autonomous, objective, concerned about humanity, and accepting of themselves and others. Maslow contended that some people are simply not motivated to self-actualize. He made this point by differentiating between deficiency needs, or D-needs, which encompass the four lower needs in his hierarchy, and being needs, or B-needs. Maslow said that D-needs come from external sources, while B-needs come from within the individual. According to Maslow, self-actualizers are more motivated to pursue B-needs than non-self-actualizers. Criticism and Further Study The theory of self-actualization has been criticized for its lack of empirical support and for its suggestion that lower needs must be met before self-actualization is possible. In 1976, Wahba and Bridwell investigated these issues by reviewing a number of studies exploring different parts of the theory. They found only inconsistent support for the theory, and limited support for the proposed progression through Maslow’s hierarchy. However, the idea that some people are more motivated by B-needs than D-needs was supported by their research, lending increased evidence to the idea that some people may be more naturally motivated towards self-actualization than others. A 2011 study by Tay and Diener explored the satisfaction of needs that roughly matched those in Maslow’s hierarchy in 123 countries. They found that the needs were largely universal, but that the fulfillment of one need was not dependent on the fulfillment of another. For example, an individual can benefit from self-actualization even if they have not met their need to belong. However, the study also showed that when most citizens in a society have their basic needs met, more people in that society focus on pursuing a fulfilling and meaningful life. Taken together, the results of this study suggest that self-actualization can be attained before all of the four other needs are met, but that having one's most basic needs met makes self-actualization much more likely. The evidence for Maslow’s theory is not conclusive. Future research involving self-actualizers is needed in order to learn more. Yet given its importance to the history of psychology, the theory of self-actualization will maintain its place in the pantheon of classic psychological theories. Adapted from: Understanding Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualization Personality and Self What Is Personality? From eccentric and introverted to boisterous and bold, the human personality is a complex and colorful thing. Personality refers to a person's distinctive patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. It derives from a mix of innate dispositions and inclinations along with environmental factors and experiences. Although personality can change over a lifetime, one's core personality traits tend to remain relatively consistent during adulthood. While there are countless characteristics that combine in an almost infinite number of ways, people have been trying to find a way to classify personalities ever since Hippocrates and the ancient Greeks proposed four basic temperaments. Today, psychologists often describe personality in terms of five basic traits. The so-called Big Five are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. A newer model, called HEXACO, incorporates honesty-humility as a sixth key trait. What's My Personality Type? The idea of a personality "type" is fairly widespread. Many people associate a "Type A" personality with a more organized, rigid, competitive, and anxious person, for example. Yet there’s little empirical support for the idea. The personality types supplied by the popular Myers-Briggs Type Indicator have also been challenged by scientists. Psychologists who study personality believe such typologies generally are too simplistic to account for the ways people differ. Instead, there is broad scientific consensus around the Big Five model of trait dimensions, each of which contributes to one's personality and is largely independent of the others. Why Personality Matters Personality psychology—with its different ways of organizing, measuring, and understanding individual differences—can help people better grasp and articulate what they are like and how they compare to others. But the details of personality are relevant to more than just a person's self-image. The tendencies in thinking and behaving that concepts like the Big Five represent are related to a variety of other ways in which people compare to one another. These include differences in personal success, health and well-being, and how people get along with others. Personality also crosses into the realm of mental health: Professionals use a list of personality disorders involving long-term dysfunctional tendencies to diagnose and treat patients. Personality Traits Traits are the building blocks of personality. So what is a trait? In short, it’s a relatively stable way of thinking and behaving that can be used to describe a person and compare and contrast that person with others. Traits can be cast in very broad terms, such as how positively disposed a person generally is toward other people, or in more specific ones, such as how much that person tends to trust other people. These more specific aspects of personality are sometimes referred to as “facets.” Personality traits are usually considered distinct from mental abilities (including general intelligence) that are assessed based on how well one responds to problems or questions. Psychologists have developed a variety of ways to define and organize the span of personality traits. They are often bundled together based on broad personality factors, as in the commonly used Big Five trait taxonomy. But personality can be sliced in many different ways, and some traits are frequently measured and studied by psychologists on their own. Here are some of the scientifically studied groups of personality traits. Importantly, people generally do not simply have these traits or not have them—they can rate high, low, or somewhere in the middle on each one, compared to other people. The Big Five Personality Traits The Big Five traits—usually labeled openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, or OCEAN for short—are among the most commonly studied in psychology. The five-factor model splits personality into five broad traits that an individual can rate higher or lower on compared to other people, based on the extent to which the person exhibits them. Each of the five personality factors covers a group of narrower personality facets that tend to go together in individuals. For more on the five-factor model, see the Big Five Personality Traits. HEXACO and Honesty-Humility Some personality researchers have proposed a sixth major trait factor, in addition to the Big Five: it’s called honesty-humility and provides the “H” in the HEXACO model. Honesty-humility as a trait concept reflects the degree to which people place themselves ahead of other people, such as by seeking special treatment or manipulating others. Proposed facets include sincerity, fairness, and the avoidance of greed. For more on honesty-humility, see HEXACO. The Dark Triad Three traits, often called the Dark Triad—narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism—are commonly assessed to investigate the darker, or more antagonistic and self-interested side of human nature. While they represent particular ways of thinking about anti-social thoughts and behavior, they are not necessarily separate from other traits—for instance, it’s easy to see how they share some common ground with the Big Five concept of agreeableness or HEXACO’s honesty-humility. Some people who rate highly on these traits are described as being “a narcissist” or a “psychopath,” but the Dark Triad traits can be thought of in terms of a spectrum: A person can rate low, high, or anywhere in between on each one. Personality disorders, some of which involve Dark Triad-related behavior, are defined differently, using specified cut-offs for diagnosis. For more, see Dark Triad and Personality Disorders Adapted from: Personality Traits Psychological Disorders The term psychological disorder is sometimes used to refer to what is more frequently known as mental disorders or psychiatric disorders. Mental disorders are patterns of behavioral or psychological symptoms that impact multiple areas of life. These disorders create distress for the person experiencing these symptoms. While not a comprehensive list of every mental disorder, the following list includes some of the major categories of disorders described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The latest edition of the diagnostic manual is the DSM-5 and was released in May of 2013.1 The DSM is one of the most widely used systems for classifying mental disorders and provides standardized diagnostic criteria. Neurodevelopmental disorders are those that are typically diagnosed during infancy, childhood, or adolescence. These psychological disorders include: Intellectual Disability Sometimes called Intellectual Developmental Disorder, this diagnosis was formerly referred to as mental retardation.1 This type of developmental disorder originates prior to the age of 18 and is characterized by limitations in both intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviors. Limitations to intellectual functioning are often identified through the use of IQ tests, with an IQ score under 70 often indicating the presence of a limitation. Adaptive behaviors are those that involve practical, everyday skills such as self-care, social interaction, and living skills. Global Developmental Delay This diagnosis is for developmental disabilities in children who are under the age of five. Such delays relate to cognition, social functioning, speech, language, and motor skills. It is generally seen as a temporary diagnosis applying to kids who are still too young to take standardized IQ tests. Once children reach the age where they are able to take a standardized intelligence test, they may be diagnosed with an intellectual disability. Communication Disorders These disorders are those that impact the ability to use, understand, or detect language and speech. The DSM-5 identifies four different subtypes of communication disorders: language disorder, speech sound disorder, childhood onset fluency disorder (stuttering), and social (pragmatic) communication disorder. Autism Spectrum Disorder This disorder is characterized by persistent deficits in social interaction and communication in multiple life areas as well as restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviors. The DSM specifies that symptoms of autism spectrum disorder must be present during the early developmental period and that these symptoms must cause significant impairment in important areas of life including social and occupational functioning. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) ADHD is characterized by a persistent pattern of hyperactivity-impulsivity and/or inattention that interferes with functioning and presents itself in two or more settings such as at home, work, school, and social situations.The DSM-5 specifies that several of the symptoms must have been present prior to the age of 12 and that these symptoms must have a negative impact on social, occupational, or academic functioning. Bipolar and Related Disorders Bipolar disorder is characterized by shifts in mood as well as changes in activity and energy levels. The disorder often involves experiencing shifts between elevated moods and periods of depression. Such elevated moods can be pronounced and are referred to either as mania or hypomania. Mania This mood is characterized by a distinct period of elevated, expansive, or irritable mood accompanied by increased activity and energy. Periods of mania are sometimes marked by feelings of distraction, irritability, and excessive confidence. People experiencing mania are also more prone to engage in activities that might have negative long-term consequences such as gambling and shopping sprees. Depressive Episodes These episodes are characterized by feelings of a depressed or sad mood along with a lack of interest in activities. It may also involve feelings of guilt, fatigue, and irritability. During a depressive period, people with bipolar disorder may lose interest in activities that they previously enjoyed, experience sleeping difficulties, and even have thoughts of suicide. Both manic and depressive episodes can be frightening for both the person experiencing these symptoms as well as family, friends and other loved ones who observe these behaviors and mood shifts. Fortunately, appropriate and effective treatments, which often include both medications and psychotherapy, can help people with bipolar disorder successfully manage their symptoms. Anxiety Disorders Anxiety disorders are those that are characterized by excessive and persistent fear, worry, anxiety and related behavioral disturbances. Fear involves an emotional response to a threat, whether that threat is real or perceived. Anxiety involves the anticipation that a future threat may arise. Types of anxiety disorders include: Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) This disorder is marked by excessive worry about everyday events. While some stress and worry are a normal and even common part of life, GAD involves worry that is so excessive that it interferes with a person's well-being and functioning. Agoraphobia This condition is characterized by a pronounced fear of a wide range of public places. People who experience this disorder often fear that they will suffer a panic attack in a setting where escape might be difficult. Because of this fear, those with agoraphobia often avoid situations that might trigger an anxiety attack. In some cases, this avoidance behavior can reach a point where the individual is unable to even leave their own home. Social Anxiety Disorder Social anxiety disorder is a fairly common psychological disorder that involves an irrational fear of being watched or judged. The anxiety caused by this disorder can have a major impact on an individual's life and make it difficult to function at school, work, and other social settings. Specific Phobias These phobias involve an extreme fear of a specific object or situation in the environment. Some examples of common specific phobias include the fear of spiders, fear of heights, or fear of snakes. The four main types of specific phobias involve natural events (thunder, lightening, tornadoes), medical (medical procedures, dental procedures, medical equipment), animals (dogs, snakes, bugs), and situational (small spaces, leaving home, driving). When confronted by a phobic object or situation, people may experience nausea, trembling, rapid heart rate, and even a fear of dying. Panic Disorder This psychiatric disorder is characterized by panic attacks that often seem to strike out of the blue and for no reason at all. Because of this, people with panic disorder often experience anxiety and preoccupation over the possibility of having another panic attack. People may begin to avoid situations and settings where attacks have occurred in the past or where they might occur in the future. This can create significant impairments in many areas of everyday life and make it difficult to carry out normal routines. Separation Anxiety Disorder This condition is a type of anxiety disorder involving an excessive amount of fear or anxiety related to being separated from attachment figures. People are often familiar with the idea of separation anxiety as it relates to young children's fear of being apart from their parents, but older children and adults can experience it as well. When symptoms become so severe that they interfere with normal functioning, the individual may be diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder. Symptoms involve an extreme fear of being away from the caregiver or attachment figure. The person suffering these symptoms may avoid moving away from home, going to school, or getting married in order to remain in close proximity to the attachment figure. Stress Related Disorder Trauma and stressor-related disorders involve exposure to a stressful or traumatic event.6 These were previously grouped with anxiety disorders but are now considered a distinct category of disorders. Disorders included in this category include: Acute Stress Disorder Acute stress disorder is characterized by the emergence of severe anxiety for up to a one month period after exposure to a traumatic event. Some examples of traumatic events include natural disasters, war, accidents, and witnessing a death. As a result, the individual may experience dissociative symptoms such as a sense of altered reality, an inability to remember important aspects of the event, and vivid flashbacks as if the event were reoccurring. Other symptoms can include reduced emotional responsiveness, distressing memories of the trauma, and difficulty experiencing positive emotions. Adjustment Disorders Adjustment disorders can occur as a response to a sudden change such as divorce, job loss, end of a close relationship, a move, or some other loss or disappointment. This type of psychological disorder can affect both children and adults and is characterized by symptoms such as anxiety, irritability, depressed mood, worry, anger, hopelessness, and feelings of isolation. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) PTSD can develop after an individual has experienced exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence. Symptoms of PTSD include episodes of reliving or re-experiencing the event, avoiding things that remind the individual about the event, feeling on edge, and having negative thoughts. Reactive Attachment Disorder Reactive attachment disorder can result when children do not form normal healthy relationships and attachments with adult caregivers during the first few years of childhood. Symptoms of the disorder include being withdrawn from adult caregivers and social and emotional disturbances that result from patterns of insufficient care and neglect. Dissociative Disorders Dissociative disorders are psychological disorders that involve a dissociation or interruption in aspects of consciousness, including identity and memory.1 Dissociative disorders include: Dissociative Amnesia This disorder involves a temporary loss of memory as a result of dissociation. In many cases, this memory loss, which may last for just a brief period or for many years, is a result of some type of psychological trauma. Dissociative amnesia is much more than simple forgetfulness. Those who experience this disorder may remember some details about events but may have no recall of other details around a circumscribed period of time. Dissociative Identity Disorder Formerly known as multiple personality disorder, dissociative identity disorder involves the presence of two or more different identities or personalities. Each of these personalities has its own way of perceiving and interacting with the environment. People with this disorder experience changes in behavior, memory, perception, emotional response, and consciousness. Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder Depersonalization/derealization disorder is characterized by experiencing a sense of being outside of one's own body (depersonalization) and being disconnected from reality (derealization). People who have this disorder often feel a sense of unreality and an involuntary disconnect from their own memories, feelings, and consciousness. Somatic Symptom Disorders Formerly referred to under the heading of somatoform disorders, this category is now known as somatic symptoms and related disorders.7 Somatic symptom disorders are a class of psychological disorders that involve prominent physical symptoms that may not have a diagnosable physical cause. In contrast to previous ways of conceptualizing these disorders based on the absence of a medical explanation for the physical symptoms, the current diagnosis emphasizes the abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that occur in response to these symptoms. Disorders included in this category: Somatic Symptom Disorder Somatic symptom disorder involves a preoccupation with physical symptoms that make it difficult to function normally. This preoccupation with symptoms results in emotional distress and difficulty coping with daily life. It is important to note that somatic symptoms do not indicate that individuals are faking their physical pain, fatigue, or other symptoms. In this situation, it is not so much the actual physical symptoms that are disrupting the individual's life as it is the extreme reaction and resulting behaviors. Illness Anxiety Disorder Illness anxiety disorder is characterized by excessive concern about having an undiagnosed medical condition. Those who experience this psychological disorder worry excessively about body functions and sensations are convinced that they have or will get a serious disease, and are not reassured when medical tests come back negative. Conversion Disorder Conversion disorder involves experiencing motor or sensory symptoms that lack a compatible neurological or medical explanation. In many cases, the disorder follows a real physical injury or stressful event which then results in a psychological and emotional response. Factitious Disorder Factitious disorder used to have its own category, is now included under the somatic symptom and related disorders category of the DSM-5. A factitious disorder is when an individual intentionally creates, fakes, or exaggerates symptoms of illness. Munchausen syndrome, in which people feign an illness to attract attention, is one severe form of factitious disorder. Eating Disorders Eating disorders are characterized by obsessive concerns with weight and disruptive eating patterns that negatively impact physical and mental health. Feeding and eating disorders that used to be diagnosed during infancy and childhood have been moved to this category in the DSM-5.⁸ Types of eating disorders include: Anorexia Nervosa Anorexia nervosa is characterized by restricted food consumption that leads to weight loss and a very low body weight. Those who experience this disorder also have a preoccupation and fear of gaining weight as well as a distorted view of their own appearance and behavior. Bulimia Nervosa Bulimia nervosa involves binging and then taking extreme steps to compensate for these binges. These compensatory behaviors might include self-induced vomiting, the abuse of laxatives or diuretics, and excessive exercise. Rumination Disorder Rumination disorder is marked by regurgitating previously chewed or swallowed food in order to either spit it out or re-swallow it. Most of those affected by this disorder are children or adults who also have a developmental delay or intellectual disability. Pica Pica involves craving and consuming non-food substances such as dirt, paint, or soap. The disorder most commonly affects children and those with developmental disabilities. Binge-Eating Disorder Binge-eating disorder was first introduced in the DSM-5 and involves episodes of binge eating where the individual consumes an unusually large amount of over the course of a couple hours. Not only do people overeat, however, they also feel as if they have no control over their eating. Binge eating episodes are sometimes triggered by certain emotions such as feeling happy or anxious, by boredom or following stressful events. Sleep Disorders Sleep disorders involve an interruption in sleep patterns that lead to distress and affects daytime functioning. Examples of sleep disorders include: Narcolepsy Narcolepsy is a condition in which people experience an irrepressible need to sleep. People with narcolepsy may experience a sudden loss of muscle tone. Insomnia Disorder Insomnia disorder involves being unable to get enough sleep to feel rested. While all people experience sleeping difficulties and interruptions at some point, insomnia is considered a disorder when it is accompanied by significant distress or impairment over time. Hypersomnolence Hypersomnolence disorder is characterized by excessive sleepiness despite an adequate main sleep period. People with this condition may fall asleep during the day at inappropriate times such as at work and school. Breathing-Related Sleep Disorders Breathing-related sleep disorders are those that involve breathing anomalies such as sleep apnea that can occur during sleep. These breathing problems can result in brief interruptions in sleep that can lead to other problems including insomnia and daytime sleepiness. Parasomnias Parasomnias involve disorders that feature abnormal behaviors that take place during sleep. Such disorders include sleepwalking, sleep terrors, sleep talking, and sleep eating. Restless Legs Syndrome Restless legs syndrome is a neurological condition that involves having uncomfortable sensations in the legs and an irresistible urge to move the legs in order to relieve the sensations. People with this condition may feel tugging, creeping, burning, and crawling sensations in their legs resulting in an excessive movement which then interferes with sleep. Sleep disorders related to other mental disorders as well as sleep disorders related to general medical conditions have been removed from the DSM-5. The latest edition of the DSM also provides more emphasis on coexisting conditions for each of the sleep-wake disorders. Disruptive Disorders Impulse-control disorders are those that involve an inability to control emotions and behaviors, resulting in harm to oneself or others.1 These problems with emotional and behavioral regulation are characterized by actions that violate the rights of others such as destroying property or physical aggression and/or those that conflict with societal norms, authority figures, and laws. Types of impulse-control disorders include: Kleptomania Kleptomania involves an inability to control the impulse to steal. People who have kleptomania will often steal things that they do not really need or that have no real monetary value. Those with this condition experience escalating tension prior to committing a theft and feel relief and gratification afterwards. Pyromania Pyromania involves a fascination with fire that results in acts of fire-starting that endanger the self and others. People who struggle with pyromania purposefully and deliberately have set fires more than one time. They also experience tension and emotional arousal before setting a fire. Intermittent Explosive Disorder Intermittent explosive disorder is characterized by brief outbursts of anger and violence that are out of proportion for the situation. People with this disorder may erupt into angry outbursts or violent actions in response to everyday annoyances or disappointments. Conduct Disorder Conduct disorder is a condition diagnosed in children and adolescents under the age of 18 who regularly violate social norms and the rights of others. Children with this disorder display aggression toward people and animals, destroy property, steal and deceive, and violate other rules and laws. These behaviors result in significant problems in a child's academic, work, or social functioning. Oppositional Defiant Disorder Oppositional defiant disorder begins prior to the age of 18 and is characterized by defiance, irritability, anger, aggression, and vindictiveness. While all kids behave defiantly sometimes, kids with oppositional defiant disorder refuse to comply with adult requests almost all the time and engage in behaviors to deliberately annoy others. Depressive Disorders Depressive disorders are a type of mood disorder that include a number of conditions. They are all characterized by the presence of sad, empty, or irritable moods accompanied by physical and cognitive symptoms. They differ in terms of duration, timing, or presumed etiology. - Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder: A childhood condition characterized by extreme anger and irritability. Children display frequent and intense outbursts of temper. - Major depressive disorder: A condition characterized by loss of interest in activities and depressed mood which leads to significant impairments in how a person is able to function. - Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia): This is a type of ongoing, chronic depression that is characterized by other symptoms of depression that, while often less severe, are longer lasting. Diagnosis requires experiencing depressed mood on most days for a period of at least two years. - Other or unspecified depressive disorder: This diagnosis is for cases when symptoms do not meet the criteria for the diagnosis of another depressive disorder, but they still create problems with an individual's life and functioning. - Premenstrual dysphoric disorder: This condition is a form of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) characterized by significant depression, irritability, and anxiety that begins a week or two before menstruation begins. Symptoms usually go away within a few day's following a woman's period. - Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder: This condition occurs when an individual experiences symptoms of a depressive disorder either while using alcohol or other substances or while going through withdrawal from a substance. - Depressive disorder due to another medical condition: This condition is diagnosed when a person's medical history suggests that their depressive symptoms may be the result of a medical condition. Medical conditions that may contribute to or cause depression include diabetes, stroke, Parkinson's disease, autoimmune conditions, chronic pain conditions, cancer, infections and HIV/AIDS. The depressive disorders are all characterized by feelings of sadness and low mood that are persistent and severe enough to affect how a person functions. Common symptoms shared by these disorders include difficulty feeling interested and motivated, lack of interest in previously enjoyed activities, sleep disturbances, and poor concentration. The diagnostic criteria vary for each specific condition. For major depressive disorder, diagnosis requires an individual to experience five or more of the following symptoms over the same two-week period. One of these symptoms must include either depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure in previously enjoyed activities. Symptoms can include: - Depressed mood for most or all of the day - Decreased or lack of interest in activities the individual previously enjoyed - Significant weight loss or gain, or decreased or increased appetite - Sleep disturbances (insomnia or hypersomnia) - Feelings of slowed physical activity or restlessness - Lack of energy or fatigue that lasts most or all of the day - Feelings of guilt or worthlessness - Difficulty thinking or concentrating - Preoccupation with death or thoughts of suicide If you are having suicidal thoughts, contact the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 1-800-273-8255 for support and assistance from a trained counselor. If you or a loved one are in immediate danger, call 911. For more mental health resources, see our National Helpline Database. Treatments for depressive disorders often involve a combination of psychotherapy and medications. Substance-Related Disorders Substance-related disorders are those that involve the use and abuse of different substances such as cocaine, methamphetamine, opiates, and alcohol.1 These disorders may include substance-induced conditions that can result in many associated diagnoses including intoxication, withdrawal, the emergence of psychosis, anxiety, and delirium. Examples of substance-related disorders: - Alcohol-related disorders involve the consumption of alcohol, the most widely used (and frequently overused) drug in the United States. - Cannabis-related disorders include symptoms such as using more than originally intended, feeling unable to stop using the drug, and continuing to use despite adverse effects in one's life. - Inhalant-use disorders involve inhaling fumes from things such as paints or solvents. As with other substance-related disorders, people with this condition experience cravings for the substance and find it difficult to control or stop engaging in the behavior. - Stimulant use disorder involves the use of stimulants such as meth, amphetamines, and cocaine. - Tobacco use disorder is characterized by symptoms such as consuming more tobacco than intended, difficulty cutting back or quitting, cravings, and suffering adverse social consequences as a result of tobacco use Neurocognitive Disorders Neurocognitive disorders are characterized by acquired deficits in cognitive function.1 These disorders do not include those in which impaired cognition was present at birth or early in life. Types of cognitive disorders include: Delirium Delirium is also known as an acute confusional state. This disorder develops over a short period of time—usually a few hours or a few days—and is characterized by disturbances in attention and awareness. Neurocognitive Disorders Major and mild neurocognitive disorders have the primary feature of acquired cognitive decline in one or more areas including memory, attention, language, learning, and perception. These cognitive disorders can be due to medical conditions including Alzheimer's disease, HIV infection, Parkinson's disease, substance/medication use, vascular disease, and others. Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a chronic psychiatric condition that affects a person’s thinking, feeling, and behavior. It is a complex, long-term condition that affects about one percent of people in the United States. The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria specify that two or more symptoms of schizophrenia must be present for a period of at least one month. One symptom must be one of the following: - Delusions: beliefs that conflict with reality - Hallucinations: seeing or hearing things that aren't really there - Disorganized speech: words do not follow the rules of language and may be impossible to understand The second symptom may be one of the following: - Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior: confused thinking, bizarre behavior or movements - Negative symptoms: the inability to initiate plans, speak, express emotions, or feel pleasure Diagnosis also requires significant impairments in social or occupational functioning for a period of at least six months. The onset of schizophrenia is usually in the late teens or early 20s, with men usually showing symptoms earlier than women. Earlier signs of the condition that may occur before diagnosis include poor motivation, difficult relationships, and poor school performance. The National Institute of Mental Health suggests that multiple factors may play a role in causing schizophrenia including genetics, brain chemistry, environmental factors, and substance use. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders is a category of psychiatric conditions that include: - Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) - Body-dysmorphic disorder - Hoarding disorder - Trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder) - Excoriation disorder (skin picking) - Substance/medication-induced obsessive-compulsive and related disorder - Obsessive-compulsive and related disorder due to another medical condition Each condition in this classification has its own set of diagnostic criteria. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder The diagnostic criteria in the DSM-5 specify that in order to be diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder, a person must experience obsessions, compulsions, or both. - Obsessions: defined as recurrent, persistent thoughts, impulses, and urges that lead to distress or anxiety - Compulsions: repetitive and excessive behaviors that the individual feels that they must perform. These actions are performed to reduce anxiety or to prevent some dreaded outcome from occurring. Treatments for OCD usually focus on a combination of therapy and medications. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) or a form of CBT known as exposure and response prevention (ERP) if commonly used. Antidepressants such as clomipramine or fluoxetine may also be prescribed to manage symptoms. Personality Disorders Personality disorders are characterized by an enduring pattern of maladaptive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that can cause serious detrimental barriers to relationships and other life areas. Types of personality disorders include: Antisocial Personality Disorder Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a long-standing disregard for rules, social norms, and the rights of others. People with this disorder typically begin displaying symptoms during childhood, have difficulty feeling empathy for others, and lack remorse for their destructive behaviors. Avoidant Personality Disorder Avoidant personality disorder involves severe social inhibition and sensitivity to rejection. Such feelings of insecurity lead to significant problems with the individual's daily life and functioning. Borderline Personality Disorder Borderline personality disorder is associated with symptoms including emotional instability, unstable and intense interpersonal relationships, unstable self-image, and impulsive behaviors. Dependent Personality Disorder Dependent personality disorder involves a chronic pattern of fearing separation and an excessive need to be taken care of. People with this disorder will often engage in behaviors that are designed to produce care-giving actions in others. Histrionic Personality Disorder Histrionic personality disorder is associated with patterns of extreme emotionality and attention-seeking behaviors. People with this condition feel uncomfortable in settings where they are not the center of attention, have rapidly changing emotions, and may engage in socially inappropriate behaviors designed to attract attention from others. Narcissistic Personality Disorder Narcissistic personality disorder is associated with a lasting pattern of exaggerated self-image, self-centeredness, and low empathy. People with this condition tend to be more interested in themselves than with others. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is a pervasive pattern of preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, inflexibility, and mental and interpersonal control. This is a different condition than obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). Paranoid Personality Disorder Paranoid personality disorder is characterized by a distrust of others, even family, friends, and romantic partners. People with this disorder perceive others intentions as malevolent, even without any evidence or justification. Schizoid Personality Disorder Schizoid personality disorder involves symptoms that include being detached from social relationships. People with this disorder are directed toward their inner lives and are often indifferent to relationships. They generally display a lack of emotional expression and can appear cold and aloof. Schizotypal Personality Disorder Schizotypal personality disorder features eccentricities in speech, behaviors, appearance, and thought. People with this condition may experience odd beliefs or "magical thinking" and difficulty forming relationships. References: - Regier DA, Kuhl EA, Kupfer DJ. The DSM-5: Classification and criteria changes. World Psychiatry. 2013;12(2):92-8. doi:10.1002/wps.20050 - Swineford LB, Thurm A, Baird G, Wetherby AM, Swedo S. Social (pragmatic) communication disorder: a research review of this new DSM-5 diagnostic category. J Neurodev Disord. 2014;6(1):41. doi:10.1186/1866-1955-6-41 - Kulage KM, Goldberg J, Usseglio J, Romero D, Bain JM, Smaldone AM. How has DSM-5 Affected Autism Diagnosis? A 5-Year Follow-Up Systematic Literature Review and Meta-analysis. J Autism Dev Disord. 2019; doi:10.1007/s10803-019-03967-5 - Ramtekkar UP. DSM-5 Changes in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder: Implications for Comorbid Sleep Issues. Children (Basel). 2017;4(8) doi:10.3390/children4080062 - Kupfer DJ. Anxiety and DSM-5. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2015;17(3):245-6. - Friedman MJ, Resick PA, Bryant RA, Strain J, Horowitz M, Spiegel D. Classification of trauma and stressor-related disorders in DSM-5. Depress Anxiety. 2011; doi:10.1002/da.20845 - Toussaint A, Hüsing P, Kohlmann S, Löwe B. Detecting DSM-5 somatic symptom disorder: criterion validity of the Patient Health Questionnaire-15 (PHQ-15) and the Somatic Symptom Scale-8 (SSS-8) in combination with the Somatic Symptom Disorder - B Criteria Scale (SSD-12). Psychol Med. 2019;:1-10. doi: 10.1017/S003329171900014X - Attia E, Becker AE, Bryant-waugh R, et al. Feeding and eating disorders in DSM-5. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(11):1237-9. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13030326 - Seow LSE, Verma SK, Mok YM, et al. Evaluating DSM-5 Insomnia Disorder and the Treatment of Sleep Problems in a Psychiatric Population. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018;14(2):237-244. doi:10.5664/jcsm.6942 - Schmeck K, Schlüter-müller S, Foelsch PA, Doering S. The role of identity in the DSM-5 classification of personality disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2013;7(1):27. doi:10.1186/1753-2000-7-27 Additional Reading: - American Psychiatric Association. Highlights of changes from DSM-IV-TR to DSM-5; 2013. - American Psychiatry Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013. - American Psychiatry Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013. - Kessler, R.C., Chiu, W.T., Demler, O., & Walters, E.E. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of twelve-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Archives of General Psychiatry. 2005; 62(6): 617-27. - National Institute of Mental Health. Panic Disorder: When Fear Overwhelms. 2016. - National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar disorder; 2016. Adapted from: A List of Psychological Disorders Social Psychology Sociocultural theory is an emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important contributions that society makes to individual development. This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live. Sociocultural theory also suggests that human learning is largely a social process. Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory Sociocultural theory grew from the work of seminal psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who believed that parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher-order functions. According to Vygotsky, learning has its basis in interacting with other people. Once this has occurred, the information is then integrated on the individual level. Vygotsky was a contemporary of other great thinkers such as Freud, Skinner, and Piaget, but his early death at age 37 and the suppression of his work in Stalinist Russia left him in relative obscurity until fairly recently. As his work became more widely published, his ideas have grown increasingly influential in areas including child development, cognitive psychology, and education. Sociocultural theory focuses not only how adults and peers influence individual learning, but also on how cultural beliefs and attitudes affect how learning takes place. According to Vygotsky, children are born with basic biological constraints on their minds. Each culture, however, provides "tools of intellectual adaptation." These tools allow children to use their abilities in a way that is adaptive to the culture in which they live. For example, while one culture might emphasize memory strategies such as note-taking, another might use tools like reminders or rote memorization. Piaget vs. Vygotsky: Key Differences How does Vygotsky's sociocultural theory differ from Piaget's theory of cognitive development? First, Vygotsky placed a greater emphasis on how social factors influence development. While Piaget's theory stressed how a child's interactions and explorations influenced development, Vygotsky stressed the essential role that social interactions play in cognitive development.1 Another important difference between the two theories is that while Piaget's theory suggests that development is largely universal, Vygotsky asserts that cognitive development can differ between different cultures. The course of development in Western culture, for example, might be different than it is in Eastern culture. In his text, "Social and Personality Development," David R. Shaffer explains that while Piaget believed that cognitive development was fairly universal, Vygotsky believed that each culture presents unique differences. Because cultures can vary so dramatically, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory suggests that both the course and content of intellectual development are not as universal as Piaget believed. Support and Criticism of Piaget's Stage Theory Adapted from:Socio-cultural Theory of Development Cultural Perspectives Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior. While many aspects of human thought and behavior are universal, cultural differences can lead to often surprising differences in how people think, feel, and act. Some cultures, for example, might stress individualism and the importance of personal autonomy. Other cultures, however, may place a higher value on collectivism and cooperation among members of the group. Such differences can play a powerful role in many aspects of life. Cross-cultural psychology is also emerging as an increasingly important topic as researchers strive to understand both the differences and similarities among people of various cultures throughout the world. The International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) was established in 1972, and this branch of psychology has continued to grow and develop since that time.1 Today, increasing numbers of psychologists investigate how behavior differs among various cultures throughout the world. Why Cross-Cultural Psychology Is Important After prioritizing European and North American research for many years, Western researchers began to question whether many of the observations and ideas that were once believed to be universal might apply to cultures outside of these areas. Could their findings and assumptions about human psychology be biased based on the sample from which their observations were drawn? Cross-cultural psychologists work to rectify many of the biases that may exist in the current research2 and determine if the phenomena that appear in European and North American cultures also appear in other parts of the world. For example, consider how something such as social cognition might vary from an individualist culture such as the United States versus a collectivist culture such as China. Do people in China rely on the same social cues as people in the U.S. do? What cultural differences might influence how people perceive each other? These are just some of the questions that a cross-cultural psychologist might explore. What Exactly Is Culture? Culture refers to many characteristics of a group of people, including attitudes, behaviors, customs, and values that are transmitted from one generation to the next. Cultures throughout the world share many similarities but are marked by considerable differences. For example, while people of all cultures experience happiness, how this feeling is expressed varies from one culture to the next.3 The goal of cross-cultural psychologists is to look at both universal behaviors and unique behaviors to identify the ways in which culture impacts our behavior, family life, education, social experiences, and other areas.4 Many cross-cultural psychologists choose to focus on one of two approaches: - The etic approach studies culture through an "outsider" perspective, applying one "universal" set of concepts and measurements to all cultures. - The emic approach studies culture using an "insider" perspective, analyzing concepts within the specific context of the observed culture. Some cross-cultural psychologists take a combined emic-etic approach.5 Meanwhile, some cross-cultural psychologists also study something known as ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism refers to a tendency to use your own culture as the standard by which to judge and evaluate other cultures.6 In other words, taking an ethnocentric point of view means using your understanding of your own culture to gauge what is "normal." This can lead to biases and a tendency to view cultural differences as abnormal or in a negative light. It can also make it difficult to see how your own cultural background influences your behaviors. Cross-cultural psychologists often look at how ethnocentrism influences our behaviors and thoughts, including how we interact with individuals from other cultures.6 Psychologists are also concerned with how ethnocentrism can influence the research process. For example, a study might be criticized for having an ethnocentric bias. Major Topics in Cross-Cultural Psychology - Emotions - Language acquisition - Child development - Personality - Social behavior - Family and social relationships How Cross-Cultural Psychology Differs From Other Branches of Psychology - Many other branches of psychology focus on how parents, friends, and other people impact human behavior, but most do not take into account the powerful impact that culture may have on individual human actions. - Cross-cultural psychology, on the other hand, is focused on studying human behavior in a way that takes the effects of culture into account. - According to Walter J. Lonner, writing for Eye on Psi Chi, cross-cultural psychology can be thought of as a type of research methodology rather than an entirely separate field within psychology.4 Who Should Study Cross-Cultural Psychology? Cross-cultural psychology touches on a wide range of topics, so students with an interest in other psychology topics may choose to also focus on this area of psychology. The following are just a few examples of who may benefit from the study of cross-cultural psychology: - Students interested in learning how child-rearing practices in different cultures impact development. - Teachers, educators, and curriculum designers who create multicultural education lessons and materials can benefit from learning more about how cultural differences impact student learning, achievement, and motivation. - Students interested in social or personality psychology can benefit from learning about how culture impacts social behavior and individual personality. References: - International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology. About us. - Wang Q. Why should we all be cultural psychologists? Lessons from the study of social cognition. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2016;11(5):583-596. doi:10.1177/1745691616645552 - Mathews G. Happiness, culture, and context. International Journal of Wellbeing. 2012;2(4):299-312. doi:10.5502/ijw.v2.i4.2 - Lonner WJ. On the growth and continuing importance of cross-cultural psychology. Eye on Psi Chi. 2000;4(3):22-26. doi:10.24839/1092-0803.Eye4.3.22 - Cheung FM, van de Vijver FJ, Leong FT. Toward a new approach to the study of personality in culture. Am Psychol. 2011;66(7):593-603. doi:10.1037/a0022389 - Keith KD. Visual illusions and ethnocentrism: Exemplars for teaching cross-cultural concepts. Hist Psychol. 2012;15(2):171-176. doi:10.1037/a0027271 Adapted from: The Focus of Cross-Cultural Psychology	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.022782	Case Study	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69346/overview", "title": "Introduction to Psychology", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85991/overview	Generating Speech Topics: Clustering Method Overview This is a great handout to complete in class with your students as an in-class activity or assign as out-of-class work. This handout helps students generate speech topics. Generating Speech Topics: Clustering Method Generating Speech Topics: Clustering Method Having trouble coming up with a speech topic? Everyone does from time to time and it’s completely normal. Generating speech topics can be trying, which is where this handout comes in; it can help you narrow down ideas for your speech topic! Use this handout to brainstorm ideas. Directions: 1. In each square write down 3 - 5 ideas that come to mind for the topic. 2. Review your speech assignment requirements and remove any ideas that may not meet the requirements. 3. Narrow down your ideas once more by removing: any ideas: - Ideas you aren’t interested in. - Ideas that may be too mundane for your audience. - Ideas that may be too overwhelming for your audience with your time limit in mind. 4. Select something you’re interested or passionate about with the available topics and begin collecting your research! \| People \| Places \| Things \| \| Events \| Processes \| Concepts \| \| Natural Phenomena \| Problems \| Plans and Policies \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.050522	09/20/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85991/overview", "title": "Generating Speech Topics: Clustering Method", "author": "Thalia Bobadilla" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101972/overview	WA.SEL.6-8.1B Washington Social Emotional Learning Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: 1: Self-Awareness Standard: Demonstrates awareness of personal and collective identity encompassing strengths, areas for growth, aspirations, and cultural and linguistic assets. WA.SEL.6-8.1C Washington Social Emotional Learning Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: 1: Self-Awareness Standard: Demonstrates self-awareness and understanding of external influences, e.g., culture, family, school, and community resources and supports. WA.SEL.6-8.2B Washington Social Emotional Learning Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: 2: Self-Management Standard: Demonstrates responsible decision-making and problem-solving skills. WA.SEL.6-8.3B Washington Social Emotional Learning Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: 3: Self-Efficacy Standard: Demonstrates problem-solving skills to engage responsibly in a variety of situations. WA.SEL.6-8.4A Washington Social Emotional Learning Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: 4: Social Awareness Standard: Demonstrates awareness of other people’s emotions, perspectives, cultures, languages, histories, identities, and abilities WA.SEL.6-8.4B Washington Social Emotional Learning Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: 4: Social Awareness Standard: Demonstrates an awareness and respect for similarities and differences among community, cultural and social groups. WA.SEL.6-8.4C Washington Social Emotional Learning Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: 4: Social Awareness Standard: Demonstrates an understanding of the variation within and across cultures. WA.SEL.6-8.5A Washington Social Emotional Learning Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: 5: Social Management Standard: Demonstrates a range of communication and social skills to interact effectively with others WA.SEL.6-8.5C Washington Social Emotional Learning Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: 5: Social Management Standard: Demonstrates the ability to engage in respectful and healthy relationships with individuals of diverse perspectives, cultures, language, history, identity, and ability. WA.SEL.6-8.6A Washington Social Emotional Learning Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: 6: Social Engagement Standard: Demonstrates a sense of school and community responsibility. Learning Domain: Civics Standard: Describe ways in which people benefit from and are challenged by working together, including through government, workplaces, voluntary organizations, and families Learning Domain: Social Studies Skills Standard: Create and use research questions to guide inquiry on an issue or event Learning Domain: Reading for Literature Standard: Determine a theme or central idea of a text and how it is conveyed through particular details; provide a summary of the text distinct from personal opinions or judgments. Learning Domain: Reading for Literature Standard: Describe how a particular story’s or drama’s plot unfolds in a series of episodes as well as how the characters respond or change as the plot moves toward a resolution. Learning Domain: Reading for Literature Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative and connotative meanings; analyze the impact of a specific word choice on meaning and tone. Learning Domain: Reading for Literature Standard: Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine a central idea of a text and how it is conveyed through particular details; provide a summary of the text distinct from personal opinions or judgments. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Analyze in detail how a key individual, event, or idea is introduced, illustrated, and elaborated in a text (e.g., through examples or anecdotes). Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative, connotative, and technical meanings. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured event sequences. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Engage and orient the reader by establishing a context and introducing a narrator and/or characters; organize an event sequence that unfolds naturally and logically. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, pacing, and description, to develop experiences, events, and/or characters. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use a variety of transition words, phrases, and clauses to convey sequence and signal shifts from one time frame or setting to another. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use precise words and phrases, relevant descriptive details, and sensory language to convey experiences and events. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Provide a conclusion that follows from the narrated experiences or events. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Apply grade 6 Reading standards to literature (e.g., “Compare and contrast texts in different forms or genres [e.g., stories and poems; historical novels and fantasy stories]in terms of their approaches to similar themes and topics”). Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Come to discussions prepared, having read or studied required material; explicitly draw on that preparation by referring to evidence on the topic, text, or issue to probe and reflect on ideas under discussion. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Present claims and findings, sequencing ideas logically and using pertinent descriptions, facts, and details to accentuate main ideas or themes; use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 6 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. Learning Domain: Reading for Literature Standard: Determine a theme or central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text; provide an objective summary of the text. Learning Domain: Reading for Literature Standard: Analyze how particular elements of a story or drama interact (e.g., how setting shapes the characters or plot). Learning Domain: Reading for Literature Standard: Cite several pieces of textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured event sequences. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Analyze the main ideas and supporting details presented in diverse media and formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively, orally) and explain how the ideas clarify a topic, text, or issue under study. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Present claims and findings, emphasizing salient points in a focused, coherent manner with pertinent descriptions, facts, details, and examples; use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 7 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. Learning Domain: Reading for Literature Standard: Determine a theme or central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text, including its relationship to the characters, setting, and plot; provide an objective summary of the text. Learning Domain: Reading for Literature Standard: Analyze how particular lines of dialogue or incidents in a story or drama propel the action, reveal aspects of a character, or provoke a decision. Learning Domain: Reading for Literature Standard: Cite the textual evidence that most strongly supports an analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured event sequences. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Present claims and findings, emphasizing salient points in a focused, coherent manner with relevant evidence, sound valid reasoning, and well-chosen details; use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 8 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. Learning Domain: Reading Literature Standard: Determine a theme or central idea of a text and how it is conveyed through particular details; provide a summary of the text distinct from personal opinions or judgments. Learning Domain: Reading Literature Standard: Describe how a particular story's or drama's plot unfolds in a series of episodes as well as how the characters respond or change as the plot moves toward a resolution. Learning Domain: Reading Literature Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative and connotative meanings; analyze the impact of a specific word choice on meaning and tone. Learning Domain: Reading Literature Standard: Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine a central idea of a text and how it is conveyed through particular details; provide a summary of the text distinct from personal opinions or judgments. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Analyze in detail how a key individual, event, or idea is introduced, illustrated, and elaborated in a text (e.g., through examples or anecdotes). Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative, connotative, and technical meanings. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured event sequences. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Engage and orient the reader by establishing a context and introducing a narrator and/or characters; organize an event sequence that unfolds naturally and logically. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, pacing, and description, to develop experiences, events, and/or characters. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use a variety of transition words, phrases, and clauses to convey sequence and signal shifts from one time frame or setting to another. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use precise words and phrases, relevant descriptive details, and sensory language to convey experiences and events. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Provide a conclusion that follows from the narrated experiences or events. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Apply grade 6 Reading standards to literature (e.g., "Compare and contrast texts in different forms or genres [e.g., stories and poems; historical novels and fantasy stories]in terms of their approaches to similar themes and topics"). Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Come to discussions prepared, having read or studied required material; explicitly draw on that preparation by referring to evidence on the topic, text, or issue to probe and reflect on ideas under discussion. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Present claims and findings, sequencing ideas logically and using pertinent descriptions, facts, and details to accentuate main ideas or themes; use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 6 topics, texts, and issues, building on others�۪ ideas and expressing their own clearly. Learning Domain: Reading Literature Standard: Determine a theme or central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text; provide an objective summary of the text. Learning Domain: Reading Literature Standard: Analyze how particular elements of a story or drama interact (e.g., how setting shapes the characters or plot). Learning Domain: Reading Literature Standard: Cite several pieces of textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured event sequences. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Analyze the main ideas and supporting details presented in diverse media and formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively, orally) and explain how the ideas clarify a topic, text, or issue under study. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Present claims and findings, emphasizing salient points in a focused, coherent manner with pertinent descriptions, facts, details, and examples; use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 7 topics, texts, and issues, building on others�۪ ideas and expressing their own clearly. Learning Domain: Reading Literature Standard: Determine a theme or central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text, including its relationship to the characters, setting, and plot; provide an objective summary of the text. Learning Domain: Reading Literature Standard: Analyze how particular lines of dialogue or incidents in a story or drama propel the action, reveal aspects of a character, or provoke a decision. Learning Domain: Reading Literature Standard: Cite the textual evidence that most strongly supports an analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured event sequences. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Present claims and findings, emphasizing salient points in a focused, coherent manner with relevant evidence, sound valid reasoning, and well-chosen details; use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. Learning Domain: Speaking and Listening Standard: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 8 topics, texts, and issues, building on others�۪ ideas and expressing their own clearly. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Determine a theme or central idea of a text and how it is conveyed through particular details; provide a summary of the text distinct from personal opinions or judgments. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Describe how a particular story’s or drama’s plot unfolds in a series of episodes as well as how the characters respond or change as the plot moves toward a resolution. Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative and connotative meanings; analyze the impact of a specific word choice on meaning and tone. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Determine a central idea of a text and how it is conveyed through particular details; provide a summary of the text distinct from personal opinions or judgments. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Analyze in detail how a key individual, event, or idea is introduced, illustrated, and elaborated in a text (e.g., through examples or anecdotes). Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative, connotative, and technical meanings. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured event sequences. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Engage and orient the reader by establishing a context and introducing a narrator and/or characters; organize an event sequence that unfolds naturally and logically. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, pacing, and description, to develop experiences, events, and/or characters. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Use a variety of transition words, phrases, and clauses to convey sequence and signal shifts from one time frame or setting to another. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Use precise words and phrases, relevant descriptive details, and sensory language to convey experiences and events. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Provide a conclusion that follows from the narrated experiences or events. Cluster: Research to Build and Present Knowledge. Standard: Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. Cluster: Research to Build and Present Knowledge. Standard: Apply grade 6 Reading standards to literature (e.g., “Compare and contrast texts in different forms or genres [e.g., stories and poems; historical novels and fantasy stories]in terms of their approaches to similar themes and topics”). Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Come to discussions prepared, having read or studied required material; explicitly draw on that preparation by referring to evidence on the topic, text, or issue to probe and reflect on ideas under discussion. Cluster: Presentation of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Present claims and findings, sequencing ideas logically and using pertinent descriptions, facts, and details to accentuate main ideas or themes; use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 6 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Determine a theme or central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text; provide an objective summary of the text. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Analyze how particular elements of a story or drama interact (e.g., how setting shapes the characters or plot). Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Cite several pieces of textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured event sequences. Cluster: Research to Build and Present Knowledge. Standard: Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Analyze the main ideas and supporting details presented in diverse media and formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively, orally) and explain how the ideas clarify a topic, text, or issue under study. Cluster: Presentation of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Present claims and findings, emphasizing salient points in a focused, coherent manner with pertinent descriptions, facts, details, and examples; use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 7 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Determine a theme or central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text, including its relationship to the characters, setting, and plot; provide an objective summary of the text. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Analyze how particular lines of dialogue or incidents in a story or drama propel the action, reveal aspects of a character, or provoke a decision. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Cite the textual evidence that most strongly supports an analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured event sequences. Cluster: Research to Build and Present Knowledge. Standard: Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. Cluster: Presentation of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Present claims and findings, emphasizing salient points in a focused, coherent manner with relevant evidence, sound valid reasoning, and well-chosen details; use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. Cluster: Comprehension and Collaboration. Standard: Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 8 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.240161	Jerry Price	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101972/overview", "title": "Animating Civic Action: Middle School Lesson - Empathy", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15340/overview	Introduction Welcome to the story of your life. In this chapter we explore the fascinating tale of how you have grown and developed into the person you are today. We also look at some ideas about who you will grow into tomorrow. Yours is a story of lifespan development (Figure), from the start of life to the end. The process of human growth and development is more obvious in infancy and childhood, yet your development is happening this moment and will continue, minute by minute, for the rest of your life. Who you are today and who you will be in the future depends on a blend of genetics, environment, culture, relationships, and more, as you continue through each phase of life. You have experienced firsthand much of what is discussed in this chapter. Now consider what psychological science has to say about your physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development, from the womb to the tomb. References Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bell, S. M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. Child Development, 41, 49–67. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. American Academy of Pediatrics. (2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds. Pediatrics, 199(1), 182–191. Amsterdam, B. (1972). Mirror image reactions before age two. Developmental Psychobiology, 5, 297–305. Archer, J. (1992). Ethology and human development. New York, NY: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Arnett, J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480. Ashley, S. J., Magnuson, S. I., Omnell, L. M., & Clarren, S. K. (1999). 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Death Studies	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.320355	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15340/overview", "title": "Psychology, Lifespan Development", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15341/overview	What Is Lifespan Development? Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define and distinguish between the three domains of development: physical, cognitive and psychosocial - Discuss the normative approach to development - Understand the three major issues in development: continuity and discontinuity, one common course of development or many unique courses of development, and nature versus nurture My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky: So was it when my life began; So is it now I am a man; So be it when I shall grow old, Or let me die! The Child is father of the Man; I could wish my days to be Bound each to each by natural piety. (Wordsworth, 1802) In this poem, William Wordsworth writes, “the child is father of the man.” What does this seemingly incongruous statement mean, and what does it have to do with lifespan development? Wordsworth might be suggesting that the person he is as an adult depends largely on the experiences he had in childhood. Consider the following questions: To what extent is the adult you are today influenced by the child you once were? To what extent is a child fundamentally different from the adult he grows up to be? These are the types of questions developmental psychologists try to answer, by studying how humans change and grow from conception through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and death. They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental domains—physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development. Physical development involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness. Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, and social relationships. We refer to these domains throughout the chapter. Research Methods in Developmental Psychology You’ve learned about a variety of research methods used by psychologists. Developmental psychologists use many of these approaches in order to better understand how individuals change mentally and physically over time. These methods include naturalistic observations, case studies, surveys, and experiments, among others. Naturalistic observations involve observing behavior in its natural context. A developmental psychologist might observe how children behave on a playground, at a daycare center, or in the child’s own home. While this research approach provides a glimpse into how children behave in their natural settings, researchers have very little control over the types and/or frequencies of displayed behavior. In a case study, developmental psychologists collect a great deal of information from one individual in order to better understand physical and psychological changes over the lifespan. This particular approach is an excellent way to better understand individuals, who are exceptional in some way, but it is especially prone to researcher bias in interpretation, and it is difficult to generalize conclusions to the larger population. In one classic example of this research method being applied to a study of lifespan development Sigmund Freud analyzed the development of a child known as “Little Hans” (Freud, 1909/1949). Freud’s findings helped inform his theories of psychosexual development in children, which you will learn about later in this chapter. Little Genie, the subject of a case study discussed in the chapter on thinking and intelligence, provides another example of how psychologists examine developmental milestones through detailed research on a single individual. In Genie’s case, her neglectful and abusive upbringing led to her being unable to speak until, at age 13, she was removed from that harmful environment. As she learned to use language, psychologists were able to compare how her language acquisition abilities differed when occurring in her late-stage development compared to the typical acquisition of those skills during the ages of infancy through early childhood (Fromkin, Krashen, Curtiss, Rigler, & Rigler, 1974; Curtiss, 1981). The survey method asks individuals to self-report important information about their thoughts, experiences, and beliefs. This particular method can provide large amounts of information in relatively short amounts of time; however, validity of data collected in this way relies on honest self-reporting, and the data is relatively shallow when compared to the depth of information collected in a case study. Experiments involve significant control over extraneous variables and manipulation of the independent variable. As such, experimental research allows developmental psychologists to make causal statements about certain variables that are important for the developmental process. Because experimental research must occur in a controlled environment, researchers must be cautious about whether behaviors observed in the laboratory translate to an individual’s natural environment. Later in this chapter, you will learn about several experiments in which toddlers and young children observe scenes or actions so that researchers can determine at what age specific cognitive abilities develop. For example, children may observe a quantity of liquid poured from a short, fat glass into a tall, skinny glass. As the experimenters question the children about what occurred, the subjects’ answers help psychologists understand at what age a child begins to comprehend that the volume of liquid remained the same although the shapes of the containers differs. Across these three domains—physical, cognitive, and psychosocial—the normative approach to development is also discussed. This approach asks, “What is normal development?” In the early decades of the 20th century, normative psychologists studied large numbers of children at various ages to determine norms (i.e., average ages) of when most children reach specific developmental milestones in each of the three domains (Gesell, 1933, 1939, 1940; Gesell & Ilg, 1946; Hall, 1904). Although children develop at slightly different rates, we can use these age-related averages as general guidelines to compare children with same-age peers to determine the approximate ages they should reach specific normative events called developmental milestones (e.g., crawling, walking, writing, dressing, naming colors, speaking in sentences, and starting puberty). Not all normative events are universal, meaning they are not experienced by all individuals across all cultures. Biological milestones, such as puberty, tend to be universal, but social milestones, such as the age when children begin formal schooling, are not necessarily universal; instead, they affect most individuals in a particular culture (Gesell & Ilg, 1946). For example, in developed countries children begin school around 5 or 6 years old, but in developing countries, like Nigeria, children often enter school at an advanced age, if at all (Huebler, 2005; United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2013). To better understand the normative approach, imagine two new mothers, Louisa and Kimberly, who are close friends and have children around the same age. Louisa’s daughter is 14 months old, and Kimberly’s son is 12 months old. According to the normative approach, the average age a child starts to walk is 12 months. However, at 14 months Louisa’s daughter still isn’t walking. She tells Kimberly she is worried that something might be wrong with her baby. Kimberly is surprised because her son started walking when he was only 10 months old. Should Louisa be worried? Should she be concerned if her daughter is not walking by 15 months or 18 months? The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) describes the developmental milestones for children from 2 months through 5 years old. After reviewing the information, take this quiz to see how well you recall what you’ve learned. If you are a parent with concerns about your child’s development, contact your pediatrician. ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY There are many different theoretical approaches regarding human development. As we evaluate them in this chapter, recall that developmental psychology focuses on how people change, and keep in mind that all the approaches that we present in this chapter address questions of change: Is the change smooth or uneven (continuous versus discontinuous)? Is this pattern of change the same for everyone, or are there many different patterns of change (one course of development versus many courses)? How do genetics and environment interact to influence development (nature versus nurture)? Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous? Continuous development views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills (Figure). With this type of development, there is gradual change. Consider, for example, a child’s physical growth: adding inches to her height year by year. In contrast, theorists who view development as discontinuous believe that development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or ages. With this type of development, the change is more sudden, such as an infant’s ability to conceive object permanence. Is There One Course of Development or Many? Is development essentially the same, or universal, for all children (i.e., there is one course of development) or does development follow a different course for each child, depending on the child’s specific genetics and environment (i.e., there are many courses of development)? Do people across the world share more similarities or more differences in their development? How much do culture and genetics influence a child’s behavior? Stage theories hold that the sequence of development is universal. For example, in cross-cultural studies of language development, children from around the world reach language milestones in a similar sequence (Gleitman & Newport, 1995). Infants in all cultures coo before they babble. They begin babbling at about the same age and utter their first word around 12 months old. Yet we live in diverse contexts that have a unique effect on each of us. For example, researchers once believed that motor development follows one course for all children regardless of culture. However, child care practices vary by culture, and different practices have been found to accelerate or inhibit achievement of developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling, and walking (Karasik, Adolph, Tamis-LeMonda, & Bornstein, 2010). For instance, let’s look at the Aché society in Paraguay. They spend a significant amount of time foraging in forests. While foraging, Aché mothers carry their young children, rarely putting them down in order to protect them from getting hurt in the forest. Consequently, their children walk much later: They walk around 23–25 months old, in comparison to infants in Western cultures who begin to walk around 12 months old. However, as Aché children become older, they are allowed more freedom to move about, and by about age 9, their motor skills surpass those of U.S. children of the same age: Aché children are able to climb trees up to 25 feet tall and use machetes to chop their way through the forest (Kaplan & Dove, 1987). As you can see, our development is influenced by multiple contexts, so the timing of basic motor functions may vary across cultures. However, the functions themselves are present in all societies (Figure). How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development? Are we who we are because of nature (biology and genetics), or are we who we are because of nurture (our environment and culture)? This longstanding question is known in psychology as the nature versus nurture debate. It seeks to understand how our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by our environment, including our parents, peers, and culture. For instance, why do biological children sometimes act like their parents—is it because of genetics or because of early childhood environment and what the child has learned from the parents? What about children who are adopted—are they more like their biological families or more like their adoptive families? And how can siblings from the same family be so different? We are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents, such as eye color, height, and certain personality traits. Beyond our basic genotype, however, there is a deep interaction between our genes and our environment: Our unique experiences in our environment influence whether and how particular traits are expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how we interact with our environment (Diamond, 2009; Lobo, 2008). This chapter will show that there is a reciprocal interaction between nature and nurture as they both shape who we become, but the debate continues as to the relative contributions of each. The Achievement Gap: How Does Socioeconomic Status Affect Development? The achievement gap refers to the persistent difference in grades, test scores, and graduation rates that exist among students of different ethnicities, races, and—in certain subjects—sexes (Winerman, 2011). Research suggests that these achievement gaps are strongly influenced by differences in socioeconomic factors that exist among the families of these children. While the researchers acknowledge that programs aimed at reducing such socioeconomic discrepancies would likely aid in equalizing the aptitude and performance of children from different backgrounds, they recognize that such large-scale interventions would be difficult to achieve. Therefore, it is recommended that programs aimed at fostering aptitude and achievement among disadvantaged children may be the best option for dealing with issues related to academic achievement gaps (Duncan & Magnuson, 2005). Low-income children perform significantly more poorly than their middle- and high-income peers on a number of educational variables: They have significantly lower standardized test scores, graduation rates, and college entrance rates, and they have much higher school dropout rates. There have been attempts to correct the achievement gap through state and federal legislation, but what if the problems start before the children even enter school? Psychologists Betty Hart and Todd Risley (2006) spent their careers looking at early language ability and progression of children in various income levels. In one longitudinal study, they found that although all the parents in the study engaged and interacted with their children, middle- and high-income parents interacted with their children differently than low-income parents. After analyzing 1,300 hours of parent-child interactions, the researchers found that middle- and high-income parents talk to their children significantly more, starting when the children are infants. By 3 years old, high-income children knew almost double the number of words known by their low-income counterparts, and they had heard an estimated total of 30 million more words than the low-income counterparts (Hart & Risley, 2003). And the gaps only become more pronounced. Before entering kindergarten, high-income children score 60% higher on achievement tests than their low-income peers (Lee & Burkam, 2002). There are solutions to this problem. At the University of Chicago, experts are working with low-income families, visiting them at their homes, and encouraging them to speak more to their children on a daily and hourly basis. Other experts are designing preschools in which students from diverse economic backgrounds are placed in the same classroom. In this research, low-income children made significant gains in their language development, likely as a result of attending the specialized preschool (Schechter & Byeb, 2007). What other methods or interventions could be used to decrease the achievement gap? What types of activities could be implemented to help the children of your community or a neighboring community? Summary Lifespan development explores how we change and grow from conception to death. This field of psychology is studied by developmental psychologists. They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental domains: physical, cognitive development, and psychosocial. There are several theories of development that focus on the following issues: whether development is continuous or discontinuous, whether development follows one course or many, and the relative influence of nature versus nurture on development. Review Questions The view that development is a cumulative process, gradually adding to the same type of skills is known as ________. - nature - nurture - continuous development - discontinuous development Hint: C Developmental psychologists study human growth and development across three domains. Which of the following is not one of these domains? - cognitive - psychological - physical - psychosocial Hint: B How is lifespan development defined? - The study of how we grow and change from conception to death. - The study of how we grow and change in infancy and childhood. - The study of physical, cognitive, and psychosocial growth in children. - The study of emotions, personality, and social relationships. Hint: A Critical Thinking Questions Describe the nature versus nurture controversy, and give an example of a trait and how it might be influenced by each? Hint: The nature versus nurture controversy seeks to understand whether our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors, or whether they are shaped by our environment, which includes such things as our parents, peers, and culture. Today, psychologists agree that both nature and nurture interact to shape who we become, but the debate over the relative contributions of each continues. An example would be a child learning to walk: Nature influences when the physical ability occurs, but culture can influence when a child masters this skill, as in Aché culture. Compare and contrast continuous and discontinuous development. Hint: Continuous development sees our development as a cumulative process: Changes are gradual. On the other hand, discontinuous development sees our development as taking place in specific steps or stages: Changes are sudden. Why should developmental milestones only be used as a general guideline for normal child development? Hint: Children develop at different rates. For example, some children may walk and talk as early as 8 months old, while others may not do so until well after their first birthday. Each child’s unique contexts will influence when he reaches these milestones. Personal Application Questions How are you different today from the person you were at 6 years old? What about at 16 years old? How are you the same as the person you were at those ages? Your 3-year-old daughter is not yet potty trained. Based on what you know about the normative approach, should you be concerned? Why or why not?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.353825	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15341/overview", "title": "Psychology, Lifespan Development", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15342/overview	Lifespan Theories Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss Freud’s theory of psychosexual development - Describe the major tasks of child and adult psychosocial development according to Erikson - Discuss Piaget’s view of cognitive development and apply the stages to understanding childhood cognition - Describe Kohlberg’s theory of moral development There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults. We explore several of these theories in this section. PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a serious of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage. Freud’s stages are called the stages of psychosexual development. According to Freud, children’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. While most of Freud’s ideas have not found support in modern research, we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology. Psychologists today dispute Freud's psychosexual stages as a legitimate explanation for how one's personality develops, but what we can take away from Freud’s theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood. These stages are discussed in detail in the chapter on personality. PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT Erik Erikson (1902–1994) (Figure), another stage theorist, took Freud’s theory and modified it as psychosocial theory. Erikson’s psychosocial development theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity. Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy. According to Erikson (1963), trust is the basis of our development during infancy (birth to 12 months). Therefore, the primary task of this stage is trust versus mistrust. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on the environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy versus shame and doubt, by working to establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame. Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled—may develop feelings of guilt. How might over-controlling parents stifle a child’s initiative? During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry versus inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don’t measure up. What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities? In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity versus role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. What happens to apathetic adolescents, who do not make a conscious search for identity, or those who are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future. People in early adulthood (i.e., 20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy versus isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation. When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others, through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement. From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity versus despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair. Table summarizes the stages of Erikson’s theory. \| Stage \| Age (years) \| Developmental Task \| Description \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| 1 \| 0–1 \| Trust vs. mistrust \| Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met \| \| 2 \| 1–3 \| Autonomy vs. shame/doubt \| Develop a sense of independence in many tasks \| \| 3 \| 3–6 \| Initiative vs. guilt \| Take initiative on some activities—may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped \| \| 4 \| 7–11 \| Industry vs. inferiority \| Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not \| \| 5 \| 12–18 \| Identity vs. confusion \| Experiment with and develop identity and roles \| \| 6 \| 19–29 \| Intimacy vs. isolation \| Establish intimacy and relationships with others \| \| 7 \| 30–64 \| Generativity vs. stagnation \| Contribute to society and be part of a family \| \| 8 \| 65– \| Integrity vs. despair \| Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions \| COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT Jean Piaget (1896–1980) is another stage theorist who studied childhood development (Figure). Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children’s cognitive growth. He believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. However, he said that children do not think and reason like adults (Piaget, 1930, 1932). His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason. Piaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. Schemata are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. By the time children have reached adulthood, they have created schemata for almost everything. When children learn new information, they adjust their schemata through two processes: assimilation and accommodation. First, they assimilate new information or experiences in terms of their current schemata: assimilation is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know. Accommodation describes when they change their schemata based on new information. This process continues as children interact with their environment. For example, 2-year-old Blake learned the schema for dogs because his family has a Labrador retriever. When Blake sees other dogs in his picture books, he says, “Look mommy, dog!” Thus, he has assimilated them into his schema for dogs. One day, Blake sees a sheep for the first time and says, “Look mommy, dog!” Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Blake thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Blake’s mom tells him that the animal he sees is a sheep, not a dog, Blake must accommodate his schema for dogs to include more information based on his new experiences. Blake’s schema for dog was too broad, since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. He now modifies his schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep. Like Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolds in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational (Table). \| Age (years) \| Stage \| Description \| Developmental issues \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| 0–2 \| Sensorimotor \| World experienced through senses and actions \| Object permanence Stranger anxiety \| \| 2–6 \| Preoperational \| Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning \| Pretend play Egocentrism Language development \| \| 7–11 \| Concrete operational \| Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations \| Conservation Mathematical transformations \| \| 12– \| Formal operational \| Formal operations Utilize abstract reasoning \| Abstract logic Moral reasoning \| The first stage is the sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops object permanence, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, & Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants’ reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused. Please take a few minutes to view this brief video demonstrating different children’s ability to understand object permanence. In Piaget’s view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can’t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response. Piaget’s second stage is the preoperational stage, which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child’s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term operational refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be pre-operational). Children’s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny’s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of conservation, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added. This video shows a 4.5-year-old boy in the preoperational stage as he responds to Piaget’s conservation tasks. During this stage, we also expect children to display egocentrism, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let’s look at Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko’s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective. Piaget developed the Three-Mountain Task to determine the level of egocentrism displayed by children. Children view a 3-dimensional mountain scene from one viewpoint, and are asked what another person at a different viewpoint would see in the same scene. Watch the Three-Mountain Task in action in this short video from the University of Minnesota and the Science Museum of Minnesota. Piaget’s third stage is the concrete operational stage, which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza? Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of reversibility, which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. Take, for example, water that you poured into the short, fat glass: You can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have the same amount (minus a couple of drops). The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget’s theory is the formal operational stage, which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions. Beyond Formal Operational Thought As with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget’s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget’s discrete stages (Courage & Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia & Spelke, 2010). According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons & Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues. It seems that once we reach adulthood our problem solving abilities change: As we attempt to solve problems, we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief & Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary, depending on the situation. What does this mean? Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a disagreement with a significant other. THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT A major task beginning in childhood and continuing into adolescence is discerning right from wrong. Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) extended upon the foundation that Piaget built regarding cognitive development. Kohlberg believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. To develop this theory, Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to people of all ages, and then he analyzed their answers to find evidence of their particular stage of moral development. Before reading about the stages, take a minute to consider how you would answer one of Kohlberg's best-known moral dilemmas, commonly known as the Heinz dilemma: In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000, which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done that? (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 379) How would you answer this dilemma? Kohlberg was not interested in whether you answer yes or no to the dilemma: Instead, he was interested in the reasoning behind your answer. After presenting people with this and various other moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed people’s responses and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning (Figure). According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional morality (before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining post-conventional morality (once formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve. Kohlberg placed in the highest stage responses that reflected the reasoning that Heinz should steal the drug because his wife’s life is more important than the pharmacist making money. The value of a human life overrides the pharmacist’s greed. It is important to realize that even those people who have the most sophisticated, post-conventional reasons for some choices may make other choices for the simplest of pre-conventional reasons. Many psychologists agree with Kohlberg's theory of moral development but point out that moral reasoning is very different from moral behavior. Sometimes what we say we would do in a situation is not what we actually do in that situation. In other words, we might “talk the talk,” but not “walk the walk.” How does this theory apply to males and females? Kohlberg (1969) felt that more males than females move past stage four in their moral development. He went on to note that women seem to be deficient in their moral reasoning abilities. These ideas were not well received by Carol Gilligan, a research assistant of Kohlberg, who consequently developed her own ideas of moral development. In her groundbreaking book, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development, Gilligan (1982) criticized her former mentor’s theory because it was based only on upper class White men and boys. She argued that women are not deficient in their moral reasoning—she proposed that males and females reason differently. Girls and women focus more on staying connected and the importance of interpersonal relationships. Therefore, in the Heinz dilemma, many girls and women respond that Heinz should not steal the medicine. Their reasoning is that if he steals the medicine, is arrested, and is put in jail, then he and his wife will be separated, and she could die while he is still in prison. Summary There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults. Sigmund Freud suggested that we pass through a series of psychosexual stages in which our energy is focused on certain erogenous zones on the body. Eric Erikson modified Freud’s ideas and suggested a theory of psychosocial development. Erikson said that our social interactions and successful completion of social tasks shape our sense of self. Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive development that explains how children think and reason as they move through various stages. Finally, Lawrence Kohlberg turned his attention to moral development. He said that we pass through three levels of moral thinking that build on our cognitive development. Review Questions The idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists is called ________. - egocentrism - object permanence - conservation - reversibility Hint: B Which theorist proposed that moral thinking proceeds through a series of stages? - Sigmund Freud - Erik Erikson - John Watson - Lawrence Kohlberg Hint: D According to Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, what is the main task of the adolescent? - developing autonomy - feeling competent - forming an identity - forming intimate relationships Hint: C Critical Thinking Questions What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation? Provide examples of each. Hint: Assimilation is when we take in information that is comparable to what we already know. Accommodation is when we change our schemata based on new information. An example of assimilation is a child’s schema of “dog” based on the family’s golden retriever being expanded to include two newly adopted golden retrievers. An example of accommodation is that same child’s schema of “dog” being adjusted to exclude other four-legged furry animals such as sheep and foxes. Why was Carol Gilligan critical of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development? Hint: Gilligan criticized Kohlberg because his theory was based on the responses of upper class White men and boys, arguing that it was biased against women. While Kohlberg concluded that women must be deficient in their moral reasoning abilities, Gilligan disagreed, suggesting that female moral reasoning is not deficient, just different. What is egocentrism? Provide an original example. Hint: Egocentrism is the inability to take the perspective of another person. This type of thinking is common in young children in the preoperational stage of cognitive development. An example might be that upon seeing his mother crying, a young child gives her his favorite stuffed animal to make her feel better. Personal Application Questions Explain how you would use your understanding of one of the major developmental theories to deal with each of the difficulties listed below: - Your infant daughter puts everything in her mouth, including the dog's food. - Your eight-year-old son is failing math; all he cares about is baseball. - Your two-year-old daughter refuses to wear the clothes you pick for her every morning, which makes getting dressed a twenty-minute battle. - Your sixty-eight-year-old neighbor is chronically depressed and feels she has wasted her life. - Your 18-year-old daughter has decided not to go to college. Instead she’s moving to Colorado to become a ski instructor. - Your 11-year-old son is the class bully.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.399463	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15342/overview", "title": "Psychology, Lifespan Development", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15343/overview	Stages of Development Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the stages of prenatal development and recognize the importance of prenatal care - Discuss physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs from infancy through childhood - Discuss physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs during adolescence - Discuss physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs in adulthood From the moment we are born until the moment we die, we continue to develop. As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, developmental psychologists often divide our development into three areas: physical development, cognitive development, and psychosocial development. Mirroring Erikson’s stages, lifespan development is divided into different stages that are based on age. We will discuss prenatal, infant, child, adolescent, and adult development. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT How did you come to be who you are? From beginning as a one-cell structure to your birth, your prenatal development occurred in an orderly and delicate sequence. There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Let’s take a look at what happens to the developing baby in each of these stages. Germinal Stage (Weeks 1–2) In the discussion of biopsychology earlier in the book, you learned about genetics and DNA. A mother and father’s DNA is passed on to the child at the moment of conception. Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote (Figure). A zygote begins as a one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge. The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set at this point. During the first week after conception, the zygote divides and multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to two cells, then four cells, then eight cells, and so on. This process of cell division is called mitosis. Mitosis is a fragile process, and fewer than one-half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks (Hall, 2004). After 5 days of mitosis there are 100 cells, and after 9 months there are billions of cells. As the cells divide, they become more specialized, forming different organs and body parts. In the germinal stage, the mass of cells has yet to attach itself to the lining of the mother’s uterus. Once it does, the next stage begins. Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3–8) After the zygote divides for about 7–10 days and has 150 cells, it travels down the fallopian tubes and implants itself in the lining of the uterus. Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo. Now blood vessels grow, forming the placenta. The placenta is a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord. Basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen. During the embryonic stage, the heart begins to beat and organs form and begin to function. The neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain. Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40) When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on the recognizable form of a human being as the “tail” begins to disappear. From 9–12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate. At about 16 weeks, the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible. By the time the fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks), it weighs up to 1.4 pounds. Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. The internal organs, such as the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this point has a chance to survive outside of the mother’s womb. Throughout the fetal stage the brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from weeks 16 to 28. Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long, and by week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are developed enough that it could survive outside the mother’s uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth. The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks. By then, the fetus has very little room to move around and birth becomes imminent. The progression through the stages is shown in Figure. For an amazing look at prenatal development and the process of birth, view the video Life’s Greatest Miracle from Nova and PBS. Prenatal Influences During each prenatal stage, genetic and environmental factors can affect development. The developing fetus is completely dependent on the mother for life. It is important that the mother takes good care of herself and receives prenatal care, which is medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus (Figure). According to the National Institutes of Health ([NIH], 2013), routine prenatal care is important because it can reduce the risk of complications to the mother and fetus during pregnancy. In fact, women who are trying to become pregnant or who may become pregnant should discuss pregnancy planning with their doctor. They may be advised, for example, to take a vitamin containing folic acid, which helps prevent certain birth defects, or to monitor aspects of their diet or exercise routines. Recall that when the zygote attaches to the wall of the mother’s uterus, the placenta is formed. The placenta provides nourishment and oxygen to the fetus. Most everything the mother ingests, including food, liquid, and even medication, travels through the placenta to the fetus, hence the common phrase “eating for two.” Anything the mother is exposed to in the environment affects the fetus; if the mother is exposed to something harmful, the child can show life-long effects. A teratogen is any environmental agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus. There are different types of teratogens. Alcohol and most drugs cross the placenta and affect the fetus. Alcohol is not safe to drink in any amount during pregnancy. Alcohol use during pregnancy has been found to be the leading preventable cause of mental retardation in children in the United States (Maier & West, 2001). Excessive maternal drinking while pregnant can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders with life-long consequences for the child ranging in severity from minor to major (Table). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a collection of birth defects associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Physically, children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal facial features. Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ scores. These developmental problems and delays persist into adulthood (Streissguth et al., 2004). Based on studies conducted on animals, it also has been suggested that a mother’s alcohol consumption during pregnancy may predispose her child to like alcohol (Youngentob et al., 2007). \| Facial Feature \| Potential Effect of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome \| \|---\|---\| \| Head size \| Below-average head circumference \| \| Eyes \| Smaller than average eye opening, skin folds at corners of eyes \| \| Nose \| Low nasal bridge, short nose \| \| Midface \| Smaller than average midface size \| \| Lip and philtrum \| Thin upper lip, indistinct philtrum \| Smoking is also considered a teratogen because nicotine travels through the placenta to the fetus. When the mother smokes, the developing baby experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013), smoking while pregnant can result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine, almost all prescription medicines, and most over-the counter medications are also considered teratogens. Babies born with a heroin addiction need heroin just like an adult addict. The child will need to be gradually weaned from the heroin under medical supervision; otherwise, the child could have seizures and die. Other teratogens include radiation, viruses such as HIV and herpes, and rubella (German measles). Women in the United States are much less likely to be afflicted with rubella because most women received childhood immunizations or vaccinations that protect the body from disease. Each organ of the fetus develops during a specific period in the pregnancy, called the critical or sensitive period (Figure). For example, research with primate models of FASD has demonstrated that the time during which a developing fetus is exposed to alcohol can dramatically affect the appearance of facial characteristics associated with fetal alcohol syndrome. Specifically, this research suggests that alcohol exposure that is limited to day 19 or 20 of gestation can lead to significant facial abnormalities in the offspring (Ashley, Magnuson, Omnell, & Clarren, 1999). Given regions of the brain also show sensitive periods during which they are most susceptible to the teratogenic effects of alcohol (Tran & Kelly, 2003). Should Women Who Use Drugs During Pregnancy Be Arrested and Jailed? As you now know, women who use drugs or alcohol during pregnancy can cause serious lifelong harm to their child. Some people have advocated mandatory screenings for women who are pregnant and have a history of drug abuse, and if the women continue using, to arrest, prosecute, and incarcerate them (Figdor & Kaeser, 1998). This policy was tried in Charleston, South Carolina, as recently as 20 years ago. The policy was called the Interagency Policy on Management of Substance Abuse During Pregnancy, and had disastrous results. The Interagency Policy applied to patients attending the obstetrics clinic at MUSC, which primarily serves patients who are indigent or on Medicaid. It did not apply to private obstetrical patients. The policy required patient education about the harmful effects of substance abuse during pregnancy. . . . [A] statement also warned patients that protection of unborn and newborn children from the harms of illegal drug abuse could involve the Charleston police, the Solicitor of the Ninth Judicial Court, and the Protective Services Division of the Department of Social Services (DSS). (Jos, Marshall, & Perlmutter, 1995, pp. 120–121) This policy seemed to deter women from seeking prenatal care, deterred them from seeking other social services, and was applied solely to low-income women, resulting in lawsuits. The program was canceled after 5 years, during which 42 women were arrested. A federal agency later determined that the program involved human experimentation without the approval and oversight of an institutional review board (IRB). What were the flaws in the program and how would you correct them? What are the ethical implications of charging pregnant women with child abuse? INFANCY THROUGH CHILDHOOD The average newborn weighs approximately 7.5 pounds. Although small, a newborn is not completely helpless because his reflexes and sensory capacities help him interact with the environment from the moment of birth. All healthy babies are born with newborn reflexes: inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation. Reflexes help the newborn survive until it is capable of more complex behaviors—these reflexes are crucial to survival. They are present in babies whose brains are developing normally and usually disappear around 4–5 months old. Let’s take a look at some of these newborn reflexes. The rooting reflex is the newborn’s response to anything that touches her cheek: When you stroke a baby’s cheek, she naturally turns her head in that direction and begins to suck. The sucking reflex is the automatic, unlearned, sucking motions that infants do with their mouths. Several other interesting newborn reflexes can be observed. For instance, if you put your finger into a newborn’s hand, you will witness the grasping reflex, in which a baby automatically grasps anything that touches his palms. The Moro reflex is the newborn’s response when she feels like she is falling. The baby spreads her arms, pulls them back in, and then (usually) cries. How do you think these reflexes promote survival in the first months of life? Take a few minutes to view this brief video clip illustrating several newborn reflexes. What can young infants see, hear, and smell? Newborn infants’ sensory abilities are significant, but their senses are not yet fully developed. Many of a newborn’s innate preferences facilitate interaction with caregivers and other humans. Although vision is their least developed sense, newborns already show a preference for faces. Babies who are just a few days old also prefer human voices, they will listen to voices longer than sounds that do not involve speech (Vouloumanos & Werker, 2004), and they seem to prefer their mother’s voice over a stranger’s voice (Mills & Melhuish, 1974). In an interesting experiment, 3-week-old babies were given pacifiers that played a recording of the infant’s mother’s voice and of a stranger’s voice. When the infants heard their mother’s voice, they sucked more strongly at the pacifier (Mills & Melhuish, 1974). Newborns also have a strong sense of smell. For instance, newborn babies can distinguish the smell of their own mother from that of others. In a study by MacFarlane (1978), 1-week-old babies who were being breastfed were placed between two gauze pads. One gauze pad was from the bra of a nursing mother who was a stranger, and the other gauze pad was from the bra of the infant’s own mother. More than two-thirds of the week-old babies turned toward the gauze pad with their mother’s scent. Physical Development In infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body’s physical development is rapid (Figure). On average, newborns weigh between 5 and 10 pounds, and a newborn’s weight typically doubles in six months and triples in one year. By 2 years old the weight will have quadrupled, so we can expect that a 2 year old should weigh between 20 and 40 pounds. The average length of a newborn is 19.5 inches, increasing to 29.5 inches by 12 months and 34.4 inches by 2 years old (WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group, 2006). During infancy and childhood, growth does not occur at a steady rate (Carel, Lahlou, Roger, & Chaussain, 2004). Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old: During this time children gain 5–7 pounds and grow about 2–3 inches per year. Once girls reach 8–9 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle. By 10 years old, the average girl weighs 88 pounds, and the average boy weighs 85 pounds. We are born with all of the brain cells that we will ever have—about 100–200 billion neurons (nerve cells) whose function is to store and transmit information (Huttenlocher & Dabholkar, 1997). However, the nervous system continues to grow and develop. Each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. This period of rapid neural growth is called blooming. Neural pathways continue to develop through puberty. The blooming period of neural growth is then followed by a period of pruning, where neural connections are reduced. It is thought that pruning causes the brain to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills (Hutchinson, 2011). Blooming occurs during the first few years of life, and pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain. The size of our brains increases rapidly. For example, the brain of a 2-year-old is 55% of its adult size, and by 6 years old the brain is about 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978). During early childhood (ages 3–6), the frontal lobes grow rapidly. Recalling our discussion of the 4 lobes of the brain earlier in this book, the frontal lobes are associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse control. Therefore, by the time children reach school age, they are developmentally capable of controlling their attention and behavior. Through the elementary school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow in size. The brain growth spurts experienced in childhood tend to follow Piaget’s sequence of cognitive development, so that significant changes in neural functioning account for cognitive advances (Kolb & Whishaw, 2009; Overman, Bachevalier, Turner, & Peuster, 1992). Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then to sit with assistance, and then to sit unassisted, followed later by crawling and then walking. Motor skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects. Fine motor skills focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon). Gross motor skills focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping). As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve (Table). For each milestone there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90% of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old. In another example, babies on average are able to hold up their head at 6 weeks old, and 90% of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old. If a baby is not holding up his head by 4 months old, he is showing a delay. If the child is displaying delays on several milestones, that is reason for concern, and the parent or caregiver should discuss this with the child’s pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention. \| Age (years) \| Physical \| Personal/Social \| Language \| Cognitive \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| 2 \| Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs \| Plays alongside other children; copies adults \| Points to objects when named; puts 2–4 words together in a sentence \| Sorts shapes and colors; follows 2-step instructions \| \| 3 \| Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle \| Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self \| Names familiar things; uses pronouns \| Plays make believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles) \| \| 4 \| Catches balls; uses scissors \| Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests \| Knows songs and rhymes by memory \| Names colors and numbers; begins writing letters \| \| 5 \| Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon \| Distinguishes real from pretend; likes to please friends \| Speaks clearly; uses full sentences \| Counts to 10 or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes \| Cognitive Development In addition to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit significant development of their cognitive abilities. Piaget thought that children’s ability to understand objects—such as learning that a rattle makes a noise when shaken—was a cognitive skill that develops slowly as a child matures and interacts with the environment. Today, developmental psychologists think Piaget was incorrect. Researchers have found that even very young children understand objects and how they work long before they have experience with those objects (Baillargeon, 1987; Baillargeon, Li, Gertner, & Wu, 2011). For example, children as young as 3 months old demonstrated knowledge of the properties of objects that they had only viewed and did not have prior experience with them. In one study, 3-month-old infants were shown a truck rolling down a track and behind a screen. The box, which appeared solid but was actually hollow, was placed next to the track. The truck rolled past the box as would be expected. Then the box was placed on the track to block the path of the truck. When the truck was rolled down the track this time, it continued unimpeded. The infants spent significantly more time looking at this impossible event (Figure). Baillargeon (1987) concluded that they knew solid objects cannot pass through each other. Baillargeon’s findings suggest that very young children have an understanding of objects and how they work, which Piaget (1954) would have said is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited experiences in the world. Just as there are physical milestones that we expect children to reach, there are also cognitive milestones. It is helpful to be aware of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. For example, infants shake their head “no” around 6–9 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like “wave bye-bye” or “blow a kiss” around 9–12 months. Remember Piaget’s ideas about object permanence? We can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12–24 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects. Preschool-age children (i.e., 3–5 years old) also make steady progress in cognitive development. Not only can they count, name colors, and tell you their name and age, but they can also make some decisions on their own, such as choosing an outfit to wear. Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after), and they can predict what will happen next in a story. They also begin to enjoy the use of humor in stories. Because they can think symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask “Why?” An important cognitive change occurs in children this age. Recall that Piaget described 2–3 year olds as egocentric, meaning that they do not have an awareness of others’ points of view. Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory-of-mind (TOM). Children can use this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognize that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005). False-belief tasks are useful in determining a child’s acquisition of theory-of-mind (TOM). Take a look at this video clip showing a false-belief task involving a box of crayons. Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood (6–11 years old). Thought processes become more logical and organized when dealing with concrete information (Figure). Children at this age understand concepts such as the past, present, and future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals. Additionally, they can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships. However, children’s attention spans tend to be very limited until they are around 11 years old. After that point, it begins to improve through adulthood. One well-researched aspect of cognitive development is language acquisition. As mentioned earlier, the order in which children learn language structures is consistent across children and cultures (Hatch, 1983). You’ve also learned that some psychological researchers have proposed that children possess a biological predisposition for language acquisition. Starting before birth, babies begin to develop language and communication skills. At birth, babies apparently recognize their mother’s voice and can discriminate between the language(s) spoken by their mothers and foreign languages, and they show preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony with audible language (Blossom & Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981). Children communicate information through gesturing long before they speak, and there is some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development (Iverson & Goldin-Meadow, 2005). In terms of producing spoken language, babies begin to coo almost immediately. Cooing is a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel sound (e.g., coo or ba). Interestingly, babies replicate sounds from their own languages. A baby whose parents speak French will coo in a different tone than a baby whose parents speak Spanish or Urdu. After cooing, the baby starts to babble. Babbling begins with repeating a syllable, such as ma-ma, da-da, or ba-ba. When a baby is about 12 months old, we expect her to say her first word for meaning, and to start combining words for meaning at about 18 months. At about 2 years old, a toddler uses between 50 and 200 words; by 3 years old they have a vocabulary of up to 1,000 words and can speak in sentences. During the early childhood years, children's vocabulary increases at a rapid pace. This is sometimes referred to as the “vocabulary spurt” and has been claimed to involve an expansion in vocabulary at a rate of 10–20 new words per week. Recent research may indicate that while some children experience these spurts, it is far from universal (as discussed in Ganger & Brent, 2004). It has been estimated that, 5 year olds understand about 6,000 words, speak 2,000 words, and can define words and question their meanings. They can rhyme and name the days of the week. Seven year olds speak fluently and use slang and clichés (Stork & Widdowson, 1974). What accounts for such dramatic language learning by children? Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that we learn language in response to reinforcement or feedback, such as through parental approval or through being understood. For example, when a two-year-old child asks for juice, he might say, “me juice,” to which his mother might respond by giving him a cup of apple juice. Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner’s theory and proposed that we are all born with an innate capacity to learn language. Chomsky called this mechanism a language acquisition device (LAD). Who is correct? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right. Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers now believe that language acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment (Gleitman & Newport, 1995; Stork & Widdowson, 1974). Attachment Psychosocial development occurs as children form relationships, interact with others, and understand and manage their feelings. In social and emotional development, forming healthy attachments is very important and is the major social milestone of infancy. Attachment is a long-standing connection or bond with others. Developmental psychologists are interested in how infants reach this milestone. They ask such questions as: How do parent and infant attachment bonds form? How does neglect affect these bonds? What accounts for children’s attachment differences? Researchers Harry Harlow, John Bowlby, and Mary Ainsworth conducted studies designed to answer these questions. In the 1950s, Harlow conducted a series of experiments on monkeys. He separated newborn monkeys from their mothers. Each monkey was presented with two surrogate mothers. One surrogate monkey was made out of wire mesh, and she could dispense milk. The other monkey was softer and made from cloth: This monkey did not dispense milk. Research shows that the monkeys preferred the soft, cuddly cloth monkey, even though she did not provide any nourishment. The baby monkeys spent their time clinging to the cloth monkey and only went to the wire monkey when they needed to be fed. Prior to this study, the medical and scientific communities generally thought that babies become attached to the people who provide their nourishment. However, Harlow (1958) concluded that there was more to the mother-child bond than nourishment. Feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding, which leads to healthy psychosocial development. Harlow’s studies of monkeys were performed before modern ethics guidelines were in place, and today his experiments are widely considered to be unethical and even cruel. Watch this video to see actual footage of Harlow’s monkey studies. Building on the work of Harlow and others, John Bowlby developed the concept of attachment theory. He defined attachment as the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother (Bowlby, 1969). An infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have normal social and emotional development. In addition, Bowlby proposed that this attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life. He used the concept of secure base to define a healthy attachment between parent and child (1988). A secure base is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings. Bowlby said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment: The caregiver must be responsive to the child’s physical, social, and emotional needs; and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions (Bowlby, 1969) (Figure). While Bowlby thought attachment was an all-or-nothing process, Mary Ainsworth’s (1970) research showed otherwise. Ainsworth wanted to know if children differ in the ways they bond, and if so, why. To find the answers, she used the Strange Situation procedure to study attachment between mothers and their infants (1970). In the Strange Situation, the mother (or primary caregiver) and the infant (age 12-18 months) are placed in a room together. There are toys in the room, and the caregiver and child spend some time alone in the room. After the child has had time to explore her surroundings, a stranger enters the room. The mother then leaves her baby with the stranger. After a few minutes, she returns to comfort her child. Based on how the infants/toddlers responded to the separation and reunion, Ainsworth identified three types of parent-child attachments: secure, avoidant, and resistant (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970). A fourth style, known as disorganized attachment, was later described (Main & Solomon, 1990). The most common type of attachment—also considered the healthiest—is called secure attachment (Figure). In this type of attachment, the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger. The attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress. Securely attached children were distressed when their caregivers left the room in the Strange Situation experiment, but when their caregivers returned, the securely attached children were happy to see them. Securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs. With avoidant attachment, the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a positive reaction. Ainsworth theorized that these children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978). In cases of resistant attachment, children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure’s attempts to interact with them (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970). These children do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. Resistant attachment is the result of the caregivers’ inconsistent level of response to their child. Finally, children with disorganized attachment behaved oddly in the Strange Situation. They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns (Main & Solomon, 1990). This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused. Research has shown that abuse disrupts a child’s ability to regulate their emotions. While Ainsworth’s research has found support in subsequent studies, it has also met criticism. Some researchers have pointed out that a child’s temperament may have a strong influence on attachment (Gervai, 2009; Harris, 2009), and others have noted that attachment varies from culture to culture, a factor not accounted for in Ainsworth’s research (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2000; van Ijzendoorn & Sagi-Schwartz, 2008). Watch this video to view a clip of the Strange Situation. Try to identify which type of attachment baby Lisa exhibits. Self-Concept Just as attachment is the main psychosocial milestone of infancy, the primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive sense of self. How does self-awareness develop? Infants don’t have a self-concept, which is an understanding of who they are. If you place a baby in front of a mirror, she will reach out to touch her image, thinking it is another baby. However, by about 18 months a toddler will recognize that the person in the mirror is herself. How do we know this? In a well-known experiment, a researcher placed a red dot of paint on children’s noses before putting them in front of a mirror (Amsterdam, 1972). Commonly known as the mirror test, this behavior is demonstrated by humans and a few other species and is considered evidence of self-recognition (Archer, 1992). At 18 months old they would touch their own noses when they saw the paint, surprised to see a spot on their faces. By 24–36 months old children can name and/or point to themselves in pictures, clearly indicating self-recognition. Children from 2–4 years old display a great increase in social behavior once they have established a self-concept. They enjoy playing with other children, but they have difficulty sharing their possessions. Also, through play children explore and come to understand their gender roles and can label themselves as a girl or boy (Chick, Heilman-Houser, & Hunter, 2002). By 4 years old, children can cooperate with other children, share when asked, and separate from parents with little anxiety. Children at this age also exhibit autonomy, initiate tasks, and carry out plans. Success in these areas contributes to a positive sense of self. Once children reach 6 years old, they can identify themselves in terms of group memberships: “I’m a first grader!” School-age children compare themselves to their peers and discover that they are competent in some areas and less so in others (recall Erikson’s task of industry versus inferiority). At this age, children recognize their own personality traits as well as some other traits they would like to have. For example, 10-year-old Layla says, “I’m kind of shy. I wish I could be more talkative like my friend Alexa.” Development of a positive self-concept is important to healthy development. Children with a positive self-concept tend to be more confident, do better in school, act more independently, and are more willing to try new activities (Maccoby, 1980; Ferrer & Fugate, 2003). Formation of a positive self-concept begins in Erikson’s toddlerhood stage, when children establish autonomy and become confident in their abilities. Development of self-concept continues in elementary school, when children compare themselves to others. When the comparison is favorable, children feel a sense of competence and are motivated to work harder and accomplish more. Self-concept is re-evaluated in Erikson’s adolescence stage, as teens form an identity. They internalize the messages they have received regarding their strengths and weaknesses, keeping some messages and rejecting others. Adolescents who have achieved identity formation are capable of contributing positively to society (Erikson, 1968). What can parents do to nurture a healthy self-concept? Diana Baumrind (1971, 1991) thinks parenting style may be a factor. The way we parent is an important factor in a child’s socioemotional growth. Baumrind developed and refined a theory describing four parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. With the authoritative style, the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child’s point of view. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them. They are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases—for example, temporarily relaxing bedtime rules to allow for a nighttime swim during a family vacation. Of the four parenting styles, the authoritative style is the one that is most encouraged in modern American society. American children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. However, effective parenting styles vary as a function of culture and, as Small (1999) points out, the authoritative style is not necessarily preferred or appropriate in all cultures. In authoritarian style, the parent places high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. In contrast to the authoritative style, authoritarian parents probably would not relax bedtime rules during a vacation because they consider the rules to be set, and they expect obedience. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids. However, it is important to point out that authoritarian parenting is as beneficial as the authoritative style in some ethnic groups (Russell, Crockett, & Chao, 2010). For instance, first-generation Chinese American children raised by authoritarian parents did just as well in school as their peers who were raised by authoritative parents (Russell et al., 2010). For parents who employ the permissive style of parenting, the kids run the show and anything goes. Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent. In terms of our example of vacation bedtimes, permissive parents might not have bedtime rules at all—instead they allow the child to choose his bedtime whether on vacation or not. Not surprisingly, children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades (Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987). The permissive style may also contribute to other risky behaviors such as alcohol abuse (Bahr & Hoffman, 2010), risky sexual behavior especially among female children (Donenberg, Wilson, Emerson, & Bryant, 2002), and increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children (Parent et al., 2011). However, there are some positive outcomes associated with children raised by permissive parents. They tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression (Darling, 1999). With the uninvolved style of parenting, the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands. This could be because of severe depression or substance abuse, or other factors such as the parents’ extreme focus on work. These parents may provide for the child’s basic needs, but little else. The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse (Darling, 1999). As you can see, parenting styles influence childhood adjustment, but could a child’s temperament likewise influence parenting? Temperament refers to innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment. Children with easy temperaments demonstrate positive emotions, adapt well to change, and are capable of regulating their emotions. Conversely, children with difficult temperaments demonstrate negative emotions and have difficulty adapting to change and regulating their emotions. Difficult children are much more likely to challenge parents, teachers, and other caregivers (Thomas, 1984). Therefore, it’s possible that easy children (i.e., social, adaptable, and easy to soothe) tend to elicit warm and responsive parenting, while demanding, irritable, withdrawn children evoke irritation in their parents or cause their parents to withdraw (Sanson & Rothbart, 1995). The Importance of Play and Recess According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (2007), unstructured play is an integral part of a child’s development. It builds creativity, problem solving skills, and social relationships. Play also allows children to develop a theory-of-mind as they imaginatively take on the perspective of others. Outdoor play allows children the opportunity to directly experience and sense the world around them. While doing so, they may collect objects that they come across and develop lifelong interests and hobbies. They also benefit from increased exercise, and engaging in outdoor play can actually increase how much they enjoy physical activity. This helps support the development of a healthy heart and brain. Unfortunately, research suggests that today’s children are engaging in less and less outdoor play (Clements, 2004). Perhaps, it is no surprise to learn that lowered levels of physical activity in conjunction with easy access to calorie-dense foods with little nutritional value are contributing to alarming levels of childhood obesity (Karnik & Kanekar, 2012). Despite the adverse consequences associated with reduced play, some children are over scheduled and have little free time to engage in unstructured play. In addition, some schools have taken away recess time for children in a push for students to do better on standardized tests, and many schools commonly use loss of recess as a form of punishment. Do you agree with these practices? Why or why not? ADOLESCENCE Adolescence is a socially constructed concept. In pre-industrial society, children were considered adults when they reached physical maturity, but today we have an extended time between childhood and adulthood called adolescence. Adolescence is the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood, which is discussed later. In the United States, adolescence is seen as a time to develop independence from parents while remaining connected to them (Figure). The typical age range of adolescence is from 12 to 18 years, and this stage of development also has some predictable physical, cognitive, and psychosocial milestones. Physical Development As noted above, adolescence begins with puberty. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty is predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely. Several physical changes occur during puberty, such as adrenarche and gonadarche, the maturing of the adrenal glands and sex glands, respectively. Also during this time, primary and secondary sexual characteristics develop and mature. Primary sexual characteristics are organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in males. Secondary sexual characteristics are physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips in girls, and development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys. Girls experience menarche, the beginning of menstrual periods, usually around 12–13 years old, and boys experience spermarche, the first ejaculation, around 13–14 years old. During puberty, both sexes experience a rapid increase in height (i.e., growth spurt). For girls this begins between 8 and 13 years old, with adult height reached between 10 and 16 years old. Boys begin their growth spurt slightly later, usually between 10 and 16 years old, and reach their adult height between 13 and 17 years old. Both nature (i.e., genes) and nurture (e.g., nutrition, medications, and medical conditions) can influence height. Because rates of physical development vary so widely among teenagers, puberty can be a source of pride or embarrassment. Early maturing boys tend to be stronger, taller, and more athletic than their later maturing peers. They are usually more popular, confident, and independent, but they are also at a greater risk for substance abuse and early sexual activity (Flannery, Rowe, & Gulley, 1993; Kaltiala-Heino, Rimpela, Rissanen, & Rantanen, 2001). Early maturing girls may be teased or overtly admired, which can cause them to feel self-conscious about their developing bodies. These girls are at a higher risk for depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001; Graber, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Brooks-Gunn, 1997; Striegel-Moore & Cachelin, 1999). Late blooming boys and girls (i.e., they develop more slowly than their peers) may feel self-conscious about their lack of physical development. Negative feelings are particularly a problem for late maturing boys, who are at a higher risk for depression and conflict with parents (Graber et al., 1997) and more likely to be bullied (Pollack & Shuster, 2000). The adolescent brain also remains under development. Up until puberty, brain cells continue to bloom in the frontal region. Adolescents engage in increased risk-taking behaviors and emotional outbursts possibly because the frontal lobes of their brains are still developing (Figure). Recall that this area is responsible for judgment, impulse control, and planning, and it is still maturing into early adulthood (Casey, Tottenham, Liston, & Durston, 2005). According to neuroscientist Jay Giedd in the Frontline video “Inside the Teenage Brain” (2013), “It’s sort of unfair to expect [teens] to have adult levels of organizational skills or decision-making before their brains are finished being built.” Watch this segment on “The Wiring of the Adolescent Brain” to find out more about the developing brain during adolescence. Cognitive Development More complex thinking abilities emerge during adolescence. Some researchers suggest this is due to increases in processing speed and efficiency rather than as the result of an increase in mental capacity—in other words, due to improvements in existing skills rather than development of new ones (Bjorkland, 1987; Case, 1985). During adolescence, teenagers move beyond concrete thinking and become capable of abstract thought. Recall that Piaget refers to this stage as formal operational thought. Teen thinking is also characterized by the ability to consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations, debate ideas and opinions (e.g., politics, religion, and justice), and form new ideas (Figure). In addition, it’s not uncommon for adolescents to question authority or challenge established societal norms. Cognitive empathy, also known as theory-of-mind (which we discussed earlier with regard to egocentrism), relates to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others (Shamay-Tsoory, Tomer, & Aharon-Peretz, 2005). Cognitive empathy begins to increase in adolescence and is an important component of social problem solving and conflict avoidance. According to one longitudinal study, levels of cognitive empathy begin rising in girls around 13 years old, and around 15 years old in boys (Van der Graaff et al., 2013). Teens who reported having supportive fathers with whom they could discuss their worries were found to be better able to take the perspective of others (Miklikowska, Duriez, & Soenens, 2011). Psychosocial Development Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson referred to the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This is common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents’ lives. As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents, most teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair, Lippman, & Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005). It appears that most teens don’t experience adolescent storm and stress to the degree once famously suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent development. Only small numbers of teens have major conflicts with their parents (Steinberg & Morris, 2001), and most disagreements are minor. For example, in a study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework, money, curfews, clothing, chores, and friends. These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens develop (Galambos & Almeida, 1992). Emerging Adulthood The next stage of development is emerging adulthood. This is a relatively newly defined period of lifespan development spanning from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love. When does a person become an adult? There are many ways to answer this question. In the United States, you are legally considered an adult at 18 years old. But other definitions of adulthood vary widely; in sociology, for example, a person may be considered an adult when she becomes self-supporting, chooses a career, gets married, or starts a family. The ages at which we achieve these milestones vary from person to person as well as from culture to culture. For example, in the African country of Malawi, 15-year-old Njemile was married at 14 years old and had her first child at 15 years old. In her culture she is considered an adult. Children in Malawi take on adult responsibilities such as marriage and work (e.g., carrying water, tending babies, and working fields) as early as 10 years old. In stark contrast, independence in Western cultures is taking longer and longer, effectively delaying the onset of adult life. Why is it taking twentysomethings so long to grow up? It seems that emerging adulthood is a product of both Western culture and our current times (Arnett, 2000). People in developed countries are living longer, allowing the freedom to take an extra decade to start a career and family. Changes in the workforce also play a role. For example, 50 years ago, a young adult with a high school diploma could immediately enter the work force and climb the corporate ladder. That is no longer the case. Bachelor’s and even graduate degrees are required more and more often—even for entry-level jobs (Arnett, 2000). In addition, many students are taking longer (five or six years) to complete a college degree as a result of working and going to school at the same time. After graduation, many young adults return to the family home because they have difficulty finding a job. Changing cultural expectations may be the most important reason for the delay in entering adult roles. Young people are spending more time exploring their options, so they are delaying marriage and work as they change majors and jobs multiple times, putting them on a much later timetable than their parents (Arnett, 2000). ADULTHOOD Adulthood begins around 20 years old and has three distinct stages: early, middle, and late. Each stage brings its own set of rewards and challenges. Physical Development By the time we reach early adulthood (20 to early 40s), our physical maturation is complete, although our height and weight may increase slightly. In young adulthood, our physical abilities are at their peak, including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning. Most professional athletes are at the top of their game during this stage. Many women have children in the young adulthood years, so they may see additional weight gain and breast changes. Middle adulthood extends from the 40s to the 60s (Figure). Physical decline is gradual. The skin loses some elasticity, and wrinkles are among the first signs of aging. Visual acuity decreases during this time. Women experience a gradual decline in fertility as they approach the onset of menopause, the end of the menstrual cycle, around 50 years old. Both men and women tend to gain weight: in the abdominal area for men and in the hips and thighs for women. Hair begins to thin and turn gray. Late adulthood is considered to extend from the 60s on. This is the last stage of physical change. The skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes. Smell, taste, hearing, and vision, so sharp in our twenties, decline significantly. The brain may also no longer function at optimal levels, leading to problems like memory loss, dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease in later years. Aging doesn’t mean a person can’t explore new pursuits, learn new skills, and continue to grow. Watch this inspiring story about Neil Unger who is a newbie to the world of skateboarding at 60 years old. Cognitive Development Because we spend so many years in adulthood (more than any other stage), cognitive changes are numerous. In fact, research suggests that adult cognitive development is a complex, ever changing process that may be even more active than cognitive development in infancy and early childhood (Fischer, Yan, & Stewart, 2003). There is good news for the middle age brain. View this brief video to find out what it is. Unlike our physical abilities, which peak in our mid-20s and then begin a slow decline, our cognitive abilities remain steady throughout early and middle adulthood. Our crystalized intelligence (information, skills, and strategies we have gathered through a lifetime of experience) tends to hold steady as we age—it may even improve. For example, adults show relatively stable to increasing scores on intelligence tests until their mid-30s to mid-50s (Bayley & Oden, 1955). However, in late adulthood we begin to experience a decline in another area of our cognitive abilities—fluid intelligence (information processing abilities, reasoning, and memory). These processes become slower. How can we delay the onset of cognitive decline? Mental and physical activity seems to play a part (Figure). Research has found adults who engage in mentally and physically stimulating activities experience less cognitive decline and have a reduced incidence of mild cognitive impairment and dementia (Hertzog, Kramer, Wilson, & Lindenberger, 2009; Larson et al., 2006; Podewils et al., 2005). Psychosocial Development There are many theories about the social and emotional aspects of aging. Some aspects of healthy aging include activities, social connectedness, and the role of a person’s culture. According to many theorists, including George Vaillant (2002), who studied and analyzed over 50 years of data, we need to have and continue to find meaning throughout our lives. For those in early and middle adulthood, meaning is found through work (Sterns & Huyck, 2001) and family life (Markus, Ryff, Curan, & Palmersheim, 2004). These areas relate to the tasks that Erikson referred to as generativity and intimacy. As mentioned previously, adults tend to define themselves by what they do—their careers. Earnings peak during this time, yet job satisfaction is more closely tied to work that involves contact with other people, is interesting, provides opportunities for advancement, and allows some independence (Mohr & Zoghi, 2006) than it is to salary (Iyengar, Wells, & Schwartz, 2006). How might being unemployed or being in a dead-end job challenge adult well-being? Positive relationships with significant others in our adult years have been found to contribute to a state of well-being (Ryff & Singer, 2009). Most adults in the United States identify themselves through their relationships with family—particularly with spouses, children, and parents (Markus et al., 2004). While raising children can be stressful, especially when they are young, research suggests that parents reap the rewards down the road, as adult children tend to have a positive effect on parental well-being (Umberson, Pudrovska, & Reczek, 2010). Having a stable marriage has also been found to contribute to well-being throughout adulthood (Vaillant, 2002). Another aspect of positive aging is believed to be social connectedness and social support. As we get older, socioemotional selectivity theory suggests that our social support and friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in our earlier years (Carstensen, 1992) (Figure). To learn more, view this video on aging in America. Summary At conception the egg and sperm cell are united to form a zygote, which will begin to divide rapidly. This marks the beginning of the first stage of prenatal development (germinal stage), which lasts about two weeks. Then the zygote implants itself into the lining of the woman’s uterus, marking the beginning of the second stage of prenatal development (embryonic stage), which lasts about six weeks. The embryo begins to develop body and organ structures, and the neural tube forms, which will later become the brain and spinal cord. The third phase of prenatal development (fetal stage) begins at 9 weeks and lasts until birth. The body, brain, and organs grow rapidly during this stage. During all stages of pregnancy it is important that the mother receive prenatal care to reduce health risks to herself and to her developing baby. Newborn infants weigh about 7.5 pounds. Doctors assess a newborn’s reflexes, such as the sucking, rooting, and Moro reflexes. Our physical, cognitive, and psychosocial skills grow and change as we move through developmental stages from infancy through late adulthood. Attachment in infancy is a critical component of healthy development. Parenting styles have been found to have an effect on childhood outcomes of well-being. The transition from adolescence to adulthood can be challenging due to the timing of puberty, and due to the extended amount of time spent in emerging adulthood. Although physical decline begins in middle adulthood, cognitive decline does not begin until later. Activities that keep the body and mind active can help maintain good physical and cognitive health as we age. Social supports through family and friends remain important as we age. Review Questions Which of the following is the correct order of prenatal development? - zygote, fetus, embryo - fetus, embryo zygote - fetus, zygote, embryo - zygote, embryo, fetus Hint: D The time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop is known as ________. - critical period - mitosis - conception - pregnancy Hint: A What begins as a single-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge at conception? - embryo - fetus - zygote - infant Hint: C Using scissors to cut out paper shapes is an example of ________. - gross motor skills - fine motor skills - large motor skills - small motor skills Hint: B The child uses the parent as a base from which to explore her world in which attachment style? - secure - insecure avoidant - insecure ambivalent-resistant - disorganized Hint: A The frontal lobes become fully developed ________. - at birth - at the beginning of adolescence - at the end of adolescence - by 25 years old Hint: D Critical Thinking Questions What are some known teratogens, and what kind of damage can they do to the developing fetus? Hint: Alcohol is a teratogen. Excessive drinking can cause mental retardation in children. The child can also have a small head and abnormal facial features, which are characteristic of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Another teratogen is nicotine. Smoking while pregnant can lead to low-birth weight, premature birth, stillbirth, and SIDS. What is prenatal care and why is it important? Hint: Prenatal care is medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and fetus. It’s important to receive prenatal care because it can reduce complications to the mother and fetus during pregnancy. Describe what happens in the embryonic stage of development. Describe what happens in the fetal stage of development. Hint: In the embryonic stage, basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen. The heart begins to beat and organs form and begin to function. The neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain. In the fetal stage, the brain and body continue to develop. Fingers and toes develop along with hearing, and internal organs form. What makes a personal quality part of someone’s personality? Hint: The particular quality or trait must be part of an enduring behavior pattern, so that it is a consistent or predictable quality. Describe some of the newborn reflexes. How might they promote survival? Hint: The sucking reflex is the automatic, unlearned sucking motions that infants do with their mouths. It may help promote survival because this action helps the baby take in nourishment. The rooting reflex is the newborn’s response to anything that touches her cheek. When you stroke a baby’s cheek she will naturally turn her head that way and begin to suck. This may aid survival because it helps the newborn locate a source of food. Compare and contrast the four attachment styles and describe the kinds of childhood outcomes we can expect with each. Hint: With the authoritative style, children are given reasonable demands and consistent limits, warmth and affection are expressed, the parent listens to the child’s point of view, and the child initiates positive standards. Children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. Another parenting style is authoritarian: The parent places a high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids. The third parenting style is permissive: Parents make few demands, rarely use punishment, and give their children free rein. Children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, which contributes to poor grades and alcohol abuse. However, they have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and lower levels of depression. The fourth style is the uninvolved parent: They are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes called neglectful. The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse. What is emerging adulthood and what are some factors that have contributed to this new stage of development? Hint: Emerging adulthood is a relatively new period of lifespan development from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as a transitional time in which identity exploration focuses on work and love. According to Arnett, changing cultural expectations facilitate the delay to full adulthood. People are spending more time exploring their options, so they are delaying marriage and work as they change majors and jobs multiple times, putting them on a much later timetable than their parents. Personal Application Questions Which parenting style describes how you were raised? Provide an example or two to support your answer. Would you describe your experience of puberty as one of pride or embarrassment? Why? Your best friend is a smoker who just found out she is pregnant. What would you tell her about smoking and pregnancy? Imagine you are a nurse working at a clinic that provides prenatal care for pregnant women. Your patient, Anna, has heard that it’s a good idea to play music for her unborn baby, and she wants to know when her baby’s hearing will develop. What will you tell her?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.468421	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15343/overview", "title": "Psychology, Lifespan Development", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15344/overview	Death and Dying Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss hospice care - Describe the five stages of grief - Define living will and DNR Every story has an ending. Death marks the end of your life story (Figure). Our culture and individual backgrounds influence how we view death. In some cultures, death is accepted as a natural part of life and is embraced. In contrast, until about 50 years ago in the United States, a doctor might not inform someone that they were dying, and the majority of deaths occurred in hospitals. In 1967 that reality began to change with Cicely Saunders, who created the first modern hospice in England. The aim of hospice is to help provide a death with dignity and pain management in a humane and comfortable environment, which is usually outside of a hospital setting. In 1974, Florence Wald founded the first hospice in the United States. Today, hospice provides care for 1.65 million Americans and their families. Because of hospice care, many terminally ill people are able to spend their last days at home. Research has indicated that hospice care is beneficial for the patient (Brumley, Enquidanos, & Cherin, 2003; Brumley et al., 2007; Godkin, Krant, & Doster, 1984) and for the patient’s family (Rhodes, Mitchell, Miller, Connor, & Teno, 2008; Godkin et al., 1984). Hospice patients report high levels of satisfaction with hospice care because they are able to remain at home and are not completely dependent on strangers for care (Brumley et al., 2007). In addition, hospice patients tend to live longer than non-hospice patients (Connor, Pyenson, Fitch, Spence, & Iwasaki, 2007; Temel et al., 2010). Family members receive emotional support and are regularly informed of their loved one’s treatment and condition. The family member’s burden of care is also reduced (McMillan et al., 2006). Both the patient and the patient’s family members report increased family support, increased social support, and improved coping while receiving hospice services (Godkin et al., 1984). How do you think you might react if you were diagnosed with a terminal illness like cancer? Elizabeth Kübler-Ross (1969), who worked with the founders of hospice care, described the process of an individual accepting his own death. She proposed five stages of grief: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Most individuals experience these stages, but the stages may occur in different orders, depending on the individual. In addition, not all people experience all of the stages. It is also important to note that some psychologists believe that the more a dying person fights death, the more likely he is to remain stuck in the denial phase. This could make it difficult for the dying person to face death with dignity. However, other psychologists believe that not facing death until the very end is an adaptive coping mechanism for some people. Whether due to illness or old age, not everyone facing death or the loss of a loved one experiences the negative emotions outlined in the Kübler-Ross model (Nolen-Hoeksema & Larson, 1999). For example, research suggests that people with religious or spiritual beliefs are better able to cope with death because of their hope in an afterlife and because of social support from religious or spiritual associations (Hood, Spilka, Hunsberger, & Corsuch, 1996; McIntosh, Silver, & Wortman, 1993; Paloutzian, 1996; Samarel, 1991; Wortman & Park, 2008). A prominent example of a person creating meaning through death is Randy Pausch, who was a well-loved and respected professor at Carnegie Mellon University. Diagnosed with terminal pancreatic cancer in his mid-40s and given only 3–6 months to live, Pausch focused on living in a fulfilling way in the time he had left. Instead of becoming angry and depressed, he presented his now famous last lecture called “Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams.” In his moving, yet humorous talk, he shares his insights on seeing the good in others, overcoming obstacles, and experiencing zero gravity, among many other things. Despite his terminal diagnosis, Pausch lived the final year of his life with joy and hope, showing us that our plans for the future still matter, even if we know that we are dying. Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams is Randy Pausch’s last lecture. Listen to his inspiring talk. Summary Death marks the endpoint of our lifespan. There are many ways that we might react when facing death. Kübler-Ross developed a five-stage model of grief as a way to explain this process. Many people facing death choose hospice care, which allows their last days to be spent at home in a comfortable, supportive environment. Review Questions Who created the very first modern hospice? - Elizabeth Kübler-Ross - Cicely Saunders - Florence Wald - Florence Nightingale Hint: B Which of the following is the order of stages in Kübler-Ross’s five-stage model of grief? - denial, bargaining, anger, depression, acceptance - anger, depression, bargaining, acceptance, denial - denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance - anger, acceptance, denial, depression, bargaining Hint: C Critical Thinking Questions Describe the five stages of grief and provide examples of how a person might react in each stage. Hint: The first stage is denial. The person receives news that he is dying, and either does not take it seriously or tries to escape from the reality of the situation. He might say something like, “Cancer could never happen to me. I take good care of myself. This has to be a mistake.” The next stage is anger. He realizes time is short, and he may not have a chance to accomplish what he wanted in life. “It’s not fair. I promised my grandchildren that we would go to Disney World, and now I’ll never have the chance to take them.” The third stage is bargaining. In this stage, he tries to delay the inevitable by bargaining or pleading for extra time, usually with God, family members, or medical care providers. “God, just give me one more year so I can take that trip with my grandchildren. They’re too young to understand what’s happening and why I can’t take them.” The fourth stage is depression. He becomes sad about his impending death. “I can’t believe this is how I’m going to die. I’m in so much pain. What’s going to become of my family when I’m gone?” The final stage is acceptance. This stage is usually reached in the last few days or weeks before death. He recognizes that death is inevitable. “I need to get everything in order and say all of my good-byes to the people I love.” What is the purpose of hospice care? Hint: Hospice is a program of services that provide medical, social, and spiritual support for dying people and their families. Personal Application Questions Have you ever had to cope with the loss of a loved one? If so, what concepts described in this section provide context that may help you understand your experience and process of grieving? If you were diagnosed with a terminal illness would you choose hospice care or a traditional death in a hospital? Why?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.496525	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15344/overview", "title": "Psychology, Lifespan Development", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/125669/overview	Key Message Three: Increasing Challenges Confront Food and Fiber Production in the Southwest Overview Educational Resources and Guiding Questions Aligned with the Regional Key Messages: Each Key Message in this Lesson features three guiding questions to help educators navigate these topics with students. Each guiding question includes example lessons and supporting videos. The lessons were taken from the Climate Literacy and Energy Awareness Network (CLEAN) educational resources database. The videos were selected from reputable sources to support the lessons. Continuing drought and water scarcity will make it more difficult to raise food and fiber in the Southwest without major shifts to new strategies and technologies. Extreme heat events will increase animal stress and reduce crop quality and yield, thereby resulting in widespread economic impacts. Because people in the Southwest have adapted to drought impacts for millennia, incorporating Indigenous Knowledge with technological innovation can offer solutions to protect food security and sovereignty. Guiding Question One What are social and economic barriers to agricultural adaptation in the Southwest? Example Lesson American Farm Bureau Foundation for Agriculture Description: This set of five lessons addresses climate change impacts to agriculture and provides sustainable solutions. Lesson two covers the relationship between agriculture and local, national, and global economies. Lesson five covers the role that agriculture plays in society. Instructional Time: Each lesson takes 60 minutes to complete Grade Level: Ninth through twelfth Supporting Video Unrelenting drought leaves millions who rely on the Colorado River facing an uncertain future PBS NewsHour Description: The Colorado River is a critical resource for the western U.S. But a megadrought, one significantly exacerbated by climate change, is jeopardizing the river's future and threatening to upend how its water is used and longstanding agreements between states. Miles O'Brien reports as part of our coverage on how climate change is creating a "Tipping Point" for the U.S. and around the world. Video Length: 7:21 minutes Guiding Question Two Notes From Our Reviewers The CLEAN collection is hand-picked and rigorously reviewed for scientific accuracy and classroom effectiveness. Teaching Tips - Providing learners with appropriate data sets for this or other regions will help them gain a quantitative handle on the topic of climate change and freshwater resources. - Because of the length of the activity, it could be used as an entire unit on the Colorado River watershed or customized for other watersheds. About the Content - Students research the impact of climate change on the Colorado River Basin by analyzing snowpack data sets and satellite images of land and vegetation. - Some data sets and images are presented to support the activity, source citations are not available. - Comments from expert scientist: Addresses key issues of water quantity across Colorado River Basin and potential impact based on historical changes. - Need to address potential water quality concerns as CRB also serve for drinking water supply. About the Pedagogy - This is a structured, problem-based learning module using the impact of climate change on the water levels in the Colorado River Basin and as a case study. The authentic final assessment asks students to use their research and analysis of data and images to suggest revisions to the 2007 Colorado Basin water allotment agreement. - Activity provides background information and guiding questions for students to work through the data. - Instructors may want to customize this activity for their own area of interest and assessment needs. - This resource engages students in using scientific data. See other data-rich activities Technical Details/Ease of Use - Teacher notes are not included because this is a college-level module and thus assumes the expertise of the professor. However, the four parts of the module are scaffolded enough to enable 11th and 12th grade students to successfully use the module. Related URLs These related sites were noted by our reviewers but have not been reviewed by CLEAN for Part 3 Colorado River District video 'Colorado Water Supply' see http://www.coloradoriverdistrict.org/video-gallery/or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bVot9tEG0aw What are the challenges to distributing water equitably between urban and rural communities? Example Lesson Encyclopedia of Earth Description: This activity addresses climate change impacts that affect all states that are part of the Colorado River Basin and are dependent on its water. Students examine available data, the possible consequences of changes to various user groups, and suggest solutions to adapt to these changes. Instructional Time: Activity takes about one to two class periods and homework assignments. Grade Level: Ninth through twelfth Supporting Video The Colorado River: Lifeblood for the American Southwest 9News Description: The Southwest is tipping on the precipice of indecision. For more than 100 years the Colorado River's water has been split between seven states, Native American tribes and Mexico thanks to a compact that experts say was written using flawed data. There was never enough water to go around, and beneath the crushing weight of longer droughts and hotter weather, everyone is caught between the Law of the River and reality. Video Length: 12:12 minutes Guiding Question Three Which new technologies and adaptive practices are likely to support agriculture in the Southwest through the impacts of climate change? Example Lesson Agriculture and Climate Change Learning Lab The Climate Initiative Description: This interactive learning lab will help students learn how climate change is affecting our ability to produce food, what sustainable agriculture looks like, how agriculture looks in different states, how snowpack in places like the Sierra Nevada mountains affects agriculture, and how people are affected by these changes and practices. Students will watch videos, read articles, view maps, and answer questions to broaden their understanding of the connections between agriculture and climate change. Instructional Time: Six classroom periods Grade Level: Seventh through twelfth Supporting Video Kiss the Ground for Schools Big Picture Ranch https://kissthegroundmovie.com/for-schools/ Description: This documentary explores the potential of regenerative agriculture to address climate change and restore ecosystems. Password: schools Video Length: 46:26 minutes	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.518895	Melinda Newfarmer	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/125669/overview", "title": "National Climate Assessment: The Southwest, Key Messages for the Southwest, Key Message Three: Increasing Challenges Confront Food and Fiber Production in the Southwest", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124483/overview	Sign in to see your Hubs Sign in to see your Groups Create a standalone learning module, lesson, assignment, assessment or activity Submit OER from the web for review by our librarians Please log in to save materials. Log in Right hand studies for ukulele. or	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.720049	02/08/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124483/overview", "title": "Ke Kula o ka Lima 'Akau", "author": "Eric Schroeder" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80331/overview	Learning Domain: Expectations Standard: Cite evidence to explain and justify reasoning. Learning Domain: Expectations Standard: Make inferences to support comprehension. Learning Domain: Expectations Standard: Use appropriate collaborative techniques and active listening skills when engaging in discussions in a variety of situations. Learning Domain: Expectations Standard: Use appropriate voice and tone when speaking or writing. Learning Domain: Knowledge Constructor Standard: Students practice and demonstrate the ability to evaluate resources for accuracy, perspective, credibility and relevance. Learning Domain: Civics Standard: (US) Explain key ideals and principles outlined in the Declaration of Independence, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; the US Constitution, including the rule of law, separation of powers, representative government, and popular sovereignty; and, the Bill of Rights, including due process and freedom of expression Learning Domain: Civics Standard: (US) Evaluate efforts to reduce discrepancies between key ideals and reality in the United States Learning Domain: Civics Standard: (US) Analyze how a claim on an issue attempts to balance individual rights and the common good Learning Domain: Social Studies Skills Standard: Analyze positions and evidence supporting an issue or an event Learning Domain: Social Studies Skills Standard: Evaluate the logic of reasons for a position on an issue or event Learning Domain: Social Studies Skills Standard: Evaluate the breadth, reliability, and credibility of primary and secondary sources to determine the need for new or additional information when researching an issue or event Learning Domain: Social Studies Skills Standard: Engage in discussion, analyzing multiple viewpoints on public issues Learning Domain: Social Studies Skills Standard: Analyze multiple factors, make generalizations, and interpret sources to formulate a thesis in a paper or presentation, while observing rules related to plagiarism and copyright Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of the source distinct from prior knowledge or opinions. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary specific to domains related to history/social studies. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Describe how a text presents information (e.g., sequentially, comparatively, causally). Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author’s point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of particular facts). Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Distinguish among fact, opinion, and reasoned judgment in a text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine a central idea of a text and how it is conveyed through particular details; provide a summary of the text distinct from personal opinions or judgments. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Analyze in detail how a key individual, event, or idea is introduced, illustrated, and elaborated in a text (e.g., through examples or anecdotes). Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text and explain how it is conveyed in the text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Trace and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, distinguishing claims that are supported by reasons and evidence from claims that are not. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Compare and contrast one author’s presentation of events with that of another (e.g., a memoir written by and a biography on the same person). Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine two or more central ideas in a text and analyze their development over the course of the text; provide an objective summary of the text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Analyze the interactions between individuals, events, and ideas in a text (e.g., how ideas influence individuals or events, or how individuals influence ideas or events). Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text and analyze how the author distinguishes his or her position from that of others. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Trace and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is sound and the evidence is relevant and sufficient to support the claims. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Analyze how two or more authors writing about the same topic shape their presentations of key information by emphasizing different evidence or advancing different interpretations of facts. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine a central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text, including its relationship to supporting ideas; provide an objective summary of the text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Analyze how a text makes connections among and distinctions between individuals, ideas, or events (e.g., through comparisons, analogies, or categories). Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative, connotative, and technical meanings; analyze the impact of specific word choices on meaning and tone, including analogies or allusions to other texts. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text and analyze how the author acknowledges and responds to conflicting evidence or viewpoints. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is sound and the evidence is relevant and sufficient; recognize when irrelevant evidence is introduced. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Analyze a case in which two or more texts provide conflicting information on the same topic and identify where the texts disagree on matters of fact or interpretation. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in Science and Technical Subjects Standard: By the end of grade 8, read and comprehend science/technical texts in the grades 6–8 text complexity band independently and proficiently. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of the source distinct from prior knowledge or opinions. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary specific to domains related to history/social studies. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Describe how a text presents information (e.g., sequentially, comparatively, causally). Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author's point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of particular facts). Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Distinguish among fact, opinion, and reasoned judgment in a text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine a central idea of a text and how it is conveyed through particular details; provide a summary of the text distinct from personal opinions or judgments. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Analyze in detail how a key individual, event, or idea is introduced, illustrated, and elaborated in a text (e.g., through examples or anecdotes). Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine an author's point of view or purpose in a text and explain how it is conveyed in the text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Trace and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, distinguishing claims that are supported by reasons and evidence from claims that are not. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Compare and contrast one author's presentation of events with that of another (e.g., a memoir written by and a biography on the same person). Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine two or more central ideas in a text and analyze their development over the course of the text; provide an objective summary of the text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Analyze the interactions between individuals, events, and ideas in a text (e.g., how ideas influence individuals or events, or how individuals influence ideas or events). Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine an author's point of view or purpose in a text and analyze how the author distinguishes his or her position from that of others. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Trace and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is sound and the evidence is relevant and sufficient to support the claims. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Analyze how two or more authors writing about the same topic shape their presentations of key information by emphasizing different evidence or advancing different interpretations of facts. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine a central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text, including its relationship to supporting ideas; provide an objective summary of the text. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Analyze how a text makes connections among and distinctions between individuals, ideas, or events (e.g., through comparisons, analogies, or categories). Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative, connotative, and technical meanings; analyze the impact of specific word choices on meaning and tone, including analogies or allusions to other texts. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Determine an author's point of view or purpose in a text and analyze how the author acknowledges and responds to conflicting evidence or viewpoints. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is sound and the evidence is relevant and sufficient; recognize when irrelevant evidence is introduced. Learning Domain: Reading for Informational Text Standard: Analyze a case in which two or more texts provide conflicting information on the same topic and identify where the texts disagree on matters of fact or interpretation. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in Science and Technical Subjects Standard: By the end of grade 8, read and comprehend science/technical texts in the grades 6-8 text complexity band independently and proficiently. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Determine a central idea of a text and how it is conveyed through particular details; provide a summary of the text distinct from personal opinions or judgments. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Analyze in detail how a key individual, event, or idea is introduced, illustrated, and elaborated in a text (e.g., through examples or anecdotes). Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text and explain how it is conveyed in the text. Cluster: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Trace and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, distinguishing claims that are supported by reasons and evidence from claims that are not. Cluster: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Compare and contrast one author’s presentation of events with that of another (e.g., a memoir written by and a biography on the same person). Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of the source distinct from prior knowledge or opinions. Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary specific to domains related to history/social studies. Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Describe how a text presents information (e.g., sequentially, comparatively, causally). Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author’s point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of particular facts). Cluster: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Distinguish among fact, opinion, and reasoned judgment in a text. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Determine two or more central ideas in a text and analyze their development over the course of the text; provide an objective summary of the text. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Analyze the interactions between individuals, events, and ideas in a text (e.g., how ideas influence individuals or events, or how individuals influence ideas or events). Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text and analyze how the author distinguishes his or her position from that of others. Cluster: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Trace and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is sound and the evidence is relevant and sufficient to support the claims. Cluster: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Analyze how two or more authors writing about the same topic shape their presentations of key information by emphasizing different evidence or advancing different interpretations of facts. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Determine a central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text, including its relationship to supporting ideas; provide an objective summary of the text. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Analyze how a text makes connections among and distinctions between individuals, ideas, or events (e.g., through comparisons, analogies, or categories). Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including figurative, connotative, and technical meanings; analyze the impact of specific word choices on meaning and tone, including analogies or allusions to other texts. Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Determine an author’s point of view or purpose in a text and analyze how the author acknowledges and responds to conflicting evidence or viewpoints. Cluster: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is sound and the evidence is relevant and sufficient; recognize when irrelevant evidence is introduced. Cluster: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Analyze a case in which two or more texts provide conflicting information on the same topic and identify where the texts disagree on matters of fact or interpretation. Cluster: Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity. Standard: By the end of grade 8, read and comprehend science/technical texts in the grades 6–8 text complexity band independently and proficiently.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.850235	Journalism	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80331/overview", "title": "Identifying Media Bias in News Sources for Middle School", "author": "English Language Arts" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88421/overview	Education Standards Since Time Immemorial Website \| OSPI John McCoy (lulilaš) Since Time Immemorial: Tribal Sovereignty in Washington State Overview The Since Time Immemorial: Tribal Sovereignty in Washington State instructional materials, have been developed by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction in partnership with the Federally Recognized Tribes in Washington State, The curriculum uses an inquiry, place-based and integrated approach. How to access content Link to John McCoy (lulilaš) Since Time Immemorial: Tribal Sovereignty in Washington State instructional materials on the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction website. Purpose of Website In 2015, the Legislature passed Senate Bill 5433 modifying the original 2005 legislation, now requiring the Since Time Immemorial: Tribal Sovereignty in Washington State or other tribally-developed curriculum be taught in all schools. The use of the Since Time Immemorial curriculum has been endorsed by all 29 federally recognized tribes in Washington. Site Navigation Strategy Explore resources from the Since Time Immemorial curriculum in the following areas: Find "Ready to Go" Lessons for all grade levels To support the continuous teaching and learning you are providing your students, these “Ready to Go” lessons have been shared by Tribes and educators to provide you with quick access to a variety of complete lessons to implement along with or in addition to the Since Time Immemorial tribal sovereignty curriculum. Watch Teacher to Teacher and Librarian Implementation Videos Looking for ideas on how to implement the Since Time Immemorial tribal sovereignty curriculum in your classroom? Across your district? Educators across the state share their ideas, lessons, and resources with you. Additional Native Education Instructional Materials On the OSPI Office of Native Education website, you will find additional supplemental materials that work compatibly with standards-based curriculum. They augment and enrich the instructional and curricular approach of Since Time Immemorial: Tribal Sovereignty in Washington State. Several resources are listed below: Northwest Native American Reading Curriculum \| Evergreen Center for Educational Improvement at The Evergreen State College and the Office of Native Education at OSPI Interdisciplinary, research-based, culturally- relevant, supplemental curriculum that combines learning components for reading, writing, communication, and social studies. This multimedia curriculum features three units: Drum, Canoe, and Hunting and Gathering.- Native American Stories and Science Education Connections \| Roger Fernandes Roger Fernandes, a citizen of the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe, shares several tribal stories from tribes from across the state and region. Mr. Fernandes has been given permission by the tribes to tell these stories. In addition to the stories, this resource provides alignment to the Next Generation Science Standards and possible lesson suggestions on how these stories can be incorporated into the classroom. - Cedar Box Teaching Toolkit \| Muckleshoot Indian Tribe The Cedar Box Teaching Toolkit is an educational resource featuring important native foods in Salish Country and the rich cultural traditions that surround them. The foods were selected because of their high nutritional value, cultural significance, and reasonable availability. The Cedar Box Teaching Toolkit is being generously shared by the Muckleshoot Indian Tribe. National Museum of the American Indian \| Smithsonian As one of the Smithsonian's institutions, the National Museum of the American Indian is "committed to bringing Native voices to what the museum writes and presents, whether on-site, at one of the three NMAI venues, through the museum's publications, or via the Internet. Attribution and License Attribution This work has been created in partnership with private and public agencies and the Federally Recognized Tribes in Washington State. We express our gratitude to all the contributors to this effort. Without their support and expertise, this resource would not be possible. Please be aware that any adaptations should be considered carefully so as not to impact this thoughtfully crafted content design or introduce any unintended cultural bias. OSPI Office of Native Education logo design by Rodger Fernandez If this work is adapted, note the substantive changes and re-title, removing any Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction or Office of Native Education logos. Provide the following attribution: "This resource was adapted from original materials provided by the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction in partnership with the Federally Recognized Tribes in Washington State. Original materials may be accessed for free on the Since Time Immemorial: Tribal Sovereignty in Washington State website. License Except where otherwise noted, "Since Time Immemorial: Tribal Sovereignty in Washington State" by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction in partnership with the Federally Recognized Tribes in Washington State is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. All logos are property of their respective owners. Alternate material licenses with different levels of user permission are clearly indicated next to the specific content in the STI materials.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.899197	Lesson Plan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88421/overview", "title": "John McCoy (lulilaš) Since Time Immemorial: Tribal Sovereignty in Washington State", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124286/overview	ELC 112 Final Exam ELC 112 Mid-Term Exam ELC 112 Quiz and Test Questions ELC-112 DC/AC Electricity Overview This course introduces the fundamental concepts of and computations related to DC/AC electricity. Emphasis is placed on DC/AC circuits, components, operation of test equipment; and other related topics. Upon completion, students should be able to construct, verify, and analyze simple DC/AC circuits. ELC-112 DC/AC Electricity This course introduces the fundamental concepts of and computations related to DC/AC electricity. Emphasis is placed on DC/AC circuits, components, operation of test equipment; and other related topics. Upon completion, students should be able to construct, verify, and analyze simple DC/AC circuits. The course includes a full outline with links to instructional materials and assessments. DOL: Disclaimer: This product was funded by a grant awarded by the U.S. Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration. The product was created by the grantee and does not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Labor. The Department of Labor makes no guarantees, warranties, or assurances of any kind, express or implied, with respect to such information, including any information on linked sites and including, but not limited to, accuracy of the information or its completeness, timeliness, usefulness, adequacy, continued availability, or ownership.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.919458	01/30/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124286/overview", "title": "ELC-112 DC/AC Electricity", "author": "Bo Bunn" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101741/overview	Exploring the Possibilities of Smart Education in Edu-Metaverse Overview Welcome to this Edu-Metaverse and Smart Education Curriculum! This curriculum was developed by ChatGPT, a large language model trained by OpenAI, through questions and interactions with a learner. ChatGPT. (2023, March 29) Overview Welcome to this Edu-Metaverse and Smart Education Curriculum! This curriculum was developed by ChatGPT, a large language model trained by OpenAI, through questions and interactions with a learner. The purpose of this curriculum is to provide an introduction to Edu-Metaverse and Smart Education, exploring the potential benefits and challenges of integrating technology into education. Throughout this curriculum, we will examine different tools, technologies, and approaches that are used in Smart Education and Edu-Metaverse, and we will explore different case studies that showcase the real-world applications of these approaches. Please note that this curriculum is subject to change and updates as new information, tools, and technologies emerge in the field of Edu-Metaverse and Smart Education. We will strive to keep the curriculum up-to-date and relevant, and we welcome any feedback or suggestions to improve the content. Each module in this curriculum includes detailed explanations, key concepts, readings, and videos that are licensed under Creative Commons. Additionally, each module includes related discussions and assignments that aim to deepen the learner's understanding of the concepts and foster critical thinking skills. We want to acknowledge that some of the links in this course may be broken or lead to content that is no longer accessible. This is due to the limitations of the OpenAI language model and the constantly evolving nature of the internet. We want to assure you that we are continuously working to curate accessible and high-quality resources for learning experiences. We hope that this curriculum will serve as a valuable resource for educators, students, and anyone interested in learning more about the intersection of technology and education. Let's dive in! Learning Objectives: By the end of this module, learners will be able to: - Understand the concept of Smart Education and its potential for improving learning outcomes in virtual environments. - Evaluate various tools and technologies that can be used to enhance learning in the Edu-Metaverse. - Analyze case studies of successful implementations of Smart Education in Edu-Metaverse to identify best practices and strategies for effective implementation. - Develop and implement an effective plan for Smart Education in the Edu-Metaverse, integrating various tools, technologies, and strategies learned throughout the course. Source: ChatGPT. (2023, March 29) Title Image: CrAIyon. (2023, March 16) Module 1: Introduction to Edu-Metaverse and Smart Education Overview The term "Edu-Metaverse" refers to the combination of virtual reality, augmented reality, and gamification in education. It provides learners with immersive learning experiences that enable them to interact with educational content in a more engaging way. In this module, we will explore Edu-Metaverse as a tool for smart education and its potential impact on the future of learning. Learning Objectives Understand the concept of Edu-Metaverse and its relevance to smart education. Analyze the potential impact of Edu-Metaverse on learning outcomes. Explore the challenges and opportunities of Edu-Metaverse in education. Discover practical applications of Edu-Metaverse in smart education. Section 1: What is Edu-Metaverse? In this section, we will define Edu-Metaverse and its key components. We will also discuss its relevance to smart education and how it can enhance learning outcomes. Key Concepts: - Edu-Metaverse: A combination of virtual reality, augmented reality, and gamification in education. - Virtual Reality (VR): An immersive experience that simulates a real-life environment. - Augmented Reality (AR): A digital overlay on the real world, enhancing real-world experiences. - Gamification: The application of game design principles in non-game contexts. Learning Materials: - Video: "What is Edu-Metaverse?" by ReduCreator (CC BY 3.0) (https://youtu.be/lyNrqjjTcKg) - Article: "How Edu-Metaverse is Changing the Future of Education" by VirtualSpeech (CC BY-SA 4.0) (https://virtualspeech.com/blog/edu-metaverse-changing-future-of-education) Discussion: - What is your initial impression of Edu-Metaverse and its potential impact on education? - What challenges do you think might arise from implementing Edu-Metaverse in education, and how could these challenges be addressed? - How do you think Edu-Metaverse can be used to enhance teaching and learning experiences? Assignment: Create a concept map or mind map illustrating the key concepts and ideas related to Edu-Metaverse and its potential impact on smart education. Include at least five key concepts and connect them with related sub-concepts or supporting details. Section 2: Potential Impact of Edu-Metaverse on Learning Outcomes In this section, we will explore the potential impact of Edu-Metaverse on learning outcomes, such as engagement, motivation, and retention. We will also discuss the challenges and opportunities of Edu-Metaverse in education. Key Concepts: - Engagement: The level of involvement and interest in learning activities. - Motivation: The drive to learn and achieve goals. - Retention: The ability to remember and apply learned knowledge. Learning Materials: - Video: "The Power of Immersive Learning: How VR and AR Enhance Learning" by EdTech Magazine (CC BY-NC 3.0) (https://youtu.be/1DkmJW9Ve3s) - Article: "The Potential Impact of Virtual Reality in Education" by EdTech Review (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) (https://edtechreview.in/trends-insights/trends/3365-virtual-reality-impact-in-education) Discussion: - How do you think Edu-Metaverse could enhance learning outcomes in comparison to traditional educational approaches? - What are some potential benefits of using Edu-Metaverse in education, and how could these benefits be measured or evaluated? - What concerns do you have about the potential impact of Edu-Metaverse on learning outcomes, and how could these concerns be addressed? Assignment: Write a short reflective essay describing your own experience with immersive technologies such as virtual reality, augmented reality, or mixed reality. How do you think these technologies could be used to enhance learning experiences, and what potential challenges might arise from their use in education? Section 3: Challenges and Opportunities of Edu-Metaverse in Education In this section, we will discuss the challenges and opportunities of Edu-Metaverse in education. We will analyze the potential benefits and drawbacks of Edu-Metaverse, as well as the ethical considerations that arise when using this technology in education. Key Concepts: - Benefits: Advantages of Edu-Metaverse in education, such as improved engagement and motivation. - Drawbacks: Disadvantages of Edu-Metaverse in education, such as cost and access limitations. - Ethics: The moral considerations that arise when using Edu-Metaverse in education. Learning Materials: - Video: "Edu-Metaverse: Opportunities and Challenges in Smart Education" by The Edu-Metaverse Alliance (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) (https://youtu.be/AC6thzU6Bbk) - Article: "Challenges and Opportunities of Virtual Reality in Education" by EdTech Magazine (CC BY-NC 3.0) (https://edtechmagazine.com/k12/article/2018/11/challenges-and-opportunities-virtual-reality-education) Discussion: - What are some of the biggest challenges to implementing Edu-Metaverse in education, and how can these challenges be addressed? - How do you think Edu-Metaverse could help address the issue of accessibility in education, particularly for students with disabilities or those in remote areas? - What opportunities do you see for Edu-Metaverse to help bridge the gap between traditional classroom learning and real-world experiences? Assignment: Create a visual presentation, such as a PowerPoint or Prezi, outlining the key challenges and opportunities of Edu-Metaverse in education. Include at least three challenges and three opportunities, and provide supporting evidence or examples for each. Section 4: Practical Applications of Edu-Metaverse in Smart Education In this section, we will explore practical applications of Edu-Metaverse in smart education. We will discuss how Edu-Metaverse can be used to enhance teaching and learning experiences in various fields, such as science, engineering, and language learning. Key Concepts: - Practical Applications: Real-world examples of Edu-Metaverse in education, such as virtual labs and language learning games. - Science: Examples of Edu-Metaverse applications in science education, such as virtual dissection and simulations. - Engineering: Examples of Edu-Metaverse applications in engineering education, such as virtual design and prototyping. - Language Learning: Examples of Edu-Metaverse applications in language learning, such as language immersion and gamification. Learning Materials: - Video: "Practical Applications of Edu-Metaverse in Smart Education" by The Virtual Teacher (CC BY-NC 3.0) (https://youtu.be/Wmzkbmf06mE) - Article: "10 Practical Applications of Virtual Reality in Education" by EdTech Magazine (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) (https://edtechreview.in/news/3796-10-practical-applications-of-virtual-reality-in-education) Discussion: - What are some practical examples of how Edu-Metaverse could be used to enhance learning experiences in your field of study or professional interest? - How do you think Edu-Metaverse can be used to personalize learning experiences and cater to individual student needs? - What concerns do you have about the potential over-reliance on Edu-Metaverse in education, and how can these concerns be addressed? Assignment: Design a virtual learning experience using Edu-Metaverse for a specific topic or subject area of your choosing. Create a proposal outlining the learning objectives, content, and assessment methods for the virtual learning experience. Consider how you would integrate feedback and personalization features to cater to individual student needs. Conclusion In this module, we explored the concept of Edu-Metaverse and its relevance to smart education. We discussed the potential impact of Edu-Metaverse on learning outcomes, the challenges and opportunities of Edu-Metaverse in education, and practical applications of Edu-Metaverse in various fields. We hope that this module has provided you with a deeper understanding of Edu-Metaverse and its potential impact on the future of education. OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT [Computer software]. Retrieved from https://openai.com/ Module 2: Tools and Technologies for Smart Education in Edu-Metaverse In this module, you will explore the tools and technologies that enable smart education in the Edu-Metaverse. You will learn about the key features of immersive technologies such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR), and how these technologies can be used to enhance teaching and learning experiences. Section 1: Introduction to Immersive Technologies Introduction: Immersive technologies such as VR, AR, and MR provide a unique learning experience, as they allow users to interact with digital content in a way that feels like real life. These technologies can be used to enhance learning outcomes and provide a more engaging and interactive experience for learners. Key Concepts: - Virtual reality (VR): A technology that creates a simulated environment that users can interact with using specialized equipment such as a headset. - Augmented reality (AR): A technology that overlays digital information onto the real world through the use of a device's camera. - Mixed reality (MR): A technology that combines elements of both VR and AR, allowing users to interact with digital content in the real world. Resources: - Video: "Virtual Reality in Education: Applications & Advantages" by Knewton Alta (CC BY 4.0) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0LCgOyaK9K4) - Article: "The Advantages of Augmented Reality in Education" by eLearning Industry (CC BY-SA 4.0) (https://elearningindustry.com/advantages-of-augmented-reality-in-education) Discussion: - What is your understanding of virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR), and how do these technologies differ? - How do you think immersive technologies such as VR, AR, and MR can enhance teaching and learning experiences in education? - What are some potential challenges or limitations of using immersive technologies in education, and how can they be addressed? Section 2: Virtual Classrooms Introduction: Virtual classrooms are online learning environments that replicate the experience of a traditional classroom, allowing learners and educators to interact in real-time, no matter where they are located. These classrooms can be accessed from anywhere, making it possible for learners to participate in courses even if they are unable to attend in-person. Key Concepts: - Asynchronous learning: A type of learning where learners access course materials and complete assignments on their own schedule. - Synchronous learning: A type of learning where learners and educators interact in real-time. Resources: - Video: "Virtual Classroom Tour" by EdTechTeacher (CC BY 3.0) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jd-3aQAqjzU) - Article: "Synchronous and Asynchronous Learning" by Carnegie Mellon University (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) (https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/designteach/teach/syncasync.html) Discussion: - How do virtual classrooms differ from traditional classrooms, and what are some advantages and disadvantages of each? - What are some strategies for promoting engagement and interaction in virtual classrooms? - How can virtual classrooms be used to provide a more personalized learning experience for learners? Section 3: Gamification in Education Introduction: Gamification is the process of incorporating game elements into non-game contexts to increase motivation, engagement, and enjoyment. In education, gamification has the potential to enhance the learning experience and improve student outcomes. In this section, we will explore the key concepts of gamification in education and how it can be applied in Edu-Metaverse. Key Concepts: - Game Mechanics: These are the elements of games that create challenges and rewards, such as points, levels, badges, and leaderboards. Game mechanics can be applied in education to make learning more interactive and engaging, as well as to provide feedback and measure progress. - Social Learning: This approach focuses on the importance of social interactions and collaboration in the learning process. Gamification can facilitate social learning by providing opportunities for students to work together and compete against each other. - Motivation and Engagement: Gamification can increase motivation and engagement in learning by making it more enjoyable and rewarding. This can lead to better student outcomes and retention rates. Readings: - "Gamification in Education: Top 10 Gamification Case Studies that Will Change Our Future" by Andrzej Marczewski (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) - "Gamification in Education: A Systematic Mapping Study" by F. Bellotti et al. (CC BY 3.0) - "The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: Game-Based Methods and Strategies for Training and Education" by Karl Kapp (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) Videos: - "What is Gamification in Education?" by EdTechReview (CC BY 3.0) - "Gamification in Education: What, How, Why Bother?" by Extra Credits (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) - "Gamification in Education: Edutopia" by George Lucas Educational Foundation (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) Related Discussion: How can gamification be used to improve student motivation and engagement in Edu-Metaverse? Share your thoughts and ideas on how to apply game mechanics and social learning principles in your course design. Assignments: - Design a gamified learning activity in Edu-Metaverse that incorporates game mechanics such as points, badges, or leaderboards to enhance student motivation and engagement. - Discuss the potential benefits and drawbacks of using gamification in education. Provide specific examples and evidence to support your arguments. Module 3: Case Studies Introduction In this module, we will explore case studies of smart education and Edu-Metaverse in action. By examining real-world examples, we will gain a deeper understanding of the benefits and challenges of these innovative approaches to education. Key Concepts - Case studies: a research method used to examine a particular phenomenon within its real-life context - Smart education: the use of technology to enhance and improve learning outcomes - Edu-Metaverse: an immersive virtual environment that integrates education and technology Case Study 1: Classcraft Overview Classcraft is an online platform that uses game mechanics to enhance student engagement and motivation. Students create characters that gain experience points and level up as they complete academic tasks and exhibit positive behavior. Teachers can also use Classcraft to monitor student progress and communicate with parents. Resources - Video: Classcraft: A Game-Based Approach to Learning (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) - Reading: Gamification in Education: What, How, Why Bother? by Lisa Dawley (CC BY-NC 3.0) Discussion - What are the potential benefits of using game mechanics in education? - What are some of the challenges of implementing a platform like Classcraft in a classroom setting? Assignments - Write a short reflection on the video and reading resources, considering how they relate to your own experiences as a student or educator. (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) - Create a prototype for a game-based educational tool that could be used in a specific subject area or age range. Include a description of the game mechanics, learning outcomes, and potential challenges. (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) Case Study 2: Minecraft: Education Edition Overview Minecraft: Education Edition is a version of the popular video game that is designed specifically for classroom use. Students can collaborate on building projects, explore historical and scientific concepts, and participate in virtual field trips. Teachers can also customize the game with lesson plans and assessments. Resources - Video: Minecraft: Education Edition Overview (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) - Reading: Minecraft: Education Edition: Resources for Remote Learning by Minecraft: Education Edition (CC BY-NC 4.0) Discussion - How could Minecraft: Education Edition be used to enhance learning in a particular subject area? - What are some of the challenges of using a video game in an educational setting? Assignments - Develop a lesson plan that incorporates Minecraft: Education Edition into a unit of study in a specific subject area. Include learning objectives, assessment methods, and an explanation of how the game mechanics support the learning outcomes. (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) - Write a critical analysis of the use of Minecraft: Education Edition in education, considering both the benefits and drawbacks of this approach. (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) Case Study 3: Roblox Overview Roblox is a massively multiplayer online game platform that allows users to create their own games and play games created by other users. It was founded in 2004 and has grown to become one of the most popular online gaming platforms with millions of users worldwide. Key Concepts - User-generated content: Roblox is unique in that it allows users to create their own games and content. This allows for a wide variety of games and experiences, but also presents challenges in terms of moderation and ensuring appropriate content. - Virtual economies: Roblox has its own virtual economy where players can purchase virtual goods and currency using real money. This can create opportunities for players to monetize their creations and for developers to earn revenue through game development. - Community engagement: Roblox has a large and active community that plays a key role in the platform's success. The community is engaged through features like social features, events, and virtual economies. Case Study Details Roblox has been used as an educational tool in various ways. One example is the Roblox Education initiative, which provides resources and lesson plans for teachers to incorporate Roblox into their classrooms. These resources cover a range of topics, from coding to game design, and are designed to be accessible to learners of all ages and skill levels. In addition to its educational uses, Roblox has also been used for social good initiatives. For example, in 2020, Roblox partnered with UNICEF USA to raise awareness and funds for children affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. The initiative allowed players to purchase virtual items in-game, with a portion of the proceeds going towards UNICEF's relief efforts. Related Discussion - How can user-generated content in games like Roblox be moderated to ensure appropriate content? - What are some potential challenges and benefits of using virtual economies in educational games? - How can game-based learning be incorporated into traditional classroom settings? Assignments - Design a lesson plan that incorporates Roblox into a specific subject area (e.g. history, math, science). Consider the learning objectives and how Roblox can support these objectives. - Create a virtual item for a social good campaign in Roblox. Explain the purpose of the campaign and how the item will help raise awareness and funds. Case Study #4: Second Life Second Life is a virtual world that was launched in 2003. It is a three-dimensional space that allows users to create avatars, interact with others, and build their own virtual environments. It has been used as an educational tool since its inception, and it has gained popularity in recent years as a way to engage learners in immersive experiences. Key Concepts - Virtual world: A computer-generated environment that simulates the real world or an imaginary one. Users can interact with each other and with objects in the environment through avatars. - Avatar: A graphical representation of the user within the virtual world. Users can customize their avatars to reflect their personalities or goals. - Immersive learning: A type of learning that creates a sense of presence and engagement by using virtual or augmented reality technologies. Section 2: Case Study Overview The case study for Second Life explores how this virtual world can be used for immersive learning experiences. In this case study, learners will create their own avatars, explore different virtual environments, and participate in learning activities that are designed to enhance their understanding of specific concepts. Materials Readings - "Using Second Life for Immersive Learning in Higher Education" by Susan M. Kass and Tammy L. Slater (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0): https://scholarworks.umb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1096&context=cgs_faculty_pubs - "Second Life and Other Virtual Worlds: A Roadmap for Research" by John M. Carroll and Mary Beth Rosson (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0): https://doi.org/10.1145/1409360.1409382 - "Using Second Life in an Educational Setting: A Review" by A. Papacharissi and A. Rubin (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0): https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1555412009358892 Videos - "Second Life in Education" by William Kapp (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4_Gvq3DVZu4 - "Virtual World Learning and Teaching" by EdTechReview (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RoQBBW-Vbs8 - "Second Life for Education" by San Jose State University School of Information (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CVlGz-NB7Ks Discussion - How can Second Life be used to enhance learning experiences compared to traditional classroom settings? - What are some potential challenges in using Second Life for educational purposes? - Can immersive learning experiences in virtual worlds like Second Life have a positive impact on student engagement and learning outcomes? Assignment 1: Creating an Avatar Learners will create their own avatars in Second Life and customize them to reflect their interests or goals. They will share their avatars with the class and discuss how they chose their avatar's appearance. Assignment 2: Exploring Virtual Environments Learners will explore different virtual environments in Second Life and write a reflection on how these environments could be used to enhance learning experiences. They will also share one idea for an activity that could be conducted in a specific virtual environment. Conclusion In this module, we have examined two case studies of smart education and Edu-Metaverse in action. By exploring these real-world examples, we have gained a deeper understanding of how technology can be used to enhance and improve learning outcomes. Module 4: Implementation of Smart Education in Edu-Metaverse Place holder	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.957836	Case Study	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101741/overview", "title": "Exploring the Possibilities of Smart Education in Edu-Metaverse", "author": "Educational Technology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/126392/overview	Advanced Searching in PubMed Overview Slides for a 1-hour session on advanced searching in PubMed using MeSH terms, keywords, and Boolean operators. Advanced Searching in PubMed Slides for 1-hour session on advanced searching in PubMed using MeSH terms, keywords, and Boolean operators.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.975406	Erin Reardon	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/126392/overview", "title": "Advanced Searching in PubMed", "author": "Lecture" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83577/overview	Syllabus_BUS_300_SP_2021 Introduction to Business - BUS 110 Overview Introduction to Business is a survey business course providing a multidisciplinary examination of how culture, society, human behavior and economic systems interact with legal, international, political, and financial institutions to affect business policy and practices within the U.S. and the global marketplace. Syllabus and Antiracist Assignment Course Description: Introduction to Business is a survey business course providing a multidisciplinary examination of how culture, society, human behavior and economic systems interact with legal, international, political, and financial institutions to affect business policy and practices within the U.S. and the global marketplace. Students will evaluate how these influences impact the primary areas of business including: organizational structure and design; leadership, human resource management, and organized labor practices; marketing; organizational communication; technology; entrepreneurship; legal, accounting, and financial practices; the stock and securities markets; and therefore, affect a business’ ability to achieve its organizational goals.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:20.993931	Una Daly	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83577/overview", "title": "Introduction to Business - BUS 110", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108851/overview	Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System Overview This module will cover such items as the skeletal system, osseous tissues and other components related to the skeletal system. Introduction Figure 6.1 Child Looking at Bones Bone is a living tissue. Unlike the bones of a fossil made inert by a process of mineralization, a child’s bones will continue to grow and develop while contributing to the support and function of other body systems. (credit: James Emery) CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you will be able to: - List and describe the functions of bones - Describe the classes of bones - Discuss the process of bone formation and development - Explain how bone repairs itself after a fracture - Discuss the effect of exercise, nutrition, and hormones on bone tissue - Describe how an imbalance of calcium can affect bone tissue Bones make good fossils. While the soft tissue of a once living organism will decay and fall away over time, bone tissue will, under the right conditions, undergo a process of mineralization, effectively turning the bone to stone. A well-preserved fossil skeleton can give us a good sense of the size and shape of an organism, just as your skeleton helps to define your size and shape. Unlike a fossil skeleton, however, your skeleton is a structure of living tissue that grows, repairs, and renews itself. The bones within it are dynamic and complex organs that serve a number of important functions, including some necessary to maintain homeostasis. The Functions of the Skeletal System - Define bone, cartilage, and the skeletal system - List and describe the functions of the skeletal system Bone, or osseous tissue, is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult skeleton, the support structure of the body. In the areas of the skeleton where bones move (for example, the ribcage and joints), cartilage, a semi-rigid form of connective tissue, provides flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement. The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones and cartilage and performs the following critical functions for the human body: - supports the body - facilitates movement - protects internal organs - produces blood cells - stores and releases minerals and fat Support, Movement, and Protection The most apparent functions of the skeletal system are the gross functions—those visible by observation. Simply by looking at a person, you can see how the bones support, facilitate movement, and protect the human body. Just as the steel beams of a building provide a scaffold to support its weight, the bones and cartilage of your skeletal system compose the scaffold that supports the rest of your body. Without the skeletal system, you would be a limp mass of organs, muscle, and skin. Bones also facilitate movement by serving as points of attachment for your muscles. While some bones only serve as a support for the muscles, others also transmit the forces produced when your muscles contract. From a mechanical point of view, bones act as levers and joints serve as fulcrums (Figure 6.2). Unless a muscle spans a joint and contracts, a bone is not going to move. For information on the interaction of the skeletal and muscular systems, that is, the musculoskeletal system, seek additional content. Figure 6.2 Bones Support Movement Bones act as levers when muscles span a joint and contract. (credit: Benjamin J. DeLong) Bones also protect internal organs from injury by covering or surrounding them. For example, your ribs protect your lungs and heart, the bones of your vertebral column (spine) protect your spinal cord, and the bones of your cranium (skull) protect your brain (Figure 6.3). Figure 6.3 Bones Protect Brain The cranium completely surrounds and protects the brain from non-traumatic injury. CAREER CONNECTION Orthopedist An orthopedist is a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders and injuries related to the musculoskeletal system. Some orthopedic problems can be treated with medications, exercises, braces, and other devices, but others may be best treated with surgery (Figure 6.4). Figure 6.4 Arm Brace An orthopedist will sometimes prescribe the use of a brace that reinforces the underlying bone structure it is being used to support. (credit: Juhan Sonin) While the origin of the word “orthopedics” (ortho- = “straight”; paed- = “child”), literally means “straightening of the child,” orthopedists can have patients who range from pediatric to geriatric. In recent years, orthopedists have even performed prenatal surgery to correct spina bifida, a congenital defect in which the neural canal in the spine of the fetus fails to close completely during embryologic development. Orthopedists commonly treat bone and joint injuries but they also treat other bone conditions including curvature of the spine. Lateral curvatures (scoliosis) can be severe enough to slip under the shoulder blade (scapula) forcing it up as a hump. Spinal curvatures can also be excessive dorsoventrally (kyphosis) causing a hunch back and thoracic compression. These curvatures often appear in preteens as the result of poor posture, abnormal growth, or indeterminate causes. Mostly, they are readily treated by orthopedists. As people age, accumulated spinal column injuries and diseases like osteoporosis can also lead to curvatures of the spine, hence the stooping you sometimes see in the elderly. Some orthopedists sub-specialize in sports medicine, which addresses both simple injuries, such as a sprained ankle, and complex injuries, such as a torn rotator cuff in the shoulder. Treatment can range from exercise to surgery. Mineral Storage, Energy Storage, and Hematopoiesis On a metabolic level, bone tissue performs several critical functions. For one, the bone matrix acts as a reservoir for a number of minerals important to the functioning of the body, especially calcium, and phosphorus. These minerals, incorporated into bone tissue, can be released back into the bloodstream to maintain levels needed to support physiological processes. Calcium ions, for example, are essential for muscle contractions and controlling the flow of other ions involved in the transmission of nerve impulses. Bone also serves as a site for fat storage and blood cell production. The softer connective tissue that fills the interior of most bone is referred to as bone marrow (Figure 6.5). There are two types of bone marrow: yellow marrow and red marrow. Yellow marrow contains adipose tissue; the triglycerides stored in the adipocytes of the tissue can serve as a source of energy. Red marrow is where hematopoiesis—the production of blood cells—takes place. Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are all produced in the red marrow. Figure 6.5 Head of Femur Showing Red and Yellow Marrow The head of the femur contains both yellow and red marrow. Yellow marrow stores fat. Red marrow is responsible for hematopoiesis. (credit: modification of work by “stevenfruitsmaak”/Wikimedia Commons) Additional notes related to the skeletal system. Here is a power point covering many of these topics in a more abreviated version.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.018590	09/27/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108851/overview", "title": "Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System", "author": "Joshua Schmidt" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104549/overview	Mini Escape Room for Tissue Answers to Clues for Keene Mini Escape Room for Tissue Clues-Questions for Keene Escape Room for Body Tissues (Mini Version) Overview This is a learning "adventure" (i.e. interactive learning) for body tissues created for an Anatomy & Physiology 1 course. It can be modified for different concepts and is suitable for use in lecture, lab, or outside of class time as an independent assignment. Mini Escape Room for Tissues: Resources & Directions This mini "escape room" learning adventure was developed as a review of body tissues for anatomy & physiology. Although I used it in a lab, it can easily be used in a lecture class or as a standalone review that students can complete outside of class time. The resources below include pictures of the set up for each "room" (aka sector in this activity), questions used, student answer sheets and directions, and an answer key. Questions can be easily changed, and instructors can use the same box and combination for the lock. All that you need to do is move the symbols on the student answer sheet to match the combination already programmed into the lock. Although I used 5-letter combination locks (from Amazon, ~$13 each), I included the powerpoint I used for a presentation at the NEBATYC Conference in Rhode Island; this includes ideas for expansion or alternative uses and frugal ideas for the clue boxes. Mini Escape Room for Tissues: Resources & Directions This mini "escape room" learning adventure was developed as a review of body tissues for anatomy & physiology. Although I used it in a lab, it can easily be used in a lecture class or as a standalone review that students can complete outside of class time. The resources below include pictures of the set up for each "room" (aka sector in this activity), questions used, student answer sheets and directions, and an answer key. Questions can be easily changed, and instructors can use the same box and combination for the lock. All that you need to do is move the symbols on the student answer sheet to match the combination already programmed into the lock. Although I used 5-letter combination locks (from Amazon, ~$13 each), I included the powerpoint I used for a presentation at the NEBATYC Conference in Rhode Island; this includes ideas for expansion or alternative uses and frugal ideas for the clue boxes.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.040307	Game	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104549/overview", "title": "Escape Room for Body Tissues (Mini Version)", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116124/overview	Exploring The Solar System Overview CLIL SYLLABUS The solay system: Units 1 & 2 Presentation of the course 1. COURSE DESCRIPTION This interdisciplinary course is designed for 5th-grade students to explore the wonders of the solar system through the CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) approach. Over the span of 12 weeks, students will engage in a rich, immersive learning experience that integrates Natural Science, Mathematics, Social Sciences, Technology, Arts, and Language. The course aims to foster a deep understanding of the solar system while enhancing students' language skills and critical thinking. 2. RATIONALE The 12-week CLIL syllabus on the solar system for 5th graders integrates Natural Science, Mathematics, Social Sciences, Technology, Arts, and Language, providing a holistic and immersive learning experience. By using English as the medium of instruction, the course simultaneously enhances cognitive and language skills through diverse methodologies such as inquiry-based learning, problem-solving, and creative expression. This interdisciplinary approach not only addresses the urgent need for efficient English language acquisition but also fosters cultural awareness and technological literacy. The engaging theme of the solar system ensures high student motivation and deepens their understanding of astronomical concepts, preparing them for future academic and professional contexts. 3. LEARNING OUTCOMES - Explain the components and structure of the solar system, including the sun, planets, moons, asteroids, and comets. - Apply mathematical concepts to calculate distances and sizes of celestial bodies and understand their orbits. - Discuss the historical and cultural significance of the solar system in different civilizations. - Use technology to simulate and model astronomical phenomena. - Create artistic representations of the solar system through various media. - Read, write, and present information about the solar system effectively in English. CONTEXT: - This syllabus is designed for 5th graders in a public elementary school who have an A2 level of English proficiency. The course aims to provide these young learners with both content knowledge and language skills appropriate to their developmental stage and language ability. CONTENT: - The course covers the following content areas: - Natural Science: Structure and components of the solar system, celestial movements, and basic astronomical concepts. - Mathematics: Measurement of distances, sizes, and understanding of scales within the solar system. - Social Sciences: Historical perspectives, cultural significance, and the impact of the solar system on human civilization. - Technology: Use of simulations, space exploration technology, and digital modeling. - Arts: Visual arts, music, and drama inspired by the solar system. - Language: Vocabulary building, reading comprehension, writing skills, and oral presentations related to astronomical topics. PROCEDURE OF THE METHODOLOGY: - The course utilizes a CLIL approach, integrating content and language learning through: - Inquiry-Based Learning: Students explore scientific questions about the solar system through hands-on activities and experiments. - Problem-Solving: Mathematical exercises and word problems related to astronomical measurements and scales. - Project-Based Learning: Research projects on historical and cultural aspects of the solar system, culminating in written reports and presentations. - Technology Integration: Use of computer simulations and educational software to visualize and model the solar system. - Creative Expression: Artistic projects such as painting, drawing, and drama that allow students to express their understanding of the solar system creatively. - Language Development: Structured reading, writing, speaking, and listening activities designed to build vocabulary and improve language skills within the context of the solar system. LEARNING STANDARDS: .Natural Science: - Describo los principales elementos del sistema solar y establezco relaciones de tamaño, movimiento y posición. - Comparo el peso y la masa de un objeto en diferentes puntos del sistema solar. - Describo las características físicas de la Tierra y su atmósfera. Technology: - Manifiesto interés por temas relacionados con la tecnología a través de preguntas e intercambio de ideas. - Analizo artefactos que responden a necesidades particulares en contextos sociales, económicos y culturales. - Explico la diferencia entre un artefacto y un proceso mediante ejemplos. Social Science: - Reconozco la importancia de los aportes de algunos legados culturales, científicos, tecnológicos, artísticos, religiosos… en diversas épocas y entornos. - Participo en debates y discusiones: asumo una posición, la confronto con la de otros, la defiendo y soy capaz de modificar mis posturas si lo considero pertinente. Arts: - Exploración de posibilidades expresivas desde prácticas artísticas específicas - Se interesa por la representación realista - Están en capacidad de memorizar procedimientos y manejar instrumentos y materiales por sí mismos Mathemátics: - Diferencio y ordeno, en objetos y eventos, propiedades o atributos que se puedan medir (longitudes, distancias, áreas de superficies, volúmenes de cuerpos sólidos, volúmenes de líquidos y capacidades de recipientes; pesos y masa de cuerpos sólidos; duración de eventos o procesos; amplitud de ángulos). - Selecciono unidades, tanto convencionales como estandarizadas, apropiadas para diferentes mediciones. Language- Inglés: - Leo y entiendo textos auténticos y sencillos sobre acontecimientos concretos asociados a tradiciones culturales que conozco - Mantengo una conversación simple en inglés con un compañero cuando desarrollo una actividad de aula. - Solicito a mi profesor y a mis compañeros que me aclaren una duda o me expliquen algo sobre lo que hablamos. CLIL CONCEPTS Content The syllabus covers an in-depth exploration of the solar system, focusing on the fundamental components such as the Sun, planets, moons, asteroids, and comets. Students will learn about the unique characteristics of each planet, including their size, composition, and atmosphere, as well as their orbits and the mechanics of celestial motion. Additionally, the course integrates other subject areas such as mathematics to calculate distances and scales, technology to understand the tools used in space exploration, social studies to appreciate the historical and cultural contexts of astronomical discoveries, and arts to creatively express understanding of the solar system. This multidisciplinary approach ensures that students gain a well-rounded and comprehensive knowledge of the solar system. Communication Language development is a key component of this CLIL syllabus, with a strong emphasis on enhancing English skills through content-based learning. Students will expand their vocabulary related to astronomy, improve their reading comprehension by engaging with texts about space, and develop their speaking abilities through presentations and discussions about the planets and space missions. Writing exercises will include descriptive paragraphs about celestial bodies and creative stories set in space, fostering both analytical and imaginative skills. Collaborative activities will encourage students to interact, ask questions, and share ideas, thereby improving their overall communication skills in English while engaging with scientific content. Cognition The syllabus is designed to stimulate cognitive development by encouraging students to understand, apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information about the solar system. Students will gain knowledge and understanding of astronomical concepts, apply mathematical calculations to real-world space scenarios, and analyze the differences and similarities between celestial bodies. They will synthesize information from various disciplines to create projects such as models of the solar system and multimedia presentations, demonstrating their ability to integrate and apply their learning. Through reflective and evaluative tasks, students will consider the significance of space exploration and the contributions of historical figures in astronomy, deepening their critical thinking skills. Culture Cultural understanding is woven into the syllabus to help students appreciate the global significance of the solar system and the diverse ways in which different cultures have contributed to our knowledge of space. Students will explore how ancient civilizations, such as the Mayans and Greeks, viewed the stars and planets, and learn about the historical milestones in space exploration achieved through international cooperation. The syllabus also highlights the contributions of astronomers from various cultures and the impact of space on art, music, and literature. By examining these cultural perspectives, students will develop a broader awareness of the interconnectedness of human knowledge and the universal fascination with the cosmos. UNIT 1 WEEK \| DESCRIPTION \| PEDAGOGIC STRATEGIES \| HOURS \| I.W. \| 1 \| Natural Sciences - Introduction to the solar system: In this lesson, students will identify and describe the planets of the solar system and their main characteristics. They will start by discussing what they know about the solar system in pairs, learn new vocabulary with images, work in groups to create a poster about a specific planet to present in class(this will be graded), and write a paragraph about their favorite planet (this will be graded). \| Group discussion, Independent research, video observation, mathematical operations, painting, and descriptive writing productions. \| 2 \| 4 \| 2 \| Technology - Space technologies exploration: In this lesson, students will explore how space technologies, such as telescopes and probes, aid in the exploration of the solar system. The lesson will begin with a discussion of a video of solar system discoveries through technology, continue with a group investigation of space technologies, design slides about a specific technology, and write a description of its use (this will be graded). \| 2 \| 4 \| \| 3 \| Maths - Understanding Planetary Distances In this lesson, students will learn about the vast distances between planets in the solar system through the concept of astronomical units (AU). They will create a scaled model of the solar system, calculating and visualizing these distances (this will be graded). The lesson emphasizes mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of large numbers, allowing students to solve problems related to planetary distances. By the end of the lesson, students will have a clearer understanding of the spatial relationships within the solar system. \| 2 \| 4 \| \| 4 \| Social Sciences - Historical Views of the Solar System: Students will explore the evolution of our understanding of the solar system by studying historical models such as the geocentric and heliocentric theories. Through research and group activities, they will create timelines, highlighting significant discoveries and shifts in thought (this will be graded). This lesson emphasizes the development of critical thinking and research skills as students present and discuss how historical perspectives have shaped modern astronomy. \| 2 \| 4 \| \| 5 \| Arts – Art inspired by celestial phenomena: In this lesson, students will create and present a work of art inspired by phenomena in the solar system, such as eclipses, solar flares, lunar phases, and others. They will discuss images of artwork inspired by these phenomena, create their own artwork, present it explaining the process and elements used, and write a description of their artwork (this will be graded) \| 2 \| 4 \| \| 6 \| Language - Descriptive Writing about Planets: Students will enhance their descriptive writing skills by creating vivid descriptions of planets. Through learning and applying techniques such as sensory details and vivid adjectives, they will write and revise detailed passages about their chosen planets. Peer reviews will provide constructive feedback, helping students refine their work and develop a more nuanced and engaging writing style. \| 2 \| 4 \| \| TOTAL \| 12 \| 24 \| UNIT 2 WEEK \| DESCRIPTION \| PEDAGOGIC STRATEGIES \| HOURS \| I.W. \| 1 \| Natural Sciences- Understanding celestial phenomenon Students will analyze and explain their created works about solar system phenomena such as eclipses, solar flares, lunar phases, and others. They will share experiences about these phenomena, use models to represent them, and discuss in groups how they occur. \| Analysis conversations, group discussion, presentation, writing production, size and shape, calculations, historical review, debate, artistic representation, reading, and descriptive writing. \| 2 \| 4 \| 2 \| Technology -Space Missions: In this lesson, students will delve into specific space missions and their important discoveries. They will begin with a discussion about a featured space mission and its impact, research in groups about different missions and their discoveries, create a presentation about their assigned mission, and write a report on the most significant discovery. \| 2 \| 4 \| \| 3 \| Mathematics – Planetary Sizes and Volumes: This lesson focuses on the sizes and volumes of planets. Students will begin by understanding the basic concepts of radius, diameter, and volume. They will engage in hands-on activities to measure and calculate the diameters and volumes of various spherical objects (self-assessment), then apply these concepts to the planets. Using the formula for the volume of a sphere, students will calculate and compare the volumes of different planets, enhancing their comprehension of planetary scale and size. \| 2 \| 4 \| \| 4 \| Social Sciences - Space Exploration and Its Impact: This lesson delves into the history and impact of space exploration on both our understanding of the solar system and society. Students will research and present on key space missions, such as Apollo and Mars Rovers, and their discoveries. A debate on the societal impacts of space exploration, including technological advancements and international cooperation, will help students critically assess the benefits and challenges of these endeavors, fostering a deeper appreciation of space exploration's role in scientific and societal progress. \| 2 \| 4 \| \| 5 \| Arts – Mythology and the Solar System: In this lesson, students will explore the mythology associated with the planets of the solar system and create artistic representations inspired by these myths (this will be graded). They will begin by discussing the mythology associated with the planets, create a work of art based on a specific myth, present their work by describing the process and elements used, and write a detailed explanation of their work and the myth depicted. \| 2 \| 4 \| \| 6 \| Language - Creating your myth In this lesson, students delve into ancient myths related to the sun, moon, and other celestial bodies, using these stories as inspiration for their own narrative writing. They start by exploring and summarizing myths from various cultures, identifying common themes and elements. Students then brainstorm and craft their own myths, focusing on descriptive language and vivid imagery (this will be graded). Through peer reviews and revisions, they refine their narratives, culminating in a presentation of their original myths. This lesson not only enhances their narrative writing skills but also fosters an appreciation for the rich tapestry of cultural stories about the cosmos. \| 2 \| 4 \| \| TOTAL \| 12 \| 24 \| Assessment \| Description \| Percentage \| \| \| Tasks \| Group work, paintings, investigations, oral and writing production.willigness . \| 30% \| \| Participation \| Students´willingnes to participate. \| 20% \| \| Peer-assessment \| Each student assesses the process of a peer \| 10% \| \| Self-assesment \| Everybody assesses their own process \| 10% \| \| Final project \| Students make a poster presentation regarding knowledge exploration of the solar system through the 6 subjects \| 30% \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.097690	Social Science	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116124/overview", "title": "Exploring The Solar System", "author": "Mathematics" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60386/overview	Education Standards How To Do Research Primary Source Unit Overview This How To Do Research Unit Guide provides a lesson-to-lesson foundation for teaching: ● What primary sources are ● Real vs. fake information (evaluating sources) ● Document analysis ● Different ways to obtain information ● How to formulate research questions ● How to find answers to research questions ● The hows and whys of citations (annotated bibliography) By the time students get to high school, they should have a basic understanding of how to effectively do research. Considering that there are so many steps involved in the research process, the earlier these necessary skills are taught, the more time students will be able to devote to their actual projects. Moreover, in today’s world, information literacy needs to be achieved at an earlier age, so students can learn to be smart consumers, responsible sharers, and presenters of information. Throughout the research process, students will learn that there will be dead ends, questions that are too broad or too narrow, questions that do not have answers. This is an accurate reflection of what their experiences will continue to be as they move into higher level research projects in their educational careers. This How To Do Research Unit Guide provides a lesson-to-lesson foundation for teaching: ● What primary sources are ● Real vs. fake information (evaluating sources) ● Document analysis ● Different ways to obtain information ● How to formulate research questions ● How to find answers to research questions ● The hows and whys of citations (annotated bibliography) Throughout the research process, students will learn that there will be dead ends, questions that are too broad or too narrow, questions that do not have answers. This is an accurate reflection of what their experiences will continue to be as they move into higher level research projects in their educational careers. Integrated into our explanation of each lesson are specific prompts, the purpose of each lesson, and supporting materials, which are provided as handouts at the end of the unit guide.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.128312	English Language Arts	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60386/overview", "title": "How To Do Research Primary Source Unit", "author": "Elementary Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89536/overview	College Level Reading Support: Readings to Engage Learners Common Cartridge of Assessments WW2OverviewTranscript College Level Reading Support: Readings to Engage Learners Overview These materials provide resources for those wanting to assist students with their reading comprehension and vocabulary. See section 1, titled "Overview" for additional information. The Overview (section 1) also contains a common course cartridge with the assessments for these learning materials including quizzes, discussions, and writing assignments. Overview Creative Commons Licensing This course was created by Jean Gorgie and Karen Hutson, faculty members at Volunteer State Community College in Gallatin, Tennessee, part of the Tennessee Board of Regents (TBR). It uses material developed by the team and Open Educational Resources (OER) material that is available to be used under Creative Commons Licensing. The course is licensed as Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0). Structure of Materials The general pattern of these materials involves the students doing some of the following for each reading assignment: - read lecture notes; - watch videos; - read and analyze an article, poem, or textbook excerpt; - participate in an activity; - participate in a discussion; - complete a written assignment; and - take a quiz. Reading 1 Article: British Officer Knighted for Pandemic Fundraising Reading 2 Article: Why the British Hero Captain Tom Moore Mattered Reading 3 Article: Why I Write Scary Stories for Children Reading 4 Article: Dr. Booker Taliaferro Washington Reading 5 Article: Choose to Be Grateful. It Will Make You Happier. Reading 6 Textbook Excerpt: Chapter 1 - Introduction to Psychology Reading 7 Poetry: Assortment of Poems Lecture Notes: Improving Your Vocabulary Improving Your Vocabulary The larger vocabulary you have, the easier it is to read, write, and speak well. Although you should be working to improve your vocabulary every time you read or hear a new word, you will focus this week on it for an assignment with the article, British Officer Knighted for Pandemic Fundraising" by Phil Davison. Using Context Clues When you come to a word that you do not know, the first step is to make an educated guess about its definition based on the rest of the words in the sentence or paragraph. - Finish reading the sentence with the unknown word. - Think about when you might have heard or read the word in the past. - Re-read the whole paragraph. - Look for context clues in the sentence and paragraph. - IDEAS - Kinds of context clues: - Inference: the writer give details in the sentence from which the reader can infer the meaning. - "His corps was sent to India, still a British colony at the time - a grueling, six-week sea voyage - where he was tasked with setting up and heading a training program for British and Indian army motorcycle units, first in Bombay (now Mumbai) and later, after a three-week road odyssey during the monsoon season, in Calcutta (now Kolkata)." Putting the details in this sentence together, mainly about the length and locations of his voyages and training, the reader can infer that grueling means very difficult. - Definition: - Alexa felt enervated after the walk around her neighborhood; in fact, she felt so weakened and lacking energy that she went home and took a nap. Weakened and lacking energy provide a definition for enervated. - Example: the writer provides an instance or example of the unknown word. - "A motorcycle aficionado, he got his first bike when he was 12 - usually carrying his luck number, 23 - went on to compete in local road races against adults, winning several trophies on his British-built Scott Flying Squirrel model." The examples in this sentence of Moore's success with motorcycles indicate that aficionado has something to do with a person who is fan of, good at, or enthusiastic about something. - Antonym: the writer provides a word that means the opposite of the unknown word. - Alex felt enervated after the walk around the neighborhood, which made him think he might be ill because those walks had always left him feeling invigorated. The word invigorated is an antonym for enervated; these two words have opposite meanings. - Synonym: the writer provides a word that means the same as the unknown word. - "In early April last year, few outside his friends and family had heard the name of Capt. Tom Moore, a former British army officer and WWII veteran approaching his 100th birthday. By the end of that month, the frail centenarian was described as . . ." The author provides 100th birthday as a synonym for centenarian. - Inference: the writer give details in the sentence from which the reader can infer the meaning. Video: Using Context Clues to Figure Out New Words Watch this 4:47 video for key points that will help you use context clues to discover new words. Be prepared to share with the class any ideas that stood out to you as helpful. References “Using Context Clues to Figure Out New Words’” YouTube, uploaded by Khan Academy, March 22, 2020, Accessed April 7, 2021, https://youtu.be/CiNggzdWkIo Video: Roots and Affixes What are Affixes? Watch this 3:06 video to discover how learning the meaning of a few affixes will increase your vocabulary exponentially! Note any points that will help you build your vocabulary. Latin and Greek Roots and Affixes Ever wonder where all our different words originated? Watch this 6:23 video to better understand how many words were formed in the past and to recognize the pattern of new words you encounter. Be prepared to discuss something new you learned from the video. References “What are Affixes?’” YouTube, uploaded by Khan Academy, June 1, 2020. Accessed April 8, 2021. https://youtu.be/WYSnf6qy4WA “Latin and Greek Roots and Affixes” YouTube, uploaded by Khan Academy, June 1, 2020. Accessed April 8, 2021. https://youtu.be/fiaPqgwJFo4 Video: How to Annotate Text While Reading Watch this 7:51 video for several great suggestions of how to engage with a text while reading. Note two or three that seemed particularly useful to you. References “How to Annotate Text While Reading’” YouTube, uploaded by SchoolHabits, May 9, 2017. Accessed April 8, 2021. https://youtu.be/w5Mz4nwciWc Video: Building Your Background Knowledge Your background knowledge is everything that you know when you come to the reading of a text. You have developed it over the years by going to school, watching movies, listening to music, having conversations, reading books, and living life. The more background knowledge you have, the easier it is to understand what you are reading. Never Skip a Chance to Build Your Knowledge Now that you are in college, it is time to leave behind bad reading habits and develop good ones. When you come to a word that you don't know, what do you usually do? Most students (if they are honest) will sheepishly say that they simply skip it. So did you catch the word in that previous sentence? Did you look it up? Sheepishly: an adverb meaning to do something in an embarrassed way. Point made: always take the opportunity to learn. It's why you are in college. After this video, you will read an article about a British Officer in World War 2. Watch this video first. It will provide you with background knowledge about World War 2 that will help you better understand the article you will read. Article: British Officer Knighted for Pandemic Fundraising Tom Moore, British army officer knighted for charitable work, dies at 100 of coronavirus Alternate Format: Link to Washington Post Article In early April last year, few outside his friends and family had heard the name of Capt. Tom Moore, a former British army officer and World War II veteran approaching his 100th birthday. By the end of that month, the frail centenarian was described as a “national treasure” by Britons and made headlines around the world after he paced his 82-foot garden patio for days — pushing his walker to raise funds in support of Britain’s state-supported National Health Service (NHS), struggling under the weight of increasing coronavirus patients. His aim was to raise 1,000 pounds (about $1,370) for NHS-related charities by doing 100 laps of his garden in the Bedfordshire village of Marston Moretaine, wearing his war medals over a blazer, to mark his birthday, April 30. As news reporters, photographers and TV networks flocked to record his effort, he ended up raising 32 million pounds (around $45 million), entering Guinness World Records for the largest amount raised in a charity walk by an individual. Then at 100, he became the oldest person to have a No. 1 hit single on British pop charts, voicing the lyrics of the Rodgers and Hammerstein ballad "You'll Never Walk Alone" as popular singer Michael Ball rendered the melody along with a choir of NHS doctors and nurses. Another singer, the Canadian known as the Weekend, who was vying for the No. 1 spot at the time, graciously tweeted to his fans that they should buy Captain Tom’s record so that the British “national treasure” could top the charts on his 100th birthday. He did. He formally became Capt. Sir Tom Moore when Queen Elizabeth II, herself in isolation in Windsor Castle during a covid-19 lockdown, tapped his shoulders with a sword in July 2020 and bestowed a knighthood. It was the queen’s first face-to-face meeting with a member of the public for four months, following public clamor for her to make him a “sir.” She also promoted Capt. Moore to the rank of honorary colonel, but the nation continued to call him simply “Captain Tom.” (A British intercity train was renamed the Captain Tom Moore, and his autobiography, “Tomorrow Will Be A Good Day,” co-written by biographer Wendy Holden and published in September, became a bestseller in Britain.) He died Feb. 2, in a hospital near his home, two days after he was admitted for treatment for pneumonia and covid-19, according to his daughter Hannah Ingram-Moore on the family’s Twitter account. He had lived with his daughter and son-in-law since his wife, Pamela, died in 2006. Ingram-Moore did not specify a cause of death but said he had tested positive for coronavirus infection last week and was admitted to a hospital for “additional help” with his breathing. She said doctors had not given him a coronavirus vaccine because of his pneumonia medication. Although he had achieved near-sainthood status in Britain, a small but vociferous minority of online “trolls” attacked his daughter and her husband for letting him take a pre-Christmas holiday to Barbados (paid for by British Airways). Amid covid-19 restrictions, they protested, a seven-hour flight for a centenarian with underlying health conditions — he had skin cancer and had broken a hip in 2018 — was a bad idea. Ingram-Moore responded that the trip was “legal” despite the covid-19 “guidelines” against unnecessary travel. Under current lockdown rules, Britons are advised to “stay home” — the government’s top pandemic slogan. She said the trip had been on her father’s “bucket list.” An overwhelming majority of Britons supported her, and news of his passing threw the nation into mourning. Thomas Moore was born April 30, 1920, in Keighley, Yorkshire, in northern England. His father helped run the family’s home-building and repair company, while his mother was head teacher at a local school. Young Tom attended Keighley grammar school before starting an apprenticeship with a civil engineering firm. A motorcycle aficionado, he got his first bike when he was 12 and — usually carrying his lucky number, 23 — went on to compete in local road races against adults, winning several trophies on his British-built Scott Flying Squirrel model. He also was a keen photographer. His hobbies and apprenticeship were interrupted by the war. In May 1940, along with all able-bodied British men age 18 to 41, he was conscripted into the British army to fight Hitler’s Germany. He was assigned to the 8th Battalion, the Duke of Wellington’s Regiment, based in Cornwall, on the southwestern tip of England, to bolster coastal defenses in the face of a predicted German invasion. In 1941, by then a second lieutenant, he was moved to the 9th Battalion, which converted from infantry into an armored unit as part of the 146th Regiment Royal Armored Corps. “Most of us had never driven a car, never mind a tank,” he recalled years later. His corps was sent to India, still a British colony at the time — a grueling, six-week sea voyage — where he was tasked with setting up and heading a training program for British and Indian army motorcycle units, first in Bombay (now Mumbai) and later, after a three-week road odyssey during the monsoon season, in Calcutta (now Kolkata). In early 1944, he was assigned to the British Fourteenth Army, including Indian, African and other allied troops, aiming to drive the Japanese out of Burma (now Myanmar), which they did. They later became known as the Forgotten Army because their heroism received little media coverage compared with the Allied landings at Normandy and the push to Berlin. Promoted to captain Oct. 11, 1944, Tom Moore survived a bad bout of dengue fever and returned to Britain in February 1945 to become a tank instructor until the end of the war and his demobilization in early 1946. In Yorkshire, he worked first as a salesman for a firm selling roofing materials, later as managing director of a concrete manufacturer. In 1949, he married a woman named Billie, but they divorced after a few years — “the darkest period of my life,” he told the Sun newspaper last year. He said the marriage had been unconsummated and that his wife had lived with what would now be called obsessive compulsive disorder. In 1968, Capt. Moore married Pamela Paull, an office manager from Gravesend on the Thames estuary outside London. They went on to have two children, Lucy and Hannah, and two grandchildren. “[She] was a rather attractive young lady — she looked terrific to me, like a model,” he recalled. “So I had to do various trips and, shall we say, the attraction with the office manager became stronger, and I eventually married her.” At his retirement, the couple fled the English weather and moved to Costa del Sol in southern Spain but returned to Britain after his wife developed a form of dementia and had to move to a nursing home. It was then that he moved in with his daughter and family in Marston Moretaine, where he got out his medals and his walker and hit his garden path for the health workers for whom he was so grateful. His walk inspired countless others to emulate his fundraising efforts, including 5-year-old double amputee Tony Hudgell from Kent, in southern England, who having watched Capt. Moore’s effort, walked 10 kilometers (a bit over six miles) on his prosthetic legs. He raised 1 million pounds ($1.3 million) for health workers and proved that Capt. Moore was right: “You’ll never walk alone.” References Davison, Phil., Tom Moore, British army officer knighted for charitable work, dies at 100 of coronavirus. Washington Post, February 21, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/captain-tom-dies/2021/02/02/d3fa5fc8-64e9-11eb-8468-21bc48f07fe5_story.html. Accessed 8/3/2021. Davison, Phil. "British Officer Knighted for Pandemic Fundraising." The Washington Post, Feb 03, 2021. ProQuest, https://libproxy.volstate.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/british-officer-knighted-pandemic-fundraising/docview/2485333407/se-2?accountid=14861. Activity: Preparation for Quiz "British Officer Knighted for Pandemic Fundraising" A common course cartridge containing assessments including quizzes, discussion prompts and written assignments is available as a companion resource for this material. Preparing for the Quiz The quiz preparation this week will focus on the concept of building your background knowledge. Remember that by doing this, you make reading more interesting and meaningful. and you are making yourself more knowledgeable. There is a practice quiz for this, which I strongly encourage you to take. It will indicate all of the questions that you answer incorrectly, so you may focus your studying. What to Research for the Quiz Below is a list of vocabulary terms, historical events, and people with whom you might not be familiar. Your job is to look up all of these and be prepared for a matching quiz. Depending on the kind of class that you are in, you will do this alone or with a classmate. FROM "BRITISH OFFICER KNIGHTED FOR PANDEMIC FUNDRAISING" BY PHIL DAVIDSON - centenarian - adverb - state-supported - adjective - NHS - Britain's National Health Service - flocked to - verb - "You'll Never Walk Alone" by Rodgers and Hammerstein - Michael Ball - singer - the Weeknd - singer - Queen Elizabeth II - knighthood - noun - clamor - noun - vociferous - adjective - troll - noun - bucket list - noun - apprenticeship - noun - aficionado - noun - conscript(ed) - verb - corps - noun - grueling - adjective - odyssey - noun - monsoon - noun - allied landings at Normandy (World War II) - bout - noun - dengue fever - noun - obsessive compulsive disorder - noun - Thames - noun - estuary - noun - dementia - noun Lecture Notes: Levels of Specificity Levels of Specificity When thinking as a reader, it is helpful to know terminology that applies to reading and how we understand what we read. As we engage with reading material this semester, your instructor will ask you about topics, main ideas, and supporting details. Below are basic definitions of the terms and well as examples. Topic A topic is the general subject that an author discusses. We can express this in a word or phrase. EXAMPLES OF A TOPIC In reading the article from last week, you might say that the topic is Sir Captain Moore or fundraising hero of the pandemic. Notice that these are phrases, not full sentences. As college student in freshman composition class, you might choose a topic for a writing assignment, such as benefits of a Mediterranean diet or pollution in middle Tennessee. These are starting points of an essay. Your job would be to take the topic and turn it into a thesis statement, to make it a complete sentence with a point to support. Main Idea A main idea is the key point an author makes; it is expressed in a complete sentence. There are two kinds of main ideas. - A thesis statement is the key point of an entire essay (usually found in the introduction paragraph in a college essay). - A topic sentence is the key point of a body paragraph (usually found at the beginning of the paragraph). Remember that body paragraphs are those other than the introduction or conclusion. EXAMPLES OF MAIN IDEAS Look at the article from last week, "British Officer Knighted for Pandemic Fundraising." The second sentence of the article is the thesis statement, meaning it is the main idea of the entire essay: By the end of that month, the frail centenarian was described as a "national treasure" by Britons and made headlines around the world after he paced his 82-foot garden patio for days - pushing his walker to raise funds in support of Britain's state-supported National Health Service (NHS), struggling under the weight of increasing coronavirus patients. The rest of the article contains information that all supports and explains the thesis statement. Toward the end of the article, you can see an example of a topic sentence, the main idea of a body paragraph: In 1968, Capt. Moore married Pamela Paull, an office manager from Gravesend on the Thames estuary outside London. The rest of the sentences in this paragraph explain Moore's marriage to Pamela. Supporting Details Supporting details are sentences that explain and prove the main idea. As a reader, you should look for supporting details to help you understand the main ideas. If you are reading something that is persuasive, you will want to use the supporting details to decide if the writer's argument is convincing or not. As a writer, you will provide supporting details, so you clearly communicate your ideas and perspectives to your reader. EXAMPLES OF SUPPORTING DETAILS From the article, "British Officer Knighted for Pandemic Fundraising," you will find details in it that support the idea that Moore was a "national treasure." Some of these supporting details are the fact that Moore: - raised "32 million pounds (around $45 million)" for the NHS by using his walker to do laps in his garden - "became the oldest person to have a No. 1 hit single on the British pop charts" - was knighted by "Queen Elizabeth II, herself in isolation in Windsor Castle during a covid-19 lockdown" GENERAL TO SPECIFIC TOPIC: MOST GENERAL MAIN IDEA SUPPORTING DETAIL: MOST SPECIFIC Video: What is the Main Idea This 5:13 video will help you determine the main idea of a paragraph. What are the key things to look for to find the main idea? References “What is a Main Idea?’” YouTube, uploaded by Khan Academy, March 27, 2020. Accessed April, 8, 2021. https://youtu.be/4swFGRhQoMI Lecture Notes: The "Greatest" and Other Generations The Generations Explained In the next article you read, Chris Jones notes that Moore was one of the "Greatest Generation." What is a generation and what are the characteristics that make up the ones we currently recognize? The information below seeks to answer these questions. Note that the experts do not always agree on the birth years, so if you find information that is slightly different, that is the reason why. Generation Z - born after 1995 - racially diverse - not fazed by differences in race, sexuality, or religion - born with technology - value financial and job security - excessive screen time linked to loneliness and poor social skills - mental health problems - difficulty processing the significance of 9/11 - Liberal/Progressive in their politics and worldview Millennials (aka Gen Y) - born 1980s - 1990s - technology focused - diversity - spirituality - not interested in staying at one employer - better educated than their grandparents - delaying marriage and family longer - more likely to be Democrats or lean that way Generation X - born 1965 - 1980 - work-life balance - value education and good health - human rights - some trying to avoid divorce (as many in their parents' generation did divorce) Baby Boomers - born 1946 - 1964 - hippies of the 1960s: rock music, drugs, sex - revolutionaries of the 1970s - the "me" generation; focused on self above others - first TV generation - first generation of divorce becoming acceptable - optimistic - driven - women of this generation were the first in large numbers to work outside the home The Silent Generation - born 1928 - 1945 - value family - want personal interaction (not mediated by technology) - loyalty The Greatest Generation Many people of this generation grew up during the Great Depression and lived through World War II, and they are the parents of the Baby Boomers ("boom" being used to describe the large increase in the number of babies born in the years after WWII). - born 1900 - 1927 - saved the world from Hitler and the Axis powers - built America - selfless and hardworking - favored traditional morality and civic duty - saved their money - few grew up with modern conveniences, such as washing machines and dishwashers References "The Whys and Hows of Generations Research," Pew Research Center, September 3, 2015, accessed October 13, 2021. The Whys and Hows of Generations Research \| Pew Research Center "What Are the Core Characteristics of Generation Z?" The Annie E. Casey Foundation, January 12, 2021, accessed October 13, 2021. What Are the Core Characteristics of Generation Z? - The Annie E. Casey Foundation (aecf.org). Bialik, Kristen and Richard Fry, "Millennial Life: How young adulthood today compares with prior generations," Pew Research Center, accessed on October 13, 2021. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2019/02/14/millennial-life-how-young-adulthood-today-compares-with-prior-generations-2/ Article: Why the British Hero Captain Tom Moore Mattered Why did an old man pottering around his perfectly ordinary garden come to mean so much to the British struggle against COVID-19? A hundred thousand reasons. On Jan. 26, the United Kingdom reported its 100,000th death from the coronavirus. It was a grim milestone shared by the United States, which hit that number in May of last year, albeit reflecting a much larger population. But there’s another relevant number when it comes to the beloved centenarian Captain Sir Tom Moore, who deserves his full title and who died Wednesday from both pneumonia and, in a cruel twist of fate, the virus he had empowered so many to better fight: 60,375. That, according to Britain’s National Archives, was the number of civilian deaths during World War II. For many Brits of a certain age, the moment when the COVID-19 toll passed the number of ordinary folks killed between 1939 and 1945, mostly as a consequence of Nazi bombing campaigns, represented the most difficult day of all. Even for those not alive during the war, which now is the vast bulk of the population, the losses of those years are etched in the collective national memory as an unequaled collective sacrifice. Children were killed in rubble. Impoverished inner-city families were lost at their kitchen tables. Cities burned. Moore was a veteran of that war, and thus he provided a crucial link to a previous era, a mythology really, where many people sacrificed their lives for the common good. Public health officials, desperate to get people to change their behavior, understood his symbolic power. Most of the deaths from COVID-19 had taken place in the quiet shadows, in care homes and hospitals hidden not only from public view, but from the loving gaze of family members. They did not spark protests or riots for they were cloaked in old age. Few of them were rich people or citizens with access to social-media megaphones. They have been, in short, mostly anonymous occurrences, assessed collectively. But Moore was a friendly face, a modest, self-deprecating volunteer, a man taking what little was available to him (his garden and his walking frame) and choosing to do something with those resources that he did not expect to benefit himself. Not only was Moore a member of the so-called Greatest Generation, his walk around the garden to raise funds for Britain’s National Health Service might well go down in the history books as one of his generation’s last, great public acts of beneficence. He could be the last chapter in that book. And historians will argue it was not an insubstantial contribution. He raised in excess of $50 million for the cause of public health, sure, but he also was a human motivation machine spawning countless other walks, runs, jogs and bake-offs. In the U.K., he was not the face of the virus, but the face of the war required to combat its ravages. Most of those who have died were old. It was right that their spokesperson was one of their own. It’s easy to be cynical about heroes and, somewhere early in the story of Captain Sir Tom Moore, there was a daughter with a press release. But the modest aim, clearly, was just to raise a few British pounds for the NHS and help a man who still felt the need to serve. The rise of this man never felt like the consequence of a cynical algorithm. Moore’s extraordinary age and humility helped. There was a book (”Tomorrow Will Be a Good Day”), talk shows and other stuff, but he was still about as pure a hero as it possible to be, not least because his heroism was so rooted in the ordinary. A walk around the garden, that was all. But a walk after living and serving for a century. In some ways, the end of Moore’s life is like a bucket-list fairy tale, something we might all wish in our most improbable dreams. An ordinary life that becomes not just a great life, but one acknowledged as such by much of the world. Imagine. Interviews with media elites. An audience with the queen. A knighthood. The flag above the Prime Minister’s residence lowered in your honor. A respectful pause taken in contentious debate at the Houses of Parliament, noting your death. A name written in fireworks across the London sky on New Year’s Eve. A No. 1 single in the U.K. pop charts. Yeah. A legacy of persistence, of sacrifice, of unselfishness, of humor and good cheer. A quotidian life, suddenly of extraordinary usefulness by writ of its very ordinary nature. What an incredibly wonderful way to go. Written by Chris Jones Chris Jones is chief theater critic and culture columnist for the Chicago Tribune. He also serves as Broadway critic for the New York Daily News and a critic for WBBM-Ch. 2. His latest book is "Rise Up! Broadway and American Society from 'Angels in America' to 'Hamilton.'" He has a Ph.D. from Ohio State and lives in Chicago with his wife and sons. References Jones, C. (2021, February 2). Column: Why the British hero captain Tom Moore mattered so much, dead now from pneumonia and coronavirus. chicagotribune.com. Retrieved September 19, 2021, from https://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/theater/chris-jones/ct-ent-captain-tom-moore-british-hero-dies-20210202-v2jv55xc7za3jklepwbcsv5lye-story.html. Activity: Breaking Down the "Why the British Hero Captain Tom Moore Mattered" Article Levels of Specificity For this activity, you will apply what you have learned regarding topic, main ideas, and supporting details. Depending on the kind of class that you are in, you will work alone or with a classmate. There is a practice quiz for this article, which I strongly encourage you to take. It will indicate all of the questions that you answer incorrectly, so you may focus your studying. Reading with Purpose - With topic, main ideas, and supporting details in mind, read the article through one time. - Read the article a second time and underline any unknown terms, people, or events. - Look up and write down everything you underlined in #2. DISCUSSION ACTIVITY Answer the following about the article: - What is the topic? - What is the thesis? - What is one example of a topic sentence? - What are two examples of supporting details? - What words did you indicate as new to you? Lecture Notes: Narration Narration One of the most common, and enjoyable, forms that writers use to develop ideas is narration, and it is a pattern that is most likely very familiar to you. The Basics of Narration To put it simply, narration is when a writer structures events and ideas so they have a beginning, middle, and end. If you have ever written an essay about your favorite summer, you have used narration. If you ever told your friends what happened at the basketball game, you have used narration, and if you have ever watched a popular Hollywood film, such as Wonder Woman 1984 or Mulan, you have seen narrative in action. Just as movies that use narration have a message, so do narrative texts. The next article you will read is N.D. Wilson's "Why I Write Scary Stories." You will analyze how he uses narration to support this thesis. Video: The Elements of a Story Watch this 5:14 video to help you recognize the key elements of a story and the benefits of doing so. References “The Elements of a Story’” YouTube, uploaded by Khan Academy, April 10, 2020. Accessed on April 8, 2021. https://youtu.be/Zr1xLtSMMLo Article: Why I Write Scary Stories for Children Article: Why I Write Scary Stories for Children APRIL 20, 2016 By N.D. Wilson Their imaginations respond to being empowered against the things that terrify them. Six years into my career as a children’s novelist, I was in need of a big story. My 100 Cupboards trilogy was off wandering the world in various translations, and I was hoping to wrap up The Ashtown Burials series the following year. And then what? Nothing. The calendar was empty. The future was blank. A new and strange uncertainty hung over my notebooks and bulletin boards. I caught a nasty virus and went down hard, sweating and helpless with fever. The experience was as miserable as such sicknesses tend to be, right up until the increased brain heat brought me the strangest dream. By the time the fever broke and I was able to join my family at the dining room table, I had a new story ready to be pitched to my offspring. Kids, meet Sam Miracle. He lives in a ranch outside of Tucson and he’s traumatically disabled, both mentally and physically. Sam struggles constantly with memory loss, he has daydreams of adventures in which he always dies, and his arms are so badly damaged that his elbows won’t bend. My horrified children stopped eating and began straightening their arms in curious sympathy. So far, so good. They were gripped, breathing the heat of the desert while Sam was hunted by a San Francisco banker turned time-hopping arch-outlaw. They felt Sam’s extreme pain when his rigid arms were brutally shattered and he wavered on the edge of death. And then, when I told them how his arms were not only saved, but became faster than any arms had ever been before, they were so rapt they were barely breathing. Two live rattlesnakes were grafted into Sam’s arms—one nice, one mean. He rattles whenever he’s surprised or scared, and his hands now have minds of their own. His right arm is out of control and perpetually distracted. His left arm wants to kill him and everything else it can reach. Over dinner, spawned by a fever dream, Outlaws of Time was born. It’s a scary book, and the scariness is no accident. This story is a safe place that—at times—feels unsafe, a place where young readers can experience vicarious fear and practice vicarious courage, where they can watch new friends sacrifice and become heroes. I write violent stories. I write dark stories. I write them for my own children, and I write them for yours. And when the topic comes up with a radio host or a mom or a teacher in a hallway, the explanation is simple. Every kid in every classroom, every kid in a bunk bed frantically reading by flashlight, every latchkey kid and every helicoptered kid, every single mortal child is growing into a life story in a world full of dangers and beauties. Every one will have struggles and ultimately, every one will face death and loss. The goal isn’t to steer kids into stories of darkness because those are the stories that grip readers. The goal is to put the darkness in its place.There is absolutely a time and a place for The Pokey Little Puppy and Barnyard Dance, just like there’s a time and a place for footie pajamas. But as children grow, fear and danger and terror grow with them, courtesy of the world in which we live and the very real existence of shadows. The stories on which their imaginations feed should empower a courage and bravery stronger than whatever they are facing. And if what they are facing is truly and horribly awful (as is the case for too many kids), then fearless sacrificial friends walking their own fantastical (or realistic) dark roads to victory can be a very real inspiration and help. With five children of my own (currently aged between 6 and 14), I live within a perfect focus group. Like many parents and teachers and librarians, I often look into a pair of eyes and hear the question, “What should I read next?” At any given moment, a dozen books are being consumed in our home: My kids are off wandering in Narnia or Middle Earth, making friends with Anne of Green Gables and The Penderwicks, exploring “The Wingfeather Saga” or the vivid pages and volumes of Amulet. Stories are being shared, told, and revisited all the time in our house, and when I venture out on tour or into schools, I meet thousands of kids who are off on the same fictional journeys as my own. Overwhelmingly, in my own family and far beyond, the stories that land with the greatest impact are those where darkness, loss, and danger (emotional or physical) is a reality. But the goal isn’t to steer kids into stories of darkness and violence because those are the stories that grip readers. The goal is to put the darkness in its place. When my eldest was first reading C.S. Lewis’s Chronicles of Narnia on his own (at around the age of 7), he encountered an ink illustration of the White Witch’s evil band drawn by Pauline Baynes. Cue the nightmares. He couldn’t go on reading, and every time he slept, he saw those creatures coming to life and pursuing him. In the wee hours of one nightmarish encounter, I realized that I had two choices. On the one hand, I could begin sheltering him from every single thing that his rich imagination might magnify and enliven into terror. This was my protective paternal impulse, but it seemed as impossible as it was short-sighted. I would be facilitating the preservation of his fearfulness. My characters live in worlds that are fundamentally beautiful and magical, just like ours, in worlds that are broken and brutal, just like ours.My other course was to try and embolden his subconscious mind. I carried my son into my office and downloaded an old version of Quake—a first-person shooter video game with nasty, snarling aliens 10 times worse than anything drawn by Pauline. I put my son on my lap with his finger on the button that fired our pixelated shotgun, and we raced through the first level, blasting every monster and villain away. Then we high-fived, I pitched him a quick story about himself as a monster hunter, and then I prayed with him and tucked him back into bed. A bit bashfully, I admitted to my wife what I had just done—hoping I wouldn’t regret it. I didn’t. The nightmare never shook him again. Jump a few years and four more children. My youngest daughter (pig-tailed and precocious) was devouring all sorts of sweet little books. At her insistence, I even wrote a pair of board books just for her (Hello Ninja and Blah Blah Black Sheep) and we spent lots of time making up stories together about winged puppies. Despite all that wholesomeness, she entered a very dark period during which she was inexplicably haunted by dragons. Vivid dragons, coiling and shadowy, able to emerge from her bedroom wall with dripping jaws. For a couple of weeks, if a night passed without a nightmare, my wife and I rejoiced. We tried to track where the dragons might be coming from—fully prepared to discard whatever book or film or show might be causing such regular terror. But the root was nowhere to be found … until one Sunday at church (in a high school gymnasium) my daughter looked over my shoulder and sighed. “Well, there’s my nightmare,” she said. Turning, I saw it—a wriggling, snarling, slavering dragon squaring off with a mascot knight on a high school pep banner.My relief was instantaneous. That evening, I told her one of the scariest, funniest, most violent bedtime stories ever. I got the dragon description just right, and boy, did that serpent lose big. He died for good, right along with her nightmares. I’m not interested in stories that sear terrifying images or monsters or villains into young minds—enough of those exist in the real world, and plenty of others will grow in children’s imaginations without any help. I am interested in telling stories that help prepare living characters for tearing those monsters down. I don’t write horror. But I do write stories about terrified sheltered kids and fatherless kids and kids with the ghosts of abuse in their pasts. Those kids encounter horrors—witches and swamp monsters, black magical doors and undying villains, mad scientists and giant cheese-loving snapping turtles. Those kids feel real pain, described in real ways. They feel real loss. They learn that the truest victory comes from standing in the right place and doing the right thing against all odds, even if doing the right thing means losing everything. Even if doing the right thing means death. My characters live in worlds that are fundamentally beautiful and magical, just like ours, in worlds that are broken and brutal, just like ours. And, when characters live courageously and sacrificially, good will ultimately triumph over evil. As children grow, fear and danger and terror grow with them, courtesy of the world in which we live and the very real existence of shadows.I’m not trying to con kids into optimism or false confidence. I really believe this stuff. My view of violence and victory in children’s stories hinges entirely on my faith. Samson lost his eyes and died … but he has new eyes in the resurrection. Israel was enslaved in Egypt, but God sent a wizard far more powerful than Gandalf to save His people. Christ took the world’s darkness on his shoulders and died in agony. But then … Easter. In the end, good wins. Always. There’s a time for amusement, for laughter and farcical tales. There’s absolutely a time for escapism and comfort and wish fulfillment (especially in the middle of a dark tale). There’s a time for sibling drama and humor and stories of shy heartbreak and school pressures. Intense and suspenseful pulse-pounding tales aren’t the one true diet for young readers. But I absolutely believe them to be healthy for growing imaginations, as essential as protein and calcium for young bones and muscles. My children have only ever known me as a writer. When the older three still toddled, I was always plinking away on a keyboard in the corner of their playroom. By the time all five were fully aware, I was writing in an office at the end of a long attic with bunk beds tucked into dormers. Their night-light was the glow beneath my door, and when someone couldn’t sleep or a dream took a bad turn, I was the closest port in the storm. As it turns out, five children can produce worries and fears and dreams in bulk, and I’ve spent many hours fighting story with story. In our house, when a day has brought struggle or pain or frustration, when we’ve stood at a deathbed or beside a new grave, we gather together, we sit down and listen. We assess characters and choices, villains and themes. We talk about darkness, we talk about light. We talk about loss and bittersweet victory. We talk about winter and spring resurrections. And through all of this talking, my children have learned, the most important stories are the stories we live. The rest are all food for the journey. References Wilson, N. D. (2016, April 21). Why I write scary stories for children. The Atlantic. Retrieved September 19, 2021, from https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2016/04/why-i-write-scary-stories-for-children/478977/. Activity: "Why I Write Scary Stories for Children" The Effectiveness of Narration With this assignment, you will analyze how successful N.D. Wilson is in making his point about writing scary stories. Depending on the kind of class that you are in, you will work alone or with a classmate. Thesis and Support Do the following after you have read through the article one time: - Underline Wilson's thesis statement. Remember that this will be a complete sentence. In this article, it occurs more than once. Hint: it is not in the first paragraph. - Examine how the writer uses narration. It is not one long narrative essay; instead, he includes three narratives within the overall article. After talking to your classmates, mark the location of the three narratives. - How effective is the narration to convince you of his thesis? What makes the narration strong and what makes it weak? - What other supporting details does the writer use to convince you of thesis? List three of them. You may copy them down directly or write them in your own words. Lecture Notes: Summary Writing Summary Writing What is a summary A summary is a shortened version of an essay, chapter, or book. It is written in your own words. It is approximately ¼ the length of the original. It does not contain a lot of directly copied sentences. If you do quote directly, you must use quotation marks. Do not include your opinion in a summary. How to Title a summary In most cases, you will put the title of what you are summarizing in quotation marks. Include the phrase "Summary of " so your reader knows that you have written a summary of someone else’s work. Center your title. Sample title: Summary of “Booker Taliaferro Washington” The First Sentence Be sure to include the following in the first sentence: - the title of the article (essay, book, etc.) - the source - the name(s) of the author - the writer’s main point Add the Major Supporting Details Your next step is to add the major supporting details in your own words. To do this, re-read the pages and underline the details that you think should go into your summary. Write them down in your own words and in the order in which they appear. Use transition words to move from sentence to sentence (or event to event). Video: Summarizing Nonfiction This 2:42 video will help you be able to quickly and easily summarize nonfiction writings. While you watch, note the steps to efficiently do this useful skill. References Summarizing nonfiction: Reading: Khan Academy. YouTube. (2020, March 27). Retrieved September 29, 2021, from https://youtu.be/as7xe8UQEr4. Video: Short Biography of Booker T. Washington Use this link to watch this 3:30 minute video on Biography.com's website. Booker T. Washington Mini Biography The video will help you to become better acquainted with this important man in history. While watching, take note of how he overcame many difficult trials in his life. References A&E Networks Television. (2019, April 12). Booker T. Washington - Mini Biography. Biography.com. Retrieved September 29, 2021, from https://www.biography.com/video/booker-t-washington-mini-biography-11188803909. Article: Dr. Booker Taliaferro Washington Dr. Booker Taliaferro Washington Founder and First President of Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute (now Tuskegee University) Term in Office: 1881-1915 Born April 5, 1856, in Franklin County, Virginia, Booker Taliaferro was the son of an unknown White man and Jane, an enslaved cook of James Burroughs, a small planter. Jane named her son Booker Taliaferro but later dropped the second name. Booker gave himself the surname "Washington" when he first enrolled in school. Sometime after Booker's birth, his mother was married to Washington Ferguson, a slave. A daughter, Amanda, was born to this marriage. James, Booker's younger half-brother, was adopted. Booker's elder brother, John, was also the son of a White man. Booker spent his first nine years as a slave on the Burroughs farm. In 1865, his mother took her children to Malden, West Virginia, to join her husband, who had gone there earlier and found work in the salt mines. At age nine, Booker was put to work packing salt. Between the ages of ten and twelve, he worked in a coal mine. He attended school while continuing to work in the mines. In 1871, he went to work as a houseboy for the wife of Gen. Lewis Ruffner, owner of the mines. Securing an Education ... In 1872, at age sixteen, Booker T. Washington entered Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute in Virginia. The dominant personality at the school, which had opened in 1868 under the auspices of the American Missionary Association, was the principal, Samuel Chapman Armstrong, the son of American missionaries in Hawaii. Armstrong, who had commanded Black troops in the Civil War, believed that the progress of freedmen and their descendants depended on education of a special sort, which would be practical and utilitarian and would at the same time inculcate character and morality. Washington traveled most of the distance from Malden to Hampton on foot, arriving penniless. His entrance examination to Hampton was to clean a room. The teacher inspected his work with a spotless, white handkerchief. Booker was admitted. He was given work as a janitor to pay the cost of his room and board, and Armstrong arranged for a White benefactor to pay his tuition. At Hampton, Washington studied academic subjects and agriculture, which included work in the fields and pigsties. He also learned lessons in personal cleanliness and good manners. His special interest was public speaking and debate. He was jubilant when he was chosen to speak at his commencement. The most important part of his experience at Hampton was his association with Armstrong, who he described in his autobiography as "a great man - the noblest, rarest human being it has ever been my privilege to meet." From Armstrong, Washington derived much of his educational philosophy. After graduating from Hampton with honors in 1875, Washington returned to Malden to teach. For eight months he was a student at Wayland Seminary, an institution with a curriculum that was entirely academic. This experience reinforced his belief in an educational system that emphasized practical skills and self-help. In 1879, Washington returned to Hampton to teach in a program for American Indians. Educating Others ... In 1880, a bill that included a yearly appropriation of $2,000 was passed by the Alabama State Legislature to establish a school for Blacks in Macon County. This action was generated by two men - Lewis Adams, a former slave, and George W. Campbell, a former slave owner. On February 12, 1881, Governor Rufus Willis Cobb signed the bill into law, establishing the Tuskegee Normal School for the training of Black teachers. Armstrong was invited to recommend a White teacher as principal of the school. Instead, he suggested Washington, who was accepted. When Washington arrived at Tuskegee, he found that no land or buildings had been acquired for the projected school, nor was there any money for these purposes since the appropriation was for salaries only. Undaunted, Washington began selling the idea of the school, recruiting students and seeking support of local Whites. The school opened July 4, 1881, in a shanty loaned by a Black church, Butler A.M.E. Zion. With money borrowed from Hampton Institute's treasurer, Washington purchased an abandoned 100-acre plantation on the outskirts of Tuskegee. Students built a kiln, made bricks for buildings and sold bricks to raise money. Within a few years, they built a classroom building, a dining hall, a girl’s dormitory and a chapel. By 1888, the 540-acre Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute had an enrollment of more than 400 and offered training in such skilled trades as carpentry, cabinet-omaking, printing, shoemaking and tinsmithing. Boys also studied farming and dairying, while girls learned such domestic skills as cooking and sewing. Through their own labor, students supplied a large part of the needs of the school. In the academic departments, Washington insisted that efforts be made to relate the subject matter to the actual experiences of the students. Strong emphasis was placed on personal hygiene, manners and character building. Students followed a rigid schedule of study and work, arising at five in the morning and retiring at nine-thirty at night. Although Tuskegee was non-denominational, all students were required to attend chapel daily and a series of religious services on Sunday. Washington himself usually spoke to the students on Sunday evening. Olivia Davidson, a graduate of Hampton and Framingham State Normal School in Massachusetts, became teacher and assistant principal at Tuskegee in 1881. In 1885, Washington's older brother John, also a Hampton graduate, came to Tuskegee to direct the vocational training program. Other notable additions to the staff were acclaimed scientist Dr. George Washington Carver, who became director of the agriculture program in 1896; Emmett J. Scott, who became Washington 's private secretary in 1897; and Monroe Nathan Work, who became head of the Records and Research Department in 1908. Establishing a legacy ... On Tuskegee's 25th anniversary, Washington had transformed an idea into a 2,000-acre, eighty-three building campus that, combined with such personal property as equipment, live stock and stock in trade, was valued at $831,895. Tuskegee's endowment fund was $1,275,644 and training in thirty-seven industries was available for the more than 1,500 students enrolled that year. Through progress at Tuskegee, Washington showed that an oppressed people could advance. His concept of practical education was a contribution to the general field of education. His writings, which included 40 books, were widely read and highly regarded. Among his works was an autobiography titled "Up From Slavery" (1901), "Character Building" (1902), "My Larger Education" (1911), and "The Man Farthest Down" (1912). Washington settled into the national scene on opening day of the Atlanta Exposition in 1895 when he spoke about "The New Negro," one with "the knowledge of how to live ... how to cultivate the soil, to husband their resources, and make the most of their opportunities." Eyebrows raised again on Oct. 16, 1901, when Washington became the first Black person to dine at the White House. Counsel to many U.S. presidents, he was there at the invitation of President Theodore Roosevelt. Washington was married three times. In 1882, he married his Malden sweetheart, Fannie Norton Smith. She died two years later, leaving an infant daughter, Portia (who married William Sidney Pittman, an architect, in 1907). In 1885, Washington married Hampton graduate Olivia Davidson, the assistant principal of Tuskegee, who died in 1889. Two sons were born to this marriage: Booker Taliaferro, Jr. and Ernest Davidson. In 1893, Washington married Fisk University graduate Margaret James Murray, who had come to Tuskegee as lady principal in 1889 and directed the programs for female students and initiated the Women's Meetings. Margaret Murray Washington died in 1925. Margaret and her husband's three children and four grandchildren survived Washington, who died November 14, 1915, at age fifty-nine of arteriosclerosis and exhaustion. He died after an illness in St. Luke's hospital, New York City, where he had been admitted on November 5. Aware that the end was near, he left with his wife and his physician, Dr. John A. Kennedy, Sr., on November 12, so that he could die in Tuskegee. Booker T. Washington's funeral on November 17, 1915 was held in the Tuskegee Institute Chapel, and was attended by nearly 8,000 people. He was buried on campus in a brick tomb, made by students, on a hill commanding a view of the entire campus. References Dr. Booker Taliaferro Washington Founder and First President of Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute. Tuskegee University. (n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2021, from https://www.tuskegee.edu/discover-tu/tu-presidents/booker-t-washington. Assignment: Booker T. Washington Article Summary After reading, the biography of Booker T. Washington you will write a summary. Here are the steps: - Read the article all the way through one time. - Circle any unknown words and write down their definitions. Dictionary.com is a good website for this. - On notebook paper, write one or two sentences that describe each paragraph or group of paragraphs in your own words. - Follow the steps in Lecture Notes: Summary Writing to create your summary. - Follow the MLA format for the heading, title, page numbers, spacing, and margins. The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) has an overview of the format if you need it. - Title your document LastNameSummaryAssignment. - Submit it by the due date for a grade. Lecture Notes: Making Connections How to Connect What You Read Effective readers connect what they are reading in multiple ways: text-to-self, text-to-text, and text-to-world. Text-to-Self Connections These kinds of connections are when you think about what you are reading and how it relates to your experiences, beliefs, and current understandings. Consider: - how you are the same or different. - how you agree or disagree and why. - how it reminds you of something or someone in your life. - how reading it makes you feel. Text-to-Text Connections As a student, one of your goals should be to connect what you have read to something else that you have read/learned from a textbook, novel, academic journal article, news source, book, lecture, etc. Consider: - how does this support what I learned from . . . - how is this different from what I learned in . . . - how does this relate to what I read in . . . - how what author does here reminds me of . . Text-to-World Connections It is natural to think about how what you read connects to you as an individual, but it is also important to connect your reading to the larger world. Consider: - how does this impact what I know about my immediate community? - how might this impact my state or region of the country? - how might this impact other countries? - how does this alter my understanding of something from history? - what might be the future implications of this? Article: Choose to Be Grateful. It Will Make You Happier. Choose to Be Grateful. It Will Make You Happier. Nov. 21, 2015, by Arthur C. Brooks TWENTY-FOUR years ago this month, my wife and I married in Barcelona, Spain. Two weeks after our wedding, flush with international idealism, I had the bright idea of sharing a bit of American culture with my Spanish in-laws by cooking a full Thanksgiving dinner. Easier said than done. Turkeys are not common in Barcelona. The local butcher shop had to order the bird from a specialty farm in France, and it came only partially plucked. Our tiny oven was too small for the turkey. No one had ever heard of cranberries. Over dinner, my new family had many queries. Some were practical, such as, “What does this beast eat to be so filled with bread?” But others were philosophical: “Should you celebrate this holiday even if you don’t feel grateful?” I stumbled over this last question. At the time, I believed one should feel grateful in order to give thanks. To do anything else seemed somehow dishonest or fake — a kind of bourgeois, saccharine insincerity that one should reject. It’s best to be emotionally authentic, right? Wrong. Building the best life does not require fealty to feelings in the name of authenticity, but rather rebelling against negative impulses and acting right even when we don’t feel like it. In a nutshell, acting grateful can actually make you grateful. For many people, gratitude is difficult, because life is difficult. Even beyond deprivation and depression, there are many ordinary circumstances in which gratitude doesn’t come easily. This point will elicit a knowing, mirthless chuckle from readers whose Thanksgiving dinners are usually ruined by a drunk uncle who always needs to share his political views. Thanks for nothing. Beyond rotten circumstances, some people are just naturally more grateful than others. A 2014 article in the journal Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience identified a variation in a gene (CD38) associated with gratitude. Some people simply have a heightened genetic tendency to experience, in the researchers’ words, “global relationship satisfaction, perceived partner responsiveness and positive emotions (particularly love).” That is, those relentlessly positive people you know who seem grateful all the time may simply be mutants. But we are more than slaves to our feelings, circumstances and genes. Evidence suggests that we can actively choose to practice gratitude — and that doing so raises our happiness. This is not just self-improvement hokum. For example, researchers in one 2003 study randomly assigned one group of study participants to keep a short weekly list of the things they were grateful for, while other groups listed hassles or neutral events. Ten weeks later, the first group enjoyed significantly greater life satisfaction than the others. Other studies have shown the same pattern and lead to the same conclusion. If you want a truly happy holiday, choose to keep the “thanks” in Thanksgiving, whether you feel like it or not. How does all this work? One explanation is that acting happy, regardless of feelings, coaxes one’s brain into processing positive emotions. In one famous 1993 experiment, researchers asked human subjects to smile forcibly for 20 seconds while tensing facial muscles, notably the muscles around the eyes called the orbicularis oculi (which create “crow’s feet”). They found that this action stimulated brain activity associated with positive emotions. If grinning for an uncomfortably long time like a scary lunatic isn’t your cup of tea, try expressing gratitude instead. According to research published in the journal Cerebral Cortex, gratitude stimulates the hypothalamus (a key part of the brain that regulates stress) and the ventral tegmental area (part of our “reward circuitry” that produces the sensation of pleasure). It’s science, but also common sense: Choosing to focus on good things makes you feel better than focusing on bad things. As my teenage kids would say, “Thank you, Captain Obvious.” In the slightly more elegant language of the Stoic philosopher Epictetus, “He is a man of sense who does not grieve for what he has not, but rejoices in what he has.” In addition to building our own happiness, choosing gratitude can also bring out the best in those around us. Researchers at the University of Southern California showed this in a 2011 study of people with high power but low emotional security (think of the worst boss you’ve ever had). The research demonstrated that when their competence was questioned, the subjects tended to lash out with aggression and personal denigration. When shown gratitude, however, they reduced the bad behavior. That is, the best way to disarm an angry interlocutor is with a warm “thank you.” I learned this lesson 10 years ago. At the time, I was an academic social scientist toiling in professorial obscurity, writing technical articles and books that would be read by a few dozen people at most. Soon after securing tenure, however, I published a book about charitable giving that, to my utter befuddlement, gained a popular audience. Overnight, I started receiving feedback from total strangers who had seen me on television or heard me on the radio. One afternoon, I received an unsolicited email. “Dear Professor Brooks,” it began, “You are a fraud.” That seemed pretty unpromising, but I read on anyway. My correspondent made, in brutal detail, a case against every chapter of my book. As I made my way through the long email, however, my dominant thought wasn’t resentment. It was, “He read my book!” And so I wrote him back — rebutting a few of his points, but mostly just expressing gratitude for his time and attention. I felt good writing it, and his near-immediate response came with a warm and friendly tone. DOES expressing gratitude have any downside? Actually, it might: There is some research suggesting it could make you fat. A new study in the Journal of Consumer Psychology finds evidence that people begin to crave sweets when they are asked to express gratitude. If this finding holds up, we might call it the Pumpkin Pie Paradox. The costs to your weight notwithstanding, the prescription for all of us is clear: Make gratitude a routine, independent of how you feel — and not just once each November, but all year long. There are concrete strategies that each of us can adopt. First, start with “interior gratitude,” the practice of giving thanks privately. Having a job that involves giving frequent speeches — not always to friendly audiences — I have tried to adopt the mantra in my own work of being grateful to the people who come to see me. Next, move to “exterior gratitude,” which focuses on public expression. The psychologist Martin Seligman, father of the field known as “positive psychology,” gives some practical suggestions on how to do this. In his best seller “Authentic Happiness,” he recommends that readers systematically express gratitude in letters to loved ones and colleagues. A disciplined way to put this into practice is to make it as routine as morning coffee. Write two short emails each morning to friends, family or colleagues, thanking them for what they do. Finally, be grateful for useless things. It is relatively easy to be thankful for the most important and obvious parts of life — a happy marriage, healthy kids or living in America. But truly happy people find ways to give thanks for the little, insignificant trifles. Ponder the impractical joy in Gerard Manley Hopkins’s poem “Pied Beauty”: Glory be to God for dappled things — For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow; For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim; Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches’ wings; Landscape plotted and pieced — fold, fallow, and plough; And all trades, their gear and tackle and trim. Be honest: When was the last time you were grateful for the spots on a trout? More seriously, think of the small, useless things you experience — the smell of fall in the air, the fragment of a song that reminds you of when you were a kid. Give thanks. This Thanksgiving, don’t express gratitude only when you feel it. Give thanks especially when you don’t feel it. Rebel against the emotional “authenticity” that holds you back from your bliss. As for me, I am taking my own advice and updating my gratitude list. It includes my family, faith, friends and work. But also the dappled complexion of my bread-packed bird. And it includes you, for reading this column. References Brooks, A. C. (2015, November 21). Choose to be grateful. it will make you happier. The New York Times. Retrieved September 29, 2021, from https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/22/opinion/sunday/choose-to-be-grateful-it-will-make-you-happier.html. Activity 1: "Choose to be Grateful. It Will Make You Happier." Preparing for the Quiz The quiz preparation this week will continue with building your background knowledge. Remember that by doing this, you make reading more interesting and meaningful. and you are making yourself more knowledgeable. There is a practice quiz for this, which I strongly encourage you to take. It will indicate all of the questions that you answer incorrectly, so you may focus your studying. What to Research for the Quiz Below is a list of vocabulary terms, historical events, and people with whom you might not be familiar. Your job is to look up all of these and be prepared to complete a matching quiz. Depending on the kind of class that you are in, you will complete this activity alone or with a classmate. FROM "CHOOSE TO BE GRATEFUL. IT WILL MAKE YOU HAPPIER" BY ARTHUR C. BROOKS - idealism - noun - queries (query) - noun - bourgeois - adjective - saccharine - adjective - insincerity - noun - fealty - noun - gratitude - noun - deprivation - noun - elicit - verb - mirthless - adjective - mutants - noun - hokum - noun - coax(es) - verb - crow's feet - hint: it is a slang term for something - noun - lunatic - noun - Stoic philosopher Epictetus - noun - lash out - verb - denigration - noun - interlocutor - noun - toil - verb - obscurity - noun - tenure - noun - befuddlement - noun - unsolicited - adjective - fraud - noun - dominant - adjective - resentment - noun - rebut(ting) - verb - mantra - noun - bliss - noun Activity 2: "Choose to Be Grateful. It Will Make You Happier." Making Connections to the Text This week you will work on levels of specificity and making connections to the text using "Choose to Be Grateful. It Will Make You Happier" by Arthur C. Brooks. Activity Do the following connection activity. Depending on the kind of class that you are in, you will complete this alone or with a classmate. - Read this week's lecture notes about making connections when reading. - Re-read Gerard Manley Hopkins' poem "Pied Beauty." For what exactly is he grateful? (You might need to look up some unknown words, such as pied.) - What is the writer's thesis? Be sure to give a complete sentence. - What did you find to be convincing research? Copy down one instance of convincing support. - Along with using research to prove his thesis, Brooks also uses a personal anecdote as support. Give a brief summary in your own words of what happened when he practiced gratitude with a person who read his book but was very negative about it. - Toward the end of the essay, Brooks gives suggestions for how to "make gratitude a routine." Follow some of his suggestions: - In order make a text-to-self connection, make a list of all of the things for which you are grateful. - In order to make a text-to-text connection, write about what you have previously learned about what should make people happy (whether true or not). - In order to make a text-to-world connection, write about what makes people happy in your family, town, state, country, and/or another country. Lecture Notes: Textbook Strategies Textbook Strategies Many students read a textbook by starting at the first page of the chapter and stopping at the last. This is not an effective method. Textbooks contain so much new information and can be a little dry, so you need to have a plan and some strategies whenever your professor assigns you to read a chapter from textbook. Location/Mindset/Distractions Before you sit down to conquer your textbook, think about your location. Are you where it is quiet and free from distractions? Have you removed your phone from the room (maybe placed it in the dishwasher for safe keeping)? Are you absolutely exhausted and tucked under the covers? Think about how your answers to these question are helping, or hurting, how effectively you are reading your textbook. They all can make a huge difference, and, luckily, these are things that you can control. If you want to manage your time to learn and remember what you read (remember: staring at words is not reading), find a quiet room, sit in a chair, turn off all distractions, have your supplies ready, and focus on learning the material. Preview During the preview step of reading, the goals are to become familiar with your textbook, activate prior knowledge (what you already know), and learn a little about the topic. - Look at the table of contents and introductory material, meaning everything that comes before Chapter 1. Notice that you are to "look at," not read or try to memorize. - Look at the end-of-the book and end-of-chapter information: summaries, questions, the glossary (important terms and their definitions), and the index. Put a sticky notes on important pages, such a chapter questions since this is where your professor will like find some of the questions for a quiz, essay, or exam. - For the chapter, look for helpful elements, such as boldface words, words in italics, notes in the margins, and visual aids (graphs, drawings, photographs, charts, tables). Read - During the read step, you are reading with a purpose. Get out the questions and be ready to write the answers. - Annotate: have your pens, highlighters, and list of questions. At the end of each page (or every paragraph if the text is difficult), annotate what you think is important and write the answers to the questions. - Chunk: don't read the whole chapter in one sitting (which means no procrastinating); instead, divide the book into manageable parts, start with ten pages as your goal to complete, and increase it as you get better at it. Every hour or so, take a break: do work from a different class, take a walk outside, get a snack, or fold a load of laundry. Do not pick up your phone or start gaming --those are both ways to get off track and waste your valuable time. - Continue until you finish the chapter. At the end, you should have an annotated chapter and a set of answers/notes. Review - Let twenty-four hours pass. - Re-read your annotations, answers, and notes. - Create flashcards (note cards or online - such a Quizlet) and test yourself. Have others test you as well. See if you can teach someone what you learned. - Do this each day until you take the quiz/test. Something to Note How many people reading this do you think already know some of these tips? Most? At least some do! The key is to take part in this process. Knowing this strategy is meaningless unless you actually use it. Video: Effective Reading with SQ4R Effective Reading with SQ4R This 6:06 video will teach you the six steps of how to comprehend college-level reading in less time. As you watch, take note of the six steps, exactly what you do with each step, and how to apply these steps to gain knowledge and be successful on college quizzes and tests of textbook material. References “Effective Reading with SQ4R” YouTube, uploaded by OSLIS Secondary Videos, Oct 2, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ziofH7N8ZOE, Reading and Activity: Chapter 1 - Introduction to Psychology Active Reading and Textbooks For this activity, you will use the Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology from the online textbook Psychology (use the blue link to reach the textbook) to practice using a study reading strategy and using the textbook's features. Depending on which kind of class you are in, you will do this alone or with a classmate. Location/Mindset/Distractions: find a quiet room, sit in a chair, turn off all distractions, have your supplies ready, and focus on learning the material. Preview - Look at the table of contents and introductory material. - Look at the end-of-chapter and end-of-book material. - Locate the summary and questions for Chapter 1. (Pay special attention to the Review Questions that seem like they are from section 1.4, which is about careers in psychology.) Read - From the table of contents, choose section 1.4 for this assignment. - You may want to print this section of the textbook. You can use copy and paste to get it into a program that you can print from. Or, you can right-click on it from your browser and print from the browser menu. - As you read, use the highlighting feature to note key information. - Create a set of notes of what you think is the most important information from 1.4. Try to anticipate what questions your professor will ask on a quiz over this section of chapter 1. Review - Let twenty-four hours pass. - Take the practice quiz for 1.4 from Chapter 1. You will find it in next week's module. You have two attempts. Be sure to write down anything that you answered incorrectly, so you can learn from your mistakes. (You will late take the regular quiz for a grade.) Assignment: Maximizing Your Textbooks For this assignment, you will use the online textbook Psychology, 2e, by Spielman, Jenkins, and Lovett (senior contributing authors). Read Lecture Notes: Textbook's Strategies before you complete this assignment. Depending on what kind of class you are in, you will complete this alone or with a classmate. Using what you learned about previewing in the Lecture Notes: Textbook Strategies, answer the following questions. Use Microsoft Word, number your answers, and use complete sentences. Follow the MLA format for the heading, title, page numbers, spacing, and margins. The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) has an overview of the format if you need it. You do not need to read any of the chapters for this dropbox assignment. Just answer these questions about the book: - What introductory material does the book contain? (This is what comes before Chapter 1.) - How many chapters does the book have? - What end-of-the-book materials does the book contain? - What end-of-the-chapter materials does the book contain? - Browse through a couple of chapters. What kind of helpful elements do the writers include? Video: The Elements of a Poem Watch this 5:06 video to better understand the "art" and the parts of poem. What important points are notable to you? References “The Elements of a Poem’” YouTube, uploaded by Khan Academy, April 10, 2020. Accessed April 8, 2021. https://youtu.be/zFNnbxCZPBU Lecture Notes: Reading Poetry Reading Poetry Some of the greatest works of art are poems, poems that speak to readers from different cultures and times. How do poets achieve this and how as readers can we best understand the literary form of poetry? Tips for Reading Poetry Contrary to what some students may think, poems are meant to be understood and enjoyed. They are intended to delight, to teach, and to transform. Because some are unfamiliar with, or intimidated by, the form, they feel defeated before they even start. To combat this, there are steps and tips that can help to unlock a poem. - Throw away and preconceived notions that you have about poetry and your ability to understand it. - Unless you are reading a very lengthy poem, read through all of it at one time. - Pay attention to the punctuation. It matters! If there is a period, stop, and if there is a comma, pause. Punctuation is a key way that poets communicate their ideas. If there is no period at the end of a line, keep reading until you come to a period or comma. - Poets use very few words to develop and convey meaning. Each word is important, more so than in prose. Consider the meanings of the the words. It is common for a word to have more than one meaning. - Poets use literary devices, such a metaphor, simile, personification, allusion, hyperbole, symbolism, and alliteration. You will learn about these and others when you complete the Poetry Assignment. Lecture Notes: Imply and Infer Imply and Infer If you have ever been told that you need to "read between the lines," you have been asked to think about what the author implies and then infer the meaning correctly. If we take the phrase literally, we are asking for you to look at what is between two lines of text, and, of course, there is nothing between two lines of text; there is only blank space, but the phrase does make sense once you learn about implying and inferring. If you ever made a guess about someone's job based on what they were wearing, you have made an inference. If you ever looked at a magazine advertisement, and understood that the message was, "if you buy this, you will look like this model," you have made made a inference. The clothes that we wear imply something about us (accurate and inaccurate). The glossy ad with good-looking model implies that buying the product will make us good looking as well. Definitions and Examples To imply means to hint at or suggest. It is what the writer (speaker, painter, sculptor) does. It is a verb. To infer means to understand what is implied. It is what the reader (listener or viewer) does. It is a verb. When you infer, you are looking for clues as to what the real meaning is, clues such as context, tone, or sarcasm. Consider: - Pat says the following: "I see that you are all going out to each lunch today. Well, I am hungry, and I really want to go, but I am short on cash. I sure do wish I could go and didn't have to stay here all by myself, hungry and alone." Pat implies that he wants his workmates to pay for his lunch. Pat's workmates infer that Pat is asking for them to pay for his lunch. Here is another. Notice the change of meaning as the context changes: - Maria says that she is happy to see that state spent billions of dollars on freeway construction because it greatly decreased the traffic problem. This is straightforward and no inferencing is needed, but if the context changes, Maria implies something different: - As Maria sits stuck in horrible traffic on the 405 freeway, which makes her late for work, she says that she is happy to see that state spent billions of dollars on freeway construction because it greatly decreased the traffic problem. As the readers, we infer that Maria believes the costly construction made no improvement in the traffic. We might even infer that she is upset about the wasted money. Maria's real meaning (what she is implying) is the exact opposite of the literal meaning of the words. If we don't read between the lines to infer the real meaning, we are completely wrong about what Maria is saying. Poem: "Dreams" by Langston Hughes "Dreams" by Langston Hughes Hold fast to dreams For if dreams die Life is a broken-winged bird That cannot fly. Hold fast to dreams For when dreams go Life is a barren field Frozen with snow. References Hughes, Langston. “Dreams by Langston Hughes - Poems \| Academy of American Poets.” Poets.org, Academy of American Poets, https://poets.org/poem/dreams. Poem: "the sonnet-ballad" by Gwendolyn Brooks "the sonnet-ballad" by Gwendolyn Brooks Oh mother, mother, where is happiness? They took my lover's tallness off to war, Left me lamenting. Now I cannot guess What I can use an empty heart-cup for. He won't be coming back here any more. Some day the war will end, but, oh, I knew When he went walking grandly out that door That my sweet love would have to be untrue. Would have to be untrue. Would have to court Coquettish death, whose impudent and strange Possessive arms and beauty (of a sort) Can make a hard man hesitate—and change. And he will be the one to stammer, "Yes." Oh mother, mother, where is happiness? From "Appendix to The Anniad: leaves from a loose-leaf war diary" in Annie Allen by Gwendolyn Brooks, published by Harper. © 1949 by Gwendolyn Brooks. All rights reserved. References Brooks, Gwendolyn. “the sonnet-ballad by Gwendolyn Brooks - Poems \| Academy of American Poets.” Poets.org, Academy of American Poets, https://poets.org/poem/sonnet-ballad. Poem: "Still I Rise" by Maya Angelou "Still I Rise" by Maya Angelou You may write me down in history With your bitter, twisted lies, You may trod me in the very dirt But still, like dust, I’ll rise. Does my sassiness upset you? Why are you beset with gloom? ’Cause I walk like I’ve got oil wells Pumping in my living room. Just like moons and like suns, With the certainty of tides, Just like hopes springing high, Still I’ll rise. Did you want to see me broken? Bowed head and lowered eyes? Shoulders falling down like teardrops, Weakened by my soulful cries? Does my haughtiness offend you? Don’t you take it awful hard ’Cause I laugh like I’ve got gold mines Diggin’ in my own backyard. You may shoot me with your words, You may cut me with your eyes, You may kill me with your hatefulness, But still, like air, I’ll rise. Does my sexiness upset you? Does it come as a surprise That I dance like I’ve got diamonds At the meeting of my thighs? Out of the huts of history’s shame I rise Up from a past that’s rooted in pain I rise I’m a black ocean, leaping and wide, Welling and swelling I bear in the tide. Leaving behind nights of terror and fear I rise Into a daybreak that’s wondrously clear I rise Bringing the gifts that my ancestors gave, I am the dream and the hope of the slave. I rise I rise I rise. From And Still I Rise by Maya Angelou. Copyright © 1978 by Maya Angelou. References Angelou, Maya. “Still I Rise by Maya Angelou - Poems \| Academy of American Poets.” Poets.org, Academy of American Poets, https://poets.org/poem/still-i-rise. Poem: "Do not go gentle into that good night" by Dylan Thomas "Do not go gentle into that good night" by Dylan Thomas Do not go gentle into that good night, Old age should burn and rave at close of day; Rage, rage against the dying of the light. Though wise men at their end know dark is right, Because their words had forked no lightning they Do not go gentle into that good night. Good men, the last wave by, crying how bright Their frail deeds might have danced in a green bay, Rage, rage against the dying of the light. Wild men who caught and sang the sun in flight, And learn, too late, they grieved it on its way, Do not go gentle into that good night. Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sight Blind eyes could blaze like meteors and be gay, Rage, rage against the dying of the light. And you, my father, there on the sad height, Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray. Do not go gentle into that good night. Rage, rage against the dying of the light. From The Poems of Dylan Thomas, published by New Directions. Copyright © 1952, 1953 Dylan Thomas. Copyright © 1937, 1945, 1955, 1962, 1966, 1967 the Trustees for the Copyrights of Dylan Thomas. Copyright © 1938, 1939, 1943, 1946, 1971 New Directions Publishing Corp. References Thomas, Dylan. “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night by Dylan Thomas - Poems \| Academy of American Poets.” Poets.org, Academy of American Poets, https://poets.org/poem/do-not-go-gentle-good-night. Assignment: Engaging with Poetry Poetry Assignment The goal of this assignment is to practice reading poetry as a way to understand figurative language and draw inferences. Depending on which kind of class you are in, you will complete this assignment alone or with a classmate. Using your computer or smart phone, define the following AND give an example of each. Choose your own theme (as in the student example in this module) to create your own example of each one: - metaphor - simile - imagery - personification - allusion - hyperbole - alliteration - irony - conflict - euphemism For Questions 11 -12, choose a poem from this module. - What is the main point that the author is making? In other words, write what you think the author's thesis is. You will need to infer the meaning to do this. - Write a list of all literary devices you find in the poem by copying it down and indicating which literary device it is. See the example below for #12. - Follow the MLA format for the heading, title, page numbers, spacing, and margins. The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) has an overview of the format if you need it. Number your answers. - Include the first and last name of all group members in the heading of your document. Title your document PoetryAssignment. - Submit it by the due date for a grade. EXAMPLE Format for this assignment: - metaphor - simile - imagery - personification - allusion - hyperbole - alliteration - irony - conflict - euphemism - In Emily Dickinson's poem, "Hope," the writer's thesis is that she has never had hope. - There is one metaphor in the poem: "Hope is a thing with feathers."	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.262716	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89536/overview", "title": "College Level Reading Support: Readings to Engage Learners", "author": "Reading Literature" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66303/overview	Voter Turnout and Political Participation in Texas Overview Voter Turnout and Political Participation in Texas Learning Objective By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the factors that affect voter turnout and political participation in Texas Introduction This section discusses the factors influencing voter turnout and political participation in Texas. Does Turnout Matter? Houston doesn’t charge a fee for single-family home trash pickup. While most cities charge a monthly fee – usually added to the homeowner’s water bill – Houston simply used general fund tax revenue to pay for trash service provided only to single-family homes. Apartment residents help pay for this service, although they don’t receive it. They then pay again through their rent to have their own trash picked up by a private company. How can this be? Before municipal elections in Houston, savvy candidates purchase walk lists from the Harris County Clerk’s office. A walk list is a list of street addresses at which at least one registered voter lives. When going door-to-door meeting voters and asking for support, a smart candidate will skip over houses where nobody is registered to vote. In time, candidates will realize that in a typical 100-house neighborhood, around 50 houses will probably contain at least one registered voter. How many registered voter households will that candidate find in a 100-unit apartment property? Probably fewer than ten. Homeowners, with more roots in the community, are far more likely to register and vote than renters. Most candidates simply skip apartment properties – many of which are gated anyway – to concentrate on the more voter-rich single-family neighborhoods. If a candidate gets elected, and is later sitting at a council meeting thinking about the wants and needs of his or her constituents, who do you think that council member is envisioning? Wouldn’t a policy to take money from a group of mostly non-voters to subsidize a service for a group that is highly likely to vote to make good political sense? Voter Turnout in Texas After years of elections in which Democrats nominated largely unknown, underfunded candidates for many statewide offices, Republican Senator Ted Cruz was opposed in 2018 by El Paso Congressman Beto O’Rourke, an energetic campaigner and prolific fundraiser who raised over $70 million to Senator Cruz’ $33 million. Driven by the success of the “Beto” campaign and controversy generated by President Donald Trump, Democrats registered significant numbers of new voters, and saw an increased turnout of Democrat voters, especially in large cities. Overall, voter turnout among the voter-eligible population increased from 28.3% in the 2014 midterm election to 46.3% - the sixth-highest turnout increase in the United States, and higher than the turnout increase nationwide. Still, Texas turnout was below the national average – 44th out of 51 states (plus the District of Columbia). What affects voter turnout, and why don’t more Texans vote? \| Interested in mobilizing voters? Explore Rock the Vote and The Voter Participation Center for more information. \| Factors Affecting Voter Turnout Political scientists pay tremendous attention to voter turnout – examining all the factors that predict who will and won’t show up to vote in an election. Voter Eligibility First, it is important to remember that not everybody is legally able to vote. Citizens of other countries – whether in the United States legally or illegally cannot vote in American elections. Children under the age of 18 cannot vote. Texans younger than 18 make up more than a fourth of the state’s population. Removing those who can’t vote from the total population leaves what political scientists call the voting-eligible population (VEP). The VEP includes citizens eighteen and older who, whether they have registered or not, are eligible to vote because they are citizens, mentally competent, and not imprisoned. Voter Beliefs and Attitudes There are as many reasons not to vote as there are non-voters, but some factors seem to stand out. Many don’t vote because they don’t see any benefit – lacking political efficacy, or the feeling that they have any influence over the direction of their government. Some don’t vote because they see little difference between the parties or the candidates. Many voters are unlikely to vote in elections they see as not being competitive – a common situation in Texas where general elections were dominated by the Democratic Party for more than a century after the Civil War, and by the Republican Party since the 1990s. Many political scientists look at political socialization - the process by which we initially acquire our political ideals and behaviors, and which have a strong influence on our voting behavior throughout our lives. Demographic and Socioeconomic Factors Besides homeownership, many other factors are associated with difference in turnout. Older people are more likely to vote than younger people. Native Texans are more likely to vote then immigrants. Lower English proficiency is strongly correlated with low voter turnout. Texas, a state that skews young and Hispanic, has those factors working against high voter participation. Voter ID Requirements in Texas Low turnout also occurs when some citizens are not allowed to vote. One method of limiting voter access is the requirement to show identification at polling places. In 2011, Texas passed a strict photo identification law for voters, allowing concealed-handgun permits as identification but not student identification. The Texas law was blocked by the Obama administration before it could be implemented because Texas was on the Voting Rights Act’s preclearance list. Other states, such as Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Georgia, and Virginia similarly had laws and districting changes blocked. Proponents of voter ID requirements in Texas see increasing requirements for identification as a way to prevent in-person voter impersonation and increase public confidence in the election process. Opponents say there is little fraud of this kind, and the burden on voters, especially specific voter demographics, restricts the right to vote and imposes unnecessary costs and administrative burdens on elections administrators. Increasing Turnout In 2015, Oregon made news when it took the concept of Motor Voter further. When citizens turn eighteen, the state now automatically registers most of them using driver’s license and state identification information. When a citizen moves, the voter rolls are updated when the license is updated. While this policy has been controversial, with some arguing that private information may become public or that Oregon is moving toward mandatory voting, automatic registration is consistent with the state’s efforts to increase registration and turnout. Oregon’s example offers a possible solution to a recurring problem for states—maintaining accurate voter registration rolls. During the 2000 election, in which George W. Bush won Florida’s electoral votes by a slim majority, attention turned to the state’s election procedures and voter registration rolls. Journalists found that many states, including Florida, had large numbers of phantom voters on their rolls, voters had moved or died but remained on the states’ voter registration rolls. The Help America Vote Act of 2002 (HAVA) was passed in order to reform voting across the states and reduce these problems. As part of the Act, states were required to update voting equipment, make voting more accessible to the disabled, and maintain computerized voter rolls that could be updated regularly. Over a decade later, there has been some progress. In Louisiana, voters are placed on ineligible lists if a voting registrar is notified that they have moved or become ineligible to vote. If the voter remains on this list for two general elections, his or her registration is cancelled. In Oklahoma, the registrar receives a list of deceased residents from the Department of Health. Twenty-nine states now participate in the Interstate Voter Registration Crosscheck Program, which allows states to check for duplicate registrations. What are some ways that Texas could increase voter turnout?Some feel Texas could make voting more convenient. Some states allow instant registration in person or online, no-excuses absentee balloting and mail-in balloting. Texas does have absentee voting (where an individual does not need to be physically present at the poll to cast their ballot), and early voting (17 days before and 4 days until the regular election). At the national level, some attempts have been made to streamline voter registration. The National Voter Registration Act (1993), often referred to as Motor Voter, was enacted to expedite the registration process and make it as simple as possible for voters. The act required states to allow citizens to register to vote when they sign up for driver’s licenses and Social Security benefits. On each government form, the citizen need only mark an additional box to also register to vote. Unfortunately, while increasing registrations by 7 percent between 1992 and 2012, Motor Voter did not dramatically increase voter turnout. In fact, for two years following the passage of the act, voter turnout decreased slightly. It appears that the main users of the expedited system were those already intending to vote. One study, however, found that preregistration may have a different effect on youth than on the overall voter pool; in Florida, it increased turnout of young voters by 13 percent. Most major elections in Texas are held on Tuesday. Employers in Texas are required to provide two paid hours off from work for employees to vote, but some suggest that making election day a national holiday or simply holding more elections on weekends could increase turnout. Better outreach to citizens with limited English proficiency has seen promising results in some states. Australia has compulsory voting – like jury duty. The failure to vote can result in a ticket and a small fine. Some have even suggested paying people to vote – a recognition of the value of voting and the time voters must invest. Studies show that voters simply make better citizens. Voting is associated with stronger social ties, better health outcomes, lower recidivism – even better mental health. Also, the government simply makes better decisions when more citizens participate. Every four years, the Get Out the Vote campaign invites graphic designers to make posters that rally US voters to go to the polls. Here are 14 posters that rock the vote, via Ideas.TED.com \| Licenses and Attributions CC LICENSED MATERIAL, ORIGINAL Authored by: Andrew Teas. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.298912	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66303/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, Voting and Political Participation in Texas, Voter Turnout and Political Participation in Texas", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76998/overview	Education Standards Explora Primary Gale in Context: Kids InfoBits Kiddle.co KidRex National Geographic Kids Procedural Writing Brainstorm List and Resources Procedural Writing Template Whole Class Procedural Writing Brainstorm Lists Procedural Writing Overview Students will complete a procedural writing project researching a topic of their choice. The students will use GSuite Tools to access and complete their drafts. The students will present their final procedural writing draft by creating an infographic in Canva displaying their work through text and images. Day 1: Information about the four read alouds: Plant, Cook, Eat! by Joe Archer and Caroline Craig--shows expository procedural writing with step by step directions on how to plant a vegetable followed by a recipe using that vegetable. Read pages 6-11, 14-15, and then skim over the rest of book. Mossby’s Magic Carpet Handbook by Ilona Bray--shows a narrative procedural writing example. Read the inside cover, page 1, and skim over the rest of book. How to Make Friends with a Ghost by Rebecca Green--shows a narrative procedural writing. Read the book in its entirety. How to Be a Scientist by Steve Mould--shows procedural writing as a scientific process. Read pages 4-7 and then show the various topics in the Table of Contents. We follow procedures every day whether we realize it or not. We go about our days in step by step ways and routines. In this lesson, we are going to research and share a procedure through writing. What are some procedures or routines that you do each day? Discuss with your table partners. Brainstorm a list of procedures and/or routines that the class does each day from the student discussions. Write the list on the included Whole Class Procedural Writing Brainstorm Lists template under Procedures from Initial Class Discussions. To help us get started, we are going to read and skim four books that show examples of procedural writing: Plant, Cook, Eat! by Joe Archer and Caroline Craig Mossby's Magic Carpet Handbook by Ilona Bray How to Make Friends with a Ghost by Rebecca Green How to Be a Scientist by Steve Mould After reading the books, you are probably thinking of even more procedures of which you could possibly write. Discuss with your table partners the new ideas you have. Have the students share the new ideas they brainstormed and record them on the Whole Class Procedural Writing Brainstorm Lists template under Procedures after Read Alouds. Day 2: We discussed procedures that we do every day, brainstormed lists of procedures, and examined four books that show procedures. Today, you are going to brainstorm your own lists of procedure topics that you feel you could share with others. We will make our lists and then use the databases Explora Primary, Gale In Context: Elementary (Kids InfoBits), and National Geographic Kids, and the search engines Kiddle.co and KidRex to help us find reputable resources to reinforce our procedural writing. You will use the Procedural Writing Brainstorm List and Resources Google Doc to help you organize your thoughts. One topic goes in each space with the resources listed in the cells to the right. Day 3: You brainstormed your list of procedural writing topics and listed resources. Today you are going to decide which topic you would like to pursue and begin writing your first draft of your procedural writing using your resources. When writing your procedural writing, it is important that we use sequencing words such as first, next, then, and last to help show the order of the procedure. You will use the Procedural Writing Template to help you organize your writing. Remember to list your resources at the end of your organizer. Day 4: You are going to take your Procedural Writing Template and share it with your table partners. They are going to peer edit your work by adding comments to your work. Day 5: You are going to take your edited Procedural Writing Template and input your ideas into Canva. You will choose an Education Infographic template. You will then edit the template to fit your procedural writing topic and add graphics to illustrate each procedure step. You will be able to copy and paste your writing from your Procedural Writing Template into your Canva Infographic.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.334770	Lesson Plan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76998/overview", "title": "Procedural Writing", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87909/overview	Mercantilism, Capitalism, and Adam Smith Overview Mercantilism, Capitalism, and Adam Smith This Scottish philosopher applied the principles of the Scientific Revolution to the study of economic activity at a time when the Market Revolution was transforming European society. Learning Objectives - Discuss Adam Smith and the principles of capitalism. - Compare and contrast mercantilism and capitalism. Key Terms / Key Concepts science of man: a topic in David Hume’s 18th century experimental philosophy A Treatise of Human Nature (1739), which expanded the understanding of facets of human nature, including senses, impressions, ideas, imagination, passions, morality, justice, and society Joint stock company: a corporation organized by merchant capitalists who pooled their financial resources (their capital) with other capitalists and decreased their personal liability (Each merchant-capitalist owned a share or stock in these companies.) Laissez-faire: an economic concept advocated by Adam Smith in Wealth of Nations (1776), which maintained that governments should not interfere in the economy and the law of supply and demand, but should instead adopt a “hands-off” (laissez-faire) approach to the economy The Market Revolution and Adam Smith When Adam Smith published Wealth of Nations in 1776, Smith's homeland, Scotland and much of the world was experiencing rapid change due to the Market Revolution. Since the period when the first complex cultures arose in ancient Mesopotamia around 4000 BCE, roughly 90% of the population in complex cultures had worked as farmers and lived in the countryside. The Market Revolution effectively transformed how people earned a living and where they lived. Due to this revolution, the percentage of people in such societies engaged in agriculture declined over a relatively brief period, while the percentage of people employed in trade and industry and living in towns and cities dramatically increased. This revolution began in Western Europe in the mid-18th century and over the next century spread across the Atlantic to North America. By 1900 in the United States, the largest economy in the world by this point, just over 50% of the population lived in cities and worked in trade and industry. This revolution resulted from the tremendous growth of markets and capitalism in the 18th century, but this forward momentum had initially begun with the development of new trade networks due to the Age of Discovery. Causes of the Market Revolution The Market Revolution that began in the mid-18th century had its origins in a population growth surge during that century, which resulted in a huge demand for goods and services. The development of trade networks and an expanding money economy in previous centuries due to the Age of Discovery made it possible for merchant capitalists to supply this ever-rising demand for goods. The Scientific Revolution provided a means for these suppliers to create and apply new technology to produce and transport these goods. Finally, beginning in the 18th century, the burning of a "fossil fuel"—coal—provided an abundant source of energy to fuel all this new technology. The population increase in the 18th century coincided with the end of the Little Ice Age. Rising global temperatures in this century led to longer growing seasons and larger food harvests, which in turn resulted in a general population that was better nourished and least likely to fall victim to epidemic diseases. Increases in food production also improved the nutritional levels of children, who were, consequently, more likely to survive childhood and reach adulthood. Nutritional levels in this century were also higher across Europe due to the introduction of the New World crops: maize and potatoes. Potatoes are rich in nutrients and require less land than wheat to grow the same amount of food. In Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries potatoes quickly became a staple in the diet of the working classes. In rural Western Europe and Ireland in particular, the introduction of potatoes actually lowered the marriage age from the mid to late 20s to the late teens and early 20s. A young couple could marry at a younger age since, with the potatoes, they didn't need as much land to raise enough food to support themselves and their children. The lowering of the age of marriage increased the childbearing years for women and, thereby, further increased the rate of population growth. The population increases of the 18th century stimulated the demand for goods. By this time a flourishing market economy was already in place to meet this demand. The Age of Discovery resulted in the development of new trade routes because the upper classes in Europe desired exotic luxury goods. People raised their social status by purchasing and consuming this type of good. To meet this demand, merchants traveled to distant lands to acquire these goods, which included tea, coffee, sugar, tobacco, spices, and cocoa, silk, and porcelain. Since travel to such places as China, India, and the New World was expensive, as well as dangerous and risky, merchant capitalists pooled their financial resources (their capital) with other capitalists and decreased their personal liability by forming joint stock companies. Each merchant-capitalist owned a share or stock in these companies. The largest of these companies—the English East India Company and the Dutch East India Company—monopolized trade with India and the East Indies (modern Indonesia). Joint stock companies also financed the foundation of new colonies, such as the Virginia Company that founded Jamestown in 1607 in Virginia—the first successful English colony in the New World. Colonies in the New World also produced luxury goods for European markets. Portuguese Brazil and French Haiti produced sugar, while the English colony of Virginia raised tobacco for customers in Europe. In these New World colonies, imported African slaves labored on sugar and tobacco plantations to raise these cash crops. The high demand for African slaves to work on these plantations was a key factor in the development of trade across the Atlantic Ocean in a commercial system known as the Triangle Trade, which involved the colonies in the New World, as well as Europe and Africa. By the 18th century, American merchants from the northern English colonies, such as New York and Massachusetts, were also involved in this trade network. These merchants traveled to the sugar plantations on the Caribbean Islands and exchanged corn, wheat, and timber for sugar, which they then transported across the Atlantic, often in the form of rum, and sold in England in exchange for manufactured goods. American merchants sold these manufactured wares to the colonists back home or traveled to Africa to exchange these goods for slaves to sell in the colonies. Beginning in the 16th century, the influx of gold and silver into Europe from the Mexico and Peru provided the precious metals for use as currency to facilitate these increases in commercial transactions. By the end of the 17th century, however, there were shortages of these precious metals due to enormous demand. In 1690 in the American colony of Massachusetts, the local government resolved this problem by chartering a bank that had the authority to print paper money. In the American colonies the shortage of metallic currency was severe, so the bank backed up its printed currency (a bill of credit) with the monetary value of their investors’ land. Consumers could use these bills of credit issued by the bank as cash (legal tender) in commercial transactions. In 1694 the English government chartered the Bank of England, which had the authority to issue paper currency (banknotes), that were backed by their investors. In the 18th century, the great success of this bank allowed the British government to borrow huge sums from this bank to cover the cost of the Seven Years War. The expansion of trade and the money supply through the 18th century generated tremendous profits, which were used to invest in new technology for the manufacture and transport of goods, as demand for goods continued to grow. The joint stock companies provided a means for investors to pool their resources for these new investments. The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment not only stirred up enthusiasm for new scientific discoveries, but also interest in new technology and industrial processes that could raise people's standards of living and promote "progress." Benjamin Franklin, for example, not only conducted scientific experiments regarding electricity, but he also was a famous inventor of the wood burning "Franklin" stove and bifocals. The scientific method could also serve as a means to invent and test new technology. Capitalist entrepreneurs and inventors employed the scientific method to find new ways to improve agricultural productivity or improve the efficiency of an industrial operation. For example, Englishman Josiah Wedgewood (1730 – 1795) was constantly looking to improve the designs of his pottery and improve the efficiency of production. He had each of his workers specialize in just one aspect of the pottery production process, so that the finished product was the collaborative work of all the workers. Wedgewood was both an innovator and successful businessman. His personal fortune upon his death was just over $264 million in today's currency. The 18th century also witnessed the growth of the coal industry. The development of the steam engine provided a way to transform the burning of coal into energy that could power new technology. In the 18th century in England population growth created a huge demand for wood to burn for heat and for cooking, but the forests of England could not provide enough wood to meet this demand. Consequently, people turned to burning coal for heat and for cooking. However, miners had to remove coal from the ground in mines, and miners constantly found their way blocked by groundwater. In 1712 an English hardware salesman, Thomas Newcomen (1664 – 1729), set up the first primitive steam engine to pump water out of a mine. A Scottish inventor, James Watt (1736 – 1819) worked to improve upon this steam engine and make it work more efficiently. Watt's labors paid off with his invention of a new and improved steam engine by 1769. Industrialists quickly discovered that they could use Watt's steam engine to power their machines and improve production. Due to this steam engine, industrialists didn't have to depend on unreliable streams or rivers or wind to power watermills and windmills for their factories. Instead, they could set up their manufacturing business anywhere they desired and employ the steam engine to power their factories. The Enlightenment and the Social Sciences Enlightenment thinkers of the 19th century used their analytical skills to examine their societies as these rapid changes took place. David Hume (1711 – 1776) and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a science of man that was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in prehistoric and ancient cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Against philosophical rationalists, Hume held that passion rather than reason governs human behavior and argued against the existence of innate ideas, positing that all human knowledge is ultimately founded solely in experience. According to Hume, genuine knowledge must either be directly traceable to objects perceived in experience or result from abstract reasoning about relations between ideas derived from experience. Modern sociology largely originated from this “science of man” movement. One of the most influential thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment was Adam Smith (1723 – 1790). He published The Wealth of Nations in 1776, which is often considered the first work on modern economics. It had an immediate impact on economic policy that continues into the 21st century. The book was directly preceded and influenced by Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot and Baron de Laune’s drafts of Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth (Paris, 1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness to this work and may have been its original English translator. Adam Smith Adam Smith employed empirical observation to the study of economics, which concerns knowledge related to the production and distribution of wealth. Just as Isaac Newton identified certain laws that govern the operation of the physical world, Smith recognized laws that also govern human activity, such as the exchange of goods. According to Smith, the prices for goods that are involved in commercial exchanges should be determined by the law of supply and demand. High demand for a good and low supply results in a higher price for that good, while low demand and high supply results in a lower price. According to Smith, when the law of supply and demand freely operates in a market economy, the generation of ever greater levels of wealth occurs, a process that he referred to as the “invisible hand.” Smith was strongly opposed to the policies of mercantilism that were practiced by European states in his day. Governments through these policies were using the coercive power of the state to set prices artificially by not allowing the law of supply and demand to operate freely, as it should in a market economy. For example, these governments placed high custom duties on certain imported goods, which inflated the price of these goods for consumers. These consumers would thus purchase goods that were produced locally that were cheaper rather than the more expensive goods imported from abroad. The goal of mercantilism was for the state to accumulate precious metals, and the purchase of imported goods drew these precious metals away from the state. Smith also objected to the government practice of granting trading monopolies to companies, such as the monopoly enjoyed by the English East India Company. Smith also opposed the granting of monopolies to certain guilds for control of trade or manufacturing of goods. Such monopolies, according to Smith, enabled these entities to set prices for goods in violation of the law of supply and demand, since they artificially controlled supply due to the government mandate. Smith maintained that governments should not interfere in this manner with the law of supply and demand. They should instead adopt a “hands-off” (laissez-faire) approach to the economy. Consequently, the “invisible hand” of the free market would allow for the expansion of wealth as people were free to purchase and sell private property at prices set by the law of supply and demand. In the centuries after Smith published the Wealth of Nations, capitalists have embraced Smith’s advocacy for free markets and laissez-faire government policies. In the 19th and 20th centuries, for example, proponents of Smith’s “Classical Economics” maintained that the formation of trade unions and a government set minimum wage interfered with free markets and were a threat to economic progress. Attributions Title Image https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AdamSmith.jpg Adam Smith - Etching created by Cadell and Davies (1811), John Horsburgh (1828) or R.C. Bell (1872)., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons Adapted from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-age-of-enlightenment/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.357074	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87909/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Period of Revolution 1650-1871 CE, Chapter 7: Enlightenment, Mercantilism, Capitalism, and Adam Smith", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87929/overview	New Imperialism of the late 19th-early 20th century Overview New Imperialism, New Colonization Imperialism is an ancient concept, and it can take on many different forms. Countries that are imperialist expand their power by physically expanding their territory, and by extending their political, social, and cultural practices and beliefs into the territory they acquire. Learning Objectives - Examine the similarities and differences between European imperialism in the 16th century, and in the 19th century. Key Terms / Key Concepts imperialism: practice of claiming territory and then spreading the parent country’s beliefs and culture into the territory Fin de siècle: French term for “turn of the century” that often invokes a sense of stagnation metropole: the parent country in colonization New Imperialism: late 19th century form of European imperialism civilizing mission: crude term used by New Imperialists that claimed to colonize in order to bring “civilization” to poor, suffering, and backward populations. European Imperialism: Background In the 15th-16th centuries, the first wave of European imperialism exploded due to technological innovations and Renaissance ideals. Rivaling European nations sought ways to assert their authority over their neighbors, and their power on the world stage. For these reasons, voyages bound for the Far East began from across Western Europe, particularly Spain and Portugal. They sought increased trade in luxury goods, particularly spices, rugs, and gems from China and India. Christopher Columbus’ voyage to the Caribbean would set in motion a chain of events that would galvanize European imperialism. His “discovery” of the New World prompted Spain and Portugal, and later France and England, to journey to the Americas. The goal was not only to procure wealth from these unknown regions, but also to assert their power on the world stage through colonization. During the first wave of European imperialism, Spain colonized most of Central and South America, as well as Florida and much of the present-day American southwest. Portugal claimed Brazil, while New France was established in much of Canada and the American Midwest. England’s success, by comparison at the time, was much smaller in North America. However, it would not be long before England’s eyes turned to colonization in parts of the Pacific and Africa. To secure these colonies, Europeans relied not on trade, by military technology and combat. As historian Jared Diamond famously quipped, colonization (particularly of the New World) was achieved through “guns, germs, and steel.” New Imperialism in the 19th Century A peculiar mood set across Western Europe in the mid-late 1800s. This mood was of two natures: one that focused on industrialization and increased production, and one that worried that countries had progressed as far as they could. The Napoleonic Wars had ended at the start of the century, and Europe had seen relative peace and stability. Societies had progressed and developed. But by the l860s and 1870s, there was a feeling that societies had developed as much as they could. As a result, many nations felt a sense of stagnation during the latter half of the 1800s. Some Europeans, undoubtedly, wondered if their countries would regress, having reached what they perceived as the zenith of their success. These thoughts are characterized as part of the Fin de siècle of the 19th century. Across Western Europe, there was a sense that countries must develop and progress or lose their place in the sun. While some Europeans believed they had developed as far as possible, others focused on the very pragmatic needs of industrialization. Across Western Europe, industrialization soared. Industrial output surged and brought wealth to Europe. But because of mass industrialization, European natural resources rapidly diminished. Forests, mineral resources, and coal deposits were depleted. Realization of this fact further exacerbated the worry that, perhaps, European countries had reached the top of their development. In 1871, a newly-united country emerged in Europe: Germany. An industrial and intellectual powerhouse, Germany threatened to become the most prosperous country in Western Europe. England responded to this potential threat by tapping into their colonial resources. By the 1880s, each of the Western European nations had begun a mad campaign to expand their territorial possessions abroad. This “scramble” to acquire colonies took place for two reasons: to secure natural resources, and to demonstrate a country’s power on the world stage. As this wave of new imperialism began in the 1870s-1880s, rivalry between European nations surged, as too did nationalism. For the parent country, called a metropole, the purpose of colonies was to make money. Simultaneously, colonization had the secondary purpose of encouraging nationalism. European heads of state struggled with a central question: how could they sell colonization to their publics? Their solution was the concept of civilizing missions. European governments espoused the argument that Africa, and much of Asia and the Pacific were backward, uncivilized, tribal areas. Colonization of such regions, it was claimed, would bring industry, culture, and Christianity to these impoverished and suffering people. The idea of Europeans colonizing through civilizing missions became a core component of New Imperialism. In popular European rhetoric, the Europeans would act as the light of the world and end suffering for millions. Impact The tragic reality of new imperialism is that it produced innumerable, horrible consequences for the world. Nearly all of Africa was colonized. Large portions of Southeast Asia and the Pacific were similarly carved up among European nations, also. Resistance to European colonization was suppressed by far superior European military technology such as breech-loading rifles, heavy artillery, and machine guns. The idea of civilizing missions proved no more than a thin effort to raise support for colonization at home. New Imperialism would uproot and destroy communities around the world, and also establish one of the underlying, but root causes of World War I. Primary Source: Platform of the American Anti-Imperialist League 1899 The American Anti-Imperialist League was founded in 1899, after the United States occupied Cuba and Puerto Rico and the Philippine Islands. The Filipinos revolted against American rule in February 1899, and were suppressed in 1902 after a bloody, ruthless guerrilla war. Most Americans supported overseas expansion, but many of the nation's most illustrious citizens were appa11ed by American imperialism. In 1899, they founded the American AntiImperialist League in order to campaign, unsuccessfully as it turned out, against the annexation of the Philippines. Platform of the American Antilmperialist League (1899) We hold that the policy known as imperialism is hostile to liberty and tends toward militarism, an evil from which it has been our glory to be free. We regret that it has become necessary in the land of Washington and Lincoln to reaffirm that all men, of whatever race or color, are entitled to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. We maintain that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed. We insist that the subjugation of any people is "criminal aggression" and open disloyalty to the distinctive principles of our Government. We earnestly condemn the policy of the present National Administration in the Philippines. It seeks to extinguish the spirit of 1776 in those islands. We deplore the sacrifice of our soldiers and sailors, whose bravery deserves admiration even in an unjust war. We denounce the slaughter of the Filipinos as a needless horror. We protest against the extension of American sovereignty by Spanish methods. We demand the immediate cessation of the war against liberty, begun by Spain and continued by us. We urge that Congress be promptly convened to announce to the Filipinos our purpose to concede to them the independence for which they have so long fought and which of right is theirs. The United States have always protested against the doctrine of international law which permits the subjugation of the weak by the strong. A self-goveming state cannot accept sovereignty over an unwilling people. The United States cannot act upon the ancient heresy that might makes right. Imperialists assume that with the destruction of self-government in the Philippines by American hands, all opposition here will cease. This is a grievous error. Much as we abhor the war of "criminal aggression" in the Philippines, greatly as we regret that the blood of the Filipinos is on American hands, we more deeply resent the betrayal of American institutions at home. The real firing line is not in the suburbs of Manila. The foe is of our own household. The attempt of 1861 was to divide the country. That of 1899 is to destroy its fundamental principles and noblest ideals. Whether the ruthless slaughter of the Filipinos shall end next month or next year is but an incident in a contest that must go on until the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States are rescued from the hands of their betrayers. Those who dispute about standards of value while the foundation of the Republic is undermined will be listened to as little as those who would wrangle about the small economies of the household while the house is on fire. The training of a great people for a century, the aspiration for liberty of a vast immigration are forces that will hurl aside those who in the delirium of conquest seek to destroy the character of our institutions. We deny that the obligation of all citizens to support their Government in times of grave National peril applies to the present situation. If an Administration may with impunity ignore the issues upon which it was chosen, deliberately create a condition of war anywhere on the face of the globe, debauch the civil service for spoils to promote the adventure, organize a truthsuppressing censorship and demand of all citizens a suspension of judgment and their unanimous support while it chooses to continue the fighting, representative government itself is imperiled. We propose to contribute to the defeat of any person or party that stands for the forcible subjugation of any people . We shall oppose for reelection all who in the White House or in Congress betray American liberty in pursuit of un-American ends. We still hope that both of our great political parties will support and defend the Declaration of Independence in the closing campaign of the century. We hold, with Abraham Lincoln, that "no man is good enough to govern another man without that other's consent. When the white man governs himself, that is self-government, but when he governs himself and also governs another man, that is more than self-government-that is despotism." "Our reliance is in the love of liberty which God has planted in us. Our defense is in the spirit which prizes liberty as the heritage of all men in all lands. Those who deny freedom to others deserve it not for themselves, and under a just God cannot long retain it." We cordially invite the cooperation of all men and women who remain loyal to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States. From Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham University "Platform of the American Antilmperialist League," in Speeches, Correspondence, ard Political Papers of Carl Schurz, vol. 6, ed. Frederick Bancroft (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1913), p. 77, note 1. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.385701	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87929/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE, Chapter 10: Enlightenment and Colonization, New Imperialism of the late 19th-early 20th century", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87920/overview	Latin American Independence Overview Latin American Independence Movements By the late 18th century, the Spanish and Portuguese empires began to have many issues. The Napoleonic Wars in Europe had a direct impact on the Latin American Independence movements, because the removal of the Spanish and Portuguese kings demonstrated to the colonies that they could rule themselves. The three regions of Latin American independence were: Mexico, Spanish South America, and Brazil. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the cause of the independence movements in Latin America. - Evaluate the impact of Napoleonic Wars on the Latin American experience. Key Terms / Key Concepts - Libertadores: Refers to the principal leaders of the Latin American wars of independence from Spain and Portugal. They are named in contrast with the Conquistadors, who were so far the only Spanish/Portuguese peoples recorded in the South American history. They were largely bourgeois criollos (local-born people of European, mostly of Spanish or Portuguese, ancestry) influenced by liberalism and in most cases with military training in the metropole (mother country). - Napoleonic wars: A series of major conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, primarily led and financed by the United Kingdom. The wars resulted from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and the Revolutionary Wars, which raged for years before concluding with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. The resumption of hostilities the following year paved the way for more than a decade of constant warfare. These wars had profound consequences for global and European history, leading to the spread of nationalism and liberalism, the rise of the British Empire as the world’s premier power, the independence movements in Latin America and the collapse of the Spanish Empire, the fundamental reorganization of German and Italian territories into larger states, and the establishment of radically new methods in warfare. - Peninsular War: A military conflict between Napoleon’s empire and the allied powers of Spain, Britain, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807, and escalated in 1808 when France turned on Spain, its previous ally. The war on the peninsula lasted until the Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814, and is regarded as one of the first wars of national liberation, significant for the emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare. - Creole: A social class in the hierarchy of the overseas colonies established by Spain in the 16th century, especially in Hispanic America, comprising the locally born people of confirmed European (primarily Spanish) ancestry. Although they were legally Spaniards, in practice, they ranked below the Iberian-born Peninsulares. Nevertheless, they had preeminence over all the other populations: Amerindians, enslaved Africans, and people of mixed descent. - caudillismo: A cultural and political phenomenon first appearing during the early 19th century in revolutionary Spanish America, characterized by a military land owners who possessed political power, charismatic personalities, and populist politics and created authoritarian regimes in Latin American nations. Napoleonic War’s Impact on Latin America The Latin American Wars of Independence were the revolutions that took place during the late 18th and early 19th centuries and resulted in the creation of a number of independent countries in Latin America. These revolutions followed the American and French Revolutions, which had profound effects on the Spanish, Portuguese, and French colonies in the Americas. Haiti, a French slave colony, was the first to follow the United States to independence during the Haitian Revolution, which lasted from 1791 to 1804. From this Napoleon Bonaparte emerged as French ruler, whose armies set out to conquer Europe, including Spain and Portugal, in 1808. The Peninsular War, which resulted from the Napoleonic occupation of Spain, caused Spanish Creoles in Spanish America to question their allegiance to Spain, stoking independence movements that culminated in the wars of independence, lasting almost two decades. The crisis of political legitimacy in Spain with the Napoleonic invasion sparked reaction in Spain’s overseas empire. The outcome in Spanish America was that most of the region achieved political independence and instigated the creation of sovereign nations. The areas that were most recently formed as viceroyalties were the first to achieve independence, while the old centers of Spanish power in Mexico and Peru with strong and entrenched institutions and the elites were the last to achieve independence. The two exceptions were the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico, which along with the Philippines remained Spanish colonies until the 1898 Spanish-America War. At the same time, the Portuguese monarchy relocated to Brazil during Portugal’s French occupation. After the royal court returned to Lisbon, the prince regent, Pedro, remained in Brazil and in 1822 successfully declared himself emperor of a newly independent Brazil. During the Peninsula War, Napoleon installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish Throne and captured King Fernando VII. Both Spain and Portugual were in Napoleon’s control. This meant that many who were loyal to the Spanish king felt that they could not trust Napoleon’s brother. The result was local governments having more political power and stability. Several assemblies were established after 1810 by the Criollos to recover the sovereignty and self-government based in Seven-Part Code and restore the laws of Castilian succession to rule the lands in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain. This experience of self-government, along with the influence of Liberalism and the ideas of the French and American Revolutions, brought about a struggle for independence led by the Libertadores. The territories freed themselves, often with help from foreign mercenaries and privateers. United States, Europe and the British Empire were neutral, aiming to achieve political influence and trade without the Spanish monopoly. Effect on Spanish America This impasse was resolved through negotiations between the juntas and the Council of Castile, which led to the creation of a “Supreme Central and Governmental Junta of Spain and the Indies” on September 25, 1808. It was agreed that the traditional kingdoms of the peninsula would send two representatives to this Central Junta, and that the overseas kingdoms would send one representative each. These “kingdoms” were defined as “the viceroyalties of New Spain [Mexico], Peru, New Granada, and Buenos Aires, and the independent captaincies general of the island of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guatemala, Chile, Province of Venezuela, and the Philippines.” This scheme was criticized for providing unequal representation to the overseas territories. The dissolution of the Supreme Junta on January 29, 1810, because of the reverses suffered after the Battle of Ocaña by the Spanish forces paid with Spanish American money set off another wave of juntas in the Americas. French forces had taken over southern Spain and forced the Supreme Junta to seek refuge in the island-city of Cadiz. The Junta replaced itself with a smaller, five-man council, the Council of Regency of Spain and the Indies. Most Spanish Americans saw no reason to recognize a rump government that was under the threat of capture by the French at any moment, and began to work for the creation of local juntas to preserve the region’s independence from the French. Junta movements were successful in New Granada (Colombia), Venezuela, Chile, and Río de la Plata (Argentina). The creation of juntas in Spanish America, such as the Junta Suprema de Caracas on April 19, 1810, set the stage for the fighting that would afflict the region for the next decade and a half. Political fault lines appeared and often caused military conflict. Although the juntas claimed to carry out their actions in the name of the deposed king, Ferdinand VII, their creation provided an opportunity for people who favored outright independence to publicly and safely promote their agenda. The proponents of independence called themselves patriots, a term which eventually was generally applied to them. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 adopted by the Cortes de Cadiz served as the basis for independence in New Spain (Mexico) and Central America, since in both regions it was a coalition of conservative and liberal royalist leaders who led the establishment of new states. The restoration of the Spanish Constitution and representative government was enthusiastically welcomed in New Spain and Central America. Elections were held, local governments formed, and deputies sent to the Cortes. Among liberals, however, there was fear that the new regime would not last, and conservatives and the Church worried that the new liberal government would expand its reforms and anti-clerical legislation. This climate of instability created the conditions for the two sides to forge an alliance. This coalesced towards the end of 1820 behind Agustín de Iturbide, a colonel in the royal army, who at the time was assigned to destroy the guerrilla forces led by Vicente Guerrero. In January 1821, Iturbide began peace negotiations with Guerrero, suggesting they unite to establish an independent New Spain. The simple terms that Iturbide proposed became the basis of the Plan of Iguala: the independence of New Spain (now called the Mexican Empire) with Ferdinand VII or another Bourbon as emperor; the retention of the Catholic Church as the official state religion and the protection of its existing privileges; and the equality of all New Spaniards, whether immigrants or native-born. The resulting Treaty of Córdoba, signed on August 24, kept all existing laws, including the 1812 Constitution, in force until a new constitution for Mexico was written. O’Donojú became part of the provisional governing junta until his death on October 8. [d]Both the Spanish Cortes and Ferdinand VII rejected the Treaty of Córdoba, and the final break with the mother country came on May 19, 1822, when the Mexican Congress conferred the throne on Itrubide. New Spain As a colony, Mexico was part of the much larger Viceroyalty of New Spain, which included Cuba, Puerto Rico, Central America as far south as Costa Rica, the southwestern United States as well as Florida, and the Philippines. Although New Spain was a dependency of Spain, it was a kingdom not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula. The monarch had sweeping power in the overseas territories. According to historian Clarence Haring: “The king possessed not only the sovereign right but the property rights; he was the absolute proprietor, the sole political head of his American dominions. Every privilege and position, economic political, or religious came from him. It was on this basis that the conquest, occupation, and government of the [Spanish] New World was achieved.” Racial Divides The population of New Spain was divided into four main groups or classes. The group a person belonged to was determined by racial background and birthplace. Created by Hispanic elites, this hierarchical system of race classification (sistema de castas), was based on the principle that people varied due to their birth, color, race and origin of ethnic types. The system of castas was more than socio-racial classification. It had an effect on every aspect of life, including economics and taxation. Both the Spanish colonial state and the Church required more tax and tribute payments from those of lower socio-racial categories. Related to Spanish ideas about purity of blood (which historically also related to its reconquest of Spain from the Moors), the colonists established a caste system in Latin America by which a person’s socio-economic status generally correlated with race or racial mix in the known family background, or simply on phenotype (physical appearance) if the family background was unknown. The casta records were kept by the Catholic Church and would remain one of the major divisions with in Latin American culture throughout the colonial and independence eras. The syncretism between indigenous and Spanish cultures gave rise to many of nowadays Mexican staple and world-famous cultural traits like tequila (since the 16th century), mariachi (18th), jarabe (17th), churros (17th) and the highly prized Mexican cuisine, fruit of the mixture of European and indigenous ingredients and techniques. The Creoles, Mestizos, and Indians often disagreed, but all resented the small minority of Spaniards who had all the political power. By the early 1800s, many native-born Mexicans believed that Mexico should become independent of Spain, following the example of the United States. The man who finally touched off the revolt against Spain was the Catholic priest Father Miguel Hidalgo Y Costilla. He is remembered today as the Father of Mexican Independence. Attributions Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: Congreso de Cúcuta: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence#/media/File:Congreso_de_C%C3%BAcuta.jpg Boundless World History https://www.coursehero.com/study-guides/boundless-worldhistory/the-south-american-revolutions/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.415933	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87920/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Period of Revolution 1650-1871 CE, Chapter 9: Revolution, Latin American Independence", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87919/overview	State Sponsored Nationalism and Liberalism (1848-1871) Overview State Sponsored Nationalism and Liberalism (1848 – 1871) In the period after the 1848 Revolutions, liberalism, or constitutionalism, and cultural and ethnic nationalism shaped the formation of national governments in western and central Europe, and, to a lesser extent, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States. State-sponsored nationalism and liberalism, as directed by conservative government leaders sought to restrict political, social and economic change. The conservative nature of this process was informed by the experiences and fears of European leaders who wanted to restore the ancien regime. The monarchies of Austria, Prussia, and Russia spearheaded the efforts after Napoleon’s final defeat, with the goal of restoring or protecting the pre-revolutionary dynastic monarchies. Learning Objective - Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century. Key Terms / Key Concepts ancien regime: Kingdom of France from approximately the 15th century until the latter part of the 18th century (“early modern France”), under the late Valois and Bourbon Dynasties; used to refer to the similar feudal social and political order of the time elsewhere in Europe Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia: independent kingdom in northern Italy that was the base for Italian unification Efforts between 1820 and 1848 to create new republics, adopt constitutions in existing monarchies, or unify culturally similar states had enjoyed little success. A number of national leaders learned from these failures, and sought to limit change. Consequently, their efforts at nation-building from the 1848 Revolutions through the unification of Germany were conservative. However, these conservative leaders had to adjust their goals and strategies to the ideological and economic aspirations of the crystallizing middle classes of mid-nineteenth century Europe. Members of these new middle classes sought to eliminate the class- and status-based restrictions which limited their upward mobility, along with the priviledges, among other advantages, enjoyed by national aristocracies and monarchies. Conversely, members of these middle classes opposed populist-based efforts of members of the lower classes to put themselves on the same economic and political footing with the middle and upper classes. Conservative national leaders exploited this middle class predilection to limit democratization, as part of their own national efforts to slow down the pace of such change, a tactic manifest in the gradual political democratization of the United Kingdom through four parliamentary reform acts, passed between 1832 and 1918. The two best examples of successful state sponsored nationalism and liberalism in nation-building between 1848 to1871 are the creation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 and the German empire in 1871. Each epitomizes the conservative nature of state-sponsored nationalism and liberalism during this period. In both cases the head of state and the head of government in one of the leading states led the process of unification, controlling the options and defining the terms of each of these two new nations to keep the process a conservative one in which these states led the final product. In Italy the king and prime minister of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia forged the Kingdom of Italy by bringing together most of the various states in the Italian peninsula. In Germany the King and prime minister of Prussia orchestrated the unification of the German states outside of Austria. Each effort was conservative and designed to establish the leadership role in the new nation of the leading state. While each of these two efforts was successful in the restraint of change, the founding of these two new European powers, along with earlier more revolutionary efforts from 1820 to 1848 foreshadowed revolutionary efforts which succeeded from the late nineteenth century through the twentieth century. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikipedia Commons Title Image - 1860 photo of Giuseppe Mazzini. Attribution: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Giuseppe_Mazzini.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Boundless World History "The Congress of Vienna" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-congress-of-vienna/ "France after 1815" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/france-after-1815/ "German Unification" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/german-unification/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.434458	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87919/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Period of Revolution 1650-1871 CE, Chapter 9: Revolution, State Sponsored Nationalism and Liberalism (1848-1871)", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87935/overview	Age of Bismarck and Competing Alliances Overview Nineteenth-Century European Diplomacy - An Overview The title image for this lesson, an 1884 drawing of the 1884 Berlin Conference that Otto von Bismarck hosted to devise a system for the European colonization of Africa illustrates, among other aspects of late nineteenth-century European diplomacy, the struggle to maintain international order, fears about radical economic, political, and social change, and the leading role of Otto von Bismarck in these efforts. His location at the center of this painting reflects his central position in these efforts. Learning Objectives Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century. Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including the major European powers and their goals the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives Be able to explain and assess the impact of Bismark’s diplomatic and military policy initiatives. Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Kaiser Wilhelm II: the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from June 1888 to November 1918 (He dismissed the Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1890 and launched Germany on a bellicose “New Course” in foreign affairs that culminated in his support for Austria-Hungary in the crisis of July 1914, which led in a matter of days to the First World War.) Belle Époque: a period of Western European history conventionally dated from the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I around 1914 (Occurring during the era of the French Third Republic (beginning 1870), it was characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity and technological, scientific and cultural innovations. In the climate of the period, especially in Paris, the arts flourished.) From the early 1860s until 1890 Otto von Bismarck was one of the dominant figures in European diplomacy, and, by extension, international relations. During the 1860s he forged the creation of the German empire, then successfully maneuvered the new German nation through a slew of foreign and domestic challenges, influencing the course of European diplomacy during the 1870s and 1880s, roughly the first half of a period in European history known as the Belle Epoque. During this period, 1871 – 1890, Bismarck was the German Chancellor and the German Minister of Foreign Affairs. In these roles he prevented France, among other German rivals, from forming any alliances antithetical to German imperial interests as he, among others, defined them. One of the key traits in his efforts was his flexibility, which allowed him to accept and work with various diplomatic, political, and social changes then occurring in Europe. In 1890 he lost his position as German chancellor, partly as a result of his disagreements with Kaiser Wilhelm II, who had ascended to the throne two years earlier. Wilhelm II’s more aggressive and assertive military and foreign policies, unchecked by Bismarck, or another foreign minister with his views, exacerbated the fears of France and Britain toward Germany, contributing to the formation of the Entente Cordiale between them in 1904, which was one of the bases of the alliance against Germany in the First World War. European Diplomacy from the French Revolution to the Age of Bismarck The Congress of Vienna established many of the diplomatic norms of the 19th century and created an informal system of diplomatic conflict resolution aimed at maintaining a balance of power among nations, which contributed to the relative peace of the century. Learning Objectives Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century. Key Terms / Key Concepts Otto von Bismarck: a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890 (In the 1860s he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states, significantly and deliberately excluding Austria, into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871, he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germany’s position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace.) Concert of Europe: a system of dispute resolution adopted by the major conservative powers of Europe to maintain their power, oppose revolutionary movements, weaken the forces of nationalism, and uphold the balance of power (It is suggested that it operated in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the early 1820s, while some see it as lasting until the outbreak of the Crimean War, 1853-1856.) Congress of Vienna: a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814 (The objective was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace.) Pax Britannica: the period of relative peace in Europe (1815 – 1914), during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force Development of Modern Diplomacy In Europe, early modern diplomacy’s origins are often traced to the states of Northern Italy in the early Renaissance, where the first embassies were established in the 13th century. Milan played a leading role especially under Francesco Sforza, who established permanent embassies to the other city states of Northern Italy. Tuscany and Venice were also flourishing centers of diplomacy from the 14th century onward. It was in the Italian Peninsula that many of the traditions of modern diplomacy began, such as the presentation of an ambassador’s credentials to the head of state. From Italy, the practice spread across Europe. The elements of modern diplomacy arrived in Eastern Europe and Russia by the early 18th century. The entire edifice would be greatly disrupted by the French Revolution and the subsequent years of warfare. The revolution would see commoners take over the diplomacy of the French state and of those conquered by revolutionary armies. Ranks of precedence were abolished. Napoleon also refused to acknowledge diplomatic immunity, imprisoning several British diplomats accused of scheming against France. After the fall of Napoleon, the 1815 Congress of Vienna established an international system of diplomatic rank with ambassadors at the top, as they were considered personal representatives of their sovereign. Disputes on precedence among nations (and therefore the appropriate diplomatic ranks used) were first addressed at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but they persisted for over a century until after World War II, when the rank of ambassador became the norm. In between, figures such as the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck were renowned for international diplomacy. Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe The objective of the Congress of Vienna was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace. The Concert of Europe, also known as the Congress System or the Vienna System after the Congress of Vienna, was a system of dispute resolution adopted by the major conservative powers of Europe to maintain their power, oppose revolutionary movements, weaken the forces of nationalism, and uphold the balance of power. It is suggested that it operated in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the early 1820s, while some see it as lasting until the outbreak of the Crimean War, 1853-1856. At first, the leading personalities of the system were British foreign secretary Lord Castlereagh, Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich, and Tsar Alexander I of Russia. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord played a major role at the Congress of Vienna in 1814 – 1815, where he negotiated a favorable settlement for France while undoing Napoleon’s conquests. Talleyrand polarizes scholarly opinion. Some regard him as one of the most versatile, skilled, and influential diplomats in European history, and some believe that he was a traitor, betraying in turn the Ancien Régime, the French Revolution, Napoleon, and the Restoration. Talleyrand worked at the highest levels of successive French governments, most commonly as foreign minister or in some other diplomatic capacity. His career spanned the regimes of Louis XVI, the years of the French Revolution, Napoleon, Louis XVIII, and Louis-Philippe. Those he served often distrusted Talleyrand but, like Napoleon, found him extremely useful. The name “Talleyrand” has become a byword for crafty, cynical diplomacy. The Concert of Europe had no written rules or permanent institutions, but at times of crisis any of the member countries could propose a conference. Diplomatic meetings of the Great Powers during this period included: Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Troppau (1820), Laibach (1821), Verona (1822), London (1832), and Berlin (1878). The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) resolved the issues of Allied occupation of France and restored that country to equal status with Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia. The congress, which broke up at the end of November, is of historical importance, mainly as marking the highest point reached during the 19th century in the attempt to govern Europe by an international committee of the powers. The detailed study of its proceedings is highly instructive in revealing the almost insurmountable obstacles to any truly effective international diplomatic system prior to the creation of the League of Nations after the First World War. The Concert system fell apart as the common goals of the Great Powers diverged with the growing political and economic rivalries among them. The territorial boundaries laid down at the Congress of Vienna were maintained, and there was an acceptance of the theme of balance with no major aggression. Otherwise, the Congress system, says historian Roy Bridge, “failed” by 1823. In 1818, the British decided not to become involved in continental issues that did not directly affect them, and they rejected the plan of Alexander I to suppress future revolutions. There was no Congress called to restore the old system during the great revolutionary upheavals of 1848 with their demands for revision of the Congress of Vienna’s frontiers along national lines. The Congress of Vienna was frequently criticized by nineteenth-century and by more recent historians for ignoring national and liberal impulses and imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent. It was an integral part of what became known as the Conservative Order, in which the liberties and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized so that a fair balance of power, peace and stability might be achieved. Despite having failed to achieve its reactionary goals past the early 1820s, it served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945. Prior to the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace. The European Continent After Vienna Post-Napoleonic Europe was characterized by a general lack of major conflict between the great powers, with Great Britain as the major hegemonic power bringing relative balance to European politics. The nineteenth century was marked by relative stability, with no wars involving all the major powers occurred between the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the beginning of the First World War. Otto von Bismarck contributed as much as any other single European leader to this stability through his role as Chancellor of the German Empire from 1871 to 1890. In this role he pursued policies and initiatives to protect the new German empire from alliances that could threaten it. His policies and initiatives also buttressed the diplomatic and military stability in Europe during the late nineteenth century. Bismarck’s efforts to keep other European powers from perceiving the German empire as an existential threat to them. When Kaiser Wilhelm II forced Bismarck to resign as Chancellor and began pursuing a much more assertive and aggressive posture for the German Empire, without regard to the insecurities of other European states, Europe entered a new period of instability culminating in the outbreak of World War I. This quiet period was shattered by World War I (1914 – 18), which was unexpected in its timing, duration, casualties, and long-term impact. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the European powers came together at the Congress of Vienna to reorganize the political map of Europe to preserve peace and balance of power; this meeting was termed the Concert of Europe. Of the four major powers represented at the Vienna Congress (the Austrian, British, Prussian, and Russian empires), all but the Austrian empire rose to become major world powers. The British and Russian empires, in particular, expanded significantly after the Napoleonic Wars and became the world’s leading powers. The Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. The British Empire grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, and heavily populated India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the world’s land and one-quarter of the world’s population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the Pax Britannica, which had ushered in unprecedented globalization, industrialization, and economic integration on a massive scale. Along with the British and Russian empires, the French empire regained its position as a great power during the nineteenth century. Added to the list of great powers during the latter half of the nineteenth century were the newly unified Italian and German empires, the United States, and Japan. Pax Britannica Pax Britannica (Latin for “British Peace,” modeled after Pax Romana) was the period of relative peace in Europe (1815 – 1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force. Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain’s “imperial century,” around 10 million square miles of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire. Victory over Napoleonic France left the British without any serious international rival, other than perhaps Russia in central Asia. When Russia tried expanding its influence in the Balkans, the British and French defeated it in the Crimean War (1854 – 56), thereby protecting the Ottoman Empire and their interests in the areas south of that region. Learning Objectives Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century. Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including. the major European powers and their goals the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives Be able to explain and assess the impact of Bismark’s diplomatic and military policy initiatives. Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Franco-Prussian War - third and concluding war of German unification, between the French and Prussian empires, paving the way for German unification, in the form of the German empire, also known as the Second Reich Congress of Vienna: a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814 (The objective was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace.) Pax Britannica: the period of relative peace in Europe (1815 – 1914), during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force The British Navy controlled most of the key maritime trade routes and enjoyed unchallenged sea power. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain’s dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled access to many regions, such as Asia and Latin America. British merchants, shippers, and bankers had such an overwhelming advantage over everyone else that, in addition to its official colonies, it essentially had an informal empire. The global superiority of British military and commerce was aided by a divided and relatively weak continental Europe and the presence of the Royal Navy on all of the world’s oceans and seas. Even outside its formal empire, Britain controlled trade with countries such as China, Siam, and Argentina. Following the Congress of Vienna, the British Empire’s economic strength continued to develop through naval dominance and diplomatic efforts to maintain a balance of power in continental Europe. In this era, the Royal Navy provided services around the world that benefited other nations, such as the suppression of piracy and blocking the slave trade. The Slave Trade Act 1807 banned the trade across the British Empire, after which the Royal Navy established the West Africa Squadron and the government negotiated international treaties under which they could enforce the ban. The Royal Navy fought the First Opium War (1839 – 1842) and Second Opium War (1856 – 1860) against Imperial China. The Royal Navy was superior to any other two navies in the world, combined. Between 1815 and the passage of the German naval laws of 1890 and 1898, only France was a potential naval threat. However, British sea power, imperial holdings, and economic base were insufficient to maintain unchallenged British hegemony during the second half of the nineteenth century. The industrialization and growth of the German, the Japanese, and the U.S. empires marked the relative decline of British supremacy by the early twentieth century. Sea power did not project on land. Land wars fought between the major powers include the Crimean War, the Franco-Austrian War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War, as well as numerous conflicts between lesser powers. Pax Britannica was weakened by the breakdown of the continental order established by the Congress of Vienna. Relations between the Great Powers of Europe were strained to breaking by issues, such as the decline of the Ottoman Empire that led to the Crimean War, and later the emergence of new nation states of Italy and Germany after the Franco-Prussian War. Both wars involved Europe’s largest states and armies. Otto von Bismarck: Balance of Power Diplomacy Otto von Bismarck was a conservative Prussian statesman and diplomat who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890. He skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germany’s position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace. For historian Eric Hobsbawm, it was Bismarck who “remained undisputed world champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess for almost twenty years after 1871, [and] devoted himself exclusively, and successfully, to maintaining peace between the powers.” Learning Objectives Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century. Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including the major European powers and their goals the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives Be able to explain and assess the impact of Bismark’s diplomatic and military policy initiatives. Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Otto von Bismarck: a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890 (In the 1860s he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states, significantly and deliberately excluding Austria, into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871, he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germany’s position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace.) Franco-Prussian War - third and concluding war of German unification, between the French and Prussian empires, paving the way for German unification, in the form of the German empire, also known as the Second Reich In 1862, King Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck as Minister President of Prussia, a position he would hold until 1890 (except for a short break in 1873). He provoked three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, aligning the smaller German states behind Prussia in its defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War. In 1871, he formed the German Empire with himself as Chancellor while retaining control of Prussia. His diplomacy of pragmatic realpolitik and powerful rule at home gained him the nickname the “Iron Chancellor.” German unification and its rapid economic growth were the foundations of his foreign policy. Bismarck disliked colonialism but reluctantly built an overseas empire when demanded by both elite and mass opinion. Juggling a very complex interlocking series of conferences, negotiations, and alliances, he used his diplomatic skills to maintain Germany’s position and used the balance of power to keep Europe at peace in the 1870s and 1880s. Belle Époque Belle Époque (French for “Beautiful Era”) was a period of Western European history conventionally dated from the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I in around 1914. Occurring during the era of the French Third Republic (beginning 1870), it was a period characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, and innovations in technology, science, and culture. In the climate of the period, especially in Paris, the arts flourished. Many masterpieces of literature, music, theater, and visual art gained recognition. The Belle Époque was named, in retrospect, when it began to be considered a “Golden Age” in contrast to the horrors of World War I. Learning Objectives Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century. Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including the major European powers and their goals the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Franco-Prussian War - third and concluding war of German unification, between the French and Prussian empires, paving the way for German unification, in the form of the German empire, also known as the Second Reich Belle Époque: a period of Western European history conventionally dated from the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I around 1914 (Occurring during the era of the French Third Republic (beginning 1870), it was characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity and technological, scientific and cultural innovations. In the climate of the period, especially in Paris, the arts flourished.) The Belle Époque coincided with similar periods of optimism in other European and American nations. The Belle Époque overlapped in the United Kingdom with the late Victorian era and the Edwardian era. In Germany, the Belle Époque coincided with the Wilhelminism; in Russia with the reigns of Alexander III and Nicholas II. In the newly rich United States emerging from the Panic of 1873, the comparable epoch was dubbed the Gilded Age. In Brazil it started with the end of the Paraguayan War, and in Mexico the period was known as the Porfiriato. The years between the Franco-Prussian War and World War I were characterized by unusual political stability in western and central Europe. Although tensions between the French and German governments persisted as a result of the French loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871, diplomatic conferences mediated disputes that threatened the general European peace, including the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Berlin Congo Conference in 1884, and the Algeciras Conference in 1906. For many Europeans in the Belle Époque period, transnational, class-based affiliations were as important as national identities, particularly among aristocrats. An upper-class gentleman could travel through much of Western Europe without a passport and even reside abroad with minimal bureaucratic regulation. World War I, mass transportation, the spread of literacy, and various citizenship concerns changed this. European politics saw very few regime changes, the major exception being Portugal, which experienced a republican revolution in 1910. However, tensions between working-class socialist parties, bourgeois liberal parties, and landed or aristocratic conservative parties increased in many countries, and some historians claim that profound political instability belied the calm surface of European politics in the era. In fact, militarism and international tensions grew considerably between 1897 and 1914, and the immediate prewar years were marked by a general armaments competition in Europe. Additionally, this era was one of massive overseas colonialism known as the New Imperialism. The most famous portion of this imperial expansion was the Scramble for Africa. Factors in the Road to World War I The main causes of World War I, which broke out unexpectedly in central Europe in summer 1914, comprised the conflicts and hostility of the four decades leading up to the war. These causes included militarism, jingoism, imperialism, nationalism, and the emergence of opposing alliances. Such conflicts and hosMilitarism, alliances, imperialism, ethnic nationalis. From the 1870s and 1880s, the major powers of Europe had been preparing for a large-scale war by increasing the sizes of their armies and navies. This led to increased political tensions that exacerbated the worsening relations among the European powers. This complex of factors, developments, and events paved the way for the First World War, the first general war in Europe since the Napoleonic Wars. Learning Objectives Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including the major European powers and their goals the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives Be able to explain and assess the impact of Bismark’s diplomatic and military policy initiatives. Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Kaiser Wilhelm II: the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from June 1888 to November 1918 (He dismissed the Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1890 and launched Germany on a bellicose “New Course” in foreign affairs that culminated in his support for Austria-Hungary in the crisis of July 1914, which led in a matter of days to the First World War.) jingoism: a form of nationalism characterized by aggressive foreign policy; a country’s advocacy for the use of threats or actual force as opposed to peaceful relations to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests militarism: the belief or the desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests; the glorification of the military; the ideals of a professional military class; the “predominance of the armed forces in the administration or policy of the state” imperialism: practice of claiming territory and then spreading the parent country’s beliefs and culture into the territory nationalism: a belief, creed, or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with, or becoming attached to, one’s country of origin Pax Britannica: the period of relative peace in Europe (1815 – 1914), during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force Rise of Militarism Prior to World War I During the 1870s and 1880s, all major world powers were preparing for a large-scale war, although none expected one. Britain focused on building up its Royal Navy, already stronger than the next two navies combined,as part of Pax Britannica. Germany, France, Austria, Italy, Russia, and some smaller countries set up conscription systems whereby young men would serve from one to three years in the army, then spend the next 20 years or so in the reserves with annual summer training. Men from higher social classes became officers. Each country devised a mobilization system so the reserves could be called up quickly and sent to key points by rail. Every year the plans were updated and expanded in terms of complexity. Each country stockpiled arms and supplies for an army that ran into the millions. Germany in 1874 had a regular professional army of 420,000 with an additional 1.3 million reserves. By 1897 the regular army was 545,000 strong and the reserves 3.4 million. The French in 1897 had 3.4 million reservists, Austria 2.6 million, and Russia 4.0 million. The various national war plans had been perfected by 1914, albeit with Russia and Austria trailing in effectiveness. However, recent wars (since 1865) had typically been short—lasting only a matter of months. So, all the war plans called for a decisive opening and assumed victory would come after a short war, and no one planned for or was ready for the food and munitions needs of a long stalemate as actually happened in 1914 – 18. As David Stevenson has put it, “A self-reinforcing cycle of heightened military preparedness… was an essential element in the conjuncture that led to disaster… The armaments race… was a necessary precondition for the outbreak of hostilities.” If Archduke Franz Ferdinand had been assassinated in 1904 or even in 1911, Herrmann speculates, there might have been no war. It was “… the armaments race… and the speculation about imminent or preventive wars” that made his death in 1914 the trigger for war. One of the aims of the First Hague Conference of 1899, held at the suggestion of Emperor Nicholas II, was to discuss disarmament. The Second Hague Conference was held in 1907. All signatories except for Germany supported disarmament. Germany also did not want to agree to binding arbitration and mediation. Kaiser Wilhelm II was concerned that the United States would propose disarmament measures, which he opposed. All parties tried to revise international law to their own advantage. Militarism and jingoism contributed to an atmosphere in Europe open to the possibility of a general European war among the major European powers. The development of rivalries, along with Kaiser Wilhelm II’s ambitions, provided the fuel for the fire that would be the First World War. Nationalism in the Balkans provided the catalyst. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikipedia Commons Title Image - 1884 Berlin Conference meeting drawing Attribution: Adalbert von Rößler (†1922), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kongokonferenz.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Boundless World History "The Century of Peace" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-century-of-peace/ CC licensed content, Shared previously - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Specific attribution - Belle u00c9poque. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle_Epoque. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pax Britannica. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of Europe. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 19th century. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - International relations of the Great Powers (1814u20131919). Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - British_Empire_1897.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Otto von Bismarck. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Pu00e9rigord. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818). Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Diplomacy. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Concert of Europe. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Congress of Vienna. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - British_Empire_1897.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Talleyrand-perigord.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Human zoo. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - World's fair. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - British_Empire_1897.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Talleyrand-perigord.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - International_Exhibition_Brussels_par_Privat-Livemont.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ota_Benga_at_Bronx_Zoo.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.478688	Alison Vick	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87935/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE, Chapter 10: Enlightenment and Colonization, Age of Bismarck and Competing Alliances", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87962/overview	Hero of the Turkish Army: Mustafa Kemal and the Dardanelles Campaign Overview The Dardanelles Campaign: 1915-1916 On present-day Turkey’s northwest coast is a narrow strip of water, the Dardanelles strait. It connects the Aegean Sea, through the Bosporus, to the Sea of Marmara, and ultimately, the Black Sea. It has been a coveted shipping and transportation route for centuries, the Dardanelles also marks the divide between Europe and Asia. In World War I, the strait was coveted by opposing armies to transport troops between fronts, and to strategic locations. The British and French also assumed that if they could secure the Dardanelles, they would drastically weaken the already weak, Ottoman Empire, thus knocking one of the Central Powers out of the war. They would relieve the pressure Russia faced from the Ottomans and claim Constantinople. Learning Objectives - Analyze the British failure of the Gallipoli Campaign - Evaluate the success of Mustafa Kemal as a leader of the Turkish army Key Terms / Key Concepts Dardanelles: narrow strait that connects the Aegean Sea, Sea of Marmara, and Black Sea Gallipoli: peninsula on Turkey’s northwest coast Mustafa Kemal "Ataturk": commander of the Ottoman Army at the Battle of Gallipoli Preparations In 1915, the Allies began planning an attack on Turkey’s northwest coast at the strategic peninsula, Gallipoli. The Allies launched a bombing campaign over the Dardanelles in early 1915. It failed to destroy the Ottoman defenses which had been heavily fortified in advance of the Allies’ attack. Minefields and artillery defenses remained along the peninsula. As such, it was clear to the Allies that an amphibious landing was the solution. They would deploy British, French, and raw troops from Australia and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) to secure the Gallipoli peninsula. Behind the plan was the British Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill. The Landings at Gallipoli At 2:00 AM on April 25, 1915, Ottoman scouts spotting a fleet advancing toward them. An hour later, the fog rolled in, obscuring the army. But it set the Ottomans on the alert. Among the earliest to receive the news was a young commander named Mustafa Kemal. As a young officer, he had served in the earlier, Balkans Wars. Now, he led the 19th Division, and the 5th Army Reserve. Militarily shrewd, he calculated that the Allies would try to divide the Ottoman forces. To combat their attack, Kemal staged a simple plan—hold the defensive heights above the beaches. They would not surrender one inch of territory to the Allies. At dawn, he is said to have told his troops, “I am not ordering you to attack, I am ordering you to die. In the time that it takes us to die; other commanders and forces can come and take our place.” From the dawn of April 15 forward, the Ottoman troops were fiercely loyal to their staunch and pragmatic leader. When the attacks came, they would be ready and carry Kemal’s order to the letter. ANZAC Cove The Allies had planned two landings. The British and French forces would land at Helles Cape on the southern tip of the peninsula. The ANZACs, Australian and New Zealand troops, would land further west. Fatefully, the British and French landing would prove less deadly. Just after dawn, the ANZACs, many of who were raw troops with no combat experience, landed at the fortified beach of Gallipoli at a cove now aptly named, ANZAC Cove. Above the beach, the terrain was rugged and steep, and heavily fortified by the Ottomans. Strips of minefields also waited for the ANZACs. Upon their landing, the ANZACs were greeted with immense artillery and machine gun fire. The ANZACs initially gained ground, only to be repelled by Kemal’s forces later in the day. Counterattacking, the Australians were driven from the heights. By the end of the first day, over 2,000 of the 16,000 ANZAC troops were dead or wounded. For the next eight months, the ANZAC troops “dug in” in a stalemated battle at Gallipoli. They faced harsh weather and rough terrain, and epidemics of dysentery, typhoid, and rheumatic fever. The ANZACs never gained ground after the first day, and the campaign turned into a bloody stalemate. Combat often involved hand-to-hand fighting in the rocky, rough terrain. At other times, it was a battle waged by sending men “over the top” of their trenches and fortifications to charge headlong into the Ottoman machine gun nests. Further south, the British and French faced similar challenges. At the end of the year, the Allied casualties reached 500,000, not including those who perished from disease. The Gallipoli Campaign was not only a defeat, it was an Allied disaster. Significance In January 1916 did the Allied troops admit defeat and evacuate their positions at Gallipoli. The campaign, which had lasted a year, was over. But the cost was enormous: it remains the bloodiest campaign in the histories of Australia and New Zealand. April 25 is celebrated as ANZAC Day in both countries. It also demonstrated to the world the ability and resilience of the Australian and New Zealand soldiers, who were largely untried soldiers before Gallipoli. For Mustafa Kemal and Turkey, the significance of Gallipoli was far greater. It marked their triumph over the Allied forces. The victory catapulted Kemal into the national spotlight where he was known as the “Rock of Gallipoli.” Almost overnight, he was promoted to Brigadier General of the Ottoman Army. For the remainder of the war, he served as a main military commander for the Ottomans in multiple campaigns. Following the defeat, and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I, Kemal served in the Turkish wars of independence, and then turned to politics. He became a strong statesman, and in the 1920s, the founded of the Republic of Turkey. With this achievement, he was given a new title: Atatürk—father of the Turks. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Willmott, H.P. World War I. D.K. Publishing, New York: 2012. 76-83.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.504977	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87962/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE, Chapter 12: World War I in the West, East, and Colonies, Hero of the Turkish Army: Mustafa Kemal and the Dardanelles Campaign", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87934/overview	Political Challenges Overview Political Changes Liberalism and Nationalism continued to impact European culture and society in the late 19th century. As a result of the French Revolution and the subsequent revolutions of the first half of the 19th century, most European states enjoyed a Liberal form of government (Liberalism - written constitution, elected representative government, equal rights for all citizens under the law, and personal, individual freedoms such as freedom of religion and speech). Across Western and Central Europe, the right to vote was extended to include all adult males (universal male suffrage). New political parties arose in these areas to woo these voters and win seats in the elected legislatures. Elected political leaders claimed to be advancing the national interests of the voters. Rising national rivalries set the stage for the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Learning Objectives - Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. - Identify the political changes in Europe in the late 19th century. Key Terms / Key Concepts Eugenics: a set of beliefs and practices that seeks to “improve the quality of the human race,” historically by excluding people and groups identified as inferior and promoting those designated to be superior Victorian Era: in British history, the era between 1820 and 1914, which corresponds to the period of Queen Victoria’s reign (1837 – 1901) Progressive Era: a period in United States History between approximately 1890 – 1918 when reformers aimed to address social, economic, and political problems impacting American society Trusts: the term “trusts” in a historical sense refer to monopolies or near-monopolies in the United States in the 19th century and early 20th century. A monopoly is a business with little or no competition in the sale of certain goods or services Anarchists: followers of a political philosophy that rejects authority and social classes; seeks the destruction of government, which it considers harmful Europe in the Late 19th Century Many Europeans in the late 19th century were brimming with hope and optimism regarding the supposed bright and wonderful future of the human race. However, from the perspective of the early 21st century, historians can see that Europe was heading for a catastrophic Great War (1914 – 1918) that would cast a long shadow and result in continual wars and conflicts around the world for the next century. The causes of this Great War are many, and no one nation started this war, even though many Europeans came to blame Germany. The outbreak of this war came at the end of a long process that began with rapid economic growth worldwide. This economic expansion, however, resulted in destructive social and ethnic tensions that threatened to tear European states apart. To counter these dividing forces, the peoples of Europe embraced nationalism as a means to maintain social order and unity. This same nationalism that promoted internal unity within each nation, also stirred up intense rivalries between different nations. To advance their national interests against rival nations, national leaders embraced militarism—the idea that nations could maintain national security and advance their national interests through their military and with quick, decisive wars. The Great European powers also sought to achieve national security through imperialism—the conquest and annexation of overseas territory, primarily in Africa and Asia. By the early 20th century, the European powers had formed competing military alliances against one another due to their national and imperialist rivalries. After Europe had become divided into rival military alliances— the Triple Entente (United Kingdom, France, Russia) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary), a series of international crises in the beginning of the 20th century led to the outbreak of war in 1914. Social Tensions In this period leading to this conflict, the different social classes across Europe looked upon each other with increasing suspicion and distrust due to their different economic experiences. In Europe the elite aristocracy still enjoyed great wealth and high status due to their large, landed estates. In rural areas especially, the local peasants continued to show these aristocrats customary deference and respect. The aristocracy, however, was quite alarmed by the ever-increasing wealth and influence of the middle class, who were steadily improving their socio-economic status, because Liberalism and the Market Revolution had enabled the middle class to challenge the aristocracy for the leadership of European society. To maintain their social and political influence, aristocrats often pursued a military career due to the traditional association of the aristocracy with medieval knighthood. The officer corps of European countries, and Germany in particular, was dominated by aristocrats. Some aristocrats boosted their incomes by marrying wealthy heiresses from middle class families. For example, the mother of the aristocratic, British statesman, Winston Churchill (1874 – 1965), was Jennie Jerome, the daughter of a wealthy American, Leonard Jerome, who was the so-called "King of Wall Street." The middle class was especially confident, even arrogant, in this era, viewing both the aristocracy and the working class with disdain and contempt for their alleged laziness and immorality. The middle class included not only the owners of businesses, but also the rising number of professionals, such as accountants and engineers that were employed by large companies. Members of the middle class tended to attribute their financial success to their own hard work and abilities, as well as personal piety. Members of this class, whether Protestant or Roman Catholic, at least publicly, closely followed the moral teachings of Christianity. Young men and women, for example, were expected to remain chaste until marriage, and any divorce was scandalous. Middle class men also were proud that their wives didn't need to work outside the home, unlike working class women, and could devote their time to raising and educating their children. But everyone was expected to be productive with their time, which may be owing to the “The Protestant Work-ethic,” with which came the idea that “idle hands are the Devil’s workshop.” In this period, not all members of the middle class embraced the Christian faith, but instead some found inspiration in ideas that emerged from the Enlightenment. The French philosopher, Auguste Compte (1798 – 1857) had put forth the philosophical notion of Positivism. According to Compte, scientists could not only employ the scientific method to research the natural world but also to examine social problems, such as poverty and crime. Compte was confident that humanity could end all of societies' ills through the advancement of science and reason. Another influential thinker was the English philosopher, Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) with his philosophy of Utilitarianism. According to Bentham, society was morally obligated to promote material happiness to the most people in society. Bentham's ideas inspired prison reform in the United Kingdom in the 19th century. Bentham maintained that prisoners should not simply be punished in prison, but reformed, so that they could return to society and contribute their talents for the common good. Another influential thinker in this period was the English social scientist Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903). Spencer took inspiration from the scientific research of the English scientist, Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882). In his monumental work, The Origin of Species (1859), Darwin maintained that complex species of living beings evolve over time from more simple species through the process of natural selection. Spencer maintained that advanced human societies, likewise, evolve over time from primitive societies. According to Spencer's Social Darwinism, the most talented and "fit" members of society have pushed forward social evolution. Some followers of Spencer's ideas even embraced eugenics and maintained that the poor and criminal members of society were "unfit" and should be prevented from having children because they were holding back social evolution. Middle class women often played a critical role in these reform efforts. Educated middle class women couldn't enter politics or work outside the home as a professional, but these women could perform charitable work for churches and reform organizations. In Great Britain in the Victorian Era, women were supposedly more compassionate and nurturing than men due to their role as mothers, so they were best suited to help the poor and suffering in society. In England, for example, Florence Nightingale (1820 – 1910), inspired by her Christian faith, worked tirelessly to improve public hospitals for the poor and to train women to become nurses. In the United States, Florence Kelley (1859 –1932), inspired by her commitment to Socialism, organized the Consumers League, which lobbied the state and federal governments to end child labor and establish an 8-hour day and minimum wage. The Rise of the Working Class The size of the working class continued to swell during this period, as millions of people left rural areas to find work in cities and towns for wages in mines, factories, and other businesses. Working class families faced many challenges. Many of these workers came directly from rural villages, where they worked closely and informally as agricultural laborers with friends and family. In their new jobs in the cities, however, workers labored for long hours (often 10 to 12 hours a day) under the constant supervision of an overseer in a very regimented environment. Workers also lived in fear that they could see their wages reduced or their jobs eliminated because of an economic downturn or even getting ill for a short period. They often resented that their affluent, middle-class employers paid them too little for their labor and treated them inhumanely. In this period, workers sought to increase their wages and improve their working conditions by joining labor unions. Unions negotiated with employers on behalf of union members for higher wages and set hours. Unions pressured employers to agree to their demands by going on strike and organizing boycotts against employers, which sometimes led to violence. In 1894, for example, in the United States, the American Railway Union organized a massive strike of railroad workers in the Chicago area to protest wage cuts by the Pullman Company, which manufactured railway cars. When the railroad companies hired new workers ("scabs") to replace the striking workers, violence erupted between the strikers and the "scabs." The Politics of the Working Class The working class also hoped to improve their standard of living though political action. By the late nineteenth century, workers in western and central Europe could vote due to Liberal reform and universal male suffrage. Across Europe, labor unions organized new political parties to represent the interests of the working class. In Germany labor unions founded the Social Democratic Party in 1875, which quickly became the largest political party in Germany. In 1893 union workers in the United Kingdom established the Labour Party, which replaced the Liberal (Whig) Party as the main opposition to the Conservative (Tory) Party after World War I. In France (1880), Italy (1882), and Belgium (1885) the working-class political party was simply known as the Workers Party. In Russia, workers in 1898 organized the Social Democratic Labor Party, even though they could not vote, and Russia didn't even have a Liberal constitution. All these parties embraced Socialism as their ideology. According to this system of thought, the Capitalist Bourgeoisie (middle class) oppressed and exploited the working class to amass their private fortunes. Socialists envisioned a day when the "means of production" (i.e., land, tools, machinery) would be publicly owned rather than the private property of these capitalists. In the United States, the Populist Party arose in 1890 to challenge the political domination of the two main political parties—the Democratic and Republican Parties. The Populists claimed to represent the interests of the majority of Americans who were small, landowning farmers, tenant farmers, and labor union members. The Populists were not Socialists, but they wanted the government to rein in "Big Business" and the "Trusts" through government regulation of large corporations, such as railroads, and higher taxes on wealthy Americans. After 1896 when the Democratic Party merged with the Populist Party, a Socialist Party did arise in 1901 in the United States and even won elections at the state and local level in the first two decades of the 20th century. In the late 19th century Socialists were deeply divided regarding the best tactics to achieve their objectives. In England, the Fabian Socialists maintained that a Socialist society would eventually evolve peacefully in England over time through the democratic process. In Germany, the philosopher and statesman Ferdinand Lassalle (1825 – 1864) maintained that the working class could improve its social and economic standing over time through government reform, even if that government was the government of the Prussian, Hohenzollern monarchy. The German Social Democratic Party, inspired by the ideas of Lasalle, worked with Chancellor Bismarck in the German Reichstag (Parliament) in 1884 to create accident insurance for German workers. This new law required German employers for the first time to be responsible for the healthcare costs of their employees who were injured on the job. Likewise, in 1897 in the United Kingdom, the Socialist Labour Party urged Parliament to create "workman's compensation" law, which required employers to pay for the medical treatment of injured employees. Not all Socialists, however, embraced the peaceful, democratic tactics of the Labour Party and the Social Democratic Party. Karl Marx, the author of the Communist Manifesto in 1848, maintained that Socialism would only succeed through social revolution by the working class (the Proletariat). In the late 19th century, radical Anarchists asserted that only violent revolution would overthrow bourgeois capitalists. Anarchists targeted prominent statesmen and government officials for assassination. Anarchists hoped that such violent acts would lead to further repression by capitalist governments, which would ultimately lead to a widespread proletariat revolution. Anarchists in this era successfully assassinated Czar Alexander II of Russia in 1881, the Empress Elizabeth of Austria in 1898, the President Sadi Carnot of France in 1894, and President William McKinley of the United States in 1901. In 1886 a bomb killed policemen during a labor union rally in Haymarket Square in Chicago, Illinois; the following year leading anarchists in the area suspected of this crime were executed by hanging. Fear of anarchist violence and the threat of social revolution prompted leading "Progressives" in the US in the Progressive Era, such as President Theodore Roosevelt (1901 – 1908), to push for legislation to rein in "Big Business" as the "Trust Buster" and improve the lot of the working class, in order to siphon off popular support for such a revolution. Ethnic Tensions As class tensions surged in this period, European states were also in turmoil due to internal cultural and ethnic rivalries and conflict. In the United Kingdom, Ireland was predominantly Roman Catholic except for Northern Ireland, whereas the rest of the United Kingdom was Protestant; Ireland was also much more rural with less industry than other regions of the country. In Ireland the Fenians—Irish Nationalists—desired an independent Irish Republic. In France the Bretons of Brittany in rural northwest France spoke their own distinct language and were staunchly Roman Catholic; they were also highly suspicious of the inhabitants of Paris, the French capital, who had a reputation for their cosmopolitan and secular attitudes. Conservative Roman Catholics in France also were distrustful of the country's religious minorities, Protestants and Jews. France was rocked by the Dreyfus Affair in 1894. Alfred Dreyfus, a French military officer, who was a Jew, was put on trial and found guilty of treason for spying for Germany. Even though a military commission later in 1906 exonerated Dreyfus, this affair stirred up much antisemitism across France among many Roman Catholics who maintained that France was in fact a Roman Catholic nation. In France one divisive issue involved public education. Conservative Roman Catholics supported Roman Catholic parochial schools, whereas more Liberal French citizens supported secular public schools. In Spain, ethnic conflict erupted into civil war. In Catalonia around the city of Barcelona especially, the region was more industrialized than the rest of Spain. In 1873, the king of Spain Amadeo I (r. 1870 – 1873) abdicated the throne in the face of popular unrest, and Spain briefly became a republic. This radical republic had strong support among the working class in Catalonia. However, the Basques in rural, northern Spain were staunch Roman Catholics, who spoke their own language. Along with some Catalans, they supported Don Carlos (1848 – 1909), a Conservative member of the former Bourbon Dynasty in Spain, as the true king of Spain in the Carlist War (1872 – 1876). In the face of this civil war, the Spanish army, dominated by Conservative, aristocratic officers from Castile in central Spain, overthrew the short-lived republic in 1874, restored order, and installed Alfonso XII as king, who was the son of the former Spanish queen Isabella II. In Germany the mutual antagonism between Protestants and Roman Catholics became known as the Kulturkampf ("Cultural Struggle"), which fortunately for Germany did not lead to armed conflict. Southern Germany was predominantly Roman Catholic and less industrialized, and consequently less wealthy, than Protestant northern Germany. In Germany, as in France, a very divisive issue was public education. Protestant leaders in northern Germany desired to shut down Roman Catholic parochial schools and force children in these schools to attend secular public schools. Instead of armed resistance, Roman Catholics in Germany in 1870 organized their own political party, the German Centre (Zentrum) Party, to represent their interests in the Reichstag, the German parliament. This party and the German Social Democratic Party were the two largest political parties in Germany in this period. Ethnic tensions were much more intense in eastern Europe. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, ethnic Germans and Hungarians with property could vote after 1867, but Slavic ethnic groups such as Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Poles, Slovenes, and Ruthenians were all denied the right to vote, along with ethnic Romanians, Italians, and Bosnians. The Russian Empire was also a multi-ethnic empire. However, the peoples of Russia, Belarus, and the Ukraine all spoke closely related Slavic languages and shared a common Orthodox faith. The Russian Empire also included large number of Poles, who were Slavs, like the Russians, but Roman Catholic. The Poles were very nationalistic and maintained a memory of their nation's independence prior to the partition of Poland in the late 18th century. The Poles revolted against Russian rule in 1830 and 1863 without success and after a great loss of life. In the late 19th century Poles organized illegal, secret organizations to seek Polish independence from Russia, such as the Polish Socialist Party in 1892 and the National Democratic Party in 1897. Russia also possessed a large Jewish population, whose ancestors had lived in the former Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom. Russia's Jews faced much persecution and repression. Jewish villages in Russia were subject to violent pogroms, which were massacres of Jews by angry mobs. In 1881 the pogroms in the Russian Empire targeting Jews were especially vicious when many orthodox Christians blamed the Jews for the assassination of Czar Alexander II. The persecution of Jews in Russia along with widespread antisemitism across Europe inspired a Jewish movement, Zionism, which sought to create an independent Jewish homeland in Palestine, where ancient Israel once existed. A Jew from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Theodore Herzl (1860 -1904) helped organize the First Zionist Congress in 1897 in Basel, Switzerland. This international Jewish movement would lead eventually to the creation of the modern nation of Israel in 1948. Competing Military Alliances In the face of internal ethnic turmoil and class tensions and strife, fervent nationalism provided European states with a way to find unity and strength. In the late 19th century, European powers each sought to advance their own national interests through building up their armed forces and forming military alliances with other nations against common enemies. In this period Otto Von Bismarck, the German Chancellor played a decisive role in the diplomatic efforts to build such alliances, so much so, that historians have referred to this era as the "Age of Bismarck". Following the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, Bismarck knew that France would seek national revenge against Germany for this humiliating defeat and seek to recover the region of Alsace-Lorraine. Bismarck therefore set out to form military alliances with other European powers to keep France in check and to maintain peace in Europe. Austria-Hungary with its many ethnic groups maintained a strong alliance with Germany aimed against Russia, who claimed to be the champion of all Slavic peoples, some of whom were subject peoples of Austria-Hungary. For all European nations, nationalism and the formation of military alliances was a force for internal unity as political, social, social, and cultural tensions threatened to tear these nations apart. Marxism Reaction to Capitalism In the late 18th century, Adam Smith wrote Captialism, an Enlightenment approach to markets and understanding how to provide the best economy for the future. This approach talked about supply and demand for products as the basis for prices. Smith also discussed the ideas of having the market as independent from control of governments. The goal that Smith had was a change for the better towards a more open economy. The idea of capitalism was revolutionary for the late 18th century, where many businesses started to gravitate towards these ideas and policies. The market transformation would have dramatic effects on the origins of the Industrial Revolution, where businesses incorporated many of the Enlightenment ideas into their systems. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the differences between Capitalism, Socialism, Communism, and Anarchy. - Analyze the impact of these philosophy on the world in the late 19th century. Capitalism in the 19th century The Industrial Revolution brought many changes to Europe in the 19th century. Many of these changes had direct impact on the quality of life for individuals. The rise of industrialization saw massive products manufactured quickly and had a direct impact on the price of goods. This would mean more products made, caused a drop in the price of those products. This would further the problems for individuals, because employers would pay smaller amounts to those workers, making their lives harder. Compounding the issue of working conditions was the movement of people to cities looking for work. The more supply of labor meant that the demand was steady to lessening. This would cause workers lives to be harder because they saw their wages dropping. It is important to remember that there was another perspective that has to be understood in this time, that of the factory owner. The factory owner was interested in making money at this time and not hurting individuals. Business owners were constrained by their money that they earned at the market for goods and their inability to generate high revenue. Workers wages were directly tied to the revenue of the materials that they sold. This meant that as the goods were not able to generate higher profits, the factory owner was not able to pay the worker higher wages. This was a constraint of the market. The system of early Industrial Revolution capitalism was very difficult because of the many constrains on the individuals and the businesses. It is important to note that this is neither right or wrong, but simply the outcomes of market interactions. Yet, these problems of the work place were compounded by other factors, such as individuals moving from the country to the city in search of jobs. This meant that the pool of labor was increasing in supply, but not in demand, meaning that wages for workers went down. People of the time saw these challenges and began to wrote and discussed how these problems affected individuals. Karl Marx In the 19th century there was a German philosopher/sociologist that began writing about the problems of capitalism on the worker. Marx was born in Germany and acquired an education as a lawyer. Marx was a writer and journalist in his early adulthood, working on many works that would explore ideas of justice in his eyes. Marx would explore Hegel’s ideas about relationships and utopian philosophy. In 1844, Marx met and began working with Friedrich Engles, another writer and philosopher/sociologist. Engles had written a work about the working class in England. These two leaders were a part of liberal movements of the time that were interested in challenging the system that was in place. These two philosophers began exploring the problems that the working class saw, specifically the problems of markets and labor relationships with businesses. The question they started to raise was how did capitalism work with the individual? Marx began to think about the relationship of work, business, the individual, and how society should work together. The problem of the worker and how workers had limited rights in the system bothered Marx. In 1867, Marx published the first volume of Das Kapital, or Capital as it is known in English, that explored the ideas that the owner of the means of production is able to control the system. In the work, Marx began to critique capitalism, noting that the lower classes had limited rights in this system. To change this, Marx advocated for unions of workers to band together to stand up to owners. Think about it in a different way, that the individual person can easily be replaced if they say something is wrong, but if everyone stands up that they can challenge this system. This idea was modeled after the guild system that had been in place in Europe since the Middle Ages. The idea was if workers would come together, they could tell factory owners that they were unhappy with this work and push against the repression. That workers together could get better wages. That there was a natural class tension between what Marx called the bourgeoisie (factory owners) and the proletariat (the worker).. These two classes were in constant battle for money and power. Eventually Marx would take these theories further, that the only way to have a true revolution was to remove capitalism by removing private property, that individuals could not own things, and instead a system of sharing as a community would emerge as the next phase of economics. Other writers would take Marx and Engel’s ideas further that would be known as Marxist thought. Marx and Engles worked with other groups that were interested in exploring these ideas and how they could cause a social revolution. While many at the time viewed Marx and Engels as against capitalism, they were noting how many problems there were with capitalism. These ideas would become the basis of new social and cultural movements such as socialism and communism. To understand the impact of Marxist thought in the 19th century, it is important to understand the different forms of Marxism: socialism, communism, and anarchy. These different forms are very important because social movements in the 19th century around the world would use these as a way to try to challenge the 19th century world. Capitalism To understand the differences between Marxist thought, it is important to start with capitalism and understand their relationships between relationship between the worker, businesses, and governments. In pure Adam Smith capitalism, government and businesses were not to work together. This idea is known as Lassie Faire, where government and businesses were to have a hands off approach. This meant things like minimum wage was not something that a government was to worry about. That businesses were free to pay workers what they thought was fair. If the worker did not like this, they could find work somewhere else. That the worker had all the freedom that they could in the system. That any system of workers coming together to advocate for changes, this would be seen as antagonistic to capitalism. Socialism This is the first step towards a Marxist revolutionary overthrow. In classical socialism, the government and businesses are to work together to get the best outcomes for society. For example, providing high quality education by the government would benefit both governments and businesses. The business would have higher skilled laborers, and the government could earn more taxes by providing this service. Or businesses could give to schools and fund road projects. This would mean that businesses offered a solution that both governments and the business would benefit from. The worker, on the other hand, was to be able to join together and collectively ask for changes to both the business and government. This was to ensure that worker’s rights were listened too and give guidance to the government or business policies. The work between businesses and governments was very important for socialism. Communism This was an ideology that took the ideas of socialism and expanded the role of the relationship between businesses, governments, and workers. The idea was that local government by local institutions was the most important to communism. The goal was that all businesses and government was controlled by local unions. The idea was that workers knowing their needs at a local level could come together and provide bigger guidance for governments and businesses. In communism, the power of this society was in the hands of local workers and unions. The control of businesses and governments with unions meant that these institutions bowed to the will of the people. Anarchy In recent years, anarchy has become a very important topic of political conversation in movies and televisions shows. Many view anarchy as the absence of government, which is not necessarily the case in the 19th century. The idea of anarchy in the 19th century was that any government bigger than a local government was too big and was not sustainable to the individual. That a big government took advantage of individuals. An example an anarchist would give of a government that was too big would be the state of Georgia, where in the southern part of the state there would be no need for salt in the winter time for roads because it rarely freezes. The individuals in southern Georgia are being robed by the state when they pay taxes to purchase salt. An anarchist would say that the state of Georgia is too big because it is not able to respond to the needs of the individual. In an anarchist state, that government would be incredibly local, because governments would be responsible at the local level. The goal of anarchy was that individuals had the most power through unions. Consequences of the Reactions to Capitalism The reactions to capitalism had direct consequences in the late 19th century. These ideas began to spread and many began to advocate for changes in the social and political organizations of the Industrial Revolution. There was a rise in unions in the late 19th century, many saw that this was a reaction to capitalism. The rise of unions advocated for many changes, such as having weekends off, breaks in the day, regulations on hours of work per day, and end of child labor. Unions played a large role in the relationships of labor in the late 19th century. In the 21st century, it is difficult to understand the importance of socialism, communism, and anarchy because of the rise of socialist and anarchist states in the 20th century. Yet, the most radical of these philosophies was not socialism or communism, but instead anarchy. Anarchist in the late 19th century were active in destruction of property and assassinations. Nationalism and Militarism In the decades prior to the outbreak of World War I in1914, nationalism reached a fevered pitch, as European nations all aspired to protect and advance their national interests. To achieve this goal, the “Great Powers” of Europe embraced militarism and vastly increased their military might. Learning Objectives - Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. - Examine the origins of nationalism and militarism in Europe. Key Terms / Key Concepts constitutive theory of statehood: a 19th century theory that defines a state as a person in international law if, and only if, it is recognized as sovereign by other states declarative theory of statehood: a theory that defines a state as a person in international law if it meets the following criteria: 1) a defined territory; 2) a permanent population; 3) a government; and 4) a capacity to enter into relations with other states; determines that an entity’s statehood is independent of its recognition by other states conscription: the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often military service jingoism: a form of nationalism characterized by aggressive foreign policy; refers to a country’s advocacy for the use of threats or actual force as opposed to peaceful relations to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests militarism: the belief or the desire of a government or people for a country to maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests; the glorification of the military; the ideals of a professional military class; the “predominance of the armed forces in the administration or policy of the state”. Introduction to Nation-States The concept of a nation-state is notoriously difficult to define. Anthony Smith, one of the most influential scholars of nation-states and nationalism, argued that a state is a nation-state only if and when a single ethnic and cultural population inhabits the boundaries of a state, and the boundaries of that state are coextensive with the boundaries of that ethnic and cultural population. This is a very narrow definition that presumes the existence of the “one nation, one state” model. Consequently, less than 10% of states in the world meet its criteria. The most obvious deviation from this largely ideal model is the presence of minorities, especially ethnic minorities, which are excluded from the majority nation by ethnic and cultural nationalists. The most illustrative historical examples of groups that have been specifically singled out as outsiders by nationalists are the Roma and Jews in Europe. In legal terms, many nation-states today accept specific minorities as being part of the nation, which generally implies that members of minorities are citizens of a given nation-state and enjoy the same rights and liberties as members of the majority nation. However, nationalists and, consequently, symbolic narratives of the origins and history of nation-states often continue to exclude minorities from the nation-state and the nation. According to a wider working definition, a nation-state is a type of state that conjoins the political entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation, from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a sovereign state, if one accepts the declarative theory of statehood as opposed to the constitutive theory of statehood. A state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity, while a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term “nation-state” implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it. The concept of a nation-state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state, city-state, empire, and confederation, as well as other state formations with which it may overlap. The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the nation-state. Characteristics of Nation-States Nation-states have their own characteristics that today may be taken-for-granted factors shaping a modern state, but that all developed in contrast to pre-national states. Their territory is considered semi-sacred and nontransferable. Nation-states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, social, and cultural life. Nation-states typically have a more centralized and uniform public administration than their imperial predecessors because they are smaller and less diverse. After the 19th-century triumph of the nation-state in Europe, regional identity was usually subordinate to national identity. In many cases, the regional administration was also subordinate to central (national) government. This process has been partially reversed from the 1970s onward, with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy in formerly centralized states (e.g., France). The most obvious impact of the nation-state, as compared to its non-national predecessors, is the creation of a uniform national culture through state policy. The model of the nation-state implies that its population constitutes a nation, united by a common descent, a common language, and many forms of shared culture. When the implied unity was absent, the nation-state often tried to create it. The creation of national systems of compulsory primary education is usually linked with the popularization of nationalist narratives. Even today, primary and secondary schools around the world often teach a mythologized version of national history. Nationalism Romantic nationalism was an integral part of actual nationalist political movements, which emerged in earnest in the immediate aftermath of the Napoleonic wars. Those movements would ultimately succeed in seeing their goals realized almost without exception, although that process took over a century in some cases (like that of Poland and Ireland). Central to nationalist movements was the concept that the state should correspond to the identity of a “people,” although who or what defines the identity of “the people” proved a vexing issue on many occasions. The discussion of nationalism starts with the French Revolution, because more than any other event, it provided the model for all subsequent nationalisms. The French revolutionaries declared from the outset that they represented the whole "nation," not just a certain part of it. They erased the legal privileges of some (the nobles), made religion subservient to a secular government, and, when threatened by the conservative powers of Europe, called the whole "nation" to arms. The revolutionary armies sang a national anthem. the Marseillaise, whose lyrics are as warlike as the American equivalent. Central to French national identity in the revolutionary period was fighting for la patrie—the fatherland—in place of the old allegiance to king and church. The irony of the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, however, was that the countries invaded by the French eventually adopted their own nationalist beliefs. The invaded countries turned the democratic French principle of self-determination into a sacred right to defend their own national identities, shaped by their own particular histories, against the universalist pretensions of the French. This was reflected in the Spanish revolt that began in 1808, the revival of Austria and Prussia and their struggles of "liberation" against Napoleon, Russia's leadership of the anti-Napoleonic coalition that followed, and fierce British pride in their defiance to French military pretensions. As the Napoleonic wars drew to a close for the first time in 1814, the great powers of Europe convened a gathering of monarchs and diplomats known as the Congress of Vienna to deal with the aftermath. That meeting lasted months, thanks in part to Napoleon’s inconvenient return from Elba and last stand at Waterloo, but in 1815 it concluded, having rewarded the victorious kingdoms with territorial gains and restored conservative monarchs to the thrones of states like Spain and France. Nothing could have mattered less to the diplomatic representatives present at the Congress of Vienna than the “national identity” of the people who lived in the territories that were carved up and distributed like pieces of cake to the victors. The Congress of Vienna thus redrew the map of Europe without taking into consideration the ethnic identity of the different regions of Europe. For example, the inhabitants of northeastern Italy were now subjects of the Austrian king, the entirety of Poland was divided between Russia and Prussia, and Great Britain remained secure not only in its growing global empire, but in its possession of the entirety of Ireland. Thus, many of Europe's peoples found themselves without states of their own or in states squeezed between the dominant powers of the time. Among the notable examples are the Italians and the Poles. Italy had suffered from the domination of one great power or another since the Renaissance; after 1815 it was the Austrians who were in control of much of northern Italy. Poland had been partitioned among the Austrians, the Prussians, and the Russians in the eighteenth century, simply vanishing from the map in the process. Germany, of course, was not united; instead, it emerged from the Congress of Vienna as a confederation of dozens of independent states. Prussia and Austria vied with each other for dominance of this German confederation, but both were fundamentally conservative powers uninterested in “German” unification until later in the century. The language of nationalism and the idea of national identity had come into its own by the late Napoleonic period. For example, German nationalism was powerful and popular after the Napoleonic wars; in 1817, just two years after the end of the Congress of Vienna, German nationalists gathered in Wartburg—where Martin Luther had first translated the Bible into German—waving the black, red, and gold tricolor flag that would (over a century later) become the official flag of the German nation. Two years later, a nationalist poet murdered a conservative one, and the Austrian Empire passed laws that severely limited freedom of speech, specifically to contain and restrict the spread of nationalism. Despite this effort, and the Austrian secret police, German nationalism continued to spread, culminating in a large and self-consciously nationalistic movement seeking German unity. The 1830s were a pivotal decade in the spread of nationalism. The Italian nationalist leader Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Italy in 1831, calling for a “springtime of peoples” in which the people of each “nation” of Europe would topple conservative monarchs and assert their sovereignty and independence. That movement would quickly spread beyond Italy, and "young" became the rallying word and idea of nationalism. In addition to Young Italy, there was a Young Germany and a Young Ireland, among others, accompanied by the idea that all people should and would eventually inhabit nations, and that this new "youthful" manner of politics would lead to peace and prosperity for everyone. The idea was that with the old, outdated borders abandoned, everyone would live where they were supposed to: in nations governed by their own people. Nationalists argued that war itself could be rendered obsolete. After all, if each “people” lived in “their” nation, what would be the purpose of territorial conflict? To the nationalists at the time, the emergence of nations was synonymous with a more perfect future for all. Central to the very concept of nationalism in this early, optimistic phase was the identity of “the people,” a term with powerful political resonance in just about every European language: das Volk, le peuple, il popolo, etc. In every case, "the people" was thought to be something more important than just "those people who happen to live here." Instead, the people were those tied to the soil, with roots reaching back centuries, and who deserve their own government. This was a profoundly romantic idea because it spoke to an essentially emotional sense of national identity: a sense of camaraderie and solidarity with individuals with whom a given person might not actually share much in common. When scrutinized, the “real” identity of a given “people” became more difficult to discern. The growing concept spurred many questions. For example, were the Germans people who speak German, or who lived in Central Europe, or who were Lutheran, or Catholic, or who think that their ancestors were from the same area in which they themselves were born? If united in a German nation, who would lead it - were the Prussians or the Austrians more authentically German? What of those “Germans” who lived in places like Bohemia (i.e. the Czech lands) and Poland, with their own growing senses of national identity? The nationalist movements of the first half of the nineteenth century did not need to concern themselves much with these conundrums because their goals of liberation and unification were not yet achievable. When national revolutions of various kinds did occur, however, these questions proved difficult to answer. Nationalism and the Background to World War I The nature of nationalism had changed significantly over the course of the nineteenth century as well. Not only had conservative elites appropriated nationalism to shore up their own power (as in Italy and Germany), but nationalistic patriotism came to be identified with rivalry and resentment among many citizens of various political persuasions. To be a good Englishman was to resent and fear the growth of Germany. Many Germans came to despise the Russians, in part thanks to the growth of anti-Slavic racism. The lesser powers of Europe, like Italy, resented their own status and wanted to somehow seize enough power to join the ranks of the great powers. Nationalism by 1914 was nothing like the optimistic, utopian movements of the nineteenth century; it was hostile, fearful, and aggressive. Likewise, public opinion mattered in a way it had never mattered earlier for the simple fact that every one of the great powers had at least a limited electorate and parliaments with at least some real power to make law. Even Russia, after a semi-successful revolution in 1905, saw the creation of an elected parliament, the Duma, and an open press. The fact that all of the powers had representative governments mattered, because public opinion helped fan the flames of conflict. Newspapers in this era tended to deliberately inflame jingoistic passions rather than encourage rational calculation. A very recognizably modern kind of connection was made in the press between patriotic loyalty and a willingness to fight, kill, and die for one’s country. Since all of the great powers were now significantly (or somewhat, in the case of Russia) democratic, the opinions of the average citizen mattered in a way they never had before. Journalism whipped up those opinions and passions by stoking hatred, fear, and resentment, which led to a more widespread willingness to go to war. Thanks to the nationalistic rivalry described above, the great powers sought to shore up their security and power through alliances. The single most significant background factor to the war was the rivalry that existed between Europe’s “great powers” by the beginning of the twentieth century. The term “great power” meant something specific in this period of history: the great powers were those able to command large armies, to maintain significant economies and industrial bases, and to conquer and hold global empires. Their respective leaders, and many of their regular citizens, were fundamentally suspicious of one another, and the biggest worry of their political leadership was that one country would come to dominate the others. Long gone was the notion of the balance of power as a guarantor of peace. Now, the balance of power was a fragile thing, with each of the great powers seeking to supplant its rivals in the name of security and prosperity. As a result, there was an ongoing, elaborate diplomatic dance as each power tried to shore up alliances, seize territory around the globe, and outpace the others. While no great power deliberately sought out war, all were willing to risk war in 1914. That was at least in part because no politician had an accurate idea of what a new war would actually be like. The only wars that had occurred in Europe between the great powers since the Napoleonic period were the Crimean War of the 1850s and the wars that resulted in the formation of Italy and Germany in the 1850s, 1860s, and early 1870s. While the Crimean War was quite bloody, it was limited to the Crimean region itself and it did not involve all of the great powers. Likewise, the wars of national unification were relatively short and did not involve a great deal of bloodshed (relative to other wars). Violence in the colonies was almost always directed at the native peoples in those colonies, and there the balance of power was squarely on the side of Europeans. Thus, even European soldiers overseas had no experience of facing foes armed with comparable weapons. In other words, it had been over forty years since the great powers had any experience of a war on European soil, and as they learned all too soon, much had changed with the nature of warfare in the meantime. In the summer of 1914, each of the great powers reached the conclusion that war was inevitable, and that trying to stay out of the immanent conflict would lead to national decline. Germany was surrounded by potential enemies in France and Russia. France had cultivated a desire for revenge against Germany ever since the Franco-Prussian War. Russia feared German power and resented Austria for threatening the interests of Slavs in the Balkans. Great Britain alone had no vested interest in war, but it was unable to stay out of the conflict once it began. In turn, the thing that inflamed jingoism and resentment among the great powers had been imperialism. The British were determined to maintain their enormous empire at any cost, and the Germans now posed a threat to the empire since Germany had lavished attention on a naval arms race since the 1880s. There was constant bickering on the world stage between the great powers over their colonies, especially since those colonies butted up against each other in Africa and Asia. Alliances were firmly in place by 1914, each of which obligated military action if any one power should be attacked. Each great power needed the support of its allies and was thus willing to intercede even if its own interests were not directly threatened. That willingness to go to war for the sake of alliance meant that even a relatively minor event might spark the outbreak of total war. And that is precisely what happened. In 1914, two major sets of alliances set the stage for the war. German politicians, fearing the possibility of a two-front war against France and Russia simultaneously, concluded an alliance with the Austrian Empire in 1879, only a little over a decade after the Prusso-Austrian War. In turn, France and Russia created a strong alliance in 1892 in large part to contain the ambitions of Germany, whose territory lay between them. Great Britain was generally more friendly to France than Germany but had not entered into a formal alliance with any other power. It was, however, the traditional ally and protector of Belgium, which British politicians considered a kind of toehold on the continent. Finally, Russia grew increasingly close to the new nation of Serbia, populated as it was by a Slavic people who were part of the Eastern Orthodox branch of Christianity. The relationships between Great Britain and Russia with Belgium and Serbia, respectively, would not have mattered but for the alliance obligations that tied the great powers together. Those alliances were now poised to mobilize armies of an unprecedented size. All of the great powers now fielded forces of a million men or more due to a reliance or development of militarism. Coordinating that many troops required detailed advanced planning and a permanent staff of high-ranking officers, normally referred to as the "general staff" of a given army. In the past, political leaders had often either led troops themselves or at least had significant influence in planning and tactics. By the early twentieth century, however, war plans and tactics were entirely in the hands of the general staffs, meaning political leaders would be obliged to choose from a limited set of "pre-packaged" options given to them by their generals. When WWI started, the leaders of the great powers were taken by surprise when they received ultimatums from their own generals—from the Kaiser in Germany to the Tsar in Russia. Militarism—the belief or the desire of a government or people for a country to maintain a strong military capability—had led to a power shift in battle plans. And according to the general staffs, it was all or nothing: either commit all forces to a swift and decisive victory or suffer certain defeat. There could be no small incremental build ups or tentative skirmishes; this was about a total commitment to a massive war. An old adage has it that “generals fight the last war,” which means they base their tactics on what worked in previous conflicts, and in the “last war,” which was the Franco-Prussian War, Prussia had won through swift, decisive action and immediate overwhelming force. Militarism and Jingoism The main causes of World War I, which broke out unexpectedly in central Europe in summer 1914, comprised all the conflicts and hostility of the four decades leading up to the war. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and ethnic nationalism played major roles. During the 1870s and 1880s, all major world powers were preparing for a large-scale war, as a result of assuming a militaristic society. Britain focused on building up its Royal Navy, already stronger than the next two navies combined. Germany, France, Austria, Italy, Russia, and some smaller countries set up conscription systems whereby young men would serve from one to three years in the army, then spend the next 20 years or so in the reserves with annual summer training. Men from higher social classes became officers. Each country devised a mobilization system so the reserves could be called up quickly and sent to key points by rail. Every year the plans were updated and expanded in terms of complexity. Each country stockpiled arms and supplies for an army that ran into the millions. Germany in 1874 had a regular professional army of 420,000 with an additional 1.3 million reserves. By 1897 the regular army was 545,000 strong and the reserves numbered 3.4 million. The French in 1897 had 3.4 million reservists, Austria 2.6 million, and Russia 4.0 million. The various national war plans had been perfected by 1914, albeit with Russia and Austria trailing in effectiveness. Recent wars (since 1865) had typically been short—a matter of months. All the war plans called for a decisive opening and assumed victory would come after a short war; however, no one planned for or was ready for the food and munitions needs of a long stalemate, like that actually happened in 1914 – 18. As David Stevenson has put it, “A self-reinforcing cycle of heightened military preparedness… was an essential element in the conjuncture that led to disaster… The armaments race… was a necessary precondition for the outbreak of hostilities.” If Archduke Franz Ferdinand had been assassinated in 1904 or even in 1911, Herrmann speculates, there might have been no war. It was “the armaments race… and the speculation about imminent or preventive wars” that made his death in 1914 the trigger for war. Despite the expansion of standing armies and military stockpiles in this period, the Great Powers still publicly called for the reduction of armed forces. One of the aims of the First Hague Conference of 1899, held at the suggestion of Emperor Nicholas II, was to discuss disarmament. The Second Hague Conference was held in 1907. All signatories except for Germany supported disarmament. Germany also did not want to agree to binding arbitration and mediation. The Kaiser was concerned that the United States would propose disarmament measures, which he opposed. All parties tried to revise international law to their own advantage instead of seeking actual disarmament. This increase in militarism coincided with the rise of jingoism, a term for nationalism in the form of aggressive foreign policy. Jingoism also refers to a country’s advocacy for the use of threats or actual force to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests, as opposed to peaceful relations. Colloquially, it refers to excessive bias in judging one’s own country as superior to others—an extreme type of nationalism. The term originated in reference to the United Kingdom’s pugnacious attitude toward Russia in the 1870s; and it appeared in the American press by 1893. Probably the first uses of the term jingoism appeared in the U.S. press in connection with the proposed annexation of Hawaii in 1893. A coup led by foreign residents, mostly Americans, and assisted by the United States minister in Hawaii, overthrew the Hawaiian constitutional monarchy and declared a Republic. Republican president Benjamin Harrison and Republicans in the Senate were frequently accused of jingoism in the Democratic press for supporting annexation of Hawaii. The term was also used in connection with the foreign policy of Theodore Roosevelt. In an October 1895 New York Times article, Roosevelt stated, “There is much talk about ‘jingoism’. If by ‘jingoism’ they mean a policy in pursuance of which Americans will with resolution and common sense insist upon our rights being respected by foreign powers, then we are ‘jingoes’.” Anglo-German Naval Race British concerns with the emergence of Germany as a rival naval power was a factor in the British decision to enter World War I. Historians have debated the role of the German naval build-up as the principal cause of deteriorating Anglo-German relations. In any case, Germany never came close to catching up with Britain. Supported by Wilhelm II’s enthusiasm for an expanded German navy, Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz championed four Fleet Acts from 1898 to 1912, and from 1902 to 1910, while the Royal Navy embarked on its own massive expansion to keep ahead of the Germans. This competition came to focus on the revolutionary new ships based on the Dreadnought, launched in 1906, which gave Britain a battleship that far outclassed any other in Europe. The overwhelming British response proved to Germany that its efforts were unlikely to equal those of the Royal Navy. In 1900, the British had a 3.7:1 tonnage advantage over Germany; in 1910 the ratio was 2.3:1 and in 1914, 2.1:1. The German Navy had thus narrowed the gap by nearly half. Meanwhile, in early to mid-1914, Germany adopted a policy of building submarines instead of new dreadnoughts and destroyers, effectively abandoning the race. They kept this new policy secret, however, to delay other powers following suit. The Germans thus abandoned the naval race before the war broke out. The extent to which the naval race was one of the chief factors in Britain’s decision to join the Triple Entente remains a key controversy. Historians such as Christopher Clark believe it was not significant, with Margaret Moran taking the opposite view. Attributions Title Image Jules Després, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons Section 3 adapted from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/nation-states-and-sovereignty/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-coming-of-war/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.586338	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87934/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE, Chapter 10: Enlightenment and Colonization, Political Challenges", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87947/overview	European Social Shifts Overview Overview European Social Shifts Overview The Industrial Revolution and the Agricultural—or Neolithic—Revolution are two of the most consequential revolutions in human history. Each generated profound economic, political, social, and technological advances, among other changes. Each shifted the social structures of peoples who embraced the other changes in these revolutions. Learning Objectives - Analyze the human and environmental consequences of Industrialization and the factory system in England. - Compare the lives of factory owners and workers in England during Industrialization. The social shifts that occurred with the Industrial Revolution in Europe redefined each class, realigned the class structure, and altered relationships among members of each class. Each class was redefined on the basis of quantification—the principle criterium for measuring prosperity and success in the Industrial Revolution. Quantification in terms of monetary wealth and factory production was easier to measure and simpler to discern as manifestations of status. These two criteria supplanted the old system of discerning class by hereditary status and the manifestations of wealth that accompanied it. As part of these social shifts in Europe the upper classes came to include new groups and classes of manufacturers, merchants, and bankers who owned and/or controlled the wealth created by the Industrial Revolution. They came to the forefront of European society at the expense of the old aristocracy, with factories, banks, and new department stores replacing landed estates as the generators of wealth. While members of these new upper classes embraced the styles of dress, menus, and home design of the old upper classes, they asserted their new identities. The new European middle classes grew out of new and evolved professions that came with industrialization, scientific advances, and technological advances. These new and evolved professions included doctors, lawyers, and new management positions, which required new training and brought higher salaries. Members of the new middle classes used the additional money they earned to purchase the growing number of new consumer goods being produced. A number of these new products marked a new type of conspicuous consumption that increased the distance between the middle classes and the working classes, while shortening the distance between the middle classes and the upper classes. The new working classes grew out of the new factory positions based on tending machines that produced the new products rather than making the products individually as the preindustrial artisans used to do. Members of these new working classes were cogs in the machines of production, which lessened their status by way of contrast with the old preindustrial artisans. The new consumer products, department stores, and mail order catalogs provided these working classes with tangible goals and status symbols to which to aspire for those interested in working their way up the new class hierarchy, along with visible reminders of what separated them from the new middle and upper classes. Relationships among members of these classes did not change. Many in the working classes sought to move up and saw industrialization as opening a new path for upward mobility. Others continued to resent those in the middle and upper classes, resentment which precipitated political and economic revolution, along with the formation of new parties. Members of the middle classes also strove to move up or make that opportunity available for their children, including through marriage. Members of the upper classes sought to solidify their positions. The approaches of members of each of these classes evolved with the economic and technological advances of industrialization and the political changes in Europe from the French Revolution to the First World War. This new class structure based on industrial wealth reflected the other changes that accompanied the Industrial Revolution, including standardization and rationalization. The new class structure also was part of a new set of more democratic cultures in terms of scientific research and conceptualization, religious affiliation, economic consumption, and political participation. Ultimately it was part of a new conception of the place of the individual in society. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikipedia Commons Title Image - "Pyramid of Capitalist System", published in 1911 Industrial Worker. Attribution: Unknown artist, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Boundless World History "Social Change" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/social-change/ CC licensed content, Shared previously - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Specific attribution - Factory system. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_system. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Factory. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Etruria Works. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Josiah Wedgwood. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Soho Manufactory. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cromford Mill. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Luddite. 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License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Meeting_of_the_trade_unionists_in_Copenhagen_Fields_April_21_1834_for_the_purpose_of_carrying_a_petition_to_the_King_for_a_remission_of_the_sentence_passed_on_the_Dorchester_labourers_1293402.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 1024px-William_Edward_Kilburn_-_View_of_the_Great_Chartist_Meeting_on_Kennington_Common_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.619823	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87947/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE, Chapter 11: Reactions, European Social Shifts Overview", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87937/overview	Zionism and Theodore Herzl Overview Zionism and the Jewish Question The rise of nationalism in Europe in the 19th century inspired the scattered and often persecuted Jewish communities across Europe to hope for an independent Jewish state in their ancient homeland. Learning Objectives - Examine the history of the Jewish Diaspora. - Analyze the political, ethnic, and religious history of the Jews and Palestine during the 19th century that shaped the creation of Israel after the Second World War. Key Terms / Key Concepts Talmud: a collection of commentaries on the Torah that was compiled by rabbis (Jewish scholars/teachers) between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE Sephardic Jews: the Jewish diaspora population that developed in Andalusia in Spain and adopted Arabic customs and language pogrom: a violent riot aimed at the massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews; a term that originally entered the English language to describe 19th and 20th century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire Ashkenazi Jews: a Jewish diaspora population who coalesced as a distinct community in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the first millennium (The traditional diaspora language is Yiddish.) Theodor Herzl: an Austro-Hungarian journalist, playwright, political activist, and writer; one of the fathers of modern political Zionism; formed the World Zionist Organization and promoted Jewish migration to Palestine in an effort to form a Jewish state (Israel). Exceptionalist Ideology: the perception or belief that a particular entity (i.e. a society, institution, movement, people) is "exceptional" (unusual or extraordinary); implies that this entity is superior in some way The Jewish Diaspora The diaspora or dispersal of Jews out of ancient Judea (Modern Israel and the Palestinian Territories) began as early as 586 BCE when the Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar sacked Jerusalem, the capital of the Judean kingdom, and forcibly removed thousands of the city’s inhabitants to Babylon—present-day southern Iraq. Eventually Jews migrated across much of Europe and western Asia. During the Hellenistic period (323 – 31 BCE), many Jews emigrated from Judea and settled in Greek cities in various Hellenistic kingdoms, such as Alexandria in Egypt. In the 3rd century BCE, the Jewish Holy Scriptures —also known as the Christian Old Testament—was made available in a Greek translation meant for Greek-speaking Jews; this translation of the scriptures became known as the Septuagint. Jewish historians such as Josephus (first century CE), and philosophers, such as Philo of Alexandria (first century CE), composed works in ancient Greek. When the entire basin of the Mediterranean Sea became incorporated into the expanding Roman Empire by 31 BCE, Jews were migrating throughout the extent of the Roman Empire. The revolt of Judea against Roman rule in 66 CE, as well as the subsequent destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE by Roman armies, accelerated the migration of Jews from Judea to other regions both within and outside the Roman Empire. A second rebellion against Rome—the Bar Kokhba Revolt (c. 132 – 136 CE) —further intensified the emigration of the Jewish population out of Judea after Roman armies brutally crushed this uprising. Despite these revolts, the Jewish population generally prospered under Roman rule. Archaeologists have uncovered the ruins of Jewish synagogues or places of worship in the cities of the Roman Empire. Their numbers grew with the conversion of some non-Jews to the Jewish faith. During the Middle Ages, most Jews lived areas ruled by both Christian and Muslim states that had formally been part of or near to the Roman Empire. In these centuries, Jewish community life centered around the synagogue, where Jews gathered to pray and hear their holy scriptures under the leadership of a rabbi (teacher/scholar). Rabbis were not only experts in the study of the Torah—which became the first five books of the Old Testament—but also in the Talmud, which is a collection of commentaries and teachings on the Torah, as compiled by rabbis in Judea and southern modern-day Iraq between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE. In some regions just outside the former Roman Empire, non-Jewish peoples converted to the Jewish faith in large numbers. Arabs in Yemen in the southern Arabian Peninsula converted to Judaism, which was the state religion of the Himyarite kingdom in the 5th and early sixth century CE until the neighboring Christian kingdom of Aksum—modern Ethiopia—dethroned the last Jewish king in that land. In the 8th century CE, the ruling elite of the Khazars, a Turkish people then inhabiting modern Ukraine, converted to Judaism. Jews living in Muslim lands in the Middle Ages were generally free to practice their faith if they paid the poll tax—Jizyah—to their Muslim rulers. After the conquest of Spain by the Muslim Arabs and Moors in the 8th century CE, the Jewish population in Muslim Spain (Andalusia) thrived and became known as Sephardic Jews, who adopted the Arabic language and some Arabic customs. In the 12th century, the eminent Jewish rabbi and physician, Maimonides—a native of Andalusia—composed multiple philosophical and scientific works in Arabic, which drew inspiration from the works of earlier Greek and Arabic scholars. Jews inhabiting Christian lands in the Middle Ages often didn’t enjoy the same level of toleration as experienced in Muslim controlled territories. Jews were segregated from the Christian population and often inhabited a special quarter of Medieval towns known as the ghetto. In 1215 at the influential Fourth Lateran Council in Rome, Pope Innocent III and a council of Church leaders decreed that Jews be required to wear special clothing to distinguish them from the Christian population. This same council also ruled that Jews were not to be allowed to hold any public office. The Jewish population in Christian lands were also frequently subject to massacres by angry mobs, which became known as pogroms. For example, in 1096, after Pope Urban II called for a Crusade to free Jerusalem from the Muslim Turks, Christian mobs massacred thousands of Jews living in Medieval cities along the Rhine River in modern Germany. Many Christians at that time understood the Pope’s call for the Crusade as a command to destroy the enemies of Christianity, including both Muslims and Jews. Across Medieval Europe beginning in the 13th century, the so-called “blood libel” stirred up such pogroms. The “blood libel” was a popular belief among Christians across Europe; part of this belief was the allegation that Jews kidnapped Christian children so that they could kill the children and drink their blood in secret religious rituals. Some Christian states even expelled Jews entirely from their lands. In 1290, Edward I of England evicted all Jews from his kingdom. Jews only returned to England nearly four hundred later in 1657, after the Commonwealth of Oliver Cromwell invited Jews to return. In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain expelled all Jews and Muslims from Spain who refused to convert to Christianity; this was done after their conquest of the Emirate of Granada—the last Muslim state in Spain. Many Sephardic Jews from Spain consequently emigrated to the Muslim Ottoman Empire in North Africa and western Asia, as well as to the Netherlands in northern Europe. The Netherlands and Poland were Christian regions where Jews in the Middle Ages and Early Modern era enjoyed a relative high degree of toleration. In 1264, Prince Boreslaw of Poland invited Jews from the neighboring Holy Roman Empire—modern Germany—to settle in Poland by granting Jews full freedom to worship, as well as by forbidding false accusations of the “blood libel” against Jews. The Mongols in 1240 had recently invaded and devasted Poland, and the migration of Jews helped to repopulate the region. The Jewish population flourished in the centuries that followed and stretched across the vast Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom, which by 1500 extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea and included not only the area of modern Poland but also the Baltic counties of Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia, as well as Ukraine and Belarus. The Jews of this region who had migrated from Germany and France to the Polish kingdom became known as Ashkenazi Jews and spoke their own distinct language which incorporated both the German and Hebrew languages: Yiddish. The prosperity experienced by Ashkenazi Jews ended with the collapse of the Polish Lithuanian Kingdom in the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1648, the Cossacks, nomadic herdsmen from Ukraine, revolted against the Polish Kingdom and massacred the populations of many Jewish communities. The Cossacks were allied with the emerging Russian Empire due to their common Orthodox Christian faith; whereas, the Polish rulers were Roman Catholic. In the late 18th century, the dominant states of Eastern and Central Europe, Hapsburg Austria, Prussia, and Russia, partitioned the weakened Polish kingdom among themselves. Russia acquired the largest chunk of Polish territory. Consequently, much of the Jewish population of the region fell under Russian rule. As subjects of the Russian Empire, Jews faced persecution. The Russian state in 1791 mandated for the Jews a “Pale of Settlement,” which was a narrow stretch of territory extending from the Ukraine to the Baltic Sea. They forbid Jews from settling or living permanently outside of this area. Liberalism, Nationalism, and the Jews Jewish communities across Europe generally welcomed the rise of Liberal constitutions in some European countries that resulted from the revolutions that occurred across the continent in the first half of the 19th century. These constitutions guaranteed representative government, equal rights under the law and freedom of religion. Some Jews even entered politics in this era. For example, Ferdinand Lassalle (1825 – 1864) was the son of a Jewish silk merchant in the German kingdom of Prussia in what is today Poland. During the 1848 Revolution, he strongly supported the unsuccessful efforts to unite Germany under a Liberal constitution. In 1863 he helped organize the General German Workers Union in Prussia, which was committed to securing the right to vote for all adult males—also known as universal male suffrage. Lassalle even personally contacted the Prussian chancellor Otto Von Bismarck to urge him to support the expansion of the right to vote for all German workers. In 1867, the constitution of the North German Confederation advanced by Bismarck did in fact include universal male suffrage. This constitution later became the basis for the German constitution with the unification of Germany in 1871. After Lassalle’s death in 1864, the General German Workers Union, which he founded, became the German Social Democratic Party in 1875, the oldest political party in Germany today. By the late 19th century, large numbers of Jews were emigrating from the Russian Empire, whose autocratic Conservative government continued to treat Jews as second-class citizens. These Jews settled in areas of the globe where Liberal governments were in place, such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and in some South American republics, such as Argentina. In general Jews prospered in these regions. For example, in the United States, President Woodrow Wilson in 1916 nominated Louis Brandeis to become the first Jewish Supreme Court Justice. Across Europe, even in the most Liberal countries, the population often viewed Jews with suspicion due to their distinct religion and culture. For example, the people of France were often staunchly Roman Catholic, such as the Bretons of Brittany in rural northwest France. They were also highly suspicious of the inhabitants of the French capital Paris, who had a reputation for their cosmopolitan and secular attitudes. Conservative Roman Catholics in France were distrustful of the country's religious minorities, Protestants and Jews. France was rocked by the Dreyfus Affair in 1894. Alfred Dreyfus, a French military officer, who was a Jew, was put on trial and found guilty of treason for spying for Germany. Even though a military commission exonerated Dreyfus later in 1906, this affair stirred up much antisemitism across France among many Roman Catholics who maintained that France was in fact a Roman Catholic nation. Besides a rise in Liberalism, the 19th century also experienced a rise in nationalism. Many Jews due to this rising nationalism in the 19th century opted to assimilate and to adopt the culture and religion of the nation where they resided. For example, in 1816 the family of Benjamin Disraeli converted to Christianity from Judaism and joined the Anglican Church of England when Benjamin was just a boy. Benjamin Disraeli would later serve as one the most influential prime ministers of Great Britain in the 19th century. Zionism: A Jewish Homeland Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel—roughly corresponding to Palestine, Canaan, or the Holy Land. After almost two millennia of the Jewish people residing in various countries without a national state, the Zionist movement was founded in the late 19th century by secular Jews, largely as a response by Ashkenazi Jews to rising antisemitism in Europe, which was exemplified by the Dreyfus affair in France and the anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire. The political movement was formally established by the Austro-Hungarian journalist, Theodore Herzyl, in 1897, following the publication of his book Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State). At that time, the movement sought to encourage Jewish migration to what was by then Ottoman Palestine. Herzl considered antisemitism an eternal feature of all societies in which Jews lived as minorities, and that only a separation could allow Jews to escape eternal persecution. “Let them give us sovereignty over a piece of the Earth’s surface, just sufficient for the needs of our people, then we will do the rest!” he proclaimed. Herzl proposed two possible destinations to colonize, Argentina and Palestine. He preferred Argentina for its vast and sparsely populated territory and temperate climate, but he conceded that Palestine would have greater attraction because of the historic ties of Jews with that area. He also agreed to evaluate Joseph Chamberlain’s proposal for possible Jewish settlement in Great Britain’s East African colonies. Although initially one of several Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to assimilation and antisemitism, Zionism expanded rapidly. In its early stages, supporters considered setting up a Jewish state in the historic territory of Palestine. After World War II and the destruction of Jewish life in Central and Eastern Europe, where these alternative movements were rooted, Zionism became the dominant view about a Jewish national state. Creating an alliance with Great Britain and securing support for Jewish emigration to Palestine, Zionists also recruited European Jews to immigrate there, especially those who lived in areas of the Russian Empire where antisemitism was prevalent. The alliance with Britain was strained as the latter realized the implications of the Jewish movement for Arabs in Palestine, but the Zionists persisted. During World War II antisemitism in Europe reached a horrible climax with the Holocaust, a mass genocide, when the German Nazi regime slaughtered an estimated six million Jews living in Europe. After these horrors during the war, the Zionist movement received worldwide support and was eventually successful in encouraging the victorious WWII Allies to establish Israel as the homeland for the Jewish people on May 14, 1948. The proportion of the world’s Jews living in Israel has steadily grown since the movement emerged. Until 1948, the primary goals of Zionism were the re-establishment of Jewish sovereignty in the Land of Israel, in-gathering of the exiles, and liberation of Jews from the antisemitic discrimination and persecution they experienced during their diaspora. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and to address threats to its continued existence and security. Major aspects of the Zionist idea are represented in the Israeli Declaration of Independence: “The Land of Israel was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here their spiritual, religious and political identity was shaped. Here they first attained to statehood, created cultural values of national and universal significance and gave to the world the eternal Book of Books. After being forcibly exiled from their land, the people kept faith with it throughout their Dispersion and never ceased to pray and hope for their return to it and for the restoration in it of their political freedom. Impelled by this historic and traditional attachment, Jews strove in every successive generation to re-establish themselves in their ancient homeland. In recent decades they returned in their masses.” Advocates of Zionism view it as a national liberation movement for the repatriation of a persecuted people who were forced to live as minorities in a variety of nations that did not include their ancestral homeland. Critics of Zionism view it as a racist and exceptionalist ideology that led advocates to violence against Palestinians, followed by the exodus of Palestinians and the subsequent denial of their human rights. Attributions Adapted from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/israel-and-palestine/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Title Image https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Theodor_Herzl.jpg Carl Pietzner, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.659145	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87937/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE, Chapter 10: Enlightenment and Colonization, Zionism and Theodore Herzl", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87926/overview	Manifest Destiny Overview Manifest Destiny Manifest Destiny is a phrase coined by journalist John O'Sullivan in the 1840s. It assured white Americans it was their God-given responsibility to conquer North America’s Native American population and land. This idea gained popularity and helped fuel migration out of the eastern half of the United States into places such as Oregon Territory, California, and Texas. Learning Objectives - Investigate the origins of “Manifest Destiny” and how it affected the United States in the nineteenth century. Key Terms / Key Concepts John O’Sullivan: nineteenth-century journalist who coined the phrase, “Manifest Destiny” Manifest Destiny: nineteenth-century ideology that became popular for its assertion that it was the God-given duty of white Americans to conquer North America’s peoples and land William Walker: famous American filibuster who became president of Nicaragua Filibusters: nineteenth-century person who went into foreign countries with hired mercenaries with the intent of starting revolutions and government overthrows Oregon Trail: 2,000-mile trail used by wagon trains and pioneers during the nineteenth century; connected Missouri territory to Oregon Texas War for Independence: nineteenth-century war in North America fought between American colonists in Texas and the country of Mexico Manifest Destiny In 1845, New York journalist John O’Sullivan coined a phrase that has become established as the nineteenth-century vision of the American Dream: Manifest Destiny. In short, the term assured Americans it was their God-given destiny to conquer North America from coast to coast. Through wars and treaties; establishment of law and order; building farms, ranches, and towns; marking trails and digging mines; and pulling in great migrations of foreigners, the United States expanded from coast to coast, fulfilling the notion of the American Dream. From the early 1830s to 1869, the Oregon Trail and its many offshoots were used by over 300,000 settlers. ’49ers (in the California Gold Rush), ranchers, farmers, and entrepreneurs and their families headed to California, Oregon, and other points in the far west. Wagon trains took five or six months to complete; after 1869, the trip took six days by rail. As the nation grew, manifest destiny became a rallying cry for expansionists in the Democratic Party. In the 1840s the Tyler and Polk administrations (1841 – 49) successfully promoted this nationalistic doctrine. However, the Whig Party, which represented business and financial interests, was opposed. Whig leaders such as Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln called for deepening society through modernization and urbanization instead of simple horizontal expansion. Starting with the annexation of Texas, the expansionists had the upper hand. John Quincy Adams, an anti-slavery Whig, felt the Texas annexation in 1845 was “the heaviest calamity that ever befell myself and my country.” Texan War for Independence Mexico became independent of Spain in 1821 and took over Spain’s northern possessions from Texas to California. The Spanish and Mexican governments attracted American settlers to Texas with generous terms. Tensions rose, however, after an abortive attempt to establish the independent nation of Fredonia in 1826. William Travis, leading the “war party,” advocated for independence from Mexico, while the “peace party” led by Austin attempted to get more autonomy within the current relationship. Immigration continued and 30,000 Anglos with 3,000 slaves were settled in Texas by 1835. In 1836, the Texas Revolution erupted. Following losses at the Alamo and Goliad, the Texans won the decisive Battle of San Jacinto to secure independence. The U.S. Congress declined to annex Texas, stalemated by contentious arguments over slavery and regional power. Thus, the Republic of Texas remained an independent power for nearly a decade before it was annexed as the 28th state in 1845. The government of Mexico, however, viewed Texas as a runaway province and asserted its ownership. Manifest Destiny in the American West The latter half of the 19th century was marked by the rapid development and settlement of the far West, first by wagon trains and riverboats and then aided by the completion of the transcontinental railroad. Large numbers of European immigrants (especially from Germany and Scandinavia) took up low-cost or free farms in the Prairie States. Mining for silver and copper opened up the Rocky Mountain regions. The United States Army fought frequent small-scale wars with Native Americans as settlers encroached on their traditional lands. Gradually the U.S. purchased the Native American tribal lands and extinguished their claims, forcing most tribes onto subsidized reservations. William Walker, Manifest Destiny, and Latin America By the mid-1800s, politicians in the United States knew their counterparts in Western Europe had expanding empires. To keep up with countries such as England and France, some wealthy and influential people in the United States began to consider creating an empire. To do so, they played upon the idea of manifest destiny. Among those who sought to extend American power was former lawyer and journalist, William Walker. A Tennessee native with strong Southern sympathies, Walker studied medicine in Scotland, France, and Germany where he witnessed the revolutions of 1848. These social movements influenced his later revolutionary inclinations. Upon returning to the United States, he moved to California and worked as an editor in San Francisco in 1850. While there, presumably because of his close interaction with Hispanic populations, he began to dream of expanding American territory and presence into Latin America. He was not alone. Numerous other wealthy Americans shared his dream of expanding the United States influence throughout the Western Hemisphere as part of manifest destiny. A movement, unsanctioned by the United States government, arose of adventurous and often wealthy men who sought to spread American culture and politics into Latin America and the Caribbean. Called Filibusters, Walker became the most famous of the movement because of his brief success in Nicaragua. After a failed attempt to settle a colony in Mexico, Walker hired a mercenary group of American soldiers to invade Latin America and “liberate” Nicaragua, which was in the midst of a civil war. Walker quickly exploited the situation and was able to defeat the opposition at the Battle of Rivas. His victories received initial support and excitement from some Nicaraguans, and Walker immediately declared himself president of Nicaragua. His popularity was, however, short-lived. At odds with his patron, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Walker severed ties. And as an ardent slavery supporter, Walker reversed anti-slavery policies in Nicaragua, which quickly lost him favor. Revolts erupted and Walker was forced to surrender only two years after his triumphant victory. He fled in 1857. Undaunted and convinced of his God-given duty to conquer Latin America, Walker returned to Honduras in 1860. His last filibustering adventure into Central America proved fatal. Deserted by his men, he surrendered to a nearby British naval officer whose vessel patrolled British islands off the coast of Honduras. Instead of returning Walker to the United States, as perhaps Walker expected, the officer delivered him to the enraged Honduran authorities. He was subsequently court martialed and executed by firing squad. The last of the American filibusters, his remains are buried in a cemetery in Trujillo, Honduras. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons “William Walker” by Fanny Juda. http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist1/walker.html Boundless World History https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/north-america/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.681716	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87926/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Period of Revolution 1650-1871 CE, Chapter 9: Revolution, Manifest Destiny", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87923/overview	Brazil Overview Brazil Brazil's independence movement was a direct result of the outcomes of the Napoleonic invasions. Brazil was unique in the fact that they had established a Empire following independence. Learning Objectives Analyze the difference between the Spanish and Portuguese independence movements. Evaluate the impact of the Napoleonic Wars on the Independence Movements of Brazil. Analyze the difference between the Brazilian Independence and other Latin American states. Key Terms / Key Concepts - Constitutionalist Revolution: a Portuguese political revolution that erupted in 1820. It began with a military insurrection in the city of Porto, in northern Portugal, that quickly and peacefully spread to the rest of the country; resulted in the return in 1821 of the Portuguese Court to Portugal from Brazil; initiated a constitutional period in which the 1822 Constitution was ratified and implemented - United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves: a monarchy formed by the elevation of the Portuguese colony of Brazil to the status of a kingdom and by the simultaneous union of that Kingdom of Brazil with the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of the Algarves, constituting a single state consisting of three kingdoms; formed in 1815 after the transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil during the Napoleonic invasions of Portugal and continued to exist for about one year after the return of the Court to Europe (It was de facto dissolved in 1822 when Brazil proclaimed its independence.) - Brazilian war of independence: a war waged between the newly independent Empire of Brazil and United Kingdom of Portugal; lasted from February 1822, when the first skirmishes took place, to March 1824, when the last Portuguese garrison of Montevideo surrendered to Commander Sinian Kersey - First Brazilian Republic: the period of Brazilian history from 1889 to 1930. (It ended with a military coup, also known as the Brazilian Revolution of 1930, that installed Getúlio Vargas as a dictator.) - Pedro I: nicknamed “the Liberator”; the founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil; reigned briefly over Portugal - bicameral parliament: a legislature in which the legislators are divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses; often, the members of the two chambers are elected or selected using different methods that vary from country to country - Pedro II: the second and last ruler of the Empire of Brazil, reigning for over 58 years (Inheriting an empire on the verge of disintegration, he turned Portuguese-speaking Brazil into an emerging power in the international arena. The nation grew distinguished from its Hispanic neighbors on account of its political stability, zealously guarded freedom of speech, respect for civil rights, vibrant economic growth, and especially its government: a functional, representative parliamentary monarchy.) - Peninsular War: a military conflict between Napoleon’s empire and the allied powers of Spain, Britain, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars - Spanish Constitution of 1812: Spain’s first national sovereign assembly established on March 19, 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes; established the principles of universal male suffrage, national sovereignty, constitutional monarchy, and freedom of the press, and supported land reform and free enterprise; Spain’s first Constitution - juntas: a Spanish and Portuguese term for a civil deliberative or administrative council (In English, it predominantly refers to the government of an authoritarian state run by high-ranking officers of a military. The term literally means “union” and often refers to the army, navy, and air force commanders taking over the power of the president, prime minister, king, or other non-military leader.) Brazilian Independence: Pedro II From 1807 to 1811, Napoleonic French forces invaded Portugal three times. During the invasion of Portugal (1807), the Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil, establishing Rio de Janeiro as the de facto capital of Portugal. From Brazil, the Portuguese king João VI ruled his trans-Atlantic empire for 13 years. The capital’s move to Rio de Janeiro accentuated the economic, institutional, and social crises in mainland Portugal, which was administered by English commercial and military interests under William Beresford’s rule in the absence of the monarch. The influence of liberal ideals was strengthened by the aftermath of the war, the continuing impact of the American and French revolutions, discontent under absolutist government, and the general indifference shown by the Portuguese regency for the plight of its people. This also had the side effect of creating within Brazil many of the institutions required to exist as an independent state; most importantly, it freed the country to trade with other nations at will. After Napoleon’s army was finally defeated in 1815, King João VI of Portugal raised the de jure status of Brazil to an equal, integral part of a United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves, rather than a mere colony; this was done in order to maintain the capital in Brazil. It enjoyed this status for the next seven years. Following the defeat of the French forces, Portugal experienced a prolonged period of political turmoil in which many sought greater self-rule for the Portuguese people. Eventually this unrest put an end to the king’s long stay in Brazil and prompted his return to Portugal. Even though the Portuguese participated in the defeat of the French, the country found itself virtually a British protectorate. The officers of the Portuguese Army resented British control of the Portuguese armed forces. After Napoleon’s definite defeat in 1815, a clandestine Supreme Regenerative Council of Portugal and the Algarve was formed in Lisbon by army officers and freemasons, headed by General Gomes Freire de Andrade—Grand Master of the Grande Oriente Lusitano and former general under Napoleon until his defeat in 1814. This was done with the objective of ending British control of the country and promoting “salvation and independence.” In 1820 the Constitutionalist Revolution erupted in Portugal. The movement initiated by the liberal constitutionalists resulted in the meeting of the Cortes (or Constituent Assembly) that would create the kingdom’s first constitution. The Cortes demanded the return of King João VI, who had been living in Brazil since 1808. The revolution began with a military insurrection in the city of Porto, in northern Portugal, that quickly and peacefully spread to the rest of the country. In 1821, the Revolution resulted in the return of the Portuguese Court to Portugal from Brazil and initiated a constitutional period in which the 1822 Constitution was ratified and implemented. The revolutionaries also sought to restore Portuguese exclusivity in the trade with Brazil, reverting Brazil to the status of a colony; it was officially reduced to a “Principality of Brazil,” instead of the Kingdom of Brazil, which it had been for the past five years. The movement’s liberal ideas had an important influence on Portuguese society and political organization in the 19th century. Early Brazilian Independence Brazilian Independence King João returned to Portugal in April 1821, leaving behind his son and heir, Prince Dom Pedro, to rule Brazil as his regent. The Portuguese government immediately moved to revoke the political autonomy that Brazil had been granted since 1808. The threat of losing their limited control over local affairs ignited widespread opposition among Brazilians. José Bonifácio de Andrada, along with other Brazilian leaders, convinced Pedro to declare Brazil’s independence from Portugal on September 7, 1822. On October 12, the prince was acclaimed Pedro I—first Emperor of the newly created Empire of Brazil, which was a constitutional monarchy. The declaration of independence was opposed throughout Brazil by armed military units loyal to Portugal. The ensuing Brazilian war of independence was fought across the country, with battles in the northern, northeastern, and southern regions. The war lasted from February 1822, when the first skirmishes took place, to March 1824, when the last Portuguese garrison of Montevideo surrendered to Commander Sinian Kersey. It was fought on land and sea and involved both regular forces and civilian militia. Independence was recognized by Portugal in August 1825. Early Years Unlike most of the neighboring Hispanic American republics, Brazil had political stability, vibrant economic growth, constitutionally guaranteed freedom of speech, and respect for civil rights of its subjects—albeit with legal restrictions on women and slaves who were regarded as property and not citizens. The empire’s bicameral parliament was elected under comparatively democratic methods for the era, as were the provincial and local legislatures. This led to a long ideological conflict between Pedro I and a sizable parliamentary faction over the role of the monarch in the government. Pedro I also faced other obstacles. The unsuccessful Cisplatine War against the neighboring United Provinces of the Río de la Plata in 1828 led to the secession of the province of Cisplatina (later Uruguay). In 1826, despite his role in Brazilian independence, Pedro I became the king of Portugal; he immediately abdicated the Portuguese throne in favor of his eldest daughter. Two years later, she was usurped by Pedro I’s younger brother Miguel. Unable to deal with both Brazilian and Portuguese affairs, Pedro I abdicated his Brazilian throne on April 7, 1831, and immediately departed for Europe to restore his daughter to the Portuguese throne. Pedro II Pedro I’s successor in Brazil was his five-year-old son, Pedro II. As the latter was still a minor, a weak regency was created. The power vacuum resulting from the absence of a ruling monarch led to regional civil wars between local factions. Having inherited an empire on the verge of disintegration, Pedro II, once he was declared of age, managed to bring peace and stability to the country, which eventually became an emerging international power. Under Pedro II’s rule Brazil was victorious in three international conflicts (the Platine War, the Uruguayan War, and the Paraguayan War). The Empire also prevailed in several other international disputes and outbreaks of domestic strife. With prosperity and economic development came an influx of European immigration, including Protestants and Jews, although Brazil remained mostly Catholic. Slavery, which was initially widespread, was restricted by successive legislation until its final abolition in 1888. Brazilian visual arts, literature, and theater developed during this time of progress. Although heavily influenced by European styles that ranged from Neoclassicism to Romanticism, each concept was adapted to create a culture that was uniquely Brazilian. End of the Empire Even though the last four decades of Pedro II’s reign were marked by continuous internal peace and economic prosperity, he had no desire to see the monarchy survive beyond his lifetime and made no effort to maintain support for the institution. The next in line to the throne was his daughter Isabel, but neither Pedro II nor the ruling classes considered a female monarch acceptable. Lacking any viable heir, the Empire’s political leaders saw no reason to defend the monarchy. Although there was no desire for a change in the form of government among most Brazilians, after a 58-year reign, on November 15, 1889, the emperor was overthrown in a sudden coup d’état led by a clique of military leaders whose goal was the formation of a republic headed by a dictator, forming the First Brazilian Republic. Pedro II had become weary of emperorship and despaired over the monarchy’s future prospects, despite its overwhelming popular support. He allowed no prevention of his ouster and did not support any attempt to restore the monarchy. He spent the last two years of his life in exile in Europe, living alone on very little money. The reign of Pedro II thus came to an unusual end—he was overthrown while highly regarded by the people and at the pinnacle of his popularity, and some of his accomplishments were soon brought to naught as Brazil slipped into a long period of weak governments, dictatorships, and constitutional and economic crises. The men who had exiled him soon began to see in him a model for the Brazilian republic. Attributions Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: Independence or Death: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Independencia_brasil_001.jpg Boundless World History	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.708220	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87923/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Period of Revolution 1650-1871 CE, Chapter 9: Revolution, Brazil", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88061/overview	Japanese Expansion November 1941 to June 1942 Overview The title image is of a battleship sinking during the Japanese strike on Pearl Harbor. Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Japanese Expansion November 1941 to June 1942 The Pacific War component of the Second World War was part of the larger effort at imperial expansion by the Japanese and was the culmination of the colonial rivalry among Japan, Russia, the United States, and various European powers for control of the Pacific Oceans and islands therein. It is one of the numerous conflicts into which World War II is divided, and it was most closely related to the Japanese war efforts in eastern and southern Asia. The Pacific War constituted the largest geographic theater of World War II, being fought in the Pacific and the Indian Oceans and known as the Pacific War. Learning Objectives Discuss the significance of Pearl Harbor and the early campaigns in the Pacific theater and connect the battles for Okinawa and Iwo Jima with the greater American “island hopping” strategy. Key Terms / Key Concepts Pacific Theater: a major theater of the war between the Allies and Japan defined by the Allied powers’ Pacific Ocean Area command Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere: an imperialist propaganda concept created by the Japanese government to disguise and/or rationalize Japanese conquest of the Pacific and portions of Asia Pearl Harbor: site of main U.S. military complex in Hawaii, and target of Japanese attack on 7 December 1941, as part of larger Japanese offensive to take control of the Pacific Ocean Background of the Pacific War The Second Sino-Japanese War between the Empire of Japan and China had been in progress since 7 July 1937, with hostilities dating back as far as 19 September 1931 when the Japanese invaded Manchuria. However, it is more widely accepted that the Pacific War itself began on 7 December (8 December Japanese time) 1941, when the Japanese initiated their offensive against Thailand; the British colonies of Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong; and United States military and naval bases in Hawaii, Wake Island, Guam, and the Philippines. Summary of the Pacific War The Pacific War saw the Allies pitted against Japan, the latter aided by Thailand and to a lesser extent by the Axis powers: Germany and Italy. This conflict was marked by naval battles across the Pacific and land campaigns on numerous Pacific islands. The war culminated in massive Allied air raids over Japan, and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, accompanied by the Soviet Union's declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria and other territories on 9 August 1945, causing the Japanese to announce an intent to surrender on 15 August 1945. The formal surrender of Japan ceremony took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. After the war, Japan lost all rights and titles to its former possessions in Asia and the Pacific, and its sovereignty was limited to the four main home islands and other minor islands as determined by the Allies. Japan's Shinto Emperor relinquished much of his authority and his divine status through the Shinto Directive in order to pave the way for extensive cultural and political reforms. Names for the War Naming this war has been a challenge because of how it overlaps with World War II conflicts in Asia. In Allied countries during the war, the "Pacific War" was not usually distinguished from World War II in general; it was simply known as the War against Japan. In the United States, the term Pacific Theater was widely used, although this was a misnomer in relation to the Allied campaign in Burma, the war in China, and other activities within the South-East Asian Theater. However, the US Armed Forces considered the China-Burma-India Theater to be distinct from the Asiatic-Pacific Theater during the conflict. Japan used the name Greater East Asia War, as chosen by a cabinet decision on 10 December 1941, to refer to both the war with the Western Allies and the ongoing war in China. This name was released to the public on 12 December, with an explanation that it involved Asian nations achieving their independence from the Western powers through armed forces of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident into the Greater East Asia War. During the Allied military occupation of Japan (1945 – 52), these Japanese terms were prohibited in official documents, although their informal usage continued. The conflict eventually became officially known as the Pacific War. In Japan, the term Fifteen Years' War is also used, to refer to all the fighting in which Japanese forces participated from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945. Participants Allies The major Allied participants were China, the United States, and the British Empire, but other nations assisted these allies in some fashion. China had already been engaged in a war against Japan since 1937. The United States and its territories, including the Philippine Commonwealth, entered the war after being attacked by Japan. The British Empire was also a major belligerent consisting of British troops along with large numbers of colonial troops from the armed forces of India, Burma, Malaya, Fiji, Tonga, in addition to troops from Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. The Dutch government-in-exile (as possessor of the Dutch East Indies) also participated. All of these were members of the Pacific War Council. Mexico provided some air support, and Free France sent the naval vessels Le Triomphant and the Richelieu. From 1944 the French commando group Corps Léger d'Intervention also took part in resistance operations in Indochina. French Indochinese forces faced Japanese forces in a coup in 1945. The commando corps continued to operate after the coup until liberation. Some active pro-allied guerrillas in Asia included the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army, the Korean Liberation Army, the Free Thai Movement, the Việt Minh, and the Hukbalahap. The Soviet Union fought two brief, undeclared border conflicts with Japan in 1938 and 1939, then remained neutral through the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact of April 1941, until August 1945 when it (and Mongolia) joined the rest of the Allies and invaded the territory of Manchukuo, China, Inner Mongolia, the Japanese protectorate of Korea, as well as Japanese-claimed territory such as South Sakhalin. Axis Powers and Aligned States The Axis-aligned states which assisted Japan included the authoritarian government of Thailand, which formed a cautious alliance with the Japanese in 1941, when Japanese forces issued the government with an ultimatum following the Japanese invasion of Thailand. Also involved were members of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, which included the Manchukuo Imperial Army and Collaborationist Chinese Army of the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo (consisting of most of Manchuria), and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime (which controlled the coastal regions of China). In the Burma campaign, the anti-British Indian National Army of Free India and the Burma National Army of the State of Burma, among others, were active and fighting alongside their Japanese allies. Other units assisted the Japanese war effort in their respective territories. Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Taiwan. Collaborationist security units were also formed in Hong Kong (reformed ex-colonial police), Singapore, the Philippines (also a member of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere), the Dutch East Indies (the PETA), British Malaya, British Borneo, former French Indochina (after the overthrow of the French regime in 1945) (the Vichy French had previously allowed the Japanese to use bases in French Indochina beginning in 1941, following an invasion) as well as Timorese militia. Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, notably the Monsun Gruppe. The Italians had access to concession territory naval bases in China, which was later ceded to collaborationist China by the Italian Social Republic in late 1943. After Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war, both navies had access to Japanese naval facilities. Theaters Between 1942 and 1945, the Allies and Japan divided the Pacific War into several areas of conflict, including the central Pacific, the south Pacific, and the southwest Pacific. These areas overlapped with the China-Burma-India Theater—the Allies name for the area of fighting against the Japanese across south and east Asia. In the Pacific, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. In 1945, for a brief period just before the Japanese surrender, the Soviet Union and Mongolia engaged Japanese forces in Manchuria and northeast China. The Imperial Japanese Navy did not integrate its units into permanent theater commands. The Imperial Japanese Army, which had already created the Kwantung Army to oversee its occupation of Manchukuo and the China Expeditionary Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War, created the Southern Expeditionary Army Group at the outset of its conquests of South East Asia. This headquarters controlled the bulk of the Japanese Army formations that opposed the Western Allies in the Pacific and South East Asia. Background War between Japan and the U.S. was a possibility each nation had been planning for since the 1920s, and serious tensions began with Japan’s 1931 invasion of Manchuria. Over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all-out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland; the “Southern Operation” was designed to assist these efforts. From December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the U.S., the United Kingdom, and France provided loan assistance for war supply contracts to the Republic of China. The U.S. ceased oil exports to Japan in July 1941 following Japanese expansion into French Indochina after the fall of France, in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption. This caused the Japanese to proceed with plans to take the Dutch East Indies, an oil-rich territory. On August 17, Roosevelt warned Japan that the U.S. was prepared to take steps against Japan if it attacked “neighboring countries.” The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource-rich, European-controlled colonies of Southeast Asia. The Japanese attack had two major aims. First, it was intended to destroy important American fleet units, thereby preventing the Pacific Fleet from interfering with Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Malaya, which would enable and enabling Japan to conquer Southeast Asia without interference. Second, it was meant to intimidate the U.S. into negotiating for terms favorable to Japan. Japanese Offensives, 1941 – 42 Following prolonged tensions between Japan and the Western powers throughout most of 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy and Imperial Japanese Army launched simultaneous surprise attacks on a number of United States and British colonial possessions across the Pacific and east Asia on 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asia/West Pacific time zones). The targets of the first wave of Japanese attacks included the American territories of Hawaii, the Philippines, Guam, and Wake Island, as well as the British territories of Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong. Concurrently, Japanese forces invaded southern and eastern Thailand; they were resisted for several hours, before the Thai government signed an armistice and entered an alliance with Japan. Although Japan declared war on the United States and the British Empire, the declaration was not delivered until after the attacks began. Subsequent attacks and invasions followed during December 1941 and early 1942, leading to the occupation of American, British, Dutch and Australian territories and air raids on the Australian mainland. The Allies suffered many disastrous defeats in the first six months of the war. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor was the centerpiece of the Japanese offensive against the U.S. It was a carrier-based air strike on Pearl Harbor in Honolulu that was conducted without explicit warning, and it crippled the US Pacific Fleet. The attack knocked eight American battleships out of action, destroyed 188 American aircraft, and caused the deaths of 2,403 Americans. The Japanese had gambled that the United States, when faced with such a sudden massive blow and so much loss of life, would agree to a quick negotiated settlement and allow Japan free rein in Asia. This gamble did not pay off. American losses were not as expansive as initially thought: the American aircraft carriers, which would prove to be more important than battleships, were at sea. Additionally, vital naval infrastructure (fuel oil tanks, shipyard facilities, and a power station), submarine base, and signals intelligence units were unscathed. Even more detrimental to the Japanese plan was the fact the bombing happened while the US was not officially at war, which caused a wave of outrage across the United States. Japan's fallback strategy, relying on a war of attrition to make the US come to terms, was beyond the Imperial Japanese Navy's capabilities. On December 8, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and The Netherlands declared war on Japan, followed by China and Australia the next day. Four days after Pearl Harbor, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. These German and Italian war declarations on the U.S. are widely agreed to have been strategic blunders, as they negated both the benefit Germany gained by Japan's distraction of the US and the reduction in aid to Britain, which both Congress and Hitler had managed to avoid during over a year of mutual provocation. South-East Asian campaigns of 1941–42 Thailand, with its territory already serving as a springboard for the Malayan Campaign, surrendered within 5 hours of the Japanese invasion. The government of Thailand formally allied with Japan on 21 December. To the south, the Imperial Japanese Army had seized the British colony of Penang on 19 December, encountering little resistance. Hong Kong was attacked on 8 December; even though Canadian forces and the Royal Hong Kong Volunteers played an important part in the defense of Hong Kong, it fell on 25 December 1941. Japanese forces captured U.S. bases on Guam and Wake Island about the same time. British, Australian, and Dutch forces, already drained of personnel and material by two years of war with Germany, as well as heavily committed elsewhere, were unable to provide much more than token resistance to the battle-hardened Japanese. As part of a Japanese air attack Japanese aircraft sank two major British warships, the battlecruiser HMS Repulse and the battleship HMS Prince of Wales, off Malaya on 10 December 1941. Following the Declaration by United Nations (the first official use of the term United Nations) on 1 January 1942, the Allied governments appointed the British General Sir Archibald Wavell to the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDACOM), a supreme command for Allied forces in Southeast Asia. This gave Wavell nominal control of a huge force, albeit thinly spread over an area from Burma to the Philippines to northern Australia. On 15 January, Wavell moved to Bandung in Java to assume control of ABDACOM. Other areas, including India, Hawaii, and the rest of Australia remained under separate local commands. In January 1942, Japanese forces invaded British Burma, the Dutch East Indies, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and captured Manila, Kuala Lumpur, and Rabaul. After being driven out of Malaya, Allied forces in Singapore attempted to resist the Japanese during the Battle of Singapore, but they were forced to surrender to the Japanese on 15 February 1942, at which time about 130,000 Indian, British, Australian and Dutch personnel became prisoners of war. The pace of conquest was rapid, as Bali and Timor also fell in February. The rapid collapse of Allied resistance left the "ABDA area" split in two. Wavell resigned from ABDACOM on 25 February, handing control of the ABDA Area to local commanders and returning to the post of Commander-in-Chief, India. Meanwhile, Japanese aircraft had all but eliminated Allied air power in Southeast Asia and were making air attacks on northern Australia, beginning with a psychologically devastating but militarily insignificant bombing of the city of Darwin on 19 February, which killed at least 243 people. Philippines At the Battle of the Java Sea in late February and early March, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) inflicted a resounding defeat on the main ABDA naval force, under Admiral Karel Doorman. The Dutch East Indies campaign subsequently ended with the surrender of Allied forces on Java and Sumatra. Two months later Japanese forces completed their conquest of the Philippines, taking more than 80,000 U.S. soldiers and Marines prisoner. General Douglas MacArthur, commander of U.S. forces in the Philippines, had already withdrawn to Australia, where he assumed his new post as Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific. The US Navy, under Admiral Chester Nimitz, had responsibility for the rest of the Pacific Ocean. This divided command had unfortunate consequences for the commerce war, and consequently, the Allied war effort in the Pacific, by then under U.S. control. The U.S. assumed this responsibility in the Pacific War because of its geographic proximity to the Pacific, its overwhelming superiority in human and material resources, and its status as the leading Allied Power in this theater. Australia In late 1941, as the Japanese struck at Pearl Harbor, most of Australia's best forces were committed to the fight against Axis forces in the Mediterranean Theatre. Australia was ill-prepared for an attack, lacking armaments, modern fighter aircraft, heavy bombers, and aircraft carriers. While still calling for reinforcements from Churchill, the Australian Prime Minister John Curtin called for U.S. support with a historic announcement on 27 December 1941. Many Australians were captured by the Japanese, and at least 8,000 died as prisoners of war. The Australian Government ... regards the Pacific struggle as primarily one in which the United States and Australia must have the fullest say in the direction of the democracies' fighting plan. Without inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom. — Prime Minister John Curtin Australia had been shocked by the speedy and crushing collapse of British Malaya and the fall of Singapore, in which around 15,000 Australian soldiers were captured and became prisoners of war. Curtin predicted the "battle for Australia" would soon follow. The Japanese established a major base in the Australian Territory of New Guinea, beginning with the capture of Rabaul on 23 January 1942. On 19 February 1942, Darwin suffered a devastating air raid, the first time the Australian mainland had been attacked. Over the following 19 months, Australia was attacked from the air almost 100 times. Two battle-hardened Australian divisions were moved from the Middle East for Singapore. Churchill wanted them diverted to Burma, but Curtin insisted on a return to Australia. In early 1942 elements of the Imperial Japanese Navy proposed an invasion of Australia. The Imperial Japanese Army opposed the plan, and it was rejected in favor of a policy of isolating Australia from the United States via blockade by advancing through the South Pacific. The Japanese decided upon a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby, capital of the Australian Territory of Papua, which would put all of Northern Australia within range of Japanese bomber aircraft. U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt ordered General Douglas MacArthur to formulate a Pacific defense plan with Australia. Curtin agreed to place Australian forces under the command of MacArthur, who became Supreme Commander, South West Pacific. MacArthur moved his headquarters to Melbourne in March 1942, and American troops began massing in Australia. Enemy naval activity reached Sydney in late May 1942, when Japanese midget submarines launched a raid on Sydney Harbour. On 8 June 1942, two Japanese submarines briefly shelled Sydney's eastern suburbs and the city of Newcastle. Japanese Advance until mid-1942 In early 1942, the governments of smaller powers began to push for an inter-governmental Asia-Pacific war council, based in Washington, DC. A council was established in London, with a subsidiary body in Washington. However, the smaller powers continued to push for an American-based body. The Pacific War Council was formed in Washington, on 1 April 1942, with representatives from the U.S., Britain, China, Australia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Canada. Representatives from India and the Philippines were later added. The council never had any direct operational control, and any decisions it made were referred to the US-UK Combined Chiefs of Staff, which was also in Washington. Allied resistance, at first symbolic, gradually began to stiffen. Australian and Dutch forces led civilians in a prolonged guerilla campaign in Portuguese Timor. Japanese Strategy and the Doolittle Raid Having accomplished their objectives during the First Operation Phase with ease, the Japanese now turned to the second. Japan planned the Second Operational Phase to expand Japan's strategic depth by adding eastern New Guinea, New Britain, the Aleutians, Midway, the Fiji Islands, Samoa, and strategic points in the Australian area. However, limited resources and U.S. naval intervention in March 1942 stopped Japanese expansion across the south Pacific toward Australia. This intervention, along with the U.S. Doolittle bombing raid against Tokyo in April 1942, provoked Japanese leaders to try a series of riskier offensives against the U.S. naval presence in the central Pacific, specifically at Midway Island. Attributions Images Courtesy of Wikipedia Commonds Title Image - U.S.S. Arizona sinking during Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Attribution: Photographer: Unknown. Retouched by: Mmxx, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia Commons. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_USS_Arizona_(BB-39)_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg. License: CC-BY-SA Boundless World History "The Pacific War" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-pacific-war/ CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION World War II. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II#War_breaks_out_in_the_Pacific_.281941.29. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Attack on Pearl Harbor. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor#/media/File:Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Pacific War. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Battle of Midway. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor#/media/File:Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike USS_Yorktown_hit-740px.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway#/media/File:USS_Yorktown_hit-740px.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Guadalcanal Campaign. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Pacific War. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor#/media/File:Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike USS_Yorktown_hit-740px.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway#/media/File:USS_Yorktown_hit-740px.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike GuadPatrol.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign#/media/File:GuadPatrol.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.742759	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88061/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 14: The World Afire: World War II, Japanese Expansion November 1941 to June 1942", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87988/overview	The Great Depression Overview Political Impact of the Great Depression The poverty and misery among the working class due to the Great Depression stirred up fears of social revolution and Communist influence among the middle class in industrialized countries. In many European countries military dictatorships arose to maintain order and to fight Communism. Industrialized countries with a long tradition of Liberal government avoided social revolution during the Great Depression and maintained their democratic forms of government, but underwent sweeping reforms, which resulted in the development of the so-called “Welfare State.” Learning Objectives - Analyze the worldwide reactions of nations to the global depression. Key Terms / Key Concepts Corporatism: a 20th century political ideology which sought to organize society into corporate groups based on their common interests, such as agricultural, labor, military, business, scientific, or guild associations Estado Novo: the "New State" in Portugal; was Roman Catholic, anti-Communist, and dedicated to preserving Portugal's overseas empire Fascism: a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe; the belief that liberal democracy is obsolete and that the complete mobilization of society under a totalitarian one-party state is necessary to prepare a nation for armed conflict and to respond effectively to economic difficulties Iron Guard: the name most commonly given to the far-right movement and political party in Romania, from 1927 into the early part of World War II; was ultra-nationalist, antisemitic, anti-communist, anti-capitalist, and promoted the Orthodox Christian faith; members were called “Greenshirts” because of the predominantly green uniforms they wore Welfare State: a form of government in the 20th century that uses its power to tax and spend to provide a "safety net" for its citizens negatively impacted by a capitalist economy The Rise of Fascism across Europe The conditions of economic hardship caused by the Great Depression brought about significant social unrest around the world, leading to a major surge of fascism and, in many cases, the collapse of democratic governments. The events of the Great Depression resulted in an international surge of fascism and the creation of several fascist regimes or regimes that adopted fascist policies. Fascist propaganda blamed the problems of the long depression of the 1930s on minorities and scapegoats. Fascist governments often blamed nations’ problems on “Judeo-Masonic-Bolshevik” conspiracies, left-wing internationalism or “communists”, and the presence of immigrants. According to historian Philip Morgan, “the onset of the Great Depression…was the greatest stimulus yet to the diffusion and expansion of fascism outside Italy.” Yugoslavia, Romania, Hungary, and Portugal were among the nations that dealt with strong fascist movements during this time. Hungary In 1920 Conservative Anti-Communists in Hungary organized a National Assembly and announced the re-establishment of the Kingdom of Hungary. France and the United Kingdom, however, strongly opposed the restoration of the former Hapsburg king Charles, so the National Assembly appointed a Hungarian aristocrat and war hero, Miklos Horthy to be "Regent" of the kingdom. Horthy continued to serve as head of state until 1945 and enjoyed support from conservative Roman Catholics, aristocratic landowners, and the Hungarian middle class that were opposed to the Communist threat. Hungarian fascist Gyula Gömbös rose to power as Prime Minister of Hungary in 1932 and attempted to entrench his Party of National Unity throughout the country. Gömbös created an eight-hour workday and a 48-hour work week in industry, sought to entrench a corporatist economy, and pursued claims to territories belonging to Hungary’s neighbors. Romania With the onset of the Great Depression, the king of Romania, Carol II, assumed dictatorial powers with the support of the army due to the threat of Communism The fascist Iron Guard movement in Romania gained political support after 1933, securing representation in the Romanian government. An Iron Guard member assassinated Romanian prime minister Ion Duca. The Iron Guard was a far-right movement and political party in Romania, from 1927 into the early part of World War II. Its supporters were ultra-nationalist, antisemitic, anti-communist, anti-capitalist, and promoted the Orthodox Christian faith. Iron Guard members were called “Greenshirts” because of the predominantly green uniforms they wore Yugoslavia Yugoslavia briefly had a significant fascist movement called the Organization of Yugoslav Nationalists (ORJUNA); ORJUNA supported Yugoslavism (the unity of all “Southern Slavs”: Serbs, Croats, Slovenes). The Kingdom of Serbia after 1918 became the "Kingdom of the Southern Slavs" or Yugoslavia as Serbia annexed former territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, along with the tiny principality of Montenegro. This new state was quite diverse and included Serbian Orthodox Christians, Roman Catholic Croats and Slovenes, and Bosnian Muslims. Forging a sense of unity was a difficulty task. ORJUNA also supported the creation of a corporatist economy, opposed democracy, and took part in violent attacks on communists. The group was opposed to the Italian government due to Yugoslav border disputes with Italy. ORJUNA was dissolved in 1929 when the King of Yugoslavia, Alexander, banned political parties and created a royal dictatorship; ORJUNA supported the King’s decision. Portugal In Portugal, a former economist, Antonio Salazar, emerged as military dictator in 1932, following the military overthrow of Portugal's First Republic in 1926 (Portugal had deposed its last king, Manuel II in 1910). Salazar's envisioned an Estado Novo ("New State") that was Roman Catholic, anti-Communist, and dedicated to preserving Portugal's overseas empire in Africa (modern Angola and Mozambigue). Salazar remained in power in Portugal until he fell into a coma in 1968 and died. The Welfare State Industrialized countries with a long tradition of Liberal government—such as the United Kingdom, France, and the United States—avoided social revolution during the Great Depression and maintained their democratic forms of government, but underwent sweeping reforms, which resulted in the development of the so-called Welfare State. In the 1930s John Maynard Keynes—a British economist—studied these economic developments and these government policies. He determined that governments could effectively regulate a market economy through taxation and government spending (i.e., public works projects such as roads and dams), which put cash into the hands of the masses and thereby promoted consumer spending and economic growth. According to Keynes, governments should go into debt to pay for government spending that boosts the economy. Keynes's economic theories would become the basis for government policies among industrialized countries for decades following World War II. In these industrialized states, the government used its power to tax and spend to provide a "safety net" for its citizens who were negatively impacted by the economic downturn. A market economy continued to operate in these states, but governments taxed upper income citizens at a higher rate than those with lower incomes, and then regulated the economy by providing financial support and assistance to those with lower incomes. For example, in 1936, the Popular Front in France—a coalition of Liberal, Socialist, and Communist Parties—won elections under the leadership of Léon Blum, who was a Socialist; afterwards, they passed laws to mandate a 40-hour work week and a minimum wage. Additionally, they recognized the right of labor unions to represent workers and go on strike. In the United States, the Democratic Party, under the leadership of Franklin Roosevelt, won control of the government in elections in 1932, and proceeded to pass a whole series of laws, which became known as The New Deal. The Social Security Act, passed in 1935, mandated that all employers pay into a fund to provide pensions for the elderly, as well as provide unemployment insurance. The Wagner Act of 1935 recognized the right of workers to organize unions. The Fair Labor Standards Act, established in 1938, instituted a minimum wage. By the end of the 1930s, Roosevelt and his Democratic Congresses had presided over a transformation of the American government: Before World War I, the American national state, though powerful, had been a “government out of sight.” After the New Deal, Americans came to see the federal government as a potential ally in their daily struggles, whether finding work, securing a decent wage, getting a fair price for agricultural products, or organizing a union. The population of the United Kingdom suffered less than other countries from the impact of the Great Depression due to the earlier passage of the National Insurance Act in 1911. This act mandated that employers pay a tax to the government to provide unemployment insurance for their workers. Consequently, when unemployment rates skyrocketed in the United Kingdom due to the Great Depression, unemployed workers still received an income from the government. As government debts mounted, the United Kingdom in 1931 went off the gold standard, so that the government could print paper money to pay its debts without this currency being backed by government gold reserves. Attributions Title Image Unemployed men queued outside a depression soup kitchen opened in Chicago by Al Capone, 1931 - National Archives at College Park, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons Adapted from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-rise-of-fascism/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.774622	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87988/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 13: Post WWI, The Great Depression", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88070/overview	Declaration of Human Rights and the United Nations Overview The Declaration of Human Rights and the Founding of the UN World War II ended in September 1945 with the surrender of Japan. At the end of the war, 75 million people were dead, mostly civilians. As the world tried to grasp the scope of the Holocaust, as well as the massacres of Chinese in the Far East, the global community came together and declared that such atrocities much never occur again. They decided that the responsible parties must be held accountable and international organizations created to protect humanity. These assertions led to the creation of three very significant developments: the creation of the United Nations, the passage of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and widespread international war crimes trials in Europe and the Pacific. All of these measures were undertaken to promote international justice for the victims of World War II, to protect future humanity, and to establish the precedent that individual people, regardless of their status, must be held responsible for their actions in wartime. Learning Objectives - Analyze and assess the measures undertaken after World War II to protect humanity and plan for global peace. Key Terms / Key Concepts Human rights: basic rights to safety, food, and certain freedoms issued to individual human beings at birth by virtue of being born human Universal Declaration of Human Rights: a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, the first global expression of what many believe are the rights to which all human beings are inherently entitled United Nations: organization tasked with the purpose of designing international law, monitoring international crises, human rights, and international peace Rise of the United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, stop wars between countries, and provide a platform for dialogue. It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry out its missions. Creation of the UN The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization was begun under the U.S. State Department in 1939. Franklin D. Roosevelt first coined the term “United Nations” as a term to describe the Allied countries. The term was first officially used on January 1, 1942, when 26 governments signed the Atlantic Charter, pledging to continue the war effort. On April 25, 1945, the UN Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco, attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the United Nations Charter. The UN officially came into existence on October 24, 1945. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a declaration that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948 at the Palais de Chaillot, Paris. Importantly, the UDHR recognized that all human beings, regardless of age, ethnicity, class, religion, or any other category are individual human beings and entitled to certain individual rights. Although this concept seems elementary, it was first put into effect in 1948, three years after the end of World War II. Prior to its creation, there existed no document, no law, that universally recognized, or gave rights to human beings in terms of individuals. Moreover, the UDHR was the first document to speak of these individual rights in terms of human rights—rights given to an individual at birth by virtue of the fact they were born human. The UDHR was framed by members of the Human Rights Commission, with Eleanor Roosevelt as Chair, who began to discuss an International Bill of Rights in 1947. The members of the Commission did not immediately agree on the form of such a bill of rights and whether or how it should be enforced. The UDHR urges member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic, and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the “foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world.” It recognizes, “the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world.” The Declaration consists of 30 articles that, although not legally binding, have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, economic transfers, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions, and other laws. The International Bill of Human Rights consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its two Optional Protocols. In 1966, the General Assembly adopted the two detailed Covenants, which complete the International Bill of Human Rights. In 1976, after the Covenants had been ratified by a sufficient number of individual nations, the Bill became international law. Even though it is not legally binding, the Declaration has been adopted in or has influenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws, international laws, and treaties, as well as regional, subnational, and national institutions protecting and promoting human rights. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Boundless U.S. History “An International System” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/an-international-system/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Boundless World History “Impact of World War II” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/impact-of-war-world-ii/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.799784	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88070/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 14: The World Afire: World War II, Declaration of Human Rights and the United Nations", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88071/overview	War Crimes Trials: Nuremberg and the Pacific Overview Postwar War Crimes Trials In the postwar period, people realized the essentiality of holding people accountable for their wartime actions if future humanity were to be protected. Although the Nuremberg Trials and Tokyo War Crimes Trials were far from perfect, they demonstrated to the world that individual actions matter and international justice would be meted out to those who crimes against humanity. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the significance of the Nuremberg and Tokyo War Crimes Trials Key Terms / Key Concepts The Nuremberg Trials: most famous set of international war crimes trials of top Nazi officials Tokyo War Crime Trials: most famous set of war crimes trials of top Japanese officials The Nuremberg Trials The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals held by the Allied forces of World War II, most notably for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of Nazi Germany. In 1945 and 1946, the trials were held at the Palace of Justice in the city of Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany. The choice of locations was not coincidental. Nuremberg had been the home of the Nazi party. Holding the trials in Nuremberg held symbolic importance for the Allies who had defeated the Nazis. The first and best-known of these trials was that of the major war criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT). Held between November 20, 1945 and October 1, 1946, the IMT tried 23 of the most important political and military leaders of the Third Reich. One of the defendants, Martin Bormann, was tried in absentia, while another, Robert Ley, committed suicide within a week of the trial’s commencement. Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels were not included in the trials because all three committed suicide several months before the indictment was signed. The second set of trials of lesser war criminals was conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 at the U.S. Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT); among the second set of trials were the Doctors Trial and the Judges Trial. Creation of the Courts In 1945, all three major wartime powers—the United Kingdom, United States, and the Soviet Union—agreed on the format of punishment for those responsible for war crimes during World War II. France was also awarded a place on the tribunal. Some 200 German war crimes defendants were tried at Nuremberg, and 1,600 others were tried under the traditional channels of military justice. The legal basis for the jurisdiction of the court was defined by the Instrument of Surrender of Germany. Political authority for Germany had been transferred to the Allied Control Council which, having sovereign power over Germany, could choose to punish violations of international law and the laws of war. Because the court was limited to violations of the laws of war, it did not have jurisdiction over crimes that took place before the outbreak of war on September 1, 1939. The Nuremberg Trials Begin The IMT opened on November 19, 1945, in the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg. The first session was presided over by the Soviet judge Nikitchenko. The prosecution entered indictments against 24 major war criminals and seven organizations: the leadership of the Nazi party, the Reich Cabinet, the Schutzstaffel (SS), Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Gestapo, the Sturmabteilung (SA), and the “General Staff and High Command,” comprising several categories of senior military officers. These organizations were to be declared “criminal” if found guilty. The indictments were for participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of a crime against peace; planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression and other crimes against peace; war crimes; and crimes against humanity. The accusers successfully unveiled the background of developments leading to the outbreak of World War II, which cost at least 40 million lives in Europe alone, as well as the extent of the atrocities committed in the name of the Hitler regime. Twelve of the accused were sentenced to death, seven received prison sentences (ranging from 10 years to life in prison), three were acquitted, and two were not charged. Throughout the trials, specifically between January and July 1946, the defendants and a number of witnesses were interviewed by American psychiatrist Leon Goldensohn. His notes detailing the demeanor and comments of the defendants were edited into book form and published in 2004. The Tokyo War Crimes Trial Following Japan’s defeat in World War II, the global community began to investigate allegations of Japanese war crimes. These investigations culminated in a series of war crimes trials, most famous of which was the Tokyo War Crimes Trial. The international community accused Japan of crimes against humanity, crimes against peace, and war crimes. Accusations and evidence circulated to show that beginning with the Japanese conquest of Manchuria, the Japanese forces regularly abused prisoners of war, employed forced labor, destroyed towns and cities, slaughtered civilians, raped, looted, and tortured civilians. Tens of thousands of testimonies, documents, and eyewitness accounts were investigated. Among the most heinous charges were the Japanese involvement in human experimentation, such as with the infamous unit 731, the Bataan Death March, and the destruction of the Chinese city of Nanking. Using the IMT in Nuremberg as a model, courts began to assemble in Tokyo in the spring of 1946. In April 1946, the trials of many top-ranking Japanese officials began. The primary target of the Tokyo War Crimes Trial was the former Japanese prime minister Tojo Hideki. He was accused of, and later convicted of being instrumental in many of Japan’s most heinous behaviors during World War II. In the fall of 1948, the Tokyo War Crimes Trials ended. Twenty-three defendants were convicted, seven of whom were sentenced to death by hanging. Each of the defendants was found guilty of committing war crimes, and particularly, crimes against humanity. Out of respect to the Japanese culture, Douglas MacArthur, who proceeded over the trials, did not allow photos to be taken of the execution of the Japanese war criminals. Several additional, smaller war crimes trials occurred throughout Japan in the succeeding years. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Boundless U.S. History “An International System” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/an-international-system/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Boundless World History “Impact of World War II” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/impact-of-war-world-ii/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.823926	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88071/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 14: The World Afire: World War II, War Crimes Trials: Nuremberg and the Pacific", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91149/overview	Marketing in Action Overview Marketing in Action Outcome: Marketing in Action What you’ll learn to do: identify evidence of marketing in everyday life In this section, you’ll get a chance to explore the concept of marketing further and see how it’s at work in the world around you. It may surprise you to discover how much the term encompasses . . . The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Recognize marketing activities in daily life - Explain the differences between marketing, advertising, branding, and sales Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: Marketing in Action LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Outcome: Marketing in Action. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Marketing in Action Marketing is all around you. Enter a store, walk down the street, visit the Internet, or glance through your closet. Whether you realize it or not, some aspect of marketing is likely at work in each of these activities. In the following scenarios, consider the lengths to which marketers go to identify, satisfy, and retain you as a customer. See if you can draw examples from your own experience that demonstrate marketing in action. Scenario #1: Life on the Streets You’re walking down an urban street and, on impulse, you head into a trendy-looking clothing store. Right away, you pick out the obvious signs of marketing: shop signs, posters, window displays, sale notices, product displays, and brand names. Then come the less obvious, “environmental” things: the interior design, colors, aromas, the background music, announcer messages, the pricing structure, the way store clerks approach you–or leave you alone. All these details are part of a coordinated marketing strategy aimed at creating an ideal environment to separate you from your money. You may or may not be aware of how this is happening, but rest assured it is at work. Scenario #2: Virtual Reality Suppose you’re taking a short break from studying and doing a little online browsing—there’s news to read and Facebook to check. And you need to find a birthday present for your aunt . . . What kinds of marketing are ready to intrude? What jumps out at you immediately are the ads on the Web sites you visit: Facebook, Instagram, email, even your Google results. Annoyingly, you have trouble finding the X to close a pop-up banner ad that has taken over your screen. But that’s not all. Before you’re allowed to navigate to an article you want to read, you’re invited to take a “very short” user feedback survey. Back to your aunt: you head to Amazon.com to read a couple of customer reviews of the book you have in mind for her. Amazon recommends several other books, and one looks ideal. You compare prices at other booksellers, but Amazon beats them, so you place your order. In the end, you find exactly what you want, and it will be shipped that day. Thank you, marketing! Scenario #3: In My Room Now imagine you’re back at home, hanging out in your room. How is “marketing” invading your personal space? In the privacy of your own home, the presence of marketing might seem less obvious, but it’s definitely there. Pouring yourself a bowl of cereal, you see the back of the cereal box is inviting you to enter a sweepstakes contest. When you switch on the TV, a few ads slip by, even though you’re watching shows recorded on your DVR. Between programs, logos and messages from broadcasting networks tell you about other shows you don’t want to miss. As you’re becoming more attuned to the presence of advertising, you start to notice how all the characters in your favorite sitcom are drinking Pepsi products. Is that just a coincidence? Probably not. You look at the clock and realize it’s time to change for work. Opening your closet, you notice the logos on your favorite shirts. Not only do you love how those clothes fit, but you recognize an emotional connection: those clothes–and brands–make you feel confident and attractive. How’s that for invasive marketing? Marketing Is Everywhere The purpose of this course is not to start making you suspicious or even paranoid about the influence of marketing in your everyday life. In fact, marketing can play an important and beneficial role by connecting you to information, people, and things. It can make you aware of things you care about but wouldn’t otherwise encounter. When marketing is working well, the new information it brings to you also aligns with what you’re already interested in doing or exploring. At times, marketing might feel more like an assault than an assist. Visual images on posters or billboards scream for your attention. Sponsor announcements persistently remind you which organizations are making your entertainments possible. Sleek product designs beckon you to try on clothing or try out gadgets. Sales promotions create a sense of urgency to spend now or lose out. The right balance between “helpful” and “annoying” varies, depending on who you are and what type of relationship you have with the entity doing the marketing. When the balance starts to get off-kilter, it’s a clue that something isn’t working as well as it should in the marketing strategy and execution. Marketing Activities Marketing encompasses all the activities described above. It covers an entire spectrum of techniques focused on identifying, satisfying, and retaining customers. For people new to the concept of marketing, it can be easy to confuse marketing with some of the powerful and visible tools that marketers use. Marketing vs. Advertising Advertising uses paid notices in different forms of media to draw public attention to a company, product, or message, usually for the purpose of selling products or services.1 While advertising is a common and useful tool for marketing, it’s just one of many tactics marketers may use to achieve their goals. Marketing vs. Branding Branding is the process of “creating a unique name and image for a product in the consumer’s mind.”2 Brand is a powerful tool for shaping perceptions about a company or product in order to attract and retain loyal customers. Marketing processes and activities build brands, and branding is an important strategic consideration in any marketing effort. At the same time, marketing refers to a broader scope of activity than just branding. Marketing vs. Sales Sales refers to the process of actually selling products or services, leading up to the point where the exchange of value takes place. Effective marketing aligns well with the sales process and leads to increased sales. While marketing and sales are intertwined, the scope of marketing is generally considered broader than just supporting sales. Marketing helps identify prospective customers and prepare them to enter the sales process as informed, receptive, qualified sales leads. This course will explore all these marketing activities in much more detail to give you a clear picture of how these tools can be employed to support an organization’s broader marketing goals. Notes - "Advertising." The Free Dictionary. Accessed September 10, 2019. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/advertising ↵ - "Branding." Business Dictionary. Accessed September 10, 2019. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/branding.html) ↵ LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Marketing in Action. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Urban Outfitters. Authored by: Mike Mozart. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/jeepersmedia/16158377327/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Miller Hall. Authored by: Chris Metcalf. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/laffy4k/524581047/. License: CC BY: Attribution ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Amazon.com Screen Shot. Provided by: Amazon. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.851705	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91149/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, What is Marketing?, Marketing in Action", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91162/overview	Using the Marketing Mix Overview Using the Marketing Mix Outcome: Using the Marketing Mix What you’ll learn to do: explain how organizations use the marketing mix to market to their target customers Now that we know what tools are available to create value, how can we use them most effectively? In this section we’ll cover a number of examples; later in the course we’ll discuss the role of the marketing mix in the planning process and in a range of specific applications. As you begin to understand each of the individual components of the marketing mix, remember that none of the four Ps operates independently to create value for the customer. For instance, a higher price will create higher expectations for the quality of the product or service, and may demand a higher level of customer service in the distribution process. Heavy promotion of a product can create greater awareness of the value that is expected, increasing the importance of the product delivering value. The right mix of components supporting the value proposition becomes very important. Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: Finding the Right Marketing Mix - Case Study: Chobani Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: Using the Marketing Mix. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Finding the Right Marketing Mix How does an organization determine the right marketing mix? The answer depends on the organization’s goals. Think of the marketing mix as a recipe that can be adjusted—through small adjustments or dramatic changes—to support broader company goals. Decisions about the marketing-mix variables are interrelated. Each of the marketing mix variables must be coordinated with the other elements of the marketing program. Consider, for a moment, the simple selection of hair shampoo. Let’s think about three different brands of shampoo and call them Discount, Upscale, and Premium. The table below shows some of the elements of the marketing mix that impact decisions by target customers. \| Discount \| Upscale \| Premium \| \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Product \| Cleansing product, pleasant smell, low-cost packaging \| Cleansing product, pleasant smell, attractive packaging \| Cleansing product, pleasant smell created by named ingredients, premium packaging \| \| Promotion \| Few, if any, broad communications \| National commercials show famous female “customers” with clean, bouncy hair \| Differentiating features and ingredients highlighted (e.g., safe for colored hair), as well as an emphasis on the science behind the formula. Recommended by stylist in the salon. \| \| Place \| Distributed in grocery stores and drugstores \| Distributed in grocery stores and drugstores \| Distributed only in licensed salons \| \| Price \| Lowest price on the shelf \| Highest price in the grocery store (8 times the prices of discount) \| 3 to 5 times the price of Upscale \| A number of credible studies suggest that there is no difference in the effectiveness of Premium or Upscale shampoo compared with Discount shampoo, but the communication, distribution, and price are substantially different. Each product appeals to a very different target market. Do you buy your shampoo in a grocery store or a salon? Your answer is likely based on the marketing mix that has most influenced you. An effective marketing mix centers on a target customer. Each element of the mix is evaluated and adjusted to provide unique value to the target customer. In our shampoo example, if the target market is affluent women who pay for expensive salon services, then reducing the price of a premium product might actually hurt sales, particularly if it leads stylists in salons to question the quality of the ingredients. Similarly, making the packaging more appealing for a discount product could have a negative impact if it increases the price even slightly or if it causes shoppers to visually confuse it with a more expensive product. The goal with the marketing mix is to align marketing activities with the needs of the target customer. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Finding the Right Mix. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Project: Global Textbook Project. License: CC BY: Attribution - Vast Array of Hair Care Products. Authored by: Sea Turtle. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/sea-turtle/3541657734/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives Case Study: Chobani In 2005, Turkish immigrant Hamdi Ulukaya bought a yogurt plant from Kraft Foods in Johnston, New York. Ulukaya had a vision of a better product: the thick, rich yogurt he had enjoyed in Turkey but couldn’t find in the United States. The Target Customer Chobani started out making private-label regular yogurts for other large companies, but Ulukaya believed he could make a better yogurt than the competition. And, he had a good idea of the customers he wanted to target: We aimed at people who never liked yogurt. We couldn’t blame them, because what was available was not what the rest of the world was eating. Further, the company chose not to target only women, a favorite target segment for the U.S. yogurt industry. Ulukaya believed that both men and women would appreciate the fresh ingredients and high protein that Chobani offered. The Chobani Product The recipe for Chobani is thicker and creamier than regular yogurt, with twice the protein and none of the preservatives and artificial flavors found in conventional yogurt. What’s in the yogurt—five live and active cultures, including three probiotics—is as important as what’s not, and Chobani turned this competitive advantage into the yogurt’s slogan: “Nothing but Good.” Ulukaya described the philosophy behind the product: We look at our yogurt as pure, healthy, simple, and something that you enjoy tasting. That is very, very important for us.1 The Chobani Place Existing Greek yogurt lines were most often sold in expensive specialty stores. Ulukaya hoped to sell his yogurt brand to a wider customer base through mass-distribution channels of grocery store chains. After more than a year developing Chobani’s trademark taste, in October 2007 Chobani’s first shipment included five different flavors—blueberry, peach, strawberry, vanilla, and plain—which were sold to a single Long Island grocery store. From there the company expanded regionally and then nationally to grocery store chains. The demand for broader distribution was fueled by the promotion campaign. The Chobani Promotion Chobani worked to develop a two-way dialogue with happy customers. We’re on all the major social media platforms. The growth of Chobani really started virally, where one person would try it, tell five friends who each told five friends, and it really became a brand people loved to discover on their own and tell other people about. In the online landscape, we just had really great success at being able to talk to our fans. I think one of the great things about our company is our relationship with consumers; it’s really a lot of fun to hear what they have to say and take it to heart.2 —Nicki Briggs, a registered dietitian and head of the company’s communications team Ulakaya also became a darling of the business press, which was persuaded by his philosophy that anything is possible with hard work. He was a frequent guest on national investment news programs and speaker at business conferences. The company capitalized on the healthy and ambitious aspects of its brand, and in 2012 Chobani became the official yogurt of the U.S. Olympic Team. As a sponsor, Chobani followed athletes from U.S. Olympic training centers to the London Olympic Games. Since then Chobani has also visibly committed to supporting local farmers and strengthening economic growth in the communities where it is located, which contributes to its reputation as a healthy brand. You can view the transcript for “Shepherd’s Gift” here (opens in new window). The Chobani Price When Chobani entered the market, prices for the traditional offerings in the market clustered around 65 cents per cup. Premium Greek yogurt cost $1.34 per cup. 3 Chobani priced its product at roughly $1 per cup. This decision was based on the expectation that the product would be successful. Ulakaya set the price assuming economies of scale—that the company would gain efficiencies as sales increased—instead of trying to recover the early costs. The price factored in the higher cost of premium ingredients, which also supported the product and promotion goals. 4 - https://www.sba.gov/offices/district/ny/syracuse/success-stories/chobani-selected-sbas-2012-national-entrepreneurial-success-year ↵ - http://usbusinessexecutive.com/food-drink/case-studies/chobani-yogurt-healthy-products-nourishing-growth ↵ - http://minnesota.cbslocal.com/2012/04/26/behind-the-hype-costs-and-benefits-of-greek-yogurt/ ↵ - http://www.businessinsider.com/the-success-story-of-chobani-yogurt-2013-5#ixzz3l6bHLWtN ↵ Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Chobani Unboxing 05. Authored by: Brad P.. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/bpende/4349120979/. License: CC BY: Attribution All rights reserved content - Chobani founder turns centuries old Greek yogurt into billion dollar craze. Authored by: Dan Moseley. Located at: https://youtu.be/7TY6JxR15og. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license - Shepherd's Gift. Provided by: Chobani. Located at: https://youtu.be/jjurtKY13bc. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.877604	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91162/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Marketing Function, Using the Marketing Mix", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91154/overview	Putting it Together Overview Putting It Together What Is Marketing? Marketing is a powerful tool that serves a variety of functions for organizations, individuals, and society. Let’s take a moment to revisit some notable examples of marketing activity from earlier in the module. What’s happening to make each of these examples effective? Marketing sells products. Marketing informs organizations about what people want, and it informs people about products and services available to feed our wants and needs. From overt advertising to covert “recommendations” about things you might like based on other things you’ve purchased, marketing shows us different choices and tries to influence our buying behavior. As you view its site, Amazon.com gleans information about you and what you’re shopping for. Then it suggests other products that might interest you: items similar to what you viewed, special deals, and items other people bought who were shopping for the same things as you. The genius of this technique is that it’s marketing masquerading as helpful information sharing. Marketing changes how you think about things. Effective marketing shapes people’s perceptions of the world around them, for better or for worse. Marketing can cause you to think differently about an issue, product, candidate, organization, or idea. When you are attuned to marketing forces and practices, you can exercise better judgment about the information you receive. So, you think you know what big pharmaceutical companies are all about? With this ad below, using a strong dose of emotional appeal, Pfizer wants you to think again. You can view the text alternative for “Best Commercial EVER!!!” (opens in new window). Marketing creates memorable experiences. Some of the most imaginative marketing is not a message or an image. Instead it’s an entire experience that gives people a deepened understanding, enjoyment, or loyalty to whomever is providing the experience. This IKEA event created a slumber party atmosphere for avid fans of the home furnishing store, inviting them to stay in the store overnight and live temporarily in the store display. It’s a great way to encourage people to interact more deeply with your product. You can view the transcript for “IKEA BIG Sleepover” (opens in new window). Marketing alters history. Marketing has been known to unleash attitudes and forces that alter the course of history. Today, marketing plays a pronounced role in political campaigns, policy debates, and mobilizing citizen support for public affairs initiatives. This 1984 ad for Ronald Reagan’s presidential campaign capitalized on widespread anxiety among Americans about national security during the Cold War. Some strategists credit this piece with shifting middle-of-the-road voters decidedly into the Reagan camp. You can view the transcript for “Reagan 1984 Election Ad (Bear in the woods)” (opens in new window) or the text alternative for “Reagan 1984 Election Ad (Bear in the woods)” (opens in new window). How does marketing affect you? Pause for a moment to consider your immediate environment and your activities for the day. Where do you encounter evidence of marketing? How does it influence the choices you make? What impact does it have on your attitudes and perceptions? Why are various marketing activities effective or ineffective at reaching you as a customer or consumer? Throughout the rest of the course, take this challenge: See marketing, and learn. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Putting It Together: Marketing Role. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - People Start Pollution. Provided by: Ad Council. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:People_Start_Pollution_-_1971_Ad.jpg#/media/File:People_Start_Pollution_-_1971_Ad.jpg. License: Other. License Terms: Fair use under United States copyright law ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - IKEA Big Sleepover. Provided by: IKEA UK. Located at: https://youtu.be/YMJD53fxihU. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license - Commercial - Reagan 1984 Election Ad (Bear in the woods). Authored by: jpspin2122. Located at: https://youtu.be/KQNBNiXGMiA. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Best Commercial EVER!. Authored by: loveallaroundyou. Located at: https://youtu.be/OAlyHUWjNjE. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Screen Shot of Amazon Unicorn Recommendations. Provided by: Amazon. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.901989	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91154/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, What is Marketing?, Putting it Together", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117299/overview	Sewing Machine Overview Photograph of an Isaac Singer Sewing Machine patent from the year 1851. Adult Ed 110 Students research the evolution of the sewing machines as they study the Industrial Revolution from 1790 to the present day. Images credited to Birmingham Museums Trust, Panjigally, Inayity, Frank Puterbaugh Bachman, U.S. Patent Office, and Txinviolet.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.917947	06/25/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117299/overview", "title": "Sewing Machine", "author": "Gina Kessee" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88779/overview	OpenStaxPP.Phys2211 - semester 1 Powerpoint slides for UNIVERSITY PHYSICS two-semester course using OpenStax textbook Overview CC BY license. Please incude in attribution Clayton State Univeristy and ALG https://www.affordablelearninggeorgia.org/ 1 Attached are 2 archived that include the pptx files, separated for semester 1 and 2. Does not include modern physics. YOu are welcome to contact me with any questions and suggestions that you may have about these materials.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.935905	12/15/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88779/overview", "title": "Powerpoint slides for UNIVERSITY PHYSICS two-semester course using OpenStax textbook", "author": "Dmitriy Beznosko" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97540/overview	BIO-061 Biome Assignment: Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Overview Outdoor activity, 25 points. BIO-061 Biome assignment (Video assignment) 25pts	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.952974	09/27/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97540/overview", "title": "BIO-061 Biome Assignment: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96408/overview	PREPARATION AND REACTIONS OF ALKENES Overview PREPARATION AND REACTIONS OF ALKENES PREPARATION AND REACTION OF ALKENES PDF Preparation and reactions of alkenes Download View	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:21.979146	08/15/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96408/overview", "title": "PREPARATION AND REACTIONS OF ALKENES", "author": "Ruchi Bohidar" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84532/overview	Education Standards Variability in Precision Agriculture OER pdf Introduction to Precision Agriculture - Lesson 3 Overview Overview: Students will discover why “variability” is the driving factor behind precision agriculture. Introduction to Precision Agriculture - Lesson 3 Teacher Resources: - Powerpoint Slides - Activities - Students will research one of the era’s of farming (Agriculture Revolution, Ridge and Furrow Farming, Industrial Revolution and Technological Revolution) - Discussion Questions: - What type of equipment/technology is utilized? - What new inventions happened during this time period? - How did new equipment/technology/inventions change farming practices? - Discussion Questions: - After seeing several examples of variability in a field, the students will come up with other examples of how field can be variable. - Discussion Point: “What are other examples of temporal variability in a field?” - Discussion Point: “What are some farming methods to manage variability in a field?” - Students will research one of the era’s of farming (Agriculture Revolution, Ridge and Furrow Farming, Industrial Revolution and Technological Revolution) Resource Websites: Precision Agriculture Lesson Three: Variability in Precision Agriculture Overview: Students will discover why “variability” is the driving factor behind precision agriculture. Objectives: The student will explore different types of variation in a field and how precision agriculture technology can help manage the variability. Materials Needed: internet Activity: A powerpoint presentation, with notes, will explain field variability. Several discussion slides are a part of the powerpoint. - Students will research one of the era’s of farming - Discussion Questions: - What type of equipment/technology is utilized? - What new inventions happened during this time period? - How did new equipment/technology/inventions change farming practices? - Discussion Questions: - After seeing several examples of variability in a field, the students will come up with other examples of how field can be variable. - Discussion Point: “What are other examples of temporal variability in a field?” - Discussion Point: “What are some farming methods to manage variability in a field?”	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.009128	Carmel Miller	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84532/overview", "title": "Introduction to Precision Agriculture - Lesson 3", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66543/overview	Excel Basics Lesson 2 Packet Data Excel Basics Lesson 2 Packet Key Excel Overview - Intro to Stats Lesson 1 Video - Complete Intro to Stats Lesson 1 Packet - note you will need to use excel and online lesson data - Class Study Session for Help or a Workday - Complete Intro to Stats Lesson 1 Packet Practice Exam - Intro to Stats Lesson 1 Exam (10 pts) - Intro to Stats Lesson 2 Video - Complete Intro to Stats Lesson 2 Packet - note you will need to use excel and online lesson data - Submit Intro to Stats Lesson 2 Packet excel work in blackboard submittal area (5 pts) Excel Lesson 1 Excel Basics Lesson 1 Packet Assignment 1.1 – 1.11 will be done in one excel workbook. When complete with Excel Basics Lesson 1 & 2 Packet Submit to Blackboard > Excel Basics > Excel Basics Lesson 1 & 2 Packet Submit – There are videos that walk you through each assignment. Watch each section, pause the video, complete the task. Navigate to Blackboard > 1. Excel Basics > Lesson 1 > Excel Basics Lesson 1 Video – This is the video for this unit. Navigate to Blackboard > 1. Excel Basics > Lesson 1 > Excel Basics Lesson 1 Packet– Open all documents and excel files. This is what you will need to start with. Assignment 1-1: Excel as a Calculator - When you open Data Set #1 – Excel Basics, the only sheet available will be titled “Calculator” the Excel file will look like this - Right-click on cell A1 and select the Insert option. Choose Shift cells down, then select OK. - In Cell A1, type in “Using Excel as a Calculator” - Highlight cells A1:C1, then click on the Merge & Center button in the Alignment section of the Home Ribbon, then click on the Left Align button - In cell A3, rewrite 2+4 as a formula, type in =2+4, then hit enter. The cell should return the answer of 6. Double-click on cell A3 to see the formula that you entered. Assignment 1-2: Cut, Copy, Paste Tutorial Make sure you can do the following in excel: - CTL + C (Copies) - Copy the contents of cell A2 - CTL + V (Pastes) - Paste the contents from the clipboard into Cell B2 - CTL + Z (Undo) - Undo the pasting of the contents into Cell B2 - CTL + X (Cuts – Adds to the clipboard, essentially does the same thing as copy, except when you paste it to a new location, it cuts the original) - ESC gets rid of selections Note: When you right click and paste there are different paste options Assignment 1-3: Order of Evaluation Make sure you understand PEMDAS and that parenthesis are important in excel Parenthesis, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction - In cell A5 the contents are 2+47, retype that formula into cell B5 using the = sign first to tell excel to do the calculation, excel should return 30 - If you wanted Excel to do the addition first, you need to put a parenthesis around the 2+4, see the contents of A7 - In cell B7 plug-in the formula needed to make the addition occur first. Excel should return to you 42. Assignment 1-4: Basic Graph - Add a new sheet to the Excel file. Rename Sheet2 “Basic Graph” - Insert the following info beginning in cell A1 - Highlight all data and insert a column chart - Change the title of the chart to “Basic Graph” - Change the layout of the graph to “Layout 9” - Change the fill of the chart to yellow Assignment 1-5: Introduction to Formulas - Add a new sheet to the right of “Basic Graph” - Rename the new sheet “Formulas” - Enter the following information - Insert one row above row 1 and enter title “Bills” in the new A1 cell - “AutoSum” the values in the B9 cell - In cell B12 type what a colon means in a formula - In cell B13 answer the following: Is a parenthesis needed after an operation function like SUM? Yes or NO Assignment 1-6: Basic Tasks in Excel - Add a new sheet after “Formulas” and name it “Basic Tasks” - Change the column width to “20” and the row height to “25” - Enter the following data beginning in cell A1 - “Sum” the values in cell B4 - In cell A6 type the formula for “3+3” - Apply “Accounting” format to all numbers through row 5. Note: Accounting format with TWO decimals will be used for all assignments - Enter the following data beginning in cell D1 - Center all data in columns D and E - “Autofill” information in columns D and E through row 10 - Use “Quick Analysis” to find the average of D and E and create a table. - Using the table, “Sort” the rain column from “Largest to Smallest” Remember these operations are found under the “Home” tab in addition to “Quick Analysis” Assignment 1-7: Basic Formatting (No Sheet Creation) Be able to accomplish the following in excel. - Change color of cells - Change border of cells - Clear selected cells - Change row and column height and width - Select whole sheet - Merge and center cells - Middle, top, and bottom Align - Be able to make whole sheet into accounting format - Increase decimals. WE WILL USE TWO DECIMALS ALWAYS - Right click and bring up “Format Cells” menu Assignment 1-8: Number Formatting - Add a sheet behind “Basic Tasks”. Rename this sheet “Numbers” - Enter “15.66” into cell B2 - Apply accounting format to this cell with two decimal places NOTE: All numbers will be in this format when doing excel - In B5 enter “99.99” and in cell B6 enter “9.9” - Format B5 and B6 in accounting format with NO dollar signs. - IN B8 enter “11.29”. In B9 enter 0.88. - Format B8 and B9 as percentages. - In cell A1 find 1129% of 2000 using a formula. In cell A2 find 88% of 2000 using a formula. Assignment 1-9: Force Printing One Page - Create a new sheet behind “Numbers” and rename it “Print”. - Enter the following data - “Auto Fill” from A1 and A2 through A37 - “Auto Fill” from A1 and B1 through Q1 - Change view to “Page Layout” than back to “Normal” - Under “File” “Print” be able to find the option to “Fit Sheet on One Page”. Select this option. Do NOT print. - Be aware of the use of “CTL + Arrows” Assignment 1-10: Practice Basic Formulas - Create a new sheet after “Print” and rename it “Practice” - Enter the following information with accounting formatting beginning in A1 - In B8 use a formula to average the salary of all professors. - In C8 use a formula to find the median salary of all professors. - Beginning in A10 enter the following data with all prices in accounting format: - Find the amount paid in tax for cells B11 through B14. Assume a tax of 5%. Use a formula in B11 then autofill the formula through B14 - Figure price with Tax in cells C11 through C14 by entering a formula in C11 and auto filling it through C14. There are multiple correct formulas. Assignment 1-11: Referencing Worksheets in Formulas - Create two sheets after “Practice”. Rename the first “Overview” and rename the second “Business A”. - Change the tab color of “Business A” to Red and the color of “Overview” to blue. - On the “Business A” sheet enter to following data beginning in cell A1. Make sure it is in accounting formatting. - Auto Sum the totals of column B in B4. - Create a copy of worksheet A using the “Move or Copy” option when right clicking the sheet. DO NOT RENAME IT. (If it places the new sheet before business A this is fine you don’t have to move it) Useful when duplicating blank balance sheets and other statement sheets. - Change the dollar values on the new sheet you just created to: January: 1,000,000 February: 10 March: 10 - On the “Overview” sheet enter the following data starting in A1: - On the “Overview” sheet in column B reference the total dollars made for each business in the months of January- March from sheets Business A and Business A (2). - Change the March total of Business A (2) to $1,000,000 and observe how it changes the total on the overview sheet. When you are all completed, check your excel file with the copy of my completed file that I will post to BlackBoard > 7. Excel Basics > Data Set #1 - Excel Basics – Answers Excel Lesson 2 Excel Basics Lesson 2 Packet Assignment 2.1 – 2.5 will be done in one excel workbook. When complete with Excel Basics Lesson 1 & 2 Packet Submit to Blackboard > Excel Basics > Excel Basics Lesson 1 & 2 Package Submit – There are videos that walk you through each assignment. Watch each section, pause the video, complete the task. Navigate to Blackboard > 1. Excel Basics > Lesson 2 > Excel Basics Lesson 2 Video – This is the video for this unit. Navigate to Blackboard > 1. Excel Basics > Lesson 2 > Excel Basics Lesson 2 Packet– Open all documents and excel files. This is what you will need to start with. Assignment 2-1: Freeze Panes - When you open “Excel Basics Lesson 2 Packet Data” go to the first sheet called “Cell Ref 1” - Click “View” at the top of the page - Click “Freeze Panes” - Freeze the top row - Now scroll down Assignment 2-2: Absolute Cell Referencing - Display sheet “Cell Ref 1” - We will calculate the Revenue (how much money was made) for each calf if sold at weaning weight using the provided price. - To do this we need to take the weaning weight in pounds multiplied times the price in $/lb. NOTE: Price for cattle is given in cwt or hundred weight. This is the price for 100 pounds of a calf. To find the price per pound we need to divide the cwt price by 100. Do this in cell L2. (It may round to $1.50 but this is just what is displayed. Excel keeps the real number) - Repeat this step in L5 for the price of calves if fed to gain 200 pounds above weaning weight (around 725 lb average) - Now we will calculate the revenue. To do this we enter the formula “=E2$L$2”. The dollar signs lock the column L and the row 2 values so if we drag the formula to fill other cells the L2 cell is locked and does not move. The best way to enter formulas is to type the “=” sign then click the cells you wish to multiple rather than typing the letters. Try reentering the formula doing this. When you click L2 hit the F4 button once to automatically insert $ signs. - Now we will drag the formula down to the calculate all values for all calves (called “auto filling” the formula. To do this place your cursor in the lower right-hand corner of the cell until you get a black + sign. Then left click and hold and drag to the end of the table. Values will calculate. If you click on any random “Revenue at WW” value, then click in the formula box up top, you will be able to see what cells are used in the formula. This is helpful to check to see if your formulas auto filled correctly. - Next, we need to calculate the “WW + 200” to do this we will add 200 pounds to the weaning weight. This can be done by entering a formula in cell “G2” that is “= E2+200”. This can then be auto filled for all values repeating methods in step 6. - Next we need to calculate “Revenue of WW + 200”. Repeat procedures from step 5 and 6 with the appropriate values to complete this. Assignment 2-3: Cell Referencing (Not Absolute) In assignment 2-2 you completed absolute cell referencing. This involves locking both the column (letters) and the row (numbers). However, you do not have to lock both. At times you may only want to lock the row or column using one $ sign. - Display sheet “Cell Ref 2” - We care going to calculate the revenue if we sold calves at WW (weaning weight) for 2020, 2021, 2022. To do this we use some of the steps from assignment 2-2. Please complete letter a using operations done in assignment 2-2. - Find the price average per pound from the price average per cwt - To calculate revenues for multiple years we need to autofill formulas down AND over. Because of this we do not lock the row and column of the price – we will enter a formula in cell “J2” and fill over to “K2” and “L2” so we do not need to lock the columns. However, when we fill down, we do not want the price to move down so we must lock the row. Based on this the formula entered in “J2” will read “=G2O$3” - Now auto fill the formula over to columns “K” and “L” and down to the end of the data. Assignment 1-4: Basic Graph Any of you that have cattle know that often calves are sorted and solid in different groups based on weight. To calculate the revenues in this type of scenario we can use the “IFS” formula in excel. - Display Sheet “If” - In this sheet we want to calculate the revenue of calves sold at pricing, but we have three prices. The first step is to convert the prices to $/lb instead of cwt. Do this in column H - In order to calculate revenue quickly with this data type “=IFS(“ in cell “J2” and then click the “fx” symbol in the formula bar. - In an “IFS” formula a test is conducted on the selected cell (Logical_test1). If the test is passed then it can calculate the value (Value_if_true1). If the value doesn’t pass the test it goes on to a second test. If this second test is passed, the value is calculated. If the second test is failed, it goes to the third and so on. There is another function called “IF” that is used if there is only two values, however we have three prices so we must use “IFS” - The first logical test enter “D2<501” and in value if true1 enter “D2$H$3” This is saying that if the weight of the calf is less that 501 pounds then use the price for calves from 400-500 pounds to find the formula. - The second logical test enter “D2<601” and in value if true1 enter “D2$H$4” This is saying that if the weight of the calf is less that 601 pounds then use the price for calves from 500-600 pounds to find the formula. (Note that “IFS” tests one at a time, so if it passes the first test it will calculate an answer and never get to test two) - The third logical test enter “D2>=601” and in value if true1 enter “D2$H$5” This is saying that if the weight of the calf is greater than or equal to 601 pounds then use the price for calves from 600-700 pounds to find the formula. - The final formula reads “=IFS(D2<501,D2$G$3/100,D2<601,D2$G$4/100,D2>=601,D2*$G$5/100)” without the “fx” function this is super hard to enter unless you have done this formula a lot. - Now drag down the formula to calculate revenue for all the calves.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.068318	05/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66543/overview", "title": "Excel", "author": "Kenan Layden" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68886/overview	Sign in to see your Hubs Sign in to see your Groups Create a standalone learning module, lesson, assignment, assessment or activity Submit OER from the web for review by our librarians Please log in to save materials. Log in This visualizes how to describe variables. or	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.089830	06/23/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68886/overview", "title": "Statistics 101", "author": "Michelle Lin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73142/overview	The Basics of Quoting (MLA) Overview This is a YouTube video containing the three-part requirements of quoting an author from a book. The Basics of Quoting (MLA) This video instructs you on the fundamentals of how to properly quote an author according the requirements of the Modern Language Association (MLA).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.102046	Optimism One	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73142/overview", "title": "The Basics of Quoting (MLA)", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87156/overview	MATH 125C Finite Mathematics Overview This textbook was prepared as an OER text for DS 21 Finite Mathematics. Topics include matrices, linear programming, counting techniques, sets, probability, statistics, mathematics of finance, Markov chains, and game theory. Applications will be emphasized. Topics include matrices, linear programming, counting techniques, sets, probability, statistics, mathematics of finance, Markov chains, and game theory. Applications are emphasized. This textbook contains chapters from: Business Precalculus (OER), by David Lippman; Applied Finite Mathematics (OER) 2nd edition, 1996, by Rupinder Sekhon and Applied Finite Mathematics (OER) 3rd edition, 2016, by Roberta Bloom and Rupinder Sekhon; and Introductory Statistics, by Barbara lllowsky and Susan Dean.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.114629	10/28/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87156/overview", "title": "MATH 125C Finite Mathematics", "author": "JoEllen Green" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92917/overview	Math for Nurses- Decimals Overview Simple guide for using decimals in nursing calculations. Decimals See attatched file	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.131062	05/21/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92917/overview", "title": "Math for Nurses- Decimals", "author": "Brian Forbes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104246/overview	TEDTalk Assignment this is america discussion Unit 4 Key Terms Wiki English 101: Reading and Composition-Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Overview The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Action Plan Because antiracism requires direct action and confrontation of racist ideas, these materials are constructed to help students problematize and push back against notions of racism and white supremacy by tackling the "American Dream" concept and connecting this to a current sociopolitical issue and research question. Course Description English 101: Reading and Composition COURSE OBJECTIVES: Specifically, the to be successful in this class, you will need to: - Recognize and revise sentence-level grammar and usage errors. - Read and apply critical-thinking skills to numerous published articles and to college-level, book-length works for the purpose of writing and discussion. - Apply appropriate strategies in the writing process including dissecting and understanding prompts, prewriting, composing, revising, and editing techniques. - Compose coherent, multi-paragraph, thesis-driven essays with logical and appropriate supporting ideas, including in-text citations. - Demonstrate the ability to locate and utilize a variety of academic databases, peer-reviewed journals, and scholarly websites. - Demonstrate the ability to write coherent, text-driven, tied in-class essays. - Utilize MLA guidelines to format essays, cite sources in the texts of essays, and compile Works Cited lists. STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES: - Complete a research-based essay that has been written out of class and undergone revision. It should demonstrate the students’ ability to thoughtfully support a single thesis using analysis and synthesis. - Integrate multiple sources, including a book-length work and a variety of academic databases, peer-reviewed journals, and scholarly websites. Citations must be in MLA format and include a Works Cited page. - Demonstrate logical paragraph composition and sentence structure. The essay should have correct grammar, spelling, and word use. Antiracist Assignment / Module This English Composition class has a module that now has a theme of "Problematizing the 'American Dream'". A number of materials are attached here from the unit that bring antiracist content, theory, and approches into the class. Attached here are a few elements that were added to the unit to highlight antiracist pedagogy and curriculum. Included are: Community Agreements: Class Ground Rules: a community document in the "Start Here" module of the class. This allows students to contribute to the ground rules of the course and share their own goals, expectations, and limitations with the class. Key Terms Wiki: a communal document to create a centralized list of key terms. It is a page in Canvas, but students have editiing capabilities. Discussion: This Is America: This is a discussion board in the American Dream unit. This discussion uses pop culture (Childish Gambino's "This Is America") as a way to think about issues in the concept of the "American Dream". This activity is culturally responsive--giving students the opportunity to work with material (lyrics) that are outside of the Eurocentric canon, but explore important conceptual ideas connected to racism and the "American Dream". TEDTalk Assignment: This is a non-disposable assignment to ensure that students see their own work and investment in the research paper through with the sharing and dissemination of their ideas.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.154729	05/25/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104246/overview", "title": "English 101: Reading and Composition-Open For Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Sarah George" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104192/overview	Physiology Laboratory: Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Overview The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Action Plan OER and open pedagogy facilitated student reflection of ones own identity through the use of the Identity Wheel. Students were taught the about race, racism and anti-racism with emphasis that to be anti-racist is more than just being a non-racist individual. Introduce the reality that medical racism exists. Used a combination of OER and other reliable resources such as CDC.gov, medical journals and others. Encourage collaboration among students of different backgrounds and to hear their individual voices through open pedagogy. Facilitated student participation in open pedagogy by sharing their research findings Performed a self-reflection of the anti-racism project including how to become an anti-racist individual and an anti-racist medical professional in particula Course Description Physiology Laboratory Bio-6L Course Description: An introduction to the laboratory study of the structure and function of human systems with an emphasis on the collection and analysis of chemical and physical data which relate to the concept of homeostasis in the human body. Recommended for health-related certificate programs, physical education, biology, pre-med, pre-dental and pre- veterinary majors. Learning Outcomes: Given the results of a standard laboratory cardiovascular system tests (including blood tests), the student will demonstrate the ability to analyze and interpret the results. Given the name of a biological molecule, students will describe the functions and locations of the molecule in the human body. Anti-racist Assignment/Module LESSON - RACE What is RACE? According to American Association of Physical Anthropologists, the "Western concept of race must be understood as a classification system that emerged from, and in support of, European colonialism, oppression, and discrimination. It thus does not have its roots in biological reality, but in policies of discrimination." It is important to note that, biologically, race doesn't exist. There is only one race, the human race. Race centers whiteness as the norm. Despite its biological insignificance, the cultural and social significance of race is very real (Guess, 2006). A society's understanding of race is centered on whiteness and "others" non-white, people of color. "Whiteness, therefore, is the standard by which systems and policies are designed which reaffirms the significance and impact of race on society (OFAR, 2022). What is RACISM? What is Systemic Racism in America? What is RACISM in MEDICINE? Let's go back to history --- Nowadays --- How American Health Care Is Defined By Systemic Racism Combating Racism and Place-ism in Medicine How to become an ANTI-RACIST? What does it mean to be anti-racist? Attributions - Guess, T. J. (2006). The social construction of whiteness: Racism by intent, racism by consequenceLinks to an external site.. Critical Sociology, 32(4), 649–673. - For more readings about race, whiteness, and talking race, visit the OFAR Bibliography. RESEARCH about MEDICAL RACISM / RACISM IN MEDICINE on the ASSIGNED TOPIC for your TEAM. Team 1 - Medical Racism / Racism in Medicine + HYPERTENSION Team 2 - Medical Racism / Racism in Medicine + DIABETES Team 3 - Medical Racism / Racism in Medicine + CHRONIC RENAL DISEASE (& KIDNEY TRANSPLANT) Team 4 -Medical Racism / Racism in Medicine + STROKE COLLABORATE with your TEAM MATES. Make a POWERPOINT PRESENTATION on your FINDINGS & DISCUSSIONS PRESENTING your REPORT in class. REFLECTIONS	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.187727	05/24/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104192/overview", "title": "Physiology Laboratory: Open For Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Ver Marie Myr Panggat" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111817/overview	Education Standards PronounObjectSubject-answer key Pronoun Poster Quiz Answer Key Pronoun Quiz Pronoun Quiz Options OER Pronoun Lesson Overview This lesson will help students understand pronouns. Intro and Lesson Introduce the lesson about how to chose of the right pronoun. Work through the PronounObjectSubject poster. Give the students an anticipatory quiz / activity to see if they can write or paste the options into the correct box. Go over the answers. Explain how to talk through each possibility so students come to the correct answer by answering the questions. Have students look for pronouns in something they are reading. Not where the pronoun fits in the chart. What do you call yourself when you talk about yourself? What about when you talk to someone else? When you talk about someone, what do you call them when you don't use their name? The words you use are called prounouns, and the pronoun that you use depends on where the word comes in the sentence and how many people you're talking about.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.214805	Student Guide	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111817/overview", "title": "OER Pronoun Lesson", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61120/overview	Fundamental Trigonometric Identities Solving Trigonometric Equations Sum and Difference Formulas Trigonometry Identities and Formulas Handout Trigonometric Problems and Equations Overview The lesson materials include Trigonometric Problems and Equations including double angle formulas, fundamental trigonometric identities, and sum and difference formulas. Trigonometric Problems and Equations The lesson materials include Trigonometric Problems and Equations including double angle formulas, fundamental trigonometric identities, and sum and difference formulas.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.234094	Lauren Brewer	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61120/overview", "title": "Trigonometric Problems and Equations", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88644/overview	Unit 1 Discussion Assignment Unit 1 Individual Assignment Unit 2 Discussion Assignment Unit 2 Individual Assignment Unit 3 Discussion Assignment Unit 3 Individual Assignment Unit 4 Discussion Assignment Unit 4 Individual Assignment Sociology of Aging Overview syllabus and assignments for a Sociology of Aging course Sociology of Aging syllabus Sociology of Aging syllabus Sociology of Aging assignments Sociology of Aging assignments	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.258192	Assessment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88644/overview", "title": "Sociology of Aging", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70755/overview	Rubab Raja's Calculus 1 Project: Precise Definitions of Limits Overview This Project has been completed as part of a standard Calculus 1 asynchronous online course at MassBay Community College, Wellesley Hills, MA. Summary Author: Rubab Raja Instructor: Igor V Baryakhtar Subject: Calculus 1 Course number: MA200-700 Course type: Asynchronous Online Semester: Summer 2020, 10 weeks College: MassBay Comminity College, MA Tags: Calculus, Project, Active Learning Language: English Media Format: Microsoft Word Date Added: 08/01/20 License: CC-BY 4.0 All project content created by Rubab Raja Content added to OER Commons by Igor V Baryakhtar Precise Definitions of Limits Rubab Raja	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.276161	08/01/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70755/overview", "title": "Rubab Raja's Calculus 1 Project: Precise Definitions of Limits", "author": "Igor Baryakhtar" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93609/overview	Spring 2022 13721 3 Introduction to Politicial Science: Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Overview Survey of the Government of the United States with respect to historical background, constitutional framework and development, civil liberties and civil rights, the political process, including elections, political parties and interest groups, and the principle institutions and processes for the development and implementation of American Public policies. the study of California state and local government is a special component of this class. Course Description Survey of the Government of the United States with respect to historical background, constitutional framework and development, civil liberties and civil rights, the political process, including elections, political parties and interest groups, and the principle institutions and processes for the development and implementation of American Public policies. the study of California state and local government is a special component of this class. Action Plan OER and open pedagogy allow everyone's voices to be heard in the classroom, most books are written from a European colonial experience. By providing OER resources you can share information that may have been left out of the textbooks. It also gives students an opportunity to focus on learning, because there is no textbook cost.This way the learning field is leveled for everyone in the class. Anti-Racist Assignment / Module This assignment will allow students to take a deep dive into the Supreme Court and how the judicial system overlooks certain groups.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.296644	Arnedra Jordan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93609/overview", "title": "Introduction to Politicial Science: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90052/overview	Conditional, Biconditional, and Validity of Arguments_accessible Converting between percent, decimals, and fractions_accessible Creating a MyOpenMath Instructor Account Describing Sets_accessible Divisibility_accessible Estimating_accessible Expanded Form and Place Value_accessible Exploring decimals_accessible Exploring Fractions_accessible Exploring Radical corrected_accessbile Exponents and Scientific Notation_accessible GCD and LCM_accessible Larger Roman Numerals Homework_accessible MATH 1410 Capstone project_accessible Modeling Addition Assignment (Group Assignment)_accessible Modeling Addition of Whole Numbers_accessible Modeling Division of Whole Numbers Assignment_accessible Modeling Multiplication Assignment (Group Assignment)_accessible Modeling Multiplication of Whole Numbers Assignment_accessible Modeling Numbers Basics_accessible Modeling Subtraction Assignment (Group Assignment)_accessible Modeling Subtraction of Whole Numbers_accessible Operations in Other Base Systems_accessible Patterns and Critical Thinking_accessible Prime Numbers, Composite Numbers, and Prime Factorization_accessible Problem Solving Strategies_accessible Properties of Real Numbers_accessible Roman Numerals_accessible Set Operations_accessible Set Theory Basics_accessible Statements and Simple Negations_accessible Topic 1-Place Value, Rounding, and Operations on Whole Numbers_accessible Topic 2 - Integers and Absolute Value_accessible Topic 3 - Fractions and Mixed Numbers_accessible Topic 4 - Decimals_accessible Topic 5 - Order of Operations, Exponents, and Roots_accessible Types of Numbers and their Relationships_accessible Understanding Other Base Systems and Converting Between Them_accessible Math 1410 Number Concepts for Teachers Overview This course is an introduction to problem solving; logic, sets, and operations on sets; and properties and operations on whole numbers, integers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and real numbers. Modelling techniques necessary for future elementary educators will also be covered in this course. Getting Started MyOpenMath Help Video Playlist A YouTube playlist has been created to help instructors navigate MyOpenMath. A multitude of videos have been created to help walk new users through everything they need to use MyOpenMath in their courses. Access the playlist at: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PL4DaWQ8GB98Q0VLyE9QCmrb697U8UUc4T Can’t find what you need? Email chambersjh@roanestate.edu to request additional video help. Hello and welcome to our algebra concepts course developed for teachers. In this course, students will have focus on eight different units of study. The first unit begins with a "boot camp" which allows students to review much needed math skills. The next three units will provide a focus on logic with problem solving and critical thinking, logic and reasoning, and set theory. The following three units will focus on number theory including number systems, base systems, and number theory. The course closes with a study of real numbers and modeling. Copying the MyOpenMath Math 1410: Number Concepts for Teachers Template To copy the MyOpenMath Math 1410: Number Concepts for Teachers course that is to be used in conjunction with the materials in the OER Commons, begin by visiting https://www.myopenmath.com/ and then following these three easy steps: Step 1: Log in to MyOpenMath by typing in the username and password you selected when creating your MyOpenMath account. Step 2: Once you are logged in, click the “Add a New Course” button under the section titled “Courses you’re teaching”. Step 3: To copy the promoted course, Math 1410: Number Concepts for Teachers, select “Copy a template or promoted course”. A box will open with all the available templates and promoted courses. Scroll down until you see Math 1410: Number Concepts for Teachers. To minimize the number of courses you have to scroll through, you can filter by level by selecting “Level” and checking Arithmetic, Prealgebra, Elementary Algebra, Non-STEM Algebra/Math Literacy, and Math for Liberal Arts/Quantitative Reasoning. Unit 0: Math Boot Camp Keys Topic_1-Place_Value_Rounding_and_Operations_on_Whole_Numbers_completed_accessible_1.docx Topic_2_-_Integers_and_Absolute_Value_complete_accessible_1.docx Topic_3_-_Fractions_and_Mixed_Numbers_completed_accessible_1.docx Topic_4_-_Decimals_complete_accessible_1.docx Topic_5_-_Order_of_Operations_Exponents_and_Roots_complete_accessible_1.docx Topic List - Topic 1: Place Value, Rounding, and Operations on Whole Numbers - Topic 2: Integers and Absolute Value - Topic 3: Fractions and Mixed Numbers - Topic 4: Decimals - Topic 5: Order of Operations, Exponents, and Roots ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ . Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course Unit 1: Problem Solving and Critical Thinking Keys Key_Patterns_and_Critical_Thinking_accessible.docx Topic List - Patterns and Critical Thinking - Problem Solving Strategies - Estimating Number ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ . Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course Unit 2: Logic and Reasoning Keys Key_Statements_and_Simple_Negations_accessible.docx Key_Compound_Statements_and_Negations_accessible.docx Key_Conditional_Biconditional_and_Validity_of_Arguments_accessible.docx Topic List - Statements and Simple Negations - Compound Statements and Negations - Conditional, Biconditional, and Validity of Reasoning ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ . Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course Unit 3: Set Theory Topic List - Set Theory Basics - Describing Sets - Set Operations ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ . Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course Unit 4: Expanded Form, Place Value, and Roman Numerals Topic List - Expanded Form and Place Value - Roman Numerals Additional Homework - Larger Roman Numberals ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ . Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course Unit 5: Other Base Systems Topic List - Understanding Other Base Systems and Converting Between Them - Operations in Other Base System ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ . Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course Unit 6: Number Theory Keys Key_Divisibility_accessible.docx Key_Prime_Numbers_Composite_Numbers_and_Prime_Factorization_accessible.docx Topic List - Divisibility - GCD and LCM - Prime Numbers, Composite Numbers, and Prime Factorization ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ . Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course Unit 7: Real Numbers and Their Properties Keys Key_Exploring_decimals_accessible.docx Key_Exploring_Fractions_accessible.docx Key_Converting_between_percent_decimals_and_fractions_accessible. Key_Exponents_and_Scientific_Notation_accessible.docx Key_Exploring_Radical_corrected_accessbile.docx Key_Types_of_Numbers_and_their_Relationships_accessible.docx Topic List - Exploring Decimals - Exploring Factions and Mixed Numbers - Converting between Percent, Decimals, and Fractions - Exponents and Scientific Notation - Exploring Radicals - Types of Numbers and their Relationships - Properties of Real Numbers ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ . Homework is available in the accompanying MyOpenMath course Unit 8: Modeling Suggest Videos for Modeling Assignments: Modeling whole numbers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBQV4LttpBI Modeling decimals numbers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ibR_iBxnITE and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yDa0ytNgbJI Count - on (10 frame) model: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8f8bDaxe-Ls Partial Sums Addition: https://youtu.be/dP2ISPW1aoE or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yzdUIOJAEpI Opposite-Change Algorithm: Base 10-blocks: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7FIwPGoaMzg Chip Model: https://youtu.be/KQwvjE7eypE Area Model: https://youtu.be/wv8GxBcmd40 and https://youtu.be/x33Xylme2_Y Number line: https://youtu.be/0Y7XD2-0sYQ Addition Decimals: 100’s Grids https://youtu.be/U7TNcp-T1CQ Base 10 Blocks https://youtu.be/Ov9ky123rBU or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jjvyB4zj_lQ&t=99s Missing Addends Method:https://youtu.be/UPJruYaFnG8 Comparison Model: https://youtu.be/AtwNV7M19PE Base 10 Blocks for Whole Numbers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vQC9DXmoKt4 Chip Model: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_77vO0uzBfA Number line Model for Integers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dfytkh_lYME Number line Model for Fractions: https://youtu.be/c8uVU6QzKGM Area model for Mixed Numbers: https://youtu.be/SuSat5kkamA 100's grid: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9yI45amCNNE Base 10 Blocks for Decimals: https://youtu.be/VfkgHq4jmyA Multiplying Whole Numbers: https://youtu.be/6fvIRlgEoUo Area Model https://youtu.be/zujhbT5deoA Partial Products Algorithm https://youtu.be/4QXfymhSQzA Distributive Property: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q3wfb0CPhIY Multiplying Integers: https://youtu.be/I2I0Nd_X_RA Chip Model https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yVwbaEPedys&t=10s Number Line Model https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fW3FWuLfpFc Multiplying Fractions and Mixed Numbers Area Model https://youtu.be/B366S2aYgzU Number Line Model https://youtu.be/sENA3Wc6c18 Area Model https://youtu.be/K_Uv7tvYu9g Multiplying Decimals Grids https://youtu.be/IWTC4hYAz7M Dividing Whole Numbers: https://youtu.be/aIJ-Eg9lW5Y Repeated-Subtraction Model https://youtu.be/M0YHpVigG8M Set Model https://youtu.be/dcisBh8zZ8E Chip Model https://youtu.be/OoIMagblT5Q Dividing Integers: https://youtu.be/QGWkw0Z5Ulg Chip Model https://youtu.be/sk0hmctyUJ8 Dividing Decimals: 100’s Grids https://youtu.be/pyQf8uaSirw https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RDkvKI0AD5s Base 10 Blocks https://youtu.be/LmWzhGvDt58 Homework List - Modeling Whole Number and Decimals Homework - Modeling Addition Homework - Modeling Subtraction Homework - Modeling Multiplication Homework - Modeling Division Homework ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ . Group Activities and Capstone Project Projects and Group Activities - Capstone Project - Group Modeling ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ All equations have been rendered in EquatIO: https://www.texthelp.com/products/equatio/ .	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.378720	Connie Blalock	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90052/overview", "title": "Math 1410 Number Concepts for Teachers", "author": "Ashley Morgan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73749/overview	Education Standards Music Education Videos - Website Guidance Overview The United States Army Band "Pershing's Own" provides musical support for the leadership of the United States, to include all branches of government, and to a wide spectrum of national and international events in order to connect the Army to the American people. For teachers and students at all levels, as well as many parents, we know there is a real need for finding quality educational tools and content. We hope you enjoy what our world-class musicians have created to help us all stay connected through music. Music Education Videos \| The United States Army Band Link to United States Army Band Education Outreach site Purpose of Website The Army Band musicians have developed over 300 educational videos for you and your students to access as a free resource and supplement while distance learning. Site Navigation Strategy Educational Videos See the entire YouTube playlist, or view individual videos below. Some have associated sheet music or study guides. - Woodwinds (Flute, Clarinet, Saxophone, Bassoon) - Brass (Trumpet, Horn, Trombone, Low Brass) - Strings - Music Therapy - Audition and Practice Tips - Percussion - Play Along - Jazz Videos for Beginners Beginning Instrumental Series (see them all, organized by instrument) Breaks down every step for every instrument- from opening cases to making sounds, to articulation, disassembly, and everything in-between. (Strings and voice included!) - Horn - Flute - Trombone - Percussion - Euphonium - Trumpet - Clarinet - Violin and Viola - Cello and Bass - Saxophone - Tuba - Voice - Bassoon - Oboe Comments All information on this site is considered public information and may be distributed or copied freely except where otherwise noted. Attribution and License Attribution - Cover image copyright the U.S. Army Band “Pershing's Own”. Used pursuant to fair use. License Except where otherwise noted, this website guidance document by Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License. All logos and trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Sections used under fair use doctrine (17 U.S.C. § 107) are marked. This resource contain links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring by OSPI. Please confirm the license status of any third-party resources and understand their terms before use.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:22.412061	Teaching/Learning Strategy	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73749/overview", "title": "Music Education Videos - Website Guidance", "author": "Activity/Lab" }

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